What impact does prior art discovered after (US) patent awarding have on enforceability and even validity of that patent?

Question: If I were  to be awarded a utility patent, certificate in the mail and all, and it was later discovered by me or someone else that prior art existed before the time of the initial patent application submission, what impact would that have on the enforceability and indeed even the validity of that patent?
Answer: To successfully sue for patent infringement, you need to hold a valid patent. An issued patent is not irrefutable proof that you have a valid patent; patents are presumed valid, but the defendant can raise invalidity as a defense in an infringement suit. One of the conditions for a patent is that the invention is novel (details vary depending on filing date). Even if the USPTO doesn't think there was prior art, that doesn't mean the defendant can't try to convince the court there was prior art. If the defendant proves that the invention was not novel (or any other reason the patent is invalid), the defendant wins the infringement suit.
There are a couple ways to challenge the patent for lack of novelty, which can lead to a challenge before the USPTO or before a federal court. If it's challenged before the PTO and found invalid, the holder loses the patent. If it's challenged in a lawsuit and the holder loses, they can never again assert that the patent is valid in any US court (except when appealing that decision or in a few other special cases). So if it's challenged in court and the challenger wins, the patent is also effectively invalid.
Answer: Until someone raises the existence of the prior art, your patent is still presumptively valid.
If someone discovers it, they could either (1) go to the PTO to try to have it cancel your patent, (2) the prior art could be raised as a defense in a suit to enforce the patent in federal district court, or (3) they could probably bring a declaratory judgment action in federal district court to have it declared invalid.
But, you might be sanctioned if the court determined that you filed suit knowing that there was prior art that could defeat it, and you would probably be required to disclose the information about the prior art and when you acquired it in the course of disclosures or discovery in the patent enforcement lawsuit.
Of course, if there was a rare default judgment in an enforcement suit or counsel for the defense didn't raise prior art (e.g. simply arguing that their invention isn't the same as your invention), the issue would be waived and presumptive validity would be enough to get you over the hump.
If you hired someone to look for prior art and they missed it, you might have a suit against them for negligence for the amounts you expended after the search came up clean to get the patent including their fees, although this would depend upon the agreement with the search firm and upon how obvious that prior art should have been to find. Anything that made it past a PTO patent examiner couldn't have been that easy to find.
Comment: One doesn't just "go the the PTO"  to get a patent invalidated. The fee to try to start an Inter partes review is $15,500. A declaratory judgement can only happen if the patent owner has first indicated to an alleged infringer that legal action might happen. No search firm promises to find everything.
Comment: @GeorgeWhite If I implied that the legal process to invalidate a patent was free, this wasn't my intent. Any of the available options is time consuming and expensive. Likewise, I did not say that you could sue for any overlooked prior art, only for prior art so obvious that omitting it amounted to negligence and only if not contractually waived.
Answer: The patent would be challengeable and would likely be ruled invalid.


Should I water new sod in the winter?

Question: Part of my yard was dug up for utility work. They filled it in and put sod down. I'm in US Midwest and winter is upon us. The low temperatures have just recently begun dipping below freezing, highs are still above though. Should I water the new sod? If so how much water and for how long?
Comment: Was the soil beneath damp when they laid it? Have you watered at all since it first went down, have you had any rain at all? What USDA zone are  you in?
Comment: @Bamboo zone 6a. I wasn't home when they did it so I don't know if they dampened the soil first. I have not watered it at all, and no we have not had rain since it went down (or for at least a week before). The notice we got said that the landscaping company is going to water it for 2 weeks but after that it is our responsibility.
Answer: Timing's important, it's not clear how long ago the sod was put down, but as your weather is now turning wintry, it would not be a great idea to water it. In any case, if the landscaping company actually did water it for two weeks after laying, if that was, say, only a month ago, then hopefully it shouldn't be a problem. If they laid it a longer time ago, then it may have gone short of water, but its really a bit late to worry about it now, if your temperatures have already started dropping below freezing. If it looks like its suffering from lack of water, and you get a reliably milder period of 3 or 4 days, then it's probably worth watering during that gap in the weather, but otherwise, its wait and see what it looks like in spring.
UPDATE You've said the sod was put down the day you asked the question, which means they'll be back to water it on a regular basis for the next two weeks. If your weather is or becomes very cold day and night (below freezing) in that time, don't let them keep watering, but as long as that doesn't happen, let them do it. After that, presumably it will be colder, so don't water then other than during milder spells of weather and only if it needs it - it might not.
Comment: They just put it down yesterday (the day I asked the question). They did it sometime during the day while I was at work.
Comment: @FoamyGuy if they've given it a good water already, and your weather is pretty cold, I'd tell them not to bother to water any more...
Answer: As you like.
I my opinion. it will not make any difference. Some water could help stabilize the soil.
Answer: Have you tried pulling it up by grabbing the grass to test if it had enough time to put roots into your soil?  If it is firmly rooted, you have a good chance that your sod will survive.  If you get a day of warmth or rather a few hours where the water won't freeze immediately go ahead and water and water deeply. Try to get at least 2 - 3" deep into the soil wet. That will be the last watering for the winter.
If you are unable to get a shovel into the soil easily you are probably past the window but I'd go ahead and water at least once when it is sunny and above freezing.  If you think about it, there are lots of lawns and winters are sporadic and sometimes it warms, rains and waters your lawn anyway.  And I've never run into 'rain damage' caused by rain on frozen soils/lawns.
Another thought is what happens when we get snap freezes during the growing season.  It isn't the freeze that damages tender plants like those in a vegetable garden, it is how fast the frozen plant cells thaw.  When you've had a freeze and you've got frozen cells and then the sun comes up to quickly thaw those cells, that is when you have damage.  To reduce damage I go out before the sun comes up and start watering.  This helps to slow the thawing and bursting of cells.  For your situation, the grass blades that are far more tough than vegetables thaw in the sunshine and when you water there should not be a huge change in temperature that will cause plant cells to burst.  If you water when the blades are frozen you are more likely to cause temperature change too quickly and damage some of the still photosynthetic green blades.  But that won't kill your grass, it'll just brown it more quickly and cause some stress, that you should try to avoid.  Kind of the reverse of watering to slow damage from an unusual freeze during the growth season.  But there is a problem with frozen grass most people don't know...
The mistake people make during cold, freezing weather is WALKING ON THE GRASS!  Even with hard frosts, walking on frozen crowns (the transition between the blades of grass and their roots) will break and kill the grass.  You'll see footprints in the spring.  So stay off the sod and forget about fertilizer until spring.

Should I water new sod in the winter?


Plastic or fiberglass for a kayak?

Question: I'm an intermediate level kayaker but have only paddled plastic boats. I'm looking for a kayak to do multi-day trips in on the ocean. What are the differences between plastic and fiberglass?
Answer: The differences between a "roto-molded" plastic and a hand made fiberglass boat are quite substantial.
Plastic Kayaks
Advantages

Will be much less expensive than a comparable fiber boat.
Will be more durable if put in contact with a hard surface such as a rocky beach or parking lot.
Are easier to repair if damaged, using plastic putty and some adhesive compounds.

Disadvantages

Are prone to "canning", "warping", and "mis-shaping" when not stored properly.
Can be more easily damaged by UV radiation, making the plastic brittle.
Do not track as well in "rough" ocean conditions (3 ft+).
They tend to deflect from the ferry angle when approaching waves in a "quartering sea" (45 degrees from bow or stern).

Fiberglass kayaks
Advantages

Are very strong for their weight, although "lightweights" must have fragile treatment.
Have excellent performance in most ocean conditions.
Last a long time when properly cared for.
Look amazing.

Disadvantages

Price is 30-50% higher than comparable plastic boat.
Are more prone to spidering when put in contact with rocky shores.
Repair is difficult and should be performed by a trained expert.
Must be be dried thoroughly after use to prevent mold growing in the fiberglass.

Overall
If you are looking at a high end plastic boat from the likes of Current Designs, Nigel Dennis, Valley, or similar you will likely be happy with the performance unless you are a very high end paddler. Many of the lower priced plastic boats however don't perform well in rougher conditions.
If you are a true performance boater you probably already know that you want a fiberglass boat. Just be prepared to take care of it, and it will serve you well for a long time.
Comment: Personally I find composite boats easier to repair than plastic and I'd go to a professional to repair plastic, but then that's where my experience lies. The biggest disadvantage with glass is that you need to inspect the gelcoat regularly to ensure it's water tight. If water gets into the glass matting it can soften the boat at which point it's a major repair or replacement. The worst you'll get on a plastic is a leak.

Plastic or fiberglass for a kayak?


Merging contour lines along tile boundaries

Question: I am working with the CANVEC data set. The data in canvec is broken up in to mapsheets. eg. 116B04. I have data covering the entire province of the Yukon. I have merged all the data in to one shapefile but I would like to take this further by creating one feature for each line of elevation within the entire dataset. I would like to do this so that I can display things a little quicker when I load it in to QGIS but dont want to turn it in to a raster so that I can switch labelling on and off to view elevation labels. I am thinking that creating one layer out of the entire dataset and one attribute entry for each elevation. eg. 1500ft, 2500ft, 3000ft. ect. I am using UBUNTU 13.10, QGIS, GRASS, POSTGIS. I would also like to do something similar for polygons that are split into parts because of the map tiles.
Comment: So you already have a line shapefile of contours for all of Yukon. Is that correct? If so, then I would assume that your shapefile already is one feature for each continuous line of elevation. Are you asking how to merge all lines of 1500ft into one multiline?
Answer: You need to use two tools in the "Vector / Geometry" menu:

"Dissolve" the layer using the elevation field as the dissolve field.  How well this works depends on how well the line endpoints match up at the tile boundaries.  If the endpoints don't match well enough for the lines to dissolve together, then you can use the PostGIS-based fuzzy-matching procedure described in Merging adjacent polygons in shapefile that has been split at tile boundaries?
Convert "Multipart to Singlepart" to separate distinct contours at the same elevation.
Answer: In QGIS:
Try Vector->Geometry Tools->Singleparts to multipart (QGIS 2.8.3). In Unique ID field select 'xxxxx' elevation attribute of input shapefile. Result - multilinestring shapefile with unique 'elevation' attribute.


Can you make caramel with evaporated milk?

Question: So I love cooked sweetened condensed milk (caramel, dulce de leche, all that).  It's really simple to make - just cook the stuff for a while - and it tastes awesome.  That said, I could really stand it being a little less sweet (not a carb thing, just a taste thing).  So I was wondering - can I use evaporated milk to make something similar?  And if not, is there a way to make cooked condensed milk with a bit less sugar?
Comment: Very related (Cajita is dulce de leche made with goat's milk), so the answer is yes, it can be done: http://cooking.stackexchange.com/questions/46129/cajeta-with-powdered-goats-milk-or-evaporated-experiment-results The amount of sugar you add is up to you, it will take some experimentation to find the amount that is perfect for you. Too little, and you may see not enough caramelization.
Answer: Milk contains lactose naturally, so there will always be a minimum amount of sugar that any condensed milk will contain.
Having said the above, the recipe for making lowest-possible-sugar condensed milk, is evaporated milk (which still contains all of the lactose), so that's still sweet as well, but not overpoweringly so like condensed milk.
If evaporated milk is not sweet enough to your taste, keep adding vanilla sugar to it while heating gently and tasting frequently till it reaches the exact taste you want!
Actually, condensed milk and evaporated milk are synonyms semantically. What you're really talking about is "condensed sweetened milk" ;-)
Comment: @Jolenealaska: as Misha didn't specify a country in its profile, I prefer to give a global answer and don't assume he/she/it's from the US.  ;-)  Condensed milk is thick and syrupy and evaporated milk is thick like light cream anywhere you go!  **>:)**
Comment: I made no such assumptions (as a matter of fact I've seen that English is not Fabby's first language), but I wanted to point out that for some, "condensed" *does* necessarily mean sweetened.
Comment: In the US, sweetened is implied if you use the word "condensed". So condensed milk is always "sweetened condensed milk" here.
Answer: Condensed milk can have up to 40% more sugar in it than regular evaporated milk. I just made this recipe--an hour ago--using condensed milk (it was all I had). Then I cut out one cup of white sugar. It looks fine now that I'm done, but it took a long time to cook and the flavor is a little bland. I think it needed more sugar in it to properly carmelize. While the condensed milk was sweetened with some kind of sugar, it wasn't the right kind. I need to learn a lot more about the science and chemistry of sugar.
Answer: I prefer caramel made with evaporated milk as opposed to condensed:
1 stick butter
1 cup sugar (use less sugar if you don't want it as sweet)
1 can evaporated milk
pinch salt
Put this on a shortbread base and top with chocolate chips for the best millionaires shortbread squares.
Just don't ever boil a can of condensed milk as the BPA lining of the can will leach into the caramel.


How to convert image results into data?

Question: I have made an 3d solar exposure analysis for a 3d city model that determines how long a surface receive direct sunlight throughout the year. Results are coloured surfaces and legend of coloures that explain how long the colour means. You can see the results in the attaching file. How can I report the results. How can I convert visualization into data? Because I want to query the results of analysis
Comment: If you coded the calculation wouldn't it be easier to query the data before it gets turned into colours?
Comment: I did not code it it is not an open source component I can not acces to surce code of 3d sun exposure component. But I want to convert result to data. Is it possible? Are there any component for this purpose? Or Do I have to code myself all workflows of analysis to achieve this?
Comment: I have closed the [older question](http://computergraphics.stackexchange.com/questions/3582/reporting-results-of-3d-sun-exposure-analysis) as a duplicate of this one, since this one is more specific about what is required.
Answer: I think getting the real data with high precision is not easy without some API.
The first idea would be just to manually use some color based selection tool that you can tell to select all areas in the screenshots according to the lookup table.
But that would not result in some 3D data, but only segmented images where you can annotate the values.
Another method would be to make a UV-map of the mesh, and then by making screenshots from various regions try to extract the color-coded texture.
Then you could read the interpolated color-values of the texture and map them back to the actual values.
The last but maybe strangest idea would be to make a huge number of screenshots and then use some multiview object reconstruction algorithm (I don't know if there is software or if you have to write it yourself.). There are algorithms that not only reconstruct the geometry, but also the texture.
This would then give you a model with the color-texture that again you could map back to the values.
But ideally there would be some export function in the software you used. Maybe this is a question you should ask the developer of the software. Maybe they have this function somehow but it is a bit hidden.

How to convert image results into data?


Why does human facial and head hair continue to grow?

Question: Many people can grow extremely long head hair and facial hair. Are there evolutionary theories as to why this is the case? It seems like having long hair could be a disadvantage, and extremely long hair seems to be rare in other mammals.
Comment: Just want to point out that not everything can be explained in terms of advantage or disadvantage in evolution. Most of the characters are not directly selected or selected at all.
Comment: [Closely Related Question](http://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/1267/why-can-hair-grow-without-limit-while-eyebrow-cannot)
Comment: @nbubis: why has there to be an advantage? Maybe it's just that it is not disavantageous...
Comment: Another [closely related question](http://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/2293/why-do-we-grow-so-much-hair-on-our-heads-compared-to-our-bodies)
Comment: Yet non answer the question - how is longer hair advantageous.
Comment: @nico, I agree, but that's the OP's question.
Comment: That is my question - it seems like it would be a disadvantage - it could get caught in things, takes energy to grow, clean, etc.
Comment: I think there may be some relation to the human skin biome. Long hair may act as a transmittor of beneficial skin flora through its potential for direct contact with soil-based organisms. We are only just now scratching the surface (pardon the pun!) of the complexity of the human macro and microbiome; hair is likely to play a role in skin ecology. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3535073/
Answer: How humans evolved to have head / beard hair that continues to grow longer than other animals is a topic that many anthropologists & biologists are still not sure about & there is no general consensus as to "why" yet.
The three main views that I am aware of however are :
1) Evolution of the "Aquatic Ape." (Ingram, 2000: Morgan 1997; 1982)

Infants, in order to hold onto their mothers in the water, would latch onto her hair. Limiting separation from the mother & increasing chances of survivability
Longer hair meant that infants / small children would need to swim less in order to get to their mother
Believed to be supported even further when you consider that aquatic mammals are almost always hairless, indicating that at one point, humans were highly "aquatic" mammals.

2) No real benefit, but used as a tool for "mate selection." (Darwin, 1871; Cooper 1971)

The view held by many of the Darwin school of thought (I do not mean that as a derogatory), is that at first, "hairiness" was sexually attractive, but eventually "hairlessness" became more sexually attractive in most places (i.e. the face to see facial expressions & socialize better; Wong & Simmons 2001)
A sign of "virility" & "health" as can be seen in the mate-selection behavior of lions. Which is true even today as human diagnostic material for health (Klevay, 1972).

3) Practical evolutionary benefits for the human species specifically

A lot of body heat escapes from the head, probably the most important part of your body. Hair is a good insulator that can keep in heat. This increases survivability in colder climates. (Wong & Simmons 2001; Bubenick 2003). (A disputed but considered credible reason, especially when you compare hair length and types across different regions throughout history)
Protection against damaging UV rays (while still permitting adequate Vit.D3 to come through) & some protection from free-radicals or other harmful particles. Because we became bi-pedal, the head was the main area exposed to the sun (as well as some of our back). Extending hair's usefulness to even hot environments, while other body hair became less important with the development of sweat glands (Wheeler 1985).
Heightened "Situational Awareness" through "Touch sense." A concept that may seem silly at first but has some evidence to support the theory. Though the hair is not "alive," it is connected to the follicles & your nerves. In a nutshell, it may help to increase "sensory awareness" & "data gathering" of your environment, which would favor longer hair. This would be an asset in survivability (Kardong 2002; keratin.com 2010; Sabah 1974; washington.edu)
Though not a collegiate Journal article, if reasonably credible, this small article is an interesting case for supporting hair & "Touch sense" in "recent history" & in combat-survival : http://www.sott.net/article/234783-The-Truth-About-Hair-and-Why-Indians-Would-Keep-Their-Hair-Long.

I personally lean 90% "Evolutionary benefits" & 10% "Mate selection" as to reasons why humans' hair continues to grow longer than other animals. Beard & head.
Hope this info was a little helpful.
There are copious amounts of other respectable articles on each point, but I only referenced a few.
Comment: Does anyone have a link for the "Kardong 2002; keratin.com 2010; Sabah 1974; washington.edu" study? I can't find it. I have dreadlocks and raised a discussion with a group where I claimed I can sense touch on my hair even though the roots are not stimulated in any way. I couldn't find anything to support my claim but came across this by accident. Thank you.
Answer: The hair doesn't keep growing!
It's important to notice that there isn't a set point for the actual hair length. The hair doesn't know that it's been cut for example. Rather, there's a set point for time. A single strand of hair, in humans, on the scalp, will be in the growth phase for several years. The growth cessation takes a few weeks, and then the rest phase will last for another couple of months, until finally the hair strand is shed.
I don't think there's a natural advantage for hair of as long a length as many humans can grow it, it may just be little or not at all disadvantageous. The selective advantage, if there is one, probably emanates from sexual selection, similar to why lions grow manes. A display of health and surplus of resources. Hair has a pretty central role in beauty ideals. In some cultures, women even cover up their hair.
There are examples of traits that are disadvantageous to survival in the organism's environment, but shows advantages when it comes to reproduction, to a degree that the genes do not become extinct. I don't remember the name, so take it for what you will, but there's a fish species where the males are either small and stealthy, or they are very flashy. The females prefer the flashy males, but at the same time those males have a harder time avoiding getting eaten by other, larger fish. Thus both phenotypes are passed on to the next generation of fish.
Comment: "until finally the hair strand exits". What does "exit" mean here?
Comment: The fish you're thinking of is the goby.


Will straight crochets in 5/4 and straight quavers in 5/8 at same BPM sound the same?

Question: If you write 5 1/4 notes in 5/4 at a tempo of q (quarter note)=120 and write 5 8th notes in 5/8 at e(eighth note)=120, one after another would they sound the same?
Comment: Related question: [What is the connection between time-signature, beat, and tempo?](https://music.stackexchange.com/q/3346/70803).
Answer: If a computer plays them, they are the same. However, it may influence how a human player interprets it, even if they don't know anything about what it meant historically, because all those extra beams will make the score look thicker, less spacious, and the notes seem to be more connected. A good player should be able to find a working interpretation regardless of this but you can help them by being aware of it.
Answer: I'd say yes.  For the more common signatures of 3/4 and 3/8 the difference is that the latter was used to imply a faster tempo than the former; this was before metronome marks came into common usage.  Since you've specified specific tempos, you've eliminated this features.


Is Natural minor actually a scale?

Question: I'm fairly new to music, I've had no actual theory lessons and have only recently started piano, but since the beginning I was aware of major and minor scales. I was under the impression that there were three minor scales: natural, harmonic and melodic, with natural being the same as Aeolian. However, both my piano teacher and a couple of my more musical friends claim that natural minor isn't actually a scale, and that it is just descending melodic minor. Is natural minor actually a technical scale, or is it just a simplification that isn't used classically?
Comment: The only national minor I know of is Hungarian minor ;)
Comment: 'Natural minor' is certainly a scale.  But it isn't one that is required in the piano Grade exams.  Maybe that's what your teacher meant.
Comment: @LaurencePayne - ABRSM 'discovered' the natural minor scale about 7 yrs ago. They offer it as an alternative in lower grades.
Answer: It is technically and officially a scale. Has been recognised as such by examining boards, and used in their scale sections of exams. Yes, it is the same as the descending classical melodic minor - but there's also the jazz melodic which uses the ascending notes both up and down.
Incidentally, it is also called a mode. The Aeolian mode. Made up from the same notes as the Ionian mode/ major scale, but centring on the 6th note of that major scale. Enlighten teacher and friends!
Comment: I mean, like you said, Major is also a mode - Ionian. So something can be a mode and a scale.
Answer: Natural minor is definitely a scale!
With that said, you ask if it's "just a simplification that isn't used classically." In my opinion, the distinction between the three (and more) forms of minor is a huge oversimplification. Sure, occasionally you'll get nursery rhymes that completely fit in natural minor, but more complex music will rarely fit perfectly in any of the three forms of minor. Instead, the music of Bach and Brahms and Scarlatti (and so on) use elements of all forms.
So, again: natural minor is definitely a scale. But when it comes down to it, all of these forms of minor are simplifications.
Answer: Technically out of a classical harmony point of view, the natural minor refers to the descending form of the melodic minor scale and is not a scale as we would typically call it.
When modernist talk about the natural minor scale they are reffering to what is actually the aeolian mode, the confusion is natural though.
Comment: Check with ABRSM, who, only a few years ago, began including teh natural minor as an optional scale in at least the early grades on piano. Yes, it is the Aeolian mode, rather like the major scale is the Ionian mode. No real confusion.
Answer: it's literally called Aeolian mode of its relative major scale
so yes natural minor is a scale, a version of the major to be precise.

Is Natural minor actually a scale?


Installing Ubuntu 12.04 Alpha from USB

Question: As most of you probably know the Ubuntu 12.04 Alpha has been released.  However there is a bug that makes the ISO file over sized so that it will not fit on a typical 80min CD.  The computer that I wish to use to test it does not have a DVD drive installed or I would just go that route.  I have used various USB installation programs in the past to created Live-USBs, but none of the programs I have used are updated for Ubuntu 12.04 Alpha.  So I was wondering if anybody has been able to install the Alpha from USB and if so, how?  Thanks in advance for your time
Comment: see here: http://askubuntu.com/q/18641/
Answer: The over-700MB iso isn't a bug. Bootable USB drives are very convenient!
Look in your Dash for "Startup Disk Creator" (If non-Unity, then it's in the System menu)
The application asks you two questions: Where is the .iso? And which USB drive?
It's very easy and straightforward.
Good luck!
Comment: Wow! That was incredibly simple and I don't know why I've never used the built in start-up disk creator.  Thanks a lot
Answer: I use this way to create a bootable USB drive for Ubuntu 12.04, but when I used it to install Ubuntu 12.04 in a physical machine, it hang in the beginning. Only the 'Ubuntu' icon and a progress bar (five shining stars) were in the screen... Any idea? Thanks.

Installing Ubuntu 12.04 Alpha from USB


Getting the licenses of all conda installed packages

Question: I would like to get a list of the licenses of all packages I installed using Conda. pip has what I need in the form of pip-licenses, is there a similar thing for conda?
Comment: I proposed `grep '"license":' ${CONDA_PREFIX}/conda-meta/*.json` in [a similar SO query](https://stackoverflow.com/q/57549777/570918).
Answer: To my knowledge there's no single listing of the licenses, but you can:
conda list | awk '{if(NR>3) printf("%s=%s", $1, $2)}' | xargs conda info | grep license

Allegedly conda info --license should work, but at least in conda 4.6.3 it doesn't show any license information. It unfortunate that there's no convenient way to get a tabular list of package:version:channel:license information from the command line.
Comment: It doesn't work for me, I get InvalidVersionSpec: Invalid version '0.1.0_license=1.1_r-mutex=1.0.0_tflow_180_select=3.0_tflow_select=2.1.0absl-py=0.2.2ad3=2.2.1alabaster=0.7.10anaconda-client=1.6.14anaconda-navigator=1.8.7anaconda-project=0.8.2anyqt=0.0.8appdirs=1.4.3argcomplete=1.9.4asn1crypto=0.24.0astor=0.6.2astroid=1.6.3astropy=3.0.2atomicwrites=1.1.5attrs=18.1.0awscli=1.15.57babel=2.5.3backcall=0.1.0backports=1.0backports.sh ... etc BTW, I can edit your response, isn't that strange? Conda version 4.6.3. Conda list does not seem to output any licenses.
Comment: Thanx, this does produce a list of licences indeed! However, I don't see what they belong to. I also don't understand how your command works otherwise I would distill from it something that prints a packages name and a license only. What does the command do? There are no licences in the conda list output so where do they come from? How would I get the license for one package?
Comment: Try adding a `\n` in the printf (`"%s=%s\n"`). Regarding the edit, it would become a suggestion and I'd get a notice for approval.
Answer: This one uses JQ for parsing and querying conda generated json output (https://stedolan.github.io/jq/)
conda list | awk '{if(NR>3) printf("%s=%s\n", $1, $2)}' | xargs -I{} conda search --info --json "{}" | jq --raw-output '.[][0] | "\(.name)\t\(.version)\t\(.license)"'

builds the list, asks conda search for all info on package as json, feeds json to JQ, which selects the first item and outputs its name, version and license as tsv.
Comment: I like this solution, although it does take a bit of time, since `conda search` queries aren't that fast. The only problem I ran into is if you have a later version of conda installed where the command line `conda` is actually a function, not an executable file, you'll need to changes `... xargs -I{} conda ..` to `... xargs -I{} $CONDA_EXE ...`.
Answer: I can't comment, but here's an improvement for the top answer to list more information:
conda list | awk '{if(NR>3) printf("%s=%s\n", $1, $2)}' | xargs conda info | grep 'name\|version\|license'


Pronunciation of マッハ or シャッフル

Question: How do the Japanese actually pronounce words such as マッハ (Mahha - Mach) or シャッフル (Shaffuru - Shuffle)?
I know gemination is a feature of Japanese phonology, but I've only managed to articulate such clusters as /pp/, /kk/, /tt/, /ss/. I'm not sure about /hh/ or /ff/ (?). Any suggestions?
Comment: ProTip™: "Gemination" = twice as long.
Comment: Can anyone provide a sound sample or diagram or something to illustrate the articulation?
Answer: Just start the initial sound of the kana (ハ or フ) early and hold it. It's easier to show this with romaji:

"mahhha" (extended huffing sound in the middle)
"shafffuru" (keep blowing air through your pursed lips for a little longer than usual after the シャ)

It's the same as with words like レッスン where you extends the "ssss" sound.
EDIT: And for more fun, there is an Italian-style rolled "r" in Japanese (for speakers able to do it) in Italian loanwords like タリアテッレ. Speakers unable to make the sound may just say it as タリアテルレ or some such.
Answer: ッ/っ creates a glottal stop.
If you want to hear a glottal stop, listen to a Scottish person say "butter".(bu(pause)er)
Normally, when one is created in Japanese it doubles the nearest hard constanant, making it easier to pronounce. As in 日本 にっぽん Nip(pause)pon).
In words with soft constnants "ー" is often used, but that lengthens the sound. Like in セーフ. (se-e-fu)
In シャッフル it is easier to pronounce if a gap if left. So it does the same as in にっぽん but without doubling any constanants.
sha(pause)furu
Comment: っ is definitely not a universal glottal stop. Much more commonly, it just represents an geminated consonant, as in the case of 切手, and is only a true glottal stop when not next to a consonant (as in the exclamation あっ).  The asker gives 2 words where っ is before a consonant, so I don't really see how much of what is brought up is related to these cases. Also not totally sure where ー comes into it.
Comment: I meant to say it creates a stop consonant, not specifically a glottal stop.
"h" is only a constanant in "ha" not in "mah" so it cannot be geminated.
"f" is a softer constanant so it slurs together, but that creates such a soft sound that it becomes almost non-existant.

Pronunciation of マッハ or シャッフル


How do I sideload, i.e. install non-market apps, on at&t phones?

Question: I'd like to try out some Android beta software I found online, but when I tried installing it on the device I got a message that said that installing non-market apps has been disabled for security reasons. Can I bypass/disable this restriction? I am using the at&t Captivate (Samsung Galaxy S) with Android 2.1.
Answer: No need to load a custom ROM. You have two paths possible -- You can simply use special software on your PC to sideload apps or you can do some edits to the configuration databases on the phone to bypass the block permanently.
This page covers both methods -- http://samsungcaptivate.wikia.com/wiki/How_to_Sideload
Answer: If don't want to root you can use
http://www.androidcentral.com/sideload-android-apps-all-you-want-sideload-wonder-machine
Its much easier than side loading with adb
Answer: The first step is to root your device:
http://forum.xda-developers.com/showthread.php?t=739304
Then you'll want to try out some custom ROMs. That thread recommends using ROM Manager from the Market. I would start there.
Comment: Yeah, don't need to root; you can use Android Central Sideload Wonder Machine, to side-load from your PC as Saiboogu stated.


How can I determine when an SD card needs replacement?

Question: Is there a way to estimate the lifetime of a SD card? If not, is there a utility I can use that monitors its integrity and reliability so I know when to use a new SD card?
Comment: @finnw - A question which is difficult to answer isn't a bad question, it's a good question! It's a question which people are going to keep on asking, so is perfect for a site intended as a reference for answering questions that people want answered. Bad answers on the other hand can be voted down. Not allowing people to try to answer defeats the purpose of a stack exchange site.
Comment: That would make those answers bad answers.  Just because it can't be answered accurately **now** doesn't mean it can't be accurately answered.
Comment: I'm also confused by the reasoning behind the "close" votes as not constructive.  Is it because different SD cards will have different answers?
Comment: I don't get these moderators trying to shutdown questions for no good reason. If you want to help, try to improve the question by adding more tags or something. Do something constructive!
Comment: What makes it a bad question is that the answers will be guesses
Comment: It is just very hard to answer authoritatively, until someone actually does some experiments to find out.
Comment: Does that make it a bad question without a factual answer or just hard to figure out what that answer is?
Answer: SD cards do the monitoring themselves, so you don't have to. Modern commercial-grade SD cards will use sophisticated wear leveling algorithms which detect and isolate bad blocks as they appear, so at any given moment no bad blocks are exposed to the file system. That's why HDD tools like badblocks (and by extension fsck) are useless for failure prediction: they will show you the card is fine even if it is already aging.
Things keep going until the SD card runs out of reserved spare blocks, at which point most cards permanently lock themselves to read-only mode. This is intended to give the user a chance to read out the data and move it to another medium. This is how you know you need to get a new one.
Since the card typically runs out of spare blocks while you're writing on it, having journaling enabled greatly helps to recover your data.
If you really want to anticipate a failure, get an SSD and keep your data there. Then you'll be able to use smartctl to check how many blocks have already been relocated internally, and how many more remain, often represented as a percentage of the estimated lifetime of your SSD.
Comment: @DanFroberg No, the size visible to the user will remain constant. It's the pool of reserved blocks that runs out, and that pool is not visible via regular SD card access.
Comment: @Abdull TL;DR: the SD card needs to be replaced when it becomes read-only.
Comment: Doesn't answer the question
Comment: Frequently, when the card goes bad is too late, read only or not.  Some applications need to anticipate and prepare for that.  Additionally being able to collect analytics on actual card performance and wear in the field is also useful.
Comment: Very good to know! SD healt should then be possible by see when the size has started to shrink, `df -h`
Comment: @NoahTernullo You can't really anticipate with an SD card. What you can do is get an SSD and keep all important data there.
Answer: There are several tools that will check integrity of a filesystem, and recurring errors will point to a SD card reaching the end of its lifetime.
fsck is a commonly used Linux application and you can use it to check a partition like this:
fsck /dev/sdx

Where x is the partition number.
As for estimating the lifetime, the Sandisk Product Manual states:

SanDisk SD cards have an endurance specification for each sector of 100,000 writes typical (reading a logical sector is unlimited).

However, I do not know how many read/writes the typical OS uses on average.
Comment: I'm on Ubuntu Server 20 LTS for Raspberry Pi, and there, the SD card is not on `/dev/sdX`, but `/dev/mmcblk0`.
Comment: I think 'typical' would be indescribable. It would be completely dependent on the software installed. It may be possible to calculate the read/writes of a clean install but that will vary with each little update making the statistic fairly meaningless. I think the tools you listed combined with the knowledge that it will take a good while to burn up a card should be sufficient base data to go on.
Comment: @tencent I think it's the best we can do.
Answer: You can scan all blocks of your partitions with
time badblocks -sv /dev/mmcblk0p2 -o mmcblk0p2.log

mmcblk0p2 refers to the partition and has to be replaced by the partition to scan. You can list your partitions with lsblk or fdisk -l.
Bad blocks will be recorded to the log file.
Unmounting of the file system is not necessary.
You can also do non-destructive write tests (-n option), if you find it necessary.
If you don't need to preserve the data you can also do faster (destructive) write test (-w option).
Answer: For ATP branded Industrial SD Cards, they provide "SD Lifetime Monitoring Tool" software for Linux/Windows. But if you use this tool you must run this tool from a Host Operating System. That means you can not use this software inside SD Card to check itself. Because if you run this software, SD card can not be accessable.
For Reference - Google:
ATP Industrial Grade SD Card Specification (Revision 3.8)

Comment: Nice but those cards basically do not exists. Can't find any on amazon.fr or other usual websites in EU.
Answer: I just came across a tool to check Panasonic SD Cards for remaining endurance:

https://av.jpn.support.panasonic.com/support/global/cs/sd/tool/card_checker.html
It only has Mac and Windows versions though.


How to enable %postname% permalinks on Mac?

Question: I'm using Mac OS X's built in Apache + PHP with MySQL. Everything works perfectly, except for my pretty %postname% permalinks — they just won't work. I have obviously enabled mod_rewrite and set the AllowOverride setting to All on my httpd.conf file. In case there's anything I can do (I really don't want to run MAMP), is there any programmatic way to use default permalinks on localhost using the very same template files?
Answer: Your /etc/users/{username}.conf should look like this:
<Directory "/Users/username/Sites/">
    Options Indexes MultiViews FollowSymLinks
    AllowOverride All AuthConfig
    Order allow,deny
    Allow from all
</Directory>

You also have to change the name Apache runs under to be able to save the .htaccess rules and use the media uploader etc...
<IfModule !mpm_netware_module>
<IfModule !mpm_winnt_module>

User chris
Group admin #or you can use staff

</IfModule>
</IfModule>

The AllowOverride is listed a couple of times in httpd.conf make sure you changed the right one or both.  One is the default setting and the other is for Library/WebServer/Documents which you should change to whatever server document root your using.
Apache has to be restarted for any changes to take affect.  sudo apachectl restart
Also see How to Install Apache and PHP on Mac OSX for more details.
Comment: Thanks, Chris! One question, though: where should I add that second  code? Right after the first one, inside my .conf user file?
Comment: It should be already there towards the beginning of the file with the user and group set to _www. It's surrounded by comments that I removed to paste in here.
Answer: there are two conf files for the built in apache, one for your username, which may be setting allowoverride to none.
Comment: Thanks, Milo. I just got to /etc/users/[username].conf and set AllowOverride to "All" as well. Let me reboot and see if it works already.
Comment: Nope, it didn't work. Any more suggestions?
Comment: do you have an .htaccess file with the proper rewrite rules?
Comment: Perfect, that's what was missing. Thanks, Milo! :)


What are the "sleepimage" and "swapfile" documents?

Question: I was using Disk Inventory X and found a file called sleepimage in /private/var/vm/ It takes up 4 GB! I also found numerous other files in the same folder called swapfile0 swapfile1, etc. What are they and are they safe to delete so I can free up space? (almost 10 GB)
Comment: It's not helpful to complain about a question that you find trivial via the medium of a comment that everyone else will also find trivial.  I note there are no downvotes on the question, and that is the preferred method of providing such input.
Comment: A very simple google search could answer this…
Comment: I expect the "swapfiles" are for memory swapping, and the "sleepimage" is the saved state when the computer enters hibernation.
Comment: Last comment ref @XAleXOwnZX
Comment: @Alexander I did a simple google search and found this.
Answer: swapfile0, swapfile1 and so on are swap files. You can sort of think of them like "backup" RAM. When your computer doesn't have enough RAM to accomodate the memory requests of all your programs (which is almost always, this is normal), it uses these files to "write out" part of what it had in RAM.
The sleepimage has a very similar use, except it's used only when your Mac hibernates/wakes up.
Deleting any of the swapfile* files is likely to mess up your system, but you can safely delete sleepimage. However, it's kind of pointless, it will probably be recreated the next time you put your computer to hibernation. If you really want to delete it, you'd have to use sudo rm, since root owns the file.
Finally, it's normal for the sleepimage to take up to 4 GB; it will usually take the same space as your RAM.
EDIT You can delete /var/vm/sleepimage safely, but it will be recreated when you put the Mac to sleep. If you run sudo pmset -a hibernatemode 0; sudo rm /var/vm/sleepimage, the Mac will use a normal sleep mode (like desktop Macs by default) and it won't recreate /var/vm/sleepimage. See this post with more information.
Comment: On Macs, a "hibernation" state is only ever used on laptops when the battery dies. I believe a typical system sleep will not write the contents of RAM to disk. (Can anyone confirm this?)
Comment: @NReilingh: I believe so, yes.
Comment: @NReilingh Laptops both keep the memory powered but also write its contents to the sleepimage by default. See `man pmset` and [this question](http://apple.stackexchange.com/questions/51725/).
Answer: Those are part of the virtual memory system: swapfile* contains literally swap data, which is memory content that has been pushed out to disk.
The sleepimage is used for suspend and resume support; when the system hibernates, that is where the memory data is stored.
Deleting either would cause significant problems: sleepimage is the same size as RAM, and would need to be recreated to sleep; the swap files are memory that is in use, and would cause serious problems to delete.
If you use less swap, the system will automatically deallocate those files, though, and free that disk space.
Comment: `sleepimage` is not part of the *virtual* memory system. `sleepimage` relates to power management and *physical* memory.
Answer: I just deleted my sleepimage and everything works fine, and to permanently prevent it from reappearing, follow the steps outlined in the comments of this article
Summary…

Can I safely delete sleepimage from my Mac?
Yes, you can remove sleepimage and it will just be created again automatically the next time your Mac is put to sleep. To delete sleepimage, type the following command into the Terminal:
sudo rm /private/var/vm/sleepimage

You'll be asked for the administrator password to gain access to remove the file, this is normal.
The sleepimage file is only needed for the safe-sleep function where your data is saved to the HDD before sleeping, if you want to permanently reclaim this disk space you can do so using the following commands in a terminal window.
This will revert your computer to the older sleep method, which will sleep faster and wake faster but does keep your data in memory during the sleep period.
to check which mode is active
pmset -g | grep hibernatemode

to change mode 0= old style sleep 3= new (save to disk style)
sudo pmset -a hibernatemode 0

Comment: Welcome to Ask Different! Please summarize the content of the article you are linking. The answer should be enough for solving the problem. Then you can provide additional information by using links.
Comment: I inlined the salient parts from the link.


Drilling into a bathtub

Question: I am trying to install a bath shower door . I need to drill holes into my tub and I am using a Milwaukee Drill with Dewalt titanium drill bit set. I am not sure what sort of bath tub mine is (fiber glass or metal) but I am having a hard time drilling 2 pilot holes. I held the drill for 20 secs and still nothing. Do I hold it for longer? What is the correct drill bit I use?
Comment: Now you've done it. Normally sliding shower doors hang from an upper track that spans and sits on the side rails which are anchored to the walls on either side. Since the lower rail really only serves as a splash guard and door guide it seems to me that it can easily be held in place  by embedding it in a bead of silicon sealer. This removes any need to drill into the tub and keeps from disfiguring it should at some future time the door wants to be taken away.
Comment: If the silicon sealer is used on clean oil free surfaces to place the lower rail that are about 60" long it is not going to "move around" at all once the silicon dries.
Comment: Ok you have a metal or cast tub, it takes a bit more pressure and time if the drill bit is sharp. The goal is not to burn the bit (two fast) and to make progress with a small metal shaving (just right speed) . Give it some more pressure and time and you will punch through. Remember to seal the screws with RTV / rubber grommets so the rail is sealed.
Comment: Thanks for responses. I prefer to drill instead of just putting silicon sealer but if it becomes too hard I will just put the sealer.
Answer: It looks like you're starting with a pretty large bit. I like to use the smallest bit I have (don't apply too much pressure, as skinny bits break easy) and work up. You're drilling more holes overall, but each one goes a lot quicker.
Answer: These are all good points. I'm going to provide some comments.
Your tub is made of an enamel coated steel. It's thin sheet steel so it's easy to work with, however it's not a ten second per hole job of fiber glass or acrylic. You should gauge down your bits (start with a small bit, and work to larger bits) until you hit the goal.
Also, don't use ice water, a room temperature, oil base lubricant is a better idea due to thermal dynamics and such (you can potentially have the bit violently explode, not fun). This can be cleaned up with dish detergent.
Lastly, your instructions should say to seal the screw holes and the bars with silicon (that is, before you put in the plug/screws you clean out the hole, and shoot a dab of silicon in to the holes, followed by applying it to the back of the framing parts before securing them to the wall/tub, again, cleaning the surface before applying). This avoids wicking and diffusion of moisture in to your surrounding structure (avoids mold from developing due to water infiltration).
Comment: I think my statement of using ice might have (rightly) miscontrued.  I have used lubricants or ice...  they work about the same.  The ice is just a quick cool down for tub/bit.  It isn't meant to "freeze" anything but can be used for 10 seconds to cool things down while you give your bit a rest.
Comment: I understood what you meant DMoore, I was hoping to avoid someone directly interpreting what you said, that's my reason for clarifying.
Answer: Well titanium bits are OK for thin sheet metal but note that the titanium is just a coating on the bit.  Once the coating is worn off they are really just your run of the mill cheap steel bits.  Which is the situation you have here.  The only reason your drilling is prolonged is because basically your bit is toast now.  You are basically just rubbing the metal off, which is not good as this could make the hole slight wider than you have intended.
You really just need to buy a Cobalt bit.  I would just get the size you need.  Starting small and working your way up isn't something I have had too much success with for metal (although I would use this for tile or ceramic or stone).  Your larger bits will catch on the hole that is already there and jam or possible drill off-center.  You already have a decent size dimple in the one, so just use the right bit.
When drilling something this tedious I make sure that I am not applying too much pressure.  About 20-30 pounds of pressure is enough - let the bit do the work.  Also don't drill for more than 20-30 seconds at a time.  The last thing is get a cup of ice.  Lower the temperature of both the drill point and the bit itself in intervals will make the process faster and keep your bit working longer.

Drilling into a bathtub


Acceptable link margin for voice communication in uhf band

Question: I want to understand the theory behind how link margin or fade margin is decided? If I have to have a point to point UHF voice communication link from ground to aircraft, for example, with a reliability of 95%, how is the link margin decided? What is acceptable link margin for these links? Are there any standards for these?
Comment: I don't have time to look it up right now, but for example in Theodore S. Rappaport's Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice second edition there were derivations for cell coverage with different reliability levels. So your point-to-point system would act as a one-cell cluster. I think that you might be able to directly use derivations, but I don't remember the specifics right now and I don't have time to look it up these days. Don't forget that aircraft's altitude will also figure in the calculations!
Comment: Related: [What is a link budget, and how do I make one?](http://ham.stackexchange.com/q/352/29)
Answer: It all starts by determining the link budget. According to your model and your system characteristics (i.e., bandwidth, frequency band, bit rate, antennas, etc.), the link may have different kinds of behaviors. For instance, the motion of the aircraft will produce Doppler effect, which might be important for high frequencies (e.g. S-band). Anyway, a Doppler effect combined with specular reflections of the radio wave on the communication environment results in a time varying communication channel, commonly described by its coherence time. Time varying channels are also referred to as fading channels. On the other hand, you may also encounter atmospheric effects, which come from the interaction of the radio wave with the particles on the atmosphere (so it depends on the frequency and the altitude of the spacecraft). So again, everything depends on your model. Sometimes these effects can be neglected.
Once you can describe the behavior of the channel, then you can define a worse case scenario and determine the required link margin in order to cope with the fading events. The fading statistics of typical channels are known, so you can compute the probability of having a fading event larger than X dB. Having that, you can design your system to achieve a certain availability objective.
The ITU provides recommendations for the design of radio links. You may take a look at the ITU-R P.618-7 to get an idea (it is for an Earth-Space communication system), but possibly you may find something closer to your application.
Answer: If you have to estimate the loss that your signal will face whilst propagating to your receiver you perform a link budget for your design. Ignoring antenna gains/losses we generally have,
$$
  P_{TX} = P_{RX} + L_{TOTAL} + L_{MARGIN}
$$
where $P_{TX}$ is the transmit power, $P_{RX}$ is the minimum receive power you need, $L_{TOTAL}$ is an estimate of the total link loss and $L_{MARGIN}$ (link margin) is the difference you want between the the receive sensitivity and the actual receive power. $L_{MARGIN}$ is the additional losses your scheme can withstand over and above standard losses.
and
$$
  L_{TOTAL} = L_{PATH} + L_{SLOW} + L_{FAST}
$$
where $L_{PATH}$ is the path loss, $L_{SLOW}$ is the slow fading loss and $L_{FAST}$ is the fast fading loss.
The term "fading margin" is not consistently used, it can be used to either mean i) the link margin ($L_{MARGIN}$) or ii) the total estimated loss due to fading ($L_{TOTAL}$).$L_{MARGIN}$ is chosen at the designers discretion, if $L_{MARGIN}$ is 0 then the average BER will be $10^{-9}$, a higher value of $L_{MARGIN}$ will lead to a lower (and hence better) BER.
$L_{TOTAL}$ is computed by individually computing and summing up $L_{PATH}$,$L_{SLOW}$ and $L_{FAST}$.If you do not know how these individual components are computed then you might want to ask separate questions about how to calculate each type of loss.


Caches and Website Screen Shots

Question: If I am creating a website to filter retail websites, like shipping or eco-friendly, etc.  Could I use the screenshot of the homepage as the icon to link to the direct website?  Ie.  if my filters result in the The Gap, www.gap.com, and there is a snapshot, cache of the homepage, am I infringing on their ip?
Answer: You should contact a lawyer versed in IP law in your area and this is not legal advice.
It looks like this can fall under Fair Use in North America and possibly other regions but be prepared to take down things on request. That is what Google does. Should you think there would be grounds for this to be infringement, someone would most likely sue Google rather than a small site.
Note that Fair Use is not a precise concept and balances a lot on how things are used. Present it in a way that makes it clear this is a thumbnail for the site you are representing.
There is an even better way to do this: Ask. Considering you are already obtaining data from these sites, you may as well ask your contacts for a representative image. It will usually be much nicer than a screenshot bound to fixed-size image which often becomes illegible.

Caches and Website Screen Shots


Clear Google Maps search history without removing the cached maps?

Question: I've been using the Google Maps app to cache the maps on certain places where I might be going in the future. I don't always have internet access which is why I'm doing this. Now that I've cached most of the places I might possibly go to, I want to clear my search history to remove the clutter. I don't want to clear the whole shebang. Otherwise, my "pre-caching" actions would just be wasted efforts. I just want the search history on Google Maps to be cleared. How do I do this?
Answer: It's possible that if you use the Download Map lab, you'll be able to clear your cache (but not data) without also clearing the maps. But you can't do directions or search with those maps.
In reality I think you'd probably be better off downloading an app specifically made for offline maps access, such as MapDroyd.
Answer: Yes, You can clear the location history.
For that open settings > Location > Location Services > Google Location History.
Here you will see the Delete location history option at the bottom of screen.
Just hit that option.
That's it !!


bhava (kammabhava, upapattibhava) and jati

Question: How is the connection between bhava (as kamma-bhava and upapatti-bhava) and jāti as links in the twelve link formula of dependant arising  to be understood?
Answer: It is actually pretty simple. Once you have identified "yourself" and equated it with an organism, you must have been born. Makes sense? If you don't think you are this organism, moreover, you don't think there is any "you" at all, the notion of birth no longer applies.
Answer: According to Visuddhimagga XVII.270, jāti arises due to kamma condition and decisive support condition.
Here is a more detailed explanation taken from Nyanatiloka's "Buddhist Dictionary" (part of the definition of paṭiccasamuppāda):

"Through the process of becoming is conditioned rebirth" (Bhava-paccayā jāti), i.e. through the wholesome and unwholesome kamma-process (kamma-bhava) is conditioned the rebirth-process (upapatti-bhava). The 2nd and 10th propositions, as already pointed out, practically teach one and the same thing, namely, that kamma is the cause of rebirth; in other words, that the kammical volition (cetanā) is the seed out of which springs the new life, just as from the mango-seed is generated the new mango-tree.
Hence, the 5 kammical causes (ignorance, etc.) of the past birth are the condition for the kamma-results of the present birth; and the 5 kammical causes of the present birth are the condition for the 5 kamma-results of the next birth (s. diagram). As it is said in Vis.M. XVII: "Five causes were there in the past, Five fruits we find in present life; Five causes do we now produce, Five fruits we reap in future life."
Now, just as in this process of continually changing mental and bodily phenomena, nothing can be found that would pass from one moment to the next moment, so also there is no enduring entity, ego, or personality, within this process of existence that would transmigrate from one life to the next (s. nāma-rūpa, anattā, paṭisandhi, khandha). "No being and no living soul passed from the former life to this life, and yet this present embryo could not have entered into existence without the preceding causes" (Vis.M. XVII). "Many things may serve to illustrate this fact, as for example the echo, the light of a lamp, the impression of a seal, or the image produced by a mirror" (ib.).
"Whosoever is in the dark with regard to the conditionally arisen things, and does not understand that kamma originates from ignorance, etc., he thinks that it must be his ego that knows or does not know, acts and causes to act, and that arises at rebirth. Or he thinks that the atoms, or a creator, with the help of this embryonic process, must have formed this body, or that it is the ego endowed with faculties that has impressions, feels, desires, clings, continues and enters again into existence in a new birth. Or he thinks that all beings have been born through fate, or fortuitously" (Vis.M. XVII).
Now, on hearing that Buddhism teaches that everything whatever in the world is determined by conditions some might come to the conclusion that Buddhism teaches some sort of fatalism, and that man has no free will, or that will is not free.
The problem 'whether man has a free will' does not exist for, the Buddhist, since he knows that, apart from these everchanging mental and physical phenomena, no such entity as 'man' can be found, and that 'man' is merely a name not relating to any reality. And the question, 'whether will is free', must be rejected for the reason that 'will', or volition, is a mental phenomenon flashing forth only for a moment, and that as such it had not any existence at the preceding moment. For of a thing which is not, or is not yet, one cannot, properly speaking, ask whether it is free or unfree. The only admissible question would be whether the arising of 'will' is independent of conditions, or whether it is conditioned. But the same question would equally apply also to all the other mental phenomena, as well as to all physical phenomena, in other words: to everything and every occurrence whatever. And the answer would be: whether will arises, or whether feeling arises, or whether any other mental or any physical phenomenon arises, the arising of anything whatsoever is dependent on conditions, and without conditions nothing ever can arise or enter into existence.
According to Buddhism, everything mental or physical happens in accordance with laws and conditions; and if it were otherwise, chaos and blind chance would reign. But such a thing is impossible and contradicts all laws of thinking. Cf. Fund. III (end).
Answer: My understanding is:

kamma-bhava - moment to moment turning of Dependent Origination (DO) within one lifetime
upapatti-bhava - the turning of DO on a multi life time perspective

The latter is what relates to jāti. Past Fabrication due to Ignorance from the previous life creates a new body with sense faculties with associated consciousness to experience the world leading to jāti.


Best way to learn Performance Point Services

Question: I want to know the best book or training course/material to learn about Performance Point services in SP2010.
Answer: I use "Microsoft SharePoint 2010 Performance Point Services UNLEASHED"
ISDN: 0672330946
I've used it and it goes into detail not only how to set up your SharePoint server in general, but shows you about Dashboard Designer, KPIs, Reports, Analytics, Managing PPS, Filters, and Security. It has good pictures and walkthroughs.
Answer: There are few videos available on Microsoft site:
1- SharePoint Server 2010 business intelligence insights training -> Module 3 | PerformancePoint Services in SharePoint Server 2010
2- Up to Speed with PerformancePoint Dashboard Designer
These can give you a good start-up, and for further knowledge you can buy the book... I have the e-book link for the book mentioned by Mike, but can't paste it here as policy :P
I hope this helps


What makes prayer take so long?

Question: I have noticed that some people take a lot longer to pray than others.  I was wondering what exactly adds to this length?  I do understand it's probably thinking of the meaning of the words etc. but being that its davened so often, doesn't the person know what he is saying already?  And wouldn't that familiarity reduce rather than lengthen the time needed?
Comment: Bruchos daf 34a relates the story of two students who davened for the amud in the presence of R. Eliezer.

The first student took a very long time, and the other students asked R. Eliezer if this was a good trait to daven so long. R. Eliezer replied "Is he drawing it out any more than our Master Moses, of whom it is written [by the Chet HaEgel]: The fourty days and the forty nights [that I fell down]?"
The other student davening for the amud davened very quickly, so the students asked R. Eliezer
Comment: ...if it was good to daven so quick. He replied "Is he any more concise than our Master Moses, who prayed [for miriam when she had tzaraat], as it is written: Heal her now O God, I beseech Thee?"
We can learn from R. Eliezer and his students that the quality of the davening is not directly related to the time spent davening. And from Moshe we can learn that davening for something very serious, like the Chet HaEgel, requires a longer davening than something less serious, like Tzaraat.
Answer: The goal is concentration and that takes awareness and work. Some people naturally read slower but for many, it isn't a matter of reading as it is of focusing. The prayer isn't a race but a chance to connect with the divine -- it shouldn't be the goal to get through it as quick as possible -- that should be the opposite of the desired experience. It isn't about the holiness of the individual, but about the kind of religious experience that the individual is going for. We don't try to assess another person's holiness or tie it to our external sense of what they are doing.
If you had a chance to have a sit down with the president, wouldn't you measure every word carefully and speak slowly instead of zooming though some prepackaged speech? And if you had a prepared text, wouldn't you deliver it carefully, infusing into each word the subtleties of meaning and intention showing that yours is a conscious delivery and not a "by rote" performance? Actors on Broadway don't finish their plays faster just because they have memorized their lines.
The challenge is to keep it vital and fresh even though one knows what is coming next. Sure, in a pinch, someone very familiar with the words can rush through, but unless there is a pressing emergency or other valid reason, the effort should be made to pay attention to what each word means and carries with it.
Prayer used to be a personal liturgy, not a codified one. It has become established to help people who would not, otherwise, have the words to communicate to Hashem. We are still allowed to add in personal supplications and give the prayer even more meaning. But even if we don't, our job is to take the printed word and breathe life into it. And that takes time.
Answer: In my shul I am one of the slowest daveners, if not the slowest. One a good day kavanah will slow me down, but by far the most influential factor on my pace is straightforward pronunciation.
My spoken Hebrew is poor, but years of davening have made the words fluent in my mouth. Even so, I am careful to pronounce the words properly and it simply takes time to verbalise them.
Perhaps what I am doing differently is speaking loud enough to hear what I am saying, albeit in a whisper. When I can hear each syllable I am forced to slow down to make each sound separate and distinct. Not exaggerated, not extended, but not running into the next.
For me it's pedantry, not holiness.
Comment: This is the same thing as I mentioned in my comment above. The original poster explained in a comment above that the apparant "holiness" of an individual was not the point, yet I wonder therefore why he/she has not yet removed that remarked from the original question. Could the motivation for the question really be somehow connected to how the original poster perceives "holiness" in other people?
Answer: At about 9 minutes into this video, R' Aryeh Kaplan, ZT"L, discusses how a meditative 'Amidah would be slower, and how this would afford the person praying the opportunity to connect to the Divine.
Answer: I think this question is based on a false premise that knowing the literal meaning of the words is equal to having kavanah. The question also borders on evoking a discussion rather than an answer that can be supported with traditional sources, however, I have a vague memory of a possible source that could address this question. Namely, our tefillah should be new every day despite the fact we're saying the same words. It requires thinking beyond the simple literal meaning of the words to make one's tefillah new every day, and that takes a little extra time. I can't remember if this teaching comes from a chassidishe sefer or the Talmud.
Addendum added later: I remember now. I got it from S'fat Emet on Parashat Ki Tavo, focusing on the pasuk Devarim 26:16, "Today, Hashem your God commands you to do these decrees..." There, he compares tefillah to bikurim (first fruits) because we suspend our typical human activities to take time out to engage with Hashem at the "first" opportunity. The idea of "first" opportunity relates to "reishit peirot," first fruits. He then expands the concept of "ha-yom," today, citing Rashi and Midrash Rabba on this pasuk where they say the Torah and mitzvot should be regarded as new every day. The S'fat Emet then points to Hashem's constant re-creation of the world and suggests that this is a hint to us that we have the power to make our daily service of Hashem new every day, and tefillah is the natural focal point for renewing our daily service to Hashem.
To respond to the original poster, I am suggesting that some people who take longer to daven might be attempting to engage in this mindful renewal of service through concentrating on the significance of what they're saying. This goes way beyond merely knowing what the words mean and what's coming next.
Additionally, some people who take a long time to daven may just be mindful of the correct pronounciation of the words. It actually does take a great deal of concentration and some extra time to make sure every letter is pronounced clearly, distinctly, and correctly, and that in and of itself is a new challenge every day. When standing before the King of kings of kings, it's generally a good idea to avoid carelessly mumbling and slurring one's words just for the sake of whipping through them as fast as possible.
Comment: Maybe תלמוד בבלי ברכות דף כח עמוד ב

רבי אליעזר אומר: העושה תפלתו קבע אין תפלתו תחנונים.
Comment: `I can't remember if this teaching comes from a chassidishe sefer or the Talmud` It's in the Shulchan Aruch, laws of Shema — "vehayu hadevarim ha'eileh asher anochi metzavecha HAYOM al levavecha"
Comment: See Brachos 63b that one who missed shma once is like he never read it.
Answer: Davening is about connection, we are during Davening connecting with Hashem.
When you try to connect with someone, it's not just about the words, rather it's about the feeling behind the words. The same goes with Davening, we try to not only understand the words but generate a feeling of love and fear of Hashem, this takes time.
Comment: You are posting a lot of very heartfelt answers to a lot of questions. Have you the ability to cite sources to support any of them? If so, your scores will go up in line with the improved quality of the answers.
Comment: i definitely will try :) i mostly answer questions when i have a few minutes break from work (so i don't have Sforim with me to look up - it's mostly from memory)
Comment: Try [Hebrewbooks.org](http://hebrewbook.org).
Comment: Thanks! it takes very long to browse some of the sforim there (and i'm used to certain new prints which allows me to find things quicker)

What makes prayer take so long?


Do I have to defrost chicken before cooking?

Question: I'd much rather throw the chicken in the pan straight from the freezer but I worry about the tastiness and tenderness. Looking for seasoned advice on this one.
Comment: Please don't mark the correct answer so quickly, better answers may be available, but potential posters may not see this as it has been "accepted"
Answer: Not a great idea. The oven cooks from the outside in, so by the time your chicken is done on the outside, it'll still be uncooked on the inside. If you cook it longer so it cooks through, the outside will be as tough as shoe leather and the inside will be just lukewarm enough to encourage microorganisms (that may have survived the freezer) to fester, which could sicken you.
Put it in the pan the night before, cover it (or not, as Alton Brown sometimes suggests), and put the pan in the refrigerator. When you get home from work or whatever, preheat the oven to 450 F, season it, and bake until done. When is it done? It's done when:

The chicken is done when an instant-read thermometer reads 165 degrees
  F when inserted into the thickest part of the thigh (the legs of the
  chicken should wiggle easily from the sockets too.) Remove the chicken
  to a platter and let stand for 10 minutes, so the juices settle back
  into the meat before carving.

http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/tyler-florence/the-ultimate-roast-chicken-recipe/index.html
Note that some would say 165 F is over done, but safe is better than losing a kidney to E. coli or other nasty microbeasties.
Comment: Thanks great answer, although I was really talking about pan frying those frozen tenderloins you get for like 6 bucks at Walmart. I assume the same physics apply. Thank you!
Comment: The directions on the bag of frozen tenderloins would have probably told you that. On Tyson's tenderloins, "1. Preheat oven to 375°F.
2. Bake frozen tenderloins 20 to 30 minutes, or until juices run clear when thickest part of chicken is pierced and temperature on instant read thermometer reaches 170°F. (Bake thawed tenderloins 15 to 25 minutes)."
Answer: Since you mentioned the chicken tenders instead of a whole chicken it's easier to give a more appropriate answer now. Chicken tenders have much less mass and more surface area than the whole chicken, and because of that they thaw faster.
I have, before, cooked frozen chicken breasts and tenders by adding the frozen chicken to a cold, lightly oiled pan. Add water to come halfway up the chicken, cover the pan and cook on a medium-low heat for 15 minutes or so. Then turn the heat up slightly and uncover the pan to boil the water off and brown the chicken.
Answer: I've cooked from frozen to the pan as long as it just the chicken flats (thin cuts of chicken breast). It's kind of like throwing a frozen hamburger patty in the pan.
When you get to thicker meats, it is a problem. When the outside is done, the inside is still raw. I wouldn't do whole chicken breasts in the pan frozen or even a steak. Take the time to either pull it out and defrost or throw in the refrigerator the day before.
On my cooking show I always recommend bringing all meat to room temp before seasoning, marinating and cooking.
Answer: I put them in a toaster a couple of times.  It seems to work.
Comment: Toaster or toaster oven?


Imperfect substitute

Question: Perfect substitute- Pepsi and Coca-Cola and Imperfect substitute- Tea and Coffee . Here why tea and coffee considered imperfect substitute?
Answer: Any two specific goods can be perfect substitutes, imperfect substitutes or even complements depending on the preferences. It's not goods themselves, but our preferences towards them what make them substitutes or complements.
However, when many people have similar preferences towards those goods, it is common to characterize goods as being, for instance imperfect substitutes. Apparently, you have no qualms about Pepsi and Coca-Cola being imperfect substitutes, and I guess that's because it agrees with your own preferences towards them. Tea and Coffee are imperfect substitutes for many people, who may drink sometimes one and sometimes the other. Of course, they're not substitutes at all for people who only drink Tea or only drink Coffee. The fact that we colloquially say that they are imperfect substitutes should be understood as most people thinking of them as such.

Imperfect substitute


Linear Independence of an infinite set .

Question: Let $e_n=\sin nx$ ($x\in [-\pi,\pi])$and let $A=\{e_i|i\in \mathbb{N}\}$. Prove that A is a linearly independent set.
Answer: One way to do it is to prove that $A$ forms an orthogonal set with respect to the inner product give by
$$\langle f,g\rangle=\int_{-\pi}^\pi f(x)g(x)dt.$$
If $A$ forms an orthogonal set, then $A$ is a linearly independent set.
To prove that $A$ forms an orthogonal set, we need to prove that
$$\langle e_n,e_m\rangle=\int_{-\pi}^\pi \sin(nx)\sin(mx)dt=0\mbox{ for }m\neq n.$$
Note that
$$\int_{-\pi}^\pi \sin(nx)\sin(mx)dt=\frac{1}{2}\int_{-\pi}^\pi [\cos(m t-nt)-\cos(mt-nt)]dt=...$$
Can you prove that the last integral is zero when $m\neq n$?
Edit: If $A$ forms an orthogonal set, then we claim that $A$ is a linearly independent set. To see this, suppose we have
$$\sum_{i=1}^na_ie_{n_i}(x)=0\mbox{ for all }x\in[-\pi,\pi]$$
for some $a_i$ where $1\leq i\leq n$. Taking the inner product with $e_{n_j}$ where $1\leq j\leq n$, we have
$$0=\langle \sum_{i=1}^na_ie_{n_i},e_{n_j}\rangle=\sum_{i=1}^na_i\langle e_{n_i}, e_{n_j}\rangle=a_j$$
for $1\leq j\leq n$. This implies that $A$ is a linearly independent set.
Comment: I cant understand @Paul why linear independence follows from the fact that "A forms an orthogonal set with respect to the inner product". Do you mind elaborating the reason. And by the way what is meant by orthogonal set?
Comment: @AbhraAbirKundu General fact: if $(f_j)$ are nonzero pairwise orthogonal vectors in an inner product space, then they are linearly independent. Proof: take a linear combination $\sum x_jf_j$. For each $i$, take the inner product of the latter with $f_i$. This leaves $x_i(f_i,f_i)=x_i\|f_i\|^2=0$. So $x_i=0$.
Comment: @paul ..... In the integral that we have to prove that it is 0 for m $\ne$ n, in the second cosine.. it is mt+nt not mt-nt.
Answer: This is my answer (which I would like you all to evaluate).
Let $z=\cos x+i\sin x$ for  $x\in [-\pi,\pi]$ and $A_k=\{e_i|i\in \mathbb{N},i\le k\}$
I will show that every $A_k$ is linearly independent.
If $\displaystyle \sum_{j=1}^{k}\lambda_je_j=0$ be a linear relation. Then I will show $\lambda_j=0,\forall j\le k$.
Now we know that $\sin nx=\frac{1}{2i}(z^n-\frac{1}{z^n})$.
So the relation becomes $\displaystyle \sum_{j=1}^{k}\frac{\lambda_j}{2i}(z^j-\frac{1}{z^j})=0\dots(1)$
Now $|z|=1$ which implies All the $z$ lies on the circle of unit radius.
So $z\ne 0\Rightarrow z^n\ne 0$
Multiplying eqn. (1) with $z^k $ we get,
$\displaystyle z^k\sum_{j=1}^{k}\frac{\lambda_j}{2i}(z^j-\frac{1}{z^j})=0$
$\Rightarrow \displaystyle \sum_{j=1}^{k}\frac{\lambda_j}{2i}(z^{j+k}-z^{k-j})=0$
SO we get a polynomial in $z$ valid for all $z$ such that $|z|=1$
As a polynomial of n degree cant have more that $n$ roots and as this polynomial has infinite roots so this must be the zero polynomial $\Rightarrow \lambda_j=0 ,\forall j\le k$
Now every finite subset will be a subset of some $A_k,k\in N$ .As all $A_k$ are linearly independent it implies that every finite subset will also be linearly independent.
Comment: Yes, it works, good job, +1.
Comment: Thanks @julien for evaluating it.


Time allowance for a layover in Oslo with Norwegian Air

Question: This will be my first time out of the U.S. so it is unclear to me. Apologies if this is obvious. The flight I am looking at will be from Oakland to Oslo and then to Berlin on Norwegian Air. There is a 1.5-hour layover in Oslo. I don't know what the procedure for a layover like this is (immigration, customs?) and I want to make sure that this is enough time to make the connection. What do you think? It is worth mentioning that I travel lightly and will probably not check a bag.
Comment: Is it all on one ticket? Or are you changing tickets? Generally, if it's all one ticket and the airline will sell you that connection, then it can be done if everything goes well!
Comment: Yes, this is all on one ticket.
Answer: As Gagravarr said, if it's on the same ticket, you don't need to worry. 1.5 hours is plenty of time even if you have to go through customs and have a checked-in baggage. Oslo airport is pretty small, so even if your first flight arrives slightly later, you'll still make it easily. In case it's late more than an hour and the flight to Germany is on time, then you're very likely to miss that one, but if it's on the same ticket, the airline will deliver you to your destination as soon as possible with no extra charge. They have three direct flights per day from Oslo to Berlin and many more with a connection elsewhere, so you shouldn't worry too much. In case you're planning to buy two separate tickets, then it's a big no-no. Unless you have a very good travel insurance covering all those expenses, you should not be taking a risk like that, because in that occasion you're responsible for the flights you missed after the airline fulfills their duty of delivering you to Oslo with that first ticket you bought.
Answer: Norwegian Air's web site has an explanation on connections.
If you have a single ticket with a connection, ninety minutes is more than enough time for the physical transfer and, moreover, if you miss the connection because of bad weather or another delay, they will book you on their next flight and pay your accommodations meantime.
For two separate tickets, one to Oslo and another from Oslo to Berlin, they disclaim responsibility for connections under two hours, so that would be at your own risk for delay. But if the flight is on time or close, you would make your second flight easily.


Temp profile used when User logs in

Question: One of my users logged into his computer, Windows XP, last night only to be meet with an error message that it could not load his profile and he will be logged in using a temporary profile. Typically when this happens I shut the machine down and restart and the correct profile will load when they log in again. Not this time. In the user profile options under computer->properties->Advanced->user profiles it show that there are three profiles with his name. Two are the exact same size with the same modified date (5/5/10) and the other is what I would expect size wise for a new profile with a modified date of today. What are my options to restore his profile?
Answer: ok so all I did was delete the profile that was the smallest around 18 Mb from the Computer Properties->Advanced->User Profiles I then rebooted the machine and had the user log in and it used the correct profile. I would say the reason it continued to use the Temp profile is because it has associated the temp profile location with his log in and once the temp profile was removed it reverted back to the correct profile.
Answer: This occurs when the registry hive associated with the profile is corrupt or unreadable for any reason. I generally have people reboot and try logging in one more time just to see if it was that a process was holding the hive incorrectly.
If the issue persists, backup the pertinent profile folder (my docs, favs, desktop, etc) and delete the profile exactly as you did.
Upon reboot and login the profile should be deleted and the user profile folder is created fresh and new.
Use the User Profile Hive Cleanup Service (from MS) to minimize the chance of this occurring. Also, keep the startup entries as few as necessary (use CCleaner or Autoruns for this) and if the issue reoccurs, there may be problems with the default user profile registry hive, in which case you want to create a fresh account, clean it up rather aggressively and run the CCleaner registry cleaner, then, while logged in as a different admin account, move the NTUSER.DAT file from that fresh and cleaned profile into the default user directory (backup the existing NTUSER.DAT first), and login with a fresh account to make sure it works OK.
Answer: Solution 1:
1.       Restart Your Computer.
Solution 2:
1.       Log on With Administrator Account (other than effected user), backup profile, rename it and again login with original user. Works with corrupted user profile.
Solution 3:
1.       Check, your Active Directory User is not a member or Guest group on Domain Controller.
Solution 4:
1.       Restart your System, Run in Safe Mode.
2.       Log on to your System by an Administrative User account (other than effected user)
3.       Backup Up all in effected user's profile (if available J because in some cases you even loss your data, read how to recover lost profile in Windows), user profile folder can be accessed from    %SystemDrive%\Users\UserName (Windows Vista / 7) for Windows XP, you need to type bit extra. %SystemDrive%\Documents and Settings\UserName.
4.       Delete all your effected Profiles (if one or more with incremental names, but take backup first).
5.       Click Start, type regedit in the Start Search box, and then press ENTER, in Windows Vista / 7, it may be prompt you for Administrator access or password.
6.       Locate the following registry Subkey: HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\CurrentVersion\ProfileList
7.       Under the ProfileList subkey, click on each individual subkey and find your effected username, in left pane in front of ProfileImagePath, for me it was as. HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\CurrentVersion\ProfileList\ S-1-5-21-2697157797-3922012616-804475456-2266\
and in front of ProfileImagePath, there was my username with path C:\Users\rizwan.ahmad.
Microsoft Says: Under the ProfileList subkey, expand and delete the subkey that is SID.bak. but I recommend above procedure ;).
8.       Exit Registry Editor.
9.       Restart Your Computer Normally, and hope this issue is gone.
Comment: Why do you include information on Windows 7 and Windows Vista when the user is only asking about Windows XP?

Temp profile used when User logs in