Did Roman statutory law in the 1st century allow for crucifixion of non slaves?

Question: Did Roman statutory law in the 1st century allow for crucifixion of non slaves?  I knew a Roman law scholar who claimed it did not, ergo Christ could not have been crucified but must have been deported to some far corner of the empire.
Comment: Who is this "Roman law scholar who claimed" that? The usual claim is that citizens are exempt and even then there has been exceptions (and/or citizenship was stripped)
Comment: I normally downvote any question that references unsourced/unreferenced claims.  It makes a big difference if the "scholar" was from an accredited university or paid by a hate group.    Also "statutory law" in the Empire is a flexible concept.  Roman Republic was (mostly) bound by the rule of law, the empire was an autocracy and the rule of law doesn't apply strictly in an autocracy.
Comment: Welcome!  This Stack Exchange is for asking questions about the meaning of a specific text.  As such, your question is off-topic here.  However, [this answer](http://christianity.stackexchange.com/a/44940/22238) on Christianity.SE may help answer your question.  In short, the scholar is mistaken - people off all social classes could be crucified.  (Lower classes were more commonly crucified, but for example treason was always punishable by crucifixion.)
Comment: By tradition,  St Peter was crucified in Rome, and he was not a slave. I don't think the Romans were too fussy!
Answer: Jesus was not a Roman citizen. He was not one of the provinciales because he was not born in Roman province (Iudaea).
"The Closing of the Western Mind" by Charles Freeman, chapter 8, says he was born and lived almost entire life in Galilee, which was part of a "puppet state" ruled by a king (e.g., Herod Antipas). Jesus came to Iudaea between 29-33 CE, most probably in 30 CE.
"Crucifixion in the Mediterranean World" by J. G. Cook similarly asserts on page 216 Jesus was a peregrinus ("foreigner, one from abroad" but in practice a subject of Empire as opposed to barbari), and that there were in all 9 recorded names of crucified peregrini. For example he includes Theodotus rhetor. Also we know three names of crucified full Roman citizens:  Valerius Soranus, Gavius of Consa, Gaius Silius.
Comment: +1 definitely. However, after some quick follow-up googling, I'd like to point out that the claims about Soranus and Silius actually being crucified (as opposed to a catch-all "executed") are removed about 400 years from the events and are not very reliable. Take Silius, who was a consul-designate and would-be-emperor - one might expect his crucifixion to have been reflected in contermporary (or nearly so) sources like Suetonius or Tacitus, but all we have is a scholiast from 400 CE.
Comment: On Silius, I used page 188 of the book you quoted: https://books.google.co.il/books?id=CLOyBHy9Ip8C&pg=PA188&lpg=PA188&dq=Gaius+Silius+crucified&source=bl&ots=Egb1bYUw8s&sig=V9QfkBwak8RxyRPJ9BZCP-NCZcY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjT_M-tyqTKAhWH1hQKHVqrBoUQ6AEILjAD#v=onepage&q=Gaius%20Silius%20crucified&f=false
Answer: In the Aqueduct riots Pilate sent in the troops on a mob and many were slain - and it was explicitly said by Josephus that non-rioters were also killed.  Pilate was hardly averse to treating potential unrest with severe force...and a claim to be King of the Jews is treason and a call for rebellion.
Answer: As far as I know, the Romans never practiced deportation as a punitive measure against provincials. Simply killing off an offender was the expedient and simple Roman way.
P.S.
A citizen under trial could go into voluntary exile before the verdict was handed, to escape forfeiture of property but that was (a) under the Republic (b) applied in practice only to a handful of relatively prominent individuals (e.g. Verres or Rutilius Rufus) who were indicted for political reasons, whether guilty or not.
Answer: There is no such thing as "Roman Statutory Law". The legal system in Rome was centered around magistrates, and their agents called lictors. Magistrates had imperium, which meant they had wide latitude to do whatever they wanted, especially in provinces like Judea.
As far as your professor's claim that crucifixion was limited to slaves, that was normally true until the time of the Judean revolt in 66-73 AD, when crucifixion was also used against the rebels. I know of no instance in Roman  history where a Roman citizen was recorded as having been crucified in Rome.
During the Judean revolt many non-slaves were crucified. The population of provincial states like Judea were considered provinciales which was a type of citizenship, but not full citizenship. In the Roman empire there were many different classes of citizens. In any case, during the revolt non-slaves were crucified, so that would seem to contradict the professor's statement of fact.
As far as the professor's basic idea, it has some validity, even if it is incorrect in the details. In 30 AD, relations between the Romans and Judeans were relatively cordial and the Romans were mostly located in Caesarea, very far away from Jerusalem. The idea that a Roman prefect and soldiers would enter Jerusalem and crucify a local seems very unlikely given the political situation at the time. One of the few historical details known about Pontius Pilate is that he sent a Roman unit to Jerusalem and it caused a huge scandal because some of their banners had embroideries of the emperor's picture (Tiberius). Pictures of people are illegal under the Torah. Once this became known, Pilate immediately ordered those banners removed from the city out of respect for the local laws. It is common sense that if such a little thing was disallowed, holding a crucifixion would be unthinkable because the affront to the Torah for such a thing would be a thousand times worse than a mere picture.
As far as the idea of Jesus having been "deported", what is the evidence for this that the professor gives? Even if Jesus had not been crucified, that does not imply that he was "deported".
Comment: This would be a better answer if you provided sources.
Comment: Well, this is about half true: the importance of magistrates' enactments (edicts) is correctly stressed, but you seem to ignore the huge body of positive legislation in the form of *Leges* (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws) This was the primary legislation which magistrates had a relatively wide berth in interpreting.
Comment: Odd, given how proud the Romans were that their laws were printed and available in the forum for every citizen to read.
Comment: @MarkC.Wallace The posting of the twelve tables was purely a figment of antique Republican Rome which even at the time (400 BC) was just a compromise gesture towards the plebians. In reality rule was by imperium throughout both the Republic and Empire of Rome, as I wrote. The 12 tables were so obscure that we don't even know what they said today, except for a few excerpts.
Comment: @MarkC.Wallace Printed?????
Comment: @FelixGoldberg I am familiar with various Roman laws and when I was younger I used to take them very seriously, but when I got more experienced with Roman history, I found that most of the "laws" of Rome were generally either dictates from an emperor that expired when he died (if they had an effect at all) or were largely political stunts of one kind or another. In practice, I have found little evidence that the Romans practiced law in the Britannic sense, and that almost universally things were done by imperium, ie dictatorship.


How slide viewers work?

Question: I am wondering how slide viewers invert the negative slides into positive colours. Sorry if my question could be ill posed as I am lacking enough knowledge.
Comment: Not a bad question, but did you try any independent research?
Answer: If you're talking about the traditional slide viewers, they don't. The slide is a positive colour slide, all a slide viewer can do is shine light through a slide. If you put a negative slide, or a standard 35mm negative into the slide viewer, then the negative image will be projected.
Answer: There are negative viewers available at some photo labs that invert the image.
They are essentially a video camera with a display that shows the inverted colors of the camera.
This is helpful for viewing negatives and deciding which ones to print/enlarge.
Comment: Thanks for this to mention, I know computer (digital based) methods of inverting a negative slide to positive colour, but I was wondering whether there exits a method to achieve this without involving any computer.
Answer: Early in the history of photography color imaging was demonstrated. Three pictures were taken on black and white film. One with a red filter mounted, one with green, and one with blue. The three pictures were superimposed, projected on a screen.  The projectors were fitted with the same color filters. The year was 1855 and the photographer was James Maxwell. That day, the world saw the first color picture made with a camera.
Today color film and TV and computer screens as well as phone screens follow this same principle. They all present three superimposed filtered black & white images. Your eye/brain interpolates and you see an image in full color.
Now the modern digital camera and scanner proceed, taking this method a bit further. The computer logic they use, fractures the picture into millions of super tiny points of red, green, and blue light. Tiny as they are, each is the smallest element of a picture that can convey intelligence. We call this digital imaging as each picture element (pixel) is assigned a numeral value. The word digit is Latin for finger; we all count on our fingers from time to time.
Each color and the intensity of the color is assigned a number value based on an recognized coding method. When the digital camera or scanner makes a picture, the entire representation is broken down to millions of pixels and each assigned a numeral that conveys its color shading. This is truly a paint-by-number scheme.
OK, you now know that all digital pictures consist of pixels and each has a number value. Next you need to know that  each color has an opposite color. We call opposite colors "componentry" colors. Red has a compliment; it is cyan, a mix of blue + green.  Green's compliment is magenta,  a mix of blue + red.  Blue has a compliment, it is yellow. We discover the compliments by making a color wheel and drawing a line from one color, through the center to the color on the opposite side of the circle.
Computer logic can invert any picture to a negative, conversely, a negative can be inverted to a positive by simply changing the pixel value to the value of the color on the opposite side of the color wheel.
Comment: Your answer didn't mention film negatives at all, which is presumably what the original question was asking about. (though a typical film negative is not a "pure" negative, since it has an orange mask that's filtered out in processing)
Comment: Nice explanation, but a little offtopic regarding slide viewers. :o)
Comment: -1 Much of this is wrong and none of it has anything to do with the actual question. Discussion of negative images misses the point that slide film is positive, not negative.
Comment: @AlanMarcus I reckon my explanation hit the nail on the head. A 'slide viewer' by my understanding is a simple projection of light through a positive slide. Interestingly, your answer doesn't mention the word 'slide' and doesn't mention the word 'viewer'. Don't really understand how you've hit the nail on the head and answered the question?
Comment: _"Today color film and TV and computer screens as well as phone screens follow this same principle."_ True for LCDs with white backlights. Not so much for CRTs or screens using RGB LEDs. There is no white light that is filtered to color in those. The screen is directly emitting R, G, and B.  Even for the source signal, or computer storage format, it would be better to say that there are three images, one containing only red information, one green, one blue. Those images are monochrome (each represents data for just one of the "primary colors"), but they're not "black and white".
Comment: The CRT method is exactly the same only the CRT uses an electron beam to excite colored phosphorous causing it to emit light. No significant differences.
Comment: "We call this digital imaging as each picture element (pixel) is assigned a numeral value" - I know where you're headed, but the wording is awkward. Also, " The word digit is Latin for finger; we all count on our fingers from time to time" is perfectly valid, but I'm not sure of its point in this answer.
Comment: Viewers are available that accept a color negative with orange mask. The viewer uses chip logic to invert the colors. The software also utilizes the orange mask to modify the cyan and the magenta image as to color and contrast. The resulting displayed image closely matches a color print made from the negative. Some of these devices provided the correction filter values to input into a color enlarger. These are great aid for the specialty photo lab printing color from negatives.  I have seen several simpler models for the home darkroom.
Comment: The poster asked how negative images are presented as a positive image. The poster does not know the jargon of photography. I think my explanation hits the nail on the head. Such negative to slide viewers do exist.  .
Comment: @AlanMarcus thanks for this complementary explanation you provided patiently, as I said that my question may be not clear at the first glance, my aim was to understand whether there exists a manual process (not computer of digital based process) to invert a negative slide into positive colour image.

How slide viewers work?


Why should we worship statues of Lord Buddha?

Question: Why should we worship Lord Buddha statues with flowers, lights and food, even when we know Lord Buddha is not alive and does not exist? Did Lord Buddha instruct us to do so or is there any other reason?
Answer: I am not sure we should worship statues itself as that would be some sort of idolatry. Buddhists worship Buddha, and statue or other image is just symbol, something that bring into our memory good qualities of Buddha. It's mindfulness of Buddha. Statue is a symbol, and symbol is communication which states about its subject, Buddha in our case. Thus, showing respect before statue should be directed to Buddha as Jewel, and not to statue. Mindfulness and respect to the Saint and Teacher is good action.
Btw, Buddha is not disappeared, he stated that he will remain in his Teaching (Dharma).
Comment: "Idolatry" is a loaded word, though.
Answer: Thanissaro says in many places that the act of respect develops hand-in-hand with learning the path:

In their eyes, the religious attitude of respect is needed for any philosophical understanding to grow. And as far as they're concerned, there's no conflict between the two. In fact, they're mutually reinforcing.
Opening the Door to the Dhamma: Respect in Buddhist Thought & Practice

The veneration of statues with flowers and so on should be a natural expression of your development of the path. The act of putting flowers next to a statue doesn't save anyone or develop anything, but it's an expression of your faith that what the Buddha taught is really worth learning:

Respect is the attitude you develop toward the things that matter in life.
Answer: The true Buddha is the Eternal Buddha revealed in the Lotus Sutra. It is not a normal human being. The statue serves as a tool for remembrance, but it's actually an inferior symbol, because it depicts the bodily form of the Buddha. A scroll with written characters is better. A Sutra (text) is more similar to the true Buddha-body than a statue of Siddharta Gautama. The true Buddha-body cannot be expressed or depicted so it expediently reveals itself in ways that are understandable to our feeble minds - such as "infinite buddha" (amitabha) etc. Since the true buddha is formless, it cannot be depicted or potrayed. But since it compassionately discloses itself to ignorant beings, it allows to be depicted in such a way. It's simply a useful device. It's dangerous though, because someone might cling to that body and believe a Buddha's body can decay, break or die. That's not possible according to the Nirvana Sutra - the Buddha's body is permanent & eternal. - To answer your question: what we really worship is the Buddha-nature that is present in every sentient and even insentient being. It's in you & me too.
Comment: Aniccä vatha sankhärä,
Uppäda vaya dhamminö,
Uuppajjitvä nirujjhanti,
Te san vüpa samö sukhö.
Answer: No one should worship any Statue, in death bed Lord Buddha says not to build any statue of him.
More over He had been saying this all his life that his path is the path of practice not worship.
Now comes your Question why should we worship him ?
Once a king denied to worship a statue, then swami vivekananda asked him to spit on one his fathers portrait, as a result kind was angry.
So we should always keep in mind that the most important thing is to focus our minds, some may need help to keep it focused maybe some statue and some may need breathing techniques, some doesn't need anything, they just sit totally blank, As everything came out of nothing, nothingness is god, having a controlled & focused mind in nothing is all we need to do.
Answer: Lets say the Buddha was alive today and you offered Dana to the Buddha. But what if the Buddha does not accept it? Will you still not get the merits for your good intentions and the effort you put into preparing the Dana for the Buddha? It's about the quality of your thoughts throughout the time you spent on it.
Answer: Buddha is a Sanskrit word meaning knowledge. Thus a statue of Buddha is a personification of knowledge. Buddhists do not pray to Knowledge (Buddha statue). They venerate knowledge because 'knowledge is power'; they pursuit knowledge.
Theists hope to get power by praying. Teaching of Lord Buddha (Budda is a statue) is for practice, diligent strenous practice, to get knowledge.
See definition of Buddha and Buddhism in Oxford Dictionaries.
Answer: No one worshiping Buddha in India, We just ignite candle only .
And so if we gonna experiencing just observe, you'll see Buddha's statue, his face there's lighted spirit, you'll not find with other gods, only Buddha's eyes are closed and peaceful spirit on face.
Peaceful atmosphere you'll feel.
Worshiping means bribe from devotee and want praise through chants; but we don't have to worship Buddha to achieve peace.
He just beyond concept of god and religion.
You can meditate next to Buddha's statue.
Comment: Swapnil Correct me if i am wrong,

I think Siddharth was not the first person to become Buddha, though his life story influenced large number of beings, including me.

Buddha does not talked about god ever, because if he would have talked about God, some may believe and some may not.

Kabir, jesus, vivekanand, dayananda, rama, Krishna, meera they all were buddha. but still siddharth never talked about god, So he choose another way of making us understand.
Comment: Buddha was only first person from where start Buddhism. Buddha wasn't anyone of them you mentioned above; rama, krishna and hinduism story and myth generated by brhamins to corrupt Buddhism knowledge; they tried harm Dhamma. Buddha isn't incarnation or being into them as you mentioned. Read Buddha and his Dhamma from Dr. B. R. Ambedkar rather than myth about Sidharth Gautama spread by brhamins. Buddha's future was told by Asit Muni. Remembre Buddha never taught violence as you mentioned rama, krishna not even vishnu.
Answer: There is no reason we have to. There is also no reason I have to. Plus there also is the same reason you don't have to either.
Since you have free will, you can choose to do so however.
Answer: The Buddha never asked to be worshiped, he only asked that we use the Dhamma and Vinaya as a guide to cessation. Respect and veneration of the Buddha are wonderful, in that they engender a respect for their Buddha,  Dhamma and Sangha, but valuing the Buddha as anything more than a teacher will likely lead to attachment and stress/suffering.
The Buddha shined a lamp onto an individual path, one without an idol - where the cessation of stress/suffering is realisable in the here and now, generally with him as a guide.
In the Kalama Sutta he denies the absolute validity of all speculation, no matter what this speculation is grounded in, rather asking each one of us to search out and find out the knowledge found in the Dhamma for ourselves!
Answer: Good householder,
It depends on where one could find a useful perception of what is worthy for Veneration (pi apacāyana, apa + cāy root pūja = abound, scarify; verb apaciti; gārava, one of the meritious deeds, for a disciple, actually a matter of Sila, conduct . People, and training, usually starts outwardly, by body and speech. If starting unwardly, but not used outwardly, it's difficult when dependend on community, and leads to confusion and conflicts.
Western, modern, have really a hard in doing basics, doing giving and obligations, and certain rationalisation are wonderfuul tools for defilement so that pride and greed would win.
It's usuall in the good following Sanghas and Parisas to venerate the first Gem by body and speech as well and there is also a tradition chant, vandami (veneration), incl. "I will bow down to every Buddha-image".
On the other had, of course, the Buddha actually never allowed to make a Buddha-image to be reminded on the training, saying that people would be to much attached to form/body. He adviced to either use his rests, Chediya (to be reminded on impermanence), or the Bodhi-tree (to be reminded on his awakening).
See Q&A Buddha-images are allowed by the Buddha (at least by monks)?
On the other side, don't one forget that paying proper respect is a grave duty not only in the community but also toward ones teacher.
Here again also the reminder in the Dhp-story, wher all monks gathered to venerate the Master except one, who was the critisiced for not coming by the monks. The Buddha told that he wasn't guilty, since he prefered to eager practiced and payed so highest homage. Yet, think, what are you doing instead of veneration?
How ever, again, it's good to follow the measures of Sila of a community first, and the bow down, paying respect symbolical to the Buddha, is usual observed conduct in the Buddhas Sangha and Parisas. Not doing such will cut you off from the community, as suspected disrespectfull of which, if so, is also a grave, dispelling, transgression, actually (or at least seen as not of much faith and effort in basic trainings).
Remember the ascetic who practiced veneration all his life eager. Good prepared in needed devotion, on hearing just view words of Dhamma, he quickly gained Arahatship.
All you here, coming from total unskillful areas of daily conduct, not used to be grateful and respectfull all day long, not used to fall for more sublime, full of conceit and self-overestimation, would do good to take on what ever as "naive" perceived simple practice, if really wishing to progress instead of nourish defilement, and the matter of grave aversion should actually already be a sign that there would be the way to win over oneself.
See Veneration: Paying respect to teachers, monks - western/modern shamelessness
Only short time ago, devoted asked of what is right and better, to bow down the Buddha-image first, or the Sangha, the actual teacher. They where told that where ever they see more use in it (a Buddha image wouldn't teach, or give you anything in action), where ever you could perceive the Tathagata/Dhamma better, best, there it is good to start this good practice.
Respect, veneration, confidence and patient, are the basics, and especially, as many of you don't really progress, the base forms the path, and Saddhā (faith, from saddha=> sacrifice, falling (of the five kandhas at least), is the cause of the lokuttara paṭiccasamuppāda, the path.
Good generously given further read Respect, Confidence and Patient
Practice it, no problem to gain much understanding and insight, doing simply Vipassana in this way (look Bhante Yuttodhammos teachings on it: Chapter Five: Mindful Prostration, from "How to meditate-A Beginner's Guide To Peace", although he actually had mistreaded a lot of you here with his pseude-liberal approaches for inmature), for for now most of you here can neither except to be perceived as part of the Parisa in your conducts, nor do most actually have a valide/good refuge in the Gems and resisting outwardly of the Sāsana, doing a lot of harm for many and yours.
If you are not able of outwardly sacrifices and proper conducts, how do you seriously ecpect being honestly able to do such on much, much more refined level? Throw away you useless excuses as soon as seeing their cheating for the sake of Mara.
Incapable for Sila, incapable for Dana, no refuge... how do you expect to ever get right concentration, even Jhana, fruits or paths, caught in all kinds of macchariya, formost vaṇṇa-maccariya here.

Vandāmi bhante cetiyaṃ, sabbaṃ sabbattha ṭhāne, supatiṭṭhitaṃ sārīraṅka-dhātuṃ, mahā-bodhiṃ buddha-rūpaṃ, sakkāratthaṃ.

I revere every stupa established in every place, every Relic of the Buddha's body, every Great Bodhi tree, every Buddha image that is an object of veneration. (derived from a talk to Ananda in J479

[Note that this isn't given for stacks, exchange, what ever world-binding trade, but for release from this wheel]


Why do we choose 44.1 kHz as recording sampling rate?

Question: Peoples' ears can hear sound whose frequencies range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Based on the Nyquist theorem, the recording rate should be at least 40 kHz. Is it the reason for choosing 44.1 kHz?
Comment: It was chosen for compatibility with video frame rates.  See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/44,100_Hz#Why_44.1_kHz.3F
Comment: Frequencies above around 12-15k add little or no value.musically. Most people over 40 will have little useful.audibility above that level.
Answer: It is true that, like any convention, the choice of 44.1 kHz is sort of a historical accident. There are a few other historical reasons.
Of course, the sampling rate must exceed 40 kHz if you want high quality audio with a bandwidth of 20 kHz.
There was discussion of making it 48.0 kHz (it was nicely congruent with 24 frame/second films and the ostensible 30 frames/second in North American TV), but given the physical size of 120 mm, there was a limit to how much data the CD could hold, and given that an error detection and correction scheme was needed and that requires some redundancy in data, the amount of logical data the CD could store (about 700 MB) is about half of the amount of physical data. Given all of that, at the rate of 48 kHz, we were told that it could not hold all of Beethoven's 9th, but that it could hold the entire 9th on one disc at a slightly slower rate.  So 48 kHz is out.
Still, why 44.1 and not 44.0 or 45.0 kHz or some nice round number?
Then at the time, there existed a product in the late 1970s called the Sony F1 that was designed to record digital audio onto readily-available video tape (Betamax, not VHS). That was at 44.1 kHz (or more precisely 44.056 kHz).  So this would make it easy to transfer recordings, without resampling and interpolation, from the F1 to CD or in the other direction.
My understanding of how it gets there is that the horizontal scan rate of NTSC TV was 15.750 kHz and 44.1 kHz is exactly 2.8 times that. I'm not entirely sure, but I believe what that means is that you can have three stereo sample pairs per horizontal line, and for every 5 lines, where you would normally have 15 samples, there are 14 samples plus one additional sample for some parity check or redundancy in the F1.  14 samples for 5 lines is the same as 2.8 samples per horizontal line and with 15,750 lines per second, that comes out to be 44,100 samples per second.
Now, since color TV was introduced, they had to bump down slightly the horizontal line rate to 15734 lines per second. That adjustment leads to the 44,056 samples per second in the Sony F1.
Comment: Wow, what a story, thank you for relating it! So it could have ended worse, with 44056 samples/s... 44100 has small factors: 44100=2²×3²×5²×7². Incidentally, this makes it a perfect square, but that is less helpful in coding e.g. cacheline-aligned ring buffers of a sane duration, just a curiosity. :)
Answer: Look http://www1.cs.columbia.edu/~hgs/audio/44.1.html for example. You should use sampling rate more than 40 kHz because of anti-aliasing filters. You should have some reserve in frequency to prevent signal distortion due to filter's reponse slope. The actual value of 44.1 kHz was suggested by Sony corp when audio recording standard was under discussion in 1979. They used this rate widely for that moment.
So it's generally historical reason.
Answer: In the transition to digital formats, audio were stored in a pseudo-video waveform that could be seen as either black or white (representing the binary format).
The field rate and structure used by the television standard is as follows for 60 Hz video: 245 lines per field (excluded the first 35 blanked lines). With three samples per line that makes 60 x 245 x 3 = 44100 = 44.1 KHz.
This convention were later used for the CD format, due to equipment compatibility concerns (the very first equipment used to produce CD masters used for CD replication was video based).
Source: The Art of Sound Reproduction, p. 228
Comment: if that is what the F1 does, i must say "i stand corrected".  i assumed the F1 was using the blank lines.
Comment: hi, [i just read here](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTSC#Lines_and_refresh_rate) that "NTSC color encoding is used with the System M television signal, which consists of 30/1.001 (approximately 29.97) interlaced frames of video per second. Each frame is composed of two fields, each consisting of 262.5 scan lines, for a total of 525 scan lines. 483 scan lines make up the visible raster. The remainder (the vertical blanking interval) allow for vertical synchronization and retrace." $$ $$ so even 490 lines use some of the (original NTSC) blank lines.
Answer: The detailed historical reason for the choice of 44.1 khz vs basic Nyquist 40K, etc is given in The Art of Digital Audio by John Watkinson.  The excerpt is shown at: http://www1.cs.columbia.edu/~hgs/audio/44.1.html
Essentially it has to do video frequencies, field lines, and the fact that CD authoring was, for a long time, done on gear that was video-based.
Examples:
50hz video had 588 active lines per frame, or 294 per field (37 lines blank).   50 x 294 x 3= 44.1 K.
60hz video: 35 blank lines, 490 active, 245 per field. 60 x 245 x 3=44.1 K
Answer: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/44,100_Hz#Why_44.1_kHz.3F
The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem says the sampling frequency must be greater than twice the maximum frequency one wishes to reproduce. Since human hearing range is roughly 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, the sampling rate had to be greater than 40 kHz.
In addition, signals must be low-pass filtered before sampling to avoid aliasing. While an ideal low-pass filter would perfectly pass frequencies below 20 kHz (without attenuating them) and perfectly cut off frequencies above 20 kHz, such an ideal filter is theoretically impossible (it is noncausal), so in practice a transition band is necessary, where frequencies are partly attenuated. The wider this transition band is, the easier and more economical it is to make an anti-aliasing filter. The 44.1 kHz sampling frequency allows for a 2.05 kHz transition band.
In addition, 44,100 is the product of the squares of the first four prime numbers (2^2 * 3^2 * 5^2 * 7^2) and hence has many useful small factors.
Comment: so if we change our unit time from the second to the *"farg"*, which is 1.001 second, then what does that do to the 44100 and its many useful small factors?
Answer: It seems the hearinig limit for humans might be much higher than 20kHz if looked at from "dynamic" time resolution perspective rather than typical static sinusoidal waves.
Also interesting comments about the margin between 20kHz and 22 kHz for reconstruction filtering. Actually there's been quie interesting work from Peter Craven on time-domain optimized filtering which argues for at least 96kHz for hi-fi playback.
Pawel
Comment: well, there is a way to find out.  it's called **Blind A-B Testing**.  need not be *Double-Blind* (but normally is).  and A-B testing is better than ABX testing in my opinion.
Answer: Look [http://batmobile.blogs.ilrt.org/audio-analysis-on-an-iphone for description
.
 .A theorem called the Nyquist sampling theorem states that in order to sample a signal of X Hz without significant loss of quality, you need to sample at 2X the frequency.  The limit of human hearing is approximately 20kHz, which hence requires a sample rate of approximately 40Khz.  This is why CDs are sampled at 44Khz.  i.e. each second of recording in a CD contains 44,000 measurements of the highest possible frequency contained in the recording.
Comment: Well, not really because of that...
Comment: It's partially because of that. it's rare for a human to hear above 20k, so an audiophile range is reasonably slightly above 40kHz, i.e. 42, 43, 44. if you blast someone with huge sine waves at 22k, only a child has a chance of hearing it. bats are 115kHz and some dolphins are at 150kHz, except that's in water, which sounds clearer.  Test your high frequency perception online with recordings... i.e. here http://www.audiocheck.net/audiotests_frequencycheckhigh.php


Are women allowed to have an alternative lifestyle haircut?

Question: Is it permissible for a woman have a haircut where they shave half of her hair off and leave the other side of her hair untouched - a style strongly associated with lesbians, bisexuals, transgender men, queers?
Answer: I really can't see an issue here. There's a discussion of a woman getting "a man's haircut", but that's not what this is.
There is a Talmudic concept of chashad -- don't do things that will likely cause an average person to think you're violating the Torah, even though you aren't. One example is a house that faces two different streets -- back when everyone's Chanukah menorah was visible from the street, we advised lighting two, so that the people on Main Street wouldn't think you're a bad Jew who failed to light for Chanukah (when in fact you did light facing Pleasant Road). There's a balance between that concept and the obligation to give people the benefit of the doubt; some even suggested that you give people the benefit of the doubt, but not houses. Long story short -- if it's truly likely that many people will seriously think this woman is violating the Torah just by looking at her haircut ... okay maybe ... but I don't think that's the case in normal circumstances. (I also won't get into the whole issue of how silly and mistaken some stereotypes are.)
Rambam, Prohibited Relations 21:9 reads (emphasis added):

ויש לאיש להקפיד על אשתו בדבר זה, ולמנוע הנשים הידועות בכך מלהיכנס לה ומלצאת היא אליהן.
As female-female relations are prohibited, a man should object if his wife wants to "go out" with women who are known to engage in such behavior.

I think the key word there is "known"; i.e. don't pretend the obvious isn't happening. That's very different than "worry about people drawing silly conclusions that you're not keeping halacha when in fact you are."
Comment: Maaras ayin could very well be an issue.
Comment: @user15253 "Maaras ayin" isn't to be declared by anyone, anywhere. I don't suspect you to do *Chilul Shabat* when I see the lights go out in your living room at *Shabat*. I assume you use timer, and there is no problem of "Maaras ayin".


capture logs while publish fails

Question: Error message showing in Tridion UI is different and  message showing in log file is different. So we want to capture log file data while publishing.
is there API to capture logs while publish fails? like event extension ?
Apart from below files
cd_deployer.log
cd_core.log
Comment: Refer this question http://tridion.stackexchange.com/questions/12532/tridion-publishing-error-logs
Comment: Are you able to share the actual error and how it is different between the UI and the log file? That will help focus the answers you get back and give better context to your question.
Answer: Where in the publish steps appears this error?
If the error appears in Deploying or Commiting Deployment, you should search in Deployer Service's logs (cd_deployer.log and cd_core.log)
If the error appears in trasporting step you sould search in event viewer or %TRIDION_HOME%\log\cd_transport.log
You can change the log level modifying logback.xml file.
Answer: You can use the Core Service to programatically access the items in the Tridion Publish Queue and get additional information about the item and the message the Publishing UI shows.  Check the code below taken my Publish Queue Monitor Project.  It should provide you an idea an starting point for accessing that type of information.
However, it will not get the Deployer log information for you, since those failure details are only found within the Deployer logs.
I'd suggest to possibly use something like LogEntries and send the failures to it.
For my scenario, I used their Log4Net extension. It's painfully simple to setup and use with .Net.  You can also do something similar with the Java side, possibly using a File extension from LogEntries (to monitor the Deployer Logs (we do that too) and then you can set an alert based on some text within the log file.  Finally, logentries lets you send emails to people when an 'alert' goes off based on a regular expression.
Core Service Code to Scan the Publish Queue...from Publish Queue Monitor Project
<code>  private List<PublishQueueItem> GetPublishQueueItemsInLastPeriod(CoreServiceClient client)
        {
            var filter = CreateFilter();

            XElement publishTransactions = client.GetSystemWideListXml(filter);
            List<PublishQueueItem> pubQueueItems = new List<PublishQueueItem>();
            foreach(XElement queueItem in publishTransactions.Descendants())
            {
                pubQueueItems.Add(new PublishQueueItem()
                {
                    ID = queueItem.Attribute("ID").Value,
                    Title = queueItem.Attribute("Title").Value,
                    ItemUri = queueItem.Attribute("ItemID").Value,
                    User = queueItem.Attribute("User").Value,
                    Publication = queueItem.Attribute("Publication").Value,
                    PublicationTarget = queueItem.Attribute("PublicationTarget").Value,
                    ItemPath = queueItem.Attribute("ItemPath").Value
                });
            }
            return pubQueueItems;
        }

        private static PublishTransactionsFilterData CreateFilter()
        {
            int timePeriod = Int32.Parse(ConfigurationManager.AppSettings["PubQItemsInLastXSeconds"]);
            var filter = new PublishTransactionsFilterData();
            filter.StartDate = System.DateTime.Now.AddSeconds(-(timePeriod));
            filter.EndDate = System.DateTime.Now;

            // Success and Failed are mostly used for testing when we don't have items stuck in rendering
            string publishState = ConfigurationManager.AppSettings["PublishState"];

            if (publishState == "Rendering")
            {
                filter.PublishTransactionState = PublishTransactionState.Rendering;
                //logger.WriteEntry("Rendering Phase");
            }
            else if (publishState == "Failed")
            {
                filter.PublishTransactionState = PublishTransactionState.Failed;
                //logger.WriteEntry("Failed Phase");
            }
            else if (publishState == "Success")
            {
                filter.PublishTransactionState = PublishTransactionState.Success;
                //logger.WriteEntry("Success Phase");
            }
            return filter;
        }
</code>

capture logs while publish fails


Can I exchange damaged Euro notes in India?

Question: I have two 500-euro notes. Today I went to a forex shop in India to exchange them. They showed me that the notes have 1 small hole each and so they can't exchange them. In this case, where can I go and exchange these euro notes? Can the RBI do it? Or if I go to any of the normal banks, will they accept them? I am an Indian national.
Comment: One small hole should not have stopped the forex shop. Likely they looked for an excuse for not taking them.
Comment: 500€ notes are problematic, production is even [scheduled to be stopped by the end of 2018](https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/2016/html/pr160504.en.html), so you could have problems exchanging them even in Europe, no wonder a local shop refused it.
Comment: In Europe, one rarely encounters €100 notes.  The €200 & €500 notes are even rarer and many (most?) stores refuse to accept them.

However, the €200 & €500 notes are popular with various criminal types and are associated in the minds of many Europeans with money laundering or the suspicion that the notes are fake.  If you are offered these notes, it is wise to refuse them.  Like Marton, I am not at all surprised your local forex shop refused your less than perfect notes.
Answer: You might have some difficulty exchanging less then perfect €200 & €500 notes.
I suggest you hang on to them and exchange them for smaller denominations at the first bank you see on your next visit to Europe.  You might have to supply id and additional details of where you got them.


How is the internet able to transmit data so fast?

Question: I'm not sure if I'm in the right place or not, but I figured someone here could maybe provide a good answer. I want to know how electricity is able to flow so fast. For example videos games nowadays, you can shoot someone across the world and they die almost instantly. How is electricity able to do this? I was trying to google this question but found poor results, that's why I am here.
Comment: Your calculation is off by a factor of ten, it is ~130 ms for a full circle.
Comment: The circumference of the earth is about 40,000 km. Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, which is \$3\cdot 10^9\$ m/s. That means it takes an electronic signal about 13 ms to circle the earth. You can add a factor of 1.5 or so because signals in optical fiber travel slower than signals in air, and another increase because signals aren't routed in straight lines. But in the end you can see the main limitation isn't how fast signals travel but how much processing has to be done to put those signals onto the wires and get them off again.
Comment: This is not a direct answer to your question as it's more about monitors but it is John Carmack dropping knowledge on why a transatlantic ping is faster than sending a pixel to the screen. http://superuser.com/q/419070/2940
Comment: Also, do note that network-heavy programs (*especially* video games) implement features that reduce the perception of latency. A trivial game example is extrapolating the position of an entity based on where it's moving.
Comment: @Bart, you're right, I must have been commenting before coffee that day. But Turbo J already pointed it out 3 years ago.
Comment: @The Photon: Wrong, the speed of light (in vacuum) is 3⋅10^8 m/s, or more precisely, 299,792,458 m/s
Comment: @The Photon Ikr, but he didn't point out where your factor 10 came from :)
Answer: Perhaps this would be better as a comment, but it is too long. I wanted to address the fact that your statements indicate that you perceive the data to be transmitted almost instantaneously, but none of the observations you present actually prove that it is transmitted quickly at all.
You mention videogames. Game developers are WELL aware of the fact that there is significant latency between players, so they pull off several tricks. One of them is that they have the client guess about certain information that it hasn't yet received from the server/other players. For example, your client knows your opponent's position and velocity from, say, 50ms ago. So it extrapolates and says, "if his motion is like this, he's probably about here now", and you see this predicted position. Most of the time, it's pretty accurate (probably because of the effort programmers put into this), and it actually feels like there's no latency. Other times it's inaccurate, and to you, it appears that the player was shot, when really he was at a different position than what your console predicted.
On a related note, most displays run around 60Hz, and some do something called double-buffering. I won't go into the details here, but this introduces up to 33ms of latency between when the processor renders a frame and when it's actually displayed. Most people don't notice this, so I think it's reasonable to suggest that even if the network latency were equivalent to 33ms, you might perceive it to be instant, even without any programming tricks.
In summary, the internet is not necessarily "fast". But smart people do smart things to make it appear as if it's faster than it really is. If you want more information, you may consider asking the people on gamedev.stackexchange.com.
Comment: This definitely helps me think of it in a different way now thanks, I guess I was asking two questions in one.
Comment: This is the real point. It's not that the information goes "instantly", it's just that as long as the scenario plays out consistently on all the connected computers, you will perceive them as instanteneous. A great example of this are RTS games - while user input simply cannot be faster than the latency of the connection (in fact, it's even slower than that), the players can't notice, because the inputs are applied at the same relative time for all of them. So if an input results in a death of a unit on my computer, it will also show the same way on my friend's computer.
Comment: +1, as some who has worked on several multiplayer game development projects, dealing with latency issues (so that the connection to your opponents _appears_ instantaneous) is probably at least 70% of the work in the connection code. Similar things occur in rhythm games to combat latency with your controller. In short: game developers cheat to give you a (usually) better experience.
Comment: Some games also *deliberately* show you other players' positions from ~200ms ago. Your client might know their position from only 50ms ago, but if there's an interruption of less than 150ms, then they will still appear to move smoothly. (Source Engine games do this, although I don't know the exact delay)
Comment: If I could choose 2 answers I would, but seeing as this answer doesn't mention the electrical part of it I must choose the other.
Comment: [This is more information about the difference between a internet ping and a the display one](http://superuser.com/a/419167/235569) written by John Carmack.
Comment: Not to mention that when the information does finally reach your screen, it will be another 150-200 ms before you're conscious of it.
Answer: This isn't something that can be answered in a single post, by a single person. However, I hope this answer provides enough information and links to be helpful.
It is important to understand how signals are transmitted over the Internet. Note however that due to noise and the immense number of users, the same signal needs to be encoded, decoded, retransmitted, etc so the time needed for processing is many orders of magnitude more that the actual electrical signal needs to travel. Also have in mind at a millisecond is an very large amount of time for a computer; a GeForce Quadro K6000 graphics card can perform 5.000.000.000+ floating point operations in that much time (5196 GFlops times 1ms).
Conductive cables:
The electrons themselves don't move that fast because they bounce around inside of the conducting cables. However electricity doesn't travel based on electrons bouncing one onto the other, rather one repelling the other through electromagnetic interaction:
Say you have 3 electrons in line (assume one dimensional space). Move the first a little bit. The distance of the first to the second gets a little smaller. The electrostatic force on them gets a little larger. According to Coulomb's Law it is: $$\|F\|=k_e\frac{q_1 q_2}{r^2}$$
where: \$\|F\|\$ is the magnitude of the force, \$k_e\$ is Coulomb's constant, \$q_1\$ and \$q_2\$ is the charge of each of the two particles and finally \$r^2\$ is the distance between them.
As the first particle moves towards the second, the electrostatic force increases almost instantly. This causes the second particle to move a little bit towards the third etc.
"Almost instantly" actually means "at the speed of light" (\$c=299,792,458m/s\$).
There is an extreme number of electrons inside a conducting wire and the physics are a bit more complicated but the gist of it is a signal gets across a conductor "almost instantly" but slower than \$c\$.
Optical Fibre:
Optical fibre cables transmit signals by photons instead of electrons. Even in this case however, the photons don't travel in a straight line. However, the time needed for the photon to travel across the line is still very small compared to the processing time to encode and decode the signals, as well as packet retransmissions.
Wireless:
Finally, communication satellites as well as numerous types of wireless links are used to transmit signals, well, wireless using a great number of transmission protocols, modulations and frequencies. In this case, signals are transmitted using electromagnetic radiation. This a very complex subject and I can't possibly cover it all.
Smart ways to encode information into electrical signals:
It is not enough for a voltage pulse to reach the other end of a wire; that voltage is there to convey some information. The act of encoding information by modifying a carrier signal based on the information to be transmitted (carried, hence the name carrier), is called modulation.
Smart ways to share the same channels:
All these communication channels need to be connected and information needs to travel across this vast network in a reliable way. Initially, to have two nodes communicate with each other, they would reserve a number of cables forming a path from node A to node B. No other node would be able to use this same path. This is called circuit switching. The breakthrough that made such a vast network such as the internet possible was the ability for numerous nodes to share one particular communication channel. This sharing was enabled by packet switching. Instead of reserving a circuit just for two nodes, every node just checks if the bus is free, then transmits a packet containing data and destination info (and some other stuff) and then releases the channel. Packets need to find their destination and this is called packet routing, which is another huge subject. Routing and the need for modulation is the main reason a packet takes "so long" to reach it's destination compared to how fast electromagnetic waves travel. Routing is also necessary for all those users to coexist on the same network.
The Internet:
All these thing, along with numerous other technologies, are used together to form The Internet.
Lag Compensation:
In many applications, including competitive video games, a few milliseconds of delay would be unacceptable, especially when a server needs to register a "hit". That's where lag compensation comes into place. One of the methods used involves the server keeping a short history of each entity position and animation state. Then perform a number of tests and physics simulations to see if a "hit" would occur when a player "fires" their weapons, based on the lag, velocity, and animation state of each entity plus the world geometry.
Comment: So I guess electricity flowing through conductive cables could be compared to newton's cradle? Because the energy is transferred through all of the balls very fast to the other side. Oh and many thanks for the detailed clarification.
Comment: The best analogy I've seen, if you live in a large city, is that electricity travel like gaps between cars in a traffic jam while electron travel like cars in a traffic jam. The next time you are stuck in a traffic jam note how the gap travels down the line in a ripple, in the opposite direction of car travel, much faster than your car moves.
Comment: @Skateguy, that's not a bad analogy in the sense that the electromagnetic *energy* propagates along the conductor *much* faster than the individual electrons do.
Comment: Nice analogy. One little thing though. c = 3e8m/s not c = 3e8km/s
Comment: I registered to thumbs up this answer. Great job, enjoyed reading it.
Comment: For what it's worth, I think in physics we consider it a solved problem why $c$ is the limit, ever since special relativity was developed (1905).
Comment: @DavidZ:  I wasn't referring to why c is the limit rather than why c has that particular value. I removed that phrase however since it didn't add much to the answer and it was based more on opinion rather than facts.
Comment: @EvangelosEm why it has that particular value is just a matter of how we define our units. Of course none of this impacts the validity of your answer. (I upvoted when I posted my first comment)
Comment: @DavidZ: It was more of a philosophical question. I was referring to the theory of [universes with different fundamental constants](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse#Level_II:_Universes_with_different_physical_constants). One hypothesis was the fundamental constants in our universe are such just because [universes with other combinations existed but were unstable and collapsed](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fecund_universes#Fecund_universes). Or it may be because it just so happens we are here in this universe and making observations. There could be the only one, or many. Hard to tell.
Comment: I know that "information" cannot travel faster than the speed of light for some reason I don't quite fathom and it still bothers me at times.  However this notion seems helpful: http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/scissors.html
Answer: I'm surprised people only mention modulation (the process that modifies a higher energy "carrier" that can be radiated easily over long distances in function of the signal) as an additional factor rather than a key element in increasing the datarate of communications links. Remember those 54kbps modems at the beginning of internet? When the ADSL modems kicked in, there was an immediate twentyfold+ increase in datarate, mostly due to the modulation used: with QAM, the bitrate became higher than the symbol (clock) rate (by using various amplitudes and phases), like fitting more things in the same bucket travelling at the same speed, just by figuring out a cleverer way to arrange them. And we're not done yet, many others already exist or are being investigated...

a) States map of QAM modulation, one of the RF modulations b) How symbol rate can be different from datarate, example with multilevel amplitude modulation (the ancestor of FM), one of the components of QAM (the other is the phase, very related with FM).
For your problem in particular, aside from trying to predict what the players are doing, games are typically rendered by your machine; only a small amount of vital information is transported such as coordinates, velocities etc. A single webpage probably has way more information than that, but the real problem is latency (especially for hardcore gamers), and it accumulates with the number of hubs your signals are coming through from propagation delays, among many other things (distance is also a problem as maximum reliable datarate drops with losses - which increase with distance).
Comment: To be honest I ignored it because my answer was only concerned with speed (as in latency), not bandwidth. I know that nowadays, the two are used interchangeability (speed and bandwidth that is), even though technically, they are two dimensions of data transmission. Because latency isn't really something you can do anything about as an end-user and only to a very limited extend as a service provider, it is generally ignored by all but online gamers who need 'real-time' feedback on their gameplay and financial institutions who need millisecond response times for derivatives trading.
Comment: Yes that's what my last paragraph is about, but the author of the question did ask first a general question before providing an example, let's not focus too much on the example.
Answer: The internet is a network of interconnected routers which forward internet traffic (packets) between them using a routing protocol that, generally, tries to take the shortest/fastest route.
Most routers are nowadays connected via optical fiber - especially when the distance between the routers if more than a few 10's or meters or so, or when the speeds between the routers are high (1, 10 or even 40 Gb/s) - this nowadays includes almost every router that is part of the internet. The notable exception is probably your home router/modem etc.
Either way, the propagation speed of the signals through the fiber or electrical calbe is close to the speed of light. As such, in theory you can get a packet from Melbourne, Australia to Angra de Heroismo, Azores (these are almost antipodes) in about 70ms.
Now lets have a look at a real-world example. There a utility call 'traceroute' that traced your packets from router to router and conveniently output the approximate delay between each 'hop'. (Note the time im ms is 'round-trip' - so one-way is half this in theory):
<code>  7   127 ms   143 ms   139 ms  i-0-1-0-0.sydp01.bi.telstraglobal.net [126.96.36.199]
  8   111 ms   113 ms    64 ms  i-0-5-0-2.sydp-core02.bi.telstraglobal.net [188.8.131.52]
  9   167 ms   201 ms   210 ms  i-0-3-0-6.paix-core01.bx.telstraglobal.net [184.108.40.206]
 10   156 ms   158 ms   188 ms  i-0-0-0-5.paix02.bi.telstraglobal.net [126.96.36.199]
 11   204 ms   206 ms   175 ms  126.96.36.199
 12   537 ms   512 ms   593 ms  mad-sa3-i.MAD.ES.NET.DTAG.DE [18.104.22.168]
 13   554 ms   552 ms   579 ms  22.214.171.124
 14   544 ms   569 ms   545 ms  10.255.26.254
 15   568 ms   568 ms   538 ms  catvaweb.cabotva.net [188.8.131.52]
</code>
(I've left out the hops that go over my company's intranet).
You'll notice the delays are much longer than what you'd expect just from the 'speed of light'. This is the delay introduced by the routers forwarding your packets. Sometimes they're fast, sometimes they are slow, especially when they are under load.
As you can see, the majority of the delays are due to router forwarding, not propagation delays. If you play around a bit with the traceroute tool (there are numerous web based ones you can find online), you will find that the route isn't always the same and even where it is, the delays are all over the place.
Online gaming companies host their servers in places where they have a good connection to the internet and can have deals with service providers to give their packets priority over others. Also, some internet service providers might do the same and give priority to gamers (at a price!). This is possible because as you can see, the main delays are in the routers, not in the fiber. For streaming video's this doesn't matter, for games it is critical. As such, service providers can prioritize internet packets based on their content - give video more bandwidth but a but more delay, while gaming (which doesn't need much bandwidth) can be given priority in the router's queue for minimum delays.
Comment: Traceroute yields RTT (round-trip-time) which is approximately 2x the delay.
Comment: @generalnetworkerror good point, I've added that to the answer.
Answer:
and they die almost instantly

According to what?  The fastest speed with which an influence can propagate is \$c \approx 186,000 \$ miles-per-second.  Data packets travel slower than that across the fiber and there's delay inside routers, switches, etc.
For a data packet to propagate through the internet infrastructure to the other side of the Earth takes, probably, several 10s of milliseconds or so but, in fact, that's an 'eternity' compared to instantaneous.
For example, some of the particles created at the large hadron collider decay in roughly \$10^{-23}s\$.
In other words, it takes about 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 more time to 'kill' your 'enemy' across the world than it takes for some particles to decay at the LHC.
Almost instantly?  Compared to the time scales of some fundamental particle interactions, it's much much longer than the calculated age of the cosmos compared to a year on Earth.
I thought you might want to ponder this sometime.
Comment: I don't understand how this discussion on semantics is an answer to the question. You've just confirmed that, yes, packets traveling 'through the internet' only take mere 10's of ms. The OP asked how that is so. I think this merits a bit of explanation of how data packets are converted from electrical to optical and vice-versa, and how routers forward packets at high speeds.
Comment: You gave an answer with an undercurrent tone of elitism with regard to his definition of "almost instantly". The guy came here to ask a simple, clear, and honest question about electricity. There's no reason to belittle him for his perception that a few milliseconds can be described as "almost instantaneously". I'm always amazed at how I can dissect some trace on an oscilloscope and then realize that the interaction I was observing occurred in an imperceivably short period of time. I'm glad someone else can marvel at that too.
Comment: It's quite easy to interpret condescension here, actually -- whether it's there or not, intended or not.  I had to squint just right in order *not* to see this post as useless nitpicking about the OP's choice of words.  And even that took a couple of tries.
Comment: @Alfred: Mostly to let you know that the wording of your post makes it easy to misread *your* intentions.  Do with that info what you will.  But don't pretend to be amazed when people misunderstand.
Comment: According to my eyes and according to the kill feed. and I never said instantly, I said almost instantly, So yes I was already somewhat aware of what you speak of. And isn't it kind of relative and dependent upon the subject at hand? I do much appreciate you answering though. Sorry I'm not more educated on the subject but would you mind explaining what the C and the funky equal sign stands for. I learned in school but have long forgotten I have no problem looking them up just figured it couldn't hurt to ask.
Comment: @KGregory, what intentions you believe you detect in my answer is beyond my span of control and, thus, of no further concern to me.
Comment: @Skateguy 'c' is the speed of light (e.g. e = mc-squared) and the squiggly equals is approximately
Comment: I continue to be amazed at how 'sensitive' some seem to be.  The answer was intended to be informational.  If you don't find it so then you know what to do.  I've answered it in the way I find appropriate and interesting - *to me*.
Comment: @KGregory, I agree, there's no reason to belittle him and none was intended.  As I wrote earlier, I *continue* to be amazed at how 'sensitive' some seem to be including the detection of tones and undercurrents and belittlements *that aren't there*.
Comment: It is there, emphasized by quotes and italics. You even introduced a paragraph by questioning his use of a subjective term.
Comment: @cHao, what are your intentions?
Comment: @cHao, the fact that it is, in your opinion, easy to misread my intentions *does not make it so*.  But rest assured, your opinion is as valuable to me as, evidently, mine is to you.
Answer: Electricity basically travels at the speed of light. in the internet, the only things that are going to slow this down a little are the network hardware that routes internet traffic between your home and the home of your opponent across the world: this hardware includes things like routers, switches, and things that convert electricity into light (fiber) and back. These things are based on technology that is also very fast (transisters, silicon chips, and whatnot) and so the effects are minimal. So what you have is a slight delay in information that is translated at the speed of light. light from the sun takes 8 minutes to travel 93 million miles to reach earth, so when you put it in this perspective, it makes sense that the information from your gaming console "almost instantly" appears a few thousand miles away in the home of your opponent.
Answer: It's mostly relative to lightspeed.
Theoretical limit of Amsterdam New York = 40ms
Internet limit of Amsterdam New York    = 82ms
Theoretical limit of Amsterdam Adelaide = 130ms
Internet limit of Amsterdam Adelaide    = 320ms
From Paris to NYC as a bird flies, light takes about 20ms. so a perfect Ping time would be 40ms. In optical fibre glass, light is slower by 31 %. Furthermore, light in an optical fibre bounces like this \ / \ / \ / which makes the route longer. Add to that the routing equipment times. the fastest ping from Paris to new York is currently about 82ms.
Amsterdam to Adelaide is 320ms, in 100 years, perhaps it will be closed to the theoretical limit allowed by the laws of physics, i.e. 130ms, for 1550km, it's close to theoretical limit already.
Here is a list of internet speeds:
https://wondernetwork.com/pings
Add to that, the notion of bandwidth.
The latency of equipment within your computer, screen, peripherals, sound, keyboard, is normally about 10ms. So the fastest response time for an event occuring on your PC, to your router is always less than 20ms by DirectX for any data transfer.
Answer: The ultimate reason why online video games have such fast response times is because everything is done on your computer. When you shoot someone, your computer decides you killed your opponent, and instantly displays you the corresponding picture. It also notifies your opponent's computer about this event, but you don't get to see that this happens with a delay. Typically, the calculations are also performed on a central server a second time, to prevent cheating. If the server decides you didn't in fact kill your opponent, you will see them come back to life after half a second or so.
Network delivery time can be as high as 300+ ms between remote locations, and fast-paced games would be unplayable if such delays were incurred on every player action.
Answer: As I read the statements, there are two (related) questions, with the same answer:  1) the internet is able to transmit data "fast" because it uses various forms of electromagnetic (EM) energy transmission, and  EM propagates very fast (approximately 186,000 miles/s), 2) electricity is able to "flow fast," because it is electromagnetic energy, and EM propagates very fast.


How does Goku's super saiyan blue kaioken compare with Vegeta's super saiyan blue evolution transformation?

Question: I know there might not be a conclusive evidence about which technique/form-transformation is stronger, but how do they compare over all? Are there any features of one which are known to be superior to the other (speed, endurance, stree that puts in the body, etc.?)
Answer: Well firstly, this question can't be answered with complete certainty as we haven't seen Vegeta utilize it to its full extent. However, based on episode 122 and 123, SSJB Goku was shown to be stronger than SSJB Vegeta, probably cause of the Multiple Zenkai Boosts throughout the tournament of power.Hence SSJB+Kaioken*20 Goku is a lot stronger compared to the time he initially used it against Jiren. Kaioken obviously puts a very heavy strain on the body. So even if Vegeta's new transformation happens to put a greater strain than SSJB, the probability of it straining the body more than Kaioken*20 is very unlikely. Hence Vegeta has the upper hand here.During the course of transformation, The Grand Priest stated that "Vegeta also broke through his shell". The also used here indicates that the grand priest is comparing it to Goku attaining UI. Based on episode 123, it's nowhere close to the power of UI Goku, however, based on the grand priest's statement and the spectators referring it to Vegeta's limit breaking power, I think it's fair to assume that it is going to be stronger than SSJB + Kaioken*20 Goku when used to its full extent.Finally, The Kaioken times 20 is just a 20 times multiplier. So to increase the power of the form, Goku will more or less have to increase his strength while utilizing SSJB. SSJB is all about ki control and utilizing God Ki. A superior form of SSJB must definitely have better Ki control and a better utilization of God ki. So Vegeta might very likely be able to get a lot stronger in his new form compared to Goku getting stronger in SSJB making Vegeta relatively stronger.Finally,this isn't a definitive factual evidence, however, SSJB + Kaioken is a powerup given to Goku in the Universe 6 vs 7 arc which was ages ago. The Universe Survival saga has seen a lot of characters being given massive powerups making them a lot stronger. It wouldn't make sense to give Vegeta a new transformation which is weaker than something Goku potentially unlocked a long time ago. Also, the ending shows Vegeta in his new form next to UI Goku, so I would think Vegeta's new form should indeed be superior to a form Goku attained a long time ago
Additional Proof: Spoiler

 The provisional title of episode 126 is "Surpass Even a God! Vegeta's life-risking blow!". This could perhaps be hinting that Vegeta's new transformation is also God tier just like UI Goku.
Comment: I dont know if you want to add this to your answer and/or edit something but in a recent interview with the director of Dragon Ball Super he said they are equal in power.
Answer: A comment from Megumi Ishitami, director of that Dragon Ball Super episode regarding this issue

Vegeta's evolved version of Blue is an anime original. Like you said, that form is the result of him mastering his strength in a different way than Goku. Strength-wise please think of it as about the same as Goku's Blue Kaioken.
Answer: To be honest, my opinion is that SSBE Vegeta is stronger than SSB Kaioken Goku because Vegeta in that form fought more than Goku in the SSB Kaioken form. And Vegeta freakin' unlocked it in the end of T.O.P. Also, Vegeta in the manga said that Goku can keep his Ultra Instinct technique, also giving a smile while saying it. Here's a pic:
I rest my case.


What are the challenges ahead of bitcoin foundation?

Question: What are the challenges ahead of bitcoin foundation? What are the issues they currently working on? How to track their activities?
Comment: bitcoinfoundation.org doesn't clearly explain what they do. Push bitcoin adoption, lobby banks and government authorities ??
Comment: I mostly doubt that they are getting paid to move slow, as this Bitcoin is not taking off, as I expected. I wish I should be wrong. They should be  more open, like publish roadmap, action items, call for help, etc.
Answer:
What are the issues they currently working on?

Perhaps I can help. I'm a member of the foundation; however, they haven't broadcast a specific mission or vision to us yet. That said, they are pursuing regulation and continued development of the Bitcoin protocol.
As for challenges, they face the following concerns:

Managing the growth of the ecosystem in a way that promotes mainstream adoption of bitcoin
Resolving issues with miscommunication and misinformation by the media and other entities
Working with businesses to better understand the regulatory and legal implications of bitcoin
Soliciting and integrating new developers and ideas into the protocol as the needs of the ecosystem mandate
Dealing with the consequences of government regulation on the ecosystem

There are far more issues to resolve; however, these to me seem to be the ones the foundation has invested the most work on.

How to track their activities?

As of now, you can't outside highly public events such as the conference in San Jose. They are not a very transparent organization, which I suspect is a symptom of their age. Over time they will have to become better.

What are the challenges ahead of bitcoin foundation?

For the moment, survival and relevance. They have yet to court the bitcoin community nor have a dynamic outreach program in the works to the best of my understanding. Longer term the issues of education and business adoption are also major challenges. As more people become aware of bitcoin, they will have a large list of questions and concerns. Depending on how they are addressed, the individual may have a positive or negative opinion of Bitcoin and will spread that opinion to their peers.
Answer: The organization has many of your answers listed on it's website at bitcoinfoundation.org
https://bitcoinfoundation.org/about
Says the foundation's mission is to...
standardize bitcoin,
protect bitcoin,
and promote bitcoin
I would imagine that a good way to track their progress is by looking at...
https://bitcoinfoundation.org/blog/
Also, you can see a list of the foundations members at...
https://bitcoinfoundation.org/members
I'm sure if you were polite and had any questions that you may be able to contact a listed member with those inquiries.  :)


Should containerized plants be periodically rotated relative to the sun?

Question: I have the assumption that plants grow more foliage towards the arc of the sun. With containerized plants, I assumed I could rotate it every week to help it develop more balanced foliage. Are the assumptions correct? Is rotating plants beneficial or harmful to the plant?
Answer: Rotating some plants while in bud may cause flower stem weakening and bud drop, as in Schlumbergeras. but generally, if the light source tends to be one sided, it is a good idea to rotate the pot. You can do this at any time, but if you use a schedule, you get the most balanced growth. I've even made my own rotators for my small windowsill plants, equipped with silent clock motors, that did one rotation per day. They ate batteries, though.
Answer: A suggestion for larger plants - get a roll-around plant stand or tray.  It makes the job a LOT easier.
Answer: Absolutely...this will help them get a more symmetrical structure.  But ideally, there should be enough light that plants don't have to bend.  One way to do this is to make white screens that can free-stand and are placed behind your plants.  This will bounce light back to their dark side and will help keep the house or patio cooler.  Make panels with twoXtwo's and hinges.  Find beautiful light-reflecting fabrics and staple material to your panels. Cover with veneer strips.


Trick 64-bit Ubuntu to allow 32-bit pci wireless card?

Question: I have an older 32-bit Belkin F5D6001 (aka ADMtek ADM8211 802.11b Wireless Network Card) that I got to work in 32-bit Ubuntu 12.04 via NDISWrapper (Windows Wireless Networking) by using the CD it originally came with and NDISWrapper (where it said hardware detected: Yes).  Tried the same procedures in 64-bit 12.04 & even though it sees & communicates with the card, it will not connect to Internet.
It can see the networks around me but when I enter the 10-digit (xxxxxxxxxx) security key, it freezes the system.  Did hard reset by powering down & removing plug & power btn for several seconds & restarted but same thing occurs.  Spent countless hours researching on this & was wondering if there is a way to fool this 64-bit OS to accept the driver.  I have tried countless cmds (iwconfig, ip addr, ndiswrapper related, etc.--you name it, I've tried it) and even though it can detect it, it keeps freezing.
I read that there is a default wireless card driver built-in to Ubuntu that may conflict & must be removed in order to prevent the freezing but I'm still a relative novice to Linux & am unsure where this driver is located so I can remove it.  Even if I do find & remove it, I don't think it will solve it because this step was not required in the 32-bit OS which I stated above was successful.  The chipset is ADM8211 with PCIID 1317:8201.
I've tried several drivers I found via SourceForge that indicate it's essentially the same chipset as Realtek 8180 even though its PCIID is different.  Could only find "8180L" drivers on Realtek's website & placed them in Ndiswrapper.  Tried them just in case along with ndiswrapper instructions listed here:

http://sourceforge.net/apps/mediawiki/ndiswrapper/index.php?title=Belkin_F5D6001

to change the PCIID to match the 8180's but to no avail even though was still able to see available networks.  The only conclusions thus far I came to is: 1. that there is no way to make it connect to the web unless there is a way to fool the OS into believing it is a 64-bit capable card or something like that OR 2. the removal of aforementioned default ubuntu driver is definitely required with a 64-bit scenario like I am attempting. If anyone knows of a utility or method for this to occur, please feel free to help.  Thank you and blessings.
Answer: You can't run 32-bit kernel mode code with a 64-bit kernel.


router config /server config

Question: i have installed CENT OS 6.3 on my server and given my router's wan IP to the server and done some port forwarding on the router but on the server i am not able to bring up eth0
and i am not able to access the server from remote location
please tell me the needed things i must do to remotely access the server
details
wan.IP:115.115.183.xx
router:CISCO RV042
server local IP:192.168.1.2
please help me out.......
Answer: You say you have 'given my router's wan IP to the server'? what does that mean? The server does not need to be aware of your router's WAN IP if you do masquerading/NAT, because the server will never get to see it anyway.
So if your server's IP is 192.168.1.2, then on your router you will need to enter a portforwarding to that internal IP.
Then your server will get the packets with the original source address, but the destination address will be rewritten to its own internal one.
The servers reply packets will be sent with the destination address set to the source address of the previous packet, while it's source address will be set to the servers private IP. When this packet passes your router, the router rewrites the source address of the packet to it's own WAN IP.
So on the server you don't need to change anything, just leave it running on the private address and setup the portforwarding to the server's private address.

router config /server config


Is the samsung series 9 silent mode safe?

Question: The Samsung series 9 comes with a "silent mode" : when activated, the fans are stopped (at least on mine, the 15inch version, you cannot hear a thing). I just want to make sure that there is no risk of overheating. If the fan can be stopped like that, it makes me wonder why there is a fan in the first place ? I haven't found anything on the samsung website about this feature.
Answer: Modern notebook CPUs run very cool, and only generate a lot of heat when they are stressed. It's very possible that your fan will never come on during light use.
My guess is that if you use an intensive application the laptop fan will come on eventually.
You can download a programs like Prime95 to stress your CPU, and a program like CoreTemp to check temperatures.
Anything Below 80C is safe. The CPU has a safety to turn itself off when it reaches about 90C-95C.
The fan is there to give the user the choice - some prefer a cooler keyboard to work with.
Answer: The silent mode will drop the fans and use passive cooling, however it will likely also use processor throttling to maintain passive heat levels.
It means that with passive cooling the system will only be able to use the processor at 100% for a short period of time before it will have to reduce the speed of the processor (and also the power going to it) to reduce heat generation until the system has cooled down.
in active cooling (the fans on) the system can dissipate the heat easier
therefore in passive cooling you can only use the processor at a high load for a short period of time.
Comment: Your last sentence is confusing...
Comment: edited to make it clearer
Answer: Samsung's 'silent mode' locks the processor speed to about half the advertised speed. This is how it stays cool. The fan will still turn on if required. It is completely safe to use your computer in this mode.


IPhone and Xcode keychain - Can't delete keychain?

Question: I have an app that writes to the keychain via KeyChainWrapper to validate an in-app purchase. Everything is working OK except that I can't seem to be able to delete the keychain item. I can delete when running through XCode, however, when I download the app from the App Store, do an actual in-app purchase, the keychain does not get deleted when I run my reset code in my app. I take it that there are two different keychain items installed on the device, one from the actual in-app purchases and one from the sandbox mode. I want to delete the keychain so when I download from the app store my app is back to normal without in-app purchase. Any suggestions?
Comment: Did you find anything on this ? I am having the same problem
Answer: I have the same problem: testing MKStoreKit on the device (as it doesn't work in iOS sim), purchased my test feature and now it's stored somewhere in keychain on the device, I don't even know where - MKStoreKit does this automatically.
Removing the app from the device doesn't work. I don't think that the only way is to reset the device...


Identify this spiky plant

Question: A friend just gifted me this plant. It's got thin, papery, spiky leaves. What is it?
Answer: I disagree with aloe, the paper-thin leaves and the deep well in the center of the leaf rosette indicate a member of the bromeliaceae family.
I can't give a precise id (and am no expert on bromeliads) but this should guide you in the right direction.
Comment: It may very well be a hardy to semi-hardy Bromeliad.
Comment: I submit totally.  I must have had one of those senior moments, grins!  I've got to learn to answer when I am not multi tasking. Used to be good at multi tasking, not anymore
Comment: If it is a bromeliad it is very unhappy.  The leaves do not normally flop like this one.  Low light?
Comment: The friend split her original plant in two, so it is still recovering from that most likely. It does have new growth in the middle, so hopefully it is doing ok.
Answer: This is not an Aloe. Most Aloes retain water in the leaves and for that, they have a fleshy construction.
The thin leaves and spikes potentially make it a member of the Agave genera or the Bromeliaceae. Agave leaves can be really thin and those well spaced spikes are very characteristic. The species is hard to tell with these photos and no other information, but look for Agave bracteosa or many of its variegated cultivars.
If it is Bromeliaceae, it will almost always flower from the middle in distinct leaf like rosettes that then will help you identify what it is. Agave and Aloes tend to flower with a long stalk, also usually from the center that then terminates in florets.
You can try to get more info from your friend on where they bought it, or what they propagated it off of for a better call. Or, wait till it flowers and then that will be a great giveaway. I subjectively think it is an Agave from the spaced spikes on the leaf edges.
This is not part of your question but, soil looks a bit too wet. Allow to dry between watering.
Comment: She got it from a CVS and was told it was aloe, and is very aware that it is not aloe, so she's as in the dark as I am. As far as I know, her original plant never flowered. Also, thanks for the soil tip! That's how she gave it to me so I'll let it dry out a bit :)
Answer: This is most likely Billbergia nutans or "Queen's Tears", a very common houseplant. Also known as "Friendship Plant" since it readily forms baby offshoots which are easily shared. A flower would help provide a positive ID, but I have grown many of these in the past and I'm quite certain.
Care: House Plants Expert
Comment: Hm. Can't see any spikes in his photo or in the links you gave.
Comment: Billbergias all have spines: http://fcbs.org/articles/bromeliad_key_for_dummies.htm. They're small and not conspicuous in this image. Note the "danger" remark at this site: http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/2116/#b
Comment: It's got the same leaf-spines as the one I have, so this seems like the best shot. Hopefully with some TLC it'll flower and I'll know for sure.
Comment: Good call @jackwise, get it under some bright light and water properly until it becomes established. Then, at one point, you can try the epsom salt trick or the apple in a bag trick to help it to bloom. Perhaps you can ask the person that shared the plant with you if theirs has ever bloomed. And if not, perhaps they can try the "tricks" with their more mature plants.
Answer: I think this is a Sacred Onion aka Pregnant Onion (Albuca bracteata/Ornithogalum longebracteatum). If it has a large bulb under the soil. They like to be planted with the bulb on top of the soil. Eventually you will see a "bump" on the bulb and soon you will have a baby onion that you can share. Sports at times to come from underneath and you could divide that way.

Identify this spiky plant


How many bits of precision are often used in fixed point DSP?

Question: I understand FIR & IIR digital filters are often implemented in fixed point DSP hardware. I have also seen them implemented in software. Do companies make special purpose digital filtering chips that use floating point precision (float) and (double)? When fixed point hardware is used, what are the choices for the bits of precision?
Answer: Almost all such programming is done in C, which means that 16 bits (shorts) and 32 bits (ints) make sense.  I doubt it will surprise you that most chips support those bit widths, with 16 bits being a particular favorite because it is wide enough to be useful and narrow enough to be power efficient, small, and fast.
I believe that there are a few chips that operate on 12 bits, but that is much rarer than the 16 bit chips.
Answer: Most higher-end DSP chips have single-cycle multiply floating point hardware. Examples are Analog Devices Sharc or Texas Instruments C6X.
Audio processing is an interesting case for fixed point. 32-bit is overkill, while 16-bit is really not enough for processing. 24-bit is therefore a good choice, and the Motorola (Freescale) 56k processors operate in 24-bit fixed point.
Some fixed point processors have different word sizes for different purposes. Accumulators often have wider word width (I have seen 48, 56, 64 and 80 bits). There is an automotive chip that uses 14 bits for coefficients and 18 bits for data.
Answer: Most fixed-point DSP chips have 16, 24 or 32 bit integer operations. That said, most of them also provide fixed-point DSP libraries that usually operate in a specific Q format. For example, some 24-bit arithmetic chips (e.g. Wolfson) supplies a DSP library that operates on Q3.20 fixed-point numbers.
Answer: The choice of bits is specific to the algorithm and the perfomance required from it. For example an echo cancellation algorithm might not work at all at 8 bit or 12 bit precision and we might need to go for 16 or 24 bit precision. Usually we search of lowest number of bits that can satisfy our requirements.


Difference between machine learning and artificial intelligence

Question: Is there any difference between machine learning and artificial intelligence? Or do these terms refer to the same thing?
Comment: @Emre Why not, though? It could be that the function is very complicated.
Comment: AI = thinking robots. ML = estimating functions.
Comment: @Emre aren't thinking robots just some entities that estimate functions?
Comment: @Emre: Could you Elaborate? Possibly enough to be an answer?
Comment: @famargar: That description does not convey the gist of it. Would you describe your intelligence as _just_ function estimation?
Comment: I am guided by my taste, sight, touch, smell, and hearing that analyze my surrounding and allow my brain to estimate optimal behaviour accordingly. I estimate amount of food and drinks I need to survive and/or compensate emotional deficit. I estimate amount and type of work to perform, in order to achieve the lifestyle I desire. I make friends based on estimate of closeness in interests and values. I estimate the best partner for me either for casual fun, reproduction, or lifelong companionship. I might be missing something here: this is not really a comment, mostly a reflection.
Comment: @Emre "thinking robots" is too broad and quite misleading term for AI. A machine (or a robot if you prefer) does not think it just executes predefined, by humans, commands, algorithms, scripts, programs. The "thought" of a machine is as complex, at most, as the thought of the creator of the program that is running. "estimating functions" for ML, on the other hand, is more on target.
Answer: The subject areas Artifical Intelligence and Machine Learning (plus Data Science) are loosely defined, such that it is hard to make strict statements about how they relate. In the general case, it seems that there are parts that overlap, but that they are quite far from being "the same subject with two different names" as suggested in the question.
The term Artifical Intelligence has many possible meanings and interpretations - which version to refer varies by time and by the source using it. Textbooks on artificial intelligence will often cover topics such as search algorithms, logical deduction and other things which are clearly not machine learning as it is practised today.
For instance, we could take it to refer to Artificial General Intelligence (or "hard AI"), and it should be clear in this case that at least some form of learning algorithm(s) would be required to meet the goals of AGI. However, it is far less clear how much of AGI can be solved by combining machine learning into complex structures.
The term Machine Learning has a few different working definitions, but this is a popular one:

A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class of tasks T and performance measure P if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by P, improves with experience E.

This is far more tightly defined than Artificial Intelligence, but still has a lot of scope.
The trend to conflate AI and ML appears to be a media and marketing issue, not a technical one. I suspect this is in part due to advances in the last 5-10 years in neural networks. Neural network models have made strong progress, especially in signal processing of images, video, audio. There is also an analogy with biological brains which can be compelling - especially when the subject matter is simplified for consumption by mainstream media.
It is worth mentioning Data Science too. Like Artificial Intelligence, the term is somewhat fuzzily defined. Also like AI, Data Science has more to it than just Machine Learning. To Data Science practitioners, ML is part of a toolkit to achieve goals - for some people it is a large part of what they do, for others it is just one part of a wider scope (actually training and refining a ML model might take only a small fraction of a professional data scientist, analyst or statistician's time). I think it is reasonable to state that Artificial Intelligence and Data Science relate to Machine Learning in a similar way.
Answer: Machine learning in layman terms is an algorithm that allows machines to identify patterns in data and then develop a model which can be used to predict unseen data.
Artificial Intelligence is the ability of machines to make intelligent decisions which are equal to or better than their human counterpart.
Difference between the two:
A.I. is a very broad field of computer intelligence in which machine learning is one of the ways it gains the intelligence to predict outcomes. But AI also contains robotics, speech synthesis, computer vision and others.
So if I were to draw a Venn diagram of artificial intelligence then machine learning would be a subset.
Comment: This is how I explain this to not technical people.  It is interesting the common knowledge of this being so misunderstood subject.  and when most people speak about A.I. the are talking about AGI.   Everyone is afraid of AIG but not AI as we use that every day from car manufacturing to packaging.  At least that is my perspective on this.           What is scary to me is AIG with ML and not having any rules (morals per say).
Answer: Deep Learning is a subset of Machine Learning which is a subset of Artificial Intelligence. Machine learning is a particular approach for AI but not the only one. Symbolic Logic, Bayersian Statistics are a few examples of AI approaches which do not use any kind of machine learning algorithms.
Comment: A brief and clearer definition of AI and machine learning do that the difference between the two is seen would be more helpful.
Answer: ML, by Tom M. Mitchell:

A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class of tasks T and performance measure P if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by P, improves with experience E.

AI, but not ML:

SLAM
Path finding: Bellman–Ford algorithm, A* search algorithm, Dijkstra's algorithm
Markov chains
cellular automata

Thank you, Servan Grüninger, for your help.
See also: How does machine learning relate to artificial intelligence?
Answer: A good example of AI, but not machine learning is evolutionary computation. Here instead of learning from experience (as in Tom M. Mitchell's definition) we have genotype changing in each generation of computer program version, measured by its performance at task (phenotype expression in environment).
As Melanie Mitchell puts it:
'...from the earliest days computers were applied... to modeling the brain, mimicking human learning, and
simulating biological evolution... The first has grown into the field of neural networks, the second into machine learning, and the
third into what is now called "evolutionary computation,"...'
Although, now neural networks are mostly considered as part of machine learning .
Answer: As the great Tom Mitchell has said in his book "Machine Learning is the ability to learn without being explicitly programmed."
Machine learning algorithms are widely employed and are encountered daily. Examples are automatic recommendations when buying a product or voice recognition software that adapts to your voice.
AI is any technology that enables a system to demonstrate human-like intelligence.
"If we plug several photos of cats doing different things or in different places into a computer, but all the photos are still tagged as cats, then the computer will learn from each photo it is shown," said Kamelia Aryafar, Ph.D., director of machine learning at Overstock. "Eventually, it will recognize that the cat is the common denominator in each set of data, in turn helping the computer learn to identify cats."
When a machine can tell the difference between objects and make a choice to discard or accept them, based on understood criteria, AI is born. In fact, any time a decision is being made by a machine, that is artificial intelligence and has gone beyond mere machine learning.
Answer: Let's take the total Turing test as an example. A computer is often said to be intelligent if it can pass the total Turing test.
A computer passes the test if a human interrogator, after posing some written questions, cannot tell whether the written responses come from a person or from a computer. The total Turing Test also includes a video signal so that the interrogator can test the subject's perceptual abilities, as well as the opportunity for the interrogator to pass physical objects "through the hatch."
To pass the total Turing Test, the computer would need to possess the
following capabilities:

natural language processing to enable it to communicate successfully
in English;
knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears;
automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer questions
and to draw new conclusions;
robotics to manipulate objects and move about;
computer vision to perceive objects, and
machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and
extrapolate patterns.

As you may already see, Machine Learning is a subset of Artificial Intelligence that concerns with the ability of an intelligent agent to learn.
Answer: Artificial intelligence: program that can sense, reason, act and adapt.
Machine learning: algorithms whose performance improve as they are exposed to more data over time.


Looking for instructions for this Mega Bloks Dragon Ship

Question: I don't know the model #, but it's probably from the early 2000's. Looks like this.
Comment: Hi Mariana! Could you please upload a larger picture? This one is 92x92 pixels and thus kind of hard to see.
Comment: You mean, you didn't take this picture yourself, just found it on the web? Was there any identifying information (i.e. set number, name, year, etc.) with the image?
Comment: https://support.megabrands.com/media/playbooks/9895.pdf thank you all for helping so fast!
Comment: I googled a similiar image. The smallest one is the right color, but the one with the red sails is a little better resolution.
Comment: This picture looks like one from an ebay listing which means it's copyrighted....
Answer:
Looks like Set #9895 - Dragons - Krystal Wars - Man O War.
Instructions: HERE.
Comment: That's it! the 9895 Man-O-War. Thank you ! now I just have to find the instructions
Comment: @MarianaArteaga Rin Rio-Oki has updated this answer with a link to the instructions on MegaBlok's site.