text:
Frequent Links
Abortion debate
The abortion debate is the ongoing controversy surrounding the moral and legal status of induced abortion. The sides involved in the debate are the self-described "pro-choice" movement (emphasizing the right of women to decide whether to terminate a pregnancy) and the self-described "pro-life" movement (emphasizing the right of the embryo or fetus to gestate and be born). Both of these ascriptions are considered loaded terms in mainstream media where terms such as "abortion rights" or "anti-abortion" are generally preferred.[1] Each movement has, with varying results, sought to influence public opinion and to attain legal support for its position, with small numbers of anti-abortion advocates sometimes using violence.
For many people, abortion is essentially a moral issue, involving issues as to commencement of human personhood, the rights of the fetus, the rights of self-determination of the woman, and/or whether anybody else can make choices concerning her body. The debate has become a political and legal issue in some countries with anti-abortion campaigners seeking to enact, maintain and expand anti-abortion laws, while abortion rights campaigners seek the repeal or easing of such laws. Abortion laws vary considerably between jurisdictions, ranging from outright prohibition of the procedure to few limitations on it.
- 1 Overview
- 2 Terminology
- 3 Political debate
- 4 Moral issues
- 4.1 Personhood
- 4.2 Related issues
- 4.3 Arguments for abortion rights which do not depend on fetal non-personhood
- 4.4 Arguments against the right to abortion
- 4.5 Other factors
- 5 See also
- 6 Notes
- 7 References
- 8 External links
In ancient times, abortion, along with infanticide, was considered in the context of family planning, gender selection, population control, and the property rights of the patriarch.[2] Rarely were the rights of the prospective mother, much less the prospective child, taken into consideration.[3] Although generally legal, the morality of abortion, birth control and child abandonment (as a form of infanticide) was sometimes discussed. Then, as now, these discussions often concerned the nature of man, the existence of a soul, when life begins, and the beginning of human personhood.
While the practice of infanticide (as a form of family planning) has largely died out, child abandonment, birth control, and abortion are still practiced; and their morality and legality continues to be debated. While modern debates about abortion retain some of the language of these older debates, the terminology has often acquired new meanings.
Any discussion of the putative personhood of the fetus will be complicated by the current legal status of children. They are not full persons[4] by law until they have reached the age of majority and are deemed able to enter into contracts and sue or be sued at law. However, for the past two centuries, they have been treated as persons for the limited purposes of Offence against the person law. Furthermore, as one New Jersey Superior Court judge noted,
If a fetus is a person, it is a person in very special circumstances – it exists entirely within the body of another much larger person and usually cannot be the object of direct action by another person.[5]
This judgement discusses the logistic difficulties of treating a fetus as "the object of direct action."
Opinions in the current debate range from complete prohibition, even if done to save the woman's life,[6] to complete legalization with public funding, as in Canada.[7]
Many of the terms used in the debate are seen as political framing: terms used to validate one's own stance while invalidating the opposition's. For example, the labels "pro-choice" and "pro-life" imply endorsement of widely held values such as liberty and freedom, while suggesting that the opposition must be "anti-choice" or "anti-life" (alternatively "pro-coercion" or "pro-death").[8] Terms used by some in the debate to describe their opponents include "pro-abortion" or "pro-abort". However, these terms do not always reflect a political view or fall along a binary; in one Public Religion Research Institute poll, seven in ten Americans described themselves as "pro-choice" while almost two-thirds described themselves as "pro-life".[9] Another identifier in the debate is "abolitionist", which harks back to the 19th-century struggle against human slavery.[10][11]
Appeals are often made in the abortion debate to the rights of the fetus, pregnant woman, or other parties. Such appeals can generate confusion if the type of rights is not specified (whether civil, natural, or otherwise) or if it is simply assumed that the right appealed to takes precedence over all other competing rights (an example of begging the question).
The appropriate terms with which to designate the human organism prior to birth are also debated. The medical terms "embryo" and "fetus" are seen by some pro-life advocates as dehumanizing.[12][13]
Political debate
Politics refers to the processes, defined and limited through legal documents, by which decisions (laws) are made in governments. In politics, rights are the protections and privileges legally granted to citizens by the government. In a democracy, certain rights are considered to be inalienable, and thus not subject to grant or withdrawal by government. Regarding abortion law, the political debate usually surrounds a right to privacy, and when or how a government may regulate abortion[citation needed]. There is abundant debate regarding the extent of abortion regulation. Some pro-choice advocates argue that it should be illegal for governments to regulate abortion any more than other medical practices.[14] On both sides of the debate, some argue[who?] that governments should be permitted to prohibit elective abortions after the 20th week,[15] viability,[16] or the second trimester.[17] Some want to prohibit all abortions, starting from conception.[18]
Even though the right to privacy is not explicitly stated in many constitutions of sovereign nations, many people see it as foundational to a functioning democracy. In general the right to privacy can be found to rest on the provisions of habeas corpus, which first found official expression under Henry II in 11th century England, but has precedent in Anglo-Saxon law. This provision guarantees the right to freedom from arbitrary government interference, as well as due process of law. This conception of the right to privacy is operant in all countries which have adopted English common law through Acts of Reception. The Law of the United States rests on English common law by this means.
Time has stated that the issue of bodily privacy is "the core" of the abortion debate.[19] Time defined privacy, in relation to abortion, as the ability of a woman to "decide what happens to her own body".[19] In political terms, privacy can be understood as a condition in which one is not observed or disturbed by government.[20]
Traditionally, American courts have located the right to privacy in the Fourth Amendment, Ninth Amendment, Fourteenth Amendment, as well as the penumbra of the Bill of Rights. The landmark decision, Roe v Wade relied on the 14th Amendment which guarantees that federal rights shall be applied equally to all persons born in the United States. The 14th Amendment has given rise to the doctrine of Substantive due process, which is said to guarantee various privacy rights, including the right to bodily integrity. In Canada, the courts have located privacy rights in the security of persons clause of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Section 7 of that charter echoes language used in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which also guarantees security of persons.Eileen L. McDonagh explains privacy in US law:
Although not widely understood, there are in fact two components to the right to bodily integrity and liberty: the right of a person to choose how to live her own life and the right of a person to consent to the effects of a private party on her bodily integrity and liberty. In the context of constitutional guarantees, a person's right to consent to "what is done" to her body is an even stronger right than a person's right to choose "what to do" with her life...Since there are two components to the right to bodily integrity and liberty--choice and consent--once the state designates the fetus as an entity separate from the woman, her right to terminate pregnancy stems not only from her right to make a choice about her liberty, but more fundamentally, from her right to consent to how the fetus, as another entity, affects her body and liberty.[21]
While governments are allowed to invade the privacy of their citizens in some cases, they are expected to protect privacy in all cases lacking a compelling state interest. In the US, the compelling state interest test has been developed in accordance with the standards of strict scrutiny. In Roe v Wade, the Court decided that the state has an "important and legitimate interest in protecting the potentiality of human life" from the point of viability on, but that prior to viability, the woman's fundamental rights are more compelling than that of the state.
U.S. judicial involvement
Roe v. Wade struck down state laws banning abortion in 1973. Over 20 cases have addressed abortion law in the United States, all of which upheld Roe v. Wade. Since Roe, abortion has been legal throughout the country, but states have placed varying regulations on it, from requiring parental involvement in a minor's abortion to restricting late-term abortions.
Legal criticisms of the Roe decision address many points, among them are several suggesting that it is an overreach of judicial powers,[22] or that it was not properly based on the Constitution,[23] or that it is an example of judicial activism and that it should be overturned so that abortion law can be decided by legislatures.[24] Justice Potter Stewart, who joined with the majority, viewed the Roe opinion as "legislative" and asked that more consideration be paid to state legislatures.[25]
Candidates competing for the Democratic nomination for the 2008 Presidential election cited Gonzales v. Carhart as judicial activism.[26] In upholding the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act, Carhart is the first judicial opinion upholding a legal barrier to a specific abortion procedure.
"Where, in the performance of its judicial duties, the Court decides a case in such a way as to resolve the sort of intensely divisive controversy reflected in Roe and those rare, comparable cases, its [505 U.S. 833, 867] decision has a dimension that the resolution of the normal case does not carry. It is the dimension present whenever the Court's interpretation of the Constitution calls the contending sides of a national controversy to end their national division by accepting a common mandate rooted in the Constitution [...W]hatever the premises of opposition may be, only the most convincing justification under accepted standards of precedent could suffice to demonstrate that a later decision overruling the first was anything but a surrender to political pressure and an unjustified repudiation of the principle on which the Court staked its authority in the first instance." — Majority opinion of Planned Parenthood v. Casey.[27][28]
"Quite to the contrary, by foreclosing all democratic outlet for the deep passions this issue arouses, by banishing the issue from the political forum that gives all participants, even the losers, the satisfaction of a fair hearing and an honest fight, by continuing the imposition of a rigid national rule instead of allowing for regional differences, the Court merely prolongs and intensifies the anguish [over abortion]." — Justice Antonin Scalia, "concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part".[28]
Canadian judicial involvement
With R v. Morgentaler, the Supreme Court of Canada removed abortion from the Criminal Code. Relying on the security of person clause of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the court determined that, while the state has an interest in protecting the fetus "at some point", this interest cannot override that of the pregnant woman because: "the right to security of the person of a pregnant woman was infringed more than was required to achieve the objective of protecting the fetus, and the means were not reasonable." The only laws currently governing abortion in Canada are those which govern other medical procedures, such as those regulating licencing of facilities, the training of medical personnel, and the like.
Because the courts did not specifically establish abortion as a right, Parliament has leave to legislate on this aspect of the matter; and in 1989, the Progressive Conservative government attempted to do just that. A bill was introduced that would allow abortion only if two doctors certified that the woman's health was in danger. This bill passed the House of Commons but was defeated by a tie vote in the Senate.
Several additional cases have considered further issues.
Although the courts have not ruled on the question of fetal personhood, the question has been raised in two cases, Tremblay v. Daigle and R. v. Sullivan. Both cases relied on the born alive rule, inherited from English common law, to determine that the fetus was not a person at law.
Two further cases are notable: Dobson (Litigation Guardian of) v. Dobson, and Winnipeg Child & Family Services (Northwest Area) v. G . (D.F.), [I9971 3 S.C.R. 925 M], which dismissed so-called fetal abuse charges.
Effects of legalization/illegalization
Pro-choice advocates argue that illegalization of abortion increases the incidence of unsafe abortions, as the availability of professional abortion services decreases, and leads to increased maternal mortality. According to a global study collaboratively conducted by the World Health Organization and the Guttmacher Institute, most unsafe abortions occur where abortion is illegal.[29]
The effect on crime of legalized abortion is a subject of controversy, with proponents of the theory generally arguing that "unwanted children" are more likely to become criminals and that an inverse correlation is observed between the availability of abortion and subsequent crime.
Economist George Akerlof has argued that the legalization of abortion in the United States contributed to a declining sense of paternal duty among biological fathers and to a decline in shotgun weddings, even when women chose childbirth over abortion, and thus to an increase rather than a decrease in the rate of children born to unwed mothers.[30][31]
Anti-abortion violence
Anti-abortion violence is violence committed against individuals and organizations that provide abortion.[32] Incidents of violence have included destruction of property, in the form of vandalism; crimes against people, including kidnapping, stalking, assault, attempted murder, and murder; and crimes affecting both people and property, including arson and bombings. Anti-abortion violence is most frequently committed in the United States,[citation needed] though it has also occurred in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. G. Davidson Smith of Canadian Security Intelligence Service defined anti-abortion violence as "single issue terrorism".[33] A study of 1982–87 violence considered the incidents "limited political" or "subrevolutionary" terrorism.[34]
Some of those opposed to abortion have sometimes resorted to very public demonstrations of violence in an effort to achieve their objective of curbing abortions. Those who engage in or support such actions defend the use of force—as justifiable homicide or defense of others—in the interest of protecting the life of the fetus.[35] In the 1980s political scientist David C. Nice associated anti-abortion violence with U.S. states having weaker social restraints, higher abortion rates, less confidence in state government, and more violence by men against women.[36] Anti-abortion violence has been described as a form of Christian terrorism.[37] Some supporters of such violence embrace this designation.[38]
Moral issues
|This article has been nominated to be checked for its neutrality. (January 2009)
Ethics is "moral philosophy", or the study of values and the analysis of right and wrong. The ethical debate over abortion usually surrounds the issues of whether a fetus has rights, in particular a right to life, and whether the pregnant woman's rights over her own body justify abortion even if the fetus has a right to life. For many, there is a strong association between religion and abortion ethics.
Ethical question regarding abortion usually include:
- Are embryos, zygotes and fetuses "persons" worthy of legal protections?
- Should the potential to be a person give embryos, zygotes and fetuses a right to life?
- Does a fetus gain rights as it gets closer to birth?
- Does a woman have an absolute right to determine what happens in and to her body?
- Is abortion acceptable in cases of rape, incest, or contraception failure?
- Is abortion acceptable in cases where the fetus is deformed?
- Is abortion acceptable in cases where if the pregnancy were to continue, it would pose a direct threat to the life of the mother?[39][40]
There are differences of opinion as whether, and if so the point in time when, a zygote/embryo/fetus acquires "personhood". Traditionally, the concept of personhood entailed the concept of soul, a metaphysical concept referring to a non-corporeal or extra-corporeal dimension of human being. However, in the "modern" world, the concepts of subjectivity and intersubjectivity, personhood, mind, and self have come to encompass a number of aspects of human being previously considered the domain of the "soul".[41][42] Thus, while the historical question has been: when does the soul enter the body, in modern terms, the question could be put instead: at what point does the developing individual develop personhood or selfhood.[43]
Related issues attached to the question of the beginning of human personhood include the legal status, bodily integrity, and subjectivity of the pregnant woman[44] and the philosophical concept of "natality" (i.e. "the distinctively human capacity to initiate a new beginning", which a new human life embodies).[45]
Related issues
Many of the views in favor of and against the right to abortion are framed in the context of other debates whose arguments and implications relate directly to the topic of abortion.
Fetal pain
|This section is outdated. (December 2011)
Fetal pain, its existence, and its implications are part of a larger debate about abortion. A 2005 multidisciplinary systematic review in JAMA in the area of fetal development found that a fetus is unlikely to feel pain until after the sixth month of pregnancy.[46][47] Developmental neurobiologists suspect that the establishment of thalamocortical connections (at about 26 weeks) may be critical to fetal perception of pain.[48] However, legislation was proposed by anti-abortion advocates that would require abortion providers to tell a woman that the fetus may feel pain during an abortion procedure.[49]
The 2005 JAMA review concluded that data from dozens of medical reports and studies indicate that fetuses are unlikely to feel pain until the third trimester of pregnancy.[46] However a number of medical critics have since disputed these conclusions.[47][50] Other researchers such as Anand and Fisk have challenged the idea that pain cannot be felt before 26 weeks, positing instead that pain can be felt at around 20 weeks.[51] Anand's suggestion is disputed in a March 2010 report on Fetal Awareness published by a working party of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, citing a lack of evidence or rationale. Page 20 of the report definitively states that the fetus cannot feel pain prior to week 24. Because pain can involve sensory, emotional and cognitive factors, leaving it "impossible to know" when painful experiences are perceived, even if it is known when thalamocortical connections are established.[52]
Wendy Savage—press officer, Doctors for a Woman's Choice on Abortion—considers the question to be irrelevant. In a 1997 letter to the British Medical Journal, April 1997, she noted that the majority of surgical abortions in Britain were performed under general anesthesia which affects the fetus, and considers the discussion "to be unhelpful to women and to the scientific debate." Others caution against unnecessary use of fetal anesthetic during abortion, as it poses potential health risks to the pregnant woman.[46] David Mellor and colleagues have noted that the fetal brain is already awash in naturally occurring chemicals that keep it sedated and anesthetized until birth.[53] At least one anesthesia researcher has suggested the fetal pain legislation may make abortions harder to obtain because abortion clinics lack the equipment and expertise to supply fetal anesthesia. Anesthesia is administered directly to fetuses only while they are undergoing surgery.[51]
Fetal personhood
Although the two main sides of the abortion debate tend to agree that a human fetus is biologically and genetically human (that is, of the human species), they often differ in their view on whether or not a human fetus is, in any of various ways, a person. Pro-life supporters argue that abortion is morally wrong on the basis that a fetus is an innocent human person[54] or because a fetus is a potential life that will, in most cases, develop into a fully functional human being.[55] Others reject this position by drawing a distinction between human being and human person, arguing that while the fetus is innocent and biologically human, it is not a person with a right to life.[56] In support of this distinction, some propose a list of criteria as markers of personhood. For example, Mary Ann Warren suggests consciousness (at least the capacity to feel pain), reasoning, self-motivation, the ability to communicate, and self-awareness.[57] According to Warren, a being need not exhibit all of these criteria to qualify as a person with a right to life, but if a being exhibits none of them (or perhaps only one), then it is certainly not a person. Warren concludes that as the fetus satisfies only one criterion, consciousness (and this only after it becomes susceptible to pain),[58] the fetus is not a person and abortion is therefore morally permissible. Other philosophers apply similar criteria, concluding that a fetus lacks a right to life because it lacks brain waves or higher brain function,[59] self-consciousness,[60] rationality,[61] and autonomy.[62] These lists diverge over precisely which features confer a right to life,[63] but tend to propose various developed psychological or physiological features not found in fetuses.
Critics of this typically argue that some of the proposed criteria for personhood would disqualify two classes of born human beings – reversibly comatose patients, and human infants – from having a right to life, since they, like fetuses, are not self-conscious, do not communicate, and so on.[64] Defenders of the proposed criteria may respond that the reversibly comatose do satisfy the relevant criteria because they "retain all their unconscious mental states".[65] or at least some higher brain function (brain waves). Warren concedes that infants are not "persons" by her proposed criteria,[66] and on that basis she and others concede that infanticide could be morally acceptable under some circumstances (for example if the infant is severely disabled[67] or in order to save the lives of several other infants[68]). Critics may see such concessions as an indication that the right to life cannot be adequately defined by reference to developed psychological features[citation needed].
An alternative approach is to base personhood or the right to life on a being's natural or inherent capacities. On this approach, a being essentially has a right to life if it has a natural capacity to develop the relevant psychological features; and, since human beings do have this natural capacity, they essentially have a right to life beginning at conception (or whenever they come into existence).[69] Critics of this position argue that mere genetic potential is not a plausible basis for respect (or for the right to life), and that basing a right to life on natural capacities would lead to the counterintuitive position that anencephalic infants, irreversibly comatose patients, and brain-dead patients kept alive on a medical ventilator, are all persons with a right to life.[70] Respondents to this criticism argue that the noted human cases in fact would not be classified as persons as they do not have a natural capacity to develop any psychological features.[71][72][73] Also, in a view that favors benefiting even unconceived but potential future persons, it has been argued as justified to abort an unintended pregnancy in favor for conceiving a new child later in better conditions.[74]
Philosophers such as Aquinas use the concept of individuation. They argue that abortion is not permissible from the point at which individual human identity is realized. Anthony Kenny argues that this can be derived from everyday beliefs and language and one can legitimately say "if my mother had had an abortion six months into her pregnancy, she would have killed me" then one can reasonably infer that at six months the "me" in question would have been an existing person with a valid claim to life. Since division of the zygote into twins through the process of monozygotic twinning can occur until the fourteenth day of pregnancy, Kenny argues that individual identity is obtained at this point and thus abortion is not permissible after two weeks.[75]
Arguments for abortion rights which do not depend on fetal non-personhood
Bodily rights
An argument first presented by Judith Jarvis Thomson states that even if the fetus is a person and has a right to life, abortion is morally permissible because a woman has a right to control her own body and its life-support functions. Thomson's variant of this argument draws an analogy between forcing a woman to continue an unwanted pregnancy and forcing a person to allow his body to be used to maintain blood homeostasis (as a dialysis machine is used) for another person suffering from kidney failure. It is argued that just as it would be permissible to "unplug" and thereby cause the death of the person who is using one's kidneys, so it is permissible to abort the fetus (who similarly, it is said, has no right to use one's body's life-support functions against one's will).[76]
Critics of this argument generally argue that there are morally relevant disanalogies between abortion and the kidney failure scenario. For example, it is argued that the fetus is the woman's child as opposed to a mere stranger;[77] that abortion kills the fetus rather than merely letting it die;[78] and that in the case of pregnancy arising from voluntary intercourse, the woman has either tacitly consented to the fetus using her body,[79] or has a duty to allow it to use her body since she herself is responsible for its need to use her body.[80] Some writers defend the analogy against these objections, arguing that the disanalogies are morally irrelevant or do not apply to abortion in the way critics have claimed.[81]
Alternative scenarios have been put forth as more accurate and realistic representations of the moral issues present in abortion. John Noonan proposes the scenario of a family who was found to be liable for frostbite finger loss suffered by a dinner guest whom they refused to allow to stay overnight, although it was very cold outside and the guest showed signs of being sick. It is argued that just as it would not be permissible to refuse temporary accommodation for the guest to protect him from physical harm, it would not be permissible to refuse temporary accommodation of a fetus.[82]
Other critics claim that there is a difference between artificial and extraordinary means of preservation, such as medical treatment, kidney dialysis, and blood transfusions, and normal and natural means of preservation, such as gestation, childbirth, and breastfeeding. They argue that if a baby was born into an environment in which there was no replacement available for her mother's breast milk, and the baby would either breastfeed or starve, the mother would have to allow the baby to breastfeed. But the mother would never have to give the baby a blood transfusion, no matter what the circumstances were. The difference between breastfeeding in that scenario and blood transfusions is the difference between using your body as a kidney dialysis machine, and gestation and childbirth.[83][84][85][86][87][88]
Sexual emancipation and equality
Margaret Sanger wrote: "No woman can call herself free until she can choose consciously whether she will or will not be a mother."[89] Denying the right to abortion can be construed from this perspective as a form of female oppression under a patriarchal system, perpetuating inequality between the sexes. Among pro-choice advocates, sexual-equality discussion often involves the additional debate regarding to what degree the potential father should have a choice in deciding whether or not to abort the developing child.[citation needed]
Arguments against the right to abortion
The book Abortion and the Conscience of the Nation presents the argument that abortion involves unjust discrimination against the unborn. According to this argument, those who deny that fetuses have a right to life do not value all human life, but instead select arbitrary characteristics (such as particular levels of physical or psychological development) as giving some human beings more value or rights than others.[90]
In contrast, philosophers who define the right to life by reference to particular levels of physical or psychological development typically maintain that such characteristics are morally relevant,[91] and reject the assumption that all human life necessarily has value (or that membership in the species Homo sapiens is in itself morally relevant).[92]
The argument of deprivation states that abortion is morally wrong because it deprives the fetus of a valuable future.[93] On this account, killing an adult human being is wrong because it deprives the victim of a future like ours—a future containing highly valuable or desirable experiences, activities, projects, and enjoyments.[94] If a being has such a future, then (according to the argument) killing that being would seriously harm it and hence would be seriously wrong.[95] But since a fetus does have such a future, the "overwhelming majority" of deliberate abortions are placed in the "same moral category" as killing an innocent adult human being.[96] Not all abortions are unjustified according to this argument: abortion would be justified if the same justification could be applied to killing an adult human.
Criticism of this line of reasoning follows several threads. Some reject the argument on grounds relating to personal identity, holding that the fetus is not the same entity as the adult into which it will develop, and thus that the fetus does not have a "future like ours" in the required sense.[97] Others grant that the fetus has a future like ours, but argue that being deprived of this future is not a significant harm or a significant wrong to the fetus, because there are relatively few psychological connections (continuations of memory, belief, desire and the like) between the fetus as it is now and the adult into which it will develop.[98] Another criticism is that the argument creates inequalities in the wrongness of killing:[99] as the futures of some people appear to be far more valuable or desirable than the futures of other people, the argument appears to entail that some killings are far more wrong than others, or that some people have a far stronger right to life than others—a conclusion that is taken to be counterintuitive or unacceptable.
Argument from uncertainty
Some pro-life supporters argue that if there is uncertainty as to whether the fetus has a right to life, then having an abortion is equivalent to consciously taking the risk of killing another. According to this argument, if it is not known for certain whether something (such as the fetus) has a right to life, then it is reckless, and morally wrong, to treat that thing as if it lacks a right to life (for example by killing it).[100] This would place abortion in the same moral category as manslaughter (if it turns out that the fetus has a right to life) or certain forms of criminal negligence (if it turns out that the fetus does not have a right to life).[101]
David Boonin replies that if this kind of argument were correct, then the killing of nonhuman animals and plants would also be morally wrong, because (Boonin contends) it is not known for certain that such beings lack a right to life.[102] Boonin also argues that arguments from uncertainty fail because the mere fact that one might be mistaken in finding certain arguments persuasive (for example, arguments for the claim that the fetus lacks a right to life) does not mean that one should act contrary to those arguments or assume them to be mistaken.[103]
Religious beliefs
Each religion has many varying views on the moral implications of abortion. These views can often be in direct opposition to each other.[104] Muslims regard abortion as haram meaning forbidden. Muslims typically cite the Quranic verse 17:32 which states that a fetus shouldn't be aborted out of fear of poverty.[105] Pro-life Christians support their views with Scripture references such as that of Luke 1:15; Jeremiah 1:4–5; Genesis 25:21–23; Matthew 1:18; and Psalm 139:13–16. The Roman Catholic Church believes that human life begins at conception as does the right to life; thus, abortion is considered immoral.[106] The Church of England also considers abortion to be morally wrong, though their position admits abortion when "the continuance of a pregnancy threatens the life of the mother".[107]
Other factors
Mexico City Policy
The Mexico City policy—also known as the "Global Gag Rule"—required any non-governmental organization receiving U.S. government funding to refrain from performing or promoting abortion services in other countries. This had a significant effect on the health policies of many nations across the globe. The Mexico City Policy was instituted under President Reagan, suspended under President Clinton, reinstated by President George W. Bush,[108] and suspended again by President Barack Obama on January 24, 2009.[109]
Public opinion
A number of opinion polls around the world have explored public opinion regarding the issue of abortion. Results have varied from poll to poll, country to country, and region to region, while varying with regard to different aspects of the issue.
A May 2005 survey examined attitudes toward abortion in 10 European countries, asking respondents whether they agreed with the statement, "If a woman doesn't want children, she should be allowed to have an abortion". The highest level of approval was 81% (in the Czech Republic); the lowest was 47% (in Poland).[110]
In North America, a December 2001 poll surveyed Canadian opinion on abortion, asking in what circumstances they believe abortion should be permitted; 32% responded that they believe abortion should be legal in all circumstances, 52% that it should be legal in certain circumstances, and 14% that it should be legal in no circumstances. A similar poll in April 2009 surveyed people in the United States about U.S. opinion on abortion; 18% said that abortion should be "legal in all cases", 28% said that abortion should be "legal in most cases", 28% said abortion should be "illegal in most cases" and 16% said abortion should be "illegal in all cases".[111] A November 2005 poll in Mexico found that 73.4% think abortion should not be legalized while 11.2% think it should.[112]
Of attitudes in South America, a December 2003 survey found that 30% of Argentines thought that abortion in Argentina should be allowed "regardless of situation", 47% that it should be allowed "under some circumstances", and 23% that it should not be allowed "regardless of situation".[113] A more recent poll now suggest that 45% of Argentineans are in favor of abortion for any reason in the first twelve weeks. This same poll conducted in September 2011 also suggests that most Argentineans favor abortion being legal when a woman's health or life is at risk (81%), when the pregnancy is a result of rape (80%) or the fetus has severe abnormalities (68%).[114] A March 2007 poll regarding the abortion law in Brazil found that 65% of Brazilians believe that it "should not be modified", 16% that it should be expanded "to allow abortion in other cases", 10% that abortion should be "decriminalized", and 5% were "not sure".[115] A July 2005 poll in Colombia found that 65.6% said they thought that abortion should remain illegal, 26.9% that it should be made legal, and 7.5% that they were unsure.[116]
Effect upon crime rate
A theory attempts to draw a correlation between the United States' unprecedented nationwide decline of the overall crime rate during the 1990s and the decriminalization of abortion 20 years prior.
The suggestion was brought to widespread attention by a 1999 academic paper, The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime, authored by the economists Steven D. Levitt and John Donohue. They attributed the drop in crime to a reduction in individuals said to have a higher statistical probability of committing crimes: unwanted children, especially those born to mothers who are African American, impoverished, adolescent, uneducated, and single. The change coincided with what would have been the adolescence, or peak years of potential criminality, of those who had not been born as a result of Roe v. Wade and similar cases. Donohue and Levitt's study also noted that states which legalized abortion before the rest of the nation experienced the lowering crime rate pattern earlier, and those with higher abortion rates had more pronounced reductions.[117]
Fellow economists Christopher Foote and Christopher Goetz criticized the methodology in the Donohue-Levitt study, noting a lack of accommodation for statewide yearly variations such as cocaine use, and recalculating based on incidence of crime per capita; they found no statistically significant results.[118] Levitt and Donohue responded to this by presenting an adjusted data set which took into account these concerns and reported that the data maintained the statistical significance of their initial paper.[119]
Such research has been criticized by some as being utilitarian, discriminatory as to race and socioeconomic class, and as promoting eugenics as a solution to crime.[120][121] Levitt states in his book Freakonomics that they are neither promoting nor negating any course of action—merely reporting data as economists.
Breast cancer hypothesis
The abortion-breast cancer hypothesis posits that induced abortion increases the risk of developing breast cancer.[122] This position contrasts with the scientific consensus that abortion does not cause breast cancer.[123][124][125][126]
In early pregnancy, levels of estrogen increase, leading to breast growth in preparation for lactation. The hypothesis proposes that if this process is interrupted by an abortion – before full maturity in the third trimester – then more relatively vulnerable immature cells could be left than there were prior to the pregnancy, resulting in a greater potential risk of breast cancer. The hypothesis mechanism was first proposed and explored in rat studies conducted in the 1980s.[127][128][129]
See also
- ^ For example: "Wall Street Journal style guide: Vol. 23, No. 1". Wall Street Journal. 2010-01-31. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
- ^ See generally, "The Kindness of Strangers: The Abandonment of Children in Western Europe from Late Antiquity to the Renaissance", John Boswell ISBN 978-0-226-06712-4 Nov. 1998, Intro.
- ^ See generally Spivack, Carla, To Bring Down the Flowers: The Cultural Context of Abortion Law in Early Modern England. Available at SSRN: [1] Introduction
- ^ "Person"
- ^ State v Loce September 6, 1991
- ^ "Sister Margaret's Choice" May 27, 2010
- ^ Christine Ammer; JoAnn E. Manson (February 2009). The Encyclopedia of Women's Health. Infobase Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-8160-7407-5. Retrieved February 24, 2012.
- ^ Holstein and Gubrium (2008). Handbook of Constructionist Research. Guilford Press.
- ^ "Committed to Availability, Conflicted about Morality: What the Millennial Generation Tells Us about the Future of the Abortion Debate and the Culture Wars". Public Religion Research Institute. June 9, 2011.
- ^ Andrea Grimes (2014-04-11). "Portrait of an Anti-Abortion 'Abolitionist'". Retrieved 2015-05-26.
It is no accident that Ragon both calls himself an "abolitionist" and that his group uses these so-called disturbing images. He sees himself as carrying on the tradition of 19th century anti-slavery activists, who he says similarly tried to shock their fellow Americans into action.
- ^ Irin Carmon (2014-03-08). "Meet the rebels of the anti-abortion movement". Retrieved 2015-05-26.
AHA activists disdain the phrase "pro-life" altogether. They prefer "abolitionists," with all slavery comparisons explicitly intended, and they want to push the larger movement to abide by their uncompromising positions.
- ^ Brennan 'Dehumanizing the vulnerable' 2000
- ^ Getek, Kathryn; Cunningham, Mark (February 1996). "A Sheep in Wolf's Clothing – Language and the Abortion Debate". Princeton Progressive Review.
- ^ "Abortion". Positions. British Columbia Civil Liberties Association. Retrieved 2007-05-24.
…rights call for complete legal freedom to secure an abortion, in the sense that the legal status of abortion should be the same as that of other medical services that a doctor provides to a patient
- ^ "Abortion". Where We Stand—CMA Position Papers. California Medical Association. December 1973. p. 43. Retrieved 2007-05-24.
Good medical practice indicates that abortion should not be performed after the 20th week of pregnancy
- ^ Lee, Ellie; Ann Furedi (February 2002). "Abortion issues today – a position paper" (PDF). Legal Issues for Pro-Choice Opinion – Abortion Law in Practice. University of Kent, Canterbury, CT2 7NY, UK. p. 2. Retrieved 2007-05-24.
While most people have no difficulty accepting the legality of abortion at early stages of pregnancy, fewer are so sure about their position as pregnancy progresses – especially when the fetus is perceived to be 'viable'
- ^ "Abortion". Positions. American Medical Women's Association. 2000. Archived from the original on 2007-09-20. Retrieved 2007-05-24.
The 1973 Supreme court decision Roe v. Wade struck a fair balance between the responsibility of the state to protect a woman's right to make personal medical decisions and the responsibility of the state to protect the potentially viable third trimester fetus
- ^ Johnston, Wm. Robert (2002-12-24). "Evaluation of the BGCT Christian Life Commission's "Abortion and the Christian Life"". Committee Report. First Baptist Church, Brownsville, Texas. Archived from the original on 11 April 2007. Retrieved May 2007.
…the unique value that human life has, as a gift from God, regardless of stage of development or physical health, from the point of conception to the point of physical death
- ^ a b "Abortion and Privacy". TIME. 1972-03-13. Retrieved 2007-05-25.
- ^ "Privacy". Compact Oxford English Dictionary. AskOxford.com. Retrieved 2007-05-24.
- ^ "My body, my consent: securing the constitutional right to abortion funding", Eileen L. McDonagh, Albany Law Review, Spring 1999
- ^ William Saletan (May–June 2005). "Unbecoming Justice Blackmun". Legal Affairs.
- ^ Ely, John Hart. (1973). "The Wages of Crying Wolf". Yale Law Journal.
- ^ Romney, Mitt (2005-07-26). "Why I Vetoed Contraception Bill". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 29 April 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-24.
…avoiding the bitter battles engendered by 'one size fits all' judicial pronouncements. A federalist approach would allow such disputes to be settled by the citizens and elected representatives of each state, and appropriately defer to democratic governance
- ^ Kmiec, Douglas W. (1996-04-22). "Testimony of Douglas W. Kmiec". Judiciary Committee, U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved 2007-05-24.
- ^ Hossain, Farhana; Ben Werschkul (2007). "The Presidential Candidates on Abortion". New York Times. Retrieved 2007-05-23.
- ^ Thomas R. Kearns (August 2002). History, Memory, and the Law. University of Michigan Press. p. 340. ISBN 978-0-472-08899-7.
- ^ a b Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992).
- ^ Rosenthal, Elisabeth (October 2007). "Legal or Not, Abortion Rates Compare". New York Times. Retrieved June 30, 2009.
- ^ Akerlof, George A.; Yellen, Janet & Katz, Lawrence F. (1996). "An analysis on out-of-wedlock childbearing in the United States". Quarterly Journal of Economics 111 (2): 277–317. JSTOR 2946680. doi:10.2307/2946680.
- ^ Akerlof, George A. (1998). "Men without children". The Economic Journal 108 (447): 287–309. JSTOR 2565562. doi:10.1111/1468-0297.00288.
- ^ Jelen, Ted G (1998). "Abortion". Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Walnut Creek, California: AltaMira Press..
- ^ Smith, G. Davidson (Tim) (1998). "Single Issue Terrorism Commentary". Canadian Security Intelligence Service. Archived from the original on July 14, 2006. Retrieved June 9, 2006..
- ^ Wilson, Michele; Lynxwiler, John (1988). "Abortion clinic violence as terrorism". Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 11 (4): 263–273. doi:10.1080/10576108808435717.
- ^ O'Keefe, Mark (January 24, 1999). "Anarchy in the name of God". The Oregonian..
- ^ Nice, David C. (February 1988). "Abortion Clinic Bombings as Political Violence". American Journal of Political Science 32 (1): 178–195. JSTOR 2111316. doi:10.2307/2111316.
- ^
- Al-Khattar, Aref M. (2003). Religion and terrorism: an interfaith perspective. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 58–59.
- Hoffman, Bruce (2006). Inside terrorism. Columbia University Press. p. 116.
- Harmon, Christopher C. (2000). Terrorism today. Psychology Press. p. 42.
- Juergensmeyer, Mark (2003). Terror in the mind of God: the global rise of religious violence. University of California Press. p. 4,19.
- Bryant, Clifton D. (2003). Handbook of death & dying, Volume 1. SAGE. p. 243.
- McAfee, Ward M. (2010). The Dialogue Comes of Age: Christian Encounters with Other Traditions. Fortress Press. p. 90.
- Flint, Colin Robert (2006). Introduction to geopolitics. Psychology Press. p. 172.
- Peoples, James; Bailey, Garrick (2008). Humanity: an introduction to cultural anthropology. Cengage. p. 371.
- Dolnik, Adam; Gunaratna, Rohan (2006). "On the Nature of Religious Terrorism". The politics of terrorism: a survey. Taylor & Francis.
- The terrorism ahead: confronting transnational violence in the twenty-first century, Paul J. Smith, p 94
- Religion and Politics in America: The Rise of Christian Evangelists, Muhammad Arif Zakaullah, p 109
- Terrorism: An Investigator's Handbook, William E. Dyson, p 43
- Encyclopedia of terrorism, Cindy C. Combs, Martin W. Slann, p 13
- Armed for Life: The Army of God and Anti-Abortion Terror in the United States, Jennifer Jefferis, p 40
- ^ Jefferis, Jennifer (2011). Armed for Life: The Army of God and Anti-Abortion Terror in the United States. ABC-CLIO. p. 40.
- ^ Ethics: contemporary readings By Harry J. Gensler, Earl W. Spurgin, James Swindal
- ^ The complete idiot's guide to understanding ethics By David Ingram, Jennifer A. Parks
- ^ Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity, Harvard University Press, 1992.
- ^ Michel Foucault, The Hermeneutics of the Subject, New York: Picador, 2005.
- ^ The question could also be put historically. The concept of "personhood" is of fairly recent vintage, and cannot be found in the 1828 edition of 1828 edition of Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language, nor even as late as 1913. A search in dictionaries and encyclopedia for the term "personhood" generally redirects to "person". The American Heritage Dictionary at Yahoo has: "The state or condition of being a person, especially having those qualities that confer distinct individuality."
- ^ Susan Bordo, "Are Mothers Persons?", Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture and the Body, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2003, 71-97.
- ^ Nikolas Kompridis, "The Idea of a New Beginning: A romantic source of normativity and freedom," Philosophical Romanticism, New York: Routledge, 2006, 48-49.
- ^ a b c Lee SJ, Ralston HJ, Drey EA, Partridge JC, Rosen MA (2005). "Fetal pain: a systematic multidisciplinary review of the evidence". JAMA 294 (8): 947–954. PMID 16118385. doi:10.1001/jama.294.8.947.
- ^ a b "Study: Fetus feels no pain until third trimester". MSNBC. Associated Press. 2005-08-24. Retrieved 2008-04-13.
- ^ Johnson, Martin and Everitt, Barry. Essential reproduction. p. 215. ISBN 0632042877. Retrieved 2007-02-21.
- ^ Weisman, Jonathan (2006-12-05). "House to Consider Abortion Anesthesia Bill". Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-02-06.
- ^ Lowery CL, Hardman MP, Manning N, Hall RW, Anand KJS (2007). "Neurodevelopmental changes of fetal pain". Seminars in Perinatology 31 (5): 275–282. PMID 17905181. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2007.07.004.
- ^ a b Paul, Annie (2008-02-10). "The First Ache". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
- ^ Johnson, Martin and Everitt, Barry (2000). Essential reproduction. Blackwell. p. 216. Retrieved 2007-02-21.
The multidimensionality of pain perception, involving sensory, emotional, and cognitive factors may in itself be the basis of conscious, painful experience, but it will remain difficult to attribute this to a fetus at any particular developmental age.
- ^ Mellor, D.J.; Diesch, T.J.; Gunn, A.J.; Bennet, L. (2005). "The importance of 'awareness' for understanding fetal pain". Brain Research Reviews 49 (3): 455–71. PMID 16269314. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2005.01.006.
- ^ Warren, 1973
- ^ Koukl, Gregory (1999). "Creating a Potential Life?". Stand to Reason.
- ^ Warren 1973: 457. See also Tooley 1972: 40–43; Singer 2000: 126–28 and 155–156; and John Locke. The term person may be used to denote a psychological property (being rational and self-conscious), a moral property (having a right to life), or both.
- ^ Warren 1973: 458.
- ^ Warren 1973: 458–459
- ^ Jones, D. G. (1998). "The problematic symmetry between brain birth and brain death" (PDF). Journal of Medical Ethics 24 (4): 237–242. PMC 1377672. PMID 9752625. doi:10.1136/jme.24.4.237.
- ^ Tooley 1972: 44.
- ^ Singer 2000: 128 and 156–157.
- ^ McMahan 2002: 260
- ^ It is similarly unclear which features one must have a natural capacity for, in order to have a right to life (cf Schwarz 1990: 105–109), or which features constitute a "future like ours".
- ^ Marquis 1989: 197; Schwarz 1990: 89
- ^ Stretton 2004: 267, original emphasis; see also Singer 2000: 137; Boonin 2003: 64–70
- ^ Warren 1982
- ^ Singer 2000: 186–193
- ^ McMahan 2002: 359–360
- ^ Lee 1996 and 2004: Schwarz 1990: 91–93.
- ^ Stretton 2004: 274–281.
- ^ Schwarz 1990: 52.
- ^ Beckwith, Francis J. (1991). "Christian Research Journal, Summer 1991, page 28 – When Does a Human Become a Person?". Retrieved 2010-02-18.
- ^ Sullivan, Dennis M (2003). "Ethics & Medicine, volume 19:1 – The conception view of personhood: a review" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-04-01.
- ^ Abortion, embryo destruction and the future of value argument By J Savulescu. J Med Ethics 2002 28: 133-135. doi:10.1136/jme.28.3.133
- ^ A. Kenny, Reason and Religion: Essays in Philosophical Theology (Oxford: Basil Blackwell), 1987
- ^ http://spot.colorado.edu/~heathwoo/Phil160,Fall02/thomson.htm
- ^ Schwarz 1990; McMahan 2002
- ^ Schwarz 1990; McMahan 2002; Lee 1996
- ^ Warren 1973
- ^ McMahan 2002
- ^ Boonin 2003: ch 4
- ^ The Morality of abortion: legal and historical perspectives John T. Noonan, Harvard University Press, 1970 ISBN 0-674-58725-1
- ^ Poupard, Richard J (2007). "Suffer the violinist: Why the pro-abortion argument from bodily autonomy fails" (PDF). Christian Research Journal 30 (4). Retrieved 2009-10-25.
- ^ Koukl G; Klusendorf S (2001). Making Abortion Unthinkable: The Art of Pro-Life Persuasion. California: STR Press. p. 86.
- ^ Nathanson, Bernard; Ostling, Richard (1979). Aborting America. Garden City: Double Day. ISBN 0-385-14461-X.
- ^ Kreeft, Peter; Boonin, David (2005). "Is Abortion Morally Justifiable in a Free Society?" Public debate at Yale University (Audio). http://www.isi.org/lectures/lectures.aspx?SBy=search&SSub=title&SFor=Is%20Abortion%20Morally%20Justifiable%20in%20a%20Free%20Society?: Intercollegiate Studies Institute.
- ^ Arthur, John (1989). The Unfinished Constitution: Philosophy and Constitutional Practice. Wadsworth. pp. 198–200.
- ^ Beckwith, Francis (March 1992). "Personal Bodily Rights, Abortion, and Unplugging the Violinist" (PDF). International Philosophical Quarterly 32 (1). Retrieved 2009-10-10.
- ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/abortion/mother/for_1.shtml#h4
- ^ "Abortion and the Conscience of the Nation" (1983), by Ronald Reagan, William P. Clark, Brian P. Johnston, Wanda Franz. New Regency Pub, ISBN 0-9641125-3-1
- ^ Singer 2000: 217–18; McMahan 2002: 242–3; Boonin 2003: 126
- ^ Singer 2000: 221–2; McMahan 2002: 214; Boonin 2003: 25
- ^ Marquis 1989. See also Stone 1987.
- ^ Marquis 1989: 189–190
- ^ Marquis 1989: 190. The type of wrongness appealed to here is presumptive or prima facie wrongness: it may be overridden in exceptional circumstances.
- ^ Marquis 1989: 183.
- ^ McMahan 2002: ch 1.
- ^ McMahan 2002: 271; Stretton 2004: 171–179
- ^ Stretton 2004: 250–260; see also McMahan 2002: 234–235 and 271
- ^ Schwarz 1990: 58–9; Beckwith 2007: 60–1; Abortion and the Conscience of the Nation (1983), by Ronald Reagan, William P. Clark, Brian P. Johnston, Wanda Franz. New Regency Pub, ISBN 0-9641125-3-1
- ^ Three approaches to abortion (2002), by Peter Kreeft, ISBN 0-89870-915-6
- ^ Boonin 2003: 314–15
- ^ Boonin 2003: 323
- ^ Resources for Religious Views on Abortion on Patheos[dead link]
- ^ Sanctity of life retrieved 17 October 2013
- ^ "Article 5: The Fifth Commandment". Catechism of the Catholic Church. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2011.
- ^ "Abortion: the Church of England view". Religion & Ethics. Retrieved 3 August 2009.
- ^ Knudsen, Lara (2006). Reproductive Rights in a Global Context. Vanderbilt University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-8265-1528-5.
- ^ "Obama lifts ban on abortion funds". BBC News. 2009-01-24. Archived from the original on 23 January 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-24.
- ^ TNS Sofres. (May 2005). European Values. Retrieved January 11, 2007.
- ^ Pew Research Center. (2009). Retrieved 2009-05-02.
- ^ "Mexicans Support Status Quo on Social Issues". Angus Reid Global Monitor. 2005-12-01. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 2008-12-09.
- ^ "Argentines Assess Abortion Changes". Angus Reid Global Monitor. 2004-03-04. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 2008-12-09.
- ^ "Views on Changing the Law on Abortion in Argentina" (PDF). Belden Russonello Strategists LLC. October 2011. Retrieved 2011-11-22.
- ^ "Brazilians Want to Keep Abortion as Crime". Angus Reid Global Monitor. 2007-04-12. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 2008-12-09.
- ^ "Colombians Reject Legalizing Abortion". Angus Reid Global Monitor. 2005-08-02. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 2008-12-09.
- ^ Donohue, John J.; Levitt, Steven D. (May 2001). "The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime". Quarterly Journal of Economics 116 (2): 379–420. doi:10.1162/00335530151144050.
- ^ Foote, Christopher L.; Goetz, Christopher F. (February 2008). "The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime: Comment". Quarterly Journal of Economics 123 (1): 407–423. doi:10.1162/qjec.2008.123.1.407.
- ^ Donohue, John J.; Levitt, Steven D. (February 2008). "Measurement Error, Legalized Abortion, and the Decline in Crime: A Response to Foote and Goetz". Quarterly Journal of Economics 123 (1): 425–440. doi:10.1162/qjec.2008.123.1.425.
- ^ "Crime-Abortion Study Continues to Draw Pro-life Backlash". Ohio Roundtable Online Library. The Pro-Life Infonet. 1999-08-11. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
- ^ J.B.F. (January 2000). "Abortion and the Lower Crime Rate". St. Anthony Messenger. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
- ^ Russo J, Russo I (1980). "Susceptibility of the mammary gland to carcinogenesis. II. Pregnancy interruption as a risk factor in tumor incidence". Am J Pathol 100 (2): 505–506. PMC 1903536. PMID 6773421.
In contrast, abortion is associated with increased risk of carcinomas of the breast. The explanation for these epidemiologic findings is not known, but the parallelism between the DMBA-induced rat mammary carcinoma model and the human situation is striking.... Abortion would interrupt this process, leaving in the gland undifferentiated structures like those observed in the rat mammary gland, which could render the gland again susceptible to carcinogenesis.
- ^ "Induced abortion does not increase breast cancer risk". World Health Organization. June 2000. Archived from the original on 2007-12-14. Retrieved 2007-12-24.
- ^ Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (September 2004) [2000]. The Care of Women Requesting Induced Abortion (PDF). Evidence-based Clinical Guideline Number 7. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. p. 43. ISBN 1-904752-06-3. OCLC 263585758. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-02-27. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
- ^ "Breast Cancer Risks". United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform. Archived from the original on 2008-03-27. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
- ^ Koba S, Nowak S (February 1976). "[A case of acute bacterial dysentery with cerebrospinal meningitis]". Wiadomości lekarskie (in Polish) 29 (3): 221–223. ISSN 0043-5147. PMID 1251638.
- ^ Russo J, Russo IH (August 1980). "Susceptibility of the mammary gland to carcinogenesis. II. Pregnancy interruption as a risk factor in tumor incidence". Am. J. Pathol. 100 (2): 497–512. PMC 1903536. PMID 6773421.
- ^ Russo J, Tay L, Russo I (1982). "Differentiation of the mammary gland and susceptibility to carcinogenesis". Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 2 (1): 5–73. PMID 6216933. doi:10.1007/BF01805718.
- ^ Russo J, Russo I (1987). "Biological and molecular bases of mammary carcinogenesis". Laboratory Investigation 57 (2): 112–137. ISSN 0023-6837. PMID 3302534.
- Boonin, David (2003). A Defense of Abortion. Cambridge Studies in Philosophy and Public Policy. Boulder: University of Colorado. ISBN 0-521-52035-5.
- Cudd, Ann E. (May 1990). "Sensationalized Philosophy: A Reply to Marquis's "Why Abortion is Immoral"". The Journal of Philosophy 87 (5): 262–264. ISSN 0022-362X. JSTOR 2026833. PMID 11782095. doi:10.2307/2026833.
- Lee, Patrick (1996). Abortion and Unborn Human Life. Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 0-8132-0846-7.
- Lee, Patrick (June 2004). "The Pro-Life Argument from Substantial Identity: A Defense". Bioethics 18 (3): 249–63. PMID 15341038. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8519.2004.00393.x.
- Mappes, Thomas A.; David DeGrazia (2001). Biomedical Ethics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-230365-4.
- Marquis, Don (April 1989). "Why Abortion is Immoral". The Journal of Philosophy 86 (4): 183–202. JSTOR 2026961. PMID 11782094. doi:10.2307/2026961.
- McMahan, Jeff (2002). The Ethics of Killing: Problems at the Margins of Life. Oxford Ethics Series. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516982-4.
- Schwarz, Stephen D. (1990). The Moral Question of Abortion. Chicago: Loyola University Press. ISBN 0-8294-0623-9.
- Singer, Peter (2000). Writings on an Ethical Life. Ecco (HarperCollins). ISBN 0-06-019838-9.
- Stone, Jim (December 1987). "Why Potentiality Matters". Canadian Journal of Philosophy 17 (4): 815–830.
- Stretton, Dean (June 2004). "Essential Properties and the Right to Life: A Response to Lee". Bioethics 18 (3): 264–282. PMID 15341039. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8519.2004.00394.x.
- Tooley, Michael (1972). "Abortion and Infanticide". Philosophy and Public Affairs 2 (1): 37–65. JSTOR 2264919.
- Warren, Mary Ann (1973). "On the Moral and Legal Status of Abortion". In Thomas A. Mappes. Biomedical Ethics. David DeGrazia. McGraw-Hill. pp. 456–461.
- Warren, Mary Ann (1982). "Postscript on Infanticide". In Thomas A. Mappes. Biomedical Ethics. David DeGrazia. McGraw-Hill. pp. 461–463.
External links
- Findlaw: full text of Roe V Wade decision, plus discussion
- Abortion and Ethics Case studies, Christian and non-Christian responses and resources for students
- Reasons why women have induced abortions, evidence from 27 countries
- Recordings of College Historical Society debate on abortion featuring Professor William Binchy, Frances Kissling and Rebecca Gomperts
- Interactive map of the Abortion debate, Debategraph
- Religious perspectives on abortion


text: Trained in classical and church organ, Christian Elliott is equally at home performing the musical literature of church or theatre. His historically accurate recreations of silent film scores place his work scoring and accompanying these films in particularly high demand. In 2009, he was recognized as Organist of the Year by the American Theatre Organ Society.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
An event that has been highly anticipated in our household has finally arrived with the morning mail. Eleven frantically peeping, day-old ducklings came in one small cardboard box. The next two days were a little chaotic until my neighbor came and took six of them off my hands for her home flock, and now things have settled down a little bit.
They pretty much just eat, sleep, poop and 'try' to preen themselves, with hilarious results, and make a gigantic mess for such tiny little creatures. But they are already growing so fast in the few days that they have been here (which they should, for as much food as they put away). They boys and I have been enjoying watching their antics, whereas Patrick and Annie are still reserving judgement. Once the duck egg omelets arrive though, I'm sure they will both come around. In just a few, um, months.
Here are our five little girls (one is under the pile). Aren't they cute?
And here are boys wishing our five little ducks good night. We'll see how this little foray into self-sustainability goes over the next few weeks...


text:
Concentrated Low PH Shampoo 1500:1
$ 69.99
Item Code: NA-CLS
A concentrated, high-foaming, low pH shampoo that may be used in tunnel car wash facilities.
- Foamer Units
- Direct Injection Equipment
- Manual Brush
- Hydrominder Premix
- Hand Wash
Features / Benefits
- Economical
- Use at dilutions up to 1:1500.
- High-foaming
- Copious foam allows for complete coverage and excellent clinging of product to vehicle surface.
- Versatile
- May be used in both cloth and touch-free tunnel applications
- Brightens and Shines
- Low pH formulation helps to clean, shine and brightens all vehicle surfaces.
- Lubricates
- High quality foam provides lubricity to ensure maximum cloth life.
- Free-rinsing
- Rinses freely and completely to help prevent streaking.
- Promotes Drying
- Helps to improve drying process by preparing vehicle surface to accept drying agent.
WARNING: This product can expose you to Diethanolamine which is known to the State of California to cause cancer. For more information, go to www.P65Warnings.ca.gov.


text:
Assistant Project Scientist
Pep's primary research focus is the development and implementation of novel methods to discover new therapeutics against drug-resistant microbial pathogens. A secondary research focus is the application of systems biology methods to study mechanisms underlying infection and antibiotic resistance in the pathogens.
One of Pep's specific research projects involves the use of adaptive laboratory evolution of one microbe against another to overproduce known antibiotics. This method also has the potential to yield compounds with new molecular structures as well. He demonstrated that this method can lead to a series of mutant Streptomyces clavuligerus strains that produce inhibitors against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) where none existed initially. The work has now been published (Charusanti et al, PLoS One, 2012), and is the subject of two provisional patents (see below). Importantly, however, this technique is a general, systematic platform that in theory can be used against other pathogens, not just MRSA. Several possibilities include pathogenic fungi, potential biowarfare agents such as Y. pestis and F. tularensis, and many drug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria such as A. baumannii, K. pneumoniae, and P. aeruginosa. Moreover, this method can be applied to other fields besides medical microbiology since the principal requirement for implementation is simply the ability to culture the organisms of interest on the same growth medium. One possible example is the discovery of agents to control plant pathogens important to agriculture.
A second project involves the mathematical modeling of metabolism and transcriptional regulation in Enterobacteria, specifically K. pneumoniae, S. Typhimurium and Y. pestis, and the integration of the models with high-throughput -omics data sets. The former is part of a collaboration with the National Health Research Institutes in Taiwan, and the latter two are part of an NIAID-funded multi-institution Systems Biology program centered on Enteropathogens. This combined computational-experimental approach is expected to yield novel, systems-level insights into the biology of these bacteria that are not readily apparent when the data are analyzed in isolation.
Latif H, Li HJ, Charusanti P, Palsson BØ, Aziz RK. (2014) A Gapless, Unambiguous Genome Sequence of the Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 Strain EDL933. Genome Announc. 2: e00821-14. Link
Chiang AW, Liu WC, Charusanti P, Hwang MJ. (2014) Understanding system dynamics of an adaptive enzyme network from globally profiled kinetic parameters. BMC Syst Biol. 8: 4. Link
Huang T-W, Lam I, Chang H-Y, Tsai S-F, Palsson BO, Charusanti P. (2014) Capsule deletion via a lamda-Red knockout system perturbs biofilm formation and fimbriae expression in Klebsiella pneumoniae MGH 78578. BMC Res Notes 7: 13. Link
Monk JM, Charusanti P, Aziz RK, Lerman JA, Premyodhin N, Orth JD, Feist AM, Palsson BØ. (2013) Genome-scale metabolic reconstructions of multiple Escherichia coli strains highlight strain-specific adaptations to nutritional environments. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110: 20338. Link
Nguyen DD, Wu C-H, Moree WJ, Medema MH, Zhao X, Gavilan RG, Aparicio M, et al. (2013) MS/MS networking guided analysis of molecule and gene cluster families. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110: E2611. Link
Fong NL, Lerman JA, Lam I, Palsson BO, Charusanti P. (2013) Reconciling a Salmonella enterica metabolic model with experimental data confirms that overexpression of the glyoxylate shunt can rescue a lethal ppc deletion mutant. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 342: 62. Link
Seo J-H, Hong JSJ, Kim D, Cho B-K, Huang T-W, Tsai S-F, Palsson BO, Charusanti P. (2012) Multiple-omic data analysis of Klebsiella pneumoniae MGH 78578 reveals its transcriptional architecture and regulatory features. BMC Genomics 13: 679. Link
Charusanti P, Fong NL, Nagarajan H, Pereira AR, Li HJ, Abate EA, Su Y, Gerwick WH, Palsson BO. (2012) Exploiting adaptive laboratory evolution of Streptomyces clavuligerus for antibiotic discovery and overproduction. PLoS One 7: e33727. Link
Charusanti P, Chauhan S, McAteer K, Lerman JA, Hyduke DR, Motin VL, Ansong C, Adkins JN, Palsson BO. (2011) An experimentally-supported genome-scale metabolic network reconstruction for Yersinia pestis CO92. BMC Syst Biol. 5: 163. Link
Liao Y-C, Huang T-W, Chen F-C, Charusanti P, Hong JSJ, Tsai S-F, Palsson BØ, Hsiung CA. (2011) An experimentally validated genome-scale metabolic reconstruction of Klebsiella pneumoniae MGH 78578, iYL1228. J. Bacteriol. 193: 1710-7. Link
Thiele I, Hyduke D, Steeb B, Fankam G, Allen DK, Bazzani S, Charusanti P, et al. (2011) A community effort towards a knowledge-base and mathematical model of the human pathogen Salmonella Typhimurium LT2. BMC Syst Biol. 5: 8. Link
Charusanti P, Conrad TM, Knight EM, Venkataraman K, Fong NL, Xie B, Gao Y, Palsson BØ. (2010) Genetic basis of growth adaptation of Escherichia coli after deletion of pgi, a major metabolic gene. PLoS Genet. 6: e1001186. Link
Lewis NE, Hixson KK, Conrad TM, Lerman JA, Charusanti P, Polpitiya AD, Adkins JN, Schramm G, Purvine SO, Lopez-Ferrer D, Weitz KK, Eils R, König R, Smith RD, Palsson BØ. (2010) Omic data from evolved E. coli are consistent with computed optimal growth from genome-scale models. Mol Syst Biol. 6: 390. Link
Cho BK, Charusanti P, Herrgård MJ, Palsson BØ. (2007) Microbial regulatory and metabolic networks. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 18: 360-4. Link
Charusanti P, Hu X, Chen LN, Neuhauser D, DiStefano JJ (2004) A mathematical model of BCR-ABL autophosphorylation, signaling through the CRKL pathway, and Gleevec dynamics in chronic myeloid leukemia. Discrete Cont Dyn-B. 4: 99-114. Link
Book Chapters
Ansong C, Deatherage BL, Hyduke D, Schmidt B, McDermott JE, Jones MB, Chauhan S, Charusanti P, et al. (2012) Studying Salmonellae and Yersiniae Host-Pathogen Interactions Using Integrated Omics and Modeling. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol.
A Method to Generate Novel Bioactive Molecules. Inventors: Bernhard Palsson and Pep Charusanti. US provisional patent application filed.
Platform Strain for Metabolic Engineering of Bioactive Compounds. Inventors: Bernhard Palsson, Pep Charusanti, and Harish Nagarajan. US provisional patent application filed.
Contact Information
Email Address: pcharusanti-AT-ucsd-DOT-edu
Phone: (858) 822-3180
Fax: (858) 822-3120
Mailing Address: 9500 Gilman Drive #0760, La Jolla, CA 92093-0760


text:
When I started writing with the intent to be published, I continued to write science fiction, fantasy, mysteries--and erotica. I've never piloted a starship or fought an invading horde of orcs, but I can imagine it. Sex, though--sex I know about. I was interested in sex long before I ever managed to experience it. The combination of being painfully shy as a child and growing up in a conservative, religious small town environment in Virginia meant it took me much longer than I'd have liked to finally cross that threshold.
That didn't prevent me from reading about it, a lot. And fantasizing. Among the fantasies that aroused me the most were having lots of partners (albeit one at a time), and getting involved in wild sex parties. It took me some years, but I managed both eventually. I've been involved in swinging for a long time now, and while I know some people just don't go for that sort of thing, I don't understand it.
I can understand being nervous about trying something new. I've been a curious first-time observer, and a nervous newbie. The experiences of my heroine, Angela, in The Wild One are not autobiographical, but a lot of the details are based on personal observations:
Excerpt from "The Wild One"
Angela crowded close behind Lourdes as she stopped abruptly in front of the hotel room door. Michelle bumped into Angela and giggled nervously. Angela couldn't blame her. She could feel nervous giggles poised to escape her own lips.
"This is it," Lourdes said. The glance she gave Angela and Michelle suggested that she wasn't quite as calm as she'd like them to believe. Nonetheless, Lourdes knocked firmly on the door. Angela could hear the faint sound of conversation through the door. It didn't sound like a sex party.
The door opened a crack, and a short, redheaded woman peeked out from behind it. She looked them over, and they must have passed inspection because she backed up, opening the door and silently inviting them inside.
Angela followed Lourdes and Michelle into the room. She glanced back as the redhead closed the door behind them. The woman was short, busty and naked. Silver piercings gleamed in her nipples. She noticed Angela's look. "Hi, I'm Emily."
"Angela." She wasn't sure what to say next. What do you say to a naked woman you've just met? A familiar squeal of greeting saved her from having to find out. She turned to see Vicki leap up from a sofa to greet her three newly arrived friends.
"You made it!" Vicki sounded surprised as well as pleased. She'd tried to get them to come to the party with her, but they had turned her down. It was only after spending some time club hopping that Lourdes had suggested taking Vicki up on her offer. Just, you know, to see what a sex party looked like.
Angela had secretly wanted to go all along, but she hadn't had the nerve to do it. When Lourdes suggested it again, emboldened by alcohol, Angela had agreed that it sounded like fun. Together, they'd convinced Michelle to give it a try.
Vicki had hugged Lourdes, and now she threw herself at Angela. She was wearing a pair of lace panties and nothing else. "Hey, girl," Vicki said. "I didn't think you'd show."
"We almost didn't." Angela gave Vicki a quick hug. "But Lourdes insisted."
"Me? You wanted to too!"
Vicki laughed and turned to greet Michelle with a hug. "Well, you're here. That's what counts. Let me introduce you around."
Angela looked around, taking in the room as Vicki made introductions. It was a fairly standard hotel room. A bathroom just inside the door to the hall, a king-size bed, and a dresser opposite the bed. The dresser was covered with food and drink—a variety of snack foods, dips, a bucket of chicken, several large bottles of soda, a couple of wine bottles, and disposable plates and utensils.
The back of the room, normally occupied by a small writing desk and chair, was crowded with half a dozen chairs obtained from elsewhere. The chairs formed a rough circle, and about half of them were occupied. Three women and one man occupied the conversation circle. None of them wore more than a towel.
The connecting doors to the rooms on either side of this one were propped open. The sounds of sex drifted through a doorway. Angela couldn't see into there from her position, but she could see into the other room. It contained two large beds, both unoccupied.
"You've met Emily," Vicki said. Emily waved. Vicki named names, but Angela wasn't listening. It sounded like at least two women were getting fucked next door, and she was intensely curious—and embarrassed to reveal that fact by walking over to the doorway to look.
Vicki took care of that. "And in this room," she said, pausing in the doorway, "we have the rest of the gang."
Lourdes, Angela and Michelle all eyed one another for a moment then collectively walked over to join Vicki, who stepped into the next room. They followed. Angela felt her pulse race in anticipation. She'd had sex and even seen some porn. But she'd never seen real people doing it.
There were two queen beds in the next room. On the nearest bed a couple were going at it missionary style. The woman was blonde, big-boned, and red faced. Her lover was a well-built young man with short, dark blonde hair. His cock was— Angela stared for a moment. It was bigger than any she'd ever seen outside of a porn video.
On the next bed, three men were busy with a single woman. One man was kneeling between her legs, her feet bobbing by his ears, as he fucked her. The woman had a cock in each hand, and was avidly sucking one or the other of them when she wasn't screaming.
Vicki named the foursome, but again Angela wasn't listening. "That's Lynn," Vicki added, gesturing at the large blonde. Lynn chose that moment to throw her head back and arch her back. She wailed and pounded the mattress with one hand. "Oh god—yes, yes!
When Lynn's outburst was over, Vicki grinned. "And the gentleman giving Lynn such pleasure is George. Say hello, George."
George turned his head to take in the sight of Angela, Lourdes and Michelle huddled nearby. "Hello, ladies," he said, never pausing in the vigorous thrusting of his hips. "Pleased to meet you." The gleam in his eyes told Angela that he was almost as casual about fucking in front of three strange women as he was pretending to be. He might even be getting off on it.
Angela nodded. "Hey," she said. Lourdes and Michelle mumbled a greeting as well. Michelle had her flask in hand. She took a drink then passed it to Lourdes, who raised it to her lips for a moment. When Lourdes passed it on, Angela drank as well.
"George here is lots of fun," Vicki said. She leaned over to kiss him on the mouth. George pressed a hand to the back of Vicki's head, prolonging the kiss. His hips never stopped moving. Angela watched, wide-eyed. They were so casual about it. George was fucking another woman, and Vicki just kissed him like it was nothing....
Being a newbie was terrifying--and thrilling. But time and experience turn newbies into regulars. What was once shocking and eye-opening can become mundane. It's no less exciting and pleasurable than it ever was, but the naughty thrill of doing something novel and beyond your experience is replaced by familiar pleasures. Again, Daisy's experience is not mine, but I based her adventures on the things I've witnessed and experienced in such places.
Excerpt from "Queen Bee"
Daisy strutted into Soixante-Neuf as if she owned it. Blonde, beautiful, sexy…and alone. She'd exchanged her drab work attire for a midnight blue cheongsam—a form-fitting Chinese dress—and matching heels. She nodded at the man behind the front desk. He knew her well and no longer even asked for her membership card.
The club was moderately crowded, though nowhere near as packed as it would be by midnight. Daisy wasn't the only regular. She waved or called out greetings to men and women across the room. Others approached to give her a hug, a kiss, or a grope. Often all three.
Still others simply watched her, heads turning as she passed. They were newbies or return visitors who knew her only as the gorgeous blonde who showed up every weekend. Maybe one or two of those men would work up the nerve to approach her on any given night. If they did, and if she found them attractive, she might play with them. If not...well, they had only themselves to blame.
"Daisy!" A naked woman with long, curly red hair approached. She was short and busty, with pierced nipples. She was also flushed and sweating, clearly just done fucking someone.
"Emily!" Daisy leaned over to kiss Emily on the cheek, both of them careful to avoid mussing Daisy's dress. "Having fun, I see."
Emily grinned. "You know it!"
Daisy did know. Emily had been one of the first people to befriend her when she'd first braved the club. She'd taken Daisy by the hand and led her around, introducing her to everyone. She'd also spent a lot of time talking to Daisy and answering her questions. She was the only person Daisy knew who was more enthusiastic about swinging than Daisy herself.
They conversed for only a minute before Emily excused herself to shower. Daisy moved on, drifting through the facility to see who was there and what was happening. As usual, not a lot yet—people were socializing, snacking, dancing, playing pool. Maybe indulging in a little grab-ass. The only real action she discovered was in the public play area.
She joined the crowd clustered around a large group bed, their attention focused on a single couple. The crowd around the bed was composed of about equal numbers of men and women. None of them seemed inclined to do more than watch, which they did in an almost eerie silence.
Daisy worked her way into a position to see the couple on the bed. To her utter lack of surprise, she recognized a woman named Lisa crouching over a dark-haired man Daisy didn't know, engaged in sixty-nine. She knew Lisa well. They'd often shared a bed, usually with several other people, but occasionally just the two of them.
Daisy wasn't yet so jaded that watching other people have sex had lost its fascination. She watched along with the rest of the crowd for a few minutes. Individuals and couples drifted away and were replaced by other spectators. Someone slid into position at her side, a tall blond man—six two at least—shirtless but wearing a pair of slacks and shoes. He sensed her attention and smiled at her before he turned his attention back to the show.
Lisa and her playmate continued pleasing one another, seeming oblivious to their audience. Lisa began breathing more loudly and erratically, her attention to her blow job flagging. Daisy wasn't surprised when Lisa raised her head, halting her blow job to shudder all over and make the delighted little noises Daisy had come to know so well. Then, her orgasm over, Lisa resumed her efforts.
The blond man next to her leaned in a little. "They sure seem to be having fun, don't they?"
"They do," she agreed. She waved a hand to indicate the crowd around them. "They seem to be the only ones, though."
He nodded slowly and moved closer. "I've noticed that. It seems to happen a lot. People pay good money to come to these clubs, and then they just sit around and watch. I don't get it."
"We're watching," she pointed out, though she hoped it wouldn't be for much longer.
He acknowledged her point with a minute shrug. "Yeah, but I just got here. What's your excuse?" He grinned. "I'm Paul, by the way."
She looked up into his eyes and said, very seriously, "Nobody's asked me yet. I'm Daisy."
Paul leaned in again, close enough that Daisy could feel his breath on her ear. She shivered, desperately horny and eager to join Lisa on that huge bed. "Sometimes," Paul said, "I'm tempted to just announce, 'Everyone who'd rather have sex than watch sex, raise your hand!' Maybe that would get people moving."
She laughed. She knew exactly what he meant. "It might at that."
"What about you?" He stood behind her now, not quite touching her but close enough that she could feel his breath on her ear when he spoke.
"What about me what?" she asked, deliberately drawing him out.
"Wouldn't you rather have sex than watch someone else have it?" Now he did touch her, placing his hands lightly on her hips.
She felt a rush of excitement. She glanced at him over her shoulder, biting her lip as she considered it. He was a good looking man, and his proposition was nicely done.
"Yes," she said. She turned to face him. "I think I would."
"Excellent. Here?"
Daisy nodded. She took his hand and threaded past several of the voyeurs to the edge of the bed. She turned, stepped into his arms, wrapping hers around him. Excitement plucked at her nerves and tightened things low in her body. She was about to have sex with a new partner, a complete stranger, in public. Just the thought quickened her breath. If her hands weren't pressed against his back, they'd be trembling.
She rose on the balls of her feet to kiss him. He returned the kiss with enthusiasm, his mouth hot on hers, his arms tightening around her. She closed her eyes and focused on the strength of his arms, the feel of his body against hers, and the delicate touch of his tongue on hers. He was excited, his arousal evident in the lump pressed against her abdomen.
She broke the kiss and turned her back to Paul. He unbuttoned the top of her dress then unzipped it slowly. The dress sagged open. He planted kisses on the exposed skin of her neck and back, provoking a shiver of excitement. She wriggled free of the dress, letting it drop around her feet.
He cupped her breasts through her bra, his hands large enough to cover her small breasts. He caressed her through the dark lace, teasing her nipples erect. A moment later, she felt her bra unclasped. Fingers brushed the straps from her shoulders, and it slithered down her arms to fall to the floor.
His arms enveloped her, left hand moving to fondle her right breast as his right hand drew a line down her stomach to slip into her panties. His fingers grazed her lower lips to slide between her legs and cradle her sex as he nipped at her ear.
She shivered at his touch. Reaching back between them, she unbuckled his belt and opened his pants. He was hard, his cock drawing the fabric of his briefs taut. She closed her hand around him, smiling at the heat and weight of him. "Mmm," she said.
She was very aware of their audience. Knowing she was being watched was half the fun of sex at the club. It thrilled her to have uninhibited sex in front of people too shy to do more than observe. Knowing that the men wanted her and the women wanted to be her added immeasurably to her pleasure.
He curled his middle finger, drawing it along her wet lips before parting them slightly. His touch made her body tighten, and he toyed with her stiff nipple with his other hand. Her hand tightened on his cock, and he drew an excited breath then trailed kisses up her neck to her ear. He nibbled at her ear as he fingered her pussy and fondled her breast.
His busy hands and mouth were magic. Pleasure sizzled through her body, arcing between points of contact like lightning. Her legs threatened to buckle. She reached up to clasp the back of his neck with one hand and leaned against him, letting him help her stay upright.
On the bed before them, Lisa and her lover continued to give one another oral sex. Daisy watched through heavy-lidded eyes, the thrill of voyeurism adding to her pleasure. She saw Lisa shudder through orgasm twice, the second time only moments before Daisy's eyes fluttered closed and she writhed in Paul's arms as her own climax took her.
Afterward she resumed fondling him, slipping her hand inside his briefs to wrap her fingers around his hot, bare flesh. She stroked him slowly, feeling him grow harder, feeling his hips thrust forward instinctively. His dancing fingers paused as he buried his face in her neck and groaned. That simple sound of desire made her feel incredibly powerful.
On the bed before her, the other man kissed Lisa very thoroughly then murmured something to her. Lisa grinned brightly. "Yes, please!" she said.
He moved between Lisa's legs. Her single glance at Daisy and the watching crowd, face flushed with arousal, grinning joyfully as she tore open a condom packet, was the only evidence that Lisa, too, was aware of their audience.
"Write what you know," they say. It gives your writing verisimilitude. And when it comes to erotica, the research is a hell of a lot of fun too.


text:
Police have closed a missing person-homicide case that happened 33 years ago.
On May 11, 1983, Susan Marie Rath-Cerratelli, 25, disappeared from her home in Long Pond, PA and was never heard from again. According to her husband Andrew Cerratelli, he left that morning to travel to Philadelphia and when he returned home around 6:00 PM that evening she was gone. However, Andrew did not report his wife missing to the police until almost three weeks later.
Police investigated Susan's disappearance as a missing persons case and interviewed her friends and family. Her family members told investigators that it was not like Susan to not stay in contact with them regularly.
Although investigators suspected that Andrew was involved in Susan's disappearance from the beginning, they never had enough information to turn her missing person case into a homicide investigation. Twenty four years later, in 2007, Pennsylvania state police started investigating Susan's disappearance as a murder case, with Andrew as the prime suspect.
Unfortunately, Andrew Cerratelli died of a drug overdose in February 2007, shortly after the state police started to investigate Susan's possible murder. As a result, the case went unsolved until recently.
Andrew was living with his girlfriend Debra Wheelis at the time of his death in 2007. After almost 10 years of silence, Debra recently agreed to speak to the police about threats that Andrew had made to her when they were together.
In September 2016, Debra stated in a sworn statement to police that Andrew had made reference to his missing wife in a threat he made to her. According to Debra's sworn police statement, Andrew had said to her, "If you ever cheat on me, I will throw you down the hole where I threw my wife."
According to Debra, Andrew found out that Susan had cheated on him, so he murdered her and drove her body to an abandoned mine in a remote area and dumped her body down an old mine shaft in Centralia, PA.
Unfortunately, the police are unable to search and find Susan's remains. Centralia has been abandoned due to health hazards associated with the old mining operation and there is an underground fire that has been burning in the abandoned mine since 1962.
However, thanks to Debra's sworn statement, investigators and district attorney have decided that the missing person homicide case for Susan Cerratelli can finally be closed.


text:
{all pictures from my pinterest 'sugar' board}
Musique: The Archies - Sugar Sugar
Wonderful Images <3
Happy Monday ,big Hugs :*
I wish every monday were like this with these pics!! So sweet and stylish :3
how lovely:) Have a great week dear Kizzy!ReplyDelete
I've already had my sugar dose today, but that was cherry jam, which I love a lot:) Those photographs which you've shared are so sweet and lovely, you are right:) Thank You for sharing such a nice post with us,dear Kizzy!
Wish you a blessed week and an easy Monday;)
These are so beautiful! Love the last one and the one with the flamingos ^^
Sweet load of sugary good words. Thank you Kizzy and have an awesome week.
Awww, how sweet. Hope you are having a splendid day too xoxo.ReplyDelete
yes! great collection of images :DReplyDelete
So nice inspirations of joy & happiness ! Love your world M-CReplyDelete
you just made monday better!!
have a great week!
Just the right kick to start off the week!
Simona/OFF DUTY
Morning Kizzy! Starting the week with this huge dose of sugar is what I really needed to see and read right now!:) The images are so sweet and are so you. The "doNUT worry" is the best lol!:) Happy Monday my dear, hope you have a super sugar week as well! Many hugs and kisses! xoReplyDelete
Well!! If that's Monday, then I can't wait for the rest of the week!! Gorgeous, Doll. :D xxReplyDelete
What a fun, inspirational post to start the week with. Thank you Kizzy!ReplyDelete
Pretty!! Those are some nice sugary words!
xoxo Chaicy - Style.. A Pastiche!
Follow on FB
have a nice day doll!! keep in touchReplyDelete
Hello from Spain: beautiful pictures. Great !!Keep in touchReplyDelete
Lovely post!!!!
Ciao bellissima! Happy monday!!!
So much colors and inspirations. Kisses!ReplyDelete
These images certainly leave me happier! Thank you for the inspiration dear and remain adorable!
little luxury list formerly Chic 'n Cheap Living
wonderful start to a monday! hope you have a lovely week kizzy!ReplyDelete
Great inspo to start the week. Hope u have a good one!
xx Lori
Lovely photos!! Wishing you a great start of the week.
Love this post :) so positive and full of pastels and stuff that I love
Lovely post!
Check out my latest OUTFIT POST and my other posts on Venoma's fashion diary
XoXo Venoma
super nice pics, love them all dear!ReplyDelete
Happy Monday doll! Love these super adorable and sweet images. Enjoy your day.
/Madison :-)
Great start to the week!ReplyDelete
so sweet! and i love the mother theresa quote! thanks for inspiring my monday ... hope all is well with you in your world and the week will be sweet indeed;)ReplyDelete
some of these pictures magically put a smile on my face! happy monday dear and have a great week ahead.
Remain adorable--just great words to live by! Hope you had a fab weekend, doll and that your Monday is off to a great start.ReplyDelete
Very encouraging messages here. May you have a wonderful week Kizzy!ReplyDelete
Just what I needed on this sluggish Monday! Thanks for the pretty inspiration and encouragement! Have an amazing week Kizzy!
Rowena @ rolala loves
Love all the photos ang inspiring qoutes.:) have great week Doll.
Kizzy you certainly leave me happier!
Coco et La vie en rose / Bloglovin / Facebook
Lovely images dear! Lucy www.tpinkcarpet.comReplyDelete
Aw, I know I left a comment this morning, but I did have a feeling it disappeared - and it has! Anyway, loved this sweet (see what I did there ;-) ) post and it was just what I needed on a grey Monday with lots of rubbish work. Have a lovely start to the week xoReplyDelete
Lay that Sugar on me. . . . thanks a bunch!!ReplyDelete
Love the feel of this whole post Kizzy and those pastel fish~beyond fantastic!!
xo Mary Jo
Hello dear Kizzy!!!!
This is such a happy, uplifting post!!!!
Hope you're enjoying your day!!!!
Love & Hugs,
These photos are so cute Kizzy! Have a great week!
I love your beautiful sugar inspiration to start the week off nice and sweet! Love that last quote! "Dress like a cupcake should feel"! I agree and I think I do this sometimes!
Love this inspiration post. Thanks for stopping by!
Perfect! I think your Pinterest sugar board is my favourite!
Now you got me craving donuts!!
Have a great week xx
Candy coated loveliness!! Thank you for the happy bright thoughts xxReplyDelete
Such pretty,fun, and imaginative images and quotes, which we can all use so often in our lives! And these are certainly are fitting considering the day it was yesterday. -Jess LReplyDelete
A candy wonderland! Lovely pics and quotes! Love every single! :)ReplyDelete
You're such a doll for sharing with us these inspiring quotes and images....have a wonderful 4th!!!
Hopefully this is not going to send twice - I'm losing my mind and thought I submitted my comment, but it disappeared!
This is serving as some serious Tuesday morning eye candy and inspiration for me! Thank you for passing it all along to me and all of your readers, love! It's a bunch of perfect reminders of how to start a week off on a positive note <3
sweet post!
Love all those pastel colors! Here in Sweden it's grey, cold and rainy. BUT! I have caaaandyyy!!! :D xxxxxxxxReplyDelete
Lovely pics, perfect to start the week!!
Chic With The Least
Also on Facebook , Bloglovin', Instagram and What I Wear
Just fabulous! I wish you a darling week, sweetheart!ReplyDelete
I love the girl holding the lollipops over her eyes. So cool :DReplyDelete
Have a great week!!
I really needed all these sugar... Thanks doll!ReplyDelete
Great inspirational post! I feel like I want something sweet now:))
XOXO from Shanghai
Dear Kizzy, I love your beautiful sugar inspiration. So sweet post. I love the girl holding the lollipops over her eyes.Love that last quote! "Dress like a cupcake should feel"! I agree and love it! Have a very very great day my doll, many kisses and hugs <3 <333ReplyDelete
Welcome to my dreams, my thoughts & creations, stay a while & forget the world! Leave me a tale, a vision or two!! Thank you for your words, they leave glitter & stardust on my heart...
Keep in Touch:
| Facebook | Twitter | Bloglovin | Tumblr |


text:
Association of Migraine Disorders
View the lastest migraine related clinical trials below or to find clinical studies by state, see the full list at clinicaltrials.gov
A comparison of two behavioral treatments for migraine in women who are overweight.
For more information on eligibility for the study, call 401-793-8940
Dr. Anthony Mikulec's St. Louis University office is conducting a research study comparing two standard medications that you may qualify for.
An impressive look into the pathophysiology of a migraine
Patients describe the symptoms they feel during a migraine attack
In a clinical trial, participants receive specific interventions according to the research plan or protocol created by the investigators. These interventions may be medical products, such as drugs or devices; procedures; or changes to participants' behavior, such as diet. Clinical trials may compare a new medical approach to a standard one that is already available, to a placebo that contains no active ingredients, or to no intervention. Some clinical trials compare interventions that are already available to each other. When a new product or approach is being studied, it is not usually known whether it will be helpful, harmful, or no different than available alternatives (including no intervention).
SOURCE: ClinicalTrials.gov a service of the U.S. National Institutes of Health


text:
DemoCamp Toronto 19
TorCamp aka BarCampToronto
Tuesday, March 3, 2009 from 5:45 PM to 10:00 PM (EST)
What is DemoCamp?
DemoCamp started as a way for Toronto's entrepreneurial designers, developers, and technologists to get together on a monthly basis and showcase what they had been working on.
It's a social event for people who are starting new software, web and mobile companies. The idea was to celebrate all of the world-class companies and projects happening in Toronto.
How do I present?
Everyone who wants to present must submit an application. We are looking for submissions that :
The goal is to find projects, people, applications and companies that will inspire, challenge or educate people who have seen the latest and greatest on the web and around the world.
Presentation Formats
At DemoCamp, presentations are limited to 5 minutes. You get 5 minutes on stage to convey your revolutionary ideas in either a demo or an Ignite presentation.
Demos are limited to 2 slides and showing functional code or a lightning talk that is a presentation with auto-advancing slides. Ignite presentations are 20 slides by 15 seconds per slide (total 5 minutes).
In order to purchase these tickets in installments, you'll need an Eventbrite account. Log in or sign up for a free account to continue.