Direct red card after previous yellow

Question: Is it possible for a football player to be given a direct red card (after a previous yellow card in the same game) for a sending-off offense? Has it ever happened in any match?
Answer: The situation you've described happens quite frequently actually and you will see the examples at the end.
As you can read from the IFAB (International Football Association Board) Laws of the Game; Law 12 - Fouls and Misconduct; 3. Disciplinary Action; Sending-off Offences Section:

A player, substitute or substituted player who commits any of the
  following offences is sent off:

denying the opposing team a goal or an obvious goal-scoring opportunity by deliberately handling the ball (except a goalkeeper
  within their penalty area)
denying a goal or an obvious goal-scoring opportunity to an opponent whose overall movement is towards the offender's goal by an
  offence punishable by a free kick (unless as outlined below)
serious foul play
spitting at an opponent or any other person
violent conduct
using offensive, insulting or abusive language and/or gestures
receiving a second caution in the same match

So, receiving a second caution in the same match is one of the 7 main reasons to be sent off but not the only reason. There's no mention in the Laws of the Game, that a player can't be shown direct red card after being already cautioned by a yellow card.
This situation is also implied in the FIFA Disciplinary Code; Article 17. Caution:

If a player is guilty of serious unsporting behaviour as defined in Law 12 of the Laws of the Game and is sent off (direct red card), any
  other caution he has previously received in the same match is upheld.

Which implies that if someone got direct red card, he or she could've also been cautioned with a yellow card before.
Examples:

Éver Banega receives the direct red card (not second yellow) 5 seconds after he receives his first yellow card in La Liga 2017/18 Sevilla vs Espanyol (1-1). (Video)
Hugo Mallo receiving the direct red card after previous yellow card in La Liga 2016/17 Eibar vs Celta Vigo (1-0). (Video).
Eliaquim Mangala in La Liga 2016/17 Barcelona vs Valencia (4-2).
(Video).
Marouane Fellaini tripping (yellow) and then head-butting (direct red) Sergio Aguero in Premier League 2016/17 Manchester City vs Manchester United (0-0). (The only official video I've found).
Answer: Yes. If the offence is such that requires an immediate red card (like being the last player and fouling the attacker on the clear goalscoring chance)
Comment: Welcome to SE.Sport. It is better to add any official source
Answer: I am an ex referee.
YES it is fully possible to give a direct red card. The punishment is more severe for a direct red in match suspensions (3) than it would have been for two yellow cards amount to a red (1 match).
Take the recent Ronaldo sending off.
He took 2 yellow cards, 1 for taking off his shirt, one for simulation (though that is debatable). He received 2 yellow cards and this gave him his red. He took a one match ban. However after the incident he received a further ban for pushing the referee for the poor decision. This increased his ban even though he wasn't even a participant in the game any more.
Comment: You have made assertions about the regulatory effects of a red card without providing any evidence or context for it. The remaining information is incomplete compared with previous answers, so I believe your response is not adding anything useful, and may result in confusion or wrong knowledge in readers less familiar with the laws.
Comment: The information in the first paragraph is correct, but as @Nij pointed out, it really needs a reference.
Comment: *"The punishment is more severe for a direct red in match suspensions (3) than it would have been for two yellow cards amount to a red (1 match)."* is stated like a universal, or even part of LOTG. It is neither, since at the very least, EPL gives one match for both second caution and DOGSO dismissals, but gives two for OFFINABUSDISS, three for VC or SFP, and six for spitting. @studro
Comment: Sorry, I didn't pay close attention to the numbers. The general concept is correct - DOGSO is the only exception, since it's not seen a serious offence. All the other sending-off offences generally carry more than a one-match suspension.
Comment: I can't help but feel that any confusion would have been avoided had the original answerer simply included a range of punishment table from a league's disciplinary handbook to illustrate the point.

Direct red card after previous yellow


What is the minimum investment for Bitcoin?

Question: I'm interested in how much money do I have to invest if I want to buy Bitcoins? Is there any minimum?
Comment: he factors that matter in order to give you the best answer include: Where are you located (country)?, how much are you looking to buy?, what payment methods do you have available?, how soon do you need access to the proceeds, is privacy important?
Comment: I disagree with the close vote. There's a perception that Bitcoin is a merely a security, so this question could serve as a way of dispelling that myth by explaining that there is no minimum investment like there can be for securities.
Answer: On the whole, there is no minimum investment for Bitcoin, as it is not a security such as an ETF or mutual fund purchased through a brokerage or management firm.
What minimum purchases exist on Bitcoin exchanges are merely requirements set by each individual exchange to reflect the minimum purchase/sale that they feel is necessary to cover their overhead for each transaction.
Purchasing from an individual trader, you'll find that there is generally no such minimum, aside from whatever minimum they set to make it worth the time and travel expense for a rendezvous.
Answer: Most exchanges have no minimum deposit however there are per-transaction fees which make smaller deposits uneconomical.
The cost to deposit funds varies based on each exchange and each country.


Conjugation/grammar for fictitious title

Question: In a work of fiction, I have an Order of ordained detectives that do not exist.  I use the term Lictor Rebus Sanctorae for the Order, and Lictor Rebus Sanctorus for the male protagonist.  I know this is very far off, and wish to get it right.  He is officially a Sami Cupien, a Liaison between the Vatican and international officials, but is in fact more of a secret agent-type.  I will appreciate any input, gratias tibi!
Comment: Welcome to the site! What do you intend the name to mean, exactly? Small differences can change the meaning a lot
Comment: I need the name of the order and his position to include the word rebus, which I have found means Operative. He's a liaison, but works in secret as an investigator. So "Order of Vatican Intelligence Operatives" and "Vatican Intelligence Operative" would be the terms I am looking for, and how to conjugate them, of course.
Answer: So, what you posted looks like you want to say, "Lictor of Holy Matters" or "Lictor for Holy Matters," which would be:

Lictor Rērum Sanctārum or Lictor Rēbus Sanctis

However, based on your comment you were thinking something to the tune of "Order of Vatican Intelligence Operatives," which presents a quandary, seeing as, per the Wikipedia pages, it would depend on which branch of Vatican government would govern this body. It turns out that, military and civilian offices are under different bodies altogether, namely Vatican City State and Holy See are two different bodies that represent the same areas but hold different function, though both are run by the Pope. In this case, the Vatican City State handles civil matters like the police, while the Holy See runs international and military matters.
So, it would depend on what type of intelligence agency this would be.
If it is civil, then it would be something like:

Ordō [Lictorum] Intelligentiae (Rērum Secretārum) prō Statō Civitate Vaticanae Order [of the Magistrates (Lictors)] of Intelligence for the Vatican City State

and someone in it would be:

Lictor Intelligentiae (Rērum Secretārum) prō Statō Civitate Vaticanae Magistrate (Lictor) of Intelligence for the Vatican City State

However, of it is a military order, then it would be something like:

Pontificium Ordō [Lictorum] Intelligentiae (Rērum Secretārum) [pro Sanctā Sedī] Papal Order [of Magistrates (Lictors)] of Intelligence [for the Holy See]

and someone in it would be:

Pontificius Lictor Intelligentiae (Rērum Secretārum) [prō Sanctā Sedī] Pontifical Magistrate (Lictor) of Intelligence [for the Holy See]

Again, words written in brackets are optional and words in parentheses are alternates. I hope his gives you a starting point. Interestingly, though, it appears that the Holy See is a member of Interpol, so you might want to try it from that angle.
Comment: In this case you would decline the main noun which would be *Ordo* or *Lictor* depending on to what or whom you are referring. The former when referring to the order as a whole, and Lictor when referring to the operative.


Is the goal to help people or build an arbitrary resource of curated questions?

Question: Is the goal to help people or build an arbitrary resource of curated questions?
What's the point of Arcade exactly? My understanding has always been as a place to help people with their questions for video games. However it seems like based on just how many questions get down votes, it seems the real goal is to only have a curated pre-approved list of acceptable questions and acceptable answers. What's the established purpose of the site?
Answer: tl;dr: A bit of both.

Stack Overflow (and later, the entire SE Network including Arqade) was built primarily to solve three problems with 'advice'-style communities on the net:

Well-Hidden Knowledge

The answer you're looking for is on page 47 of 84 of this obscure forum thread from 2003, and the thread has long-since been locked and forgotten.

Paywalled Expertise

Ask questions, pay for answers (ala Experts Exchange).

Inane/Non-useful topics drowning out useful ones and driving away experts

Social Banter, Overly simple 'X for dummies' questions, Long-drawn-out 'help' threads that lead nowhere and help no one. (See the Help Vampire problem).

You can see remnants of this from our official statement in the Tour:

Arqade is a question and answer site for passionate videogamers on all platforms. It's built and run by you as part of the Stack Exchange network of Q&A sites. With your help, we're working together to build a library of detailed answers to every question about videogames and videogame consoles.

How does this help people?
Our ultimate goal is to help people by curating useful questions and answers, and having them be freely available (i.e. not hidden behind paywalls) and easily accessible (not hidden away in a random forum reply) on the internet. We want to be the place where 'experts' in games congregate and a resource Gamers turn to, we want to have questions (and answers) that are up to date and useful to people when they search for answers.
What do you mean by curation?
'Curating' is primarily handled in the form of voting (up or down), followed by editing, reviewing, closing/reopening, and finally deleting/undeleting. We also continue to update and clarify our policies here on meta as we discover topics and types of queries that work well (and not so well) for us.
While this may cause some headaches and stress for the individual that asks a question that is off-topic for us (or too broad etc), I think it's important to note that the community isn't targeting them, but a problem with their question that has been proven time and again to be a bad fit for us. We don't hold grudges: if you post something that gets downovted, that doesn't mean that the next thing you post will also be downvoted. Votes are based on the (perceived) quality of the content, not the individual asking them.

So to directly answer your question: Yes, we focus on curating our questions and answers and yes, sometimes this comes at the expense of an individual's posts, but we do so to help the majority as much as we can.
No system is perfect and not every topic can be adequately represented in a Question and Answer format. For some things blogs, forums, wikis (and game developer's Support Ticket system!) do it better than we can. But if you have a reasonably-scoped question that can be answered by a gamer, chances are it will work well for us.
Comment: Side note: I highly recommend reading through that [Help Vampire](http://slash7.com/2006/12/22/vampires/) blog post - while it's more targeted at programming communities it does shine a light on bad asking (& answering!) habits that crop up often. Once you start to recognise the patterns it becomes easier to avoid falling in the traps yourself - even as the experts 'helping' the vamp :-).
Comment: This makes me think of all the times people post questions they have answers to, just to answer it themselves... Seems to counter the purpose of "answering questions" and just serves the purpose of curating or gaining rep.
Comment: @n_palum You're missing "sharing knowledge" :-). Self answering is [explicitly encouraged](http://gaming.stackexchange.com/help/self-answer) by Stack Exchange, the idea being if you've solved a big problem you're having, you shouldn't keep it to yourself if it might help others. As someone who occasionally does this I can tell you it isn't rep that motivates me. Pride in my solution maybe, but not rep :-)
Comment: Yeah I know it's encouraged I just think sometimes there is a difference between sharing knowledge on some big problem you have, and just dumping every little detail about a game on here (especially when they first come out this seems to happen a lot)


What are some notable visual observations one can make of a cassette that indicate wear? And to what degree that wear has progressed?

Question:
Last summer I bought a '02 or '03 Specialized Stumpjumper. 3x9 speed.  I replaced the crankset this summer with a Shimano FC-622 triple. Yes its 10 speed but I've experienced no problems and felf reassured by Sheldon Brown's experience that a "one generation difference (between crankset and chain width) doesn't affect performance." https://www.sheldonbrown.com/speeds.html
I've now replaced the cassette and chain, staying with 9 speeds (Shimano XT M770).
The pictures above are of the removed cassette which based on the lockring is a Shimano CS-HG80-9.  The tooth counts also jibe with the numbers listed as HG80's stock numbers. The old chain is Shimano DuraAce CN-7701. Chain measures 1/16 of an inch past 12 inches per 12 links in a couple three spots. I'd like to use this cassette and chain together on another bike. What are some visual signs on the cassette that would indicate too great of wear? What is your opinion of this cassette's wear?  Prior to my purchase of the bike, I have no history on it's use. It appears to be in good shape and the paint in vulnerable areas of underside of down tube, BB shell and fork aren't even chipped. The old crankset was likely original (strongarm II). Teeth were worn and in a couple spots either broken off at the tip or these were the normal undersized ones suffering great wear. It's life ended pretty quickly (<20 miles) when the non stock right pedal reamed out the hole in the crank and fell off.  To summarize, I've no idea on the milage or time the cassette has on it.  I'd like to use the chain/cassette combo for the rest of it's useful life.  Thoughts?
Comment: The main sign that you look for is that the bottom of the "U" between teeth has flattened out and is no longer circular.  A more precise (but messier) approach is to grasp the (relatively new) chain and attempt to pull it away from the cog.  The distance you can get is an indication of wear (of cog + chain).  (This test works better on the front cogs.)  There are tools for measuring cog wear -- well-equipped bike shops will have these.
Comment: (It's a little hard to tell, given the glare in the photos, but I think I can detect some wear but nothing worrisome.)
Comment: Its actually really hard to spot wear on some cassettes as they have quite a lot of teeth with strange profiles to aid in shifting
Answer: Chains wear faster than cassettes, so check the chain wear first. A simple chain wear gauge is cheap and gives a accurate indication of wear - or at least it will tell you if the chain is worn out or nearly so.
If the chain is OK then there is a higher chance that the cassette has not been used with a worn chain. Riding with a worn and elongated chain accelerates sprocket wear.
I cannot see any bad wear on the cassette. Hard to say how much life it has - it totally depends on your riding style. I say install it and try it out. If it skips or you have poor shifting try a new cassette and chain. You won't loose anything by giving this one a go.


What is the best map and team build to earn the Survival Onyx Medal in Gears of War Judgement?

Question: I have been playing survival mode with some [in my mind] decent players I met in Gears of War Judgement and we have been having some troubles trying to earn the Onyx Medal for the Survival mode: Survive wave 10 on insane difficulty (any map). Seeing as there is no way ( to my knowledge ) to start the wave on 10 - we have spent hours trying to earn this... sad panda
We have been experimenting with many different team builds and maps and so far we have discovered one map that [we figured] would be the easiest due to the map's natural bottleneck.
We picked the map estate as in the last section where we have to defend the generator, there is a tight bottleneck that we can focus our firepower & explosives into.  (see the map below)

Key:

1) First Defending section
2) Second Defending section
3) Third (final) Defending section
Green Circle = proposed main defense area (bottleneck)
Orange Circle = Wretch flanking side

Sorry for the poor paint skills and small map picture (best I could find).  Each class that we can choose from has its different perks: Medic = Stim grenades (heals and revives), Engineer = Turret and repairs, Scout = Spot grenade that debuffs any attackers (they take more damage), and Support = Ammo grenades and Booshka (grenade launcher)
As mentioned before, we have tried multiple builds such as:

1 Medic, 1 Engineer, 1 Scout, 2 Support
1 Medic, 3 Engineers, 1 Scout
1 Medic, 3 Support, 1 Scout
1 Medic, 4 Support

We were able to get to wave 9 with the 1 Medic, 4 Support build.  Our Methodology was this:

All support members spam booshka grenades into the bottleneck (Green circle on the map) while rotating ammo regen.  The Medic covers heals and the wretch flank (orange circle).  If anyone gets through ( ticker or wretch ) the medic would be the only person to run back to the generator.

Our potential downfalls IMHO:

The medic shouldn't be the one to leave us as it takes away our heals and coverage of the wretch flank.
While we are getting ammo from our regen packs, we are all extremely close to each other, seceptable to a team wipe (everyone dying) by an explosion.

I am open to any ideas/methodologies/builds/etc to get this Onyx medal.
Side note: I know the title of the question may appear subjective - but I am open to ideas for renaming the question.
Answer: Good tactic, seems to work most of the time when playing with skilled players. (At least till wave 7/8) But I would suggest a team of 1 Medic, 3 Soldiers and 1 Engineer.
Let the Engineer cover the Wretch side (I find that the Gnasher is way better at dealing with Wretches fast) and have the Medic support the Soldiers. The Engineer can drop a Sentinel when someone slips by or in case of a team wipe of the Soldiers. This way the Engineer can also, given the opportunity, try to fix any remaining fortifications.
(The Engineer could also be replaced by a Scout, the Debuff can be quite useful in the bottle-neck. But in this case I would recommend to use the Scout as support and then move the Medic to the Wretch side. The Scout can take care of the stragglers)


Can a single player build a clan dojo?

Question: Is it possible for an one-or-two-person clan to build a dojo? If so, what are the resources involved?
I'd like to experience the whole Dojo building experience so I don't plan to join an existing Clan with a dojo already.
Answer: Yes, it possible to do so. Though, it's really not recommended due to the resource costs involved.
To make (or access) the dojo itself, you must first create or join a clan. Then someone needs to make the Clan Key (the blueprint of this will be added to the player's foundry once they join a clan). The resources required are the following:

1    Morphic
500  Polymer Bundle
500  Ferrite
1500 Credits
12   Hours to build

Afterwards, the basic Clan Dojo, with a basic Clan hall as the starting room, is created. Now, resource costs for building other rooms (connectors, reactors, research facilities, etc.) are scaled depending on what clan size bracket you fall into (in this case, your supposed clan will fall into the Ghost Clan bracket - 1-10 members in total).
Yet still, they are quite expensive for a small number of players to handle, especially due to the usage of "rare" resources at higher levels (such as Forma). Unless you have a large stockpile of resources and credits, it's suggested to have at least 4-6 members to build a basic dojo with the important facilities. But, it's certainly doable with 1-2 people, though not recommended.
I strongly suggest you pay a visit to the Warframe wiki page on Clan Dojos for more information on each room type's costs, as well as for pre-planning the layout. Remember, you don't want to waste resources destroying and creating more rooms than necessary!
Comment: me and 2 other active friends have been building a massive dojo (shadow, all research labs, 8+ reactors, 3 clan halls, lots of research), so it is doable with a low amount of ppl.
Answer: Yes it is definitely possible to do a fully functional and practical Dojo by yourself. The resources can be gathered quite "quickly", quickly in quotes, because research costs 3 days to do so you have three days to smartly farm for the next thing to buy.
For a fully functional, Research-aimed Dojo you need 15 Formae, you don't need to get them straight away, mind you, and I'm sure if you don't want to research specific stuff or want it to be not as pretty as to work as a real home for your future clan you can get less Formae and start away, I'd personally start the build at 2 Formae.
Here is how my Clan looks like, built by one person, farmed by one person and started around 75% of the research also by one person:
You start with a clan hall, with 2 doors, this hall is free and requires no forma. The first hallway I start with a Reactor, then I started building all the impractical stuff you don't need to visit or even see to have a functioning Dojo, my goal was the Grandest Clan Hall which gives you 6 free doors and AMPLE space for Trading posts and the 4 useful research centers.
Reactor -- Clan Hall -- Great Clan Hall -- Greater Clan Hall -- (T-Connector leading to an Oracle) -- Grand --(Cross Connector with two reactors) -- Elevator
So basically one long corridor with all the energy needs you have and the Oracle, a thoroughly useless room you need for research. Up until now you have used 10 Formae. The elevator is the starting point for the next bit
Elevator -- Grandest Clan Hall
Now you have 6 free doors, I put all 4 research centers, Tenno Lab, Energy Lab, Bio Lab and Chem Lab on the sides of the Grandest Hall, the front door leads to the elevator and the back door leads to a cross connector, and then an obstacle course and two free nodes. Everything behind the back door is up to you entirely.
Now make Grandest Clan Hall your home and you basically have a massive room with ALL research avaible :D
Answer: Very possible.  I've built 65 rooms by myself.  If you enjoy playing the game and, as mentioned above, use your time wisely between builds it isn't that difficult.  Forma will become your biggest nightmare though.  Each room requires 1 and it takes ~ 20 minutes for even a chance of getting the blueprint for one.  This was basically a majority of my time on warframe, farming forma after forma on void runs.
Answer: Yes you can. I did. I built a full 100 room clan unlike any clan I`ve see in the whole game. Also decorated them to full capacity. Decoration was done by members but rooms were entirely done by me.
Answer: 100% can be done, we did it to get away from being constantly asked to play in the rails everyday. So just 4 of us and alot of mat's and forma, you will need a forma for every room. And we rushed rooms with plat also. We built one of the biggest dojo's I have seen for in that time. Put elevator going up to put your reactors in so everything you need is on the same level and have the grandest hall your main. Like all your research labs and trade and where to spawn etc. Just makes everything way more easy. Hope you's get it done.
Answer: I would say it is but def easier with more people. I'm doing this myself right now and as a fairly new player I've found all resources, no matter how rare, pretty easy to come by. The only exception to this (and the major roadblock you will encounter) is acquiring formas. These can be found in the Void, through alert missions or purchased for 20p. Asssuming you want to do this as cheaply as possible, I recommend finding a warframe that's good for solo play. Rhino and Loki come readily to mind. With a good solo warframe you'll be able to solo some of the void missions and with luck collect a few formas. Hope that helps.
Answer: I made my clan by myself before I invited members so yes it's possible. But it cost a hell of resources, expansively Formas
Answer: As leader of a Clan that was mostly made by me, I have to say it is possible, but everytime I work for my Clan Dojo I end up getting a lack of very common resources and credits, so it is possible, but not recommended.

Can a single player build a clan dojo?


Second line of first verse in Sibelius

Question: Is there any quick way to select the second line of the first verse in Sibelius 7? I'm having to go through the output of photoscore by hand and select and move that line to the second verse place for long songs this takes forever.
Answer: There's a Sibelius plugin for that
Bob Zawalich has written a plugin for this purpose. It is called Verse Styles for Lyrics. You can download it here.
http://www.sibelius.com/download/plugins/index.html?plugin=290
Comment: Photoscore tends to put all lyrics in 'Lyrics Line 1' text style, but position them apart.  A Reset Position will put them all on top of each other.

You need to apply the Text Styles 'Lyrics Line 2', 'Lyrics Line 3' etc. to each line.  Yes, Bob's plugin can help a lot in doing this.

Second line of first verse in Sibelius


Are non-Tokyo dialects common in anime?

Question: Spoken Japanese has a number of dialects that vary regionally throughout the country. From my (moderately limited) Japanese language experience, most of what is spoken in anime is Tokyo-ben (aka Standard Japanese). I'm not great at telling the difference between dialects, however, so I was wondering, are non-Tokyo accents/dialects common in anime, or used at all? In shows like Yuri!!! on Ice, which is set in Kyushu, is a Kyushu accent being used or a Tokyo one? Do shows set in Kyoto use a Kyoto accent, or is everything standardized to a Tokyo-ben?
Comment: I'd say quite common: http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/KansaiRegionalAccent and http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/TohokuRegionalAccent. Just look at the many examples shown there.
Comment: Maybe not as common as the Tokyo dialect but yes! There are some animes set outside of Tokyo where they speak a different dialect like Barakamon, Kimi no Nawa, and Dive
Comment: I totally agree with the two comments above. Kansai dialect is very common in anime. Examples familiar to me would be Ikeda Chitose from _Yuru Yuri_ and Kuroi Nanako from _Lucky Star_. Other types of dialects are less common but can be seen, like Mitsuha from _Kimi no Na wa_, but I am not exactly sure which regional dialect she speaks. [Here](http://dic.nicovideo.jp/a/%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E3%82%AD%E3%83%A3%E3%83%A9%E3%82%AF%E3%82%BF%E3%83%BC%E3%81%AE%E4%B8%80%E8%A6%A7) is a list of dialect-speaking anime characters (in Japanese), which you can go through and get the idea.
Comment: When it comes to the whole anime rather than a single character, I would say that being set in somewhere often does not imply an overall usage of that region's dialect, and all-dialect animes are extremely rare.
Comment: I have to disagree with the other commenters. While it is correct, that there are lots of shows that fit, it's not enough to say "common". Since there are over twelve thousand anime and you'd be hard pressed to even come up with a mere hundred that include non-Tokyo dialects in any noticeable capacity. To be "common" there would need to be at least 4.000, imho.
Answer: The answer depends on your definition of "common". Most anime don't include dialects or accents, so in that sense it's not "common" however it's not unusual for a show to do so. There are quite a number of shows that include characters with dialects, most often Kansai/Osaka-ben, but when they do it's almost always for a direct purpose.
Some examples:

Igarashi Tora from Maid Sama! will occasionally speak in his native Kansai-ben (he's from Kyoto) when he's not acting like a perfect gentlemen as a sign that he's showing his true colors
Ebina from Himouto Umaru-chan who, when nervous or flustered, occasionally slips into Akita-ben
Mitsuha from Kimi no Na wa, who has a dialect to signify her status as a "country bumpkin" and it becomes relevant because she initially keeps her dialect when in Taki's body

Of course, it's not always that significant, as far as I can tell, the only reason Natsume from Inu x Boku SS speaks Kansai is to indicate his upbeat, outgoing nature.  Perhaps for stereotype reasons?
That aside, it's rare for anime set entirely in another region to use said region's dialect.  This is because all Japanese people can understand and speak Standard Japanese, aka Tokyo-ben, as that's what's taught in schools and show most on television.  Therefore it's easiest to have Tokyo-ben speaking characters to ensure the whole audience can understand.  The reason why Kansai-ben is the second most common is because a lot of comedians come from Osaka and so most Japanese people are quite used to hearing Kansai-ben and can understand it compared to others.
For reference, my mother's father's family lives in Aomori (most northern part of Honshu) and neither my mother (native speaker) or I can understand those relatives when they speak with the full dialect
Comment: Agree. This is no different than how US actors generally have a neutral accent. Specific accents don't show up unless it's important for the character to be associated with them.

Are non-Tokyo dialects common in anime?


Openfire Java Out of Memory Error - Any solutions?

Question: I have huge problem with openfire crashing every now and then because of the lack of memory. In java log i have following error log. however problems are

Openfire is 32 bit and i cant run it as 64 bit.
Because its only 32 bit max memory i can give to the openfire is 4GB.
My system is very powerful with 32 GB RAM so i cant increase any more
Only max 100 users are using the openfire but still cant seems to handle it
I have run a cron jobs every 5 min to monitor this service and restart every now and then

any solutions on how to optimize open-fire for memory usage and stop it crashing ?
error log as below
<code>#
# There is insufficient memory for the Java Runtime Environment to continue.
# Native memory allocation (malloc) failed to allocate 140 bytes for CHeapObj-new
# Possible reasons:
#   The system is out of physical RAM or swap space
#   In 32 bit mode, the process size limit was hit
# Possible solutions:
#   Reduce memory load on the system
#   Increase physical memory or swap space
#   Check if swap backing store is full
#   Use 64 bit Java on a 64 bit OS
#   Decrease Java heap size (-Xmx/-Xms)
#   Decrease number of Java threads
#   Decrease Java thread stack sizes (-Xss)
#   Set larger code cache with -XX:ReservedCodeCacheSize=
# This output file may be truncated or incomplete.
#
#  Out of Memory Error (allocation.inline.hpp:44), pid=31239, tid=2735213424
#
# JRE version: 6.0_41-b02
# Java VM: Java HotSpot(TM) Server VM (20.14-b01 mixed mode linux-x86 )

---------------  T H R E A D  ---------------

Current thread (0xad2c7000):  JavaThread "Jetty-QTP-AdminConsole-16012" [_thread_in_vm, id=21077, stack(0xa3030000,0xa3081000)]

Stack: [0xa3030000,0xa3081000],  sp=0xa307f3d4,  free space=316k
Native frames: (J=compiled Java code, j=interpreted, Vv=VM code, C=native code)
V  [libjvm.so+0x727990]
</code>
Answer: Openfire is written in java and is not 32-bit specific. If you use a 64bit jvm, it will run in 64 bit mode and you can give it as much ram as you have.  Try installing a 64bit jvm/jre
Comment: use the 32 bit jar files, but use 64 bit java.
Comment: I dotn think so,  openfire is a 32bit program to be downloaded, it doesnt have a 64 bit version, so how can it runs as 64 bit ?


Fewest Chess Pieces

Question: What is the least amount of chess pieces you can use to cover the board with their possible moves and what is their placement? You can only use the pieces that are found on the chessboard (from the one side) at the start of the game (for example, you only have one queen, two knights, two rooks, etc.). Similar to this, but there is a piece requirement. Here is an example of the "coverage" of a knight and a queen (however, the pieces themselves would be covered as well):
Comment: So only pieces from one side (black or white) and only those present at the start of the game (i.e. no promoted pieces)?
Comment: We can do it with 6 pieces, but we have to use the two queens.
Comment: Only pieces at the start of the game from one side. And yes, as mentioned, occupied squares count as covered.
Comment: @AlainRemillard we can do it with 5 pieces, if all of them are queens (a2, c4, d5, e6, g8 for example)
Comment: @ThatOneNerdyBoy Replaced "at any given time" with "at the start of the game" (since the pawns can promote, so at some times you can see several queens of the same color, for example).
Comment: @trolley813 I know it is possible with 5 queens, OP linked an answer to this problem. If we limit ourself to the starting pieces, we can do it with 2 queens, 2 bishops and 2 rooks. Since we use 2 queens, it is not "from one side".
Answer: The lone pawn in the previously accepted answer bugged me, so I tried replacing it with a knight and moving some pieces around. I now have:

 A 7 piece answer

Here's the board

Comment: I'll accept your answer as less pieces are required! Nice work!
Answer: This one only requires

 8 pieces

Here's the board

Comment: I am assuming your answer accounts for the fact that g3 is covered by the pawn...
Comment: Not sure I understand your question? g3 is indeed covered by the pawn.
Comment: Technically that would be an invalid move as a piece doesn't occupy that space and therefore the pawn cannot move there. This can be overcome by placing your remaining knight somewhere....
Comment: OK, I did a little rearrangement.
Comment: I believe that this would be the best solution, but I welcome someone to prove that less is possible, or that another solution with the same number of pieces exists!
Answer: Here is an upper bound. Since is has been proven that 8 pieces, with opposite colored bishops since the question asks for starting pieces only, that only 63 squares can be covered. Addding a single pawn works since occupied sqaures count as covered.

I say upper bound because all of the sqaures occupied by the pieces are also attacked, which is not needed under the confines of this question. Perhaps it could be down with one or two less pieces.
Comment: @Danagon Actually, this one above has nine. So indeed, the answer I accepted having 8 is the least (that I know of).
Comment: Good answer. But you're right, eliminating at least one piece is possible.
Comment: You can also use two bishops on the same color (if that helps) because the question asks for the starting pieces, but not their starting positions or colors. I know we refer in chess to a light-squared bishop, but it is still just a bishop.
Comment: @ThatOneNerdyBoy you say at least 1 less piece than 8 is possible, but you have accepted an answer with 8 pieces. Is 7 possible? (because I will keep looking :))

Fewest Chess Pieces


Use ILmerge for NuGet libraries?

Question: I'm making an open source C# library (http://github.com/eteeselink/fakethat if you must). Like is fashionable these days, I plan to spread it via NuGet.
My library depends on another library (Castle.Core). Before the NuGet days, I'd use a tool such as ILMerge to merge my library and Castle.Core into a single assembly, so that the distribution is simpler. This significantly increases the size of my assembly (from 50kb to 450kb), but it's only a single DLL, which is handy for users.
Now that there's NuGet, however, I can simply add Castle.Core as a dependency and NuGet will resolve it for my users. This has a few advantages:

It is simpler and less error prone for me
If my users use another library that depends on Castle.Core, we save disk space
It somehow feels more "honest" - all the hard work is done by Castle.Core, all I added is a pretty API.

There's a few disadvantages, too, however:

If Castle.Core somehow gets removed from NuGet, my library will stop working
If someone still wants to use my library without NuGet, it's a bigger hassle because multiple DLLs need to be copied around
If a developer looks through the list of project references, she will see some weird "Castle.Core" reference that she never remembers having added. This might be confusing.

What would you do?
Answer: There is at least one advantage you didn't mention:

If Castle is updated with a bug-fix release on NuGet, the user is going to get that updated version.

If you combine all the advantages together, I think they outweigh the disadvantages. So, I think you should just add the reference to the Castle package to your package and be done with it.

Use ILmerge for NuGet libraries?


Heat at High Altitudes

Question: Why does the temperature of let's say 85 degrees Fahrenheit in southern California feel hotter at 7,500 ft elevation than it does at sea level?
Answer: How things feel is partly psychological and often doesn't have a purely physical explanation. If you run a hot bath and the water from the tap starts to feel tepid, plunge your hand into the very hot water with which the bath is filled. Hold it there for a minute or two, then put it under the tepid tap. The water will feel stone cold, though when tested with the other hand it still feels tepid.
If 85F at 7,500 ft feels hotter to you than 85F at sea level, it could be due to a number of things. On a sunny day you will get more solar radiation at high altitude, especially around mid day, and that will be in addition to the shade temperature which weather forecasters use. When walking from A to B in the mountains, we usually exert ourselves more than we would at sea level, and therefore we feel hotter.
The day you have in mind might have been especially humid in your mountain location, so that would make it feel warmer as well. Maybe your walk was when the sun was at its highest and you are comparing it to walks in the lowlands where, although the shade temperature was the same, the sun was lower in the sky or maybe there was even some cloud. And always there is the psychological aspect to consider. Our minds like to play tricks on us.
Comment: One more difference to add on: breeze.  Near sea level should think you're be more likely to get wind, both because of the likely nearby marine influence, and because such areas likely are less requiring of significant high pressure to get such temperatures [high pressure generally lead to weaker winds].  Whereas such high temperatures at such elevation I would think would require significant sinking air to suppress clouds and maybe even aid warming, and so would be calmer.  When it comes to "feels like" temperatures, the two key factors beyond the temperature are moisture and wind.

Heat at High Altitudes


Are where can I locate old film / TV show questions valid?

Question: Slightly different from "Where can I buy X?" questions, are questions about locating archives which may contain old films or old TV episodes valid? I thought they were valid and posted three of them and quickly deleted them after one was downvoted with a link to the above meta conversation. Two were about locating old quiz show episodes from the 1960's and one was about locating a silent film. I was disappointed because I put in an amount of research for each question which I would expect would to be reasonable for a good question on StackOverflow or SciFi.SE. Is there a way to make these questions less localized and acceptable for this site? I would really like to locate these old videos if they are out there.
Comment: I agree with you. I think a lot of the "Identify this ___" questions could also be considered as "I'm trying to find a way to watch this again where can I find it?" questions. Which it's helpful when someone posts a link but if it's hard to find and noone posts a link then I'd say it's a valid question. However I do think that iandotkelly is right too in that the answers could be too many to choose from or quickly become a redirect to another site. But if someone has done their research and still can't find what they are looking for I don't see why it would be harmful to post a question on it.
Comment: That's a good point. "Where can I locate/buy X" questions are just as localized as "Identify this __" questions. They main goal for each is to solve an individual problem and it only benefits other people if by some coincidence they have the same problem and they use similar search terms. I think we should either allow both or not allow both.
Answer: Thanks for taking the time to ask a question on Meta, and it would be interesting to see whether people's opinions on this issue has changed.  The question is not that far from Where can I buy ? - and we might merge the answers from this into that at a later point.
I am sympathetic to your hunt for old material, but I think you will find that even at a level above meta.movies that such questions might fall into two categories that are frowned upon generally in stack-exchange:

Too Localized -  a retailer or other provider that can provide these movies may be localized geographically or the information goes out of date quickly. Stack exchange is attempting to build a resource of questions that can be useful for some time, and not limited to a specific country.
It is a "list question" - i.e. it tends to solicit a number of equally valid answers, none of which is the 'accepted correct one' - which is kind of the format of this site.

Then there is the argument that it may be off-topic for this site as it is more about distribution.
Personally I wonder whether we can be slightly too rigid in applying these rules here, but the overall opinion of the Movies & TV community to date has been that such questions should be discouraged and the moderators take their cue from that and tend to close questions like these.
I would however be interested in contrary options now that we have been in beta for 3 months.


Loan for mortgage from father to son

Question: My brother got an amazing loan to buy his house from dad for $200,000 but he only pays $150 a month ($100 capital + $50 interest). My question is, is this legal? Doesn't the IRS see this as more of a gift than a loan? What is the minimum amount he should pay a month? He says it's a 30 year loan.
Comment: It's not a thirty-year loan if he's only repaying $100 of the capital per month, because he will only have repaid $36,000 when the thirty years are up.
Comment: $50 interest / month on $200k loan = ~0.3% interest rate, when a market interest rate would be about 10x that. Smells like a gift to me.
Comment: It's a good question.  But this is not a "mortgage", it is just an "arrangement" between the two parties.
Comment: *"He says it's a 30 year loan."* you know when your brother says something incredibly silly, and you just sock him in the face like when you're little kids?  This is one of those times  :)  :)
Answer:
My question is ...is this legal? Doesn't the irs see this as more of a
  gift than a loan?

Yes, it's legal, but the IRS views very low interest rates as a gift. They'll take the acceptable minimum rate (currently ~3%) and consider the difference between rate charged and that rate as a gift. Similarly, if he is forgiving loan principal over time, that is considered gift as well.
In this case, the minimum interest is well below the annual gift tax exclusion ($15,000 for 2018), so unless he's also giving other gifts there is no gift tax liability.

What is the minimum amount he should pay a month?

A traditional $200k 30-year with a 0.3% rate would come out to a payment of ~$580/month, but we don't know the specifics, it could be that they intend to increase payment amounts over time, so they should just pay whatever they agreed to.
Comment: This is a common way to give real property to a child while avoiding gift taxes. You make the face price the lowest the IRS will accept, keep any forgiven principal and any imputed interest under the annual gift tax exclusion, and give them the house over time.
Comment: Each month, the IRS publishes the 'Applicable Federal Rate' (AFR) which they use as a reference  for  comparing loans between related parties.  They  do short, mid and long term calculations.  If the 'family' loan rate  is lower than the applicable AFR, it may result in a taxable event.
Answer: The IRS has rules regarding "Below Market Loans"

Below-Market Loans If you make a below-market gift or demand loan, you must report as interest income any forgone interest (defined
  later) from that loan. The below-market loan rules and exceptions are
  described in this section. For more information, see section 7872 of
  the Internal Revenue Code and its regulations.
If you receive a below-market loan, you may be able to deduct the
  forgone interest as well as any interest you actually paid, but not if
  it is personal interest.

The link (to read more) is 60 or so lines down the page or do a CTRL-F on "Below Market Loans"

Loan for mortgage from father to son


How are our senses dimmed during sleep?

Question: Our senses are not as sensitive during sleep compared to wake. There is an arousal threshold during sleep that only when it is overcome will it wake a person up. My question is how is this arousal threshold lowered as sleep progresses? And how it is raised again during the latter stages of sleep?
Answer: At night several changes occur in the body due to absence of sunlight and other surrounding changes. The biological clock inside the body performs certain function in a healthy body whenever changes are sensed.
There are many receptors in our body located on cell membrane. They are made up of proteins and their function is to receive information from neurotransmitters. This information will be sent to specific part of the brain. If we take sensory information then it is Parietal lobe. This lobe receives the sensory information from all over the body and responds to it when body is active. During sleep, the senses that go through the thalamus, are shut down by gating either in the Nucleus Reticularis Thalami (NRT) or in the Thalamus itself. GABAergic inhibition of the thalamus, most likely deriving from the NRT is probably a part of the reason that sensory stimuli doesn't penetrate during sleep.
This is also influenced by release of hormones in the body whose level when rises in the blood causes certain changes in the concentration at some regions such as receptors which gets blocked temporarily and stops signaling the brain. There is a study on how muscle relaxes when we sleep can be found here Muscle sleep. So it is all the neurotransmitters job at the receptors which stops signals going into brain but internal to the brain it will be active controlling other routine works which it has to do when we are asleep.
The main thing to note here is the 5 different stages of sleep such as non-REM and REM sleep. During those stages several changes take place in the body. The below website gives an excellent insight into different changes happening inside the body when body takes rest at night.
Please refer to "What happens to your body while you are asleep".
Answer: When you're awake; the sensations around you as well as your mental will, keep your mind active. How the air smells and what needs to be done all contribute to your day. In order to sleep your brain must weaken these receptors significantly, though not enough that if we heard something too loud or unfamiliar (such as a predator), we overlap those boundaries that keep us resting and wake. Now of course i am talking about the middle of the night. As morning arrives the amount of stimuli needed to overcome the wall that is sleep is diminished, allowing something such as the crowing of a rooster to wake us up.
Comment: That's a common theory, but the question is how? How are these 'receptors' weakened? What it is that controls both these receptors and sleep?
Answer: Another lead are sleep spindles, closely related to the RTN as mentioned before. Basically the thalamus enters a state of high-frequency firing to a low-frequency synchronous one, thereby taking the cortex with it. Sleep spindles are slow-wave potentials as apparent on the EEG that block out the normal flow of peripheral sensory information from thalamus to cortex. Basically this leads to a loss of consciousness as one is unaware of its environment. A similar thing occurs during absence epileptic seizures, where patients temporarily loose consciousness as marked by paroxysmal slow-wave EEG activity interrupting the high-frequency EEG associated with consciousness Kostopaulus (2000). Hope this helps.

How are our senses dimmed during sleep?


How can we show that an abelian group of order <1024 has a set of generators of cardinality <10

Question: How can we show that an abelian group of order less than $1024 $ has a set of generators of cardinality less than $10 $ ?
Comment: Hint : $1024 = 2^{10}$.
Comment: Use the [classification theorem](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finitely_generated_abelian_groups#Classification).
Answer: In fact, this can be shown straightforwardly even for non-abelian groups.  Consider a minimal generating set $g_1, g_2, \ldots, g_n$ for any finite group $G$ (minimal here means that no generator in the set can be written in terms of the others) and consider the set of products $\displaystyle{\Pi_{i\in S}g_i}$ where $S$ ranges over the $2^n$ subsets of $\{1..n\}$ (and each product is taken in increasing order of $i$); e.g., $e$ (the empty product), $g_1,\ g_2,\ g_1g_2,\ g_3,\ g_1g_3,\ \ldots$  Can you show that each of these $2^n$ elements of $G$ is distinct?  (Hint - suppose two elements are equal and consider the first generator that's in one but not the other.)  And then invert this to find a statement about the cardinality of a minimal generator set for the group?
Comment: +1 for simplicity, generality, and generation from first principles.
Comment: Indeed a much better answer than mine.
Answer: The Main theorem on the structure of finitely generated abelian groups tells you
that your group G is of the following form
$$
G\cong C_{n_1}\times\ldots\times C_{n_k},
$$
where the $C_{n_i}$ are cyclic groups of order $n_i$ and the order of $G$ is therefore $\prod{n_i}<1024$. In this form the generators are easily determined (Hint: there are $k$ of them), so the larger $k$ the larger the number of generators. So we see that if we want to maximise the number of generators we should pick the $n_i$ as small as possible, $n_i=2$. Now $\#G=\prod{n_i}=2^k<2^{10}=1024$, so the maximum for $k$ is 9.
Answer: One knows that any finite abelian group $G$ is product of cyclic groups: $G=C_1\times\cdot\times C_t$. If $g_i$ is a generator of $C_i$ then the set of all the $g_i$ generates $G$.
Now, since $|C_i|\geq2$ and $2^{10}=1024$, we must have $t<10$.

Michalis arrived first......
Answer: I would have commented on Steven Stadnicki's post if I had enough reputation.
For $p$-groups $G$ there is the so called Burnside basis theorem (see Link), which asserts that a minimal generating set of $G$ has cardinality $\mathrm{log}_p(|G/\Phi(G)|)$, where $\Phi(G)$ denotes the Frattini-subgroup (i.e. the intersection of all maximal subgroups). It is a fact that $G/\Phi(G)$ is elementary abelian or equivalently a $\mathbb{F}_p$ vector space.
By this theorem you can see that a group of order 1024 has a minimal generating set containing 10 elements if and only if the group is elementary abelian. In all other cases a minimal generating set contains less elements.


What is the difference between DHCP and NAT?

Question: Both seem the same to me. I don't see how DHCP is different from Dynamic NAT. Can anyone please help?
Comment: DHCP **assigns** (usually private) addresses, etc. NAT is literally 'Network Address **Translation**'. It's kind of *"table"*, so the router can "translate" the address and rewrite the packet, e.g. a private address can be translated into a public address, and vice versa(It doesn't have to be a public address, but that's a typical case).
Answer: Missing from the current answers is

DHCP is a protocol for configuring hosts, and runs periodically to keep their addresses and other configuration up to date.  The traffic is between the host and a DHCP server; typically both are on the same local network, but not always.
NAT a process is for rewriting packets as they are forwarded across a router.  Specifically it translates the addresses and sometimes the ports.  The traffic is across a router, typically between an ISP and its client, or between two organisations.
Answer: DHCP and NAT have nothing in common (above "IP-related things"). I think you should elaborate what they actually do that you find similar.
DHCP assigns IP address (among other things), NAT mangles IP addresses (and higher level ports, like TCP/UDP), e.g. translates them to different address range.
Comment: Dynamic NAT assigns available public IP's from a free pool to the privately connected hosts. DHCP, by what I've read also does the same.
Comment: @AsmaRahimAliJafri, no, that is incorrect. NAT (Network Address Translation) is translating either the source, destination, or both, addresses in network packets. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is an off-topic (here) protocol for configuring a host network stack.
Answer: DHCP is for helping new clients on the network get an IP address dynamically.  (Without an IP address, they're helpless.)  Dynamic NAT is for translating clients who are already on the network to different IP addresses dynamically.  Using this, they appear to the outside world like they have a different address than they really do.
The only common thread between the two is the word "dynamic".  When DHCP hands out addresses, it does so dynamically, which means you might get a different IP address next time.  When NAT translates you, it does so dynamically, which means you might get translated to a different port number or IP address the next time.
Comment: An ISP may use DHCP to assign your router a public IP, but that's all. It's then up to you to run DHCP on your router to assign private addresses to all of your household computers/devices.
Comment: So DHCP, is basically done by the ISP?
Answer: To put it simply, DHCP assigns IP addresses to hosts in a private network, while NAT converts private addresses into public addresses.
To elaborate, NAT does not assign IP addresses to devices. It does, however, keep a table of IP address conversions, which a router uses to ensure packets between a remote host and a local host are not lost.
NAT is typically used to allow multiple devices on a private network to share a single public IP address on a WAN interface.
DHCP uses a pool of private addresses, such as the 10.0.0.0/8 pool, and these addresses cannot be used on a public network such as the internet. Therefore, NAT must be used to convert a private address, such as 10.0.0.3, to a public address, such as 18.104.22.168, to allow a host on a private network to communicate with a remote host.
Comment: DHCP is not restricted to private addresses in any way.
Comment: You are right. NAT, too, is not restricted to my basic definition.


May one choose the recipient of his/her organ donation?

Question: I have decided to donate a kidney. I know that with organizations like Renewal you can choose to donate to someone specifically. I was wondering if it is mutar to browse potential recipients and see whose situation seems most dire - ie a parent with young children, or someone who is contributing greatly to society like a doctor or something. Even asking the question seems much more horrible than it did in my head, and gives me much pause. But is it considered a violation of ein dochin nefesh mipnei nefesh? Furthermore, if it is not, would there be an inyan to give to someone in your town because "irecha kodmin"? Thank you.
Comment: Thank you eliyahu for this amazing act of kindness!
Comment: With respect to how you should regulate your own conduct, I recommend that you consult your rabbi.
Answer: The Mishnah in Horiyos (13a) sets out an order of priorities for different situations.
One of the situations presented, is regarding saving a person's life. Let's say, that I can save only ONE person in a group of people, whose lives are ALL in danger, which one should I choose to save?
Since a kidney donation is a life saving act, I suggest that the order of priorities spelled out there, are applicable here.
If this application of the Mishnah is correct, then not only is it permitted to browse through potential recipients to find the most deserving person, you might be obligated to do so, to find the person who Halacha dictates to be the most deserving.
As with all practical Halachic questions, contact your local Orthodox rabbi for a definitive ruling on your question.
Answer: First of all, kudos to you for this amazing selfless act!
I believe אין דוחין נפש מפני נפש means you mustn't cause someone to die in order to save someone else from death.
In this situation, you are not causing anyone to die. On the contrary, you are doing a heroic selfless act in order to save a life. You are not obliged to donate a part of your body to save someone from death, yet you are bravely doing so! You should be able to choose who you would like to give this amazing gift of life to.
This is made more clear when you think of the fact that one is perfectly permitted to choose to donate a kidney to someone close to them even if there are others who need it more direly.
Good luck, and wishing you an easy and quick recovery from the operation!
P.S. There's a Jewish organisation for kidney donations called Matnat Chaim
Comment: Welcome to MiYodeya HaMalka. I saw your various first answers and thanks for them. Now since MY is different from other sites you might be used to, see [here](https://judaism.meta.stackexchange.com/a/3887/11501) for a guide which might help understand the site. See in particular the focus on sourcing your answers, no one knows you so you need to bring proofs of your answers, that is how the site works. Looks like you know a great deal and could contribute significantly, but it will go much better if you understand the site' rules. Great to have you learn with us!
Comment: See the other answer which disagrees with your common sense.
Comment: You will notice that answers on this forum are geared to be sourced.
Comment: You will notice that the above is mainly common sense...     And especially since this is an online forum, I should hope nobody relies solely on answers provided here to make an important decision in their life.
Comment: @HaMalka what's common sense for you isn't common sense for others. Since we don't know you, why should we trust your sense of common sense?


Freehub body will not undo

Question: Trying to take the freehub body off my bike. The bike is a fairly low end Raleigh Shimano Tourney set up. I got a 12mm hex, inserted it into the hex groove on the freehub side and tried to turn it anti-clockwise. It will not come off. Gone so far as to use fit an adjustable wrench on the hex shaft for more leverage and use a deadblow hammer on the end of it. (Shorter end of the hex not quite long enough to use it in the other orientation that would supply better leverage). Are freehubs meant to be on this tight or am I doing something wrong?
Comment: Images added. Not sure how to find the model number of the hub. Theres nothing written on it, though the freehub body has the letters 'L and J' inscribed on it. Bike is a 2013 Raleigh Airlite 100 SE. The rims are 'Ryde Nova', if that gives any clue'. Only want to remove it as I believe there is grit between it and the hub causing friction.
Comment: Looks like a hex tool is required - 10mm or 12mm would be normal.  You need a longer one too, not just a multitool.   I have a 10mm hex tool that is 40cm long and made short work of the one freehub I tried it on.   Note your freehub looks like a low-spec one - not designed to be serviced.  If squirting lube through the cracks doesn't work the grit out, then it could call for replacement.
Comment: Can you provide a photo and a model number ?  It could be unreplaceable (unlikely) or at least unserviceable.  Tourney is the lowest groupset in the Shimano lineup.
Answer: On a lot of the 12mm ones, the part that has the 12mm wrench flats is essentially a nut threaded on to a protruding thread off the freehub body. In that case you're wanting to turn the wrench clockwise when viewed from the drive side or counter/anti-clockwise from the non-drive side.
They're one of the higher torque things on bikes and sometimes threadlocker is applied at the factory as well, so taking a lot of force to break free isn't necessarily a red flag as long as you're being sensitive that it doesn't just feel like you're turning the wrong direction.
Comment: I've borrowed from this advice to try and answer a similar question. https://bicycles.stackexchange.com/a/77069/38558 could you check my answer and see if I'm understanding things properly? Basically it seems to me that normally its a right hand thread but sometimes, like in the 12 mm case, it's turned the other way to normal?
Comment: @Swifty Sounds about right.
Answer: You should most likely turn clockwise, viewed from the freehub side.
If your allen (hex) key does not sufficiently fit (the small end should go in the freehub to provide enough leverage), your best bet is to get a better allen key.

Freehub body will not undo


How to list my OpenID provider on relying parties' login pages?

Question: Is there any registration process to be an openid provider

I'm developed an openid provider and I want to show it as an openid
  provider in all openid supported websites
Answer: There is no such thing.  Being an openid provider is not something magic -- other sites have to specifically implement trust in you.  There is no central place where you submit your system and have it appear as an option on other people's websites.  For the most part, sites that have a hard time getting people to signup, implement openid in order to allow people with existing accounts on other well known sites to skip the signup process by trusting well known providers like Google, Yahoo, Twitter or AOL. There is no chance that any of those sites are going to reciprocate that trust to your site.


Are copied spells cast from the graveyard?

Question: If you copy Increasing Confusion or any other "cast from the graveyard" spell with Increasing Vengeance, does the copy act like it was cast from the graveyard? Or, since the copy technically was not cast from the graveyard, would it just have the normal effect?
Answer: Your instincts are correct. Copies of spells are just placed on the stack, they are never cast.

706.10. To copy a spell or activated ability means to put a copy of it on to the stack; a copy of a spell isn't cast and a copy of an activated ability isn't activated.

Cards on the other hand, can be copied and cast. For example, if Increasing Vengeance was enchanted by Spellweaver Volute, the copy of the card would be cast from a graveyard.
Comment: @darch, corrected. Used the wrong card in the example
Comment: Basically, the copy appears in whatever zone the card being copied was in.
Answer: The copy a spell and cast a spell actions are distinct and unrelated. A spell created by Increasing Vengeance was created by a copy action, not by a cast action. If that spell was Increasing Confusion, its replacement effect doesn't come into effect since it wasn't cast (from the graveyard or otherwise). This is specifically covered by the rules.

706.10. To copy a spell or activated ability means to put a copy of it on to the stack; a copy of a spell isn't cast [...]

Compare with Spellweaver Volute, which copies cards you then cast (from the graveyard).
Comment: Adjusted as recommended.


Internship in New York City

Question: What companies do you recommend? Where have people had good experiences? Going to start making cold calls. Is this a good idea? Thanks for your help.
Answer: I think Nutmeg Post and Gramercy Post take in a lot of interns, so they'd be good places to try. If you want to shoot for the top (and why not?), you should also try C5 and Sound One. Also, off the top of my head, you could try Soundtrack NY.
And, if you're turned down, it's a good idea to politely ask if they can recommend anyone else for you to contact. That way, it's more of a lukewarm call because you can say "XXX at XXX Studio told me i should talk to you".
Best of luck!

Internship in New York City


Difference between Us Entry stamp and I 94

Question: My passport stamp is for a month but my I-94 is admit until Sept 19, 2019.
So that means I can stay in US for a month or 6 months as per I-94
Comment: It's not really clear what the question is.
Answer: A US visa allows you to show up at the border and ask for entry. You can do that at any time that the visa is valid.
At the border you'll be granted entry by the border guard for a period, which may extend beyond the validity of your visa. This is OK.
In your situation you can remain in the US legally for up to six months. However, if your visa application asked for a month and you then stay for six, there could be questions asked when you next apply for a visa about how you supported yourself during that extra time.
You can stay for six months, but in the interests of building a good travel history you should stick fairly close to your original travel plans.
Comment: I suspect it's not the visa that expires in a month, but the admission stamp.  We've recently seen a disturbing number of questions here concerning such discrepancies between admission stamps and I-94 records.
Comment: @phhog Fair comment. I'll leave the answer up as is unless the OP confirms exactly,


What data compression algorithms have been successfully used in spacecraft?

Question: Scientific spacecraft can generate very large amounts of data.  However, both the storage available onboard the spacecraft and the bandwidth available to transmit the data to ground stations are limited.  Thus, data compression is needed.  What algorithms have been used successfully on spacecraft?
Comment: I've edited the tagging, removing the flight-computer tag and adding the data-systems tag. A flight computer is a specific piece of hardware. There can be other processors onboard a spacecraft. For a modern scientific mission, each instrument usually has its own processor; furthermore, data compression is often done by these processors so that the spacecraft's main processor doesn't have do this extra work.
Comment: For [Voyager's later life](http://history.nasa.gov/computers/Ch6-2.html) (section "Voyarer's Future"): "Voyager Project officials decided to use the Flight Data System in dual processor mode for the first time for the Uranus encounter to provide image data compression. Thus, the information content remained high even though the transmission rate was grossly reduced." "Recent Advances in Coding Theory for Near Error-Free
Communications"(Cheung et al.): "technique pioneered by R. F. Rice ... algorithm is essentially a universal source code
on the differences between successive pixels".
Comment: One of the things that's always bothered me is that people argue about how little info is lost in various lossy compression schemes ... and not how it affects detection of features.  To the best of my knowledge, though, there's no archive of uncompressed data + the automated detection routines that need to run on it.
Comment: This is a broad, open-ended question with almost as many answers as there have been, and will be, spacecraft.   No one is going to be able to write a "complete" answer, but several of us can describe what we know.  (This is not the ideal kind of question for StackExchange style sites, though a good and interesting question anyway.)
Comment: @DarenW: Poor choice of words on my part, thanks for pointing it out.  That may explain the less than satisfactory answers I have received.  I've edited to replace "techniques" with "algorithms".
Answer: Image data is typically compressed using standard image compression algorithms. For example, the National Imagery Transmission Format, MIL-STD-2500C, defines a standard, extensible format for the transmission of imagery data within the military. The standard calls out several types of image compression compliant with the standard (such as JPEG).
Telemetry data is often not compressed at all. One rationale is that it is often several orders of magnitude less data than what is being generated by the payload (be it imagery, communications, or data from another type of instrument or sensor), and thus in the broad scheme of things not worth compressing. Telemetry is also often sent as a stream of data (rather than a file), which limits the types of compression schemes that could be used.
In fact, radio frequency signals are often intentionally increased in size through techniques like forward error correction (FEC) and convolution coding, which are means of adding redundant data to a signal to make the transmission more robust to transmission errors endemic to space communication links.
That said, there are standards for the lossless and lossy compression of spacecraft data. The Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) has published a set of standards for Space communication links. There are currently four released standards that discuss lossless data compression and image data compression.
Comment: Thank you for the amazing sources, the lossless compression article was specifically interesting to me.
Answer: I will focus on meteorological satellites.  They're a prime example of satellites that measure very large quantities of data (and one I have personal experience with).  The bottom line is: they don't really compress the data, but they might degrade/limit it.  A specific property of meteorological satellites is that the users want the data fast, so that could make a difference compared to other kinds of satellites.
The Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) is a meteorological imager that has flown on meteorological satellites from NOAA and EUMETSAT since 1979.  It images the entire Earth at a resolution of 1 km in five simultaneously operated channels.  This resolution is so high, that the relatively short time during which it has a downlink connection is not enough for the NOAA satellites to downlink all the data.  Therefore, they downlink global data only in a special format known as Global Area Coverage (GAC): 4 adjacent pixels are averaged, and 2 out of 3 scanlines are ignored.  Arguably, this is a kind of lossy compression.  Users that need the full-resolution data for their own region can download it directly from the satellite (and national meteorological agencies do), or pre-order full-resolution data for specific regions (but not globally).
Three properties are limited:

bandwidth
storage
computational power

With enough computational power, the NOAA satellites could compress all the data and downlink all of it.  Alas, the NOAA KLM series dates from 1999 and they don't have the computational power.  Since then, all the three aforementioned properties have grown, and as far as meteorological satellites are concerned, it appears bandwidth and storage have grown more than computational power.  Hence, I don't think there's any advanced compression going on for the vast amounts of data measured by meteorological satellites.
Of course, there are other satellites that also collect large quantities of data.  I have no expertise on those, but maybe other people can contribute with relevant answers.
Comment: @NPSF3000 It is my understanding that they don't compress, I am 99% sure of that, but not 100%.
Comment: Can you clarify that no compression is going on?  Or are they compressing it, e.g. with PNG, and that any further gains would take too much CPU/complexity/newer equipment?  I find it hard to imagine that they are sending RAW data!
Comment: @NPSF3000 Meteorological satellites might continuously transmit raw data, line by line.  This allows users to read out the images directly, as the satellite passes overhead.  Compression makes sense if you dump the data once per orbit, but that would cause more delay than the application of nowcasting tolerates.
Comment: even if you are streaming data there are some very simple compression techniques that can save a buttload of data.  I have no knowledge of what they do, hence why I'm asking.


What is the term for actual delivery time will be varied by 4 times from estimation?

Question: I remember I once read in Wikipedia about a law stating that the actual delivering time will always be 4 times less to 4 times more from the estimated time, even when you aware that law and know every detail in the project. What is that concept so I can look it up again?
Answer: Cone of Uncertainty
Research in the software industry on the Cone of Uncertainty stated that in the beginning of the project life cycle (i.e. before gathering of requirements) estimates have in general an uncertainty of factor 4 on both the high side and the low side (Boehm 1981). This means that the actual effort or scope can be 4 times or 1/4 of the first estimates.
Comment: Yes. As you can see in the Wikipedia article, "The original conceptual basis of the Cone of Uncertainty was developed for engineering and construction in the chemical industry". However, in the software industry, because of technology uncertainty and scope creep, the range tends to be wider.
Comment: does this apply to any industry?
Answer: It sounds like the Cone of Uncertainty. The idea is that at the beginning of a project or effort, there is enough uncertainty that estimates are generally in the range of being 4x over or 1/4 of the time it will take to complete. As the project progresses, these uncertainties begin to be resolved or better understood and the range of estimation becomes better.
Steve McConnell writes about this concept in Rapid Development and Software Project Survival Guide. It's also discussed on the Construx (McConnell's company) website. The idea in software development, however, originated with Barry Boehm in Software Engineering Economics.
Answer: There is also a more generic law which emphasizes even when you aware that law part:

Hofstadter's Law: It always takes longer than you expect, even when you take into account Hofstadter's Law.
Answer: Psychologically speaking, the general term for this is planning fallacy, which is caused by our optimistic bias.
Other related tendencies listed at the end of the optimistic bias page: illusion of control, illusory superiority, normalcy bias, positivity bias, reference class forecasting, self-serving bias, wishful thinking.
The three-step protocol for managing optimism bias and the planning fallacy:

Identify an appropriate reference class (e.g., school building project, IT project, family room addition, etc.).
Obtain the statistics of the referenced class (e.g., percentage by which expenditures exceeded budget, project delays, cost per square foot, etc.). Use this objective research to generate a baseline prediction.
If, despite your disciplined efforts, you believe optimism bias is still at play, adjust the baseline prediction as necessary.


Invertible elements in polynomial quotient rings

Question: Can someone give me a hint why in the quotient ring $\mathbb{F}_p[x]/{\langle f\rangle}$, where $f$ is an irreducible polynomial of degree $k$ and $p$ is a prime (and $\langle f\rangle$ the ideal generated by $f$), every element is invertible ?
Comment: Try showing that an ideal generated by an irreducible polynomial is maximal. Recall that $\mathbb{F}_p$ is a field, and thus $\mathbb F_p[X]$ is an commutitive ring.What do you know of the quotient of commtitive rings by maximal ideals?
Comment: Your quotient is a nonzero ring. In a nonzero ring, $0$ is **not** invertible.
Comment: [Here's](http://math.stackexchange.com/questions/82420/polynomials-finite-fields-and-cardinality-dimension-considerations) a related question asked yesterday.
Answer: In this question, someone wanted to know how to find the multiplicative inverse of an integer modulo a prime number.  (You had to assume the number whose inverse you wanted was not divisible by that prime number.)
You can do the present problem the same way.
To say that $g(x)$ is not $0$ in the quotient ring is to say that $g(x)$ is not a multiple of $f(x)$.  Since $f(x)$ is irreducible, this implies that $\gcd(f(x),g(x))=1$.  Applying Euclid's algorithm as in the answer to the question to which I linked above, you can find polynomials $a(x)$ and $b(x)$ such that $a(x)g(x) + b(x)f(x)=\text{the gcd}=1$.  In the quotient ring, that second term, $b(x)f(x)$, is $0$, so $a(x)g(x)=1$ and so $g(x)$ is invertible.
Answer: As pointed out above, 0 is not invertible.  However, for any field $K$, $K[x]$ is a PID.  Since $f$ is irreducible and $\mathbb{F}_p[x]$ is a PID, $f$ is a prime element of $\mathbb{F}_p$ (if this isn't clear, then sit down and hammer out a simple proof).
The only thing that we need now is the following proposition.
Proposition: In a PID, every nonzero prime ideal is maximal.
Sketch of proof:  Suppose that $D$ is a PID and that we have $0\subsetneq P\subseteq M$ for a maximal ideal $M$ of $D$ and a (nonzero) prime ideal $P$ of $D$.  Since $D$ is a PID, we have $P=(p)$ and $M=(q)$ for some nonzero $p,q\in M$.  Also, since both $M$ and $P$ are prime ideals, it follows that $p$ and $q$ are prime (and hence irreducible) elements of $D$ (if this isn't immediately clear, then sit down and write out a short proof as to why).
However, $(p)\subseteq (q)$ implies that $q \vert p$, implying that $q=up$ for some $u\in U(D)$.  Therefore $M=P$ and every nonzero prime ideal of a PID is maximal.  $\blacksquare$
So, going back to $f\in \mathbb{F}_p[x]$, we have that $f$ is a prime polynomial in $\mathbb{F}_p[x]$, hence $(f)$ is a maximal ideal.  Therefore $\mathbb{F}_p[x]/(f)$ is a field.


Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative after [t]: does "question" have [tɕ]?

Question: Does French have the sound [tɕ] as in "question", or is it still [t]? It really sounds like [tɕ] in some materials, but according to Wikipedia, French does not have this sound.
Comment: Maybe link to material if you can
Comment: Agreed, more detail on what you're referring to would help. Any links?
Answer: I've never heard the sound [ɕ] in French aside from people with pronunciation defect (chuintement), e.g. caused by braces. I'm mostly familiar with French from France but I haven't heard it in other regional variants either.
EDIT: the question changed to ask about whether there is [tɕõ] in words like "question". In standard French from France, this is definitely not the right sound — it would be [tjõ]. In Canadian French, it could be [t͡sjõ]. In informal speech in both places, it could become [sjõ]. I understand how [t͡sjõ] could be heard as [tɕõ] — the difference is subtle... If the s assimilates into the j then you have something that sounds a bit like ɕ though it would remain interpreted by a native speaker as [sj].
I should also clarify that it probably does happen and does not impede comprehension, e.g. I have heard a few native Japanese speakers do a complete assimilation and pronounce "question" in French as [kɛstʃõ], I'm guessing because they hear [sjõ] as indistinguishable from [ʃõ] or have trouble reproducing that sound, or because they had learned pronunciation using Japanese syllabaries. It is understandable, just wouldn't be considered standard or correct pronunciation.
Comment: Fair, but nothing strictly prevents a minor assimilation of [s] by [j] towards a more alveopalatal realization even though it's not phonemic.
Comment: @LukeSawczak added some complements to address this
Comment: That works for me.
Answer: Canadian French speakers usually have /ʦ ʣ/ before /i y j ɥ/, which may explain what you're hearing. I'm pretty sure nothing like /ɕ/ would typically be involved, though, because the affrication isn't particularly strong.


When worldising dialogue...

Question: When worldising dialogue, would you leave that to the mixer or the editor or sfx?
Answer: Depends on what you're trying to achieve…
If you're talking about "worldizing" in the traditional sense, ie. taking a pre-recorded sound and re-recording it in an acoustic space, then the mixer is not really the right candidate since they deal mostly with console reverbs, Altiverb, etc. If it were me, I'd do it myself. That way, you're learning how to do something new, you're gaining experience, you're leaving room for trial and error, and you're adding new material to your library.
Not to mention, you know exactly what you want it to sound like, so why waste time trying to explain it to somebody else?
Comment: i mean the traditional sense of re-recording the sounds. thanks for the advice exalted one.
Comment: How would I label this in my ProTools session? Would I also put it next to the track I worldized?
Answer: I would leave worldizing to a SFX guy. I am one and I want all dialogue worldized because too many times have I see the hero in the woods talking like he is in some studio somewhere.
I even worldize audiobooks productions, simply because it drives me crazy to hear studio dry voices. Only time it is okay is at narration.
So to answer the question, leave it to the SFX guy, we tend to know how reverb works and such.
Not saying that others don't, of course.

When worldising dialogue...


Allow external website authenticated users to access customer community

Question: We have a new customer self service community that we're trying to integrate with our existing external website.
Is there a way to allow users access to community and access cases and knowledgebase without having to log in to Salesforce if they're already logged into the website?
Do we need to store all user credentials on Salesforce?
Answer: See the Salesforce Communities Implementation Guide, starting on page 119, or Configure SAML for Communities. I won't include the entire text verbatim, as it's far too long for an answer here, but what follows is a summary. I suggest reading the manual for more details. You can always find the latest version by searching your favorite search engine for "Salesforce Communities Implementation Guide" or "Configure SAML for Communities" from the Help & Training window.
You can configure Single Sign On for your community, which basically means that your external website authenticates the user via SAML authentication. The SAML assertion needs to include information about the community being logged in to, and a unique identifier that will be used to determine which user is logging in. No passwords are exchanged during this process. Users can also start from the community page if they have the URL, and authentication with your external website using the credentials from that site.
It's actually pretty straightforward in most cases. For example, if you set up an Active Directory Federated Services (AD FS) server that's Internet-facing, you could have your external site and salesforce.com share the same login mechanism. If they're already logged in to the AD FS server from a previous session, they can bounce between your external site and salesforce.com seamlessly without logging in again. There's other ways you can do this as well, but it really depends on the capabilities of your external site.
If you get stuck on a specific step of this process, please feel free to ask more questions, and we'll assist you as best as we can. The documentation is already pretty explanatory, but I've found that the actual implementation can get tricky (it took me three months to get SAML working correctly the first time). There's a few tips that might help you from my previous Q&A on the topic of using AD FS with salesforce.com.
Comment: Are you familiar with the licensing implications? Am I correct in assuming that we will need Salesforce Identity licenses?
Comment: @Mossi Salesforce Identity is a specific SSO solution provided by salesforce.com. You are free to not use Identity and choose a different mechanism instead. I set up a solution purely in AD FS without Identity, for example.
Comment: Did you need your AD users to pre-exist in Salesforce? According to the "SAML Single Sign-On Settings" page it seems the answer is yes since SAML Identity Type requires a Salesforce User identifier to match against.
Comment: @Mossi you can match based on Federation Id, and the user need not exist beforehand if you enable JIT provisioning. However, you will need extra licences available if you enable this feature.


Did a villein ever rise to the nobility in Medieval England?

Question: I know that there are tales of burghers and other commoners getting rich through trade. Was it unknown for villeins to climb the social scale?
Comment: Welcome to History:SE. What has your research shown you so far? Where have you already searched? What did you find? Please help us to help you. You might find it helpful to review the [site tour](https://history.stackexchange.com/tour) and [Help Centre](https://history.stackexchange.com/help) and, in particular, [ask].
Comment: Also, @AllInOne is right, [Villeins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villein) typically didn't get rich in the medieval period, and certainly not in a single generation.  Under the [feudal system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalism), a person's station was thought to be set by God.
Comment: 1. do you mean to limit this question to "villeins: (in medieval England) a feudal tenant entirely subject to a lord or manor to whom he paid dues and services in return for land." 2. If so not sure villeins ever got rich as right to property was limited.
Comment: I edited the question to reflect that money wasn't money back then. It's a significant change so feel free to just change it back if I went too far
Comment: Was it totally unknown for a villein to be knighted after service in battle, or to rise through the ranks of the couc church? I think that's op's question. I'm sure there were one or two examples, but can't think of any.
Answer: I share everyone else's concerns about the assumptions embedded in this question, but I also think this is the kind of thing that H:SE is built for - to give the context to undermine flawed assumptions.
A villein is neither slave nor free; legally bound to the land, and to the feudal overlord.  This is a society that measures wealth in land, and the villein by definition owns no land, so by definition it is not possible for a villein to be rich. (to accumulate wealth would mean to own land, which would mean that you are not a villein).
The economy is based on land rent and food rent - in the modern era we conceive of wealth as money, but the medieval economy didn't have much money. Debts and dues were settled in food and goods.  There is effectively no way to accumulate food, and there are no coins to trade food for coin.  Technically I suppose you could engage in a form of capital deepening, but if you started to accrue tools to increase your production, your feudal overlord would increase your rent.  Given that the feudal overlord had full power of justice over you, the rent increase was automatically legal and supported by the state.

Is it, perhaps, worth also mentioning the Medieval belief in the 'Scala Natura' which was held to maintain that the class structure of society was ordained by God? @sempaiscuba

Finally, OP mentions Jews - I'd be very surprised if a Jew could be a villein. While there may have been edge cases, rural medieval society was not tolerant of diversity. Judaism is (in the general case) largely urban.  (Keeping Kosher demands a community).  I may be dead wrong on this, but my discussions with my Jewish friends have led me to believe that "Jewish villein" is statistically very improbable.
Mr. Geerkens is correct that Russian peasant life includes Jews, but I think that they were serfs, not villeins, and therefore even less likely to become rich.  I think the chance of a Russian Jewish peasant gaining wealth is effectively zero.
I'm less convinced that the distinction between money and specie is relevant to the question.  The question asks whether a villein ever got rich - "rich" would have been measured in land, not in specie. I think that the definition of "rich" is really important here.  Certainly there were peasants whose peers perceived them as "rich"  - relative wealth, having a better crop yield than a neighbor, or a better harvest, or whatever.  But objectively "rich"?  That has to do with property rights and social institutions that recognize a person's ability to control wealth and direct power.  And for a villein to control wealth or direct power greater than his feudal overlord would have been such a threat to social order as to have merited drastic action.  Kind of like if a nine year old were wandering down the street with  a machine gun.  Everyone would take action to stop that as a danger to publi order.  Villeins with wealth would be like nine year olds with machine guns.
Comment: re "*I'd be very surprised if a Jew could be a villein.*" This is very likely true in Western Europe, but I am less certain of Poland and Ukraine. Certainly [Sholem Aleichem's](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sholem_Aleichem) story [**Tevye and his Daughters**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tevye), on which the movie [Fiddler on the Roof](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiddler_on_the_Roof) was based, describes rural Jewish life on the Polish/Ukrainian steppe.
Comment: re "*but the medieval economy didn't have much money*": By any reasonable definition the Medieval economy had plenty of *money*; what it lacked, in the absence of derivative financial instruments, was [specie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin) and thus *liquidity*.
Answer: Extortion. Pure and simple.
You're a strong man with a retinue. What do you do? You set up a toll somewhere. Preferably a spot where people have to pass. Such as a fort in a river, or on a defensible busy crossroad. Fortify it, as passers by won't be much amused. Now you have money in the bank. Everyone passing your toll will have to cough up. Not much chance of them being able to storm your fortress.
That's what Dirk III did in Dordrecht. He set up a toll booth plus castle on the Merwede river (tributary of the Rhine river). Merchants had to pay a toll to pass. They weren't amused, and complained to the emperor. It took a while, but the emperor send an army to remove the toll. That imperial army was defeated. And Dirk collected happily ever after. Many nobles along the Rhine and other rivers ran a similar scam.
With regard to Jews lending money, that's a bit more complicated. Christians weren't allowed to levy interest on loans. Consequently nobody lent money. Until someone got the bright idea to force Jews to go into the money lending business. It's a bit like all gays being hairdressers or artists. Gays aren't all hairdressers or artists, but those were among the few professions open to them.

I think your mean the modern meaning of villein: villain. A villein was a poor peasant who was tied to the land of his lord. Those guys didn't get rich. They had no time for it, they had to work - hard. Some of course looked for criminal ways to get rich, but medieval justice was harsh if they got caught. Otherwise they had very little opportunity to get rich in one generation.
Their lucky break came when the Black Death ravaged Europe. If they survived, that is. The Black Death created a huge labor shortage. If the lord wanted them to keep working for him, he had to cough up for it. If not, plenty of better jobs elsewhere.
Comment: As long as they stayed 'villein' they never got rich, as you correctly said: work never pays off enough. But if they escaped that, got into in city and started trading and banking, that other form of "extortion"(?) then we see Medici, Welser, Fugger… The first Fugger got by OK, the next got rich, and then they went stellar. So, not "one generation", not a villein anymore, but.
Answer: Maybe Ivaylo of Bulgaria?

According to some sources Ivaylo began his life living humbly and
  herded swine for payment. Other sources indicate he was a peasant
  farmer with no land of his own.

But...later...

This caused an alliance between Ivaylo and Maria Kantakouzena, and
  Ivaylo married the widowed empress and was recognized as Bulgarian
  emperor in 1278, without deposing or disinheriting her minor son.
  Michael Asen III.
Comment: The comment "*living humbly and herded swine*" suggests that he was a *freeman* and not a *villein* - as *villeins* were required to farm the land of their *leige* at a minimum.. Do you ave more details?


Lebesgue-integrability of roots and powers of a function

Question: If the powers of a function $f$ are Lebesgue integrable what can we say about the original function? For example, $f=1/x$ is not integrable on $[1, \infty] $, but $f^2$ is. Is there is a general condition?
Answer: If $(X, \mu)$ is your measure space, then the set of all $f$ such that $|f|^p$ is integrable (with respect to $\mu$) is denoted $L^p(X,\mu)$. In general, one can always find functions contained in $L^p(X,\mu)$ but not $L^q(X,\mu)$, for any two powers $p,q$. So the answer to your main question is no, in general we cannot relate the integrability of a function to the integrability of its powers.
However, for the case that $(X,\mu)$ is such that $\mu(X) < \infty$, a.k.a. a finite measure space (e.g. a probability space), then one has that $L^q(X) \subseteq L^p(X)$ if $p \le q$. In other words, if a large power of $f$ is integrable, then a smaller power of $f$ will also be integrable.
Answer: You might be interested in the Orlicz spaces. Suppose that $\Phi: \mathbb{R}\rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ is a convex even function.  Under various conditions on $\Phi$,
$$\{f:  \int_\Omega \Phi(f)\, d\mu < \infty\}$$
is a  vector space.   This vector space can be given a (somewhat unexpected ) norm.  Have a look at this link:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birnbaum%E2%80%93Orlicz_space
Answer: The first question you should always ask is about where $f$ lives. A sufficient condition is that the measure of the entire space be finite. For general measure spaces, the notions of integrability mean-square integrability are highly distinct - consider both the example you provided and that of $f(x) = x^{- 1 /2} $ on $[0,1].$
Comment: So you are saying for example for $f: \mathbf{X}\rightarrow\mathbf{R}$, it doesn't hold?
Comment: I'm saying you have to be more stringent in your conditions on $X$ to guarantee it.


How do I calculate the velocity dispersion of a galaxy given an integral field spectrograph?

Question: I couldn't find on the web how to get the velocity dispersion and velocity maps of galaxies from the 3D data cube that I get from the integral field spectrograph.
Comment: Could you please add some more detail? what is 3D data cube? For "integral field spectrograph" you mean the observation of the whole field of view of the instrument/satellite?
Answer: If the 3D data cube is sufficiently highly resolved, try to find Doppler shifts in the spectra by looking for typical absorption/emission lines. Doppler shifts correspond to radial velocities. Calculate the mean radial velocity, and e.g. the standard deviation of the radial velocities, as velocity dispersion.
The velocity dispersion of galaxies leads to a widening of spectral lines in comparison to a reference star. A couple of methods are discussed in this paper, mostly some kind of Fourier fitting, but direct fitting is used, too.
Redshifts may contain a gravitational component.
There exist data reduction software tools.
A paper describing data reduction and velocity analysis using the XOASIS tool.