Black and white races are equal - in the New Testament?

Question: To me, it's simple that black and equal races are equal. But since the recently, black people had a lower status than white people and also suffered from discrimination as everybody knows, and I'm wondering, because the Christianity exists around 2000 years, and these issues were among white Christians, so I'm wondering maybe what we think today, wasn't simply understood to people in past, therefore I'm looking for proofs/verses from the New Testament that support or oppose the idea that black and white people are equal in their rights etc.
Comment: I'm curious, can you demonstrate verses from the New Testament that suggest the white and black races are unequal? Also, considering [the enormous variation of human skin color](https://metro.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/angelica-dass-humanae.jpg), I'm curious to know where you draw the line between "white" and "black?"
Comment: What sort of "rights" do you mean?  Legal rights?  Social equality rights?  Rights granted by governments/authorities to their subjects?  I ask because the New Testament is about  believers being viewed by God as equal in His sight. There is only one race - the human race - and we are all made in God's image.
Comment: The entire notion of "black people" and "white people" is not a constant throughout history; the [moden notion of "Caucasian"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian_race) was developed in the late 18th century as an intentional vehicle for asserting the superiority of Europeans over Africans ("Negroids") and Asians ("Mongoloids"). People of all skin colors lived all over the world in ancient times just as today. For a starting point towards deconstructing the entirely constructed notion of human "race" see: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_genetics
Comment: Verse search questions are not on-topic here, but you can ask how a specific Christian group justifies their beliefs from the Bible.
Comment: These scriptures are a good place to start: Acts 17:26; Acts 10:34, 35; Matthew 23:8; John 17:20-23; 1 Corinthians 1:10
Comment: Somewhat tangential, but a number of black slaves got their inspiration to seek equality through reading the Bible, e.g. Frederick Douglass escaping to Baltimore, and Nat Turner took that in a bit darker direction.
Answer: As far as the Jews were/are concerned, the most significant difference between differing people groups in the Bible was/is the distinction between Jews and Gentiles.  All other distinctions, such as wealth, colour of skin, etc, are as nothing compared to this difference.  This was the chief difference in the Old Testament.
In the New Testament, in that Jew and Gentile are brought together as equals in the Gospel Age it follows that all other differences are also to be treated as irrelevent.
So in Ephesians we are told that the Gentiles are "fellowheirs, and of the same body", (Eph 3:6).  "Fellow" here means "equal": the Gentiles are equally heirs along with the Jews.
The Apostle continues into the next chapter, "There is one body, and one Spirit, even as you are called in one hope of your calling: one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all, who is above all, and through all, and in you all", (Eph 4:4-6).
Seeing we all who are in Christ have "one ... Father of all" and "one baptism" it follows there is equality between all who are in Christ, irrespective of their roots.
And I am minded to add
"There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus" (Gal 3:28); and
"where there is neither Greek nor Jew, circumcised nor uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave nor free, but Christ is all and in all." (Col 3:11).
Also, everyone who repents and believes in Christ "puts on Christ" (Romans 13:14), they put on the righteousness of Christ, like a piece of clothing.  God the Father now sees the believer as having the complete righteousness of His own Son: this righteousness, being not ours but His Son's, is the same measure of righteousness for all believers: of course it must be, because it is precisely the same righteousness, being Christ's.  All then are equally righteous.
Finally, early in John's Gospel we have our Lord speaking to two very opposite kinds of sinners:
The first is Nicodemus.  This sinner is:
A man.  A Jew.  A member of the Sanhedrin.  Reputed as very knowledgeable in the Bible that at that time existed, viz the Old Testament.  A teacher of religion. Probably rich.  Held in high regard by the Jewish people.  But all these advantages are no good to him. They will not bring him into a right standing before God, he will still spend eternity in the flames of hell unless something happens.  Jesus says he "must be born again" (John 3:7). He needs to be born of the Spirit of God to change him and make him a new creature.
The second is the woman of Samaria.  This sinner is:
A woman. A Gentile. A member of the Samaritan nation and religion which was despised by the Jews.  A follower of false religion.  She is poor.  She is held in low esteem even by the despised Samaritans because she is living with a man who is not her husband.  But all these disadvantages will be no hindrance to her becoming a child of God: all she needs to do is see her spiritual need and ask the right person for the living water.
The point I am wanting to make is that the opposite from the outwardly moral Nicodemus is not a "white" person nor a "black" person or any other kind of person: the opposite is a person of low reputation because of her lifestyle which blatantly disregards accepted moral standards.
Despite their obvious outward differences these two sinners have precisely the same need: faith in Christ and in his taking their punishment for their sins at the cross; they both need the Holy Spirit to give them the new birth; they both need a new start in life.  The human heart is a deep well.  They do not need to tie a few apples onto the thorn bush of their souls to make them appear outwardly fruitful.  God needs to change them and us deep within our souls by giving us that living water that bursts out into a changed life.
The only important difference between people is if we are born again of the Spirit.  If we have the Spirit of Christ then we are spiritually minded and at peace with God; if we have not the Spirit then we are carnally minded and are at enmity against God,
"For to be carnally minded is death; but to be spiritually minded is life and peace. Because the carnal mind is enmity against God: for it is not subject to the law of God, neither indeed can be.  So then they that are in the flesh cannot please God.  But ye are not in the flesh, but in the Spirit, if so be that the Spirit of God dwell in you. Now if any man have not the Spirit of Christ, he is none of his." (Romans 8:6-9).
There is no halfway house here: you are either born again and pleasing to God, or you have not the Spirit of Christ and are at enmity against God.  This is the only truly important difference.
Outward differences are immaterial.  The human heart is the same the world over.
Faith in Christ, being born again, is the only difference that really counts.
Comment: @Henry - I am fairly sure the Jews both now and then in the NT era saw/see the Samaritans as Gentiles.  The Jerusalem Temple had a notice forbidding Gentiles to enter upon pain of death.  This notice, I am told, was put up after Samaritans had entered pretending to be Jews and then proceeded to defile the Temple by spreading around bones.  This ruined one of the Jewish main festivals (not many years after the birth of Christ).  Of course the Samaritans themselves denied being Gentiles, Matthew, Matt 10:5, neatly sidesteps the contraversy not wanting to offend Samaritan readers.  Biblically,
Comment: @Henry - Biblically, according to the OT, if you were not entitled to the spiritual benefits of being a Jew, such as being entitled to enter parts of the Temple, then you were a Gentile.
Comment: Good news.   You are both right.   They were considered half jew and half gentile.
Comment: I am not sure Jews regarded Samaritans as Gentiles. Hence the double negative instruction in Matthew 10:5. In a sense Samaritans were seen as worse for worshipping the right God the wrong way and having the wrong descent.   But that would not detract from your equality point.
Comment: Calling Judaism a true religion because they prescribe worship on Mount Horeb and Samaritanism a false religion because they prescribe worship on Mount Gerizim (but in every other way are identical) reminds me of the Narcissism of Small Differences. The Jews hated Samaritans (because they were almost the same), but they probably didn't mind Buddhists that wandered in from the Far East, because they're so different there's no threat to their sense of isolation and self.
Comment: @Amatsuki - God made a covenant with Abraham and his descendants through Isaac (Gen 17:10,21) and later through Jacob.  If you could not prove your descent from Jacob you could not enjoy the privileges of the covenant (Ezra 2:59, 62).  The Jews were right to reject the Samaritans claim to be equal heirs of the covenant, or to be entitled to worship in the Jewish section of the Jerusalem temple.  The Samaritans also worshipped both the God of the OT _and_ other gods simultaneously (2 Kings 17:24-41).
Answer: The most striking and most comprehensive statement I know of in this regard, not just in scripture but anywhere, is made by Paul on Mars Hill in Athens, as reported by Luke :

God that made the world and all things therein ... hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth.  [Acts 17:22 and 26 KJV]

εξ ενος αιματος [TR - Textus Receptus] - of one blood

Leviticus 17:14 makes it clear that 'blood ... is the life of all flesh, its blood is for its life'.
So Paul, in drawing attention to the fact that all humanity has the same blood (that is to say the same kind of blood, whether it be type O or type A or type B) is drawing attention to the life that is within humanity.
All humanity shares the same life - and the same origin of life (God himself) - whatever the outward appearance, the ethnic origin or the national heritage.
God has made humanity, each and every one. And has given the same kind of life (within, in the very blood) to all. There is no difference.

This is further underlined by the ministry of John the Baptist who made it clear to those who asked him what should they do in regard to repentance :

He answereth and saith unto them, He that hath two coats, let him impart to him that hath none; and he that hath meat, let him do likewise. [Luke 3:11 KJV]

Whoever (whosoever they be) who lacks clothing or food (for whatever reason they lack it) is to be granted the same from anyone (whosoever they be) who has more than the basic necessity, themselves.
Because we all share the same life : God-given life.
Therefore we should value, and care for, the life that is within one another, as though it were our own life.
Equally, as to our own selves.
Comment: The notion of blood does not appear in the [original Greek](https://biblehub.com/interlinear/acts/17-26.htm), only in the Latin *"fecitque ex uno sanguine omne genus hominum, ut inhabitaret"* and English translations.
Comment: @Codosaur TR (Textus Receptus) has εξ ενος αιματος which is definitely 'of one blood'. I have edited to show the Greek original in my answer.
Answer: Edit: I'm speaking specifically to OP's statement "I'm wondering maybe what we think today, wasn't simply understood to people in past." I don't think it's "understanding" that most people lack, rather I think people want to rule creation according to their own wisdom and not God's, and since that wisdom is twisted we end up justifying both our means and our ends to get and do what we want.
There are good answers here showing what both testaments think of the equality of people under God, and they answer the question. But I think the question could use some more context. It's my understanding that when the African slave trade began from Europe to North America, it was justified not because people of darker skin are less equal, but because they decided to believe that Africans were sub-human. I think that is atrocious, but that's my understanding of how people got around the fact that the scriptures are very clear on this.
Comment: The Bible condemns the practice of "man-stealing," which is what happened in Africa in the 16th to 19th centuries. Africans were rounded up by slave-hunters, who sold them to slave-traders, who brought them to the New World to work on plantations and farms. This practice is abhorrent to God. In fact, the penalty for such a crime in the Mosaic Law was death: "Anyone who kidnaps another and either sells him or still has him when he is caught must be put to death" (Exodus 21:16). More information here: https://www.gotquestions.org/Bible-slavery.html
Comment: No, I'm not disagreeing with you - your answer is sound.
Comment: @Lesley I absolutely agree. I'm not sure if you're disagreeing with me? I'm just saying there was a lot of justifying going on. A poor reading of the Scriptures can result in someone thinking slavery was ok since God allowed it, and gloss over the few commandments and examples against man-stealing. So if I can justify (with some twisted arguments) that Africans are sub-human, and gloss over the parts about man-stealing, but focus on the fact that there is slavery and it isn't wholesale denounced, then I can steal Africans, oppress them, and treat them like animals for life.
Answer: Galations 3:26-29 NIV (emphasis mine)

26 So in Christ Jesus you are all children of God through faith, 27 for all of you who were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ. 28 There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus. 29 If you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise.

There was also the Incident at Antioch, referenced in Galatians 2:11-21.  In addition, there was Peter's vision with the unclean animals and the visit to Cornelius the centurion, in Acts 10.  Furthermore note references to children of Abraham being added or removed, like branches of a vine being grafted in or pruned, as well as how Jesus treated the gentiles who came to Him.  He even said of a gentile centurion,

"Truly I tell you, I have not found anyone in Israel with such great faith. 11 I say to you that many will come from the east and the west, and will take their places at the feast with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven. 12 But the subjects of the kingdom will be thrown outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth." Matthew 8:10-12 NIV

(He's obviously only talking about the unfaithful ones being thrown out, not any of the faithful - a specific expression of the same general rule that applies to gentiles.)

We can also look to the Old Testament.  While the New Testament changes the landscape, the authors of the New Testament would still point back to the Old Testament in certain scenarios.  That said, we have, for example, Numbers 15:13-16 NIV (emphasis mine):

13 "'Everyone who is native-born must do these things in this way when they present a food offering as an aroma pleasing to the Lord. 14 For the generations to come, whenever a foreigner or anyone else living among you presents a food offering as an aroma pleasing to the Lord, they must do exactly as you do. 15 The community is to have the same rules for you and for the foreigner residing among you; this is a lasting ordinance for the generations to come. You and the foreigner shall be the same before the Lord: 16 The same laws and regulations will apply both to you and to the foreigner residing among you.'"

Remember also how Rahab, Ruth, Ittai the Gittite, Uriah the Hittite, and so on were effectively aliens from Ancient Israel, who then lived among and/or immigrated into the Israelites, at which point they became more honored, one way or another, than the vast majority of the native-born.

While race relations today may place a large focus on white, black, Latino, etc., race relations in the Bible often dealt with Jews and gentiles, Hebrews and Egyptians, etc.  (Come to think of it, God's blessing Egypt through Joseph is another OT hint that all races are equal.)  While the Bible may not tend to mention blacks and whites specifically, there's a lot of text on similar matters, in both Testaments, that can be very, very easily applied to the context of this question in the same way.
In both Testaments, the issue was always a person's relationship to God.  Even the Great Commission speaks to this Christ-centric equality.  And if you read the Old Testament, non-Jews were allowed to become Jews, just like non-Christians today are allowed to become Christians.
In fact, if you look where Israel and Jerusalem were placed, as well as where the Temple of Solomon and the death and resurrection of Christ were, all were at the crossroads of humanity - the very nexus of Asia, Africa, and Europe.  This has been God reaching out to all of humanity, yet another suggestion - this one fully applicable to both the Old Testament and the New - that humans are created equal in the eyes of their Maker.
Comment: Good point regarding foreigners (Gentiles) living under the same laws and regulations as the people of Israel.  That equality was applied during New Testament times.
Comment: The key issue in the OT was religion and society, not physical race. As for prosletizing, Israel didn't then, and Judaism still doesn't today. Converts were welcomed, regardless of race, but in all cases the essential element was total abandonment of pagan practices. Notice that Moses had a non-Israelite wife. The book of Ruth is a story of a Moabite that converted, becoming King David's great grandmother and an ancestor or Jesus. Nothing in the Bible says anything negative about this ancestry.
Comment: Yeah, that's what I mean. Nothing negative at all was said about the ancestry. As far as the last paragraph goes, in the NT, we have the Great Commission and everything, and that's the main vehicle God likes to use to reach out in this day and age. In the OT, His approach was different. He was, figuratively speaking, setting up a city on a hill for the world to see, then letting the world learn by example. Whenever Israel was living for God (sometimes they didn't), the idea is their central location would display this godly living to all who passed through. One known exception was with Jonah.
Answer: Clearly the New Testament does not condemn slavery, it was one of the ways people paid off debts. The NT does condemn mistreatment of anyone, we are all brothers in Christ. Philemon was a runaway slave that Paul writes about. Do not confuse slavery with racism.  Two separate issues. Racism and mistreatment are condemned.
Answer: In the antebellum US, the Bible was used by both supporters and opponents of slavery to support their own position on race-based slavery. For some interpretations from the period, see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery#Nineteenth-century_English_and_American_debate . Slavery was taken for granted by the humans who wrote the Bible, as a normal fact of life. But both the Old and New Testaments prescribed and approved of slavery in various cases. Deuteronomy 20:11: "It shall be, if it gives you answer of peace and opens to you, then it shall be that all the people who are found therein shall become forced laborers to you, and shall serve you." Ephesians 6:5: "Servants, be obedient to those who according to the flesh are your masters, with fear and trembling, in singleness of your heart, as to Christ[...]"
The concept of black and white races postdates the Bible by 1500 years or more, and slavery in the ancient world was not race-based. However, the curse of Ham was used as an explanation for the origin of the "Negro race" and as justification for enslaving black people. This came with pseudoscientific descriptions of biology and linguistics, with, e.g., Adam being interpreted as meaning "red," so that he was a member of the red (i.e., Native American) race, and Ham as meaning "black." The curse of Ham and other biblical argments were used by LDS as a reason to exclude black men from the priesthood until a revelation from God in 1978.
The gospels aren't very concerned with secular law and rights, and it would have been an anachronism for them to discuss anything like the modern concepts of race and racism. Jesus's teachings tended to subvert social distinctions such as the ones between Jews and gentiles, as in the parable of the good Samaritan or his overthrowing of the Levitical purity regulations (e.g., Mark 7). But the very first words of the gospels are "The book of the genealogy of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham." In other words, it's very important to establish that Jesus has the right kind of ancestors. This is mainly to convince Jewish readers that Jesus meets the criteria for fulfilling the prophecies of the messiah. But it would also appeal to those readers by showing that Jesus was one of them. It would be completely inaccurate to take a modern concept like color-blindness and impute it to Jesus as some kind of ethnicity-blindness. He repeatedly refers to gentiles as pigs and dogs (Matthew 7:6, Mark 7:27). When he performs healing miracles for gentiles, he does it grudgingly after an initial refusal, and in Matthew's depiction of these events, Jesus also makes general statements to the effect that his mission is not to the gentiles (15:24, and cf. 10:5).
So in summary, the concepts of ethnic and religious identity in the New Testament do not map cleanly onto modern concepts such as black and white races, but in general, the New Testament is favorable toward slavery, while providing mixed messages on whether it is important to be a member of a particular ethnic or religious group. The messages that tend to translate most positively into modern liberalism are the ones that come from Jesus's mouth, especially with some of the amendments (e.g., Luke 4:25, Matthew 28:19) inserted by Christian editors in an effort to make the religion more gentile-friendly.


Easy way to gather file sizes of unc paths?

Question: Is there a program or a script I can run against a csv containing thousands of UNC paths? Something not very intrusive - simply looking to gather file sizes of each.
Thanks.
Answer: You should be able to mash together a bunch of components of PowerShell fairly simply to do what you want.
However, due to the nature of gathering sizes of a folder containing many files, it will be relatively intrusive - i.e. IO-intensive and will take a while to run. This is a consequence of how filesystems work (the size of a folder is not stored anywhere, it must be computed by traversing the folder recording the sizes of files as it goes.
There's an article in the TechNet Library about determining the size of a (single) folder which would probably be useful to you.
PowerShell also has cmdlets called Import-Csv and Export-Csv which will be useful for dealing with CSV data.
Comment: You're welcome, and welcome to Server Fault! If this answer is to your satisfaction, please mark my response as "accepted" by clicking the green check besides the answer.


What are some of the old commentaries prior to 1 BCE of the Torah?

Question: I believe that there would be commentaries of the Torah older than 1 BCE and that can shed significant light on what the message of God is in terms of its authoritativeness.
Israelites have a glorious history of the Kingdoms of David, Israel and Solomon, and it is quite impossible to not have commentaries by respectable Rabbis before 1 BCE. Can people here point me to where are they to be found? After all, inasmuch as the Torah of old was preserved, it is fair-seeming that the interpretations of old should also have been preserved.
Comment: Do we really need the philosophizing in the question? Can this just be edited to down to the question in the title?
Comment: +1 I don't think you are going to find much outside of Apocrypha and Targumim, but the question is solid I think.
Comment: I see two problems that need to be addressed within the question: 1, that there were no "rabbis" then so I'm not sure who would qualify as a proper source and 2, that we DO have authoritative statements from then, but (as pointed out in the answer below) their words were transmitted orally. I could point out that in some sense, the words of Solomon and David were a commentary on the torah, themselves.
Comment: I don't understand this part of the question: "in terms of its authoritativeness".
Comment: I think we're going to need to define "commentary" here. Can the Prophets or Hagiographa be considered commentaries? What about Apocrypha? Philo of Alexandria?
Comment: @jake I understand your issue, but I think the amount of material is small enough that we can reasonably take a pretty broad interpretation.
Comment: @msh210 Possibly related to Yeridas HaDoros?
Comment: @jake, I agree with DoubleAA on this (among other things): if you post an answer and explain why the things you're listing qualify, that's a good answer.
Comment: @Dan, On your first point, that's not really true. The Tannaic era began about 2 centuries BCE, unless you follow the Wikipedian definition, which separates the Tannaic era (20-220 CE) from the earlier Zugotic(is that a word?) era. Either way, there were people with authority whom we would regard as "rabbis", whose interpretations of scripture in some form or another are recorded. Prior to that is where it gets hard to really answer this question other than, "we have later writings that record earlier interpretations and traditions."
Comment: @Dan, and yes, I concede that this may be a semantics game, but if you are telling him he can't find "commentaries" from BCE by getting into semantics about what constitutes a commentary, I think this is an important point to add to that discussion.
Comment: @SethJ there were certainly interpreters of text and people we would not (in a retroactive sense) refer to as rabbis but is the question looking for someone with a particular type or level of smicha? What about a rav who didn't have? I think he is using a more modern word and thinking there is a literal analogue through time immemorial.
Answer: The difficulty with your question is as follows:
In those days (almost) everything was oral. For example we have lots of things the Hillel said (he lived around then), but they were not written down then - they were written down later. So do they count? They are certainly commentary, but they were only written down later. The Talmud is full of things that were said back then, but they are not collected into a single text with a date from around then. (i.e. the Targumim that Double AA mentioned).
Secondly things written down then became the source material of today. Maybe in those days (well, much earlier actually) things like Proverbs and Psalms were considered commentary, but today they would be considered source material. So again, do they count for your question?
Here is a chart: http://www.myjewishlearning.com/texts/About_Jewish_Texts/Jewish_Texts/Timeline.shtml of complete works with a date. (The formatting is terrible, the last column is only partially visible, and note that it includes some works that are not considered authoritative today, i.e. Apocrypha.)
The rarity of complete works from that early is part of the reason we consider the complete works we do have to be source material and not commentary. (People certainly told stories orally, and some short things were written down, but very little book length material exists from back then - which is why the Torah has such a special place in history.)
Comment: well, actually, @Ali, it is quite possible "to not have commentaries by respectable Rabbis before 1 BCE", for a very simple reason: there weren't really rabbis before then! Historically speaking, the structure of rabbinic Judaism began to emerge in the last century of the Temple period (which ended with the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE). The active creation and recording of rabbinic commentary and biblical interpretation really took off only afterwards, with the establishment of the academy at Yavneh.
Comment: @ali It does answer the question. The answer is: Yes there were commentaries, but they were not written down at that time. Answer #2: Commentaries from back then that were actually written down are not given the name commentaries.
Comment: this does not answer the question but only explains difficulty of question which i know it is as stated in the question."and it is quite impossible to not have commentaries by respectable Rabbis before 1 BCE"
Answer: The same question, roughly, was asked of Rav Sherira Hagaon (ca 900-1000, Babylonia), one of the last heads of the Pumbedisa Yeshiva, the school of rabbinic scholarship which had existed in Babylon from after the destruction of the First Temple until the 11th Century of the Common Era.  In his Iggeres (although the term Iggeres means a "letter" it is much longer) he traces the history of rabbinic knowledge and scholarship from the giving of the Torah, written and oral, to Moses, the transmission to Aaron, Joshua and the Elders, the Judges, Prophets, the Zugim -- the joint leaders of the Academy and Beis Din (courts) in Jerusalem -- and then to the rabbis of the late 2nd Temple generation.  In those years, he explains, the written and oral law, including interpretations of the Written Torah, were passed down orally from generation to generation and, because students stayed close to their teachers, the chain of tradition was neither forgotten nor confused. Hillel and Shammai, who were the zuggim from the generation just before the beginning of the common era, were known to personally disagree on only three issues.  However, in the subsequent generations, the capability of the rabbis to orally transmit the traditions radically changed with the brutal Roman occupation, especially following the destruction of Jerusalem and the Holy Temple, and the dispersion of the rabbis to Yavneh, Tiberius, and other places.  Thereafter, although there was broad agreement on most general points, on specific laws and customs there were often disputes because somewhere there had been an error in transmission.  Rav Sheriera explains that these errors were caused because the occupation led to students not being able to fully devote themselves to their teachers, and the inability to check with colleagues to assure that one rabbi taught Torah in the same way.
By the second century of the Common Era, there had come to be some agreement that the oral Torah could not continue to be conveyed exclusively by oral means, but had to be written down.  Almost simultaneously Rabbi Yehuda HaNasi ("Rebbe") and Rabbi Chiyah wrote down what they knew of the memorized rabbinic teachings in what became known as the Mishna and the Tosefta, respectively.  Individual teachings from the Tosefta are frequently referred to in the Talmud as B'raisas.  After the publication of the Mishna, scholars in Israel and Babylonia continued to study Rebbe's and Rabbi Chiyah's versions of the mishnayos attempted to reconcile seemingly conflicting teachings.  After several generations of these discussions, the Israeli contingent of teachers preserved their studies in a collection of books now known as the Jerusalem Talmud (ca 4th century), and the Babylonian Talmud (ca late 7th century).
In summary, we have no writings of commentaries before the 1st century of the Commen Era because the rabbis at that time believed that writing down the oral teachings G-d gave to Moses to be forbidden and unnecessary.  But during Roman rule, writing down the Oral law became a necessity.
Comment: @DoubleAA:  Yes.  In an English translation it is 127 pages (without Hebrew on opposite pages).  Until he gets to the post Talmudic history of the yeshiva, it is pretty interesting.  The last two chapters are very dry, though.  This Iggeres, btw, was Rambam's source for his introduction to the Mishna Torah.
Comment: Is it longer than this Iggeres? http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/t/t33.htm
Answer: Traditions contained in Josephus' biblical commentary, see this book and this book. Also, Philo.
Comment: @Ali Isn't that what a commentary is? You asked for commentaries. That means a work which **comments** on an earlier work.
Comment: all of the above books are not original works but later interpretations of the old work, eg: Josephus bible is interpreted
Comment: not anywork but torah and that too an old commentry
Comment: @Ali I can't understand your last comment. Why doesn't this answer list commentaries?


Is it possible to record higher frequencies using multiple microphones sampling in lockstep?

Question: I have only a basic understanding of audio, so this may be somewhat naive, but is it theoretically possible to record frequencies above what microphone allows by using multiple devices sampling in lockstep, i.e. assigning phases of desired frequency to each? Or is there a physical limit, like for example waves above some frequency not causing the membrane to vibrate?
Answer:
frequencies above what microphone allows

Microphones have a frequency response curve. This is a random example:

The exact shape of the diagram is different for each microphone, but they all have one thing in common: the response will be as close to flat as possible in the range we're usually interested in (20 Hz- 20 kHz for full-range audio microphones), and will roll off outside that range.
So there's no hard cutoff, but as the frequency gets higher, the microphone's output signal becomes weaker. This is due to the membrane, but also the electronics inside the microphone. Outside the frequency range shown in the graph, this roll-off continues, so pretty soon, the mic becomes really insensitive.
Any sampling occurs at the microphone output, so it has no way to avoid this response.
It may be easier to get a specialized microphone for ultrasonic applications, or you could switch to a laser microphone, skipping the vibration->electric signal step altogether.
Comment: Your answer appears to imply that the described frequency response is the case for microphones as a general case. This is absolutely not true. Spectral response will depend on design, pattern directivity, capsule size and the acoustic field in which it is being used. The acoustics of microphones are extremely complex and this post misses the mark by about 99.9%. It's extremely misleading.
Comment: Yes, the exact curve will depend on all that, but all frequency response curves have one thing in common: rolloff at the high and low ends.
Answer: Very simply put, no - this is not possible.
However in order to explain why this is the case it will be necessary to delve deeply into topics such as microphone design to a level that will probably exceed the constraints of this text box.
Suffice to say, acoustic microphones can be designed to work across a very wide range of frequencies however it should be understood that the capsule size has a direct relationship to the overall frequency response of the device at or around the point where the wavelength of the impacting sound approaches the physical size of the capsule.
It can be said that many microphones are designed to have as 'flat' a frequency response as possible and that it is easier to achieve a flat frequency response with an omnidirectional mic than it is with a directive pattern such as a cardioid mic. Mics that have a directional pattern such as a cardioid or super-cardioid pattern will exhibit a property known as proximity effect - which affects the lower frequencies of the spectral response - when the sound source becomes close to the capsule.
It must be said though that every type of microphone design is likely to have a different frequency response, which is dependent on capsule size, microphone design, directionality pattern and acoustic field. Many high-quality omnidirectional microphones will exhibit a flat or near-flat frequency response, however the response only tails off at the high end where the size of the capsule approaches the wavelength of the sound wave through the conductive membrane material that makes up the capsule.
Attempts to combine spaced microphones will result in comb-filtering at mid- to high-frequencies. There is no practical way to assign 'phases' of 'desired frequencies' to a particular microphone.
Answer: No.  Audio interfaces have to protect against antialiasing and thus do not admit higher frequencies than half their sampling frequency.  The whole point of a sampled audio signal is that it represents a complete analog lowpass signal independent from where the samples happen to fall.  It's not that higher frequencies are only partially represented: they are not represented at all.  Sampling two microphones but with a half-sample delay will yield different representations of the same lowpass signal.
Now let's assume that you omit all the anti-aliasing lowpass operation and ignore the aliasing problems we buy into this way.  A microphone is in general an analog device with a frequency response.  This frequency response falls off at higher frequencies.  This does not change when using two microphones so there is no point in doing so: it just buys you uncontrollable phase differences (at 30kHz, one wavelength is in the order of 1cm in length).  But of course you can sample the identical signal in an interspersed manner and the information will be exactly the same as if you sampled with the double frequency in the first place.
Unfortunately, audio A/D converters are a complex contraption with antialiasing filters partly in the analog domain, partly in the digital domain.  Raising the filter frequencies because you are working with interspersed sampling is possible for the person constructing the (integrated) audio A/D converter, but not likely as an afterthought.
So there is no point in using two microphones, and by far the most feasible way to get double the sampling frequency is to use a single audio A/D converter designed for it.
The resulting frequency response will likely be lacklustre and may end up drowned in noise at the high end, but at least distortions are somewhat unlikely since those cause intermodular problems that would affect frequencies in the audible range.  So microphones are likely robust against those: ultrasonic frequencies will likely only produce an ultrasonic response.  Whether it is good enough to be useful for your purposes is just luck.
Comment: The question is about microphone response to higher frequencies - aliasing filters are not relevant to the question.


Sorting out automated testing in CI pipeline and getting conflicting information related to building, unit testing and Docker images

Question: I seem to get a unique response for every person that I ask, or every article that I read, which is just confusing me even more.
Basically, I'm trying to setup automated testing in the CI pipeline which I'm pretty new to. The stack is basically these things:

Django API service
React Admin Portal service
React Client Portal service
PostgreSQL
Redis
Azure Kubernetes Services
Azure DevOps Pipelines with Microsoft Hosted Agent

I was originally under the impression thanks to advice here, which was pretty consistent among respondents, that basically my CI pipeline should be the following:

Build the services.
Run unit tests.
If passing, COPY the build into the Docker image.
Push Docker image to Container Registry.
Deploy images to production-like Kubernetes (using Kind, Minikube, etc.) in a pipeline VM ("Hosted Agent" in Azure DevOps terms).
Run integration tests.
Run E2E/Selenium tests.
If passing, merge feature branch to production.

Started talking to someone else about it and they basically said:

Unit > integration > e2e. Test as much as you can at each step without pissing the devs off. Testing in parallel is better because it lessens the time taken. If a failure in any test type means the pipeline breaks the only thing that controls when you run the test is if you can do it before the app is running (unit, functional) or after compile and deployment (integration/e2e).
All of that aside: DON'T COPY COMPILED CODE INTO A CONTAINER. Such an anti-pattern and bad practice. The Dockerfile should include the entire build process and remain immutable once built. Copying code into your container is the equivalent of passing it to a coworker and assuming it's going to run on their laptop.
Multi-stage builds and development containers containing sdks/build-kits/whatever are the first step, runtime containers that contain only the necessary pieces to run are the second. If they aren't available from the platform provider - .net, java, python etc. (they are) - you can build them both out of the same base container which standardizes both the build and runtime environments.
Use multi-stage Dockerfiles and combine to reduce steps so that containers stay lean.

In other words:

Build the services in a Docker image.
Run unit tests in the the Docker image.
If passing, deploy images to production-like Kubernetes (using Kind, Minikube, etc.) in a pipeline VM ("Hosted Agent" in Azure DevOps terms).
Run integration tests.
Run E2E/Selenium tests.
If passing, push to Container Registry and merge feature branch to production.

Which, unless I'm misinterpreting this, contradicts some other statements I've received like this:

Never, ever build in docker images, because it means we have to install dev-kits in the container. No docker container in production should have any of these kits. For security.

I can see the value of both approaches.
I'm basically just looking for more clarification on this process regarding building, unit testing and Docker images. Suggestions?
Comment: I don't think you're going to get one single prospective in the community. Here is my view on modern principles: https://worklifenotes.com/2020/06/04/7-best-practices-modern-cicd/
Answer: You've missed the part of the 1st quote about multi-stage builds and other methods which avoid exactly the problem mentioned in the 2nd quote: the resulting image would consist of it's base image and artifacts from previous stages while being run in the same build step of a pipeline.


What is a good R value for a four-season sleeping pad?

Question: I've been a Boy Scout for seven years now, and as I'm moving from high school to college I'd like to get into solo backpacking. I live in the lower peninsula of the state of Michigan. I don't foresee camping in anything under 10°F (-12°C). To camp four seasons, what would be a good R value for my sleeping pad?
Comment: @njzk2 Added Celsius and noted the Fahrenheit.
Answer: My 2 Cents:
Winter camping requires two pads, one inflatable and one foam. The reason for this is that not having any pad at all looses a lot of heat into the ground if you are camping on snow. Even the warmest bag will be uncomfortable without a pad camping on snow. While inflatable pads are really nice, they all eventually fail, particularly in the presence of crampons.
You can survive the night with any of the standard selection of foam pads. A good inflatable pad plus foam pad will extend the range of your sleeping bag and provide comfort vs survival. In my experience people underestimate how much heat gets lost into the ground.
The other advantage of having a foam pad is that you can use it quickly during the day during rest stops. Being able to sit without losing heat makes a big difference as the day goes on.
Managing two pads is kind of a pain, those large elastic straps with the Velcro ends help in keeping them both under you.
Answer: It looks like there is not a consensus on what the minimum R value should be, but that the higher the R value the better. It will also depend on how you sleep and what your comfort level is.
If it would be possible to borrow one to try it out before going I would suggest doing that. Its worth trying the pads out in advance where  you won't freeze to death if the pad turns out to not be warm enough.

Another useful bit of knowledge is that you can generally draw the line between three-season and winter mattresses at an approximate R-value of 3.0. We also think that if a mattress is to supply any reliable amount of warmth, it should have an R-value of at least 1.5. Any less and you could basically be sleeping on a heat sink, which can continually drain warmth from your body, making for a pretty grim night.

https://thermarestblog.com/r-value-meaning/

Pros: Air pads are incredibly comfortable and lightweight and the most compact type of pad when packed. Most are designed for backpacking or camping in warm conditions (about 3 R-value) while others are designed with additional insulation for four-season use. You can customize the firmness of the mattress by releasing some air from the valve while you're lying on it.

https://www.rei.com/learn/expert-advice/sleeping-pads.html

In sub-zero temperatures most people (varies according to the individual) require an R-Value of 4 or more in order to feel comfortable. In milder conditions, sleeping mats with R-Values of 2 to 3 generally suffice for most hikers.

https://www.thehikinglife.com/gear/sleeping-mat/

In general, sleeping pads with R-values of 0-2 will only be good for warm weather trips. R-values of 2-4 are good for most 3-season backpacking conditions. R-values of 4-6 are good when the temperature drops around or below freezing. You'll likely want a pad (or combine a foam and air pad) with 5+ R-value if you're winter backpacking and you'll be sleeping on snow.

http://www.cleverhiker.com/best-sleeping-pads/
Comment: Thank you! The pad I'm looking at is 4.4, so I think that'll be good. If it's an issue I'll grab some duct lining and strap it to the outside of my pack.
Answer: There are a lot of factors that determine what R value you will need. While the low temperature might be 10°F (-12°C), the ground could be substantially warmer (or potentially colder). The temperature of the surface you are sleeping on is much more important than the air temperature. It also matters how well the surface conducts heat; sleeping in a hammock (or a raised lean-too shelter) is going to be much colder than on snow.
Another big factor is your sleeping position. If sleep on your side, you have a lot less contact with the ground and the sleeping bag is going to matter more. A stomach sleeper will lose much more heat through the pad and the bag will be less important. If you use a quilt instead of a sleeping bag, that will also influence heat lose through the pad. Finally, if you are a warm sleeper, you will need less of a pad than if you sleep cold.
All that said, most people will be comfortable in most conditions with a low of 10°F (-12°C) with an R value in the 3-4 range. That said, there is no reason you cannot use multiple pads (e.g., an inflatable pad and a closed cell foam pad) to get you the total R-value you want.


Is stream entry an unmistakeable experience?

Question: I've heard stream entry described as a turning about in the deepest seat of consciousness. I've also read other accounts that make me think that there is something about the experience that is unmistakable. Is that true? If one were to attain stream entry would one know it without doubt. Is it such a notable experience that it couldn't be mistaken for anything else?
Comment: I have a lovely book about it, "stream entry" by dhammavuddho thero, I wish I could lend it to you hehehe :)  +1
Comment: well said ,but what is most noticeable is the there is no chattering mind just a state of equanimity with a unravelling self
Answer: Tibetan Buddhism recognizes two kinds of milestones: "experiences" and "realizations".
Experiences are all kinds of extraordinary moments one has along the way. Like the experience of non-duality: "I am what they call God, the true goal of all religions and the real meaning of love". Experiences come and go. They leave memories, but they don't stay with you in all their might. And that's probably a good thing. I don't know how I would live walking around thinking I'm God ;))
Realizations are (sudden or gradual) breakthroughs that change one's perspective in fundamental ways. Needless to say, they stay with you, although not necessarily in an explicit form, because you tend to get used to them and stop noticing. An interesting feature of realizations, they sometimes can be retrograde (like retrograde amnesia). It slowly creeps on you or dawns on you, that you have known something or have been behaving differently for a while now. It is almost like realization spreads backward in time.
By this classification, stream entry is a realization, not an experience. Because of its nature, in most cases I suspect it is a retrograde realization.
The true stream entry is unmistakable, yes -- but I don't see why someone could not just take some arbitrary experience, or even some intermediate realization, like the realization of emptiness of so-called "objects", and imagine that to be stream-entry.
What makes it unmistakable is the fact that in order to attain it, you have to run out of other options. You have to exhaust all theories, all hypotheses, all alternative routes to enlightenment. That's why you don't hesitate, because you clearly see that there is no way it could be something else.
What's funny is this nagging feeling I have, that you reading my description of it, reduces your chances of attaining it. Enlightenment is freedom from clinging (among other things), so clinging to this notion of stream-entry must be very counterproductive. This is why I'm a little leery of Theravada's sometimes excessive emphasis on bullet-point lists and precise definitions of the stages, as well as of Zen's obsession with the notion of satori. The more your mind grasps these, the further you are from the goal.
Comment: It's not like the dumber the easier, but there is a sweet spot, I think :)
Comment: Just as a passing comment, I think it is very important not to create strong ideas about these states because then you are likely to 'aim' at the idea rather than the actual state, in fact 'aiming' is a really bad idea because you do it consciously and at an idea. The true state should be attained naturally and idea-lessly. Creating ideas of these states are a problem for those who have experienced them naturally, but even more so for those who have nothing natural to go on.
Comment: stream entry happens as a result of contemplation of teaching, right? so you should genuenily love the teaching in an intellectual sense, not just consume it because someone told you enlightenment is cool or useful. if you don't enjoy the teaching, why bother at all? that way, you don't really care about SE too much because it's the process that you enjoy anyway. this has been my experience.
Comment: Does it mean that stream entry is easier for an unintelligent person? Such a person will generally have less hypotheses or theories about alternative routes to enlightenment.
Answer: When one attains stream entry, one should notice that one has no more identity view, doubt and ritual attachments. Whether one knows that it is called the state of Sotapanna or Nibbana, depends on one's knowledge of the teaching. Take a Pacceka Buddha for example. He also attains stream entry before becoming a Buddha. But he wouldn't know the state by name.
Comment: @user3743672, the term for "identity view" is "Sakkaya Ditti". It means taking the 5 aggregates as a self. More at: http://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/sakkaya-ditthi/index.html
The word for 'doubt' is 'Vicikicca'.  It refers to sceptical doubt about the Buddha, the Teaching, the Sangha, and the training; about things past and future, and conditionality. More at: http://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/vicikiccha/index.html
Comment: can you please explain a little about identity view? And by doubt you mean doubt in the path?
Comment: @user3743672 Welcome!
Answer: When it comes to Stream Entry the following should happen:

You should have seen the dependent origination first hand in both direction
The lower fetters would have dropped
You should know the 4 Noble Truths 1st hand
You can see the Marks of Existence (necessary but not sufficient)

The most unmistakable of this is 1. I think when you get in and out of Pala Samapathi you can always see this happen. Even if not you would have seen the likes break with you enter your initial experience of stream entry and reconstitute themselves when you come out of it again. This is most unmistakable. 4 - you can see before stream entry at some level, 2 - if your defilements are temporarily suspended you might think you do not have the defilements, 3 - you can easily mistake theoretical knowledge with real experience. Understanding 1 will lead you to:

know dependent origination 1st hand where you can see the links breaking when you get the Pala Samapatti and reforming when you come out of it
know the 4 Noble Truths 1st hand though your understanding of dependent origination
have unshakable faith in the Triple Gem since you have seen the the results of practicing the given path has given results which you experience 1st hand
you will let go of your ego as you see this is a main source of misery and stress as each time a ego centered though happens in your mind you see the sensations are unpleasant leading to fabrications / conditioning
since you have 1st had experience on what got you there you know any other practice (rites, rituals, etc.) will not get you there
Answer:
"stream entry described as a turning about in the deepest seat of
  consciousness"

Yes, it is the turning point and never fall back.

"there is something about the experience that is unmistakable. Is that
  true?"

True! The experience marked is for layman (non-Arya: four noble truth if taught just like writing in the air, for cula-sotapanna just like writing on the water surface, for sotapanna just like inscribed on the large stone slab will persist more than hundred years i.e. until throughout afterlife.)

"If one were to attain stream entry would one know it without doubt.
  Is it such a notable experience that it couldn't be mistaken for
  anything else?"

Yes! If one achieve the Nibanna with your own Khanda, no doubt on Dhamma knowing four Noble Truths at the same time.


How can I start rpcbind -i on startup?

Question: I need have the rpcbind deamon running in 'insecure' mode all the time. What is the right way to do this using raspbian?
Answer: You can edit /etc/rc.local and include your command before its exit statement.
Then sudo chmod +x /etc/rc.local to enable it
And sudo reboot to reboot and see if that has worked out for you.
Answer: I would create a script in /etc/init.d and use update-rc.d to register the script, that way it will start at boot and you can make it close properly at shutdown.
See this blog post for instructions and an example script www.stuffaboutcode.com/2012/06/raspberry-pi-run-program-at-start-up.html

How can I start rpcbind -i on startup?


LaTeX templates for writing a thesis

Question: Aside from CTAN, what are good resources/repositories for Latex templates? In particular, I'm looking for some pretty Thesis templates (I'm familiar with classicthesis)
Comment: Should this be for thesis templates, or for templates in general?  So far, your answers have all been thesis templates.  I'm looking for other templates.  Please either edit the question to read "Resources/Sites for thesis templates", or clarify that you want general templates. (Or, simply delete your parenthetical note.)
Comment: I think 'templates in general' might be too broad. As it is, 'thesis templates' is quite a wide topic.
Answer: In my case, I actually found it easiest to roll my own using the memoir package as a base. It's very well documented, and setting the appropriate margins, double/one-half line spacing, etc. was very easy. And it makes it easy to play around a bit within the thesis guidelines, for instance making fancy chapter headings.
Comment: Although it uses the book class, [Siarhei Khirevich's tips](http://www.khirevich.com/latex/) might be inspiring to customize headers, chose a font, parametrize microtype, hacking bibtex, etc.
Answer: Robert Poser has created a site dedicated to thesis templates:
http://www.thesis-template.com/
The link is currently dead, but that web site can still be read using archive.org (the Internet wayback machine) choosing a snapshot date such as February 8, 2014. The thesis template site mostly just links to available external sites with templates.
It provides links to ready-to-go thesis templates of various universities worldwide. There's even a google map for viewing the templates origins on the world map.
Besides LaTeX templates there are also LyX thesis templates.
Answer: UK-TUG have a list of thesis templates from various UK institutions at http://uk.tug.org/training/thesis/. There is also a good generic template at http://www.sunilpatel.co.uk/thesistemplate.php, but I'm note sure any of these are 'pretty'. At least in the UK the requirements tend to be vary much geared around a traditional manuscript style (double spaced and so on).
Comment: Note (Jan 2014): many of the links from the above age are dead now.
Comment: @ChrisH I will see what I can do about that: we don't unfortunately get much direct information on this so have to rely on what we find!
Comment: The link to "Using LaTeX to Write a PhD Thesis" is now http://www.dickimaw-books.com/latex/thesis/ (sys.uea.ac.uk was changed to cmp.uea.ac.uk many years ago, if anyone finds any old links to it, although I've moved most of my LaTeX resources from cmp.uea.ac.uk to dickimaw-books.com.)
Answer: I'm currently writing a (bachelor) thesis myself and just using the LaTeX's own "report" class, I find it meets all of my universities requirements when I only use a custom title page.
Comment: I used `scrreprt` and I didn't even have to modify the title page.
Answer: For the spanish speaking community, I maintain a thesis format which can be easily adapted to the requirements of different universities. The format itself can be used to write thesis documents in any language, but it has a spanish option which takes care of loading a suitable set of packages and options to get the entire format consistently translated into spanish.
Answer: There is an unofficial class sapthesis for the Laurea, Laurea Specialistica and Dottorato degrees at the La Sapienza university of Rome.
Answer: Chances are, your institution will have pretty strict specifications for your thesis format.  If you're lucky your institution may have a class file or some grad students may maintain a unofficial template.
Purdue University (a state school in Indiana, USA) has a document class that may be a good starting point.
https://engineering.purdue.edu/~mark/puthesis/
An additional complication at Purdue is that each department has additional constraints on the formatting so the document class takes an option to specify the department.
Comment: In U.S. institutions it's the absolute norm, not the exception.  And the formatting guidelines are usually awful as well.
Comment: @Konrad: When Alan says "awful," he really means _awful_. They're atrocious.
Comment: " Chances are, your institution will have pretty strict specifications" – is this actually common? My University has absolutely *zero* specs. I'm the author, I decide the format.
Comment: In German institutions it's the absolute exception, not the norm. Only things like the exact words to be used for the declaration about having written the thesis oneself, marked quotations, named all sources and so on as well as some rules about the title page, inclusion of CV and such things are regulated.
Answer: There seems to be a nice compilation of thesis templates on this site:
https://www.sharelatex.com/templates/thesis/
These templates include many already mentioned here.
Answer: A really great place for LaTeX templates is:
http://www.latextemplates.com
This website is beautifully laid out and the templates are sorted into categories that make it easy to find the template that is best suited to your purposes. All of the templates have PDF examples and full template code.
I am not affiliated with this website in any way but have used it many times.
Answer: I use tex live utility on the mac to maintain my tex distribution. Specifically I use the ctan repository. On searching for thesis templates, I got style (cls) files for the following thesis formats. More information can be found on their respective ctan pages.
afthesis, classicthesis, ebsthesis, gatech-thesis, hepthesis, muthesis, psu-thesis, ryethesis, seuthesis, thuthesis, ucdavisthesis, ucthesis, uiucthesis, umich-thesis, umthesis, ut-thesis, uwthesis, york-thesis
My suggestion would be to see which one of these is closest to your university's requirements and then build on that. To search for each of the above theses files, use the following link format: http://www.ctan.org/cgi-bin/filenameSearch.py?filename=afthesis&Search=Search and replace the name appropriately and on the page visit the readme page for more details.
Answer: Unofficial (but linked from the Graduate School webpages) thesis template for Tennessee Tech University.
At the moment, the development snapshot is more advanced (automatic generation of front matter pages, ToC and related list page headers), and is nearly ready to be merged back to the stable version. Only 13 commands required for generating a basic thesis (plus any \include commands for your chapters and appendices).
Based off memoir, with hyperref, hypcap, ifthen, indentfirst, listings, memhfixc, nomencl, refcount, rotating, and ted packages required.
Answer: I just redid the uclathesis class, and in the process collected (iirc without checking) about a dozen thesis classes from various schools in the US and Europe to look at how others did this or that. In the end I used memoir, and it was pretty simple and straightforward, all in all. The part that took the longest (a day?) was the construction of the frontmatter pages (titlepage, signature page, copyright, vita, dedication, acknowledgements, abstract) which all had to have a special format.
I could email you any or all of these, and, even tho I'm probably not in the same class as many of the latex coders here, I'd be happy to advise you if you need it, since this is an exercise that I just finished.
Answer: Illinois Institute of Technology has their thesis class at available from the Graduate College website. A lot of the commands are somewhat nonstandard (for example capitalized \Section commands), so I've been redoing the class file as I work on my thesis. I'll post the result somewhere when the thesis examiner likes it.
Answer: The Université de Lorraine (in France), and more specifically the LORIA lab, developped a template that can be easily adapted.
You may find it at http://www.loria.fr/~roegel/TeX/TUL.html , but this page as well as the documentation is in French.
8< = = = = = = = = = = =
Another template was developped by the "association des doctorants de l'IRISA et de l'École doctorale Matisse en informatique, traitement du signal et électronique", a french team.
You may find it at http://www.irisa.fr/adoc/WikiWeb/pmwiki.php?n=Main.ModeleLatex
Answer: NOVAthesis is an active and full featured LaTeX thesis template, designed to be easily accessible to LaTeX beginners.  It will do all you need except writing the thesis for you!
The template is multilingual and easily costumizable. It has considerable large user communities at Facebook (use PT or EN) and GitHub (use EN only).  There is also a new blog (in PT) about LaTeX and with tips on how to use and configure the novathesis template.
Give it a try… you won't regret!  :)
Comment: The NOVAthesis template is now an [official template at Overleaf](https://www.overleaf.com/latex/templates/new-university-of-lisbon-universidade-nova-de-lisboa-slash-unl-thesis-template/fwbztcrptjmg), making it trivial to experiment with it.
Answer: http://github.com/AndreyAkinshin/Russian-Phd-LaTeX-Dissertation-Template
Russian PhD thesis (Candidate of Sciences dissertation) template compatible with national standard (GOST).
Answer: I really like and highly recommend the LaTeX Thesis Template from Matthias Pospiech. It's so huge, it's actually more like a framework, comes with it's own 272 page documentation and is constantly being revised with it's current version from 2018-09-20, compilable with the current TeXlive 2018.

target users
This template was developed with all sorts of structured documents in
  mind that require a good citation and reference framework with a
  customizable layout. It has so far been used for bachelor, master and
  phd-thesis as well as the thesis of teachers in their practical year.
These theses had all a natural science background, which means that
  also this template is optimized for the needs of people in natural
  sciences. Nevertheless it should be easily adaptable to topics in
  humanities, linguistics or even arts.
This template has been used under the supervision of the maintainer by
  very early beginners and also advanced LaTeX users. The experience was
  that beginners as well as advanced users are more productive with it
  because 'it just works', while the more advanced users additionally
  know that they can find all options for later modifications because of
  the documentation in the code.

LaTeX templates for writing a thesis


One round of AES-128

Question: Maybe it's a silly question, I'm interested in the best known/chosen plaintext attack on only one round of AES-128. More specifically, what is the smallest number of known/chosen plaintext/ciphertext pairs which allow us to recover the key with high probability? What's the relationship between how time scales with the number of pairs?
Comment: Are two subkeys involved or only one?  That is, do we assume there's an AddRoundKey after the round?  If not, obviously one plaintext-ciphertext pair would suffice (and the attack is obvious).  If there is, then you'd need two (and the attack is nearly as trivial; circa $2^{12}$ work effort)
Comment: My guess would be that you can probably get away with 2 plaintext-ciphertext pairs, perhaps you need like 10. Computational effort should be around $16\cdot 2^{16}=2^{20}$ operations.
Comment: What's the intuition behind 2 pairs?
Comment: That you need to identify two subkeys. Hmm thinking about it perhaps the key schedule gives enough constraints to drop it to one.
Comment: So, something like express plaintext and ciphertext in terms of equation involving subkeys, use key schedule to express 1st round key in terms of key, this gives equation for key. Solving this equation is about 2^(20)?
Comment: @poncho, yes there's two subkeys, many thanks
Comment: I see how you should be able to recover the key with a single plaintext-ciphertext pair with circa $2^{80}$ effort (with possibly a few false hits); interested?
Comment: @poncho, yes! What is it??
Answer: Let $(m,c)$ be a couple of a plaintext and its ciphertext, and $k_0=\{k_{0,1},\ldots, k_{0,16}\}$ and $k_1=\{k_{1,1}, \ldots, k_{1,16} \}$ are the two unknowns subkeys ($k_0$ is in fact the master key).
Including the MixColumns step, then the encryption is
$$
c = \mathrm{MC}(\mathrm{SR}(\mathrm{SB}(m \oplus k_0))) \oplus k_1
$$
If we apply the inverse of MC and SR, then it becomes
$$
\mathrm{SR}^{-1}(\mathrm{MC}^{-1}(c)) = \mathrm{SB}(m \oplus k_0) \oplus \mathrm{SR}^{-1}(\mathrm{MC}^{-1}(k_1))
$$
For ease of notation, let $c' = \mathrm{SR}^{-1}(\mathrm{MC}^{-1}(c))$ and $k'_1 = \mathrm{SR}^{-1}(\mathrm{MC}^{-1}(k_1))$, then we have
$$
c' = \mathrm{SB}(m \oplus k_0) \oplus k'_1
$$
Suppose you know two plaintexts $m_1$ and $m_2$ and their respective ciphertexts $c_1$ and $c_2$. To get the byte $k_{0,i}$, you make a guess $\tilde{k}_{0,i}$ and compute
$$
\tilde{k}'_{1,i} = c'_{1,i} \oplus \mathrm{SB}(m_{1,i} \oplus \tilde{k}_{0,i})
$$
You do the same by replacing with $m_2$ and $c'_2$ ($m_1$ and $m_2$ should differ on every bytes) and if the obtained values $\tilde{k}'_{1,i}$ coincide, then the guess might be correct and $\tilde{k}_{0,i}$ is a candidate for $k_{0,i}$.
Other plaintexts/ciphertexts can be used to filter the candidates until one remains for each byte, or concluding with an exhaustive search.
Comment: There needs to be some clean-up in the end; sometimes, there will be multiple possible solutions for $\tilde{k}_{0,i}, \tilde{k}_{1,i}$ (or worse yet, the two plaintext have the same byte in position $i$, in which case there are 256 possible solutions.  Generally, it should be fairly easy to derive the correct one based on the key scheduling (the round 1 subkeys are a simple function of the round 0 subkeys); but that step generally will need to be done...
Comment: Yes you are right, there might be some false positives, and $m_1$ and $m_2$ should differ on every bytes.
Comment: Thanks, nice answer. So the fast time relies on being able to guess and verify bytes one by one? If it were possible to guess and verify bits one by one, we could do faster?
Comment: @zz7948 Yes, we can target the bytes one by one independantly from the others since one round doesn't mix things enough. You can do similar things up to a few rounds: look for ``square attacks'' on AES. I don't think you can do bits one by one since an S-box applies on the whole byte.
Answer: UPDATE: improved attack to $2^{40}$, previous version of this answer had attack complexity $2^{48}$
I will try to improve the answer by @poncho for a single plaintext-ciphertext pair. My attack recovers the key by guessing 5 bytes and determining the others, thus the effort close to $2^{40}$ times a few operations.
Let $k_0, k_1,k_2,k_3$ denote the columns of the master key, and let $k'_0,k'_1,k'_2,k'_3$ denote the columns of $MC^{-1}$ applied to the second subkey. Also let $ct' = MC^{-1}(ct)$. In this way, we get $ct' = SR(SB(pt + k)) + k'$. Here is adapted KS picture:

We have three kinds of relations:

columns of $k$ related to columns of $k'$ through KS:

$MC(k'_2 + k'_3) = k_3;$
$MC(k'_1 + k'_2) = k_2;$
$MC(k'_0 + k'_1) = k_1;$
$MC(k'_0) = k_0 + w$, where $w=SubWord(RotWord(k_3))+(1,0,0,0)$ is a KS internal value;

bytes of $k$ related to bytes of $k'$ through $SR\circ SB$ and plaintext-ciphertext bytes (note that a column of $k'$ corresponds to a diagonal of $k$):

$ct_{(j-i)\mod{4}}[i] + k'_{(j-i)\mod{4}}[i] = S(pt_j[i] + k_j[i])$;

(given that $k'_0$ is known) bytes of $k_0$ related to bytes of $k_3$ (the fourth relation from 1. becoming bytewise).

We guess $k_0'$ and $k'_3[0]$. Now we determine all the rest.

Since $k_0'$ is guessed, we can use 3rd kind of relations. Together with 2nd kind, we learn a lot!

(Main trick) Let $x=k'_3[1]$ and $y=k_3[2]$ be yet unknown bytes. By chaining relations of 2nd and 3rd kinds, we connect $x$ and $y$:
$$
S^{-1}(x + ct'_3[1]) + pt_0[1] = S(y) + (k_0[1] + MC(k'_0)[1]).
$$
At the same time, we can connect $x$ and $y$ by a linear relation using the KS relation $MC(k'_2 + k'_3) = k_3$, where 3 bytes of $k_3$ are known:
$$
x + k'_2[1] + 11 \otimes y = 9\otimes x_3[0] +14 \otimes x_3[1] + 13\otimes x_3[3].
$$
This small system with two unknowns and two equations has two constants that depend on guessed bytes. By a precomputation with complexity $2^{16}$, all solutions can be stored (indexed by the two constants). As a result, during the 5-byte guess we learn $x,y$ (a few candidates possibly) in a constant time. We propagate bytewise again.

Use $MC(k'_2 + k'_3) = k_3$ (we now know $k_3$) to learn two more bytes and propagate bytewise.

Consider the equation $MC(k'_1 + k'_2) = k_2$. We know two input and two output bytes of MC, which allows us to learn everything else, due to MC being MDS. Propagate bytewise.

The two leftover bytes can be recovered from known $k'_2 + k'_3$ and byte propagation.

It is left to check all the relations to dismiss occasional false positives.

SageMath code for the attack
Comment: Very good; my solution missed the part in step 3; where you get to deduce 4 subkey bytes...
Comment: @poncho managed to reduce it to 5 bytes guess, by precomputing solutions to a simple relation pair. https://pastebin.com/wWi3mRi3
Answer: corpsfini gave an efficient method for rederiving the key if you're given two plaintext/ciphertext pairs; I will look at an inefficient method that tries to rederive the key given only one such pair.
The general strategy is to guess selected key bytes within the second subkey, and then use the know relations, both from the know plaintext/ciphertext pair, and from the AES-128 key scheduling, to deduce all the bytes of the first subkey (which is the key we're looking for).
Notation I will use: $k_{a,b}^c$ will be the subkey byte from subkey $c$ (0 will be the initial, 1 will be the final) in the $a$th row and $b$th column.
So, the attack is that we initially guess the subkey bytes $k_{0,0}^1, k_{0,3}^1,k_{1,2}^1, k_{1,3}^1, k_{2,1}^1, k_{2,2}^1, k_{2,3}^1, k_{3,1}^1, k_{3,2}^1, k_{3,3}^1$.  This consists of 10 bytes (and hence 80 bits).
We now proceed to check this guess (and deduce the rest of the key) in constant time (hence the total attack takes $O(2^{80})$ time)
We first note (assuming our guess is correct) we have all the second round subkey bytes for column 3; we consider AES in decryption mode on this column; we can compute the AddRoundKey and the InvMixColumns.  The InvShiftRows will move the internal state bytes we know into positions $(0,3), (1,2), (2,1), (3,0)$.  Then, can compute the InvSubBytes for these positions, and what we have left is known plaintext xor'ed with unknown key bytes to give us known state bytes.  This allows us to deduce the values of $k_{0,3}^0,k_{1,2}^0,k_{2,1}^0,k_{3,0}^0$.
Then, if we look at the AES-128 key scheduling logic, we see that $k_{0,3}^1 = k_{0,2}^1 \oplus k_{0,3}^0$; we know $k_{0,3}^1$ and $k_{0,3}^0$, so we can deduce $k_{0,2}^1$.
Now, we know all the second round subkey bytes for column 2; similar logic gives us the first subkey bytes $k_{0,2}^0,k_{1,1}^0,k_{2,0}^0,k_{3,3}^0$, which allows us to deduce $k_{0,1}^1$ and $k_{1,1}^1$
That gives us all the second round subkey bytes for column 1; repeating this gives us the first subkey bytes $k_{0,1}^0,k_{1,0}^0,k_{2,3}^0,k_{3,2}^0$, which allows us to deduce $k_{0,0}^1, k_{1,0}^1, k_{2,0}^1$.
Along with $k_{3,3}^1$, that's the entire second round subkey; from that, it's easy to derive the first round subkey (actually, we've deduce most of the bytes from that already), and validate our guess.
Obviously, this attack can be optimized, and I have this nagging feeling that it would be possible to guess one less byte; however this is what I have at the moment.
Comment: @fgrieu: no, on the other hand, given the complexity of an sbox (expressed as a binary circuit), I wouldn't be that optimistic.  On the other hand, if you express the problem in terms of known relationships ("if you know these 4 bytes of key, you learn these other 2"), possibly a computerized search would find something more efficient
Comment: Have you thrown it at a SAT solver?
Comment: @poncho, great Thanks for this. Just checking I understand whats going on: we construct a Number of equations with variables corresponding to the key and coefficients with known plaintext/ciphertext. By xoring combinations of these equations with each other we try to remove variables and end up with a small Number of equations in a small Number of variables. We then guess key bytes to remove more variables until we can recover a solution quickly?
Comment: @zz7948: well, no, that's not how I'd express it.  Instead, we have the case where is we know some of the subkey bytes, we can deduce others (I don't want to express them as "equations" as some of the relations go through an sbox and are hence nonlinear, that is, not amenable to solving as equations).  What I show is a group of 10 bytes that, through a series of deductions, gives us all 32 (and hence the key).  We still end up guessing all 10
Comment: @poncho Okay, but in principle as an equation. Since SBox is modular inverse, once we have a relation between between all these things we can multiply by certain key bytes to clear all modular inverses which gives some polynomial equations over a field of size 256.
Answer: There is a paper called Low Data Complexity Attacks on AES by Bouillaget et al. It describes best attacks on 1-4 rounds of AES with only 1-9 known/chosen plaintexts:

So, to answer your question: 1 round can be attacked in $2^{32}$ time with 1 known plaintext, and in $2^{12}$ time with 2 known plaintexts.
Comment: What amount of time we need to make such an attack on PC? How many CPU hours do we need?
Comment: @Tom Roughly speaking, below $2^{28}$ is on the order of seconds, below $2^{32}$ is on the order of minutes, $2^{40}$ maybe a few hours. For sure, attacks under $2^{40}$ are easily doable on a CPU, $2^{64}$ would be doable on GPUs if they won't require that much memory ($2^{49}$ memory blocks, =8 petabytes? feels problematic to me), $2^{80}$ would probably be doable with a significant amount of ASICs. I think this clearly classifies attacks in the table.
Comment: Ok. so time coplexity $2^{32}$ means $2^{32}$ seconds. I wasn't sure what is that mean.
Comment: @Tom no! I meant it can be done in seconds. As written in the table, time complexity is measured in encryptions, one of which is less than a microsecond.
Comment: Ok, in fact you wrote it will be few hours, so $2^{32}$ couldn't be in seconds. Thanks!

One round of AES-128


Can I take a non-muslim(free) girl as my slave and have sex with her?

Question: Since its lawful to have slave according to sharia.will this constitute zina?
Answer: This is a joke, but I will take this seriously because it is worth discussing and full of misconceptions. I'll also put the disclaimer that I am not a scholar so this isn't a religious ruling, but I am a practicing American Muslim so these are my views and they reflect a majority of this country. And I haven't studied this issue in depth because it is irrelevant, because slavery is outlawed worldwide.
Slavery as Western history has portrayed it is not as slavery is meant for Islam. The idea of racist social structures that legitimate mistreatment and withdrawal of basic rights from a human goes against the core of Islam. If a Muslim man owns a slave properly- which is NOT the equivalent of American slaves pre-Civil War (or even after), then technically sex is allowed.
If you want to give this question a fair analysis, study Islamic inheritance and property law. This will give you an idea of the intentions of such beliefs and what it means to have children to inherit your property. If you are looking for ways to demonize a religion and its followers, I'd seriously reconsider your point of attack. This won't work in the long run.
And those I am reading this question negatively, please don't think that I am discouraging questions. Ask me more! I'll either find out for you by studying myself or by pointing you in the right direction. Knowledge is power and I look forward to discussing such heavy topics in a civilized manner.
Comment: Well, you're discouraging this question by calling it a joke.
Answer: You cannot enslave a Muslim or non-Muslim free girl. If this is a work around to get sex outside the bounds of marriage,  it's a pretty poir attempt.
Bottom line: Get married.


Accidentaly deleted shared dropbox file on laptop!

Question: HELP, I accidentally deleted loads of files on my mac on finder then emptied my recycle bin.. I had been shared into the folders on dropbox containing these files and am super worried that others who are also shared into these folders may have the same files deleted! They are not important to me but are to others!I was not the original person to share these folders.
Answer: The Dropbox web interface has a 'show deleted files' button (icon a small trash can) at the top of each folder view. Navigate to the folder which used to contain your deleted files (if you have deleted all your files, the home directory), click this icon and select 'restore' to restore your files.
See Dropbox's How do I recover deleted files?.
Answer: The files may not be compleatly deleted from the dropbox at all.

It stores deleted files under the Dropbox/.dropbox.cash/ directory (on MacOS and Linux, and I guess something similar on Windows) for at least 3 days. So you can either browse this directory and find your deleted files or simply restore the deleted files from the Web UI and then files that are in the cache will be moved to the original directory.

If it was deleted you should try one of the programs talked about on http://www.cultofmac.com/67472/how-to-undelete-files-in-mac-os-x-macrx/ Then take the recovered files and put them back in the dropbox folder.


Odd (potentially DNS) network problems on my Macbook Pro (VPN / Network Connect related)

Question: I was reluctant to ask a new question as there appears to be a million dns related questions on here and elsewhere already, but, I think mine might be a bit different.
An example, right now I am writing this on my Macbook Pro, connected via wifi to my Billion router and I cannot browse/ping/trace wikipedia.org. BUT, my iPhone, connected via wifi to the same router, can.
I have tried using the router provided DNS (Google) on my Macbook (ie, network settings gives my router IP for DNS server) and I have over ridden the DNS with Google DNS and OpenDNS but with zero help.
When I take my Macbook into the office, I connected via wifi to our Airport there and 50% of the time, will need to restart my Mac before it can browse.
This appears to be port 80 only! I have never had problems with other services, torrent, skype, app store (not sure what port that uses) - although, these could just be in the group of sites/services that I can access - note I am writing this on the problematic machine, so this site is fine.
Any help would be greatly appreciated. I'm desperate to fix this.
BTW - I did read this: I cannot connect to internet but my MacBook Pro detects the network and my HP computer works fine on the same network but note that I have no proxies selected.
Thanks!
EDIT - I just noticed while looking at other questions, that people did not have their router address as a DHCP-provided DNS server in their network prefs. So, I logged into my router and disabled 'use router as DNS server' and then added Google's primary and secondary servers to the router. My machine now shows the Google servers but the problem persists.
EDIT #2 - A client has a VPN that I connect to using Juniper Network Connect. Rebooting my machine fixes all network issues, but the second I open Network Connect, it kills it. BUT, if I sign out of Network Connect and close the VPN, the network is still broken, so whatever it changes, does not revert.
Answer: So, I fixed this issue by changing my internal network to use a different IP address range. From 192.168.* to 10.0.*.
I'm assuming there was a conflict somewhere.
Anyway, hopefully this info helps somebody else.


Are punches that impact an eye dangerous? (Muay Thai)

Question: During sparring in Muay Thai, I occasionally receive hook-punches (even straight punches) where the corner/edge of the glove makes solid contact with an eye of mine. I can feel that my eye is sore for quite a long time after these hits. I am wondering whether these impacts are dangerous for my eyes. Do they pose a risk of gradual build up of damage that accumulates or risk of an instantaneous problem? I am concerned about non-cosmetic damages.
Comment: Please go and talk with a medical doctor and take any advice your read on the Internet with a large stack of salt.
Answer: Fighting disciplines (such as Muay Thai, boxing etc.) Can cause multiple eye traumas. If your vision becomes blurry or if the pain doesn't go away you might want to consider consulting a physician.
You can learn more on potential eye injury from blow to the head by reading these articles:
Giovinazzo VJ, Yannuzzi LA, Sorenson JA, Delrowe DJ, Cambell EA. "The ocular complications of boxing" Ophthalmology Journal . 1987 Jun;94(6):587-96.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/3627707/
And
Corrales G, Curreri A. "Eye trauma in boxing." Clin Sports Med. Journal. 2009 Oct;28(4):591-607, vi. doi: 10.1016/j.csm.2009.07.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/19819404/?i=23&from=/15665199/related
Answer: Detached retina is a common boxing problem.  It involves the retinal tissue at the back of the eye detaching - it can lead to permanent blindness.  If you start to see flashes of light, or fuzzy eyesight, or "greyness" at the edges of your vision, you should see a doctor right away (within 24 hours).
It is more prevalent if you are already short sighted (due to the eye shape being stretched long).
Your eye doctor will also often be checking your retinas at check ups, so you can ask if you're particularly at risk based on what they see going on with your body.


Can I use filters other than the original Hario filters on my Hario V60?

Question: Is it possible to use other brands of coffee filters?
Comment: Why would you not be able to? The Hario ones will be specifically shaped to fit that filter but there's no reason you can't use other filters and cut to fit or say not fill the filter with too much coffee/water
Comment: What's the motivation? This might give better suggestions. Are you interested primarily in cost savings? Availability? Welcome to [coffee.se]!
Answer: Yes. Well, if the shape matches. I have never found alternatives for paper filters (patent restriction?), but there are clothes and stainless steel versions available.
Comment: I wonder why there are no "generic" alternatives... +1 for completeness! @John - If cost savings over time is the motivation, reusable ones like Eric mentions (e.g., cloth, metal, plastic, etc.) may be a good option for you -- see also [this question](http://coffee.stackexchange.com/q/1571/262) about tradeoffs between paper and reusable filters.
Answer: If you're willing to do a bit of work to save a bit of money, consider folding your own filter out of filter paper. For example:

I have used very large basket filters in a cone filter in a pinch (they can be really cheap; here's one example for about one penny/cent each). You can fold them in half twice, and they fit fine, or even just jamming the thing in the cone works if you're in a hurry. :)
Actual non-folded filter paper, such as this half-moon shape, intended for Chemex but would also work in the similar cone shape of the V60.

For completeness, here's some more info in the "shape" topic:
There are three primary "cone" filter shapes, with examples from Amazon and other outlets:

Melitta style (available in sizes including "#2" (most common), "#4", and "#6"); these are passable in a pinch but really don't fit well.
Chemex style; these tend to be larger, thicker, and more expensive; they produce a slightly different filtration. These will basically work in a V60 cone (but not the other way around: DO NOT consider using V60 filters in a Chemex!)
V60 style (available in sizes including "01", "02" (most common), and "03"); As @Eric states in his answer, I haven't found a "generic" brand of this shape of paper filters.


Incorporate gpl2 code into software

Question: I want to use code written by others and published under gpl2 license, on my software project. I was wondering what is the way to go about it. I hope to publish my software using the gpl3 license. I am very new to this field, so please let me know if I missed any crucial information.
Answer: While the GPLv2 and GPLv3 are very similar, they have clauses that make them incompatible. If you combine GPLv2 covered code with GPLv3 covered code, you cannot share the result.
Some GPLv2 software doesn't limit you to the GPLv2, but also allows any later version of the GPL. In that case, you could use that code as if it were GPLv3-licensed.
Without such an upgrade clause, your choices are:

to not use the code
to ask the copyright holders to change the license to one they can use (but note that license changes can take a ton of effort because all contributors must agree)
to wrap the GPLv2 code you want to use in a standalone program that you can launch from your code. For example, wrap the GPLv2 code with a REST API or with a command line interface. It is allowed to distribute programs with different licenses side by side, you just can't always combine them into a single program.
Comment: @DeepakThomas That seems to be the kind of upgrade clause I meant in my second paragraph. That license allows you to use the GPLv3 (a *later version*), so no problem exists. Out of interest, which software are you looking at?
Comment: Thanks for letting me know! Here is the link -  https://github.com/jMotif/jmotif-R. It looks like there is only one contributor, so perhaps I can request him/her to upgrade to GPL_v3
Comment: @DeepakThomas That software does not have an upgrade clause and is pure GPLv2. Relicensing is unlikely, as the entire R ecosystem is built around GPLv2. Even if they wanted to update their license, they might have GPLv2 dependencies that prevent that. In a similar scenario I wrote a wrapper script in R that offers a server to which I can send JSON messages from my GPLv3 code.
Comment: I understand your point. Thank you!

Incorporate gpl2 code into software


Can I use my newly gained limited-use ability right after leveling up?

Question: This question came into mind after seeing this question. It may be an absurd question, but can I use a limited-use ability which I have gained by leveling up without taking any rest? For example, can a mage use his newly gained 2nd-level spell slot right after qualifying for 3rd level? Can a fighter use his second Action Surge right after gaining his 17th level?
Answer: Much like 4e (and probably other editions), there isn't a solid guideline (As of right now) as to when XP is awarded, if XP is awarded each encounter, then, yes, you can use your new abilities right away.
However, it's not a bad idea to hold off awarding XP until you take a long rest. This keeps you from leveling in the middle of a day and having a funky situation where a wizard suddenly has more spells at his disposal (or a fighter more maneuvers)  or whatever.
This is currently not covered by the existing published rules of Next and as such is currently at the DM's discretion.
Comment: @GMNoob I was looking for something that said that, where's that listed?
Comment: You can only cast prepared spells, and you can only prepare spells during a long rest.
Comment: @GMNoob One word: Heightening. Sure, a mage cannot prepare a new spell unless there is a spell not filled, but he can still use a spell in a higher-level slot and expect stronger result. For example, you can fire *magic missile* at the new spell level to net in more missiles per spell. (Heightening is not an official Next term though, but "spells at higher level" is too long for this purpose, right?)
Comment: Good point! I still think its important to note that some things require rest before usage :-)
Answer: I've played both ways in previous editions, and a lot depends on the flavor of the campaign world. If wizards are lone sages, constantly honing their understanding of magic with every spell they cast, then having leveling up be an "Ah Ha moment", where suddenly they just know how something works, can be appropriate. On the other hand, if you've got wizard schools in your setting, it seems appropriate to require the wizard to travel to the big city, spend some time (and money) on training, and emerge with a greater understanding. Similar arguments can be made for the other classes to require training to get to the next level in their abilities.
For most classes, leveling up mid-adventure, or even mid-encounter, is pretty straightforward. Suddenly, they're just hitting harder, sneaking more effectively, or using some awesome trick they just figured out. Magic-users and Clerics are a bit more-complicated than the general case, because of the spell slots system - if you let them level-up mid-adventure, then you need to figure out what to do with the newly-available slots that they didn't get a chance to fill at their last rest. Do they just sit empty? Do spells they've previously-expended "come back"?


Trajectory planning in unstructured environments

Question: How is trajectory planning normally carried out in off-road/unstructured environments? In particular I'm interested in how stereo vision can be used to plot trajectories over obstacles - for example, how does one generate ground planes when the environment is extremely rough and the robot is sitting at an angle?
Comment: Please describe your "problem" with more detail. I can only get a rough idea of what you want. Also, the question is too broad, because it looks like you want to receive entire theories, rather than specific approaches. (see "How is trajectory planning normally carried out...?")
Comment: I find it a bit confusing: "how to use ... vision ... to plot...". One cannot use a video camera for printing. I guess that you want to use the stereo vision to calculate a map of the terrain, and then overlay a "plot" of the desired path over the acquired image. Is my understanding correct?
Answer: In general, you want to build a 3D map of the environment, or more likely an approximation of a 3D map. Typically such maps are grid-based across the horizontal plane, and each cell contains some additional information like height (see '2D occupancy maps', 'digital elevation models' and '2.5D grid maps' for more information). They often focus on geometric attributes of the environment, but may also include things like appearance (from which you may be able to infer other properties). These types of maps can be created from stereo camera data.
Then in order to be able to path plan you need some way of quantifying how good/bad a given path is. I suggest you look for research around 'traversibility' for various methods of evaluating this for some given terrain but as a basic idea, the 'cost' of traversing (or moving into) some area may be calculated based on its height, gradient, roughness, surface material, difference vs neighbouring areas, some properties in relation to specific vehicle attributes etc.
Once you have a map containing this information, you can apply common path planning techniques e.g. A* on a grid based map.
In rougher or more unstructured environments, there may be more unknown information e.g. the vehicle can't see over a ridge, or behind an obstacle, or its field of view might not include ground that contains holes ('negative obstacle'), so vehicle movement will need to take these into account - both in terms of being able to create a useful and accurate map by observing enough of the environment, and also by avoiding potentially dangerous areas.

for example, how does one generate ground planes when the environment is extremely rough and the robot is sitting at an angle?

To address this specifically, you don't. You can instead use a different approach like the one described above which does not involve ground planes. Though in my (perhaps limited) experience, a lot of rough and unstructured environments featured in robotics research usually aren't really that rough, and often still have significant and relatively flat (compared to the scale of the vehicle) ground planes.
Comment: Thinking about this, there are kind of two issues. 1. Viewable paths which present obstacles(ex our vision system is raised above the ground) and 2. None viewable paths which prevent planning without some kind of prior knowledge. I'm wondering how one might guess features of obstacles, for example you generally don't know the depth of an object you need to step over but you make some assumptions about it
Answer: Short answer: At first, a motion capture recording of the robot is created. Secondly, the recording is converted into a task model.
Long answer: A human operator is the natural source for providing high quality control signals. A well trained operator is able to let the robot solve difficult situations. The only problem is, that the actions of a human operator are not formalized in software code, so that a planner can't use the existing heuristics. To solve the issue, a motion capture device is used which records a set of features including the actions of the human operator. This recording is converted into a prediction model which can be used by a motion solver autonomously.