What are the effects of a watery mash?

Question: What are the effects of having too much water in your mash? If it's too "soupy" or watery or whatnot.
Comment: How much is "too much"? In qt/lb would be nice.
Comment: Right now I'm looking at about 21-23 qts and 14.5 lbs. So 1.5+ qt/lb
Comment: But, generally speaking, what if it was like 5qt/lb? 50?
Comment: Great question, great answers.  I've always wondered about this and now I know.  Thanks to all.
Answer: As homebrewers we're used to 1.25-1.5 qts/lb. But in some pro brewing set ups they mash in one vessel and lauter in another.  In order to transfer from one vessel to the next they use better than 2qts/lb in some cases for pump-ability.
Some speak of getting a thinner beer with a thinner mash, but i think within 10-20% of the target thickness you won't see much of a difference.
More water does dilute the enzymes to an extent also, which has an impact on conversion time.  But the relationship between enzyme and substrate ratio for conversion efficiency and time is not a linear relationship. So at the end of the "curve" we are operating in there is tolerance for more water than expected, and very little if any change in conversion time is seen.
Keep in mind most of us mashing for 60mins tend to mash longer than is actually required to convert.  So 60 minutes will still cover you even if you use 2X-3X water.
Comment: I use 2qts/lb for all my brews
Comment: Yeah, I've been in the 2qt/# range too and seen no difference in efficiency or body.  For what its worth, people do infusion step mashing and the water to grist ratio is changing the entire mash.  Second to that you often end up with a mash at the end of infusion step mashing higher than 2qt/#.  So nature has a pretty good tolerance built into itself in this aspect of brewing parameters.
Comment: Right. I suspect you have to get up to ridiculous water to grist ratios before running into a problem.  Even then, continuous stirring would probably solve that problem.
Answer: The major effect is dilution of enzyme concentration.  In a watery mash the enzymes take longer to convert starches.
While it takes longer to convert, you will ultimately end up with a more fermentable wort because high concentrations of sugars hinder enzyme action.
See Manipulating the Starch Conversion Rest
Comment: Nah, the grain settles pretty well.  A good vorlauf will set up your filter.
Comment: How about the lack of a good grain bed too?

What are the effects of a watery mash?


Does chromosome cross occur over male and female or vice versa?

Question: My understanding is homologous chromosome pair, which means male and female chromosome inside the DNA. So if that's homologous how does male do with female? Does it flip over and change direction, that could not happen as male chromosome 1 (say) is indistinguishable from female?
And what about the XY chromosome in male,say?
I know some are pseudoautosomal, but most are normal sex chromosome nucleotides.
So what about them?
Comment: What do you mean by "male chromosome 1 (say)" ?
Comment: What are you meaning here about "chromosome inside the DNA"? I think you need clearly understand clearly more-basics of genetics. What is your age (so that I can get an idea of which class/grade/standards you read in)?
Comment: Are you asking about "is there any crossing-over between any portion of chromosomes X and Y of male humans?"
Answer: The question is unclear to me but hopefully that will help a little bit.

My understanding is homologous chromosome pair, which means male and female chromosome

There is no male and female chromosome. Chromosomes have no sex. In humans, to the exception of chromosome Y all chromosome can be found in individuals of any sex.
There are paternally inherited chromosomes and maternally inherited chromosomes though. As you said the maternally inherited chromosome is indistinguishable from the paternally inherited chromosome when comparing their sequence (they may well differ in terms of epigenetic changes).

chromosome inside the DNA.

A chromosome is not inside the DNA. DNA is the name of the very long molecule from which a chromosome is (mainly) made of. DNA can be organized in different forms one of which is into chromosomes (another one would be a plasmid for example). While it would still sound funny, it is more correct to talk about DNA inside a chromosome than talking about chromosome inside DNA.

So if that's homologous how does male do with female?

This is very unclear...do what? Why would the paternally inherited chromosome (assuming this is what you mean by male chromosome) do anything with the maternally inherited chromosome rather than the other way around? While it is clear from the what follows that you would like to talk about recombination, I don't get where you're heading.

does it flip over and change direction, that could not happen as male chromosome 1(say) is indistinguishable from female?

I don't get what kind of "flip" you are thinking about. You probably should have a look at the wikipedia article for cross-over.
In short, synapsis are formed during prophase I of meiosis and when segregation happen synapsis are resolved with a probability of $\frac{1}{2}$ of causing a recombination event. Synapsis occur as they allow matching pairs of homologous chromosomes together that will ensure their separation during anaphase 1. You should probably take some time to review the meaning of this paragraph.

And what about the XY chromosome in male,say?

Sorry, that's a bit unclear too.

I know some are pseudoautosomal, but most are normal sex chromosome nucleotides. So what about them?

Sounds like you misunderstand what a sex chromosome is and what pseudoautosomal mean.
In short, in humans, there is only one pair of sex chromosomes (XX or XY depending on the sex). The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are autosomes. There is no such thing as a pseudo-autosomal chromosome in humans but there is a pseudo-autosomal region on the Y-chromosome.
Most of the Y chromosome never recombine (while the X chromosome recombine in females only) as it is never present with another Y chromosome in the same cell. There is only a short sequence on top of the Y chromosome that recombines with the X chromosome, this region is called the pseudo-autosomal region. This region probably still exist to allow separation of X and Y chromosomes during anaphase I.

Please also note that you seem very focus on humans (without saying it and maybe without realizing it). The diversity of sex-determination is huge. You might want to have a look at Do males of all sexual species have Y chromosomes?
Answer: There is a difference between the processes of meioses and mitoses. Meiosis typically leads to 23 chromosomes in a new cell while mitoses typically leads to 46 chromosomes in a new cell. Because every normal human being must have 46 chromosomes, you need to get 23 from your father and 23 from your mother. Meiosis creates cells that are necessary for humans to procreate. Mitosis creates cells that help an individual grow.
Almost every cell in your body has its own 46 chromosomes. Red blood cells, for example, are cells that don't have chromosomes. When a cell has 23 chromosomes it is called a haploid cell, and when it has twice that much it's called a diploid cell.
Chromosomes are not specific to a gender. The sex chromosomes only confer gender depending on whether you get one copy of each of X and Y, or two copies of the X chromosome. So you could have a man passing 23 genes to his daughter and then the daughter passes some of those chromosomes ,after genetic recombination, to her son or daughter. It doesn't matter. The separation is more or less random.
During genetic recombination the homologous chromosomes cross-over by DNA strands being cut by biomolecule processes. The image of this process is called a Holliday junction. So they do flip over and change direction, but they are only strands (aka strings) of DNA.


SO should notify users of broken links in their posts

Question: It would be really nice if SO scanned posted content and checked detected links, and then notified the user of bad or redirected links so they could verify links are still valid and/or fix them.
Comment: This would mean SO "continually" (for some definition of continually) scanning posts and checking links were still live. Much easier and actually more efficient to encourage users to post a comment when they find one.
Comment: *If* a system is ever created to do this, then it might also be useful to think about scanning (old) posts for missing images as well. That might be hard, as many online image hosting services always serve *some* image, even if all it says is "image not found". But hopefully many will also give [the correct](http://web-sniffer.net/?url=http%3A%2F%2Fimg1.imagilive.com%2F1109%2FTEST.JPG) HTTP response code along with [such error image](http://img1.imagilive.com/1109/TEST.JPG).
Comment: @ChrisF - Moreover that a "dead link", can be for example that the article moved, but the site is still there, and how to detect a "broken link", then.
Comment: @Gnoupi - ah yes, one of many edge/corner cases I think
Comment: I dont think the benefits would justify the overheads involved.
Answer: I believe that there should be a script that would run on a monthly (or daily if possible) process that would let users know that a certain post (or posts) has a broken link in it and should be updated
There used to be a comment that popped up telling people that there was a dead link in their post.
What I am suggesting now is that we utilize the new top bar and notify a user when there is a dead link in one of their posts.
Answer: I don't think adding an additional system to check links is necessary when we already have a notification system: comments.
Usually if someone finds an answer with a broken link, they will add a comment to the post, thus notifying the poster. (I realize that users need a minimum amount of reputation to comment, but they could also flag for mod attention at a lower threshold).
The Trilogy sites are repositories of knowledge, and as such, users are encouraged to add referenced content directly to their posts wherever possible (with proper citation, of course) -- if a link does break, the relevant content will still be available through the site. These same concepts also apply to images.
Comment: Don't agree with this. Visitors, who make up a large share of all traffic, can never comment or flag. They have no means to point out broken links.
Comment: Much better than comments would be [flags](http://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/134348/allow-for-formally-flagging-broken-links-in-questions-answers) sending out notifications to the OP. Because comments tend to turn stale once the link is fixed
Comment: I know your answer is old, but nothing really changed since it was posted. Anonymous feedback was disabled (and I guess the data was thrown away) because nobody ever looked into it, and it wouldn't have helped in combatting broken links either, because you could just up/downvote and that's it. 2010 and now, there are still no ways for guests or users < 15 reputation to provide explicit feedback.
Comment: @slhck: First of all, this answer is *years* old. What happened to anonymous post feedback? Second, the last paragraph still applies. If the post can't stand on its own without the link, then it's a low-quality post, and should have been improved while the link was active. I'm not disagreeing that link rot is bad. There used to be enough ways to let people know about it.
Comment: @slhck: Ah right. Thinking about it again now, I would rather have seen anonymous feedback *extended* to add other options, i.e., report a broken link. I don't see why an opportunity for that kind of data acquisition was removed, even if it wasn't being analyzed. Many other sites have that kind of thing. Do you know off-hand when that was done? I just looked at the 10k tools and I think some of the options are missing ("overrated" and "underrated" posts rings a bell?) from the last time I checked which wasn't *that* long ago.
Comment: The anonymous feedback was removed in December 2013: http://meta.stackexchange.com/questions/209655/post-feedback-link-is-broken/209787#209787 — I agree a "report broken link" option would have been nice. And easy to implement.
Comment: @slhck: Yeah... that's a big mistake. Nick said the only issue was the reporting part, not the data collection. Maybe that should be revived (plus a new Report Broken Link) with a feature request separately from this question, even if the report isn't implemented.
Answer: There seems to be a new review queue in the works - LINK VALIDATION REVIEW QUEUE. This was active (although hidden by default) for a couple of days in April-May 2013.
The system automatically attempts to identify broken links and sends that post to this review queue, where we can review them to fix those broken links. The queue works like any other review queues and anyone can review the items - not just the person who made that post.
I had posted a feature-request to allow expanding comments in this review queue, which proves its existence:

Allow expanding comments in Link Validation Review

I guess this Review Queue should be up again in about 6 to 8 weeks time period.
Answer: Within a limited context, this scanning you suggestion could add value / usablility.
I think "SO" is too wide a context taken as a whole (for scanning on a regular basis), but maybe a narrower target, e.g.:

Unanswered q & a showing activity within a relevant timeframe (like the last week, or what have you);
Answered q & a showing a sufficient amount of popularity (views, follows, etc.);
NOT certain types of links (that there is low expectation would or could be repaired after they go bad -- such as sqlfiddle, etc.);
etc;

I think most links will break over time -- and we can't expect to fix them all -- but if we could target the more 'important' ones somehow, it might be worth the added effort.
Comment: I do think it's worthwhile to do this in a mechanical way for a subset of content, and activity seems like a viable measure to determine what content should get checked.
Answer: I use links in major cases to:

Help users continue their search
Add source of information

(That not including images).
I try to add the content to the answer, or part of it, with the corresponding source or full link, so that if the link is broken the answer is still good.
So, I don't want to be bored by that notifications, because if the link is the full content, and you don't find alternatives to it, what would you do?! If your answer is like I said, it will be still helpful, and the answerer and reviews try to fix by comments if needed.
Comment: That's fine, but I think it's a regular enough occurrance that a third party source shuffles around URLs (Adobe, Apple and Microsoft have all done this to me in the past), so the content still exists but is no longer properly referenced. Right now, the stuff just stays broken.
Comment: @TimKeating yes, true. But putting a little part of the content will help find the link again in search engines, or even in the page proprietary search if available. I don't think that work should be put on the writer, as like I said if the answer is a bit complete the broken link would not break the answer, so it could be left to reviews, comments, editors, and of course if the writer have time, if can do.
Answer: This question proposes a slightly different approach, namely visually changing the link to add strikethrough formatting to dead links, and to do the detection automatically rather than just by a manual process.  This helps READERS not waste their time on clicking dead links and getting lost/mis-oriented, and doesn't require that original post owners still be paying attention. (If they are, they might get an edit notification.)


Should a power drill or impact driver be used to drive screws?

Question: Pretty straight-forward. I thought it was absolutely normal and acceptable to use a power drill, with the appropriate bit(s), to drive a screw. However, there seem to be various opinions on the matter. Minus the possibility of laziness, should one only drive a screw with a screwdriver, or is a power drill or impact driver equally matched (and will they not be damaged)?
Comment: http://diy.stackexchange.com/questions/21201/when-would-one-use-an-impact-driver-versus-a-regular-drill
Comment: Only with a screwdriver? I'd sure hope not. Typically anything small, delicate, or just the occasional screw around the house that doesn't require pulling out the drill is fine with a screwdriver. If it's a large job or you need more power, pull out the power tools.
Comment: TFK, thanks. Just to clarify. Clearly if I'm driving a screw or a few its a screwdriver, but I've used the power drill for say, driving 20 long screws for a project. Is that acceptable for the tool in that it won't hurt it? Of course, I'm driving very slowly and with patience, but compared to hand driving this can really save a mass of time.
Answer: The main difference to pay attention to is a drill vs. a driver.
At the core, they are essentially the same in that they turn a bit.
A driver, however, also has a clutch. That's the key difference. With a drill, you want continuous power on the drill bit. However, with a driver, you want continuous power up to a point at which point you want to stop the power to avoid stripping the screw, over-driving or breaking the screw.
You can drive screws with a drill, you just have to be more careful to avoid the problems listed. And while you could drill a hole with a driver, I wouldn't advise it, as the clutch would make it a pain as it would slip as you go.
Ideally, you have both...for no other reason than you can keep the drill bit in the drill, and the driver bit in the driver, and not have to constantly swap bits as you drill pilot holes and add screws right behind it.
As for a "regular" driver vs. an impact driver, you use the latter when you need high-torque. A typical example would be construction screws where you may be screwing through 4x4 timber and the like.
Answer: The terms are all a bit muddled these days.  But there's cordless/corded screw drivers, drills and impact drivers.
Impact Drivers

Impact drivers have a rotating hammering mechanism that can deliver momentary instantaneous impacts of torque to the workpiece, each larger than the recoil that you feel in your hand.  They are appropriate for heavy duty tasks, often things with stainless steel hex bolt heads (though that is arbitrary).  Impact drivers have a single gearing usually, and are relatively compact, sporting a quick release hex chuck.  Be careful to use only high quality or impact-grade bits in an impact driver.  Impact drivers can shatter cheap Chinese pot-metal bits.
Power Drills

Drills lack the hammering mechanism, but have multiple gearings and an infinitely adjustable Jacob's chuck to accept any size bit up to the drill's limit (often 3/8 to 1/2 inch).  Drills often included several steps of torque limiting (for driving screws and bolts) and an unlimited torque setting for drilling holes through tough material.  A good drill is strong enough to break your wrist if it gets away from you, so apply enormous pressure when using on tough materials.  The nicer ones have a screw-on side handle to help manage this.  Applying tremendous downforce is also useful when driving screws that are already stripped, or which otherwise want to pop the driver bit out.
Cordless Screw Driver

Cordless screw drivers are generally inferior junk, but could be the right tool if you have an incredibly tight budget and no need to drill holes.  They usually have a hex chuck, very low torque, low speed, are small, and cheap to replace.
Everyone needs a good impact driver and trusty cordless drill (or two).  Cordless screw drivers are a big step down.
Answer: I use a power screw driver that is specifically designed for driving screws. It has the motor geared down to a slower speed than a normal electric drill so that it can deliver a lot more torque to the screw.
It also has a clutch mechanism that allows a depth stopper to be attached and cuts off the drive to the bit when the depth is reached....really handy for driving screws into drywall.
Comment: You say that the motor is "geared down to a slower speed".  My drywall screwdriver is actually geared up to spin faster, and delivers less torque and avoids snapping the screw head off.
Comment: Sheetrock drywall screwdrivers actually spin faster than a drill. They also have built-in countersinks and clutches so the screw ends up at the same depth every time with the highest possible productivity.
Comment: @gbronner - You are basically repeating what I I already included in my posting.


How to hook payment created on commerce 2

Question: I use commerce to create a bakery. Unfortunately, there is no module to pay by check or cash. So I use the payment example "manual".
I need to debit the user account when a payment is entered (a "balance" field has been created on the user account).
Is there a hook when a payment is created so that I can do this operation on the user entity?
Comment: There is no module for paying by check or cash because those use cases are fully covered by the Manual gateway, it's not an "example"  gateway, that's what it was built for.
Answer: One option would be to use hook_entity_create() but I would rather react on Order transition event, such as commerce_order.place.post_transition which is triggered when Order reaches Completed state.
Comment: I just see that there is 3 state of payment.
orders/127/payments/20/operation/receive
orders/127/payments/20/operation/refund
orders/127/payments/20/operation/void

So I need to interact with these 3 payment states regardless of the bill status.
Do U think  `commerce_order.place.post_transition` should be the solution ?
Comment: Finally I must be informed when:
- there is payment completed
- A payment is avoided
For these two cases I chose the hook_entity.
- an order is completed
- a command is deleted
For the completed order I used the event :
commerce_order.place.post_transition
But I do not find a way to be informed when an order is deleted, the event commerce_order.commerce_order.delete does not work?


Exposing custom fields to the user in custom type post

Question: I have a custom post type - say Hotel Booking - all the data are filled in by the admin and users can browse through different Hotel Rooms. Now, I would like the user to be able to tick additional options before they book which will increase the final price. So for example the user can tick 'Additional Meal' and the price would update or 'Insurance' - the price will update. All of this in the frontend - not in custom-type edit page. I am not sure how to do this  I know that that in Drupal the fields can be exposed to be selectable/changeable by the user. Is there a way to do this easily in Wordpress?
Answer: No, unless you are prepared to be a bit creative and do some coding.
But what might be good is to try a plugin to handle the selection of all the things you are talking about.
I recommend gravityforms. It is a premium plugin but is capable of many things, such as e-commerce with options like you are describing. It has a fairly easy learning curve, but is also extensible with its own API of hooks and filters that allow you to do a lot of things that interact with the rest of your site or other data types.


Can we thrust a rocket from earth using electric power?

Question: I wanted to know if we can thrust a rocket from earth using electric power? If yes, how and has anyone tried to do that?
Comment: Related: https://space.stackexchange.com/questions/14020/thrust-specific-impulse-and-power-in-ionic-thrusters?rq=1
Answer: The one thing which could conceivably fit your question and have a positive reply is an electromagnetic catapult. This would be an evacuated tube, typically hundreds of kilometers long, in which magnetic fields were used to accelerate a payload (which could be a rocket) to escape velocity (or a bit faster to allow for the energy lost to air resistance after leaving the tunnel). The end of the tunnel is typically on a mountaintop so that the tunnel can bend upwards in its final miles, and to reduce air resistance. Nothing like this has ever been built, but design studies exist. One I remember hearing about (sorry, no link) would need about 15GW of power for about 90 seconds to launch a 1 metric ton payload at 10g.
Answer: tldr; No, our current technology is far too weak.
Electrostatic Thrusters
The term 'electric power' when it comes to engines can mean a few things, but the closest we currently have in spaceflight to a pure 'electric engine' are Electrostatic thrusters. These essentially use electricity to power electromagnets that accelerate charged particles backwards at tremendous velocities to produce thrust (some achieve ~30km/s exhaust velocity).
The reason we can't launch from earth is that these produce thrusts measured in Millinewtons. Typical rocket engines produce thrust in the range of hundreds of Kilonewtons - 100 million times more thrust.
You wouldn't be able to lift a paperclip off the ground with an electrostatic thruster, let alone a rocket.
They do have their uses however:
A type of electrostatic thruster know as an Ion Engine is quite popular for use on deep space probes. The combination of relatively lightweight vehicles and the ability to fire the engine continuously for weeks or months at a time means that Ion Engines can be incredibly effective. See Hayabusa and Dawn for examples of Ion-propelled spacecraft.
Another thing worth noting is that our current electric propulsion technology is almost completely ineffective inside an atmosphere - the thrust and efficiency attainable are drastically worse than in vacuum.
VASIMR
The Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket is under development and testing. It is in a category known as Plasma Propulsion Engines and is able to vary its efficiency as a trade-off for thrust (low-thrust, high–specific impulse or relatively high-thrust, low–specific impulse).
Data shows it is able to produce thrust on the order of Newtons at similarly high efficiencies as Ion Engines. If this technology becomes a reality, it has enormous potential for orbital and interplanetary spaceflight.
Others
There are many other types of electrical propulsion, but all still suffer the exact same problem as electrostatic thrusters; far too little thrust for surface launches.
Comment: You should add *railgun*. It's again a 'No', but for reasons completely different than others: nothing would survive such acceleration.
Comment: Do you think we can go more faster with fuel thrusters or electric thrusters ?
Comment: Speed is difficult to define in space since you always need to measure it relative to _something_. However, all other factors being equal, and ignoring engineering challenges, electric thrusters can go much faster than chemical engines. This is because they typically have a much higher efficiency for a given amount of fuel. It will take you a very, very, **very** long time though.
Comment: Is it worth including VASIMR in this answer?  I think they're still working on the prototypes for that.  Shouldn't change the overall conclusion.
Comment: @SF. Feel free to add another answer on railguns, I was mainly focusing on engine-like propulsion.
Answer: Short answer :  No. We do not have storage capacity of energy in either electric or chemical form that would allow to convert back the chemical energy into electric energy if required, and allow us to propell a rocket into space..
Current achievements & Future work :   But what does it mean to use electric power to propell a rocket? The general accepted examples are the electrostatic and hall thrusters used in ion & plasma propulsion.
But since we do not have the capability of propelling spacecrafts into orbit using such low thrust devices, I will introduce you to the unique case of the Electron launch vehicle.
The Electron launch vehice is truly fascinating since, they are using only electric power from batteries to power their propellent feed pump for their multiple Rutherford engines in two stages with an additional third stage with a Curie engine. The launch vehicle  is able to achieve 303 seconds of specific impulse using RP-1/LOX combination. Which is amazing. This is the best example of using electricity powered propulsion for launch vehicles in current time.
Space travel is difficult, there is no shortcuts, there is only compromise.
Answer: No. Electric power has a very low thrust. It would require an enormous amount of energy to lift, far beyond even the most concentrated engine today.
The closest is the Electron Rocket, which uses batteries to run the turbopumps vs exhaust from the rocket that most systems today use. But that still isn't really electric, only one portion of the rocket is electric.
Answer: Beam Powered Propulsion - firing a laser up the rear end of a vehicle to heat some reaction mass - is a proposed method for both launch to space and in space. It would be electrically powered. Variants of beam powered propulsion include giving added push to solar sails and electric thrusters using power beamed to the spacecraft (to PV panels) rather than carried on board, but for launch to space the thermal rocket types would be needed.
Answer: Jack's answer explains why deep space engines are unsuited for launch pretty well, and those are indeed what we think about when talking about electric engines. However, this may not give the full picture.
There are essentially two problems with launching an electric rocket:

Engine thrust

Ion engines and VASIMR lack the thrust needed for rocket launch. VASIMR may be enough for launching from asteroids, current ion engines not even that. However, there are other electric engines: resistojets and arcjets. While not studied for rocket launch, those can theoretically have the necessary thrust for a rocket. They essentially work like nuclear-thermal engines: heat an inert propellant with external power instead of with a chemical reaction. It can theoretically reach higher exhaust velocity than nuclear-thermal, in fact, giving it better Isp - however this often means lower thrust, and a nuclear-thermal launch rocket would already be hard to do.
On the other hand, similarly to nuclear-thermal being usable as an air-breather, those also could be. Again, hard to do, not unlike Skylon, but doable, and theoretically with good performances - if you can also solve the second problem.

Energy source

The problem with those electrothermal engines is that they require a lot of energy. According to the rocket power equation, for a given power, thrust is inversely proportional to exhaust velocity. Those engines have a high exhaust velocity in order to have better Isp, so to have enough thrust for launch, they need much, much more power. Ion engines are a more extreme example of this. The logical extreme would be a photon rocket.
Obviously, chemical energy is out: you would have even less energy than with a chemical engine, due to losses, and you would still have the mass of the empty batteries to lug around. Even superconducting solenoid batteries wouldn't help much, as those are limited by chemical binding energy (to prevent the solenoid to burst under Lorentz forces).
So you need a nuclear reactor, with its vastly superior energy density. Note that while you can reach higher temperatures (nuclear-thermal is limited to "don't melt the reactor"  temperatures) and thus exhaust velocity and Isp, you need big, possibly red-hot radiators to evacuate waste heat from the nuclear generator. You can use some of it to pre-heat the propellant, but by nature not all of it (or you would basically have a nuclear-thermal engine anyway).
Another option is to have an electrically-powered laser or maser on the ground (or in orbit), that transmits energy to the rocket through the beam. In most cases, it directly heats propellant (which, again, can be air when in the atmosphere). A few designs have the craft turn it back into electricity, but this is more to power a helicopter, not a rocket.
The advantage is that the craft itself is cheaper, lighter and has good performances. The drawback is the need for big external installations, that your neighbour may see as weapons. Then again, some would also see this as an advantage.
Comment: +1 You make some good points here, but I have to say that resistojets and arcjets could still only produce in the range of [~1N of thrust](https://iepc2017.org/sites/default/files/speaker-papers/iepc-2017-371.pdf). That's several orders of magnitude less that what would be needed to lift *their own mass* off Earth, let alone any payload.
Answer: It's a research topic, but it might be possible to send a beam of say microwave radiation of significant power (fractions of gigawatt) to a rocket, capture this power rather efficiently as a form of electricity and use it to accelerate a moving mass so that thrust will be more than gravity. Not many details are available now.
Answer: The answer is YES, shockingly.  Most people are likely taught that ion propulsion does not have enough thrust to ever lift its power supply.  That used to seem correct.  However, I have worked on the problem for 19 years.  The result is US Patent No.10,119,527, the Self contained Ion Powered Aircraft.  It is a very lightweight ion propelled aircraft that does indeed lift its power supply for nearly 2 minutes so far, as of 9-5-2019. If you are still interested, you can google ion propelled aircraft and onboard power or ionocraft. There are 6 public flight footage videos, and a website that are should be obvious. It has been demonstrated to many officials that it works as shown.
Comment: "lift(ing) its power supply for nearly 2 minutes" does not a rocket make, however the OP hasn't clearly stated that it needs to go to space.
Comment: You need to add some links to your answer, not have people search for themselves.
Comment: Here are the links to the YouTube channel and a website, where there is lots of straight forward information. I hope people find this is helpful  https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC_trtRcbCLO9Q2CzbKAya3w?view_as=subscriber          www.electronairllc.org   Thanks for asking!
Comment: In response to "lift(ing) its power supply for nearly 2 minutes" does not a rocket make, however the OP hasn't clearly stated that it needs to go to space.":  There are currently commercially available solar cells that would allow the craft to fly as long as there is sunlight. It can also carry a very small propellant tank. I wouldn't argue that it can reach space, since their isn't enough data yet. It does seem like it could be possible in the future. It depends mostly on propellant usage.


How much does a "large" potato weigh?

Question: I have a recipe that calls for "6 large baking potatoes." So the question becomes, what is considered the average size of a large baking potato?  I've looked online, but sadly do not have time to continue my search and the results appear to be all over the place.
Comment: You're over-thinking this. The fact that the recipe doesn't call for a precise amount of potato either means that the exact amount isn't important or that it's a bad recipe. Assume the former and use potatoes that you consider to be large. You might need to adjust the quantities of other ingredients a little; that's you cooking.
Answer: Tough question - there are a lot of non-scientific ways to measure small/medium/large potatoes and nobody seems to agree on exactly what weight each is.  However, there are a few ways I identify large vs medium at home.
In my experience, a large potato is about the size you would get in a restaurant (I know, not very specific).  That is, when I cook at home, the potatoes I purchase tend to be medium - round (not oval) and about the size of a tennis ball or baseball.  When I'm at a restaurant their potatoes are noticeably larger, and generally more oval shaped it seems (closer to a sweet potato in shape and size), which makes them great for stuffing like for a loaded baked potato.  Luckily most of the recipes I have at home that involve potatoes don't require precise measurement, so I just stick with my eyeball measurements and don't even bother weighing them.
I found a source online that says this:

According to Shape magazine, eatbetteramerica.com and prevention, a medium potato is the size of a computer mouse, so somewhat bigger than that.

And I think I can get behind that answer.  I'd say your average computer mouse (like, one you would get with a new PC, not a fancy third-party mouse) is about the size of an average medium potato.  Another way to eyeball: I'm a 30 year old male with hands that are neither very large or very small.  The medium potatoes in this bag are about the size of a loose fist for me.  So a large potato would be bigger than either of those things.
As for measurements, I have a bag of medium potatoes and it says they're 5.3 oz (150g) a piece.  I weighed one and it was closer to 6.5oz (185g).  Based on that I'd say a large potato would be anything over 8oz (225g), pushing as high as 12oz (340g).
I found a way to search online for this info: calories.  By searching for "large potato calories" I was able to find pages with weights and measures:

3 to 4 1/4 inches in diameter
300 grams (about 10.5oz)

So, in short, it seems like I would consider these good numbers:

Medium potato: 2 to 3" in diameter, 5-8oz (140-225g)
Large potato: 3 to 4.25" in diameter, 8-12oz (225-340g)

Below is a picture of the medium potato from my bag, compared to some common household/kitchen items.  The gift card is the size of a normal credit card, and the knife is a common steak knife from my utensil drawer.  Apparently a medium potato is almost exactly the size of a 1 cup measure!
Comment: It's a good job you said what the gift card is! I didn't know what it was, so interpreted the cup measure as a saucepan, the knife as a chef's knife, and the potato as gigantic.
Comment: Round potatoes are not baking potatoes. Whites and reds are types of potatoes that are normally round. Russetx are better suited for baking. There are several varieties. Harder to find but in my experience the very best baking potoato is a Russet Burbank. A five pound bag of average Bakers will contain about 10 potatos.
Answer: It probably depends where the recipe originated. My Northern Irish in-laws gave me a recipe for Irish stew that called for 6 medium potatoes, and when I made it everyone complained it wasn't potato-y enough! It turns out that their idea of a "medium potato" is WAY bigger than mine.
Comment: This would be a better answer if it included how big your medium potatoes were (and how big you think Irish medium potatoes are).
Answer: According to official US grading guidelines, a large potato has a diameter between 3 and 4.5 inches and weighs between 10 and 28 ounces!
Comment: Welcome! Thanks for providing a link, it is interesting to get the official numbers :)
Answer: When cooking for larger numbers of people, size and weight become important. Since restaurants are now including calorie counts, it makes sense to get a feel for the energy density of different types of food. i.e. calories/gram. For example a search revealed 100g of potatoes had 77 calories or .77 cal/g. For an adult requiring about 2,500 calories per day, this would mean they need to eat 3.25kg of potatoes to meet their calorie needs (all else being equal).
At the low end, with a large potatoe weighing 225g, this would mean they would need to eat 14 potatoes in a day! (if that is all they ate). So, for a recipe calling for "6 large baking potatoes", it would make sense that this would be enough for a half dozen people, eating one of three meals in a day.
Having a small scale in the kitchen can be handy for questions like this, as I find both temperature and weight are difficult to determine by feel alone.

How much does a "large" potato weigh?


Commutative Rings and Ideals

Question: I'm having trouble understanding some of the subset theory for commutative rings. Is it possible to sandwich a non-ideal within 2 ideals of commutative rings? So for example, is it possible to construct a commutative ring A and subgroups $I \subset J \subset K \subset A$ such that I, K are ideals and J is not?
Comment: Sure. Take $I = (0)$ and $K = (A)$, then take $J$ any proper subset containing $0$ and at least one other element that isn't an ideal.
Comment: You want to avoid trivial examples, like $I=(0)$, $K=A=\Bbb Q$, and $J=\Bbb Z$?
Answer: Sure I would expect you to be able to do this most of the time. Let  $I \subsetneq J$ be ideals in some ring $R$. Then for any $a \in J \setminus I$ we can consider the additive subgroup of $R$ generated by $I$ and $a$. Usually this won't be all of $J$. For instance if $R=k[x]$ a polynomial ring over a field, $I=(x^3)$ and $J=(x)$ then $K$ could be additive subgroup generated by $(x^3)$ and $x$. This has a rather nice description as polynomials with no constant or $x^2$ term.
Answer: Hard to get away from using the trivial ideal for $I$, but here is a fairly nontrivial example. Let $A=\mathbb{Z}[i]$ be the ring of Gaussian integers, $K=(1+i)$ be the principal ideal generated by $(1+i)$, $J=2\mathbb{Z}$ be the additive subgroup of even integers with 0 imaginary part, and $I=(0)$ the trivial ideal. Since $(1+i)(1-i)=2$, $J \subseteq K$. $J$ is not an ideal since $2 \in J$ but $2i \not\in J$. Thus,
$$(0) \subset 2\mathbb{Z} \subset (1+i) \subset \mathbb{Z}[i]$$
has the desired properties.

Commutative Rings and Ideals


Fantasy map that has minimal land at the equator. What does this mean for rainforests and the world as a whole?

Question: I created a fantasy map a while back, but only recently have I realised it may have a major problem. There is next to no land at the equator although some land between 0-30 degrees. The vast majority of land that exists is 30 degrees and above. They say Earth's rainforests are the lungs of the world. Have I effectively cut out the lungs of my world and made it less habitable?
Comment: Interesting question! However, this doesn't really seem to be about *map-making* per se (that is, how to represent a world on a map), but more about the climate and habitability of your world *which your map depicts*. I have changed the tags accordingly, to help your question get the most attention from relevant subject matter experts and enthusiasts.
Comment: Hi OCA2blu! I notice that you have already accepted an answer, only some 25 minutes after posting your question. While it is entirely up to you as the author of the question whether to, and when to, accept an answer, we generally recommend to wait at least 24 hours before accepting an answer to ensure that people from different parts of the world have a chance to see and respond to your question. Questions with accepted answers often get less attention from the community, which could deprive you of even better answers. See also https://worldbuilding.meta.stackexchange.com/q/5023/29.
Comment: Climate on this planet would be interesting...it would have uninterrupted flow of water at the equator and that could give rise to a perpetual storm or a cloud belt around the equator that never really dissipates.
Comment: You might be interested in browsing this site in addition to asking question. E.g. I think this answer to one of my older questions might be interesting to you: https://worldbuilding.stackexchange.com/questions/19788/how-would-flora-behave-on-a-two-continent-planet/19857#19857
Comment: Hi Michael, I apologise for making your job more difficult with the tags and accepted answer. Thank you for making me aware of these things. :)
Comment: @OCA2blu No worries! We're all newcomers to the network at some point.
Comment: Thanks for the reminder about accepting answers, I'm usually the other way up and completely forget to do so, I shall go clean that up.
Comment: Note that nature is a feedback loop. If there's less trees, there's less oxygen, therefore the ecosystem can sustain less oxygen users, therefore there is less CO2 being exhaled, so there's less need for trees to recycle the CO2 into oxygen. Almost always, the ecosystem does not **break**, it merely **adapts** to the current situation. Living creatures only exist when there is the space for them to exist. If you have less trees, you will have less animals, and vice versa.
Answer: Earth's rainforests are definitely not the lungs of world. Actually, they consume all (or most of) the oxygen they produce. The phytoplankton (seaweed and microscopical organisms) are the truly world's lung - if we may say there's such a thing - they are responsible for more than 50% of all the oxygen thrown into the atmosphere.
So, answering your question... you did not necessarily cut off the lungs of your world.
And if I may add some remarks, it is not that simple to define what makes a place less habitable. If you want to think beyond oxygen availability issues, you might think about geography, topology, oceanic currents, air masses, water bodies, atmospheric pressure... there are bunches of things influencing in climate characteristics
Some sources for you to read about oxygen production:

"How much do oceans add to world's oxygen?". Earth & Sky. June 8, 2015. Retrieved 2016-04-04.
John (June 7, 2004). "Source of Half Earth's Oxygen Gets Little Credit". National Geographic News. Retrieved 2016-04-04.
Biological Sciences: Is the World's Oxygen Supply Threatened? JH Ryther - Nature, 1970 - Springer
New evidence for enhanced ocean primary production triggered by tropical cyclone I. Lin, W. Timothy Liu, Chun-Chieh Wu, George T. F. Wong, Zhiqiang Che, Wen-Der Liang, Yih Yang and Kon-Kee Liu. Geophysical Research Letters Volume 30, Issue 13, July 2003. doi:10.1029/2003GL017141

Additionally, some sources to read about climate determinants:
https://history.aip.org/climate/oceans.htm
https://sciencing.com/effect-geography-climate-9860.html
https://sciencing.com/air-mass-influence-climate-23966.html
Comment: This looks like a cool answer. It could be improved by adding some sources to back up it's claims.
Comment: It could, yes, you're right! Just did it!, thanks
Comment: @sphennings, thank you for your english correction (not my mothertongue) and for your comment on "Edits"... I'm aware now!
Comment: Just as a very small sidenote: you might also consider that so long as life does indeed exist, most places are 'habitable', given enough time and adaptation.
Answer: As others have stated, your O2 levels should still be OK.
Also, you still may get your rain forests.  Look at the coastal regions of Oregon or most of Ireland.  They have rain forests and they are nowhere near the equator.
What you need for bio diversity on land would be swamps in warm areas.  So of the areas of land nearest the equator (for brevity, here on out, I'll assume Northern hemisphere and Earth's rotational direction; adjust as needed).  Also, the southern lands would still get a lot of rain due to wind currents.
With no land in the way, there is nothing to stop the winds along the equator from reaching pretty high speeds.  With land masses in the north, the winds there will be slower than the equatorial winds.  Streams of air moving at different speeds create eddies in the current where the different streams meet (look at Jupiter's bands for a visible example).  I foresee a number of hurricanes being created there.  If the southern edge of the land is near that interface zone, it will get a lot of rain.
One effect that I can see is that the poles might be deserts instead of snow fields.  Look at the interior of the Antarctic and then go more extreme.
This can be alleviated by having some decent sized seas that extend up north.  This will provide atmospheric moisture and a good heat sink to keep everything flowing.  You want air in the north to get cold and sink.  This will cause the northern air to head south along the surface and allow the moist equatorial air to rise up and head north.  Without a significant source of water up north to stay cold, that circulation cycle might stop in the summers as the northern lands warm up.  What happens then is beyond my pay grade.
Comment: @OCA2blu, this is a very good insight on how geography shapes climate and environment, regarding to air masses, humidity streams, physical barriers.... environment is quite a complex system, influenced by a bunch of factors
Comment: Technically, Antarctica is a desert.  It has a very low precipitation rate, but almost all of that precipitation remains frozen indefinitely, so over the millennia that low precipitation literally piles up.
Comment: @MontyHarder, there are some parts of the antarctic that are bare rocks because there isn't enough moisture (or it's too cold) to produce snow.
Answer: Not necessarily.  By definition, Rain forests are forests that get a lot of rain.  Consider the Pacific Northwest Rain forest, which runs from northern California into British Columbia and Alaska.  Also consider that the Tropical variety.    Only Tropical Rain forests occur between the Tropics of Cancer and Capicorn.  But other countries have large Rain forests with "Tropical" foliage outside of this region.  Japan and New Zealand are practically entirely considered Rain forests despite residing well north or south of the Tropics boundaries respectively.  In fact, on our own earth is covered by more temperate rain forests than actual tropical rain forests.  Tropical Rain forests do meet an annual rainfall total that is higher than Temperate rain forest rainfall totals.
Conversely, the polar Antarctica is a giant desert.  Again, this is because the definition of a desert is characterized by low precipitation, not necessarily heat.
Edit:  Useful Note I forgot to add:  The Pacific Rain Forest, mentioned above is actually the worlds largest Rainforest, Temperate or Otherwise.
Answer: No you haven't made it any less habitable due to low oxygen, remember the Boreal Forests are huge and produce enough oxygen that they create a winter/summer effect on oxygen measurements the world over. Also a large open ocean near the equator will have proportionally larger Phytoplankton Blooms, on Earth such blooms already contribute some 50-85% of our annual oxygen budget.
What will take a huge hit without tropical rainforests is your total species diversity, local diversity of species in tropical rainforests is huge, up to hundreds of species per square metre. Even this is not the issue it sounds like it could be though, the vast majority of those species are found nowhere else on Earth so they have minimal impact on the world as a whole.
Comment: Daintree Rainforest located on the north east coast of Queensland in Australia is considered to be one of the world's oldest continuous rainforests. The rainforest is very rich in both plant and animal diversity, and for that matter you will find many curious critters, large and small on the Australian continent.
Answer: Nope, your world is safe. The oxygen in the atmosphere comes from all sorts of sources - trees, grass, phytoplankton and so on. The atmosphere is huge in terms of the tonnes of oxygen it contains. Most of that oxygen is there because of plants which lived and died hundreds of millions of years ago (locking away organic carbon in rocks so it can't decay to CO2), not because of trees which are alive now.
I've heard an analogy for the atmosphere of a full bathtub with a dripping tap. The water is the oxygen. One drip of the tap is the oxygen added to it by all the plants photosynthesising for a whole year. The corresponding one drip spilling down the overflow pipe is all the oxygen removed by respiration (breathing and decay) and combustion (forest fires, car engines) for a whole year.
Also you could compare Earth's rainforests (tropical forests) now, with what they were like at the height of the last ice age: maps of ice age and modern African vegetation zones. The rainforests died back during the various ice ages to tiny remmants and were replaced by savanna, but the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere did not alter.
So if your world is billions of years old, like ours is, it is fine.
Answer: I don't think you would have a problem. The majority of the carbon dioxide absorption /  oxygen generation is driven by plankton in the earth's oceans.
Although a significant part is played by terrestrial plants and animals in our world it will be much less so in your world as (all other things being equal) most of your continents are in the Artic or Antarctic so I would expect just a fringe of boreal forests. However this should not be a problem as there will be both less oxygen production and less carbon dioxide production.
The rain forests are often called the lungs of the world, but this is a misnomer as most of the massive quantities of oxygen produced by them are also consumed by them via animals insects and microflora in various decay processes.
If rain forests really were "the lungs of the world" then we should expect to see a build-up of carbon or carbon rich materials in the forests (CO2 > C + O2), which we don't generally see. One exception would be a rain forest that was a new growth. Such a system would act as a carbon sink for several hundred years as carbon was locked away in tree trunks. But after the initial growth a steady state would be reached.
http://www.greenlineprint.com/blog/where-are-the-lungs-of-the-earth


How can I show my GPS location on a map from my phone?

Question: I would like to inform friends / family where I am by if possible posting my GPS location and displaying it on a map. I have heard there are some services that allow this?
Comment: I used to use Google Latitude and a WordPress blog plugin to do this for years. Sadly, Google discontinued the service :/
Answer: The best way to do that on a mobile device is by using WhatsApp to share your location. Whatsapp can be installed on any smart phone (even some feature phones comes with it), click the "send location" button and the other person will receive an accurate location and once click it will automatically open the navigation application. I personally always use Whatsapp when I need to share location. Other messaging applications also offer the same feature but Whatsapp is like a universal app and most people have it.
Anyway, if you want to do it by sharing GPS coordinates in any browser in any device that has a GPS feature, go to MyGeoPosition and it will give you your GPS coordinates. Copy and paste the location and send it using any messaging method and let them use either the same page or any other page/app to reach you.
Answer: I think you can do such a thing with the trip advisor application otherwwise search for pinmaps applications on your phone's store.
Hope it helped.
Comment: I suspect he wants live, automatic reporting, but that's certainly a valid manual way to do it.
Answer: Glympse is a great, gratis app for sharing one's GPS location on a map from a phone.

Links to app stores:

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.glympse.android.glympse&hl=en_US&gl=US
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/p/glympse/9wzdncrdf9sj?activetab=pivot:overviewtab
https://apps.apple.com/us/app/glympse-share-your-location/id330316698

Note that Apple AirTags don't work for your case: https://discussions.apple.com/thread/252853043
Answer: Google Locations is one way to do it if you want to allow your selected friends and family to see where you are in near real time.
You'll need to have the Google+ app installed on your Android. Start the app and select Locations from the left hand menu. Of course, it requires an internet connection to update your position in real time, which is expensive if you're roaming overseas. However, you can always choose to leaving roaming turned off and it will update whenever you're at a WiFi hotspot.
While you're at it, you can also post a travelog, photos, videos, etc. It's a decent platform for social sharing and with a more configurable privacy setup so you can really choose who sees your stuff.


Configure Squid as an HTTPS forward proxy?

Question: Here's some background about my problem:

I have a web service running on Heroku, with a dynamic IP address. Static IPs on Heroku are not an option.
I need to connect to an external web service which is behind a firewall. The people who operate the external web service will only open their firewall to a specific static IP.

My attempted solution is to use Squid on a separate server with a static IP to forward-proxy requests from Heroku to the external service. That way, the external service always sees the proxy server's static IP, instead of the Heroku service's dynamic IP.
Since my proxy server can't rely on an IP address for authentication (that's the problem to begin with!), it must rely on a username and password. Further, the username and password cannot be transmitted in clear text, because if an attacker were to intercept that clear text, then they could connect to my proxy pretending to be me, make outbound requests using my proxy's static IP, and thus evade the external web service's firewall.
Therefore, the Squid proxy must only accept connections over HTTPS, not HTTP. (The connection to the external web service might be HTTP or HTTPS.)
I'm running Squid 3.1.10 on CentOS 6.5.x, and here's my squid.conf so far. For troubleshooting purposes only, I have temporarily enabled both HTTP and HTTPS proxying, but I only want to use HTTPS.
#
# Recommended minimum configuration:
#
acl manager proto cache_object
acl localhost src 127.0.0.1/32 ::1
acl to_localhost dst 127.0.0.0/8 0.0.0.0/32 ::1

# Example rule allowing access from your local networks.
# Adapt to list your (internal) IP networks from where browsing
# should be allowed
acl localnet src 10.0.0.0/8 # RFC1918 possible internal network
acl localnet src 172.16.0.0/12  # RFC1918 possible internal network
acl localnet src 192.168.0.0/16 # RFC1918 possible internal network
acl localnet src fc00::/7       # RFC 4193 local private network range
acl localnet src fe80::/10      # RFC 4291 link-local (directly plugged) machines

acl SSL_ports port 443
acl Safe_ports port 80      # http
acl Safe_ports port 21      # ftp
acl Safe_ports port 443     # https
acl Safe_ports port 70      # gopher
acl Safe_ports port 210     # wais
acl Safe_ports port 1025-65535  # unregistered ports
acl Safe_ports port 280     # http-mgmt
acl Safe_ports port 488     # gss-http
acl Safe_ports port 591     # filemaker
acl Safe_ports port 777     # multiling http
acl CONNECT method CONNECT

# Authorization

auth_param digest program /usr/lib64/squid/digest_pw_auth -c /etc/squid/squid_passwd
auth_param digest children 20 startup=0 idle=1
auth_param digest realm squid
auth_param digest nonce_garbage_interval 5 minutes
auth_param digest nonce_max_duration 30 minutes
auth_param digest nonce_max_count 50

acl authenticated proxy_auth REQUIRED

#
# Recommended minimum Access Permission configuration:
#
# Only allow cachemgr access from localhost
http_access allow manager localhost
http_access deny manager

# Deny requests to certain unsafe ports
http_access deny !Safe_ports

# Deny CONNECT to other than secure SSL ports
http_access deny CONNECT !SSL_ports

# We strongly recommend the following be uncommented to protect innocent
# web applications running on the proxy server who think the only
# one who can access services on "localhost" is a local user
#http_access deny to_localhost

#
# INSERT YOUR OWN RULE(S) HERE TO ALLOW ACCESS FROM YOUR CLIENTS
#

# Example rule allowing access from your local networks.
# Adapt localnet in the ACL section to list your (internal) IP networks
# from where browsing should be allowed
#http_access allow localnet
#http_access allow localhost
http_access allow authenticated

# And finally deny all other access to this proxy
http_access deny all

# Squid normally listens to port 3128
http_port 3128

https_port 3129 cert=/etc/squid/ssl/cert.pem key=/etc/squid/ssl/key.pem

# We recommend you to use at least the following line.
hierarchy_stoplist cgi-bin ?

# Disable all caching
cache deny all

# Uncomment and adjust the following to add a disk cache directory.
#cache_dir ufs /var/spool/squid 100 16 256

# Leave coredumps in the first cache dir
coredump_dir /var/spool/squid

# Add any of your own refresh_pattern entries above these.
refresh_pattern ^ftp:       1440    20% 10080
refresh_pattern ^gopher:    1440    0%  1440
refresh_pattern -i (/cgi-bin/|\?) 0 0%  0
refresh_pattern .       0   20% 4320

Using this setup, HTTP proxying works fine, but HTTPS proxying does not.
Here's an HTTP proxy request from a local box:
$ curl --proxy http://my-proxy-server.example:3128 \
  --proxy-anyauth --proxy-user redacted:redacted -w '\n' \
  http://urlecho.appspot.com/echo?body=OK
OK

Good, that's what I expected. This results in a line in /var/log/squid/access.log:
1390250715.137     41 my.IP.address.redacted TCP_MISS/200 383 GET http://urlecho.appspot.com/echo? redacted DIRECT/126.96.36.199 text/html

Here's another request, this time with HTTPS:
$ curl --proxy https://my-proxy-server.example:3129 \
  --proxy-anyauth --proxy-user redacted:redacted -w '\n' \
  http://urlecho.appspot.com/echo?body=OK

curl: (56) Recv failure: Connection reset by peer

Nothing in access.log after this one, but in cache.log:
2014/01/20 20:46:15| clientNegotiateSSL: Error negotiating SSL connection on FD 10: error:1407609C:SSL routines:SSL23_GET_CLIENT_HELLO:http request (1/-1)

Here's the above again, more verbosely:
$ curl -v --proxy https://my-proxy-server.example:3129 \
  --proxy-anyauth --proxy-user redacted:redacted -w '\n' \
  http://urlecho.appspot.com/echo?body=OK
* Adding handle: conn: 0x7f9a30804000
* Adding handle: send: 0
* Adding handle: recv: 0
* Curl_addHandleToPipeline: length: 1
* - Conn 0 (0x7f9a30804000) send_pipe: 1, recv_pipe: 0
* About to connect() to proxy my-proxy-server.example port 3129 (#0)
*   Trying proxy.server.IP.redacted...
* Connected to my-proxy-server.example (proxy.server.IP.redacted) port 3129 (#0)
> GET http://urlecho.appspot.com/echo?body=OK HTTP/1.1
> User-Agent: curl/7.30.0
> Host: urlecho.appspot.com
> Accept: */*
> Proxy-Connection: Keep-Alive
>
* Recv failure: Connection reset by peer
* Closing connection 0

curl: (56) Recv failure: Connection reset by peer

Looks like an SSL error. However, I'm reusing a subdomain-wildcard SSL certificate, shown in the above config as cert.pem and key.pem, that I've successfully deployed on other web servers. Moreover, accessing the proxy server directly with curl works, or at least establishes a connection past the SSL stage:
$ curl https://my-proxy-server.example:3129
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">

<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
<title>ERROR: The requested URL could not be retrieved</title>

[--SNIP--]

The following error was encountered while trying to retrieve the URL: /

Invalid URL

Some aspect of the requested URL is incorrect.

Some possible problems are:

Missing or incorrect access protocol (should be <q>http://</q> or similar)

Missing hostname

Illegal double-escape in the URL-Path

Illegal character in hostname; underscores are not allowed.

[--SNIP--]

Any ideas what I'm doing wrong? Is what I'm attempting even possible? Thanks in advance.
Comment: I do not think that is how Squid is supposed to work. I should be able to make either an HTTP or an HTTPS request proxied over an HTTPS connection. I do not see anything in the documentation to suggest otherwise.

Regardless, I tried what you suggest anyway, and it did not work (same result as above).
Comment: My previous comment was in reply to comments from another user that appear to have been deleted.

Just wanted to note that I cross-posted this question to the Squid mailing list: http://email@example.com/msg93592.html
Comment: As someone who had a similar scenario, we tried the proxy approach, succeeded and then favoured to move the application away from Heroku to a provider like Virtual/Dedicated machine with a static IP. There is an extra overhead of maintaining a forward proxy server just for this purpose.
Answer: You can see how it's done in this small Docker image: yegor256/squid-proxy. The problem with your code is that the configuration goes after the acl instruction. Just swap them and it all starts working.
Answer: @David , as per your thread in Squid ML - I would suggest going with Stunnel solution. Your authentication would be the SSL certs on both ends of the tunnel, the rest goes "clear text" within that tunnel, or you could do Digest as you wish.
I have used similar solution to "authenticate" NFS endpoints with great success.
Sample use of such authentication could be seen in LinuxGazette's Secure Communication with stunnel


Integrity check against package repository?

Question: I have a Debian installed. When there are security updates, I review and install them as soon as possible and think about using automatic updates.
From time to time I want to boot from a clean boot CD and check if the system has been compromised.
For that reason, I want to check if any packages / binaries have been modified, check the bootloader, check for rootkits.
Let's suppose I booted from a clean boot CD and mounted the hdd filesystem.
How can I get list of all sha256 hash sums of all installed binaries and configuration files and check them against the versions from Debian repository?
I have looked into intrusion detection systems (debsums,) Afick, AIDE, FCheck, Integrit, Osiris, OSSEC, Samhain, Tripwire, but they all have in common, that they want to create a known-good database before auditing. This doesn't scale very well, because updates are pretty frequent, which render that known-good database less useful. Re-creating the known-good database after updating isn't very safe either - let's say apt-get had a bug and installed a malicious package, then the checksum of that malicious package would end up in the known-good database.
I think the real solution is checking against the distribution's package repository. How can I do that?
Answer: Have a look at SecureApt they check updates on checksums and also on pgp keys you give your trust to.


What unique techniques can I use for shooting fireworks?

Question: What settings should I be using to photograph fireworks? covers some of the basics of taking photographs of fireworks, but what special techniques can I use shooting fireworks? I heard about this one where you use bulb mode and use a black sheet or t-shirt to cover the camera.
Comment: What's a "unique" technique ?
Answer: The only technique I can recommend with certainty is experimentation! There are no hard and fast rules.
Bulb mode is useful if you want to go past your camera's maximum exposure time, typically 30 seconds. If you don't have any foreground light sources, i.e. you're pointing at the sky, or the foreground is unlit, then you can pretty much expose as long as you like as without worrying about overexposure as the fireworks stop giving off light right after they go off. A longer exposure allows you to capture more bursts in an image. If you want to do long exposures with foreground lights then you might need to use a graduated ND filter upside down.
Covering the camera with a t-shirt or cloth is used to prevent stray light entering the camera through the viewfinder. It's only applicable for SLRs/DSLRs. I find a bit of black electrical tape is more convenient.
Comment: @Julian Noise is related to the amount of light available, a long exposure ought to give you more light, and hence a better signal to noise ratio. However camera sensors also pick up infra-red radiation and in low light you can get a build up of noise due to other sources, thus making shorted exposures preferable. For this reason astrophotographers sometimes modify their cameras to add cooling to the sensor. The best approach is multiple short exposures that you blend together in post, and/or shooting a black frame to help eliminate thermal noise.
Comment: How does the long exposure relate to noise? Assuming you set your ISO high, will a 1 minute exposure produce the same amount of noise as a 10 second one or are these parameters unrelated?
Answer:
Use a tripod - Good fireworks photos require long exposures, and the best way to get them is to use a sturdy tripod.
Find a great location early - Once the show gets going, you're not going to have the time (and if you're in a crowd, the ability) to move around much.
Turn your flash off - Whether it's an on-camera flash or an add-on, it's not nearly powerful enough to reach the fireworks. Even if it was, you wouldn't want to light them that way. Go flash-less.
ISO 100 - Your digital camera has several user-selectable light-sensitivity settings. The higher your ISO, the more sensitive your camera is to light. Normally this means you want to use a higher ISO in dark settings, but when you're shooting longer exposures (long shutter speeds) high ISO can introduce a lot of digital noise to your photograph. An ISO setting of 100 is a good bet.
Turn on noise reduction - If your camera has it, this setting will help get rid of any digital noise created by your long exposures, even with a low ISO. Note: some cameras will take several seconds to eliminate noise after a shot is taken, preventing you from taking another photograph immediately.
Use the self-timer to reduce vibration - Even with your camera on a tripod, you cause small vibrations just by clicking the shutter, resulting in a less-than-perfectly sharp capture. Set your self-timer to the shortest duration possible and use it to give the your camera a chance to settle before the shot's actually taken. Sharper shots, guaranteed.
Use your camera's fireworks setting - Many recent cameras have a scene mode specifically for fireworks. Try some photos with and without it and see what you prefer.
Focus on infinity - shooting in full manual mode if you have the ability. Set your focus to just less than infinity (or choose a landscape setting if you can't manually adjust focus) and use an aperture of f/8 to f/16.
Use long shutter speeds: 2/3 seconds or longer - This is the most important camera setting you'll need to worry about. At any given moment, fireworks are just a bunch of bright points of light. What makes them interesting is how their quick motion across the night sky illuminates a path and creates beautiful streaks and patterns. Your eye sees it, but with a fast shutter speed, your camera doesn't. So to give your camera a chance to record those streaks and patterns, you need to make sure your shutter is open long enough to get them in. That means at minimum a full second, and possibly up to 15 seconds or more. You'll want to experiment with different durations to see what works best.

source: http://content.photojojo.com/guides/11-tips-for-sparkling-fireworks-photos/
Answer: If you are already quite familiar with your camera then I can suggest the following link: http://www.kenrockwell.com/tech/fireworks.htm
I have found with experience that manually focusing is the best way to ensure that you get the fireworks in focus. If you have the time try focusing manually on the firework display at the begining once it starts. (i.e the first 1-2 explosions)
One thing that I found helpded produce better images was shooting in portrait mode to get the path of the firework as it reaches in to the sky. I have also held open the shutter at the end of the display to gte colour in to the sky (around 15-20 seconds longer depending on how dark it is).
Answer: Bulb mode is recommended in situations in which you don't know the exact time of the firework's existence..
Also the use of a black sheet or T-shirt is to get the effect of the ND filter(to accomplish long shutters)
Some Common tips for Firework photography are as follows:

Set Slow shutter speed(slow enough to get the whole fireworks effect)
Set small aperture(high f stop)(small enough to compensate the long shutter)
Select vivid colour tone(to make the colours of fireworks more vibrant)
If possible use a ND filter to get long shutter
A tripod is must(as the shutter is open long to capture without shakes)
Anticipate the expected firework(to manually focus the distance and the fix the frame to cover the whole effect)
Answer: Being after the 4th I realize this answer might be coming little late, but after finishing my first time photographing fireworks I thought putting an answer in here would help.
Tripod & Support
Good support means clear images. Granted I was standing on a beach, so keeping the amount of movement around the tripod while the camera was exposing to a minimum was important as well. I use a TVC-33 and BH-55, both from the excellent folks at Really Right Stuff.
Exposing
I used a wide angle lens (24mm) manually focused to infinity with a small aperture (f/11 on most, but changed it up in for a few). I had a remote that I dialed in a set exposure time into and then just anticipated shell bursts in the sky.
Experimentation
I liked the idea of getting a bunch of fireworks all in one shot, why not go for a 10+ second exposure? In short it gave too much "stuff" in the picture. You get smoke showing up from previous fireworks, overexposed portions because some other flash gun style fireworks are going off during the exposure, and generally it didn't feel as clean as I wanted it to be. I ended up using a lower (1-3 second) exposure time and then doing some adjustments in Lightroom to push the background even darker and expand some of the tones in the fireworks.
Unique Techniques
Just play with it. Assuming you have more then 15 seconds to take pictures there is plenty of time to play with adding other variables like an ND filter for even longer bulb exposures. One thing I didn't try that I wanted to was using a longer focal length lens and trying to put the focus directly on the center of the shell. Unfortunately that was more trial and error then I wanted to do my first time shooting.
An image I shot:
Answer: Unique Techniques:

Try zooming in/out during exposure.
Try rotating the camera during exposure.
Answer: Shooting fireworks against a black sky is a lot like using flash in a dark room. The length of time the shutter is open does not affect how bright the image is. The amount of power put out by the flash over a much shorter period of time does that.
With fireworks, the bright parts of the picture are constantly moving. Leaving the shutter open longer doesn't usually make the image that much brighter, it just shows the glowing fireworks along a longer portion of their travel. Now obviously, if you left the shutter open for several minutes the background light and the number of fireworks crossing the same spot of your sensor over and over would eventually overexpose your image.
I normally shoot fireworks using a wired remote cable release and the camera set to 'Bulb' mode. The shutter opens when either the camera's shutter button or the button on the remote is pressed and closes when the button you used is released. I always use a tripod to shoot fireworks (unless I didn't know I was going to be shooting fireworks when i left my car and walked a mile to the airshow several hours earlier). This allows exposure times in the range of about  one to five seconds.
You pick a spot of sky to point at, focus manually at infinity (or just a tad shy of it), and you wait until the show starts to see if you're pointed in the right direction. Adjust your aim as needed. Don't forget to refocus if you zoom in or out. I find manual focus works best for me. Once I've got the camera pointed in the right direction and focused where I want it, I don't even bother with the viewfinder (or LV). I just watch the show with my own eyes and use the wired remote to open and close the shutter, occasionally glancing at the image previews on the LCD after a shot to be sure exposure, focus, etc. is still where I want it to be.
When using 'Bulb' mode you can anticipate a shell before it bursts (by watching it climb - the trail of the climb usually goes dark a half second or so before the shell breaks) and you can already have the shutter open when it "breaks." You can then hold down the button until the glowing powder has spread out or fallen.

Canon EOS 5D Mark II + EF 24-105mm f/4 L IS @24mm, ISO 100, f/10, 1 second (Bulb - EXIF only reports in whole seconds, so it could have been anything from just shy of 2 seconds to shorter than 1 second).
Some folks prefer to include the shell's climb in the image. I prefer to leave it out and open the shutter just as the shell breaks or just after it breaks.
Sometimes, if there are multiple burts going off at once, like in the "big finish" of a professional display, you'll go ahead and close the shutter before every burst spreads completely out to prevent areas with multiple breaks going off very quickly from washing out those parts of the frame.

Canon EOS 7D + EF 70-200mm f/2.8 L IS II @ 70mm, ISO 100, f/8, 1 second (Bulb)
If you are shooting wider to catch the surroundings as well as the bursts, you have to pay more attention to length of exposure combined with aperture and ISO. Keep in mind that everything else is a constant brightness, while the fireworks is very bright but constantly moving so that it only lights up a particular part in the frame for a short instant as it takes several seconds to move across parts of the frame.
I'd like to have been able to hold the shutter open a bit longer for this one to catch more of the foreground, but I did not have a tripod at the time. I wasn't even planning on shooting fireworks at the end of an airshow I'd been shooting all day. While walking back to my car a long distance from the main crowd area, I saw the reflections of the fireworks on the antique planes parked on the tarmac. I feverishly dug my cameras back out of my backpack, swapped lenses, moved a QC2 plate from the 7D to the 5D Mark II, mounted the camera on my monopod (tripod was in the car 3/4 mile away) and started shooting about 3 minutes before the end of the display. That limited my shutter time to about 1/5 second with a non-stabilized lens at 35mm on a monopod. The higher ISO definitely had an impact on washing out the colors and blew out the center of the shell breaks. ISO 1600 is 4 stops from ISO 100, which reduces the full well capacity of the sensor by a factor of 16 and reduces the dynamic range. But I got the shot I wanted.

Canon EOS 5D Mark II + EF 24-70mm f/2.8 @ 34mm, ISO 1600, f/3.5, 1/5 second.
After trying it a few times, you'll find getting the wide, generic full burst shots will become old hat. For something different, try shooting tighter and seeing what kinds of abstract shapes and colors you get. You're basically shooting "blind", even if using Live View, because you won't be able to see the entire image captured over several seconds until after you've closed the shutter and the camera shows you a preview image.

EOS 7D + EF 70-200mm f/2.8 L IS II at 70mm, ISO 100, f/8, 3 seconds (Bulb).
Catching the very end of one burst and the very beginning of another can be fun. I called this one 'Hyperdrive Tractor Beam.'

EOS 7D + EF 70-200mm f/2.8 L IS II at 70mm, ISO 100, f/8, 1 second (Bulb).
Pulling focus during a burst takes a lot of practice, but the results can be unique. I generally focus at a very close distance and pull focus to infinity as the the shell breaks. Live View can be helpful here, and a tripod is an absolute necessity. Even with the tripod, the camera movement caused by zooming the lens is evidenced by the 'squiggles' as the focus was moved.

EOS 5D Mark II + EF 24-105mm f/4 L IS @ 80mm, ISO 100, f/4, 1 second (Bulb). I used the wider aperture to get more blur when defocused.

EOS 5D Mark II + EF 24-105mm f/4 L IS @ 80mm, ISO 100, f/4, 2 seconds (Bulb). I used the wider aperture to get more blur when defocused.
Stopping down a little for the big finale allows you to leave the shutter open a bit longer and fill the frame with various types of shells as the break.

EOS 7D + EF 70-200mm f/2.8 L IS II at 70mm, ISO 100, f/8, 1 second (Bulb). Exposure reduced 2/3 stop in post.
Answer: General rules for eliminating vibrations apply here: get a remote trigger for your shutter, use a sturdy tripod, and (if you're really paranoid) shoot in mirror up mode to minimize mirror slap/shutter shake. Self timer can be used but is difficult to time correctly. I've used a wireless remote trigger with bulb exposures and it works great - on mine you hold it down for about 5 sec to start the bulb, and press it again to stop.
If you want a shot that mixes fireworks and stuff on the ground, you may find it easier to shoot them separately and merge them. One common trick is to shoot fireworks over water to get reflections. I also wouldn't rule out creative merging of multiple fireworks shots into a single composition.


A word to describe someone who does not question things?

Question: It's not about indifference or apathy to the world but about people who just do what they are told, never question why they should do that.
Comment: Please show us how you'd like to use the word, with a sample sentence.  Hopefully then your question would be reopened.
Answer: docile

adjective: docile:
ready to accept control or instruction; submissive.
"a cheap and docile workforce"
synonyms:  compliant, obedient, pliant, dutiful, willing, passive, submissive, deferential, tame, meek, mild, lamblike, unassertive, unresisting, yielding, cooperative, amenable, accommodating, biddable, persuadable, ductile, manageable, controllable, tractable, malleable, manipulable, easily manipulated, easily handled, like putty in one's hands;
(from Google)
Answer: You've nearly answered your own question, as the word unquestioning conveys exactly what you describe:

Accepting something without dissent or doubt.
Answer: That type of person can be described as a Yes-man:

Yes-man

A person who agrees with everything that is said.

One who endorses or supports, without criticism, every opinion or proposal of an associate or superior.
Answer: People who do what they're told without questioning why are sometimes referred to as Sheep: an easily led person.
Answer: That person is Obedient

Obedient -
  Dutifully complying with the commands, orders, or instructions of one in authority.
  http://www.thefreedictionary.com/obedient
Answer: If you want to emphasize the "do what they're told" aspect, you could say "subservient"


How do you call that moment when you suddenly raise your pitch really high for barely a second?

Question:

Like here, in 1:18
Is there a name for this? technique? How do I train that kind of voice "switch"
Answer: That is a yodel.  A yodel is when you quickly lengthen or shorten the vocal chords to create a rapid change in the register of your voice.
(One quick point of terminology: typically, when we say that someone is yodeling, we indicate that they are using this technique to go back and forth between their chest and their head voice rapidly.  I have not encountered a great term-of-art for a single yodel, but when I have used the term in the singular with vocalists and speech pathologists, no one has been confused so far.)
Yodeling is also one of the primary vocal techniques utilized by Roomful of Teeth.  (It starts before the 20 second mark on this song.)  They combine world vocal styles into something truly new.
Answer: I've heard the term yodel flip used to describe this technique. A yodel flip is actually more than just hitting a high note for a moment. It is in fact, switching your voice to falsetto for a moment.
Answer: At 1:18 I don't actually hear anything that I would describe other than a "squeak".  The technique required here is just good closure in the high register, pliable support and, if still necessary from the starting pitch, good register transitions so that you can make that brief glissando smooth and effortless in character.
So it's sort of demonstrating solid basics.  It's similar to "how do I make a fast kick without falling over" when shadow boxing.  There is no specific technique or skill to it that you would not be in constant need of anyway.


WAV file sounds from PC to many speakers around LARGE Slot Car & Train Layout-HELP!

Question: I am building a LARGE train & slot car tracks layout. I have about 50 different WAV file sounds on my Desktop so far. I plan about 14 speakers (right now) top be placed in specific areas - one in the fire station for example. I want to direct specific WAV files to specific channels so that (for example) the fire station sounds come from the fire station speaker ONLY.  Motorcycle sounds will come from the Motorcycle shop speaker. Airguns and engine sounds will come from the Car Mechanics Shop.  General city sounds will be played through 2-4 speakers simultaneously around the city at a lower volume.  I am not concerned with generating WAV files.  I need as many PC card sound outputs as practical and software to direct the sounds to the correct PC prot/external speaker(s).  Triggers can be physical buttons or IR keyboard or perhaps a tablet with layout image communicating with the HP Desktop. I'm very "handy" and my son is a software design engineer, but neither of us have any experience that would help us chose the correct hardware or software. Your assistance is greatly appreciated.  Regards, Vaughn May
Answer: There are little MP3 player boards with built-in speaker amplifiers that are around the size of a credit card. You can put the desired sound on a micro SD card or USB stick, connect power and speaker, and trigger the sound by wiring to the "Play" button.  These things are VERY inexpensive and IMHO, practically made for your application.  I searched Ebay for: mp3 player board and got hundreds of hits, starting below US$2
Comment: Hi Richard,  Thank you for your quick and clear response.  Obviously, we were on the wrong track. Typically over thinking/engineering the challenge.  I have started reviewing these on ebay and will probably buy a couple of different ones to trial and error for best fit. Next will be a "master control" for some of these as the background sounds-should be simple. Then engine sounds triggered by cars breaking light switches around the track.  Much appreciated.  Best regards,  Vaughn


Do you always revise your stories or do you sometimes move on?

Question: When you finish a story, say a short story, not really intending to publish.  Do you go back and revise it or let it be, starting on another story?
Comment: This is currently worded like a poll.  Perhaps it would be better to ask something like "Is it worth revising a story you don't intend to publish?"
Answer: It is almost always worth editing.  Even if it's Murder She Wrote / Star Wars crossover fanfiction that there will never be a market to publish, it's still worth practicing the art of editing.  You took the time to write the story in the first place.  Why not craft the best story you can?
I think something that's often overlooked by inexperienced writers is that there are very different skill sets involved with writing a first draft, vs. repeatedly editing that draft into a tight, well-constructed story.  It took me years of writing before I really began to see how vital editing is.
It's important to be more than a "first-draft writer".  If you find yourself frequently writing a single draft of a story, then tossing it aside, you're missing out on half of the writing experience.  I believe that developing skill at editing your work is considerably harder than getting good at writing first drafts.  Don't miss an opportunity to practice.
Furthermore, if there is a market out there for your story, you may realize that after a few revisions, it's worth trying to publish after all.
Comment: I have decided to go back and edit.  Thanks.
Answer: I'll throw out the need for some space.  I might not go right back to something, so, yes, I'd move on to another story.  But that doesn't mean you abandon it completely.  There's a balance you must strike.  If you get stuck revising something to the point you can't work on something else, I don't see that as helpful.
Revisit the story later.  You never know what you might find with a fresh eye.
Comment: This is a very important point.  It's easy to become too close to a story.  Let it sit for a few days, weeks (even months for something like a novel).  Sometimes even really obvious problems are hard to see until you've stepped away for a while.
Answer: There are some stories that are just there to get thoughts out of your head.  For me, if it's a complete story and something that I have the slightest interest in after I have finished a draft, I'll revise it.  It may not happen right away, but give it a while and go back for a revision.
My reasoning behind this is it helps with the stories you ARE intending to publish.  If you can learn to cut out the stuff you don't need and find what is missing in every story you write, even ones you don't necessarily care about, the ones you do care about will be that much better.
Answer: I edit everything I write. But this is because if I can't bring myself to care enough about sitting and nursing it after the first draft then I don't care enough to write it in the first place.


Why are some executive producers credited individually?

Question: I am watching Netflix Daredevil (2nd Season) and I noticed that whereas some executive producers appear collectively (Stan Lee among then), others are credited individually. Is there some reason for this?
Answer: Same reason everything else about their credits is formatted as it is: their contracts said so.
In the specific case of EPs, there's really three different "kinds" of executive producer for a TV show (with movies it's slightly different):

Some executive producers are credited because they own the rights to intellectual property that requires they be given such credit. Stan Lee is one example; another is Siegel and Shuster being given EP credit anytime someone uses Superman.
Some executive producers are financial supporters only. They pony up the money needed to make a production, in exchange for a cut of the profits.
Some executive producers are hands-on, managing the production and given direction to the content. (This is mostly a TV phenomenon -- executive producers on movies are rarely this directly involved)

Depending on how involved a given EP is, or what they did to get EP credit, will dictate how they get credited. Typically, producers that are hands-on with a given episode will be given "more" credit that someone who was involved at a higher level; people who's EP credit comes attached to some IP might specify that they need to be credited a specific way (perhaps as "creators" in addition to EP).
Ultimately, it all comes down to finances and legalities and giving everyone what they were promised.
Comment: I'll upvote you, but I want producer credit first.
Comment: One movie exception is when one of the actors/directors is also financing (but not organising) the production. Then they're a pretty directly involved EP.


Homemade Yogurt Nutrition Info

Question: How does one calculate the nutrition of homemade yogurt?  I'm using 2% milk and a packet of yogurt culture.  Does anything change during cooking that makes the nutrition info of the final product any different than the milk I use?  Does yogurt culture have calorie, fat, carb, etc content?
Answer: The answer is that they are not much different.
During fermentation, some of the milk's lactose is converted by bacteria into protein and other substances. The amount of conversion is pretty insignificant in terms of calories and grams of macronutrients. The most important effects are the changes in taste and consistency and the presence of live bacteria. Usually many of the bacteria survive the highly acid stomach fluids to reach the small intestine where they continue digesting lactose.
Fitday.com gives the info below for a cup of each, which may be surprising at first. However, commercial yogurt tends to be more dense than milk, as you might see if you make it at home: a cup of milk gives you some watery fluid floating on top of less than a cup of yogurt.

Food              | Calories | Fat  | Carbohydrates | Protein
------------------+----------+------+---------------+--------
Whole Milk Yogurt | 149 kcal | 8.0g | 11.4g         | 8.5g
Whole Milk        | 146 kcal | 7.9g | 11.0g         | 7.9g
Answer: The answer, like all good answers, is that it depends.  Do you remove anything when you make homemade yogurt from the vessel in which you make it (crock pot, pot, yogurt maker, etc)?  When I make yogurt I have to pour off some water that floats to the top, which means there are more nutrients in each serving than there would be if I divided the original 2% milk by the same amount as I do my yogurt.
During the production of yogurt the bacteria will be eating some of the sugars in the milk while they do their work, but the difference in nutrition is fairly small.
General nutrition facts for whole milk yogurt and whole milk indicate that there is a pretty negligible difference between the two.  In general you can take the calorie contents of your ingredients, divide by the number of servings, and get calories per serving.
In terms of nutrition the biggest difference is the live cultures that are in your homemade yogurt.  The current general consensus is that these live cultures are good for a variety of things in the human body.
Answer: lactose in milk does not get transformed into protein. When used by the bacteria it converts into lactic acid and other organic acids and metabolites.
Fermentation causes a significant reduction in lactose. Commercial yogurt may contain more sugars than milk because they are added to it after the fermentation has been completed. A
As an example a cup of milk usually contains 11-13 g of lactose. A cup of home made yogurt will have up to 4 g per cup depending on how long the fermentation process is.
The other nutrients will not change much. I think the easiest way to calculate nutrition is to keep fat and protein at the same level as milk (if you are using powder milk as well as regular milk, take that into account) and reduce the sugars by a third.
When I make yogurt, I start with 1 liter of whole milk and I add three tablespoons of dry milk and one cup of yogurt from a previous batch. I end up with 7 @ 7 FlOz jars after the process.
Based on the milk nutrition one liter of milk was providing about 600 calories with 44 g of sugars, 32 g of fat and same 32 g of protein.
The milk powder (3 Tablespoons) were providing about 65 calories, 10 g of sugars, 7 g of protein and no fat.
As I add a whole 7 FlOz yogurt to make 7 new yogurts, pretty much the milk and milk powder will make 7 FlOz yogurts. So each yogurt will have 1/6 of the calories, protein and fat that the fresh milk and powder milk contribute.
Regarding sugars they will be probably one third of the original amount as the other 2/3 will be converted into lactic acid.
Lactic acid also contributes calories, so the total amount of calories does not vary much.
So, finally!!!! what is the nutritional value for my home made yogurt (per 7 FlOz). 110 calories, about 3 g of sugars, 5.34 g of fat and 6.5 g of protein.
Hope this helps. Sorry if it was too long or conversome, but I tried to give as much information on how the calculation was done.
Answer: Yogurt making is a pretty gentle process - the bacteria involved do consume some of the natural milk sugars (and then excrete lactic acid, which in turn curdles the milk solids which thickens the texture) - but the carbohydrate drop is pretty minimal. If I was making yogurt from store-bought milk, I'd use the nutrition information on the side of the carton.

Homemade Yogurt Nutrition Info