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Dangers of "Crying It Out"
Damaging children and their relationships for the longterm.
Posted Dec 11, 2011
*See note on basic assumptions below.
Letting babies "cry it out" is an idea that has been around since at least the 1880s when the field of medicine was in a hullaballoo about germs and transmitting infection and so took to the notion that babies should rarely be touched (see Blum, 2002, for a great review of this time period and attitudes towards childrearing).
In the 20th century, behaviorist John Watson (1928), interested in making psychology a hard science, took up the crusade against affection as president of the American Psychological Association. He applied the mechanistic paradigm of behaviorism to child rearing, warning about the dangers of too much mother love. The 20th century was the time when "men of science" were assumed to know better than mothers, grandmothers and families about how to raise a child. Too much kindness to a baby would result in a whiney, dependent, failed human being. Funny how "the experts" got away with this with no evidence to back it up! Instead there is evidence all around (then and now) showing the opposite to be true!
A government pamphlet from the time recommended that "mothering meant holding the baby quietly, in tranquility-inducing positions" and that "the mother should stop immediately if her arms feel tired" because "the baby is never to inconvenience the adult." A baby older than six months "should be taught to sit silently in the crib; otherwise, he might need to be constantly watched and entertained by the mother, a serious waste of time." (See Blum, 2002.)
Don't these attitudes sound familiar? A parent reported to me recently that he was encouraged to let his baby cry herself to sleep so he "could get his life back."
[Note: In other posts on infant sleep listed below, my co-authors and I point out flaws in studies of sleep training. Here is another example. Check out this article and its table that lists the studies reviewed. The table shows that every study is flawed--either the intervention was not followed (fidelity) and/or only parent reports were used, not observation. Moreover, the age range of the children varied. Most importantly, note that most studies did not measure child wellbeing. So there is no responsible way to draw generalizable conclusions from this set of flawed studies. The standards for publishing such studies appears to be very low. In a forthcoming post, we note how many studies use an "Intent to Treat" criterion for distinguishing conditions, not bothering about what actually happened.]
With neuroscience, we can confirm what our ancestors took for granted---that letting babies get distressed is a practice that can damage children and their relational capacities in many ways for the long term. We know now that leaving babies to cry is a good way to make a less intelligent, less healthy but more anxious, uncooperative and alienated persons who can pass the same or worse traits on to the next generation.
The discredited behaviorist view sees the baby as an interloper into the life of the parents, an intrusion who must be controlled by various means so the adults can live their lives without too much bother. Perhaps we can excuse this attitude and ignorance because at the time, extended families were being broken up and new parents had to figure out how to deal with babies on their own, an unnatural condition for humanity--we have heretofore raised children in extended families. The parents always shared care with multiple adult relatives.
According to a behaviorist view completely ignorant of human development, the child 'has to be taught to be independent.' We can confirm now that forcing "independence" on a baby leads to greater dependence. Instead, giving babies what they need leads to greater independence later. In anthropological reports of small-band hunter-gatherers, parents took care of every need of babies and young children. Toddlers felt confident enough (and so did their parents) to walk into the bush on their own (see Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods, edited by Hewlett & Lamb, 2005).
Ignorant behaviorists then and now encourage parents to condition the baby to expect needs NOT to be met on demand, whether feeding or comforting. It's assumed that the adults should 'be in charge' of the relationship. Certainly this might foster a child that doesn't ask for as much help and attention (potentially withdrawing into depression and going into stasis or even wasting away) but it is more likely to foster a whiney, unhappy, aggressive and/or demanding child, one who has learned that one must scream to get needs met. A deep sense of insecurity is likely to stay with them the rest of life.
The fact is that caregivers who habitually respond to the needs of the baby before the baby gets distressed, preventing crying, are more likely to have children who are independent than the opposite (e.g., Stein & Newcomb, 1994). Soothing care is best from the outset. Once patterns of distress get established, it's much harder to change them.
Rats are often used to study how mammalian brains work and many effects are similar in human brains. In studies of rats with high or low nurturing mothers, there is a critical period for turning on genes that control anxiety for the rest of life. If in the first 10 days of life you have a low nurturing rat mother (the equivalent of the first 6 months of life in a human), the gene never gets turned on and the rat is anxious towards new situations for the rest of its life, unless drugs are administered to alleviate the anxiety. These researchers say that there are hundreds of genes affected by nurturance. Similar mechanisms are found in human brains--caregiver behavior matters for turning genes on and off. (See work of Michael Meaney and colleagues; e. g., Meaney, 2001).
We should understand the mother and child as a mutually responsive dyad. They are a symbiotic unit that make each other healthier and happier in mutual responsiveness. This expands to other caregivers too.
One strangely popular notion still around today is to let babies 'cry it out' (aka total extinction or unmodified extinction) when they are left alone, isolated in cribs or in other devices. This comes from a misunderstanding of child brain development.
- Babies grow from being held. Their bodies get dysregulated when they are physically separated from caregivers. (See here for more.)
- Babies indicate a need through gesture and eventually, if necessary, through crying. Just as adults reach for liquid when thirsty, children search for what they need in the moment. Just as adults become calm once the need is met, so do babies.
- There are many longterm effects of undercare or need-neglect in babies (e.g., Bremmer et al, 1998; Blunt Bugental et al., 2003; Dawson et al., 2000; Heim et al 2003).
- Secure attachment is related to responsive parenting, such as comforting babies when they wake up and cry at night.
What does 'crying it out' actually do to the baby and to the dyad?
Neuronal interconnections are damaged. When the baby is greatly distressed,it creates conditions for damge to synapses, the network construction which is ongoing in the infant brain. The hormone cortisol is released. In excess, it's a neuron killer but its consequences many not be apparent immediately (Thomas et al. 2007). A full-term baby (40-42 weeks), with only 25% of its brain developed, is undergoing rapid brain growth. The brain grows on average three times as large by the end of the first year (and head size growth in the first year is a sign of intelligence, e.g., Gale et al., 2006). Who knows what neurons are not being connected or being wiped out during times of extreme stress? What deficits might show up years later from such regular distressful experience? (See my addendum below.)
Disordered stress reactivity can be established as a pattern for life not only in the brain with the stress response system (Bremmer et al, 1998), but also in the body through the vagus nerve, a nerve that affects functioning in multiple systems (e.g., digestion). For example, prolonged distress in early life, lack of responsive parenting, can result in a poorly functioning vagus nerve, which is related to various disorders as irritable bowel syndrome (Stam et al, 1997). See more about how early stress is toxic for lifelong health from the recent Harvard report, The Foundations of Lifelong Health are Built in Early Childhood).
Self-regulation is undermined. The baby is absolutely dependent on caregivers for learning how to self-regulate. Responsive care---meeting the baby's needs before he gets distressed---tunes the body and brain up for calmness. When a baby gets scared and a parent holds and comforts him, the baby builds expectations for soothing, which get integrated into the ability to self comfort. Babies don't self-comfort in isolation. If they are left to cry alone, they learn to shut down in face of extensive distress--stop growing, stop feeling, stop trusting (Henry & Wang, 1998).
Trust is undermined. As Erik Erikson pointed out, the first year of life is a sensitive period for establishing a sense of trust in the world, the world of caregiver and the world of self. When a baby's needs are met without distress, the child learns that the world is a trustworthy place, that relationships are supportive, and that the self is a positive entity that can get its needs met. When a baby's needs are dismissed or ignored, the child develops a sense of mistrust of relationships and the world. And self-confidence is undermined. The child may spend a lifetime trying to fill the resulting inner emptiness.
Caregiver sensitivity may be harmed. A caregiver who learns to ignore baby crying, will likely learn to ignore the more subtle signaling of the child's needs. Second-guessing intuitions that guide one to want to stop child distress, the adult who learns to ignores baby needs practices and increasingly learns to "harden the heart." The reciprocity between caregiver and baby is broken by the adult, but cannot be repaired by the young child. The baby is helpless.
Caregiver responsiveness to the needs of the baby is related to most if not all positive child outcomes. In our work caregiver responsiveness is related to intelligence, empathy, lack of aggression or depression, self-regulation, social competence. Because responsiveness is so powerful, we have to control for it in our studies of other parenting practices and child outcomes. The importance of caregiver responsiveness is common knowledge in developmental psychology. Lack of responsiveness, which "crying it out" represents can result in the opposite of the aforementioned positive outcomes.
The 'cry it out' approach seems to have arisen as a solution to the dissolution of extended family life in the 20th century. The vast knowledge of (now great great) grandmothers was lost in the distance between households with children and those with the experience and expertise about how to raise them well. The wisdom of keeping babies happy was lost between generations.
But isn't it normal for babies to cry?
No. A crying baby in our ancestral environment would have signaled predators to tasty morsels. So our evolved parenting practices alleviated baby distress and precluded crying except in emergencies. Babies are built to expect the equivalent of an "external womb" after birth (see Allan Schore, specific references below). What is the external womb? ---being held constantly, breastfed on demand, needs met quickly (I have numerous posts on these things). These practices are known to facilitate good brain and body development (discussed with references in other posts, some links below). When babies display discomfort, it signals that a need is not getting met, a need of their rapidly growing systems.
What does extensive baby crying signal? It shows the lack of experience, knowledge and/or support of the baby's caregivers. To remedy a lack of information in us all, below is a good set of articles about all the things that a baby's cry can signal. We can all educate ourselves about what babies need and the practices that alleviate baby crying. We can help one another to keep crying from happening as much as possible.
Check these out:
How to soothe babies: http://www.babycenter.com/0_12-reasons-babies-cry-and-how-to-soothe-them_9790.bc?page=2
Soothing babies crying "for no reason": http://www.babycenter.com/0_what-to-do-when-your-baby-cries-for-no-reason_10320516.bc
Soothing babies who have "colic": http://www.babycenter.com/0_colic-how-to-cope_1369745.bc
Science of Parenting, an inexpensive, photo-filled, easy-to-read book for parents by Margot Sunderland, has much more detail and references on these matters. I keep copies on hand to give to new parents.
Here is a terrific post on co-sleeping (the abandoned practice that is behind notions of leaving babies to cry it out) by my esteemed colleague, Peter Gray. Much more about co-sleeping research is here at the website of my colleague, James McKenna.
More on babies' and children's needs here, here, here.
Giving babies what they need is really a basic right of babies. See here for more rights I think babies should expect. And see here for a new book by Eileen Johnson on the emotional rights of babies.
ADDENDUM: I was raised in a middle-class family with a depressed mother, harsh father and overall emotionally unsupportive environment--not unlike others raised in the USA. I have only recently realized from extensive reading about the effects of early parenting on body and brain development that I show the signs of undercare--poor memory (cortisol released during distress harms hippocampus development), irritable bowel and other poor vagal tone issues, and high social anxiety. The USA has epidemics of poor physical and mental health (e.g., UNICEF, 2007; USDHSS, 1999; WHO/WONCA, 2008). The connection between the lack of ancestral parenting practices and poor health outcomes has been documented for touch, responsiveness, breastfeeding, and more (Narvaez et al., in press). If we want a strong country and people, we've got to pay attention to what children need for optimal development.
Read about how early trauma influences brain development and morality in Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality:Evolution, Culture and Wisdom (Norton book; discount code: NARVAEZ).
6 Hidden Myths Behind Baby Sleep Training Advocacy
Child Sleep Training's "Best Review of Research"
Parents Misled by Cry-It-Out Sleep Training Reports
REBUTTAL to critique of "Parents Misled by...Sleep Training Reports"
Baby Sleep Training: Mistakes "Experts" and Parents Make
'Let Crying Babes Lie'? So Wrong
Simple Ways to Calm a Crying Baby
Normal, Human Infant Sleep: Feeding Method and Development
Normal Infant Sleep: Changing Patterns
Normal Parent Behaviors and Why They Won't Hurt Your Child
Normal Infant Sleep: Night Nursing's Importance
More Normal Parenting for Sleep
Understanding and Helping Toddler Sleep
Understanding and Helping Toddler Sleep-Tiredness?
Understanding and Helping Toddler Sleep--Preparing Success
Bed Sharing With Babies: What is the Hype About?
Bedsharing or Co-Sleeping Can Save Babies' Lives
Painkillers for Childbirth? The Few Pros and Many Cons
What's the Use of Midwives and Doulas?
What if Jesus Had Been Born in the USA?
Myths about Infant Circumcision you Likely believe
More Circumcision Myths You May Believe: Hygiene and STDs
Circumcision: Social, Sexual, Psychological Realities
Circumcision Ethics and Economics
What Is the Greatest Danger for an Uncircumcised Boy?
Why Continue to Harm Boys from Ignorance of Male Anatomy?
Pro-Circumcision Culturally Biased, Not Scientific: Experts
Protect (All) Your Boys from Early Trauma
Circumcision's Psychological Damage
Talk About Breastfeeding With Your Family, Friends and Doctor
Breastmilk Wipes Out Formula: Responses to Critical Comments
In Light of Last Week's Posts: Is Pushing* Formula Evil?
The REAL Truth about Breastfeeding
5 Things You Thought You Knew about Breastfeeding
The TREMENDOUS Benefits of Doing What is Normal: Breastfeeding
Myths you probably believe about infant formula
Your assumptions about infant formula are probably wrong
It's Breastfeeding Week: Why should you care?
Research on Spanking: It's Bad for ALL Kids
What Happened to Ethics in Pediatric Medicine?
Baby-, Parent- or Life-Centered Parenting?
Ten Ways to Truly Respect Motherhood
Parents Should Know the Limitations of Science Experiments
Babies "don't cry in Africa," why should they cry in the USA?
Blame the baby or blame the experts?
Dumb Parent(ing), Dumberer Child
Are you treating your child like a prisoner?
Undercare: The bane of American life?
Promoting Thriving in School-Aged Children: A Checklist
Is it good to make kids afraid?
Are you or your child on a (touch) starvation diet?
Mother's touch of dead baby causes "miracle"
What Does Good Parenting Look Like? You Decide.
Are You a "Childist?" Test Yourself
Babies Are Needy—Does That Bug You?
Do We Need Declaration for the Rights of the Baby?
The Decline of Children and the Moral Sense
Believing "children are resilient" may be a fantasy
How America Morally Fails its Children: What Needs to Change
Increase the well-being of children around you
1. Kindness in Kids and the Nature-Nurture Debate (Dr. Sarina Saturn)
2. Why Synchronize and Bond With Your Children (Dr. Ruth Feldman)
3. "I want it—now!" How Children Learn Self-Control (Dr. Julie Braungart-Rieker)
4. Why Kids Should Be Protected from Toxic Stress (Dr. Bruce Perry)
5. "Mr. Mom" The New (or Old?) Normal (Dr. Lee Gettler)
6. Why Dad's "Talk" is Important (Dr. Holly Brophy-Herb)
7. Conflict in the Family: Why Mom and Dad Should Say "Sorry" (Dr. Mark Cummings)
8. Domination or Partnership? How Does Your Family Stack Up? (Dr. Riane Eisler)
9. Why Carefully Invest Daily in a Child (Dr. Robin Nelson)
*Posts are based on talks presented at the Pathways to Child Flourishing conference, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN.
ALSO SEE: What is Child Flourishing?
NOTE on BASIC ASSUMPTIONS:
When I write about human nature, I use the 99% of human genus history as a baseline. That is the context of small-band hunter-gatherers. These are "immediate-return" societies with few possessions who migrate and forage. They have no hierarchy or coercion and value generosity and sharing. They exhibit both high autonomy and high commitment to the group. They have high social wellbeing. See comparison between dominant Western culture and this evolved heritage in my article (you can download from my website):
Narvaez, D. (2013). The 99 Percent—Development and socialization within an evolutionary context: Growing up to become "A good and useful human being." In D. Fry (Ed.), War, Peace and Human Nature: The convergence of Evolutionary and Cultural Views (pp. 643-672). New York: Oxford University Press.
When I write about parenting, I assume the importance of the evolved developmental niche (EDN) for raising human infants (which initially arose over 30 million years ago with the emergence of the social mammals and has been slightly altered among human groups based on anthropological research).
The EDN is the baseline I use for determining what fosters optimal human health, wellbeing and compassionate morality. The niche includes at least the following: infant-initiated breastfeeding for several years, nearly constant touch early, responsiveness to needs so the young child does not get distressed, playful companionship with multi-aged playmates, multiple adult caregivers, positive social support, and soothing perinatal experiences.
All EDN characteristics are linked to health in mammalian and human studies (for reviews, see Narvaez, Panksepp, Schore & Gleason, 2013; Narvaez, Valentino, Fuentes, McKenna & Gray, 2014; Narvaez, 2014) Thus, shifts away from the EDN baseline are risky and must be supported with longitudinal data looking at wellbeing in children and adults. My comments and posts stem from these basic assumptions.
My research laboratory has documented the importance of the EDN for child wellbeing and moral development with more papers in the works see (my Website to download papers):
Narvaez, D., Gleason, T., Wang, L., Brooks, J., Lefever, J., Cheng, A., & Centers for the Prevention of Child Neglect (2013). The Evolved Development Niche: Longitudinal Effects of Caregiving Practices on Early Childhood Psychosocial Development. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28 (4), 759–773. Doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.07.003
Narvaez, D., Wang, L., Gleason, T., Cheng, A., Lefever, J., & Deng, L. (2013). The Evolved Developmental Niche and sociomoral outcomes in Chinese three-year-olds. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 10(2), 106-127.
Also see these books for selected reviews:
Evolution, Early Experience and Human Development (Oxford University Press)
Ancestral Landscapes in Human Evolution (Oxford University Press)
Neurobiology and the Development of Human Morality (W.W. Norton)
Sample References
Blum, D. (2002). Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection. New York: Berkeley Publishing (Penguin).
Blunt Bugental, D. et al. (2003). The hormonal costs of subtle forms of infant maltreatment. Hormones and Behaviour, January, 237-244.
Bremmer, J.D. et al. (1998). The effects of stress on memory and the hippocampus throughout the life cycle: Implications for childhood development and aging. Developmental Psychology, 10, 871-885.
Dawson, G., et al. (2000). The role of early experience in shaping behavioral and brain development and its implications for social policy. Development and Psychopathology, 12(4), 695-712.
Catharine R. Gale, PhD, Finbar J. O'Callaghan, PhD, Maria Bredow, MBChB, Christopher N. Martyn, DPhil and the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children Study Team (October 4, 2006). "The Influence of Head Growth in Fetal Life, Infancy, and Childhood on Intelligence at the Ages of 4 and 8 Years". PEDIATRICS Vol. 118 No. 4 October 2006, pp. 1486-1492. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/short/118/4/1486.
Heim, C. et al. (1997). Persistent changes in corticotrophin-releasing factor systems due to early life stress: Relationship to the pathophysiology of major depression ad post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 185-192.
Henry, J.P., & Wang, S. (1998). Effects of early stress on adult affiliative behavior, Psychoneuroendocrinology 23( 8), 863-875.
Hewlett, B., & Lamb, M. (2005). Hunter-gatherer childhoods.New York: Aldine.
Meaney, M.J. (2001). Maternal care, gene expression, and the transmission of individual differences in stress reactivity across generations. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 1161-1192.
Narvaez, D., Panksepp, J., Schore, A., & Gleason, T. (Eds.) (in press). Evolution, Early Experience and Human Development: From Research to Practice and Policy. New York: Oxford University Press.
Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective neuroscience. New York: Oxford University Press.
Schore, A.N. (1997). Early organization of the nonlinear right brain and development of a predisposition to psychiatric disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 595-631.
Schore, A.N. (2000). Attachment and the regulation of the right brain. Attachment & Human Development, 2, 23-47.
Schore, A.N. (2001). The effects of early relational trauma on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 201-269.
Stam, R., et al. (1997). Trauma and the gut: Interactions between stressful experience and intestinal function. Gut.
Stein, J. A., & Newcomb, M. D. (1994). Children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors and maternal health problems. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 19(5), 571-593.
Thomas, R.M., Hotsenpiller,G. & Peterson, D.A. (2007).Acute Psychosocial Stress Reduces Cell Survival in Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis without Altering Proliferation. The Journal of Neuroscience, 27(11): 2734-2743.
UNICEF (2007). Child poverty in perspective: An overview of child well-being in rich countries, a comprehensive assessment of the lives and well-being of children and adolescents in the economically advanced nations, Report Card 7. Florence, Italy: United Nations Children's Fund Innocenti Research Centre.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (1999). Mental health: A report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: Center for Mental Health Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health.
Watson, J. B. (1928). Psychological Care of Infant and Child. New York: W. W. Norton Company, Inc.
WHO/WONCA (2008). Integrating mental health into primary care: A global perspective. Geneva and London: World Health Organization and World Organization of Family Doctors.


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Liberty News
Aviation students visit Red Tails exhibit at national air show
Two Liberty University School of Aeronautics students participated in one of the largest air shows in the country this summer, joining thousands in Oshkosh, Wis., for the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA) AirVenture show July 23-29. While they were there, they witnessed a part of their heritage.
Seniors Silvanous "Sil" Parchment II and Julius Smith, specializing in commercial/corporate aviation, posed with a P51 Mustang flown by the Tuskegee Airmen, the first all African-American fighter squadron in the United States armed forces. Formally called the 332nd Fighter Group, they received the nickname "Red Tails" after the planes' tails were painted red during World War II. The squadron was the subject of a 2012 film, "Red Tails," produced by George Lucas.
"It was a great opportunity to see the adversity that these legendary pilots had to overcome just to prove that they were just as competent aviators as the other pilots in the United States military," said Smith. "To see that they paved the way for younger generations of African-Americans like me means a lot."
Captain Ernie Rogers, associate dean of the Liberty University School of Aeronautics, encouraged the two students to attend the show.
"The Tuskegee Airmen exhibit and P-51 Mustangs aircraft of the world-famous Red Tail squadron was not only informative but designed to encourage today's youth to meet challenges head on and rise above adversity to succeed," he said. "These two young pilots are continuing the rich tradition of the Tuskegee Airmen by excelling in aviation, academics, and leadership."
Rogers said young African-American students have made an impact on the aviation program at Liberty since it started 10 years ago. One of those is 2006 graduate Anthony Beckles, who became the youngest captain in American Eagle Airlines earlier this year. In 2004, he was the first student awarded the School of Aeronautics' Pilot of the Year award.
Parchment, a junior, also competes for the Liberty Flames track and field team as a hurdler. He didn't become interested in aviation until he attended Liberty and said one of his career objectives is to connect young minorities to the field.
"The small percentage of African American pilots at the university level reflects the shortage of us in the airline industry, which I believe is simply due to a lack of exposure to aeronautics," he said. "Every time I finish a flight I always wish that someone would have introduced the world of aviation to me as a child, but I am grateful that at least someone did at all."

subset: commoncrawl


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I think the most concern we have defensively is focused on the middle of the field. We are confident in our ability to play the run and with our corners, the ability to defend the outside of the field. The Patriots are going to get their chances and gain some yards regardless of how well we play, we have to contain and limit them.
I feel the key to containing them, if we can't shut them down, is using our size in the secondary to punish anyone catching the ball in middle early. I want to see Welker get hammered by Chancellor or Browner in the first quarter so he's thinking twice anytime the balls thrown his way. I want to see Hernandez played very physically so we test him and he proves he's healthy enough to play with the Seahawks. The tone of the game needs to be set early! I'll take a penalty if that's what it takes to send the message. (note: I do not want to see any player Seahawk or Patriot injured)
If we can get these things done and stifle the juggernaut that is the Patriots offense, I think we stand a very good chance of winning the game.


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Programs by Campus
College of Arts and Sciences
Departmental E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
Departmental URL: www.indiana.edu/~phil
Degrees Offered
Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy
Special Departmental Requirements
(See also general University Graduate School requirements.)
Applicants must take the Graduate Record Examination General Test. Those who have an inadequate background in philosophy may, with the approval of their faculty advisor, enroll in P590 for supplemental work, provided that the number of graduate credits so acquired does not exceed 9 credit hours. Upon admission, a graduate major in philosophy will be assigned a departmental faculty advisor who, in conjunction with the director of graduate studies, will help plan the student's program of study.
Master of Arts Degree
Course Requirements
A total of 30 credit hours, at least 20 credit hours of which must be in philosophy. These must include at least one course in each of four subject areas: history of philosophy, metaphysics and epistemology, logic, and value theory.
A minimum grade of B (3.0) is required in each course that counts toward the degree.
Language/Thesis Requirements
The student must either demonstrate reading proficiency in classical Greek, French, German, or Latin; or write an acceptable thesis. Up to 6 hours of thesis credit may be applied to the course requirements and may be counted in the 20 credit hours of philosophy.
Doctor of Philosophy Degree
Course Requirements
A total of 90 credit hours, including dissertation (minimum of 30 credit hours).
A minimum grade point average of 3.0 (B) is required of work that counts toward the degree.
Foreign Language Requirement
There is no general foreign language requirement for the Ph.D. However, a student's Qualifying Committee or Dissertation Committee may require the student to achieve proficiency in a foreign language relevant to the student's research and may set the level of proficiency to be attained and the means of establishing that the required level has been attained. A student should consult with the director of graduate studies about whether he or she will need competence in a foreign language, and this consultation should begin in the student's first year, to allow adequate time for the student to develop competence.
Distribution and Concentration Requirements
The distribution requirements can be satisfied by taking four courses in metaphysics, epistemology, and logic; two courses in value theory; and three courses in the history of philosophy. Generally, concentration requirements can be satisfied by taking a total of four courses in one of these areas. Specific course choices must be approved by the student's graduate advisory committee. Distribution requirements are normally satisfied by the end of the student's second year and concentration requirements by the end of the third year. Students who are taking extensive course work (18 credit hours or more) in another department outside of philosophy can apply for exemption from two of the nine distribution units.
Qualifying Exam
An essay, together with an oral exam, on a topic that the student plans to pursue further in the dissertation. The qualifying exam will test whether the student is ready to write a dissertation on the chosen topic. Students who have passed the qualifying exam and have satisfied the course and language requirements are ready to be nominated for candidacy. The qualifying exam should normally be taken by the end of three-and-one-half years of graduate study. Students who have not been admitted to candidacy by the beginning of their sixth year will be dropped from the program. Ph.D. students in Philosophy may use the Qualifying Exam essay also to satisfy the Language/Thesis requirement for the M.A. degree (above) if they enroll in 3–6 hours of P590 or P803 during which the essay for the Qualifying Exam is written.
Dissertation Prospectus
A one- or two-page plan of the proposed dissertation that is submitted to the graduate school after it has been approved by the dissertation committee.
Dissertation Chapter Exam
A long essay (about 25 pages long) on the dissertation topic, with an optional oral component. The dissertation chapter exam should be taken within one year of passing the qualifying exam.
Ph.D. Minor in Philosophy
Doctoral students outside the department may minor in philosophy by completing 12 credit hours of graduate-level philosophy courses with a B (3.0) average or higher. No more than 9 credit hours may be taken as P590, and no more than 6 credit hours may be transfer credit hours originally earned at other universities. The program must be approved by the director of graduate studies of the Department of Philosophy. Students planning to take P590 as part of their program must, in addition, obtain consent to do so from the instructor of that course.
Ph.D. Minor and Graduate Area Certificate in Pure and Applied Logic
The Department of Philosophy participates in the Program in Pure and Applied Logic, along with the Departments of Computer Science, Linguistics, and Mathematics. For details of the requirements for the Logic Minor and the Logic Certificate, see the booklet IU Program in Pure and Applied Logic, available in the departmental office, Sycamore 026.
Philosophy Ph.D. students may minor in logic, provided that (1) no courses are double-counted for major and minor, (2) at least three of the minor courses are taken outside the Department of Philosophy, and (3) the courses constituting the minor are approved by the Philosophy Logic Area Committee.


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Black history
Black history or African-American history is the history of the American population of black African descent, from the colonial period to the present. It was a narrow specialty until the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s made it a high priority for historical research and teaching. It is now one of the largest fields of American history. The history is one of struggle against slavery, segregation, racism and second class citizenship. Historians debate whether to emphasize radical protest, as typified by W.E.B. DuBois, or upward striving through the system, as preached by Booker T. Washington. The 2008 election of Barack Obama as president has been hailed as the culmination of the black struggle for political equality.
- 1 Colonial era
- 2 Revolution and early republic: 1775-1840
- 3 Age of abolition, 1840-1877
- 4 Age of Jim Crow, 1877-1954
- 5 Age of Civil Rights, 1954 to present
- 6 Recent years
- 7 Historiography
- 8 Knowledge of black history
- 9 Bibliography
- 10 External links
- 11 See also
Colonial era
see also Slavery
Africans first arrived in 1619, when a Dutch ship sold 19 blacks as indentured servants (not slaves) to Englishmen at Jamestown, Virginia. In all, about 10-12 million Africans were transported to Western Hemisphere. The vast majority of these people came from that stretch of the West African coast extending from present-day Senegal to Angola; a small percentage came from Madagascar and East Africa. Only 3% (about 300,000) went to the American colonies. The vast majority went to the West Indies, where they died quickly. Demographic conditions were highly favorable in the American colonies, with less disease, more food, good medical care, and lighter work loads. Coming as they did from such an extensive area in Africa, they were not of one physical or cultural type. Significant differences existed among them, but they shared a general set of characteristics. They were tall and had dark skin, tight woolly hair, full lips, broad noses, and limited facial and body hair. Gomez (1998) suggests that Africans, upon arriving in America, were dispersed along ethnic and cultural lines. While they eventually dropped their African ethnic identities, they retained some of their original cultures. For example, runaway-slave advertisements sometimes identified the slaves by their ethnic roots ("Dinah, an Ebo wench that speaks very good English").
Historians have disagreed as to whether slavery in colonial Virginia was made politically and psychologically acceptable by an inherent racism among white Europeans, or if slavery emerged as a result of economic factors and racism developed as a consequence of it. The consensus is that the enslavement of Africans was due to economic requirements for labor, to the inability of Africans to resist slavery, and to European beliefs that Africans were an inferior branch of humanity, suited by their characteristics and circumstances to be lifelong slaves.
At first the Africans in the South were outnumbered by white indentured servants, who came voluntarily from Britain. They avoided the plantations. With the vast amount of good land and the shortage of laborers, plantation owners turned to lifetime slaves who worked for their keep but were not paid wages and could not easily escape. Slaves had some legal rights (it was a crime to kill a slave, and whites were hung for it.) Generally the slaves developed their own family system, religion and customs in the slave quarters with little interference from owners, who were only interested in work outputs.
By 1700 there were 25,000 slaves in the American colonies, about 10% of the population. A few had come from Africa but most came from the West Indies (especially Barbados), or, increasingly, were native born. Their legal status was now clear: they were slaves for life and so were the children of slave mothers. They could be sold, or freed, and a few ran away. Slowly a free black population emerged, concentrated in port cities along the Atlantic coast from Charleston to Boston. Slaves in the cities and towns had many more privileges, but the great majority of slaves lived on southern tobacco or rice plantations, usually in groups of 20 or more.
The most serious slave rebellion was the Stono Uprising, in September 1739 in South Carolina. The colony had about 56,000 slaves, who outnumbered whites 2:1. About 150 slaves rose up, and seizing guns and ammunition, murdered twenty whites, and headed for Spanish Florida. The local militia soon intercepted and killed most of them.[1]
All the American colonies had slavery, but it was usually the form of personal servants in the North (where 2% of the people were slaves), and field hands in plantations in the South (where 25% were slaves.)
Revolution and early republic: 1775-1840
The Declaration of Independence of 1776 said that all men are born free. Acting on that principle, all the northern states abolished slavery between 1776 and 1805—these were the first places in the world where the government abolished slavery. (Britain abolished slavery in the 1830s.) However, with the cotton gin in the 1790s, slavery became highly profitable in the South and was not abolished. Indeed, it expanded rapidly due to demographic growth. In 1808 it became illegal to buy or sell slaves from abroad, but inside the U.S. South the trade was legal and flourished.
By 1800 most slaves had become Christians. However few followed the Episcopal or Presbyterian affiliations of most masters; rather by the 1830s most had become Baptists or Methodists, but with a distinctive difference. Genovese (1974) identified the key features of the black version of Christianity as its raucous emotionalism, an absence of a sense of original sin or depravity, an emphasis on the role of Moses (who at times rivaled in importance Jesus), and an uneasy commingling with magic and conjuring. Genovese argued religion was increasingly central to the lives and self-identity of the slaves. "The religion practiced in the quarters gave the slaves the one thing they absolutely had to have if they were to resist. . . . It fired them with a sense of their own worth before God and man."[2]
Free blacks
The free black population in the South grew rapidly during 1771-1815, from 28,000 in 1790 to 186,000 in 1860 in the South Atlantic states alone. Before the American Revolution the increase in the free black population was due mainly to local emancipations, natural population increase, and migration from rural areas. During and after the Revolution, however, there were additional ways to become free, including petitions and lawsuits, the 1782 manumission act, self-purchase, purchase by already free blacks, and individual emancipation. Fear of free blacks in an age of black revolts, however, prompted whites to impose restrictions on manumission and migration and ultimately to revert to the colonial-era policy of expelling free blacks from Virginia.[3]
Formal laws and informal customs created innumerable obstacles to the socioeconomic advance of the free blacks in the South. Laws prohibited free blacks from some activities and occupations and restricted their participation in others. Racism and terrorism by whites also made advancement difficult. Despite these disadvantages, the free black population fared rather well, with much better nutrition than people back in Europe or Africa. They grew nearly as tall as white Americans and towered over contemporary Europeans.[4]
see also Slavery
Age of abolition, 1840-1877
see also American Civil War homefront; and Reconstruction
The Quakers, as well as Evangelical churches in the U.S. and Britain, led the battle for abolition of slavery. The abolition movement in the U.S. was highly visible and extremely controversial, but it was never large—with fewer than 50,000 activists at most, about half of them free blacks living in the North.
Over 1 million slaves were moved from the older seaboard slave states, with their declining economies to the rich cotton states of the southwest; many others were sold and moved locally. Berlin (2003) argues that this "Second Middle Passage"
- shredded the planters' paternalist pretenses in the eyes of black people and prodded slaves and free people of color to create a host of oppositional ideologies and institutions that better accounted for the realities of endless deportations, expulsions and flights that continually remade their world.
Civil War
see American Civil War homefront
The political and constitutional debate among whites led to the secession of the Deep South and to the Civil War in 1861. The new Republican Party saw slavery as an evil that had to be eventually put on the road to extinction. In the war, however, abolition became a tool to Union victory, as strategized by Abraham Lincoln. The point was that slavery was a main prop of the rebellion, and to win the war it had to be eliminated. Emancipation would have the effect of energizing Confederates who feared a race war, but it would also energize Northerners who saw it as a moral cause, and would help keep Europe from supporting the rebels.
At the beginning of the war some Union commanders thought they were supposed to return escaped slaves to their masters. By 1862, when it became clear that this would be a long war, the question of what to do about slavery became more general. The Southern economy and military effort depended on slave labor. It began to seem unreasonable to protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce and destroying Southern production. As one Congressman put it, the slaves "cannot be neutral. As laborers, if not as soldiers, they will be allies of the rebels, or of the Union."[5] The same Congressman—and his fellow Radical Republicans—put pressure on Lincoln to rapidly emancipate the slaves, whereas Conservative Republicans came to accept gradual, compensated emancipation and colonization.
In 1861 Lincoln expressed the fear that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game."[6] At first Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Fremont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in the South Carolina Sea Islands) in order to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln then tried to persuade the border states to accept his plan of gradual, compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization, while warning them that stronger measures would be needed if the moderate approach was rejected. Only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, and Lincoln issued his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1 of 1863. In his letter to Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong … And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me."[7]
The Emancipation Proclamation, announced in September 1862 and The Radical Republicsn put intense political pressure on Lincoln to use emancipation as a weapon. The problem was that he needed first to shore up pro-Union support in key border states, especially Kentucky. Only after it was safe could he act, and then he needed a military victory first. Lincoln thrilled the anti-slavery forces by announcing the Emancipation Proclamation in September 1862; the official proclamation came on January 1, 1863, and it had the effect of freeing most of the 4 million slaves. It also greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in getting border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves fighting on the same side for the Union.
Border states
The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky. The great majority of the 4 million slaves were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, as Union armies moved South. To handle this problem Lincoln proposed the a constitutional amendment. The 13th amendment, passed by Congress in February 1865 and ratified by the states in December 1865, finally freed the remaining 40,000 slaves in Kentucky.[8]
See Reconstruction
Age of Jim Crow, 1877-1954
see Jim Crow
Booker T. Washington (1856-1915) was the dominant political and educational leader of the African-American community 1890-1915. He is most famous for his inspiring autobiography, Up from Slavery, his leadership of black conservative business and religious leaders, his founding of Tuskeegee Institute as a college for technical training, and his emphasis on self-help and education as the cure for poverty and the second class status of blacks in America. In his "Atlanta Compromise" of 1895 Washington reluctantly accepted Jim Crow, segregation and disfranchisement in return for black freedom in economic, religious and cultural affairs. Washington was highly popular among top white leaders and most blacks, but his approach was attacked after 1909 as too conservative by W.E.B. DuBois and the NAACP.
The most dramatic demographic change came after 1940, as most backs left the rural South—some for nearby southern cities, and most headed to large cities in the North and West. In the decade of the 1940s 1.6 million left the South; in the 1950s, 1.5 million, and in the 1960s 1.4 million. By 1970 there were very few back farmers left. Politically it was a movement from a white dominated rural South where few blacks could vote or speak out, to a pluralistic political environment where northern central cities were controlled by liberals and their allies in the labor unions.
Age of Civil Rights, 1954 to present
In 1955 blacks in Montgomery, Alabama undertook a boycott of the segregated city buses and chose a local pastor Martin Luther King as their leader, and Rosa Parks as a symbolic actor. Drawing on Gandhi's teachings, King directed a nonviolent boycott designed both to end an injustice and to redeem his white adversaries through love. Love, he said, not only avoided the internal violence of the spirit but also severed the external chain of hatred that only produced more hatred. Somebody, he argued, must be willing to break this chain so that "the beloved community" could be restored and true brotherhood could begin. In November 1956, the boycotters had won a resounding moral victory when the United States Supreme Court nullified the Alabama laws that enforced segregated buses. The Montgomery protest captured the imagination of the world over and marked the beginning of a southern black civil rights movement that rocked the Jim Crow South to its foundations. King, with extraordinary oratorical powers and rich religious imagery, emerged as the most inspiring new moral voice in civil rights. In August 1957 King and 115 other black leaders met in Montgomery and formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), with King as leader. Working through southern churches, the SCLC enlisted the religious black community in the freedom struggle by expanding "the Montgomery way" across the South.
In 1960 southern black college and high school students launched the sit-in movement, forming the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).
Through 1961 and 1962 civil rights leaders pressured the John F. Kennedy administration to support a tough civil rights bill, seeking a sort of second Emancipation Proclamation that would employ federal power to wipe out segregation just as Lincoln's 1863 decree had abolished slavery. Kennedy, basically conservative and unwilling to offend his base of Southern white voters, refused to act. Civil rights groups thereupon launched multiple mass demonstrations throughout the South. King and the SCLC staff would single out some notoriously segregated city with officials who tolerated violence; mobilize the local blacks with songs, Bible readings, and rousing oratory; and then lead them on protest marches conspicuous for their nonviolent spirit and moral purpose. Then the marchers escalated their demands—even fill up the jails—until they brought about a moment of "creative tension," when white authorities would either agree to negotiate or resort to violence. If violence broke out it would humiliate the moderate whites and redouble national pressures from church and activists for federal intervention. So far there was no violence on the part of blacks, but they were growing more and more frustrated and angry, with militants like Malcolm X calling for more extreme measures.[9]
Nonviolent confrontation failed politically in Albany, Georgia, in 1962, where white authorities were equally nonviolent. In 1963 it succeeded in Birmingham, Alabama, where Police Commissioner Eugene ("Bull") Connor turned fire-hoses and police dogs on the marchers—in full view of reporters and television cameras. The civil rights activists thus exposed racist hatred to the scorn of national and world opinion. Jailed during the demonstrations, King wrote his classic "Letter from Birmingham Jail," the most influential and eloquent expression of the goals and philosophy of the civil rights movement.[10] King's great speech, "I Have a Dream" during the March on Washington, August 28, 1963, galvanized the movement, putting forth a goal of an integrated color-blind society.[11] President Lyndon Johnson, a long-time supporter of civil rights, had replaced Kennedy and he seized the moment to mobilize a majority coalition of northern Democrats, Republicans, white churches, and white labor unions to break a Senate filibuster and pass 1964 Civil Rights Act, which desegregated public facilities. Overnight Jim Crow vanished, with little protest or violence.
However, within days of the passage of the powerful new law, rioting broke out in black ghettos, as the civil rights leadership discovered it could not control the angry masses. Nor could it control the radical students in SNCC and like-minded groups who were moving rapidly to the left, rejecting alliances with whites, discarding the goal of integration and demanding instead black separatism and "Black Power."[12]
Recent years
In recent years blacks have made major gains in sports, entertainment and politics. George W. Bush appointed the first two blacks to head the cabinet, secretaries of state Colin Powell and Condoleezza Rice. In a stunning upset, Barack Obama defeated Hillary Clinton for the Democratic nomination for president in 2008, then defeated Republican John McCain
McCain hailed Obama's win:
- I've always believed that America offers opportunities to all who have the industry and will to seize it. Senator Obama believes that, too. But we both recognize that though we have come a long way from the old injustices that once stained our nation's reputation and denied some Americans the full blessings of American citizenship, the memory of them still had the power to wound. A century ago, President Theodore Roosevelt's invitation of Booker T. Washington to dine at the White House was taken as an outrage in many quarters. America today is a world away from the cruel and prideful bigotry of that time. There is no better evidence of this than the election of an African American to the presidency of the United States. Let there be no reason now for any American to fail to cherish their citizenship in this, the greatest nation on Earth.[13]
The history of slavery has always been a major research topic for white scholars, but they generally focused on the political and constitutional themes until the 1950s, generally ignoring the black slaves themselves. During Reconstruction and the late 19th century, blacks became major actors in the South. The Dunning School of white scholars generally cast the blacks as pawns of white Carpetbaggers but W.E.B. Dubois, a black historian, and Ulrich B. Phillips, a white historian, studied the African-American experience in depth. Indeed, Phillips set the main topics of inquiry that still guide the analysis of slave economics.
In the black community, in the first half of the 20th century Carter G. Woodson was the major scholar studying and promoting the black historical experience. Woodson insisted that the study of African descendants be scholarly sound, creative, restorative, and, most important, directly relevant to the black community. He popularized black history with a variety of innovative strategies and vehicles, including Association for the Study of Negro Life outreach activities, Negro History Month (now Black History Month, in February), and a popular black history magazine. Woodson democratized, legitimized, and popularized black history.[14]
Benjamin Quarles (1904–96) and John Hope Franklin (1915-2009) provided a bridge between the work of historians in black schools such as Woodson, and the black history that is now well established in mainline universities. Quarles grew up in Boston, attended Shaw University as an undergraduate, and received a graduate degree at the University of Wisconsin. He began in 1953 teaching at Morgan State College in Baltimore, where he stayed, despite a lucrative offer from Johns Hopkins. Franklin taught at Brooklyn College and had a major impact when he was a professor at the elite University of Chicago, 1964-83.
Black history always sought out black agency—even slaves had a certain amount of control over their lives. The assumptions was that slaves were passive and did not rebel was debated in the 1950s and rejected. Many of the white scholars were former Communists or members of the far left, and they looked for violent rebellion. They found few such rebellions, but much unrest. Herbert Gutman and Leon Litwack showed that in reconstruction how former slaves fought to keep their families together and struggled against tremendous odds to define themselves as free people. Robert Fogel, a former Communist who moved to the right, enraged the left when he used quantitative methods to show that the housing, food, clothing and living conditions of the slaves were reasonably favorable. He was awarded the Nobel prize in Economics for his work.
Today proponents of black history argue that it promotes diversity, develops self-esteem, and corrects myths and stereotypes. Opponents, including Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. and Oscar Handlin, complain that such curricula are dishonest, divisive, and lack academic credibility and rigor.[15]
Knowledge of black history
Surveys of 11th and 12th grade students and adults in 2005 show that American schools have made them very well informed about black history. Both groups were asked to name ten famous Americans, excluding presidents. Of the students, the three highest names were blacks: 67% named Martin Luther King, 60% Rosa Parks, and 44% Harriet Tubman. Among adults, King was 2nd (at 36%) and Parks was tied for 4th with 30%, while Tubman tied for 10th place with Henry Ford, at 16%. When distinguished historians were asked in 2006 to name the most prominent Americans, Parks and Tubman did not make the top 100.[16]
- Earle, Jonathan, and Malcolm Swanston. The Routledge Atlas of African American History (2000) excerpt and text search
- Finkelman, Paul, ed. Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619-1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass (3 vol 2006)
- Franklin, John Hope, and Alfred Moss, From Slavery to Freedom. A History of African Americans, (2001), standard textbook; first edition in 1947 excerpt and text search
- Litwack, Leon, and August Meier. Black Leaders of the 19th Century. (1988)
- Franklin, John Hope, and August Meier, eds. Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century. (1982), short biographies by scholars.
- Harris, William H. The Harder We Run: Black Workers Since the Civil War. (1982). online edition
- Hine, Darlene Clark, Rosalyn Terborg-Penn and Elsa Barkley Brown, eds. Black Women in America - An Historical Encyclopedia, (2005) excerpt and text search
- Hine, Darlene Clark, et al. The African-American Odyssey (2 vol, 4th ed. 2007) textbook excerpt and text search vol 1
- Holt, Thomas C. ed. Major Problems in African-American History: From Freedom to "Freedom Now," 1865-1990s (2000) reader in primary and secondary sources
- Horton, James Oliver, and Lois E. Horton. Hard Road to Freedom: The Story of African America: From the Civil War to the Millennium (2002), well-balanced survey
- Kelley, Robin D. G., and Earl Lewis, eds. To Make Our World Anew: A History of African Americans. (2000). 672pp; 10 long essays by leading scholars online edition, leftist emphasis
- Lowery, Charles D. and John F. Marszalek, eds. Encyclopedia of African-American Civil Rights: From Emancipation to the Present (1992) online edition
- Mandle, Jay R. Not Slave, Not Free: The African American Economic Experience since the Civil War (1992) online edition
- Painter, Nell Irvin. Creating Black Americans: African American History and Its Meanings, 1619 to the Present. (2006), 480 pp survey; leftist emphasis
- Palmer, Colin A. ed. Encyclopedia Of African American Culture And History: The Black Experience In The Americas (6 vol. 2005)
- Salzman, Jack, David Lionel Smith, and Cornel West, eds. Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History. (5 vol. 1996).
- Smallwood, Arwin D The Atlas of African-American History and Politics: From the Slave Trade to Modern Times (1997)
Slave era pre 1860
- Berlin, Ira. Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (2000) ACLS E-book
- Blassingame, John W. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South (2nd ed. 1979) excerpt and text search
- Fogel, Robert. Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery, (2 vol, 1974). (with Stanley Engerman), highly controversial quantitative study by a conservative
- Fogel, Robert. Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery, (2 vol, 1989).
- Genovese, Eugene. Roll Jordan Roll: The World the Slaves Made (1974), highly influential study of slavery excerpt and text search, by a former Communist who is now a prominent conservative
- Gomez, Michael. Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (1998) 384pp excerpt and text search
- Horton, James Oliver, and Lois E. Horton. Slavery and the Making of America (2006), well-balanced survey
- Horton, James Oliver. In hope of liberty: culture, community, and protest among northern free Blacks, 1700-1860 (1998) ACLS E-book
- Kolchin, Peter. American Slavery, 1619-1877 (wnd ed. 2003), a short survey excerpt and text search
- Kulikoff, Allan. Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680 - 1800 (1986)
- Miller, Randall M., and John David Smith, eds. Dictionary of Afro-Amerian Slavery (1988)
- Rothman, Adam. Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South. (2005). 282 pp. excerpt and text search
- Sobel, Mechal. The World They Made Together: Black and White Values in Eighteenth-Century Virginia (1987).
- White, Deborah Gray. Ar'n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South, (2nd ed. 1999) excerpt and text search
- Wood, Peter H. Black majority: Negroes in colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (1975) ACLS E-book
Emancipation and Reconstruction Era: 1860-1890
- Boles, John B. Black Southerners, 1619–1869. (1983)
- Butchart, Ronald E. Northern Schools, Southern Blacks, and Reconstruction: Freedmen's Education, 1862-1875 (1980) onlineedition
- Cimbala, Paul A. and Trefousse, Hans L. (eds.) The Freedmen's Bureau: Reconstructing the American South After the Civil War. 2005.
- Click, Patricia C. Time Full of Trial: The Roanoke Island Freedmen's Colony, 1862-1867 (2001) online edition
- Crouch, Barry. The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Texans (1992)
- Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt. "The Freedmen's Bureau" (1901) by leading black scholar online edition
- Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt. Black Reconstruction in America 1860-1880 (1935)
- Durrill, Wayne K. "Political Legitimacy and Local Courts: 'Politicks at Such a Rage' in a Southern Community during Reconstruction" in Journal of Southern History, Vol. 70 #3, 2004 pp 577–617 online edition
- Foner Eric. Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (1988), the standard history of Reconstruction.
- Gutman, Herbert G. The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (1977)
- Hahn, Steven. A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (2003), 1865-1950 ACLS E-book
- Jones, Jacqueline. Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (1985)
- Kolchin, Peter. First Freedom: The Responses of Alabama's Blacks to Emancipation and Reconstruction 1972.
- Litwack, Leon F. Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery. 1979,
- Oubre, Claude F. Forty Acres and a Mule: The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Land Ownership 1978.
- Quarles, Benjamin. The Negro in the Civil War'. (1953) by leading African American historian
- Rabinowitz, Howard N. Race Relations in the Urban South, 1865-1890 (1978)
- Ransom, Roger L. Conflict and Compromise. (1989), econometric history
- Richardson, Joe M. Christian Reconstruction: The American Missionary Association and Southern Blacks, 1861-1890 (1986).
- Rodrigue, John C. "Labor Militancy and Black Grassroots Political Mobilization in the Louisiana Sugar Region, 1865-1868" in Journal of Southern History, Vol. 67 #1, 2001 pp 115–45; online edition also in JSTOR
- Schwalm, Leslie A. "'Sweet Dreams of Freedom': Freedwomen's Reconstruction of Life and Labor in Lowcountry South Carolina," Journal of Women's History, Vol. 9 #1, 1997 pp 9–32 online edition
- Span, Christopher M. "'I Must Learn Now or Not at All': Social and Cultural Capital in the Educational Initiatives of Formerly Enslaved African Americans in Mississippi, 1862-1869," The Journal of African American History, 2002 pp 196–222 online edition
- Williamson, Joel. After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina during Reconstruction, 1861-1877 1965.
Jim Crow Era: 1877-1954
- Anderson, James D. The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (1988) online edition
- Bayor, Ronald H. Race and the Shaping of Twentieth-Century Atlanta (1996)
- Bond, Horace Mann. "The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States." Journal of Negro Education 4(July 1935):321–27. in JSTOR
- Brundage, W. Fitzhugh, ed Booker T. Washington and Black Progress: Up from Slavery 100 Years Later (2003)
- Bullock, Henry Allen. A History of Negro Education in the South: From 1619 to the Present (1967) ACLS E-book
- Cartwright, Joseph H. The Triumph of Jim Crow: Tennessee Race Relations in the 1880s (1976)
- Dailey, Jane, Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, and Bryant Simon, eds. Jumpin' Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights (2000), essays by scholars on impact of Jim Crow on black communities online edition
- Gaines, Kevin. Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (1996). online edition
- Gatewood, Jr., Willard B. Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880-1920 (2000)
- Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. Gender and Jim Crow Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920 (1996) online edition; also excerpt and text search
- Gosnell, Harold F. Negro politicians: the rise of Negro politics in Chicago, (1935, 1967) ACLS E-book
- Hahn, Steven. A Nation under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration (2003), 1865-1950 ACLS E-book; also excerpt and text search
- Jones, Jacqueline. Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (1985)
- Harlan. Louis R. Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856-1900 (1972) the standard biography, vol 1
- Harlan. Louis R. Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee 1901-1915 (1983), the standard scholarly biography vol 2 online edition vol 2
- Harlan. Louis R. Booker T. Washington in Perspective: Essays of Louis R. Harlan (1988) online edition
- Harlan. Louis R. "The Secret Life of Booker T. Washington." Journal of Southern History 37#3 (1971). pp 393–416 Documents Booker T. Washington's secret financing and directing of litigation against segregation and disfranchisement. in JSTOR
- McMurry, Linda O. George Washington Carver, Scientist and Symbol (1982) online edition
- Jones, Jacqueline. Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (1985) excerpt and text search
- Lemann, Nicholas. The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (1992) excerpt and text search
- Lewis, David Levering. W. E. B. DuBois, 1868-1919: Biography of a Race (2 vol 1993, 2000). excerpt and text search vol 1, winner of Pulitzer Prize; W.E.B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century 1919-1963 (2000) excerpt and text search vol 2
- Litwack, Leon F. Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (1998) excerpt and text search
- Logan, Rayford. The Betrayal of the Negro: From Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson (Originally Published as: The Negro in American Life and Thought: The Nadir: 1877-1901) (1970) excerpt and text search
- McMillen, Neil R. Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow. (1989). excerpt and text search
- Meier, August. Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington (1963),
- Meier, August. "Toward a Reinterpretation of Booker T. Washington." 23 Journal of Southern History 22#2 (1957) in JSTOR
- Myrdal, Gunnar. An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944). Highly influential and detailed analysis of the Jim Crow system in operation. excerpt and text search
- Norrell, Robert J. Up from History: The Life of Booker T. Washington (2009), new, favorable scholarly biography
- Norrell, Robert J. "Booker T. Washington: Understanding the Wizard of Tuskegee" New Coalition News & Views Summer 2004 online edition
- Sterner, Richard. The Negro's share: a study of income, consumption, housing, and public assistance (1943), statistical analysis of 1930s ACLS E-book
- Walker, Juliet E. K. Encyclopedia of African American Business History (1999) online edition
- Woodward, C. Vann. The Strange Career of Jim Crow (3d ed., 1974), in ACLS E-books
- Woodward, C. Vann. Origins of the New South, 1877-1913 (1951) ACLS E-book
- Wintz, Cary D. African American Political Thought, 1890-1930: Washington, Du Bois, Garvey, and Randolph (1996) online edition
Civil Rights Era: 1954 - present
- Branch, Taylor. Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954-63 (1989) excerpt and text search; Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years 1963-65 (1999) excerpt and text search; At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965-68 (2007)
- Carson, Clayborne. In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (1981)
- Cashman, Sean Dennis. African-Americans and the Quest for Civil Rights, 1900-1990 (1991)
- Collier-Thomas, Bettye, and V.P. Franklin. Sisters in the Struggle : African-American Women in the Civil Rights-Black Power Movement (2001) excerpt and text search
- Eagles, Charles, ed. The Civil Rights Movement in America (1986), 200pp; 12 short essays by scholars and text search
- Farley, Reynolds, and William H. Frey. "The Segregation of Whites from Blacks During the 1980s: Small Steps Toward a More Integrated Society," American Sociological Review, Vol. 59, No. 1 (Feb., 1994), pp. 23–45 heavily statistical; in JSTOR
- Fredrickson, George M. Black Liberation: A Comparative History of Black Ideologies in the United States and South Africa (2nd ed. 1996)excerpt and text search
- Garrow, David. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., And The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1989) excerpt and text search
- Goldman, Peter. The Death and Life of Malcolm X, (2nd ed. 1979)
- Graham, Hugh Davis. The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy, 1960-1972 (1990)
- Harris, Fredrick C. "Something Within: Religion as a Mobilizer of African-American Political Activism," The Journal of Politics, Vol. 56, No. 1 (Feb., 1994), pp. 42–68 in JSTOR
- Horne, Gerald. '"'Myth' and the Making of 'Malcolm X'", The American Historical Review, Vol. 98, No. 2 (Apr., 1993), pp. 440–450 in JSTOR
- Kluger, Richard. Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality, (1975) excerpt and text search
- Ling, Peter J. Martin Luther King, Jr. (2002) excerpt and text search
- Meier, August, and Elliot Rudwick. CORE (1975).
- Sitkoff, Harvard. The Struggle for Black Equality (1981).
- Walton, Hanes, and Robert C. Smith. American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom (3rd ed 2005) excerpt and text search
- Williams, Juan, and Julian Bond. Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965 (1988) excerpt and text search
- Wolters, Raymond. The Burden of Brown: Thirty Years of Desegration (1984) excerpt and text search
Historiography and teaching
- Arnesen, Eric. "Up From Exclusion: Black and White Workers, Race, and the State of Labor History," Reviews in American History 26#1 March 1998, pp. 146–174 in Project Muse
- Dagbovie, Pero. The Early Black History Movement, Carter G. Woodson, and Lorenzo Johnston Greene (2007) excerpt and text search
- Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo. "Exploring a Century of Historical Scholarship on Booker T. Washington." Journal of African American History 2007 92(2): 239-264. Issn: 1548-1867 Fulltext: Ebsco
- Dorsey, Allison. "Black History Is American History: Teaching African American History in the Twenty-first Century." Journal of American History 2007 93(4): 1171-1177. Issn: 0021-8723 Fulltext: History Cooperative
- Ernest, John. "Liberation Historiography: African-American Historians before the Civil War," American Literary History 14#3, Fall 2002, pp. 413–443 in Project Muse
- Eyerman, Ron. Cultural Trauma: Slavery and the Formation of African American Identity (2002) argues that slavery emerged as a central element of the collective identity of African Americans in the post-Reconstruction era.
- Fields, Barbara J. "Ideology and Race in American History," in J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson, eds., Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward (1982)
- Franklin, John Hope. "Afro-American History: State of the Art," Journal of American History (June 1988): 163-173. in JSTOR
- Goggin, Jacqueline. Carter G. Woodson: A Life in Black History (1993)
- Hall, Stephen Gilroy. "'To Give a Faithful Account of the Race': History and Historical Consciousness in the African-American Community, 1827-1915." PhD disseratation, Ohio State U. 1999. 470 pp. DAI 2000 60(8): 3084-A. DA9941339 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
- Harris, Robert L., "Coming of Age: The Transformation of Afro-American Historiography," Journal of Negro History 57 (1982): 107-121. in JSTOR
- Harris, Robert L., Jr. "The Flowering of Afro-American History." American Historical Review 1987 92(5): 1150-1161. Issn: 0002-8762 in Jstor
- Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks, "African-American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 17 (1992): 251-274.
- Hine, Darlene Clark, ed. Afro-American History: Past, Present, and Future. (1986).
- Hine, Darlene Clark. Hine Sight: Black Women and the Re-Construction of American History (1994) excerpt and text search
- Hornsby Jr., Alton, et al. eds. A Companion to African American History. (2005). 580 pp. 31 long essays by experts covering African and diasporic connections in the context of the transatlantic slave trade; colonial and antebellum African, European, and indigenous relations; processes of cultural exchange; war and emancipation; post-emancipation community and institution building; intersections of class and gender; migration; and struggles for civil rights. ISBN 0-631-23066-1
- McMillen, Neil R. "Up from Jim Crow: Black History Enters the Profession's Mainstream." Reviews in American History 1987 15(4): 543-549. Issn: 0048-7511 in Jstor
- Meier, August, and Elliott Rudwick. Black History and the Historical Profession, 1915-1980 (1986)
- Nelson, Hasker. Listening For Our Past: A Lay Guide To African American Oral History Interviewing (2000) excerpt and text search
- Quarles, Benjamin. Black Mosaic: Essays in Afro-American History and Historiography (1988).
- Rabinowitz, Howard N. "More Than the Woodward Thesis: Assessing The Strange Career of Jim Crow", Journal of American History 75 (Dec. 1988): 842-56. in JSTOR
- Reidy, Joseph P. "Slave Emancipation Through the Prism of Archives Records" (1997) online
- Roper, John Herbert. U. B. Phillips: A Southern Mind (1984), on the white historian of slavery
- Trotter, Joe W. "African-American History: Origins, Development, and Current State of the Field," OAH Magazine of History 7#4 Summer 1993 online edition
- Wright, William D. Black History and Black Identity: A Call for a New Historiography (2002), proposes new racial and ethnic terminology and classifications for the study of black people and history. excerpt and text search
Primary Sources
- Aptheker, Herbert, ed. A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States. (7 vol 1951-1994), by a prominent Communist
- Berlin, Ira, ed. Free at Last: A Documentary History of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War (1995)
- Bracey, John H., and Manisha Sinha, eds. African American Mosaic: A Documentary History from the Slave Trade to the Twenty-First Century, (2 vol 2004)
- Chafe, William Henry, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstad, eds. Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell About Life in the Segregated South (2003) excerpt and text search
- Finkenbine, Roy E. Sources of the African-American Past: Primary Sources in American History (2nd Edition) (2003)
- Hampton, Henry, and Steve Fayer, eds. Voices of Freedom (1990), oral histories of civil rights movement
- King, Martin Luther. I Have a Dream: Writings and Speeches That Changed the World, (1992) excerpt and text search
- King, Martin Luther. Why We Can't Wait (1963; 2000)
- King, Martin Luther. The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr.: Volume VI: Advocate of the Social Gospel, September 1948-March 1963 (2007) excerpt and text search
- Levy, Peter B. Let Freedom Ring: A Documentary History of the Modern Civil Rights Movement (1992) online edition
- Rawick, George P. ed. The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography (19 vols., (1972) oral histories with ex-slaves conducted in 1930s by WPA
- Sernett, Milton C. African American Religious History: A Documentary Witness (1999) excerpt and text search
- Washington, Booker T. "The Awakening of the Negro," The Atlantic Monthly, 78 (September, 1896).
- Washington, Booker T. Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (1901).
- The Booker T. Washington Papers University of Illinois Press online version of complete fourteen volume set of all letters to and from Booker T. Washington.
- Wright, Kai, ed. The African-American Archive: The History of the Black Experience Through Documents (2001)
External links
- Library of Congress - African American History and Culture
- Encyclopedia Britannica - Guide to Black History
- Tennessee Technological University - African-American History and Studies
See also
- ↑ Wood (1974)
- ↑ Eugene Genovese, Roll Jordan Roll (1974) p. 283
- ↑ Michael L. Nicholls, "Strangers Setting Among Us: The Sources and Challenge of the Urban Free Black Population of Early Virginia". Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 2000 108(2): 155-179. 0042-6636 in JSTOR
- ↑ Howard. Bodenhorn, "A Troublesome Caste: Height and Nutrition of Antebellum Virginia's Rural Free Blacks." Journal of Economic History 1999 59(4): 972-996. 0022-0507 in JSTOR
- ↑ James MacPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom (1988) page 495
- ↑ Lincoln's letter to O. H. Browning, Sep 22, 1861
- ↑ Lincoln's Letter to A. G. Hodges, April 4, 1864
- ↑ It also freed 1,000 or so slaves in Delaware and some lifetime servants in West Virginia, as well as black slaves owned by Indians in Oklahoma.
- ↑ Robert Terrill, "Protest, Prophecy, and Prudence in the Rhetoric of Malcolm X," Rhetoric & Public Affairs 4#1 Spring 2001, pp. 25-53 in Project Muse; Akinyele O. Umoja, "The Ballot and the Bullet," Journal of Black Studies 29 (1999): 558-79; Sean Dennis Cashman, African-Americans and the Quest for Civil Rights, 1900-1990 (1991), 184-215.
- ↑ Edward I. Berry, "Doing Time: King's 'Letter from Birmingham Jail." Rhetoric & Public Affairs 9#1 Spring 2005, pp. 109-131 in Project Muse
- ↑ Mark Vail, "The 'Integrative' Rhetoric of Martin Luther King Jr.'s 'I Have a Dream' Speech," Rhetoric & Public Affairs 9#1 Spring 2006, pp. 51-78 in Project Muse; Alexandra Alverez, "Martin Luther King's 'I Have a Dream': The Speech Event as Metaphor," Journal of Black Studies 3 (1998):337–57
- ↑ Akinyele O. Umoja, "1964: The Beginning of the End of Nonviolence in the Mississippi Freedom Movement," Radical History Review, Jan 2003; 2003: 201 - 226. online in Duke journals
- ↑ McCain statement Nov. 4, 2008
- ↑ Pero Gaglo Dagbovie, "Making Black History Practical and Popular: Carter G. Woodson, the Proto Black Studies Movement, and the Struggle for Black Liberation." Western Journal of Black Studies 2004 28(2): 372-383. Issn: 0197-4327 Fulltext: Ebsco
- ↑ Abul Pitre and Ruth Ray, "The Controversy Around Black History." Western Journal of Black Studies 2002 26(3): 149-154. Issn: 0197-4327 Fulltext: Ebsco
- ↑ Sam Wineburg and Chauncey Monte-Sano, "'Famous Americans': The Changing Pantheon of American Heroes," Journal of American History (March 2008) 94#4 pp. 1186–1202.


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Saturday March 23, 2019; 11:00 am EDT
The season's brightest star shines overhead
Look for Mars high above the southwest horizon at the feet of Leo the lion, with blue-white Regulus well to the west. Saturn is high in the south, with equally bright Spica five degrees below. Mars and Saturn both shine at first magnitude, as bright as a typical star, but Mars fades noticeably over the month. Right now they are more than 30 degrees apart, but through summer they draw closer together until Mars passes the ringed planet in mid-August.
Mercury is just now escaping the glare of the setting sun and appears a little higher and remains visible a little longer night by night. You may need binoculars to spot it amid the glare of twilight. Look for it low in the west-northwest about 30 minutes after sundown. Of the planets, only Venus and Jupiter shine brighter than Mercury, so don't confuse it with golden Capella higher in the northwest.
In pre-dawn skies, Jupiter rises around 5:30 in the northeast. A half-hour later, after disappearing from evening skies in its transit of the sun last week, Venus reemerges. These are the two brightest celestial objects other than the sun and moon, but Venus, at –4 magnitude, is more than twice as bright as Jupiter. Look for these two planets to the lower left of the waning crescent moon before sunrise on the 14th.
The brightest object in the night sky is orange Arcturus, the fourth brightest star in all the heavens. Seen as the knee of Boötes the herdsman, Arcturus is a giant almost 20 times the size of our sun and four times as massive. It is older than the sun, however, and has burned through its hydrogen fuel, relying on helium for its fusion and thus is significantly cooler. By 10pm it is almost directly overhead. Finding Arcturus is as easy as finding the Big Dipper: just follow its curved handle and arc to Arcturus.


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Are We There Yet? The Popularity Of Biking
June 11, 2013
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Editor's Note: Ultimately what is new about transportation in the 21st century, in cities as well as in suburbs, is more bicycles, a better network of sidewalks, better maps and cell phone apps that make taking transit easier, and other low-cost alternatives to driving that are easy and convenient and more conducive to improved public health. In this week's excerpt from Are We There Yet? we conclude the Moving chapter with a discussion of the increasing presence of bicycles in cities plus sidebar discussions on transit outside big cities and serving rural America.
Visit the Are We There Yet? home The result of all this advocacy and all these improvements is that more people are walking and biking. Nationally, the percentage of commuters who walk or bike has increased by 10 percent since 2000. These commuters still represent a small share — just 3 percent — of all commuters. But some regions, especially those that…
Visit the Are We There Yet? home The result of all this advocacy and all these improvements is that more people are walking and biking. Nationally, the percentage of commuters who walk or bike has increased by 10 percent since 2000. These commuters still represent a small share — just 3 percent — of all commuters. But some regions, especially those that…
Federal Policy Update: President's FY2014 Budget
April 10, 2013
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President's FY14 Budget Today the President released his FY14 budget. This package of proposals is the Administration's annual request to Congress. Congress will have the ultimate decision-making power over what programs get funded as they develop appropriations bills later this year. Many of the proposals in the budget will face a steep uphill climb in Congress. A short summary of the Key Proposals in the Administration's FY14 Budget for Transit, TOD, and Sustainable Communities is available here. John Robert Smith Comments On Budget A statement of John Robert Smith, President and CEO of Reconnecting America, on the Administration's Proposed FY14 Budget is available here. Reconnecting America provides occasional updates on federal activities related to transit, TOD, and sustainable communities. Updates may include key legislative or regulatory actions, grant opportunities, relevant resources, or original…
Reconnecting America Publishes First in Series of Articles for Surdna Foundation Sustainable Environments Storybank
March 18, 2013
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The Surdna Foundation is developing a Sustainable Environments Storybank, the focus of which is to feature innovative ways to update infrastructure and foster healthy, sustainable and just communities. In this vein, Surdna has asked Reconnecting America and other Surdna grantees to contribute real-life stories about the green economy and sustainable infrastructure.
Using MAP-21 to Strengthen Rural Communities
February 28, 2013
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In January, Transportation for America released Making the Most of MAP-21, a 109-page handbook that explains the many changes in federal transportation policy — positive and negative — and outlines how local officials and advocates can help get involved and urge states to make sure that MAP-21 — Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century — money is used for the priorities of local communities. On Feb. 27, Transportation for America held a webinar focused on helping rural communities to take advantage of the MAP-21 changes. Among the speakers was Reconnecting America's President and CEO John Robert Smith.
Livability Literature Review: A Synthesis Of Current Practice
January 22, 2013
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The National Association of Regional Councils' review of literature about livability has been added to the Research Center's best practices database.
How an Ailing Rust-Belt Town Was Rebuilt From the Grassroots Up
September 22, 2011
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Reconnecting America President and CEO John Robert Smith will be a participant Oct. 13 in a panel discussion following the screening of "The Blood in This Town," a film chronicling how Rutland, VT., an ailing rust-belt town, was rebuilt from the grassroots up. The screening will be at the U.S. Capitol Visitor Center, Congressional Auditorium, at 6pm.
Healthy And Livable Community Resources
August 10, 2011
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The American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) has this new resource guide on Healthy & Livable Communities. It's a good compendium of links, research studies, case studies, etc.
Helping Rural America Win Federal TIGER Grants
August 1, 2011
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The first of two webinars designed to help rural communities take advantage of the Department of Transportation's TIGER (Transportation Investment Generating Economic Recovery) grants will take place Aug. 3 at 2 p.m. EDT.
Norman Garrick - Street Networks Affect Safety
June 17, 2011
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Norman Garrick, CNU Board Member and professor at the University of Connecticut, has been looking at street networks for a number of years now. When living in Davis California, he noticed it was a bit safer even though there were many more pedestrians and cyclists. After more research, it became apparent that denser more connected street networks were safer. In this discussion we had at CNU 19, he discusses how street networks affect safety.
Usability Study on Public Transit Buses
March 7, 2011
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The Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center on Accessible Public Transportation is currently conducting a global survey of usability problems on public transit buses. The survey is open until April 1, 2011. The study investigates getting on and off public buses, circulating inside of buses, understanding the communication and information systems of public buses, as well as issues concerning rider safety. The information collected from this study should help identify the aspects of using public buses that merit further detailed experimental research in controlled settings. The survey targets a broad demographic including manufacturers, designers, engineers, researchers and riders (of all abilities). Not only are we interested in learning about the problems faced on public buses, but also in acquiring feedback on participants' (1) "best practice" experiences with public transportation in cities they have visited and (2) what they envision for the bus of the future. …


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by Tom Utescher
Penn Charter's softball pitchers and hitters performed well last Wednesday at Germantown Friends, where the visiting Quakers held a 4-1 edge after two innings, and then chalked up seven more runs in their next four turns at bat.
The contest ended after the GFS Tigers batted in the bottom of the sixth inning, and Charter's 11-1 victory yielded an overall record of 10-4. PC outslugged GFS, 16-4, and its pitchers combined for 11 strike-outs while giving up a total of just two walks.
GFS has been enjoying a successful season overall, and even after Wednesday's setback the Tigers owned an 8-3 record. Their meeting with Penn Charter fell in between games against strong Friends Schools League opponents, and they did not use their number one pitcher, freshman Lizzie Becker, in the non-league tilt with the Quakers.
Two days earlier, both the Tigers and Friends Select had been undefeated in league play when GFS travelled downtown to play the Falcons. Germantown did not bring it's "A" game, though, and slipped a notch to 6-1 in the FSL. That was the end of the first round of league encounters for the Tigers, who recorded victories over traditionally strong Abington Friends and defending league champ Friends Central. A rematch with AFS was next on the docket after PC.
Penn Charter, fourth in the Girls Inter-Ac a year ago, has gotten off to a 4-0 start in the league, including wins over fellow title contenders Episcopal Academy and Agnes Irwin two weeks ago. The Quakers won 9-2 at EA on April 16, then hosted defending champion Irwin three days later. PC went up 6-0, fell back into a tie, but regrouped and prevailed, 9-6.
Last Wednesday at GFS, Charter started senior Jess Drossner in the circle, and she went four innings with seven strike-outs and two bases on balls. Sophomore Kayla Quinn didn't walk anyone during the last two frames, and added four more strike-outs to the Quakers' collection. GFS junior Becca Bateman went the distance for the hosts, finishing with no strike-outs and four walks.
Neither team had all of its regular starters available, as several players had been sidelined by illness. GFS went without senior third baseman Isabelle Linguiti, who was replaced by senior Rebecca Blaich, normally the flex player for the Tigers.
PC was missing junior catcher Kristina Kubach and freshman shortstop Eileen Hennessy. PC shifted existing starters during the game, while two reserve players, senior Nciole Weitz and freshman Zoe Neefe, saw action throughout the afternoon.
With Bateman in the circle for GFS, the other pitcher, Becker, was put out in left field, and at the top of the first she accounted for all three outs. The first two came when she gloved a fly ball and threw out a runner trying to score from third base.
Next, PC senior Rachael Garnick, who had walked on base, stolen second, and gone to third on the play at the plate, scored on a single by freshman Nikki Ray. Ray would pick up two more RBI's in the game, going three-for-four in the batter's box.
GFS wrapped up PC's first turn at bat when Becker charged in to nab a fly ball hit to shallow left, but the Tigers couldn't get anything going in the home half, going down in order.
Neefe singled up the middle to launch PC in the second inning, and she went to third as Weitz reached second on a throwing error. A ball lofted to right field by freshman Ayanna Matthews was dropped, getting her to second base and scoring a run, but Germantown Friends did get an out on the play with a tag at third.
Matthews went to third on a wild pitch, then stayed there as her ninth-grade classmate Devon Loftus waited out a walk. On a steal attempt, a GFS throw ended up in centerfield, so Loftus was safe on second while Matthews scored to make it 3-0. Quinn (3/5 hitting) cracked a single down the left field line to give the visitors runners on first and third, but they had to hold their spots on a ground-out to the right side.
Another grounder, this one batted up by Mornhinweg, led to an error by the Tigers, and a fourth Penn Charter run came home.
GFS broke the 4-0 shutout in the bottom of the second, which began with junior Rachel Allison getting hit by a pitch and Becker drawing a walk.
After the two Tigers stole ahead to second and third, what would be the only GFS run of the afternoon scored on a passed ball.
Penn Charter scored twice in each of its next three turns on offense, starting at the top of the third with a two-run triple by Loftus over the head of the centerfielder. Next time up, the runs scored on a double steal and Ray's second RBI hit, a single through the left side.
In the home half of the fourth, and error put Allison on first, then a stolen base followed by a sacrifice fly by Becker gave the Tigers a runner on third. Following a base on balls for sophomore Sophie Trotto and a subsequent strike-out, another walk (to Blaich) loaded the bases with two outs, but a pop-up ended the inning.
With the bases loaded in the top of the fifth due to an error, a hit by Quinn, and a walk to Garnick (her third), back-to-back RBI singles by Mornhinweg and Ray pushed PC's lead to nine at 10-1. The Quakers still had the bases loaded with one out, but the Tigers pocketed a fly ball and a pop-up, postponing the implementation of the mercy rule for one inning.
Unfortunately for the hosts, only four batters appeared in the bottom of the fifth, when junior Maddie Andrews got to first on an error but was left stranded there.
Weitz led off for the Quakers in the sixth inning with a single just to the right of second base. After that, a wild pitch and a ground-out by Matthews gave PC a runner on third. Loftus hit a line drive that glanced off the glove of the third baseman, spreading the margin to 10 runs at 11-1. After a fly-out, Loftus went to second on a hit to shallow center by Garnick, then on another ball hit to center, but much higher and deeper, GFS senior outfielder Erica Heinz made a nice grab for the third out.
In the home half of the sixth, the Tigers needed to get PC's lead back down into single figures to bring about a seventh inning, but they began with two outs. Heinz sent a hit into right field and made it to second as PC was slow to retrieve the ball, but then Quinn's fourth strike-out for the Quakers brought the game to an end.
UPDATE: Both teams posted 4-1 league victories on Friday, Penn Charter over Springside Chestnut Hill Academy, and GFS over Abington Friends. Becker, the Tigers' freshman, pitched a no-hitter.


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Monday, March 8, 2010
Chinoiserie Walls-A New Series
10 comments:
- Appletree said...
those are gorgeous, my fave is the wisteria with the gold and black.
- March 8, 2010 at 9:39 AM
- Averill said...
The great thing about F&B is that you can't go wrong. All of their colors and patterns are spot-on. It's fool-proof decorating!
- March 8, 2010 at 11:19 AM
- Karena said...
Oh, I adore the pale yellow and white (silver) It is gorgeous!! Great selections.
Art by Karena
I do have a giveaway coming up
- March 8, 2010 at 12:20 PM
- Kate Coveny Hood said...
These are lovely. I've always loved wallpaper in theory (my textile obessesion would make it impossible for me not to), but I've never considered using it over paint. I think I might be ready to try it in a small room or vestibule...but only after my children stop taking pens to my walls!
- March 8, 2010 at 4:21 PM
- Chic Coles said...
We have a winter house in NH that these would be perfect for! The blues and grays are my favorite ones.
- March 8, 2010 at 4:56 PM
- Style Redux 2 said...
Appletree-Isn't that gorgeous?
- March 9, 2010 at 9:45 AM
- Style Redux 2 said...
Averill-So well said. I tell people time and time again who are driving themselves crazy over paint colors to look at F & B. Their choices are limited and all gorgeous.
- March 9, 2010 at 9:53 AM
- Style Redux 2 said...
Karena-I'll stop by!
- March 9, 2010 at 10:28 AM
- Style Redux 2 said...
Kate-Starting small like a powder room, hall, or closet is a great idea.
- March 10, 2010 at 7:07 AM
- Style Redux 2 said...
CC-Lovely colors.
- March 10, 2010 at 7:08 AM