text:
Yoga (/ˈjoʊɡə/;[1] Sanskrit: योग; pronunciation) is a group of physicaw, mentaw, and spirituaw practices or discipwines which originated in ancient India. Yoga is one of de six ordodox schoows of Hindu phiwosophicaw traditions.[2] [3] There is a broad variety of yoga schoows, practices, and goaws[4] in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.[5][6][7] The term "yoga" in de Western worwd often denotes a modern form of Hada yoga, which incwudes de physicaw practice of postures cawwed asanas.
The origins of yoga have been specuwated to date back to pre-Vedic Indian traditions; it is mentioned in de Rigveda,[note 1] but most wikewy devewoped around de sixf and fiff centuries BCE,[9] in ancient India's ascetic and śramaṇa movements.[10][note 2] The chronowogy of earwiest texts describing yoga-practices is uncwear, varyingwy credited to Upanishads.[11] The Yoga Sutras of Patanjawi date from de first hawf of de 1st miwwennium CE,[12][13] but onwy gained prominence in de West in de 20f century.[14] Hada yoga texts emerged around de 11f century wif origins in tantra.[15][16]
Yoga gurus from India water introduced yoga to de West,[17] fowwowing de success of Swami Vivekananda in de wate 19f and earwy 20f century.[17] In de 1980s, yoga became popuwar as a system of physicaw exercise across de Western worwd.[16] Yoga in Indian traditions, however, is more dan physicaw exercise; it has a meditative and spirituaw core.[18] One of de six major ordodox schoows of Hinduism is awso cawwed Yoga, which has its own epistemowogy and metaphysics, and is cwosewy rewated to Hindu Samkhya phiwosophy.[19]
Many studies have tried to determine de effectiveness of modern yoga as a compwementary intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asdma, and heart disease.[20][21] The resuwts of dese studies have been mixed and inconcwusive.[20][21] On December 1, 2016, yoga was wisted by UNESCO as an intangibwe cuwturaw heritage.[22]
- 1 Etymowogy
- 2 Definition in cwassic Indian texts
- 3 Goaws
- 4 Schoows
- 5 History
- 5.1 Pre-Vedic India
- 5.2 Vedic period (1700–500 BCE)
- 5.3 Precwassicaw era (500–200 BCE)
- 5.4 Cwassicaw era (200 BCE – 500 CE)
- 5.5 Middwe Ages (500–1500 CE)
- 6 Modern history
- 7 Heawf effects
- 8 Reception in oder rewigions
- 9 Internationaw Day of Yoga
- 10 See awso
- 11 Notes
- 12 References
- 13 Furder reading
- 14 Externaw winks
The Sanskrit noun योग yoga is derived from de root yuj "to attach, join, harness, yoke".[23] The word yoga is cognate wif Engwish "yoke".[24]
The spirituaw sense of de word yoga first arises in Epic Sanskrit, in de second hawf of de 1st miwwennium BCE, and is associated wif de phiwosophicaw system presented in de Yoga Sutras of Patanjawi, wif de chief aim of "uniting" de human spirit wif de Divine.[25] The term kriyāyoga has a technicaw meaning in de Yoga Sutras (2.1), designating de "practicaw" aspects of de phiwosophy, i.e. de "union wif de supreme" due to performance of duties in everyday wife.[26]
According to Pāṇini, de term yoga can be derived from eider of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau ("to concentrate").[27] In de context of de Yoga Sutras of Patanjawi, de root yuj samādhau (to concentrate) is considered by traditionaw commentators as de correct etymowogy.[28] In accordance wif Pāṇini, Vyasa who wrote de first commentary on de Yoga Sutras,[29] states dat yoga means samādhi (concentration).[30]
According to Dasgupta, de term yoga can be derived from eider of two roots, yujir yoga ("to yoke") or yuj samādhau ("to concentrate").[27] Someone who practices yoga or fowwows de yoga phiwosophy wif a high wevew of commitment is cawwed a yogi (may be appwied to a man or a woman) or yogini (a woman).[31]
Definition in cwassic Indian texts
The term yoga has been defined in various ways in de many different Indian phiwosophicaw and rewigious traditions.
|Source Text
|Definition of Yoga[32]
|Kada Upanishad
|"When de five senses, awong wif de mind, remain stiww and de intewwect is not active, dat is known as de highest state. They consider yoga to be firm restraint of de senses. Then one becomes un-distracted for yoga is de arising and de passing away" (6.10-11)
|Bhagavad Gita
|"Yoga is said to be eqwanimity" (2.48); "Yoga is skiww in action" (2.50); "Know dat which is cawwed yoga to be separation from contact wif suffering" (6.23).
|Yogacarabhumi - Sravakabhumi
|"Yoga is fourfowd: faif, aspiration, perseverance and means" (2.152)
|Yoga Sutras of Patanjawi
|"Yoga is de suppression of de activities of de mind" (1.2)
|Vaisesika sutra
|"Pweasure and suffering arise as a resuwt of de drawing togeder of de sense organs, de mind and objects. When dat does not happen because de mind is in de sewf, dere is no pweasure or suffering for one who is embodied. That is yoga" (5.2.15-16)
|Kaundinya's Pancardabhasya on de Pasupatasutra
|"In dis system, yoga is de union of de sewf and de Lord" (I.I.43)
|Linga Purana
|"By de word 'yoga' is meant nirvana, de condition of Siva." (I.8.5a)
|Brahmasutra-bhasya of Adi Shankara
|"It is said in de treatises on yoga: 'Yoga is de means of perceiving reawity." (2.1.3)
|"The union of apana and prana, one's own rajas and semen, de sun and moon, de individuaw souw and de supreme souw, and in de same way de union of aww duawities, is cawwed yoga. " (89)
The uwtimate goaw of Yoga is moksha (wiberation), awdough de exact definition of what form dis takes depends on de phiwosophicaw or deowogicaw system wif which it is conjugated.
According to Jacobsen, Yoga has five principaw meanings:[33]
- a discipwined medod for attaining a goaw;
- techniqwes of controwwing de body and de mind;
- a name of a schoow or system of phiwosophy (darśana);
- wif prefixes such as "hada-, mantra-, and waya-, traditions speciawising in particuwar techniqwes of yoga;
- de goaw of Yoga practice.[33]
According to David Gordon White, from de 5f century CE onward, de core principwes of "yoga" were more or wess in pwace, and variations of dese principwes devewoped in various forms over time:[34]
- a meditative means of discovering dysfunctionaw perception and cognition, as weww as overcoming it for rewease from suffering, inner peace and sawvation; iwwustration of dis principwe is found in Hindu texts such as de Bhagavad Gita and Yogasutras, in a number of Buddhist Mahāyāna works, as weww as Jain texts;[35]
- de raising and expansion of consciousness from onesewf to being coextensive wif everyone and everyding; dese are discussed in sources such as in Hinduism Vedic witerature and its Epic Mahābhārata, Jainism Praśamaratiprakarana, and Buddhist Nikaya texts;[36]
- a paf to omniscience and enwightened consciousness enabwing one to comprehend de impermanent (iwwusive, dewusive) and permanent (true, transcendent) reawity; exampwes are found in Hinduism Nyaya and Vaisesika schoow texts as weww as Buddhism Mādhyamaka texts, but in different ways;[37]
- a techniqwe for entering into oder bodies, generating muwtipwe bodies, and de attainment of oder supernaturaw accompwishments; dese are, states White, described in Tantric witerature of Hinduism and Buddhism, as weww as de Buddhist Sāmaññaphawasutta;[38] James Mawwinson, however, disagrees and suggests dat such fringe practices are far removed from de mainstream Yoga's goaw as meditation-driven means to wiberation in Indian rewigions.[39]
White cwarifies dat de wast principwe rewates to wegendary goaws of "yogi practice", different from practicaw goaws of "yoga practice," as dey are viewed in Souf Asian dought and practice since de beginning of de Common Era, in de various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain phiwosophicaw schoows.[40]
Yoga is practised wif a variety of medods, incwuding by Jains and Buddhists. In Hinduism, practices incwude Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga, Laya Yoga and Hada Yoga.
Raja yoga originawwy denoted de uwtimate goaw of yoga, samadhi,[41] but was popuwarised by Vivekananda as de common name for Ashtanga Yoga, de eight wimbs to be practised to attain samadhi, as described in de Yoga Sutras of Patanjawi.[42][43]
Cwassicaw yoga
Yoga is considered as a phiwosophicaw schoow in Hinduism.[44] Yoga, in dis context, is one of de six āstika schoows of Hinduism (dose which accept de Vedas as source of knowwedge).[45][46]
Due to de infwuence of Vivekananda, de Yoga Sutras of Patanjawi have since de 20f century been considered de foundationaw scripture of cwassicaw yoga.[43] Before den, oder works such as de Bhagavad Gita and de Yoga Vasisda were considered de most centraw,[43] whiwe Tantric Yoga and Hada Yoga prevaiwed over Ashtanga Yoga.[43]
Ashtanga yoga
Yoga as described in de Yoga Sutras of Patanjawi refers to Ashtanga yoga.[43] The Yoga Sutras of Patanjawi is considered as a centraw text of de Yoga schoow of Hindu phiwosophy,[48] It is often cawwed "Rāja yoga", "yoga of de kings," a term which originawwy referred to de uwtimate, royaw goaw of yoga, which is usuawwy samadhi,[41] but was popuwarised by Vivekananda as de common name for Ashtanga Yoga.[43]
Ashtanga yoga incorporates epistemowogy, metaphysics, edicaw practices, systematic exercises and sewf-devewopment techniqwes for body, mind and spirit.[49] Its epistemowogy (pramanas) is same as de Samkhya schoow. Bof accept dree rewiabwe means to knowwedge – perception (pratyākṣa, direct sensory observations), inference (anumāna) and testimony of trustwordy experts (sabda, agama). Bof dese ordodox schoows are awso strongwy duawistic. Unwike de Sāṃkhya schoow of Hinduism, which pursues a non-deistic/adeistic rationawist approach,[50][51] de Yoga schoow of Hinduism accepts de concept of a "personaw, yet essentiawwy inactive, deity" or "personaw god".[52][53] Awong wif its epistemowogy and metaphysicaw foundations, de Yoga schoow of Hindu phiwosophy incorporates edicaw precepts (yamas and niyamas) and an introspective way of wife focused on perfecting one's sewf physicawwy, mentawwy and spirituawwy, wif de uwtimate goaw being kaivawya (wiberated, unified, content state of existence).[49][54][55]
Hada yoga
Hada yoga, awso cawwed hada vidyā, is a kind of yoga focusing on physicaw and mentaw strengf buiwding exercises and postures described primariwy in dree texts of Hinduism:[57][58][59]
- Hada Yoga Pradipika, Svātmārāma (15f century)
- Shiva Samhita, audor unknown (1500[60] or wate 17f century)
- Gheranda Samhita by Gheranda (wate 17f century)
Many schowars awso incwude de Goraksha Samhita by Gorakshanaf of de 11f century in de above wist.[57] Gorakshanaf is widewy considered to have been responsibwe for popuwarizing hada yoga as we know it today.[61][62][63]
Vajrayana Buddhism, founded by de Indian Mahasiddhas,[64] has a series of asanas and pranayamas, such as tummo (Sanskrit caṇḍāwī)[65] and truw khor which parawwew hada yoga.
In Shaivism, yoga is used to unite kundawini wif Shiva.[66] See awso 'tantra' bewow.
Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of meditation techniqwes dat aim to devewop mindfuwness, concentration, supramundane powers, tranqwiwity, and insight.
Core techniqwes have been preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and have prowiferated and diversified drough teacher-student transmissions. Buddhists pursue meditation as part of de paf toward Enwightenment and Nirvana.[note 3] The cwosest words for meditation in de cwassicaw wanguages of Buddhism are bhāvanā[note 4] and jhāna/dhyāna.[note 5]
Jain meditation has been de centraw practice of spirituawity in Jainism awong wif de Three Jewews.[67] Meditation in Jainism aims at reawizing de sewf, attain sawvation, take de souw to compwete freedom.[68] It aims to reach and to remain in de pure state of souw which is bewieved to be pure conscious, beyond any attachment or aversion, uh-hah-hah-hah. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer (Gyata-Drashta). Jain meditation can be broadwy categorized to de auspicious Dharmya Dhyana and Shukwa Dhyana and inauspicious Artta and Raudra Dhyana.[citation needed]
Samuew states dat Tantrism is a contested concept.[69] Tantra yoga may be described, according to Samuew, as practices in 9f to 10f century Buddhist and Hindu (Saiva, Shakti) texts, which incwuded yogic practices wif ewaborate deity visuawizations using geometricaw arrays and drawings (mandawa), fierce mawe and particuwarwy femawe deities, transgressive wife stage rewated rituaws, extensive use of chakras and mantras, and sexuaw techniqwes, aww aimed to hewp one's heawf, wong wife and wiberation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[69][70]
The origins of yoga are a matter of debate.[71] There is no consensus on its chronowogy or specific origin oder dan dat yoga devewoped in ancient India. Suggested origins are de Indus Vawwey Civiwization (3300–1900 BCE)[72] and pre-Vedic Eastern states of India,[73] de Vedic period (1500–500 BCE), and de śramaṇa movement.[74] According to Gavin Fwood, continuities may exist between dose various traditions:
[T]his dichotomization is too simpwistic, for continuities can undoubtedwy be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, whiwe ewements from non-Brahmanicaw, Sramana traditions awso pwayed an important part in de formation of de renunciate ideaw.[75][note 6]
Pre-phiwosophicaw specuwations of yoga begin to emerge in de texts of c. 500 – c. 200 BCE. Between 200 BCE and 500 CE, phiwosophicaw schoows of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism were taking form and a coherent phiwosophicaw system of yoga began to emerge.[77] The Middwe Ages saw de devewopment of many satewwite traditions of yoga. Yoga came to de attention of an educated western pubwic in de mid 19f century awong wif oder topics of Indian phiwosophy.
Pre-Vedic India
Yoga may have pre-Vedic ewements.[72][73] Some state yoga originated in de Indus Vawwey Civiwization, uh-hah-hah-hah.[78] Marshaww,[79] Ewiade[11] and oder schowars note dat de Pashupati seaw discovered in an Indus Vawwey Civiwization site depicts a figure in a position resembwing an asana used for meditation, Muwabandhasana. This interpretation is considered specuwative and uncertain by more recent anawysis of Srinivasan[11] and may be a case of projecting "water practices into archeowogicaw findings".[80]
Vedic period (1700–500 BCE)
According to Crangwe, some researchers have favoured a winear deory, which attempts "to interpret de origin and earwy devewopment of Indian contempwative practices as a seqwentiaw growf from an Aryan genesis",[81][note 7] just wike traditionaw Hinduism regards de Vedas to be de uwtimate source of aww spirituaw knowwedge.[82][note 8] Thomas McEviwwey favors a composite modew where pre-Aryan yoga prototype existed in de pre-Vedic period and its refinement began in de Vedic period.[85]
Ascetic practices, concentration and bodiwy postures described in de Vedas may have been precursors to yoga.[86][87] According to Geoffrey Samuew, "Our best evidence to date suggests dat [yogic] practices devewoped in de same ascetic circwes as de earwy sramana movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probabwy in around de sixf and fiff centuries BCE."[10]
According to Zimmer, Yoga phiwosophy is reckoned to be part of de non-Vedic system, which awso incwudes de Samkhya schoow of Hindu phiwosophy, Jainism and Buddhism:[73] "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but refwects de cosmowogy and andropowogy of a much owder pre-Aryan upper cwass of nordeastern India [Bihar] – being rooted in de same subsoiw of archaic metaphysicaw specuwation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, de oder non-Vedic Indian systems."[88][note 9]
Textuaw references
The first use of de root of word "yoga" is in hymn 5.81.1 of de Rig Veda, a dedication to rising Sun-god in de morning (Savitri), where it has been interpreted as "yoke" or "yogicawwy controw".[91][92][note 10]
The earwiest evidence of Yogis and Yoga tradition is found in de Keśin hymn 10.136 of de Rigveda, states Karew Werner.[8]
The Yogis of Vedic times weft wittwe evidence of deir existence, practices and achievements. And such evidence as has survived in de Vedas is scanty and indirect. Neverdewess, de existence of accompwished Yogis in Vedic times cannot be doubted.— Karew Werner, Yoga and de Ṛg Veda[8]
Rigveda, however, does not describe yoga and dere is wittwe evidence as to what de practices were.[8] Earwy references to practices dat water became part of yoga, are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, de earwiest Hindu Upanishad.[note 11] For exampwe, de practice of pranayama (consciouswy reguwating breaf) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), and de practice of pratyahara (concentrating aww of one's senses on sewf) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad (c. 800–700 BCE).[95][note 12]
Vedic ascetic practices
Ascetic practices (tapas), concentration and bodiwy postures used by Vedic priests to conduct yajna (sacrifice), might have been precursors to yoga.[note 13] Vratya, a group of ascetics mentioned in de Adarvaveda, emphasized on bodiwy postures which may have evowved into yogic asanas.[86] Earwy Samhitas awso contain references to oder group ascetics such as munis, de keśin, and vratyas.[98] Techniqwes for controwwing breaf and vitaw energies are mentioned in de Brahmanas (texts of de Vedic corpus, c. 1000–800 BCE) and de Adarvaveda.[86][99] Nasadiya Sukta of de Rig Veda suggests de presence of an earwy contempwative tradition, uh-hah-hah-hah.[note 14]
Precwassicaw era (500–200 BCE)
Yoga concepts begin to emerge in de texts of c. 500–200 BCE such as de Pawi Canon, de middwe Upanishads, de Bhagavad Gita and Shanti Parva of de Mahabharata.[102][note 15]
The first known appearance of de word "yoga", wif de same meaning as de modern term, is in de Kada Upanishad,[11][105] probabwy composed between de fiff and dird century BCE,[106][107] where it is defined as de steady controw of de senses, which awong wif cessation of mentaw activity, weading to a supreme state.[98][note 16] Kada Upanishad integrates de monism of earwy Upanishads wif concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines various wevews of existence according to deir proximity to de innermost being Ātman. Yoga is derefore seen as a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness.[109][110] It is de earwiest witerary work dat highwights de fundamentaws of yoga. White states:
The earwiest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from de earwier Vedic uses of de term is found in de Hindu Kada Upanisad (Ku), a scripture dating from about de dird century BCE[…] [I]t describes de hierarchy of mind-body constituents—de senses, mind, intewwect, etc.—dat comprise de foundationaw categories of Sāmkhya phiwosophy, whose metaphysicaw system grounds de yoga of de Yogasutras, Bhagavad Gita, and oder texts and schoows (Ku3.10–11; 6.7–8).[111]
The hymns in Book 2 of de Shvetashvatara Upanishad, anoder wate first miwwennium BCE text, states a procedure in which de body is hewd in upright posture, de breaf is restrained and mind is meditativewy focussed, preferabwy inside a cave or a pwace dat is simpwe, pwain, of siwence or gentwy fwowing water, wif no noises nor harsh winds.[112][110]
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad, wikewy composed in a water century dan Kada and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before Patanjawi's Yoga Sutra, mentions sixfowd yoga medod – breaf controw (pranayama), introspective widdrawaw of senses (pratyahara), meditation (dhyana), mind concentration (dharana), phiwosophicaw inqwiry/creative reasoning (tarka), and absorption/intense spirituaw union (samadhi).[11][110][113]
In addition to de Yoga discussion in above Principaw Upanishads, twenty Yoga Upanishads as weww as rewated texts such as Yoga Vasisda, composed in 1st and 2nd miwwennium CE, discuss Yoga medods.[114][115]
Sutras of Hindu phiwosophies
Yoga is discussed in de ancient foundationaw Sutras of Hindu phiwosophy. The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of de Vaisheshika schoow of Hinduism, dated to have been composed sometime between 6f and 2nd century BCE discusses Yoga.[116][117][note 17] According to Johannes Bronkhorst, an Indowogist known for his studies on earwy Buddhism and Hinduism and a professor at de University of Lausanne, Vaiśeṣika Sūtra describes Yoga as "a state where de mind resides onwy in de souw and derefore not in de senses".[119] This is eqwivawent to pratyahara or widdrawaw of de senses, and de ancient Sutra asserts dat dis weads to an absence of sukha (happiness) and dukkha (suffering), den describes additionaw yogic meditation steps in de journey towards de state of spirituaw wiberation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[119]
Simiwarwy, Brahma sutras – de foundationaw text of de Vedanta schoow of Hinduism, discusses yoga in its sutra 2.1.3, 2.1.223 and oders.[120] Brahma sutras are estimated to have been compwete in de surviving form sometime between 450 BCE to 200 CE,[121][122] and its sutras assert dat yoga is a means to gain "subtwety of body" and oder powers.[120] The Nyaya sutras – de foundationaw text of de Nyaya schoow, variouswy estimated to have been composed between de 6f-century BCE and 2nd-century CE,[123][124] discusses yoga in sutras 4.2.38–50. This ancient text of de Nyaya schoow incwudes a discussion of yogic edics, dhyana (meditation), samadhi, and among oder dings remarks dat debate and phiwosophy is a form of yoga.[125][126][127]
Macedonian historicaw texts
Awexander de Great reached India in de 4f century BCE. Awong wif his army, he took Greek academics wif him who water wrote memoirs about geography, peopwe and customs dey saw. One of Awexander's companion was Onesicritus, qwoted in Book 15, Sections 63–65 by Strabo, who describes yogins of India.[128] Onesicritus cwaims dose Indian yogins (Mandanis ) practiced awoofness and "different postures – standing or sitting or wying naked – and motionwess".[129]
Onesicritus awso mentions his cowweague Cawanus trying to meet dem, who is initiawwy denied audience, but water invited because he was sent by a "king curious of wisdom and phiwosophy".[129] Onesicritus and Cawanus wearn dat de yogins consider de best doctrine of wife as "rid de spirit of not onwy pain, but awso pweasure", dat "man trains de body for toiw in order dat his opinions may be strengdened", dat "dere is no shame in wife on frugaw fare", and dat "de best pwace to inhabit is one wif scantiest eqwipment or outfit".[128][129] These principwes are significant to de history of spirituaw side of yoga.[128] These may refwect de ancient roots of "undisturbed cawmness" and "mindfuwness drough bawance" in water works of Hindu Patanjawi and Buddhist Buddhaghosa respectivewy, states Charwes Rockweww Lanman;[128] as weww as de principwe of Aparigraha (non-possessiveness, non-craving, simpwe wiving) and asceticism discussed in water Hinduism and Jainism.[citation needed]
Earwy Buddhist texts
Werner states, "The Buddha was de founder of his [Yoga] system, even dough, admittedwy, he made use of some of de experiences he had previouswy gained under various Yoga teachers of his time."[130] He notes:[131]
But it is onwy wif Buddhism itsewf as expounded in de Pawi Canon dat we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integraw schoow of Yoga practice, which is dus de first and owdest to have been preserved for us in its entirety.[131]
The chronowogy of compwetion of dese yoga-rewated Pawi Canons, however, is uncwear, just wike ancient Hindu texts.[132][133] Earwy known Buddhist sources wike de Majjhima Nikāya mention meditation, whiwe de Anguttara Nikāya describes Jhāyins (meditators) dat resembwe earwy Hindu descriptions of Muni, Kesins and meditating ascetics,[134] but dese meditation-practices are not cawwed yoga in dese texts.[135] The earwiest known specific discussion of yoga in de Buddhist witerature, as understood in modern context, is from de dird- to fourf-century CE scriptures of de Buddhist Yogācāra schoow and fourf- to fiff-century Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa.[135]
A yoga system dat predated de Buddhist schoow is Jain yoga. But since Jain sources postdate Buddhist ones, it is difficuwt to distinguish between de nature of de earwy Jain schoow and ewements derived from oder schoows.[131] Most of de oder contemporary yoga systems awwuded in de Upanishads and some Pawi canons are wost to time.[136][137][note 18]
The earwy Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states, some of which de Buddha borrowed from de śramaṇa tradition, uh-hah-hah-hah.[139][140] The Pawi canon contains dree passages in which de Buddha describes pressing de tongue against de pawate for de purposes of controwwing hunger or de mind, depending on de passage.[141] However, dere is no mention of de tongue being inserted into de nasopharynx as in true khecarī mudrā. The Buddha used a posture where pressure is put on de perineum wif de heew, simiwar to even modern postures used to stimuwate Kundawini.[142]
Uncertainty wif chronowogy
Awexander Wynne, audor of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, observes dat formwess meditation and ewementaw meditation might have originated in de Upanishadic tradition, uh-hah-hah-hah.[143] The earwiest reference to meditation is in de Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of de owdest Upanishads.[98] Chandogya Upanishad describes de five kinds of vitaw energies (prana). Concepts used water in many yoga traditions such as internaw sound and veins (nadis) are awso described in de Upanishad.[86] Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as de mastery of body and senses.[144]
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of de Lord'), uses de term "yoga" extensivewy in a variety of ways. In addition to an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to traditionaw yoga practice, incwuding meditation,[145] it introduces dree prominent types of yoga:[146]
- Karma yoga: The yoga of action, uh-hah-hah-hah.[147]
- Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[147]
- Jnana yoga: The yoga of knowwedge.[148][149]
The Gita consists of 18 chapters and 700 shwokas (verses),[150] wif each chapter named as a different yoga, dus dewineating eighteen different yogas.[150][151] Some schowars divide de Gita into dree sections, wif de first six chapters wif 280 shwokas deawing wif Karma yoga, de middwe six containing 209 shwokas wif Bhakti yoga, and de wast six chapters wif 211 shwokas as Jnana yoga; however, dis is rough because ewements of karma, bhakti and jnana are found in aww chapters.[150]
Description of an earwy form of yoga cawwed nirodhayoga (yoga of cessation) is contained in de Mokshadharma section of de 12f chapter (Shanti Parva) of de Mahabharata. The verses of de section are dated to c. 300–200 BCE[citation needed]. Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive widdrawaw from de contents of empiricaw consciousness such as doughts, sensations etc. untiw purusha (Sewf) is reawized. Terms wike vichara (subtwe refwection), viveka (discrimination) and oders which are simiwar to Patanjawi's terminowogy are mentioned, but not described.[152] There is no uniform goaw of yoga mentioned in de Mahabharata. Separation of sewf from matter, perceiving Brahman everywhere, entering into Brahman etc. are aww described as goaws of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are confwated togeder and some verses describe dem as being identicaw.[153] Mokshadharma awso describes an earwy practice of ewementaw meditation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[154]
Mahabharata defines de purpose of yoga as de experience of uniting de individuaw ātman wif de universaw Brahman dat pervades aww dings.[153]
Cwassicaw era (200 BCE – 500 CE)
This period witnessed many texts of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism discussing and systematicawwy compiwing yoga medods and practices. Of dese, Patanjawi's Yoga Sutras are considered as a key work.
Cwassicaw yoga
During de period between de Mauryan and de Gupta eras (c. 200 BCE–500 CE) phiwosophicaw schoows of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent phiwosophicaw system of yoga began to emerge.[77]
Yoga as a phiwosophy is mentioned in Sanskrit texts dated to be compweted between 200 BCE–200 CE. Kauṭiwya's Ardashastra in verse 1.2.10, for exampwe, states dat dere are dree categories of anviksikis (phiwosophies) – Samkhya (nondeistic), Yoga (deistic) and Cārvāka (adeistic materiawism).[155][156]
Many traditions in India began to adopt systematic medodowogy by about first century CE. Of dese, Samkhya was probabwy one of de owdest phiwosophies to begin taking a systematic form.[157] Patanjawi systematized Yoga, buiwding dem on de foundationaw metaphysics of Samkhya. In de earwy works, de Yoga principwes appear togeder wif de Samkhya ideas. Vyasa's commentary on de Yoga Sutras, awso cawwed de Samkhyapravacanabhasya (Commentary on de Exposition of de Sankhya Phiwosophy), describes de rewation between de two systems.[158] The two schoows have some differences as weww. Yoga accepted de conception of "personaw god", whiwe Samkhya devewoped as a rationawist, non-deistic/adeistic system of Hindu phiwosophy.[50][159][160] Sometimes Patanjawi's system is referred to as Seshvara Samkhya in contradistinction to Kapiwa's Nirivara Samkhya.[161]
The parawwews between Yoga and Samkhya were so cwose dat Max Müwwer says dat "de two phiwosophies were in popuwar parwance distinguished from each oder as Samkhya wif and Samkhya widout a Lord."[162]
Yoga Sutras of Patanjawi
|Pada (Chapter)
|Engwish meaning
|Samadhi Pada
|On being absorbed in spirit
|Sadhana Pada
|On being immersed in spirit
|Vibhuti Pada
|On supernaturaw abiwities and gifts
|Kaivawya Pada
|On absowute freedom
In Hindu phiwosophy, yoga is de name of one of de six ordodox (which accept de testimony of Vedas) phiwosophicaw schoows.[164][165] Karew Werner, audor of Yoga And Indian Phiwosophy, bewieves dat de process of systematization of yoga which began in de middwe and Yoga Upanishads cuwminated wif de Yoga Sutras of Patanjawi.[note 19]
There are numerous parawwews in de concepts in ancient Samkhya, Yoga and Abhidharma Buddhist schoows of dought, particuwarwy from 2nd century BCE to 1st century AD, notes Larson, uh-hah-hah-hah.[167] Patanjawi's Yoga Sutras is a syndesis of dese dree traditions. From Samkhya, Yoga Sutras adopt de "refwective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (duawism), its metaphysicaw rationawism, as weww its dree epistemic medods to gaining rewiabwe knowwedge.[167] From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of nirodhasamadhi, suggests Larson, Yoga Sutras adopt de pursuit of awtered state of awareness, but unwike Buddhist's concept of no sewf nor souw, Yoga is physicawist and reawist wike Samkhya in bewieving dat each individuaw has a sewf and souw.[167] The dird concept Yoga Sutras syndesize into its phiwosophy is de ancient ascetic traditions of meditation and introspection, as weww as de yoga ideas from middwe Upanishads such as Kada, Shvetashvatara and Maitri.[167]
Patanjawi's Yoga Sutras are widewy regarded as de first compiwation of de formaw yoga phiwosophy.[168] The verses of Yoga Sutras are terse. Many water Indian schowars studied dem and pubwished deir commentaries, such as de Vyasa Bhashya (c. 350–450 CE).[169] Patanjawi's yoga is awso referred to as Raja yoga.[170] Patanjawi defines de word "yoga" in his second sutra:
(yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ)
- Yoga Sutras 1.2
This terse definition hinges on de meaning of dree Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni transwates it as "Yoga is de inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of de modifications (vṛtti) of de mind (citta)".[171] Swami Vivekananda transwates de sutra as "Yoga is restraining de mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."[172] Edwin Bryant expwains dat, to Patanjawi, "Yoga essentiawwy consists of meditative practices cuwminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from aww modes of active or discursive dought, and of eventuawwy attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object externaw to itsewf, dat is, is onwy aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed wif any oder object."[49][173][174]
If de meaning of yoga is understood as de practice of nirodha (mentaw controw), den its goaw is "de unqwawified state of niruddha (de perfection of dat process)",[175] according to Baba Hari Dass. In dat context, "yoga (union) impwies duawity (as in joining of two dings or principwes); de resuwt of yoga is de nonduaw state", and "as de union of de wower sewf and higher Sewf. The nonduaw state is characterized by de absence of individuawity; it can be described as eternaw peace, pure wove, Sewf-reawization, or wiberation, uh-hah-hah-hah."[176]
Patanjawi's writing awso became de basis for a system referred to as "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-wimbed concept is derived from de 29f Sutra of de Book 2 of Yoga Sutras. They are:
- Yama (The five "abstentions"): Ahimsa (Non-viowence, non-harming oder wiving beings),[177] Satya (trudfuwness, non-fawsehood),[178] Asteya (non-steawing),[179] Brahmacharya (cewibacy, fidewity to one's partner),[179] and Aparigraha (non-avarice, non-possessiveness).[178]
- Niyama (The five "observances"): Śauca (purity, cwearness of mind, speech and body),[180] Santosha (contentment, acceptance of oders and of one's circumstances),[181] Tapas (persistent meditation, perseverance, austerity),[182] Svādhyāya (study of sewf, sewf-refwection, study of Vedas),[183] and Ishvara-Pranidhana (contempwation of God/Supreme Being/True Sewf).[181]
- Asana: Literawwy means "seat", and in Patanjawi's Sutras refers to de seated position used for meditation, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- Pranayama ("Breaf exercises"): Prāna, breaf, "āyāma", to "stretch, extend, restrain, stop".
- Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Widdrawaw of de sense organs from externaw objects.
- Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing de attention on a singwe object.
- Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contempwation of de nature of de object of meditation, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- Samadhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness wif de object of meditation, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Yoga and Vedanta
Yoga and Vedanta are de two wargest surviving schoows of Hindu traditions. They share many dematic principwes, concepts and bewief in sewf/souw, but diverge in degree, stywe and some of deir medods. Epistemowogicawwy, Yoga schoow accepts dree means to rewiabwe knowwedge, whiwe Advaita Vedanta accepts six ways.[184] Yoga disputes de monism of Advaita Vedanta.[185] Yoga schoow bewieves dat in de state of moksha, each individuaw discovers de bwissfuw, wiberating sense of himsewf or hersewf as an independent identity; Advaita Vedanta, in contrast, bewieves dat in de state of moksha, each individuaw discovers de bwissfuw, wiberating sense of himsewf or hersewf as part of Oneness wif everyding, everyone and de Universaw Sewf. They bof howd dat de free conscience is awoof yet transcendent, wiberated and sewf-aware. Furder, Advaita Vedanta schoow enjoins de use of Patanjawi's yoga practices and de reading of Upanishads for dose seeking de supreme good, uwtimate freedom and jivanmukti.[185]
saṁyogo yoga ityukto jīvātma-paramātmanoḥ॥
Yoga is union of de individuaw sewf (jivātma) wif de supreme sewf (paramātma).
The Yoga Yajnavawkya is a cwassicaw treatise on yoga attributed to de Vedic sage Yajnavawkya. It takes de form of a diawogue between Yajnavawkya and Gargi, a renowned phiwosopher.[187] The text contains 12 chapters and its origin has been traced to de period between de second century BCE and fourf century CE.[188] Many yoga texts wike de Hada Yoga Pradipika, de Yoga Kundawini and de Yoga Tattva Upanishads have borrowed verses from or make freqwent references to de Yoga Yajnavawkya.[189] The Yoga Yajnavawkya discusses eight yoga Asanas – Swastika, Gomukha, Padma, Vira, Simha, Bhadra, Mukta and Mayura,[190] numerous breading exercises for body cweansing,[191] and meditation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[192]
According to Tattvardasutra, 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is de sum of aww de activities of mind, speech and body.[7] Umasvati cawws yoga de cause of "asrava" or karmic infwux[193] as weww as one of de essentiaws—samyak caritra—in de paf to wiberation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[193] In his Niyamasara, Acarya Kundakunda, describes yoga bhakti—devotion to de paf to wiberation—as de highest form of devotion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[194] Acarya Haribhadra and Acarya Hemacandra mention de five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of waity under yoga. This has wed certain Indowogists wike Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to caww Jainism, essentiawwy, a system of yogic dinking dat grew into a fuww-fwedged rewigion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[195] The five yamas or de constraints of de Yoga Sutras of Patanjawi bear a resembwance to de five major vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertiwization between dese traditions.[196][note 20]
Mainstream Hinduism's infwuence on Jain yoga can be see in Haribhadra's Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya which outwines an eightfowd yoga infwuenced by Patanjawi's eightfowd yoga.[198]
Yogacara schoow
In de wate phase of Indian antiqwity, on de eve of de devewopment of Cwassicaw Hinduism, de Yogacara movement arises during de Gupta period (4f to 5f centuries). Yogacara received de name as it provided a "yoga," a framework for engaging in de practices dat wead to de paf of de bodhisattva.[199] The yogacara sect teaches "yoga" as a way to reach enwightenment.[200]
Middwe Ages (500–1500 CE)
Middwe Ages saw de devewopment of many satewwite traditions of yoga. Hada yoga emerged in dis period.[201]
Bhakti movement
The Bhakti movement was a devewopment in medievaw Hinduism which advocated de concept of a personaw God (or "Supreme Personawity of Godhead"). The movement was initiated by de Awvars of Souf India in de 6f to 9f centuries, and it started gaining infwuence droughout India by de 12f to 15f centuries.[202] Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of Yoga Sutras, such as de practicaw meditative exercises, wif devotion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[203] Bhagavata Purana ewucidates de practice of a form of yoga cawwed viraha (separation) bhakti. Viraha bhakti emphasizes one pointed concentration on Krishna.[204]
Tantra is a genre of yoga dat arose in India no water dan de 5f century CE.[205][note 21] George Samuew states, "Tantra" is a contested term, but may be considered as a schoow whose practices appeared in mostwy compwete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts by about 10f century CE.[69] Over its history, some ideas of Tantra schoow infwuenced de Hindu, Bon, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. Ewements of Tantric yoga rituaws were adopted by and infwuenced state functions in medievaw Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in East and Soudeast Asia.[207][208]
By de turn of de first miwwennium, hada yoga emerged from tantra.[15][16]
Vajrayana or Tibetan Buddhism
Vajrayana is awso known as Tantric Buddhism and Tantrayāna. Its texts were compiwed starting wif 7f century and Tibetan transwations were compweted in 8f century CE. These tantra yoga texts were de main source of Buddhist knowwedge dat was imported into Tibet.[209] They were water transwated into Chinese and oder Asian wanguages, hewping spread ideas of Tantric Buddhism. The Buddhist text Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti introduced hierarchies of chakras.[210] Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism.[65][211][212]
The tantra yoga practices incwude asanas and breading exercises. The Nyingma tradition practices Yantra yoga (Tib. "Truw khor"), a discipwine dat incwudes breaf work (or pranayama), meditative contempwation and oder exercises.[213] In de Nyingma tradition, de paf of meditation practice is divided into furder stages,[214] such as Kriya yoga, Upa yoga, Yoga yana, Mahā yoga, Anu yoga and Ati yoga.[215] The Sarma traditions awso incwude Kriya, Upa (cawwed "Charya"), and Yoga, wif de Anuttara yoga cwass substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyoga.[216]
Zen Buddhism
Zen, de name of which derives from de Sanskrit "dhyāna" via de Chinese "ch'an"[note 22] is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. Yoga practices integrawwy exist widin de Zen Buddhist schoow.[note 23] Certain essentiaw ewements of yoga are important bof for Buddhism in generaw and for Zen in particuwar.[218]
Hada Yoga
The earwiest references to hada yoga are in Buddhist works dating from de eighf century.[219] The earwiest definition of hada yoga is found in de 11f century Buddhist text Vimawaprabha, which defines it in rewation to de center channew, bindu etc.[220] Hada yoga syndesizes ewements of Patanjawi's Yoga Sutras wif posture and breading exercises.[221] It marks de devewopment of asanas (pwuraw) into de fuww body 'postures' now in popuwar usage[222] and, awong wif its many modern variations, is de stywe dat many peopwe associate wif de word yoga today.[223]
Various yogic groups had become prominent in Punjab in de 15f and 16f century, when Sikhism was in its nascent stage. Compositions of Guru Nanak, de founder of Sikhism, describe many diawogues he had wif Jogis, a Hindu community which practiced yoga.[224] Guru Nanak rejected de austerities, rites and rituaws connected wif Hada Yoga.[225] He propounded de paf of Sahaja yoga or Nama yoga (meditation on de name) instead.[226] The Guru Granf Sahib states:
Listen "O Yogi, Nanak tewws noding but de truf. You must discipwine your mind. The devotee must meditate on de Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about de union, uh-hah-hah-hah. He understands, he awso sees. Good deeds hewp one merge into Divination, uh-hah-hah-hah."[227]
Modern history
Reception in de West
Yoga came to de attention of an educated western pubwic in de mid-19f century awong wif oder topics of Indian phiwosophy. In de context of dis budding interest, N. C. Pauw pubwished his Treatise on Yoga Phiwosophy in 1851.
The first Hindu teacher to activewy advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga, not incwuding asanas, to a western audience, Swami Vivekananda, toured Europe and de United States in de 1890s.[228] The reception which Swami Vivekananda received buiwt on de active interest of intewwectuaws, in particuwar de New Engwand Transcendentawists, among dem Rawph Wawdo Emerson (1803–1882), who drew on German Romanticism and de interest of phiwosophers and schowars wike G. W. F. Hegew (1770–1831), de broders August Wiwhewm Schwegew (1767–1845) and Karw Wiwhewm Friedrich Schwegew (1772–1829), Max Muewwer (1823–1900), Ardur Schopenhauer (1788–1860), and oders who had (to varying degrees) interests in dings Indian, uh-hah-hah-hah.[229][230]
Theosophists awso had a warge infwuence on de American pubwic's view of Yoga.[231] Esoteric views current at de end of de 19f century provided a furder basis for de reception of Vedanta and of Yoga wif its deory and practice of correspondence between de spirituaw and de physicaw.[232] The reception of Yoga and of Vedanta dus entwined wif each oder and wif de (mostwy Neopwatonism-based) currents of rewigious and phiwosophicaw reform and transformation droughout de 19f and earwy 20f centuries. M. Ewiade, himsewf rooted in de Romanian currents of dese traditions,[citation needed] brought a new ewement into de reception of Yoga wif de strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in his seminaw book: Yoga: Immortawity and Freedom.[note 24] Wif de introduction of de Tantra traditions and phiwosophy of Yoga, de conception of de "transcendent" to be attained by Yogic practice shifted from experiencing de "transcendent" ("Atman-Brahman" in Advaitic deory) in de mind to de body itsewf.[233]
The American born yogi by de name of Pierre Arnowd Bernard, after his travews drough de wands of Kashmir and Bengaw, founded de Tantrik Order of America in 1905. His teachings gave many westerners deir first gwimpse into de practices of yoga and tantra.[234]
The modern scientific study of yoga began wif de works of N. C. Pauw and Major D. Basu in de wate 19f century, and den continued in de 20f century wif Shri Yogendra (1897–1989) and Swami Kuvawayananda.[235] Western medicaw researchers came to Swami Kuvawayananda's Kaivawyadhama Heawf and Yoga Research Center, starting in 1928, to study Yoga as a science.[236]
Outside of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain traditions in Asia, de term "yoga" has been usuawwy synonymous wif its asanas (postures) or as a form of exercise.[237] This aspect of Yoga was adopted as a cuwturaw trend in Europe and Norf America starting in de first hawf of de 20f century. There were periods of criticism and paranoia against yoga as weww.[231] By de 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituawity reached its peak, giving rise to a great number of Neo-Hindu schoows specificawwy advocated to a western pubwic. During dis period, most of de infwuentiaw Indian teachers of yoga came from two wineages, dose of Sivananda Saraswati (1887–1963) and of Tirumawai Krishnamacharya (1888–1989).[238] Teachers of Hada yoga who were active in de west in dis period incwuded B.K.S. Iyengar (1918–2014) and K. Pattabhi Jois (1915–2009)—bof pupiws of Krishnamacharya; Swami Vishnu-devananda (1927–1993); and Swami Satchidananda (1914–2002).[239][240][241] Yogi Bhajan brought Kundawini Yoga to de United States in 1969.[242] Comprehensive, cwassicaw teachings of Ashtanga Yoga, Samkhya, de subtwe body deory, Fitness Asanas, and tantric ewements were incwuded in de yoga teachers training by Baba Hari Dass (1923–), in de United States and Canada.[243]
A second "yoga boom" fowwowed in de 1980s, as Dean Ornish, a fowwower of Swami Satchidananda, connected yoga to heart heawf, wegitimizing yoga as a purewy physicaw system of heawf exercises outside of counter-cuwture or esotericism circwes, and unconnected to any rewigious denomination, uh-hah-hah-hah.[228] Numerous asanas seemed modern in origin, and strongwy overwapped wif 19f and earwy-20f century Western exercise traditions.[244]
Since 2001, de popuwarity of yoga in de USA has expanded. The number of peopwe who practiced some form of yoga has grown from 4 miwwion (in 2001) to 20 miwwion (in 2011). It has drawn support from worwd weaders such as Barack Obama who stated, "Yoga has become a universaw wanguage of spirituaw exercise in de United States, crossing many wines of rewigion and cuwtures,... Every day, miwwions of peopwe practice yoga to improve deir heawf and overaww weww-being. That's why we're encouraging everyone to take part in PALA (Presidentiaw Active Lifestywe Award), so show your support for yoga and answer de chawwenge".[245]
The American Cowwege of Sports Medicine supports de integration of yoga into de exercise regimens of heawdy individuaws as wong as properwy-trained professionaws dewiver instruction, uh-hah-hah-hah. The Cowwege cites yoga's promotion of "profound mentaw, physicaw and spirituaw awareness" and its benefits as a form of stretching, and as an enhancer of breaf controw and of core strengf.[246]
Heawf effects
Posturaw yoga has been studied and may be recommended to promote rewaxation, reduce stress and improve some medicaw conditions such as premenstruaw syndrome.[247] This form of yoga is considered to be a wow-impact activity dat can provide de same benefits as "any weww-designed exercise program, increasing generaw heawf and stamina, reducing stress, and improving dose conditions brought about by sedentary wifestywes". It is particuwarwy promoted as a physicaw derapy routine, and as a regimen to strengden and bawance aww parts of de body.[247]
The practice of asanas may improve psychowogicaw heawf during cancer treatment, awdough more evidence is needed to confirm dis possibwe benefit.[20] Oder research indicated dat posturaw yoga couwd be usefuw in addition to oder treatments in schizophrenia,[21] and may have positive effects on mentaw heawf, awdough de qwawity of research to define dese effects is wow.[248]
In 2015 de Austrawian Government's Department of Heawf pubwished de resuwts of a review of awternative derapies dat sought to determine if any were suitabwe for being covered by heawf insurance. Posturaw yoga was one of 17 practices evawuated for which no cwear evidence of effectiveness was found.[249] Accordingwy, In 2017 posturaw yoga ceased to qwawify for insurance subsidy.[250]
Whiwe some of de medicaw community regards de resuwts of yoga research as significant, oders point to many fwaws which undermine resuwts. Much of de research on posturaw yoga has taken de form of prewiminary studies or cwinicaw triaws of wow medodowogicaw qwawity, incwuding smaww sampwe sizes, inadeqwate bwinding, wack of randomization, and high risk of bias.[251][252][253] A 2013 review described de effectiveness of posturaw yoga for wow back pain in de short-term, and moderate evidence dat it was effective in de wong-term.[254] Anoder study found an incidence of back injuries from yoga.[255]
Some cwinicians have reported studies investigating yoga as a compwementary intervention for cancer patients to decrease depression, insomnia, pain, and fatigue and to increase anxiety controw.[256] Oders have qwestioned de qwawity of research and uncertainty in proving dis effect.[257]
A 2016 systematic review and meta-anawysis found no evidence dat yoga was effective for metabowic syndrome.[258]
Physicaw injuries
Some posturaw yoga practitioners suffer physicaw injuries anawogous to sports injuries.[259][260][261][262] A survey of yoga practitioners in Austrawia showed dat about 20% had suffered some physicaw injury whiwe practicing yoga.[259] In de previous 12 monds 4.6% of de respondents had suffered an injury producing prowonged pain or reqwiring medicaw treatment. Headstands, shouwder stands, wotus and hawf wotus (seated cross-wegged position), forward bends, backward bends, and handstands produced de greatest number of injuries.[259]
Among de main reasons dat experts cite for causing negative effects from yoga are beginners' competitiveness and instructors' wack of qwawification, uh-hah-hah-hah.[260] As de demand for yoga cwasses grows, many peopwe get certified to become yoga instructors, often wif rewativewy wittwe training. Not every newwy certified instructor can evawuate de condition of every new trainee in deir cwass and recommend refraining from doing certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries.[260] In turn, a beginning yoga student can overestimate de abiwities of deir body and strive to do advanced poses before deir body is fwexibwe or strong enough to perform dem.[260][263]
Vertebraw artery dissection, a tear in de arteries in de neck which provide bwood to de brain can resuwt from rotation of de neck whiwe de neck is extended. This can occur in a variety of contexts, but is an event which couwd occur in some posturaw yoga practices. This is a very serious condition which can resuwt in a stroke.[264][265]
Acetabuwar wabraw tears, damage to de structure joining de femur and de hip, have been reported to have resuwted from yoga practice.[266]
It is cwaimed dat yoga "as physicaw exercise"[267] can be an excewwent training for chiwdren and adowescents, bof as a form of physicaw exercise and for breading, focus, mindfuwness, and stress rewief: many schoow districts have considered incorporating yoga into deir Physicaw Education programs. The Encinitas, Cawifornia schoow district gained a San Diego Superior Court Judge's approvaw to use yoga in Physicaw Education, howding against de parents who cwaimed de practice was intrinsicawwy rewigious and hence shouwd not be part of a state funded program.[267]
Reception in oder rewigions
Some Christians integrate yoga and oder aspects of Eastern spirituawity wif prayer and meditation, uh-hah-hah-hah. This has been attributed to a desire to experience God in a more compwete way.[268] In 2013, Monsignor Raffaewwo Martinewwi, servicing Congregation for de Doctrine of de Faif, having worked for over 23 years wif Cardinaw Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI),[269] said dat for his Meditation, a Christian can wearn from oder rewigious traditions (zen, yoga, controwwed respiration, Mantra), qwoting Aspects of Christian meditation: "Just as "de Cadowic Church rejects noding of what is true and howy in dese rewigions," neider shouwd dese ways be rejected out of hand simpwy because dey are not Christian, uh-hah-hah-hah. On de contrary, one can take from dem what is usefuw so wong as de Christian conception of prayer, its wogic and reqwirements are never obscured. It is widin de context of aww of dis dat dese bits and pieces shouwd be taken up and expressed anew."[270] Previouswy, de Roman Cadowic Church, and some oder Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapprovaw wif respect to some eastern and New Age practices dat incwude yoga and meditation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[271][272][273]
In 1989 and 2003, de Vatican issued two documents: Aspects of Christian meditation and "A Christian refwection on de New Age," dat were mostwy criticaw of eastern and New Age practices. The 2003 document was pubwished as a 90-page handbook detaiwing de Vatican's position, uh-hah-hah-hah.[274] The Vatican warned dat concentration on de physicaw aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cuwt of de body" and dat eqwating bodiwy states wif mysticism "couwd awso wead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moraw deviations." Such has been compared to de earwy days of Christianity, when de church opposed de gnostics' bewief dat sawvation came not drough faif but drough a mysticaw inner knowwedge.[268] The wetter awso says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched by meditation medods devewoped in oder rewigions and cuwtures"[275] but maintains de idea dat "dere must be some fit between de nature of [oder approaches to] prayer and Christian bewiefs about uwtimate reawity."[268] Some[which?] fundamentawist Christian organizations consider yoga to be incompatibwe wif deir rewigious background, considering it a part of de New Age movement inconsistent wif Christianity.[276]
Anoder view howds dat Christian meditation can wead to rewigious pwurawism. This is hewd by an interdenominationaw association of Christians dat practice it. "The rituaw simuwtaneouswy operates as an anchor dat maintains, enhances, and promotes denominationaw activity and a saiw dat awwows institutionaw boundaries to be crossed." [277]
In earwy 11f century, de Persian schowar Aw Biruni visited India, wived wif Hindus for 16 years, and wif deir hewp transwated severaw significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian wanguages. One of dese was Patanjawi's Yogasutras.[278][279] Aw Biruni's transwation preserved many of de core demes of Patañjawi 's Yoga phiwosophy, but certain sutras and anawyticaw commentaries were restated making it more consistent wif Iswamic monodeistic deowogy.[278][280] Aw Biruni's version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and Arabian peninsuwa by about 1050 AD. Later, in de 16f century, de haf yoga text Amritakunda was transwated into Arabic and den Persian, uh-hah-hah-hah.[281] Yoga was, however, not accepted by mainstream Sunni and Shia Iswam. Minority Iswamic sects such as de mystic Sufi movement, particuwarwy in Souf Asia, adopted Indian yoga practises, incwuding postures and breaf controw.[282][283] Muhammad Ghawf, a Shattari Sufi and one of de transwators of yoga text in 16f century, drew controversy for his interest in yoga and was persecuted for his Sufi bewiefs.[284]
Mawaysia's top Iswamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa, prohibiting Muswims from practicing yoga, saying it had ewements of Hinduism and dat its practice was bwasphemy, derefore haraam.[285] Some Muswims in Mawaysia who had been practicing yoga for years, criticized de decision as "insuwting."[286] Sisters in Iswam, a women's rights group in Mawaysia, awso expressed disappointment and said yoga was just a form of exercise.[287] This fatwa is wegawwy enforceabwe.[288] However, Mawaysia's prime minister cwarified dat yoga as physicaw exercise is permissibwe, but de chanting of rewigious mantras is prohibited.[289]
In 2009, de Counciw of Uwemas, an Iswamic body in Indonesia, passed a fatwa banning yoga on de grounds dat it contains Hindu ewements.[290] These fatwas have, in turn, been criticized by Daruw Uwoom Deoband, a Deobandi Iswamic seminary in India.[291] Simiwar fatwas banning yoga, for its wink to Hinduism, were issued by de Grand Mufti Awi Gomaa in Egypt in 2004, and by Iswamic cwerics in Singapore earwier.[292]
In Iran, as of May 2014, according to its Yoga Association, dere were approximatewy 200 yoga centres in de country, a qwarter of dem in de capitaw Tehran, where groups can often be seen practising in parks. This has been met by opposition among conservatives.[293] In May 2009, Turkey's head of de Directorate of Rewigious Affairs, Awi Bardakoğwu, discounted personaw devewopment techniqwes such as reiki and yoga as commerciaw ventures dat couwd wead to extremism. His comments were made in de context of reiki and yoga possibwy being a form of prosewytization at de expense of Iswam.[294]
Internationaw Day of Yoga
On 11 December 2014, de United Nations Generaw Assembwy approved a resowution estabwishing 21 June as "Internationaw Day of Yoga",[295] fowwowing de caww for its adoption by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi during his address to UN Generaw Assembwy on 27 September 2014.[296][297][298][299][300] In suggesting one of de two sowstices, Modi noted dat it is de wongest day of de year in de Nordern Hemisphere and dat it has speciaw significance in many parts of de worwd.[301]
The first Internationaw Day of Yoga was observed worwdwide on 21 June 2015. About 35,000 peopwe, incwuding Modi and many dignitaries, performed 21 yoga asanas for 35 minutes at Rajpaf in New Dewhi. The day devoted to yoga was observed by miwwions across de worwd.[302] The event at Rajpaf estabwished two Guinness records – wargest Yoga Cwass wif 35,985 peopwe and de record for de most nationawities participating in it—84.[303]
See awso
- ^ Karew Werner states dat de existence of accompwished Yogis in Vedic times cannot be doubted, citing de Kesin hymn of de Rigveda as evidence of a yoga tradition in de Vedic era.[8]
- ^ Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas[10]
- ^ For instance, Kamawashiwa (2003), p. 4, states dat Buddhist meditation "incwudes any medod of meditation dat has Enwightenment as its uwtimate aim." Likewise, Bodhi (1999) writes: "To arrive at de experientiaw reawization of de truds it is necessary to take up de practice of meditation, uh-hah-hah-hah.... At de cwimax of such contempwation de mentaw eye … shifts its focus to de unconditioned state, Nibbana...." A simiwar awdough in some ways swightwy broader definition is provided by Fischer-Schreiber et aw. (1991), p. 142: "Meditation – generaw term for a muwtitude of rewigious practices, often qwite different in medod, but aww having de same goaw: to bring de consciousness of de practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'wiberation,' 'enwightenment.'" Kamawashiwa (2003) furder awwows dat some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4).
- ^ The Pāwi and Sanskrit word bhāvanā witerawwy means "devewopment" as in "mentaw devewopment." For de association of dis term wif "meditation," see Epstein (1995), p. 105; and, Fischer-Schreiber et aw. (1991), p. 20. As an exampwe from a weww-known discourse of de Pawi Canon, in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahuwa" (Maha-Rahuwovada Sutta, MN 62), Ven, uh-hah-hah-hah. Sariputta tewws Ven, uh-hah-hah-hah. Rahuwa (in Pawi, based on VRI, n, uh-hah-hah-hah.d.): ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhuwa, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi. Thanissaro (2006) transwates dis as: "Rahuwa, devewop de meditation [bhāvana] of mindfuwness of in-&-out breading." (Sqware-bracketed Pawi word incwuded based on Thanissaro, 2006, end note.)
- ^ See, for exampwe, Rhys Davids & Stede (1921–25), entry for "jhāna1"; Thanissaro (1997); as weww as, Kapweau (1989), p. 385, for de derivation of de word "zen" from Sanskrit "dhyāna." PTS Secretary Dr. Rupert Gedin, in describing de activities of wandering ascetics contemporaneous wif de Buddha, wrote:
- "...[T]here is de cuwtivation of meditative and contempwative techniqwes aimed at producing what might, for de wack of a suitabwe technicaw term in Engwish, be referred to as 'awtered states of consciousness'. In de technicaw vocabuwary of Indian rewigious texts such states come to be termed 'meditations' ([Skt.:] dhyāna / [Pawi:] jhāna) or 'concentrations' (samādhi); de attainment of such states of consciousness was generawwy regarded as bringing de practitioner to deeper knowwedge and experience of de nature of de worwd." (Gedin, 1998, p. 10.)
- ^ Gavin Fwood: "These renouncer traditions offered a new vision of de human condition which became incorporated, to some degree, into de worwdview of de Brahman househowder. The ideowogy of asceticism and renunciation seems, at first, discontinuous wif de brahmanicaw ideowogy of de affirmation of sociaw obwigations and de performance of pubwic and domestic rituaws. Indeed, dere has been some debate as to wheder asceticism and its ideas of retributive action, reincarnation and spirituaw wiberation, might not have originated outside de ordodox vedic sphere, or even outside Aryan cuwture: dat a divergent historicaw origin might account for de apparent contradiction widin 'Hinduism' between de worwd affirmation of de househowder and de worwd negation of de renouncer. However, dis dichotomization is too simpwistic, for continuities can undoubtedwy be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, whiwe ewements from non-Brahmanicaw, Sramana traditions awso pwayed an important part in de formation of de renunciate ideaw. Indeed dere are continuities between vedic Brahmanism and Buddhism, and it has been argued dat de Buddha sought to return to de ideaws of a vedic society which he saw as being eroded in his own day."[76]
- ^ See awso Gavin Fwood (1996), Hinduism, p.87–90, on "The ordogenetic deory" and "Non-Vedic origins of renunciation".[71]
- ^ Post-cwassicaw traditions consider Hiranyagarbha as de originator of yoga.[83][84]
- ^ Zimmer's point of view is supported by oder schowars, such as Niniam Smart, in Doctrine and argument in Indian Phiwosophy, 1964, p.27–32 & p.76,[89] and S.K. Bewvakar & Inchegeri Sampradaya in History of Indian phiwosophy, 1974 (1927), p.81 & p.303–409.[89] See Crangwe 1994 page 5–7.[90]
- ^ Originaw Sanskrit: युञ्जते मन उत युञ्जते धियो विप्रा विप्रस्य बृहतो विपश्चितः। वि होत्रा दधे वयुनाविदेक इन्मही देवस्य सवितुः परिष्टुतिः॥१॥[93]
Transwation 1: Seers of de vast iwwumined seer yogicawwy [युञ्जते, yunjante] controw deir minds and deir intewwigence... (…)[91]
Transwation 2: The iwwumined yoke deir mind and dey yoke deir doughts to de iwwuminating godhead, to de vast, to de wuminous in consciousness;
de one knower of aww manifestation of knowwedge, he awone orders de dings of de sacrifice. Great is de praise of Savitri, de creating godhead.[92]
- ^ Fwood: "...which states dat, having become cawm and concentrated, one perceives de sewf (atman), widin onesewf."[94]
- ^ Originaw Sanskrit: स्वाध्यायमधीयानो धर्मिकान्विदधदात्मनि सर्वैन्द्रियाणि संप्रतिष्ठाप्याहिँसन्सर्व भूतान्यन्यत्र तीर्थेभ्यः स खल्वेवं वर्तयन्यावदायुषं ब्रह्मलोकमभिसंपद्यते न च पुनरावर्तते न च पुनरावर्तते॥ १॥ – Chandogya Upanishad, VIII.15[96]
Transwation 1 by Max Muwwer, The Upanishads, The Sacred Books of de East – Part 1, Oxford University Press: (He who engages in) sewf study, concentrates aww his senses on de Sewf, never giving pain to any creature, except at de tîrdas, he who behaves dus aww his wife, reaches de worwd of Brahman, and does not return, yea, he does not return, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- ^
- Jacobsen writes dat "Bodiwy postures are cwosewy rewated to de tradition of tapas, ascetic practices in de Vedic tradition, uh-hah-hah-hah. The use by Vedic priests of ascetic practices in deir preparations for de performance of de sacrifice might be precursor to Yoga."[86]
- Whicher bewieves dat "de proto-Yoga of de Vedic rishis is an earwy form of sacrificiaw mysticism and contains many ewements characteristic of water Yoga dat incwude: concentration, meditative observation, ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breaf controw..."[87]
- ^ * Wynne states dat "The Nasadiyasukta, one of de earwiest and most important cosmogonic tracts in de earwy Brahminic witerature, contains evidence suggesting it was cwosewy rewated to a tradition of earwy Brahminic contempwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. A cwose reading of dis text suggests dat it was cwosewy rewated to a tradition of earwy Brahminic contempwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. The poem may have been composed by contempwatives, but even if not, an argument can be made dat it marks de beginning of de contempwative/meditative trend in Indian dought."[100]
- Miwwer suggests dat de composition of Nasadiya Sukta and Purusha Sukta arises from "de subtwest meditative stage, cawwed absorption in mind and heart" which "invowves enheightened experiences" drough which seer "expwores de mysterious psychic and cosmic forces...".[101]
- Jacobsen writes dat dhyana (meditation) is derived from Vedic term dhih which refers to "visionary insight", "dought provoking vision".[101]
- ^ Ancient Indian witerature was transmitted and preserved drough an oraw tradition.[103] For exampwe, de earwiest written Pawi Canon text is dated to de water part of 1st century BCE, many centuries after de Buddha's deaf.[104]
- ^ For de date of dis Upanishad see awso Hewmuf von Gwasenapp, from de 1950 Proceedings of de "Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur"[108]
- ^ The currentwy existing version of Vaiśeṣika Sūtra manuscript was wikewy finawized sometime between 2nd century BCE and de start of de common era.[118] Wezwer has proposed dat de Yoga rewated text may have been inserted into dis Sutra water, among oder dings; however, Bronkhorst finds much to disagree on wif Wezwer.[119]
- ^ On de dates of de Pawi canon, Gregory Schopen writes, "We know, and have known for some time, dat de Pawi canon as we have it — and it is generawwy conceded to be our owdest source — cannot be taken back furder dan de wast qwarter of de first century BCE, de date of de Awu-vihara redaction, de earwiest redaction we can have some knowwedge of, and dat — for a criticaw history — it can serve, at de very most, onwy as a source for de Buddhism of dis period. But we awso know dat even dis is probwematic... In fact, it is not untiw de time of de commentaries of Buddhaghosa, Dhammapawa, and oders — dat is to say, de fiff to sixf centuries CE — dat we can know anyding definite about de actuaw contents of [de Pawi] canon, uh-hah-hah-hah."[138]
- ^ Werner writes, "The word Yoga appears here for de first time in its fuwwy technicaw meaning, namewy as a systematic training, and it awready received a more or wess cwear formuwation in some oder middwe Upanishads....Furder process of de systematization of Yoga as a paf to de uwtimate mystic goaw is obvious in subseqwent Yoga Upanishads and de cuwmination of dis endeavour is represented by Patanjawi's codification of dis paf into a system of de eightfowd Yoga."[166]
- ^ Wordington writes, "Yoga fuwwy acknowwedges its debt to Jainism, and Jainism reciprocates by making de practice of yoga part and parcew of wife."[197]
- ^ The earwiest documented use of de word "Tantra" is in de Rigveda (X.71.9).[206] The context of use suggests de word tantra in Rigveda means "techniqwe".
- ^ "The Meditation schoow, cawwed 'Ch'an' in Chinese from de Sanskrit 'dhyāna,' is best known in de West by de Japanese pronunciation 'Zen'"[217]
- ^ Exact qwote: "This phenomenon merits speciaw attention since yogic roots are to be found in de Zen Buddhist schoow of meditation, uh-hah-hah-hah."[218]
- ^ Ewiade, Mircea, Yoga: Immortawity and Freedom, Princeton, 1958: Princeton Univ. Pr. (originaw titwe: Le Yoga. Immortawité et Liberté, Paris, 1954: Libr. Payot)
- ^ "yoga, n, uh-hah-hah-hah." OED Onwine. Oxford University Press. September 2015. Retrieved 9 September 2015.
- ^ Georg Feuerstein (23 October 2012). The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Phiwosophy and Practice. Hohm Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-935387-39-8.
- ^ Jessica Frazier (16 January 2014). The Bwoomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies. A&C Bwack. pp. 25–. ISBN 978-1-4725-6716-1.
- ^ White 2011.
- ^ Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody (1996), Serene Compassion. Oxford University Press US. p. 68.
- ^ Stuart Ray Sarbacker, Samādhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga. SUNY Press, 2005, pp. 1–2.
- ^ a b Tattvardasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Transwation of Tattvardasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p. 102
- ^ a b c d Karew Werner (1977), Yoga and de Ṛg Veda: An Interpretation of de Keśin Hymn (RV 10, 136), Rewigious Studies, Vow. 13, No. 3, page 289–302
- ^ Yoga isn't an aww-Hindu tradition – it has Buddhist, even Sufi, infwuences
- ^ a b c Samuew 2008, p. 8.
- ^ a b c d e Mark Singweton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-539534-1, pages 25–34
- ^ Whicher, pp. 1–4, chronowogy on pp. 41–42
- ^ W. Y. Evans-Wentz (2000), Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines, 3rd Edition, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-513314-1, Chapters 7 and 8
- ^ White 2014, p. xvi–xvii.
- ^ a b James Mawwinson, "Sāktism and Hadayoga," 28 June 2012. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from de originaw (PDF) on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 4 June 2014.CS1 maint: Archived copy as titwe (wink) [accessed 19 September 2013] pg. 20, Quote: "The techniqwes of hada yoga are not taught in Sanskrit texts untiw de 11f century or dereabouts."
- ^ a b c Burwey, Mikew (2000). Hada Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice. Dewhi: Motiwaw Banarsidass. p. 16. "It is for dis reason dat hada-yoga is sometimes referred to as a variety of 'Tantrism'."
- ^ a b White 2011, p. 2.
- ^ * Marek Jantos (2012), in Oxford Textbook of Spirituawity in Heawdcare (Editors: Mark Cobb et aw.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-957139-0, pages 362–363
- ^ * Mikew Burwey (2012), Cwassicaw Samkhya and Yoga: An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routwedge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, See Introduction section
- ^ a b c * Smif, Kewwy B.; Pukaww, Carowine F. (May 2009). "An evidence-based review of yoga as a compwementary intervention for patients wif cancer". Psycho-Oncowogy. 18 (5): 465–475. doi:10.1002/pon, uh-hah-hah-hah.1411. PMID 18821529.
- Sharma, Manoj; Haider, Taj (October 2012). "Yoga as an Awternative and Compwementary Treatment for Asdma: A Systematic Review". Journaw of Evidence-Based Compwementary & Awternative Medicine. 17 (3): 212–217. doi:10.1177/2156587212453727.
- Innes, Kim E.; Bourguignon, Cheryw (November–December 2005). "Risk Indices Associated wif de Insuwin Resistance Syndrome, Cardiovascuwar Disease, and Possibwe Protection wif Yoga: A Systematic Review". Journaw of de American Board of Famiwy Medicine. 18 (6): 491–519. doi:10.3122/jabfm.18.6.491.
- ^ a b c Vancampfort, D.; Vansteewand, K.; Scheewe, T.; Probst, M.; Knapen, J.; De Herdt, A.; De Hert, M. (Juwy 2012). "Yoga in schizophrenia: a systematic review of randomised controwwed triaws". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 126 (1): 12–20. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2012.01865.x.
- ^ "Yoga joins Unesco worwd heritage wist". The Guardian. 2016-12-01.
- ^ Swami Satyananda Saraswati (1996). Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha. Munger, Bihar, India: Yoga Pubwications Trust. p. 1. ISBN 978-81-86336-14-4.
The word yoga means 'unity' or 'oneness' and is derived from de Sanskrit word yuj which means 'to join'.
- ^ White, David Gordon (2011). Yoga in Practice. Princeton University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-691-14086-3.
- ^ "appwication or concentration of de doughts, abstract contempwation, meditation , (esp.) sewf-concentration, abstract meditation and mentaw abstraction practised as a system (as taught by Patañjawi and cawwed de yoga phiwosophy; it is de second of de two sāṃkhya systems, its chief aim being to teach de means by which de human spirit may attain compwete union wif īśvara or de Supreme Spirit; in de practice of sewf-concentration it is cwosewy connected wif Buddhism". Monier-Wiwwiams, A Sanskrit Dictionary (1899)
- ^ Whicher, pp. 6–7.
- ^ a b Dasgupta, Surendranaf (1975). A History of Indian Phiwosophy. 1. Dewhi, India: Motiwaw Banarsidass. p. 226. ISBN 81-208-0412-0.
- ^ Bryant 2009, p. 5.
- ^ Bryant 2009, p. xxxix.
- ^ Aranya, Swami Hariharananda (2000). Yoga Phiwosophy of Patanjawi wif Bhasvati. Cawcutta, India: University of Cawcutta. p. 1. ISBN 81-87594-00-4.
- ^ American Heritage Dictionary: "Yogi, One who practices yoga." Websters: "Yogi, A fowwower of de yoga phiwosophy; an ascetic."
- ^ Mawwinson, James; Singweton, Mark. Roots of Yoga, Penguin Cwassics, 2017, pp. 17-23.
- ^ a b Jacobsen, p. 4.
- ^ White 2011, p. 6.
- ^ White 2011, pp. 6–8.
- ^ White 2011, pp. 8–9.
- ^ White 2011, pp. 9–10.
- ^ White 2011, pp. 10–12.
- ^ Mawwinson, James (2013). "The Yogīs' Latest Trick". Journaw of de Royaw Asiatic Society. Cambridge University Press (CUP). 24 (1): 165–180. doi:10.1017/s1356186313000734.
- ^ White 2011, p. 11.
- ^ a b Mawwinson 2011, p. 770.
- ^ Hari Dass 1978.
- ^ a b c d e f White 2014, p. xvi.
- ^ Sarvepawwi Radhakrishnan, Indian Phiwosophy, London, George Awwen & Unwin, 1971, Vowume II, pp. 19–20.
- ^ Fwood 1996, pp. 82, 224–49
- ^ Changing Worwd Rewigions, Cuwts & Occuwt.
- ^ Swami Vivekananda, Raja Yoga, ISBN 978-1500746940
- ^ Whicher, pp. 41–43
- ^ a b c Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjawi IEP
- ^ a b Lwoyd Pfwueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motiwaw Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 38–39
- ^ Mike Burwey (2012), Cwassicaw Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routwedge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, pages 43–46
- ^ Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientific Basis, Dover, ISBN 978-0-486-41792-9, pages 56–58
- ^ Mike Burwey (2012), Cwassicaw Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routwedge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, page 39, 41
- ^ Mike Burwey (2012), Cwassicaw Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routwedge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, pages 38–46
- ^ Wade Dazey (2008) on pages 421–423, and Lwoyd Pfwueger on pages 46–52, in Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerawd James Larson, Editor: Knut A. Jacobsen, Motiwaw Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329
- ^ Akshaya Kumar Banerjea (1983). Phiwosophy of Gorakhnaf wif Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha. Motiwaw Banarsidass. pp. xxi. ISBN 978-81-208-0534-7.
- ^ a b See Kriyananada, page 112.
- ^ See Burwey, page 73.
- ^ See Introduction by Rosen, pp 1–2.
- ^ See transwation by Mawwinson, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- ^ On page 140, David Gordon White says of Gorakshanaf: "... hada yoga, in which fiewd he was India's major systematizer and innovator."
- ^ Bajpai writes on page 524: "Nobody can dispute about de top ranking position of Sage Gorakshanaf in de phiwosophy of Yoga."
- ^ Ewiade writes of Gorakshanaf on page 303: "...he accompwished a new syndesis among certain Shaivist traditions (Pashupata), tantrism, and de doctrines (unfortunatewy, so imperfectwy known) of de siddhas – dat is, of de perfect yogis."
- ^ Davidson, Ronawd. Indian Esoteric Buddhism. Cowumbia University Press. 2002, pg.169–235.
- ^ a b Lama Yeshe (1998). The Bwiss of Inner Fire. Wisdom Pubwications. pp. 135–141.
- ^ Larson, p. 142.
- ^ Mahapragya, Acharya (2004). "Foreword". Jain Yog. Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh.
- ^ Tuwsi, Acharya (2004). "bwessings". Sambodhi. Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh. OCLC 39811791. Archived from de originaw on 5 March 2016.
- ^ a b c Samuew 2008, p. 9.
- ^ Mukunda Stiwes, Tantra Yoga Secrets, Weiser, ISBN 978-1-57863-503-0, pages 3–7
- ^ a b Fwood 1996, p. 87–90.
- ^ a b Crangwe 1994, p. 4–7.
- ^ a b c Zimmer 1951, p. 217, 314.
- ^ Samuew 2008.
- ^ Fwood 1996, p. 77.
- ^ Fwood 1996, p. 76–77.
- ^ a b Larson, p. 36.
- ^ Samuew 2008, p. 2–3.
- ^ Possehw (2003), pp. 144–145
- ^ Samuew 2008, p. 2–10.
- ^ Crangwe 1994, p. 4.
- ^ Crangwe 1994, p. 5.
- ^ Feuerstein, Georg (2001). The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Phiwosophy and Practice. Arizona, USA: Hohm Press. p. Kindwe Locations 7299–7300. ISBN 978-1-890772-18-5.
- ^ Aranya, Swami Hariharananda (2000). "Introduction". Yoga Phiwosophy of Patanjawi wif Bhasvati. Cawcutta, India: University of Cawcutta. p. xxiv. ISBN 81-87594-00-4.
- ^ McEviwwey, Thomas (1981). "An Archaeowogy of Yoga". Andropowogy and aesdetics. 1 (spring): 51. doi:10.1086/RESv1n1ms20166655. ISSN 0277-1322.
- ^ a b c d e Jacobsen, p. 6.
- ^ a b Whicher, p. 12.
- ^ Zimmer 1951, p. 217.
- ^ a b Crangwe 1994, p. 7.
- ^ Crangwe 1994, p. 5–7.
- ^ a b Burwey, Mikew (2000). Hada Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice. Dewhi: Motiwaw Banarsidass. p. 25. ISBN 978-8120817067.
- ^ a b Sri Aurobindo (1916, Reprinted 1995), A Hymn to Savitri V.81, in The Secret of Veda, ISBN 978-0-914955-19-1, page 529
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Source: Rigveda Book 5, Chapter 81 Wikisource
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- ^ Mircea Ewiade (2009), Yoga: Immortawity and Freedom, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-14203-6, pages 117–118
- ^ wikisource, Chandogya Upanishad, अष्टमोऽध्यायः॥ पञ्चदशः खण्डः॥
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- ^ a b c Fwood, p. 94–95.
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- ^ Wynne, p. 50.
- ^ a b Whicher, p. 11.
- ^ Larson, p. 34–35, 53.
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- ^ Donawd Lopez (2004). Buddhist Scriptures. Penguin Books. pp. xi–xv. ISBN 978-0-14-190937-0
- ^ Fwood 1996, p. 95.
- ^ Stephen Phiwwips (2009). Yoga, Karma, and Rebirf: A Brief History and Phiwosophy. Cowumbia University Press. pp. 28–30. ISBN 978-0-231-14485-8.
- ^ Patrick Owivewwe (1998). The Earwy Upanishads: Annotated Text and Transwation. Oxford University Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-0-19-512435-4.
- ^ "Vedanta and Buddhism, A Comparative Study". Archived from de originaw on 4 February 2013. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
- ^ Whicher, p. 18–19.
- ^ a b c Jacobsen, p. 8.
- ^ White 2011, p. 4.
- ^ See: Originaw Sanskrit: Shvetashvatara Upanishad Book 2, Hymns 8–14;
Engwish Transwation: Pauw Deussen (German: 1897; Engwish Transwated by Bedekar & Pawsuwe, Reprint: 2010), Sixty Upanishads of de Veda, Vow 1, Motiwaw Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 309–310
Secondary Source Review: Mark Singweton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-539534-1, page 26
- ^ Feuerstein, Georg (January–February 1988). "Introducing Yoga's Great Literary Heritage". Yoga Journaw (78): 70–5.
- ^ TRS Ayyangar (1938), The Yoga Upanishads The Adyar Library, Madras
- ^ David Gordon White (2011), Yoga in Practice, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691140865, pages 97–112
- ^ Bimaw Krishna Matiwaw 1977, pp. 56-59.
- ^ Jeaneane D. Fowwer 2002, pp. 98-99.
- ^ Bimaw Krishna Matiwaw 1977, p. 54.
- ^ a b c Johannes Bronkhorst (1993). The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India. Motiwaw Banarsidass. p. 64. ISBN 978-81-208-1114-0.
- ^ a b Stephen Phiwwips (2009). Yoga, Karma, and Rebirf: A Brief History and Phiwosophy. Cowumbia University Press. pp. 281 footnote 36. ISBN 978-0-231-14485-8.
- ^ Andrew J. Nichowson (2013). Unifying Hinduism: Phiwosophy and Identity in Indian Intewwectuaw History. Cowumbia University Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-231-14987-7., Quote: "From a historicaw perspective, de Brahmasutras are best understood as a group of sutras composed by muwtipwe audors over de course of hundreds of years, most wikewy composed in its current form between 400 and 450 BCE."
- ^ NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Phiwosophy, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 36, Quote: ""on de whowe, schowars are rader unanimous, considering de most probabwe date for Brahmasutra sometime between de 2nd-century BCE and de 2nd-century CE"
- ^ Jeaneane Fowwer (2002), Perspectives of Reawity: An Introduction to de Phiwosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1898723943, page 129
- ^ B. K. Matiwaw (1986), "Perception, uh-hah-hah-hah. An Essay on Cwassicaw Indian Theories of Knowwedge", Oxford University Press, p. xiv.
- ^ Stephen Phiwwips (2009). Yoga, Karma, and Rebirf: A Brief History and Phiwosophy. Cowumbia University Press. pp. 281 footnote 40, 297. ISBN 978-0-231-14485-8.
- ^ SC Vidyabhushana (1913, Transwator), The Nyâya Sutras, The Sacred Book of de Hindus, Vowume VIII, Bhuvaneshvar Asrama Press, pages 137–139
- ^ Karw Potter (2004), The Encycwopedia of Indian Phiwosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemowogy, Vowume 2, Motiwaw Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120803091, page 237
- ^ a b c d Charwes R Lanman, The Hindu Yoga System, Harvard Theowogicaw Review, Vowume XI, Number 4, Harvard University Press, pages 355–359
- ^ a b c Strabo, Geography Book XV, Chapter 1, see Sections 63–65, Loeb Cwassicaw Library edition, Harvard University Press, Transwator: HL Jones, Archived by: University of Chicago
- ^ Karew Werner (1998), Yoga and de Indian Phiwosophy, Motiwaw Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120816091, page 131
- ^ a b c Werner (1977) p. 119–20
- ^ Samuew 2008, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Mark Singweton (2010), Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-539534-1, Chapter 1
- ^ Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India, Motiwaw Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120816435, pages 1–24
- ^ a b White 2011, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Dougwass, Laura (2011). "Thinking Through The Body: The Conceptuawization Of Yoga As Therapy For Individuaws Wif Eating Disorders". Academic Search Premier: 83. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
- ^ Datta, Amaresh (1988). Encycwopaedia of Indian Literature: devraj to jyoti. Sahitya Akademi. p. 1809. ISBN 978-81-260-1194-0.
- ^ Wynne, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Richard Gombrich, "Theravada Buddhism: A Sociaw History from Ancient Benares to Modern Cowombo." Routwedge and Kegan Pauw, 1988, p. 44.
- ^ Barbara Stower Miwwer, "Yoga: Discipwine of Freedom: de Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjawi; a Transwation of de Text, wif Commentary, Introduction, and Gwossary of Keywords." University of Cawifornia Press, 1996, p. 8.
- ^ Mawwinson, James. 2007. The Khecarīvidyā of Adinafā. London: Routwedge. pg.17–19.
- ^ James Mawwinson, "Sāktism and Hadayoga," 6 March 2012. PDF fiwe Archived 16 June 2013 at de Wayback Machine. [accessed 10 June 2012] pgs. 20–21 "The Buddha himsewf is said to have tried bof pressing his tongue to de back of his mouf, in a manner simiwar to dat of de hadayogic khecarīmudrā, and ukkutikappadhāna, a sqwatting posture which may be rewated to hadayogic techniqwes such as mahāmudrā, mahābandha, mahāvedha, mūwabandha, and vajrāsana in which pressure is put on de perineum wif de heew, in order to force upwards de breaf or Kundawinī."
- ^ Wynne, pp. 44–45,58.
- ^ Whicher, p. 17.
- ^ Jacobsen, p. 10.
- ^ Fwood, p. 96.
- ^ a b Jacobsen, p. 10–11.
- ^ E. Easwaran, Essence of de Bhagavad Gita, Niwgiri Press, ISBN 978-1-58638-068-7, pages 117–118
- ^ Jack Hawwey (2011), The Bhagavad Gita, ISBN 978-1-60868-014-6, pages 50, 130; Arvind Sharma (2000), Cwassicaw Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-564441-8, pages 114–122
- ^ a b c Bibek Debroy (2005), The Bhagavad Gita, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-14-400068-5, Introduction, pages x–xi
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- ^ Whicher, p. 25–26.
- ^ a b Jacobsen, p. 9.
- ^ Wynne, p. 33.
- ^ Originaw Sanskrit: साङ्ख्यं योगो लोकायतं च इत्यान्वीक्षिकी |
Engwish Transwation: Ardasastra Book 1, Chapter 2 Kautiwiya, R Shamasastry (Transwator), page 9
- ^ Owivewwe, Patrick (2013), King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kautiwya's Ardasastra, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-989182-5, see Introduction
- ^ Larson, p. 38.
- ^ Radhankrishnan, Indian Phiwosophy, London, George Awwen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Vowume II, p. 342.
- ^ Mike Burwey (2012), Cwassicaw Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routwedge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, pages 31–46
- ^ For yoga acceptance of samkhya concepts, but wif addition of a category for God, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 453.
- ^ Radhankrishnan, Indian Phiwosophy, London, George Awwen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Vowume II, p. 344.
- ^ Müwwer (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Phiwosophy," p. 104.
- ^ Stiwes 2001, p. x.
- ^ For an overview of de six ordodox schoows, wif detaiw on de grouping of schoows, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents," and pp. 453–487.
- ^ For a brief overview of de yoga schoow of phiwosophy see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
- ^ Werner, p. 24.
- ^ a b c d Larson, pp. 43–45
- ^ For Patanjawi as de founder of de phiwosophicaw system cawwed yoga see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 42.
- ^ Larson, p. 21–22.
- ^ For "raja yoga" as a system for controw of de mind and connection to Patanjawi's Yoga Sutras as a key work, see: Fwood (1996), pp. 96–98.
- ^ For text and word-by-word transwation as "Yoga is de inhibition of de modifications of de mind." See: Taimni, p. 6.
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Quote: The Fatwas of Rewigious Counciw in Iswamic affairs on Yoga. After carefuwwy studied various reports and factuaw data, de Counciw unanimouswy agreed dat dis ancient India rewigious teachings, which invowves physicaw and mentaw exercises, are Hinduism in nature known as wahdat aw-wujud phiwosophy (oneness of existence; de reawization of identity between de Sewf in man, Atman; and de Divine, BRAHMAN: 'Brahman is aww, and Atman is Brahman'). It is prohibited (haram) for Muswims to practice it.
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Furder reading
- De Michewis, Ewizabef (2005). A History of Modern Yoga. Continuum.
- Kenny, Mowwy (2001). Integrated Movement Therapy. Continuum.
Externaw winks
|Wikiqwote has qwotations rewated to: Yoga
- Yoga Encycwopædia Britannica entry