text:
Coordinates: 28°N 2°E / 28°N 2°E
Peopwe's Democratic Repubwic of Awgeria
Andem: Kassaman
(Engwish: "We Pwedge")
Location of Awgeria (dark green)
and wargest city
|Officiaw wanguages
|Oder wanguages
|French (administration, business and education)[5]
Awgerian Arabic (Darja) (wingua franca)
|Ednic groups
|Unitary semi-presidentiaw peopwe's repubwic
|Abdewaziz Boutefwika
|Ahmed Ouyahia
|Counciw of de Nation
|Peopwe's Nationaw Assembwy
|5 Juwy 1830
• Independence from France
|3 Juwy 1962
• Recognised
|5 Juwy 1962
|10 September 1963
• Totaw
|2,381,741 km2 (919,595 sq mi) (10f)
• Water (%)
• 2018 estimate
|42,200,000 [6] (d)
|2018 estimate
• Totaw
|$693.11 biwwion[7]
• Per capita
|$16.09 dousand[8]
|GDP (nominaw)
|2018 estimate
• Totaw
|$200.17 biwwion[9]
• Per capita
|$4,65 dousand[10]
|Gini (2011)
| 0.754[12]
high · 85f
|Dinar (DZD)
|Time zone
|Date format
|Driving side
|Cawwing code
|ISO 3166 code
|Internet TLD
Awgeria (/æwˈdʒɪəriə/ (wisten); Arabic: الجزائر aw-Jazā'ir, Awgerian Arabic الدزاير aw-dzāyīr; French: Awgérie), officiawwy de Peopwe's Democratic Repubwic of Awgeria, is a country in de Maghreb region of Norfwest Africa. The capitaw and most popuwous city is Awgiers, wocated in de far norf of de country on de Mediterranean coast. Wif an area of 2,381,741 sqware kiwometres (919,595 sq mi), Awgeria is de tenf-wargest country in de worwd, and de wargest in Africa.[14] Awgeria is bordered to de nordeast by Tunisia, to de east by Libya, to de west by Morocco, to de soudwest by de Western Saharan territory, Mauritania, and Mawi, to de soudeast by Niger, and to de norf by de Mediterranean Sea. The country is a semi-presidentiaw repubwic consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes (counties).
Ancient Awgeria has known many empires and dynasties, incwuding ancient Numidians, Phoenicians, Cardaginians, Romans, Vandaws, Byzantines, Umayyads, Abbasids, Idrisid, Aghwabid, Rustamid, Fatimids, Zirid, Hammadids, Awmoravids, Awmohads, Spaniards, Ottomans and de French cowoniaw empire. Berbers are de indigenous inhabitants of Awgeria.
Awgeria is a regionaw and middwe power. It suppwies warge amounts of naturaw gas to Europe, and energy exports are de backbone of de economy. According to OPEC Awgeria has de 16f wargest oiw reserves in de worwd and de second wargest in Africa, whiwe it has de 9f wargest reserves of naturaw gas. Sonatrach, de nationaw oiw company, is de wargest company in Africa. Awgeria has one of de wargest miwitaries in Africa and de wargest defence budget on de continent; most of Awgeria's weapons are imported from Russia, wif whom dey are a cwose awwy.[15][16] Awgeria is a member of de African Union, de Arab League, OPEC, de United Nations and is a founding member of de Arab Maghreb Union.
- 1 Etymowogy
- 2 History
- 3 Geography
- 4 Powitics
- 5 Administrative divisions
- 6 Economy
- 7 Demographics
- 8 Cuwture
- 9 Heawf
- 10 Education
- 11 See awso
- 12 Notes
- 13 References
- 14 Bibwiography
- 15 Externaw winks
The country's name derives from de city of Awgiers. The city's name in turn derives from de Arabic aw-Jazā'ir (الجزائر, "The Iswands"),[17] a truncated form of de owder Jazā'ir Banī Mazghanna (جزائر بني مزغنة, "Iswands of de Mazghanna Tribe"),[18][19][page needed][20][page needed] empwoyed by medievaw geographers such as aw-Idrisi.
Ancient history[edit]
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In de region of Ain Hanech (Saïda Province), earwy remnants (200,000 BC) of hominid occupation in Norf Africa were found. Neanderdaw toow makers produced hand axes in de Levawwoisian and Mousterian stywes (43,000 BC) simiwar to dose in de Levant.[21][22] Awgeria was de site of de highest state of devewopment of Middwe Paweowidic Fwake toow techniqwes.[23] Toows of dis era, starting about 30,000 BC, are cawwed Aterian (after de archeowogicaw site of Bir ew Ater, souf of Tebessa).
The earwiest bwade industries in Norf Africa are cawwed Iberomaurusian (wocated mainwy in de Oran region). This industry appears to have spread droughout de coastaw regions of de Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neowidic civiwization (animaw domestication and agricuwture) devewoped in de Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as earwy as 11,000 BC[24] or as wate as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This wife, richwy depicted in de Tassiwi n'Ajjer paintings, predominated in Awgeria untiw de cwassicaw period. The mixture of peopwes of Norf Africa coawesced eventuawwy into a distinct native popuwation dat came to be cawwed Berbers, who are de indigenous peopwes of nordern Africa.[25]
From deir principaw center of power at Cardage, de Cardaginians expanded and estabwished smaww settwements awong de Norf African coast; by 600 BC, a Phoenician presence existed at Tipasa, east of Chercheww, Hippo Regius (modern Annaba) and Rusicade (modern Skikda). These settwements served as market towns as weww as anchorages.
As Cardaginian power grew, its impact on de indigenous popuwation increased dramaticawwy. Berber civiwization was awready at a stage in which agricuwture, manufacturing, trade, and powiticaw organization supported severaw states. Trade winks between Cardage and de Berbers in de interior grew, but territoriaw expansion awso resuwted in de enswavement or miwitary recruitment of some Berbers and in de extraction of tribute from oders.
By de earwy 4f century BC, Berbers formed de singwe wargest ewement of de Cardaginian army. In de Revowt of de Mercenaries, Berber sowdiers rebewwed from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid fowwowing de defeat of Cardage in de First Punic War.[26] They succeeded in obtaining controw of much of Cardage's Norf African territory, and dey minted coins bearing de name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of Norf Africa. The Cardaginian state decwined because of successive defeats by de Romans in de Punic Wars.[27]
In 146 BC de city of Cardage was destroyed. As Cardaginian power waned, de infwuence of Berber weaders in de hinterwand grew. By de 2nd century BC, severaw warge but woosewy administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of dem were estabwished in Numidia, behind de coastaw areas controwwed by Cardage. West of Numidia way Mauretania, which extended across de Mouwouya River in modern-day Morocco to de Atwantic Ocean, uh-hah-hah-hah. The high point of Berber civiwization, uneqwawed untiw de coming of de Awmohads and Awmoravids more dan a miwwennium water, was reached during de reign of Masinissa in de 2nd century BC.
After Masinissa's deaf in 148 BC, de Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited severaw times. Masinissa's wine survived untiw 24 AD, when de remaining Berber territory was annexed to de Roman Empire.
For severaw centuries Awgeria was ruwed by de Romans, who founded many cowonies in de region, uh-hah-hah-hah. Like de rest of Norf Africa, Awgeria was one of de breadbaskets of de empire, exporting cereaws and oder agricuwturaw products. Saint Augustine was de bishop of Hippo Regius (modern-day Awgeria), wocated in de Roman province of Africa. The Germanic Vandaws of Geiseric moved into Norf Africa in 429, and by 435 controwwed coastaw Numidia.[28] They did not make any significant settwement on de wand, as dey were harassed by wocaw tribes. In fact, by de time de Byzantines arrived Lepcis Magna was abandoned and de Msewwata region was occupied by de indigenous Laguatan who had been busy faciwitating an Amazigh powiticaw, miwitary and cuwturaw revivaw.[28][29]
Middwe Ages[edit]
After negwigibwe resistance from de wocaws, Muswim Arabs of de Umayyad Cawiphate conqwered Awgeria in de mid-7f century and a warge number of de indigenous peopwe converted to de newwy founded faif of Iswam. After de faww of de Umayyad Cawiphate, numerous wocaw dynasties emerged, incwuding de Aghwabids, Awmohads, Abdawwadid, Zirids, Rustamids, Hammadids, Awmoravids and de Fatimids.
During de Middwe Ages, Norf Africa was home to many great schowars, saints and sovereigns incwuding Judah Ibn Quraysh, de first grammarian to suggest de Afroasiatic wanguage famiwy, de great Sufi masters Sidi Boumediene (Abu Madyan) and Sidi Ew Houari, and de Emirs Abd Aw Mu'min and Yāghmūrasen. It was during dis time dat de Fatimids or chiwdren of Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, came to de Maghreb. These "Fatimids" went on to found a wong wasting dynasty stretching across de Maghreb, Hejaz and de Levant, boasting a secuwar inner government, as weww as a powerfuw army and navy, made up primariwy of Arabs and Levantines extending from Awgeria to deir capitaw state of Cairo. The Fatimid cawiphate began to cowwapse when its governors de Zirids seceded. In order to punish dem de Fatimids sent de Arab Banu Hiwaw and Banu Suwaym against dem. The resuwtant war is recounted in de epic Tāghribāt. In Aw-Tāghrībāt de Amazigh Zirid Hero Khāwīfā Aw-Zānatī asks daiwy, for duews, to defeat de Hiwawan hero Ābu Zayd aw-Hiwawī and many oder Arab knights in a string of victories. The Zirids, however, were uwtimatewy defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and cuwture. The indigenous Amazigh tribes, however, remained wargewy independent, and depending on tribe, wocation and time controwwed varying parts of de Maghreb, at times unifying it (as under de Fatimids). The Fatimid Iswamic state, awso known as Fatimid Cawiphate made an Iswamic empire dat incwuded Norf Africa, Siciwy, Pawestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, de Red Sea coast of Africa, Tihamah, Hejaz and Yemen.[30][31][32] Cawiphates from Nordern Africa traded wif de oder empires of deir time, as weww as forming part of a confederated support and trade network wif oder Iswamic states during de Iswamic Era.
The Amazighs historicawwy consisted of severaw tribes. The two main branches were de Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of de Maghreb contained severaw tribes (for exampwe, Sanhadja, Houara, Zenata, Masmouda, Kutama, Awarba, and Berghwata). Aww dese tribes made independent territoriaw decisions.[33]
Severaw Amazigh dynasties emerged during de Middwe Ages in de Maghreb and oder nearby wands. Ibn Khawdun provides a tabwe summarising de Amazigh dynasties of de Maghreb region, de Zirid, Banu Ifran, Maghrawa, Awmoravid, Hammadid, Awmohad, Merinid, Abdawwadid, Wattasid, Meknassa and Hafsid dynasties.[34]
In de earwy 16f century, Spain constructed fortified outposts (presidios) on or near de Awgerian coast. Spain took controw of few coastaw towns wike Mers ew Kebir in 1505; Oran in 1509; and Twemcen, Mostaganem and Ténès in 1510. In de same year, a few merchants of Awgiers ceded one of de rocky iswets in deir harbour to Spain, which buiwt a fort on it. The presidios in Norf Africa turned out to be a costwy and wargewy ineffective miwitary endeavour dat did not guarantee access for Spain's merchant fweet.[35]
There reigned in Ifriqiya, current Tunisia, a Berber famiwy, Zirid, somehow recognising de suzerainty of de Fatimid cawiph of Cairo. Probabwy in 1048, de Zirid ruwer or viceroy, ew-Mu'izz, decided to end dis suzerainty. The Fatimid state was too weak to attempt a punitive expedition; The Viceroy, ew-Mu'izz, awso found anoder means of revenge.
Between de Niwe and de Red Sea were wiving Bedouin tribes expewwed from Arabia for deir disruption and turbuwent infwuence, bof Banu Hiwaw and Banu Suwaym among oders, whose presence disrupted farmers in de Niwe Vawwey since de nomads wouwd often woot. The den Fatimid vizier devised to rewinqwish controw of de Maghreb and obtained de agreement of his sovereign, uh-hah-hah-hah. This not onwy prompted de Bedouins to weave, but de Fatimid treasury even gave dem a wight expatriation cash awwowance.
Whowe tribes set off wif women, chiwdren, ancestors, animaws and camping eqwipment. Some stopped on de way, especiawwy in Cyrenaica, where dey are stiww one of de essentiaw ewements of de settwement but most arrived in Ifriqiya by de Gabes region, uh-hah-hah-hah. The Zirid ruwer tried to stop dis rising tide, but each meeting, de wast under de wawws of Kairouan, his troops were defeated and Arabs remained masters of de fiewd.
The fwood was stiww rising, and in 1057 de Arabs spread on de high pwains of Constantine where dey graduawwy choked Qawaa of Banu Hammad, as dey had done Kairouan few decades ago. From dere dey graduawwy gained de upper Awgiers and Oran pwains. Some were forcibwy taken by de Awmohads in de second hawf of de 12f century. We can say dat in de 13f century dere were in aww of Norf Africa, wif de exception of de main mountain ranges and certain coastaw regions remained entirewy Berber.
Ottoman era[edit]
The region of Awgeria was partiawwy ruwed by Ottomans for dree centuries from 1516 to 1830. In 1516 de Turkish privateer broders Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa, who operated successfuwwy under de Hafsids, moved deir base of operations to Awgiers. They succeeded in conqwering Jijew and Awgiers from de Spaniards but eventuawwy assumed controw over de city and de surrounding region, forcing de previous ruwer, Abu Hamo Musa III of de Bani Ziyad dynasty, to fwee.[36] When Aruj was kiwwed in 1518 during his invasion of Twemcen, Hayreddin succeeded him as miwitary commander of Awgiers. The Ottoman suwtan gave him de titwe of beywerbey and a contingent of some 2,000 janissaries. Wif de aid of dis force, Hayreddin conqwered de whowe area between Constantine and Oran (awdough de city of Oran remained in Spanish hands untiw 1791).[37]
The next beywerbey was Hayreddin's son Hasan, who assumed de position in 1544. Untiw 1587 de area was governed by officers who served terms wif no fixed wimits. Subseqwentwy, wif de institution of a reguwar Ottoman administration, governors wif de titwe of pasha ruwed for dree-year terms. The pasha was assisted by janissaries, known in Awgeria as de ojaq and wed by an agha. Discontent among de ojaq rose in de mid-1600s because dey were not paid reguwarwy, and dey repeatedwy revowted against de pasha. As a resuwt, de agha charged de pasha wif corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659.[37]
Pwague had repeatedwy struck de cities of Norf Africa. Awgiers wost from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants to de pwague in 1620–21, and suffered high fatawities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42.[38]
In 1671, de taifa rebewwed, kiwwed de agha, and pwaced one of its own in power. The new weader received de titwe of dey. After 1689, de right to sewect de dey passed to de divan, a counciw of some sixty nobwes. It was at first dominated by de ojaq; but by de 18f century, it had become de dey's instrument. In 1710, de dey persuaded de suwtan to recognise him and his successors as regent, repwacing de pasha in dat rowe, awdough Awgiers remained a part of de Ottoman Empire.[37]
The dey was in effect a constitutionaw autocrat. The dey was ewected for a wife term, but in de 159 years (1671–1830) dat de system survived, fourteen of de twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, miwitary coups and occasionaw mob ruwe, de day-to-day operation of Ottoman government was remarkabwy orderwy. Awdough de regency patronised de tribaw chieftains, it never had de unanimous awwegiance of de countryside, where heavy taxation freqwentwy provoked unrest. Autonomous tribaw states were towerated, and de regency's audority was sewdom appwied in de Kabywie.[37]
The Barbary pirates preyed on Christian and oder non-Iswamic shipping in de western Mediterranean Sea.[38] The pirates often took de passengers and crew on de ships and sowd dem or used dem as swaves.[39] They awso did a brisk business in ransoming some of de captives. According to Robert Davis, from de 16f to 19f century, pirates captured 1 miwwion to 1.25 miwwion Europeans as swaves.[40] They often made raids, cawwed Razzias, on European coastaw towns to capture Christian swaves to seww at swave markets in Norf Africa and de Ottoman Empire.[41][42]
In 1544, Hayreddin captured de iswand of Ischia, taking 4,000 prisoners, and enswaved some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, awmost de entire popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[43] In 1551, Turgut Reis enswaved de entire popuwation of de Mawtese iswand of Gozo, between 5,000 and 6,000, sending de captives to Libya. In 1554, pirates sacked Vieste in soudern Itawy and took an estimated 7,000 captives as swaves.[44]
In 1558, Barbary corsairs captured de town of Ciutadewwa (Minorca), destroyed it, swaughtered de inhabitants and took 3,000 survivors as swaves to Istanbuw.[45] Barbary pirates often attacked de Bawearic Iswands, and in response, de residents buiwt many coastaw watchtowers and fortified churches. The dreat was so severe dat residents abandoned de iswand of Formentera.[46] Between 1609 and 1616, Engwand wost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates.[40]
In Juwy 1627 two pirate ships from Awgiers saiwed as far as Icewand,[47] raiding and capturing swaves.[48][49][50] Two weeks earwier anoder pirate ship from Sawé in Morocco had awso raided in Icewand. Some of de swaves brought to Awgiers were water ransomed back to Icewand, but some chose to stay in Awgeria. In 1629 pirate ships from Awgeria raided de Faroe Iswands.[51]
Barbary raids in de Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a resuwt, de Spanish navy bombarded Awgiers in 1783 and 1784.[52] In 1792, Spain abandoned Oran, sewwing it to de Ottoman Empire, and it became de site for a new bey in Awgiers, dough French infwuence in de region increased over de 19f century.[52]
In de 19f century, de pirates forged affiwiations wif Caribbean powers, paying a "wicence tax" in exchange for safe harbour of deir vessews.[53] One American swave reported dat de Awgerians had enswaved 130 American seamen in de Mediterranean and Atwantic from 1785 to 1793.[54]
Piracy on American vessews in de Mediterranean resuwted in de United States initiating de First (1801–1805) and Second Barbary Wars (1815). Fowwowing dose wars, Awgeria was weaker and Europeans, wif an Angwo-Dutch fweet commanded by de British Lord Exmouf, attacked Awgiers. After a nine-hour bombardment, dey obtained a treaty from de Dey dat reaffirmed de conditions imposed by Captain (water Commodore) Stephen Decatur (U.S. Navy) concerning de demands of tributes. In addition, de Dey agreed to end de practice of enswaving Christians.[55]
Despite being removed from Awgeria in de 19f century, Spain retained a presence in Morocco. Awgeria consistentwy opposed Spanish fortresses and controw in nearby Morocco drough de 20f century.[52]
French cowonization (1830–1962)[edit]
Under de pretext of a swight to deir consuw, de French invaded and captured Awgiers in 1830.[56][57] Awgerian swave trade and piracy ceased when de French conqwered Awgiers.[58] The conqwest of Awgeria by de French took some time and resuwted in considerabwe bwoodshed. A combination of viowence and disease epidemics caused de indigenous Awgerian popuwation to decwine by nearwy one-dird from 1830 to 1872.[59][60] Historian Ben Kiernan wrote on de French conqwest of Awgeria: "By 1875, de French conqwest was compwete. The war had kiwwed approximatewy 825,000 indigenous Awgerians since 1830."[61] French wosses from 1831–51 were 3,336 kiwwed in action and 92,329 dead in de hospitaw.[62] The popuwation of Awgeria, which stood at about 2.9 miwwion in 1872, reached nearwy 11 miwwion in 1960.[63] French powicy was predicated on "civiwising" de country.[64] During dis period, a smaww but infwuentiaw French-speaking indigenous ewite was formed, made up of Berbers, mostwy Kabywes. As a conseqwence, French government favored de Kabywes.[65] About 80% of Indigenous schoows were constructed for Kabywes.
From 1848 untiw independence, France administered de whowe Mediterranean region of Awgeria as an integraw part and département of de nation, uh-hah-hah-hah. One of France's wongest-hewd overseas territories, Awgeria became a destination for hundreds of dousands of European immigrants, who became known as cowons and water, as Pied-Noirs. Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French peopwe emigrated to Awgeria.[66][page needed][67] These settwers benefited from de French government's confiscation of communaw wand from tribaw peopwes, and de appwication of modern agricuwturaw techniqwes dat increased de amount of arabwe wand.[68] Many Europeans settwed in Oran and Awgiers, and by de earwy 20f century dey formed a majority of de popuwation in bof cities.[69]
During de wate 19f and earwy 20f century; de European share was awmost a fiff of de popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. The French government aimed at making Awgeria an assimiwated part of France, and dis incwuded substantiaw educationaw investments especiawwy after 1900. The indigenous cuwturaw and rewigious resistance heaviwy opposed dis tendency, but in contrast to de oder cowonised countries' paf in centraw Asia and Caucasus, Awgeria kept its individuaw skiwws and a rewativewy human-capitaw intensive agricuwture.[70]
Graduawwy, dissatisfaction among de Muswim popuwation, which wacked powiticaw and economic status in de cowoniaw system, gave rise to demands for greater powiticaw autonomy and eventuawwy independence from France. In May 1945, de uprising against de occupying French forces was suppressed drough what is now known as de Sétif and Guewma massacre. Tensions between de two popuwation groups came to a head in 1954, when de first viowent events of what was water cawwed de Awgerian War began, uh-hah-hah-hah. Historians have estimated dat between 30,000 and 150,000 Harkis and deir dependents were kiwwed by de Front de Libération Nationawe (FLN) or by wynch mobs in Awgeria.[71] The FLN used hit and run attacks in Awgeria and France as part of its war, and de French conducted severe reprisaws.
The war wed to de deaf of hundreds of dousands of Awgerians and hundreds of dousands of injuries. Historians, wike Awistair Horne and Raymond Aron, state dat de actuaw number of Awgerian Muswim war dead was far greater dan de originaw FLN and officiaw French estimates but was wess dan de 1 miwwion deads cwaimed by de Awgerian government after independence. Horne estimated Awgerian casuawties during de span of eight years to be around 700,000.[72] The war uprooted more dan 2 miwwion Awgerians.[73]
The war against French ruwe concwuded in 1962, when Awgeria gained compwete independence fowwowing de March 1962 Evian agreements and de Juwy 1962 sewf-determination referendum.
The first dree decades of independence (1962–1991)[edit]
The number of European Pied-Noirs who fwed Awgeria totawed more dan 900,000 between 1962 and 1964.[74] The exodus to mainwand France accewerated after de Oran massacre of 1962, in which hundreds of miwitants entered European sections of de city, and began attacking civiwians.
Awgeria's first president was de Front de Libération Nationawe (FLN) weader Ahmed Ben Bewwa. Morocco's cwaim to portions of western Awgeria wed to de Sand War in 1963. Ben Bewwa was overdrown in 1965 by Houari Boumédiène, his former awwy and defence minister. Under Ben Bewwa, de government had become increasingwy sociawist and audoritarian; Boumédienne continued dis trend. But, he rewied much more on de army for his support, and reduced de sowe wegaw party to a symbowic rowe. He cowwectivised agricuwture and waunched a massive industriawization drive. Oiw extraction faciwities were nationawised. This was especiawwy beneficiaw to de weadership after de internationaw 1973 oiw crisis.
In de 1960s and 1970s under President Houari Boumediene, Awgeria pursued a program of industriawization widin a state-controwwed sociawist economy. Boumediene's successor, Chadwi Bendjedid, introduced some wiberaw economic reforms. He promoted a powicy of Arabisation in Awgerian society and pubwic wife. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from oder Muswim countries, spread conventionaw Iswamic dought in schoows and sowed de seeds of a return to Ordodox Iswam.[75]
The Awgerian economy became increasingwy dependent on oiw, weading to hardship when de price cowwapsed during de 1980s oiw gwut.[76] Economic recession caused by de crash in worwd oiw prices resuwted in Awgerian sociaw unrest during de 1980s; by de end of de decade, Bendjedid introduced a muwti-party system. Powiticaw parties devewoped, such as de Iswamic Sawvation Front (FIS), a broad coawition of Muswim groups.[75]
Civiw War (1991–2002) and aftermaf[edit]
In December 1991 de Iswamic Sawvation Front dominated de first of two rounds of wegiswative ewections. Fearing de ewection of an Iswamist government, de audorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancewwing de ewections. Bendjedid resigned and a High Counciw of State was instawwed to act as Presidency. It banned de FIS, triggering a civiw insurgency between de Front's armed wing, de Armed Iswamic Group, and de nationaw armed forces, in which more dan 100,000 peopwe are dought to have died. The Iswamist miwitants conducted a viowent campaign of civiwian massacres.[77] At severaw points in de confwict, de situation in Awgeria became a point of internationaw concern, most notabwy during de crisis surrounding Air France Fwight 8969, a hijacking perpetrated by de Armed Iswamic Group. The Armed Iswamic Group decwared a ceasefire in October 1997.[75]
Awgeria hewd ewections in 1999, considered biased by internationaw observers and most opposition groups[78] which were won by President Abdewaziz Boutefwika. He worked to restore powiticaw stabiwity to de country and announced a "Civiw Concord" initiative, approved in a referendum, under which many powiticaw prisoners were pardoned, and severaw dousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a wimited amnesty, in force untiw 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and wevews of insurgent viowence feww rapidwy. The Groupe Sawafiste pour wa Prédication et we Combat (GSPC), a spwinter group of de Group Iswamic Army, continued a terrorist campaign against de Government.[75]
Boutefwika was re-ewected in de Apriw 2004 presidentiaw ewection after campaigning on a programme of nationaw reconciwiation, uh-hah-hah-hah. The programme comprised economic, institutionaw, powiticaw and sociaw reform to modernise de country, raise wiving standards, and tackwe de causes of awienation, uh-hah-hah-hah. It awso incwuded a second amnesty initiative, de Charter for Peace and Nationaw Reconciwiation, which was approved in a referendum in September 2005. It offered amnesty to most guerriwwas and Government security forces.[75]
In November 2008, de Awgerian Constitution was amended fowwowing a vote in Parwiament, removing de two-term wimit on Presidentiaw incumbents. This change enabwed Boutefwika to stand for re-ewection in de 2009 presidentiaw ewections, and he was re-ewected in Apriw 2009. During his ewection campaign and fowwowing his re-ewection, Boutefwika promised to extend de programme of nationaw reconciwiation and a $150-biwwion spending programme to create dree miwwion new jobs, de construction of one miwwion new housing units, and to continue pubwic sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.[75]
A continuing series of protests droughout de country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by simiwar protests across de Middwe East and Norf Africa. On 24 February 2011, de government wifted Awgeria's 19-year-owd state of emergency.[79] The government enacted wegiswation deawing wif powiticaw parties, de ewectoraw code, and de representation of women in ewected bodies.[80] In Apriw 2011, Boutefwika promised furder constitutionaw and powiticaw reform.[75] However, ewections are routinewy criticized by opposition groups as unfair and internationaw human rights groups say dat media censorship and harassment of powiticaw opponents continue.
Awgeria is de wargest country in Africa, and de Mediterranean Basin. Its soudern part incwudes a significant portion of de Sahara. To de norf, de Teww Atwas form wif de Saharan Atwas, furder souf, two parawwew sets of rewiefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast pwains and highwands. Bof Atwas tend to merge in eastern Awgeria. The vast mountain ranges of Aures and Nememcha occupy de entire nordeastern Awgeria and are dewineated by de Tunisian border. The highest point is Mount Tahat (3,003 m).
Awgeria wies mostwy between watitudes 19° and 37°N (a smaww area is norf of 37°N and souf of 19°N), and wongitudes 9°W and 12°E. Most of de coastaw area is hiwwy, sometimes even mountainous, and dere are a few naturaw harbours. The area from de coast to de Teww Atwas is fertiwe. Souf of de Teww Atwas is a steppe wandscape ending wif de Saharan Atwas; farder souf, dere is de Sahara desert.[81]
The Hoggar Mountains (Arabic: جبال هقار), awso known as de Hoggar, are a highwand region in centraw Sahara, soudern Awgeria. They are wocated about 1,500 km (932 mi) souf of de capitaw, Awgiers, and just east of Tamanghasset. Awgiers, Oran, Constantine, and Annaba are Awgeria's main cities.[81]
Cwimate and hydrowogy[edit]
In dis region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, de cwear, dry air permits rapid woss of heat, and de nights are coow to chiwwy. Enormous daiwy ranges in temperature are recorded.
Rainfaww is fairwy pwentifuw awong de coastaw part of de Teww Atwas, ranging from 400 to 670 mm (15.7 to 26.4 in) annuawwy, de amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. Precipitation is heaviest in de nordern part of eastern Awgeria, where it reaches as much as 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in some years.
Farder inwand, de rainfaww is wess pwentifuw. Awgeria awso has ergs, or sand dunes, between mountains. Among dese, in de summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to 43.3 °C (110 °F).
Fauna and fwora[edit]
The varied vegetation of Awgeria incwudes coastaw, mountainous and grassy desert-wike regions which aww support a wide range of wiwdwife. Many of de creatures comprising de Awgerian wiwdwife wive in cwose proximity to civiwization, uh-hah-hah-hah. The most commonwy seen animaws incwude de wiwd boars, jackaws, and gazewwes, awdough it is not uncommon to spot fennecs (foxes), and jerboas. Awgeria awso has a smaww African weopard and Saharan cheetah popuwation, but dese are sewdom seen, uh-hah-hah-hah. A species of deer, de Barbary stag, inhabits de dense humid forests in de norf-eastern areas.
A variety of bird species makes de country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackaws. Barbary macaqwes are de sowe native monkey. Snakes, monitor wizards, and numerous oder reptiwes can be found wiving among an array of rodents droughout de semi arid regions of Awgeria. Many animaws are now extinct, incwuding de Barbary wions, Atwas bears and crocodiwes.[82]
In de norf, some of de native fwora incwudes Macchia scrub, owive trees, oaks, cedars and oder conifers. The mountain regions contain warge forests of evergreens (Aweppo pine, juniper, and evergreen oak) and some deciduous trees. Fig, eucawyptus, agave, and various pawm trees grow in de warmer areas. The grape vine is indigenous to de coast. In de Sahara region, some oases have pawm trees. Acacias wif wiwd owives are de predominant fwora in de remainder of de Sahara.
Camews are used extensivewy; de desert awso abounds wif venomous and nonvenomous snakes, scorpions, and numerous insects.
Ewected powiticians are considered to have rewativewy wittwe sway over Awgeria. Instead, a group of unewected civiwian and miwitary "décideurs", known as "we pouvoir" ("de power"), actuawwy ruwe de country, even deciding who shouwd be president. The most powerfuw man may be Mohamed Mediène, head of de miwitary intewwigence.[83] In recent years, many of dese generaws have died or retired. After de deaf of Generaw Larbi Bewkheir, Boutefwika put woyawists in key posts, notabwy at Sonatrach, and secured constitutionaw amendments dat make him re-ewectabwe indefinitewy.[84]
The head of state is de president of Awgeria, who is ewected for a five-year term. The president was formerwy wimited to two five-year terms, but a constitutionaw amendment passed by de Parwiament on 11 November 2008 removed dis wimitation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[85] Awgeria has universaw suffrage at 18 years of age.[5] The President is de head of de army, de Counciw of Ministers and de High Security Counciw. He appoints de Prime Minister who is awso de head of government.[86]
The Awgerian parwiament is bicameraw; de wower house, de Peopwe's Nationaw Assembwy, has 462 members who are directwy ewected for five-year terms, whiwe de upper house, de Counciw of de Nation, has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by wocaw assembwies and 48 are appointed by de president.[87] According to de constitution, no powiticaw association may be formed if it is "based on differences in rewigion, wanguage, race, gender, profession, or region". In addition, powiticaw campaigns must be exempt from de aforementioned subjects.[88]
Parwiamentary ewections were wast hewd in May 2012, and were judged to be wargewy free by internationaw monitors, dough wocaw groups awweged fraud and irreguwarities.[87] In de ewections, de FLN won 221 seats, de miwitary-backed Nationaw Rawwy for Democracy won 70, and de Iswamist Green Awgeria Awwiance won 47.[87]
Foreign rewations[edit]
Awgeria is incwuded in de European Union's European Neighbourhood Powicy (ENP) which aims at bringing de EU and its neighbours cwoser. Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as weww as offering funds in a faster and more fwexibwe manner, are de two main principwes underwying de European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) dat came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 biwwion and provides de buwk of funding drough a number of programmes.
In 2009, de French government agreed to compensate victims of nucwear tests in Awgeria. Defense Minister Herve Morin stated dat "It's time for our country to be at peace wif itsewf, at peace danks to a system of compensation and reparations," when presenting de draft waw on de payouts. Awgerian officiaws and activists bewieve dat dis is a good first step and hope dat dis move wouwd encourage broader reparation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[89]
Tensions between Awgeria and Morocco in rewation to de Western Sahara have been an obstacwe to tightening de Arab Maghreb Union, nominawwy estabwished in 1989, but which has carried wittwe practicaw weight.[90]
The miwitary of Awgeria consists of de Peopwe's Nationaw Army (ANP), de Awgerian Nationaw Navy (MRA), and de Awgerian Air Force (QJJ), pwus de Territoriaw Air Defence Forces.[5] It is de direct successor of de Nationaw Liberation Army (Armée de Libération Nationawe or ALN), de armed wing of de nationawist Nationaw Liberation Front which fought French cowoniaw occupation during de Awgerian War of Independence (1954–62).
Totaw miwitary personnew incwude 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramiwitary staff (2008 estimate).[91] Service in de miwitary is compuwsory for men aged 19–30, for a totaw of 12 monds.[92] The miwitary expenditure was 4.3% of de gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012.[5] Awgeria has de second wargest miwitary in Norf Africa wif de wargest defence budget in Africa ($10 biwwion).[15]
In 2007, de Awgerian Air Force signed a deaw wif Russia to purchase 49 MiG-29SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9 biwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Russia is awso buiwding two 636-type diesew submarines for Awgeria.[93]
Human rights[edit]
Awgeria has been categorized by Freedom House as "not free" since it began pubwishing such ratings in 1972, wif de exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when de country was wabewed "partwy free."[94] In December 2016, de Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor issued a report regarding viowation of media freedom in Awgeria. It cwarified dat de Awgerian government imposed restriction on freedom of de press; expression; and right to peacefuw demonstration, protest and assembwy as weww as intensified censorship of de media and websites. Due to de fact dat de journawists and activists criticize de ruwing government, some media organizations' wicenses are cancewed.[95]
Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from de government, wif many weaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016 a number of unions, many of which were invowved in de 2010–2012 Awgerian Protests, have been deregistered by de government.[96][97][98]
Homosexuawity is iwwegaw in Awgeria.[99] Pubwic homosexuaw behavior is punishabwe by up to two years in prison, uh-hah-hah-hah.[100]
Administrative divisions[edit]
Awgeria is divided into 48 provinces (wiwayas), 553 districts (daïras) and 1,541 municipawities (bawadiyahs). Each province, district, and municipawity is named after its seat, which is usuawwy de wargest city.
The administrative divisions have changed severaw times since independence. When introducing new provinces, de numbers of owd provinces are kept, hence de non-awphabeticaw order. Wif deir officiaw numbers, currentwy (since 1983) dey are[5]
|Area (km2)
|Area (km2)
|Oum Ew Bouaghi
|Ew Bayadh
|Bordj Bou Arréridj
|Ew Taref
|Tizi Ouzou
|Ew Oued
|Souk Ahras
|Ain Defwa
|Sidi Bew Abbès
|Ain Timouchent
Awgeria is cwassified as an upper middwe income country by de Worwd Bank.[101] Awgeria's currency is de dinar (DZD). The economy remains dominated by de state, a wegacy of de country's sociawist post-independence devewopment modew. In recent years, de Awgerian government has hawted de privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign invowvement in its economy.[5] These restrictions are just started to be wifted off recentwy awdough qwestions about Awgeria's swow diversifying economy remains.
Awgeria has struggwed to devewop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify de economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside de energy sector have done wittwe to reduce high youf unempwoyment rates or to address housing shortages.[5] The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term probwems, incwuding de need to diversify de economy, strengden powiticaw, economic and financiaw reforms, improve de business cwimate and reduce ineqwawities amongst regions.[80]
A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted de Awgerian government to offer more dan $23 biwwion in pubwic grants and retroactive sawary and benefit increases. Pubwic spending has increased by 27% annuawwy during de past 5 years. The 2010–14 pubwic-investment programme wiww cost US$286 biwwion, 40% of which wiww go to human devewopment.[80]
The Awgerian economy grew by 2.6% in 2011, driven by pubwic spending, in particuwar in de construction and pubwic-works sector, and by growing internaw demand. If hydrocarbons are excwuded, growf has been estimated at 4.8%. Growf of 3% is expected in 2012, rising to 4.2% in 2013. The rate of infwation was 4% and de budget deficit 3% of GDP. The current-account surpwus is estimated at 9.3% of GDP and at de end of December 2011, officiaw reserves were put at US$182 biwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[80] Infwation, de wowest in de region, has remained stabwe at 4% on average between 2003 and 2007.[102]
In 2011 Awgeria announced a budgetary surpwus of $26.9 biwwion, 62% increase in comparison to 2010 surpwus. In generaw, de country exported $73 biwwion worf of commodities whiwe it imported $46 biwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[103]
Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Awgeria has a cushion of $173 biwwion in foreign currency reserves and a warge hydrocarbon stabiwization fund. In addition, Awgeria's externaw debt is extremewy wow at about 2% of GDP.[5] The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon weawf, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178 biwwion, eqwivawent to dree years of imports), current expenditure growf makes Awgeria's budget more vuwnerabwe to de risk of prowonged wower hydrocarbon revenues.[104]
In 2011, de agricuwturaw sector and services recorded growf of 10% and 5.3%, respectivewy.[80] About 14% of de wabor force are empwoyed in de agricuwturaw sector.[5] Fiscaw powicy in 2011 remained expansionist and made it possibwe to maintain de pace of pubwic investment and to contain de strong demand for jobs and housing.[80]
Awgeria has not joined de WTO, despite severaw years of negotiations.[105]
In March 2006, Russia agreed to erase $4.74 biwwion of Awgeria's Soviet-era debt[106] during a visit by Russian President Vwadimir Putin to de country, de first by a Russian weader in hawf a century. In return, Awgerian President Abdewaziz Boutefwika agreed to buy $7.5 biwwion worf of combat pwanes, air-defence systems and oder arms from Russia, according to de head of Russia's state arms exporter Rosoboronexport.[107][108]
Dubai-based congwomerate Emarat Dzayer Group said it had signed a joint venture agreement to devewop a $1.6 biwwion steew factory in Awgeria.[109]
Awgeria, whose economy is rewiant on petroweum, has been an OPEC member since 1969. Its crude oiw production stands at around 1.1 miwwion barrews/day, but it is awso a major gas producer and exporter, wif important winks to Europe.[110] Hydrocarbons have wong been de backbone of de economy, accounting for roughwy 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Awgeria has de 10f-wargest reserves of naturaw gas in de worwd and is de sixf-wargest gas exporter. The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported dat in 2005, Awgeria had 160 triwwion cubic feet (4.5×1012 m3) of proven naturaw-gas reserves.[111] It awso ranks 16f in oiw reserves.[5]
Non-hydrocarbon growf for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope wif sociaw demands, de audorities raised expenditure, especiawwy on basic food support, empwoyment creation, support for SMEs, and higher sawaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved de current account and de awready warge internationaw reserves position, uh-hah-hah-hah.[104]
Income from oiw and gas rose in 2011 as a resuwt of continuing high oiw prices, dough de trend in production vowume is downwards.[80] Production from de oiw and gas sector in terms of vowume, continues to decwine, dropping from 43.2 miwwion tonnes to 32 miwwion tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Neverdewess, de sector accounted for 98% of de totaw vowume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962,[112] and 70% of budgetary receipts, or US$71.4 biwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[80]
The Awgerian nationaw oiw company is Sonatrach, which pways a key rowe in aww aspects of de oiw and naturaw gas sectors in Awgeria. Aww foreign operators must work in partnership wif Sonatrach, which usuawwy has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements.[113]
Research and awternative energy sources[edit]
Awgeria has invested an estimated 100 biwwion dinars towards devewoping research faciwities and paying researchers. This devewopment program is meant to advance awternative energy production, especiawwy sowar and wind power.[114] Awgeria is estimated to have de wargest sowar energy potentiaw in de Mediterranean, so de government has funded de creation of a sowar science park in Hassi R'Mew. Currentwy, Awgeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research wabs, wif state-set goaws to expand to 1,000. Besides sowar energy, areas of research in Awgeria incwude space and satewwite tewecommunications, nucwear power and medicaw research.
Labour market[edit]
Despite a decwine in totaw unempwoyment, youf and women unempwoyment is high.[104] Unempwoyment particuwarwy affects de young, wif a jobwess rate of 21.5% among de 15–24 age group.[80]
The overaww rate of unempwoyment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young peopwe, wif a rate of 21.5% for dose aged between 15 and 24. The government strengdened in 2011 de job programmes introduced in 1988, in particuwar in de framework of de programme to aid dose seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à w'Insertion Professionnewwe).[80]
The devewopment of de tourism sector in Awgeria had previouswy been hampered by a wack of faciwities, but since 2004 a broad tourism devewopment strategy has been impwemented resuwting in many hotews of a high modern standard being buiwt.
There are severaw UNESCO Worwd Heritage Sites in Awgeria[115] incwuding Aw Qaw'a of Beni Hammad, de first capitaw of de Hammadid empire; Tipasa, a Phoenician and water Roman town; and Djémiwa and Timgad, bof Roman ruins; M'Zab Vawwey, a wimestone vawwey containing a warge urbanized oasis; and de Casbah of Awgiers, an important citadew. The onwy naturaw Worwd Heritage Site is de Tassiwi n'Ajjer, a mountain range.
The Awgerian road network is de densest in Africa; its wengf is estimated at 180,000 km of highways, wif more dan 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network wiww be compwemented by de East-West Highway, a major infrastructure project currentwy under construction, uh-hah-hah-hah. It is a 3-way, 1,216-kiwometre-wong (756 mi) highway, winking Annaba in de extreme east to de Twemcen in de far west. Awgeria is awso crossed by de Trans-Sahara Highway, which is now compwetewy paved. This road is supported by de Awgerian government to increase trade between de six countries crossed: Awgeria, Mawi, Niger, Nigeria, Chad and Tunisia.
|Historicaw popuwations (in dousands)
|±% p.a.
|Source: (1856–1872)[116] (1886–2008)[117]
In January 2016 Awgeria's popuwation was an estimated 40.4 miwwion, who are mainwy Arab-Berber ednicawwy.[5][118][119] At de outset of de 20f century, its popuwation was approximatewy four miwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[120] About 90% of Awgerians wive in de nordern, coastaw area; de inhabitants of de Sahara desert are mainwy concentrated in oases, awdough some 1.5 miwwion remain nomadic or partwy nomadic. 28.1% of Awgerians are under de age of 15.[5]
Women make up 70% of de country's wawyers and 60% of its judges and awso dominate de fiewd of medicine. Increasingwy, women are contributing more to househowd income dan men, uh-hah-hah-hah. 60% of university students are women, according to university researchers.[121]
Between 90,000 and 165,000 Sahrawis from Western Sahara wive in de Sahrawi refugee camps,[122][123] in de western Awgerian Sahara desert.[124] There are awso more dan 4,000 Pawestinian refugees, who are weww integrated and have not asked for assistance from de United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).[122][123] In 2009, 35,000 Chinese migrant workers wived in Awgeria.[125]
The wargest concentration of Awgerian migrants outside Awgeria is in France, which has reportedwy over 1.7 miwwion Awgerians of up to de second generation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[126]
Ednic groups[edit]
Indigenous Berbers as weww as Phoenicians, Romans, Byzantine Greeks, Arabs, Turks, various Sub-Saharan Africans, and French have contributed to de history of Awgeria.[127] Descendants of Andawusian refugees are awso present in de popuwation of Awgiers and oder cities.[128] Moreover, Spanish was spoken by dese Aragonese and Castiwwian Morisco descendants deep into de 18f century, and even Catawan was spoken at de same time by Catawan Morisco descendants in de smaww town of Grish Ew-Oued.[129]
Despite de dominance of de Berber cuwture and ednicity in Awgeria, de majority of Awgerians identify wif an Arabic-based identity, especiawwy after de Arab nationawism rising in de 20f century.[130][131] Berbers and Berber-speaking Awgerians are divided into many groups wif varying wanguages. The wargest of dese are de Kabywes, who wive in de Kabywie region east of Awgiers, de Chaoui of Nordeast Awgeria, de Tuaregs in de soudern desert and de Shenwa peopwe of Norf Awgeria.[132][page needed]
During de cowoniaw period, dere was a warge (10% in 1960)[133] European popuwation who became known as Pied-Noirs. They were primariwy of French, Spanish and Itawian origin, uh-hah-hah-hah. Awmost aww of dis popuwation weft during de war of independence or immediatewy after its end.[134]
Berber and Modern Standard Arabic are de officiaw wanguages.[135] Awgerian Arabic (Darja) is de wanguage used by de majority of de popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Cowwoqwiaw Awgerian Arabic is heaviwy infused wif borrowings from French and Berber.
Berber has been recognized as a "nationaw wanguage" by de constitutionaw amendment of 8 May 2002.[136] Kabywe, de predominant Berber wanguage, is taught and is partiawwy co-officiaw (wif a few restrictions) in parts of Kabywie. In February 2016, de Awgerian constitution passed a resowution dat wouwd make Berber an officiaw wanguage awongside Arabic.
Awdough French has no officiaw status, Awgeria is de second-wargest Francophone country in de worwd in terms of speakers,[137] and French is widewy used in government, media (newspapers, radio, wocaw tewevision), and bof de education system (from primary schoow onwards) and academia due to Awgeria's cowoniaw history. It can be regarded as a wingua franca of Awgeria. In 2008, 11.2 miwwion Awgerians couwd read and write in French.[138] An Abassa Institute study in Apriw 2000 found dat 60% of househowds couwd speak and understand French or 18 miwwion in a popuwation of 30 miwwion den, uh-hah-hah-hah. After an earwier period during which de Awgerian government tried to phase out French (which is why it has no officiaw status), in recent decades de government has backtracked and reinforced de study of French and TV programs have reinforced use of de wanguage.
Awgeria emerged as a biwinguaw state after 1962.[139] Cowwoqwiaw Awgerian Arabic is spoken by about 72% of de popuwation and Berber by 27–30%.[140]
|Rewigion in Awgeria, 2010 (Pew Research)[141]
Iswam is de predominant rewigion in Awgeria, wif its adherents, mostwy Sunnis, accounting for 99% of de popuwation according to a 2012 CIA Worwd Factbook estimate,[5] and 97.9% according to Pew Research in 2010.[141] There are about 150,000 Ibadis in de M'zab Vawwey in de region of Ghardaia.
Awgeria has given de Muswim worwd a number of prominent dinkers, incwuding Emir Abdewkader, Abdewhamid Ben Badis, Mouwoud Kacem Naît Bewkacem, Mawek Bennabi and Mohamed Arkoun.
Bewow is a wist of de most important Awgerian cities:
Largest cities or towns in Awgeria
According to de 2008 Census[142]
|Awgiers Province
|Tébessa Province
|Oran Province
|Ew Oued
|Ew Oued
|Constantine Province
|Skikda Province
|Annaba Province
|Tiaret Province
|Bwida Province
|Béjaïa Province
|Batna Province
|Twemcen Province
|Djewfa Province
|Ouargwa Province
|Sétif Province
|Béchar Province
|Sidi Bew Abbès
|Sidi Bew Abbès Province
|Mostaganem Province
|Biskra Province
|Bordj Bou Arréridj
|Bordj Bou Arréridj Province
Modern Awgerian witerature, spwit between Arabic, Tamazight and French, has been strongwy infwuenced by de country's recent history. Famous novewists of de 20f century incwude Mohammed Dib, Awbert Camus, Kateb Yacine and Ahwam Mosteghanemi whiwe Assia Djebar is widewy transwated. Among de important novewists of de 1980s were Rachid Mimouni, water vice-president of Amnesty Internationaw, and Tahar Djaout, murdered by an Iswamist group in 1993 for his secuwarist views.[143]
Mawek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted for deir doughts on decowonization; Augustine of Hippo was born in Tagaste (modern-day Souk Ahras); and Ibn Khawdun, dough born in Tunis, wrote de Muqaddima whiwe staying in Awgeria. The works of de Sanusi famiwy in pre-cowoniaw times, and of Emir Abdewkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in cowoniaw times, are widewy noted. The Latin audor Apuweius was born in Madaurus (Mdaourouch), in what water became Awgeria.
Contemporary Awgerian cinema is various in terms of genre, expworing a wider range of demes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on de war of independence to fiwms more concerned wif de everyday wives of Awgerians.[144]
Awgerian painters, wike Mohamed Racim or Baya, attempted to revive de prestigious Awgerian past prior to French cowonization, at de same time dat dey have contributed to de preservation of de audentic vawues of Awgeria. In dis wine, Mohamed Temam, Abdewkhader Houamew have awso returned drough dis art, scenes from de history of de country, de habits and customs of de past and de country wife. Oder new artistic currents incwuding de one of M'hamed Issiakhem, Mohammed Khadda and Bachir Yewwes, appeared on de scene of Awgerian painting, abandoning figurative cwassicaw painting to find new pictoriaw ways, in order to adapt Awgerian paintings to de new reawities of de country drough its struggwe and its aspirations. Mohammed Khadda[145] and M'hamed Issiakhem have been notabwe in recent years.[145]
The historic roots of Awgerian witerature go back to de Numidian and Roman African era, when Apuweius wrote The Gowden Ass, de onwy Latin novew to survive in its entirety. This period had awso known Augustine of Hippo, Nonius Marcewwus and Martianus Capewwa, among many oders. The Middwe Ages have known many Arabic writers who revowutionized de Arab worwd witerature, wif audors wike Ahmad aw-Buni, Ibn Manzur and Ibn Khawdoun, who wrote de Muqaddimah whiwe staying in Awgeria, and many oders.
Awbert Camus was an Awgerian-born French Pied-Noir audor. In 1957 he was awarded de Nobew Prize in witerature.
Today Awgeria contains, in its witerary wandscape, big names having not onwy marked de Awgerian witerature, but awso de universaw witerary heritage in Arabic and French.
As a first step, Awgerian witerature was marked by works whose main concern was de assertion of de Awgerian nationaw entity, dere is de pubwication of novews as de Awgerian triwogy of Mohammed Dib, or even Nedjma of Kateb Yacine novew which is often regarded as a monumentaw and major work. Oder known writers wiww contribute to de emergence of Awgerian witerature whom incwude Mouwoud Feraoun, Mawek Bennabi, Mawek Haddad, Moufdi Zakaria, Abdewhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Aw-Khawifa, Mouwoud Mammeri, Frantz Fanon, and Assia Djebar.
In de aftermaf of de independence, severaw new audors emerged on de Awgerian witerary scene, dey wiww attempt drough deir works to expose a number of sociaw probwems, among dem dere are Rachid Boudjedra, Rachid Mimouni, Leiwa Sebbar, Tahar Djaout and Tahir Wattar.
Currentwy, a part of Awgerian writers tends to be defined in a witerature of shocking expression, due to de terrorism dat occurred during de 1990s, de oder party is defined in a different stywe of witerature who staged an individuawistic conception of de human adventure. Among de most noted recent works, dere is de writer, de swawwows of Kabuw and de attack of Yasmina Khadra, de oaf of barbarians of Bouawem Sansaw, memory of de fwesh of Ahwam Mosteghanemi and de wast novew by Assia Djebar nowhere in my fader's House.
Chaâbi music is a typicawwy Awgerian musicaw genre characterized by specific rhydms and of Qacidate (Popuwar poems) in Arabic diawect. The undisputed master of dis music is Ew Hadj M'Hamed Ew Anka. The Constantinois Mawouf stywe is saved by musician from whom Mohamed Tahar Fergani is a performer.
Fowk music stywes incwude Bedouin music, characterized by de poetic songs based on wong kacida (poems); Kabywe music, based on a rich repertoire dat is poetry and owd tawes passed drough generations; Shawiya music, a fowkwore from diverse areas of de Aurès Mountains. Rahaba music stywe is uniqwe to de Aures. Souad Massi is a rising Awgerian fowk singer. Oder Awgerian singers of de diaspora incwude Manew Fiwawi in Germany and Kenza Farah in France. Tergui music is sung in Tuareg wanguages generawwy, Tinariwen had a worwdwide success. Finawwy, de staïfi music is born in Sétif and remains a uniqwe stywe of its kind.
Modern music is avaiwabwe in severaw facets, Raï music is a stywe typicaw of Western Awgeria. Rap, rewativewy recent stywe in Awgeria, is experiencing significant growf.
The Awgerian state's interest in fiwm-industry activities can be seen in de annuaw budget of DZD 200 miwwion (EUR 1.8) awwocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme pwan impwemented by de Ministry of Cuwture in order to promote nationaw production, renovate de cinema stock and remedy de weak winks in distribution and expwoitation, uh-hah-hah-hah.
The financiaw support provided by de state, drough de Fund for de Devewopment of de Arts, Techniqwes and de Fiwm Industry (FDATIC) and de Awgerian Agency for Cuwturaw Infwuence (AARC), pways a key rowe in de promotion of nationaw production, uh-hah-hah-hah. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 fiwms (feature fiwms, documentaries and short fiwms). In mid-2013, AARC had awready supported a totaw of 78 fiwms, incwuding 42 feature fiwms, 6 short fiwms and 30 documentaries.
According to de European Audiovisuaw Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Awgerian fiwms were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 fiwms in dis repertoire were Awgerian-French co-productions. Days of Gwory (2006) and Outside de Law (2010) recorded de highest number of admissions in de European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectivewy.[148]
Awgeria won de Pawme d'Or for Chronicwe of de Years of Fire (1975), two Oscars for Z (1969), and oder awards for The Battwe of Awgiers.
Various games have existed in Awgeria since antiqwity. In de Aures, peopwe pwayed severaw games such as Ew Kherba or Ew khergueba (chess variant). Pwaying cards, checkers and chess games are part of Awgerian cuwture. Racing (fantasia) and rifwe shooting are part of cuwturaw recreation of de Awgerians.[149]
The first Awgerian and African gowd medawist is Boughera Ew Ouafi in 1928 Owympics of Amsterdam in de Maradon. The second Awgerian Medawist was Awain Mimoun in 1956 Summer Owympics in Mewbourne. Severaw men and women were champions in adwetics in de 1990s incwuding Noureddine Morcewi, Hassiba Bouwmerka, Nouria Merah-Benida, and Taoufik Makhwoufi, aww speciawized in middwe-distance running.[150]
Footbaww is de most popuwar sport in Awgeria. Severaw names are engraved in de history of de sport, incwuding Lakhdar Bewwoumi, Rachid Mekhwoufi, Hassen Lawmas, Rabah Madjer, Sawah Assad and Djamew Zidane. The Awgeria nationaw footbaww team qwawified for de 1982 FIFA Worwd Cup, 1986 FIFA Worwd Cup, 2010 FIFA Worwd Cup and 2014 FIFA Worwd Cup. In addition, severaw footbaww cwubs have won continentaw and internationaw trophies as de cwub ES Sétif or JS Kabywia. The Awgerian Footbaww Federation is an association of Awgeria footbaww cwubs organizing nationaw competitions and internationaw matches of de sewection of Awgeria nationaw footbaww team.[151]
Awgerian cuisine is rich and diverse. The country was considered as de "granary of Rome". It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on de region and according to de seasons. The cuisine uses cereaws as de main products, since dey are awways produced wif abundance in de country. There is not a dish where cereaws are not present.
Awgerian cuisine varies from one region to anoder, according to seasonaw vegetabwes. It can be prepared using meat, fish and vegetabwes. Among de dishes known, couscous,[152] chorba, rechta, chakhchoukha, berkoukes, shakshouka, mdewem, chtida, mderbew, dowma, brik or bourek, garantita, wham'hwou, etc. Merguez sausage is widewy used in Awgeria, but it differs, depending on de region and on de added spices.
Cakes are marketed and can be found in cities eider in Awgeria, in Europe or Norf America. However, traditionaw cakes are awso made at home, fowwowing de habits and customs of each famiwy. Among dese cakes, dere are Tamina, Bakwawa, Chrik, Garn wogzewwes, Griouech, Kawb ew-wouz, Makroud, Mbardja, Mchewek, Samsa, Tcharak, Baghrir, Khfaf, Zwabia, Aarayech, Ghroubiya and Mghergchette. Awgerian pastry awso contains Tunisian or French cakes. Marketed and home-made bread products incwude varieties such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya, chopsticks and so-cawwed washers Khoubz dar or Matwoue. Oder traditionaw meaws sowd often as street food incwude mhadjeb or mahjouba, karantika, doubara, chakhchoukha, hassouna, and t'chicha.
In 2002, Awgeria had inadeqwate numbers of physicians (1.13 per 1,000 peopwe), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 peopwe), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 peopwe). Access to "improved water sources" was wimited to 92% of de popuwation in urban areas and 80% of de popuwation in de ruraw areas. Some 99% of Awgerians wiving in urban areas, but onwy 82% of dose wiving in ruraw areas, had access to "improved sanitation". According to de Worwd Bank, Awgeria is making progress toward its goaw of "reducing by hawf de number of peopwe widout sustainabwe access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015". Given Awgeria's young popuwation, powicy favors preventive heawf care and cwinics over hospitaws. In keeping wif dis powicy, de government maintains an immunization program. However, poor sanitation and uncwean water stiww cause tubercuwosis, hepatitis, measwes, typhoid fever, chowera and dysentery. The poor generawwy receive heawf care free of charge.[153]
Heawf records have been maintained in Awgeria since 1882 and began adding Muswims wiving in de Souf to deir Vitaw record database in 1905 during French ruwe.[154]
Since de 1970s, in a centrawized system dat was designed to significantwy reduce de rate of iwwiteracy, de Awgerian government introduced a decree by which schoow attendance became compuwsory for aww chiwdren aged between 6 and 15 years who have de abiwity to track deir wearning drough de 20 faciwities buiwt since independence, now de witeracy rate is around 78.7%.[155]
Since 1972, Arabic is used as de wanguage of instruction during de first nine years of schoowing. From de dird year, French is taught and it is awso de wanguage of instruction for science cwasses. The students can awso wearn Engwish, Itawian, Spanish and German, uh-hah-hah-hah. In 2008, new programs at de ewementary appeared, derefore de compuwsory schoowing does not start at de age of six anymore, but at de age of five.[156] Apart from de 122 private schoows, de Universities of de State are free of charge. After nine years of primary schoow, students can go to de high schoow or to an educationaw institution, uh-hah-hah-hah. The schoow offers two programs: generaw or technicaw. At de end of de dird year of secondary schoow, students pass de exam of de baccawaureate, which awwows once it is successfuw to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes.[157]
Education is officiawwy compuwsory for chiwdren between de ages of six and 15. In 2008, de iwwiteracy rate for peopwe over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women, uh-hah-hah-hah. The province wif de wowest rate of iwwiteracy was Awgiers Province at 11.6%, whiwe de province wif de highest rate was Djewfa Province at 35.5%.[155]
Awgeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a miwwion Awgerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The University of Awgiers, founded in 1879, is de owdest, it offers education in various discipwines (waw, medicine, science and wetters). 25 of dese universities and awmost aww of de institutions of higher education were founded after de independence of de country.
Even if some of dem offer instruction in Arabic wike areas of waw and de economy, most of de oder sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and Engwish. Among de most important universities, dere are de University of Sciences and Technowogy Houari Boumediene, de University of Mentouri Constantine, and University of Oran Es-Senia. The University of Abou Bekr Bewkaïd in Twemcen and University of Batna Hadj Lakhdar occupy de 26f and 45f row in Africa.[158]
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- ^ a b "2013 UNHCR country operations profiwe – Awgeria". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
- ^ a b "Worwd Refugee Survey 2009: Awgeria". U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. 2009. Archived from de originaw on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
- ^ "Western Sahara: Lack of Donor Funds Threatens Humanitarian Projects". IRIN. 5 September 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
- ^ "Chinese Migrants in Awgiers Cwash". BBC News. 4 August 2009. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
- ^ "Fiches fématiqwes – Popuwation immigrée – Immigrés 2012". Insee. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
- ^ UNESCO (2009). "Diversité et intercuwturawité en Awgérie" (PDF). UNESCO. p. 9. Archived from de originaw (PDF) on 2013-07-25.
- ^ Ruedy, John Dougwas (2005). Modern Awgeria – The Origins and Devewopment of a Nation. Indiana University Press. p. 22. ISBN 9780253217820.
- ^ De Epawza, Mikew (2011). Ew españow habwado en Túnez por wos moriscos (sigwos XVII-XVIII). Universitat de Vawència. pp. 32–38–39–444. ISBN 978-84-370-8415-2.
- ^ Stokes, Jamie (2009). Encycwopedia of de Peopwes of Africa and de Middwe East: L to Z. Infobase Pubwishing. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-4381-2676-0.
- ^ Oxford Business Group (2011). The Report: Awgeria 2011. Oxford Business Group. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-907065-37-8.
- ^ Marion Miww Preminger (1961). The sands of Tamanrasset: de story of Charwes de Foucauwd. Hawdorn Books.
- ^ Cook, Bernard A. (2001). Europe since 1945: an encycwopedia. New York: Garwand. p. 398. ISBN 0-8153-4057-5.
- ^ De Azevedo; Raimond Cagiano (1994). Migration and Devewopment Co-Operation. Counciw of Europe. p. 25. ISBN 9789287126115.
- ^ "Présentation de w'Awgérie". French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs. 23 October 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
- ^ "L'Awgérie crée une académie de wa wangue amazigh". Magharebia.com. 2 June 2006. Archived from de originaw on 16 February 2011.
- ^ "La mondiawisation, une chance pour wa francophonie". Senat.fr. Archived from de originaw on 7 Apriw 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2013. () "L'Awgérie, non-membre de w'Organisation internationawe de wa Francophonie, comptabiwise wa seconde communauté francophone au monde, avec environ 16 miwwions de wocuteurs, suivie par wa Côte d'Ivoire avec près de 12 miwwions de wocuteurs francophones, we Québec avec 6 miwwions et wa Bewgiqwe avec pwus de 4 miwwions de francophones."
- ^ "Le dénombrement des francophones" (PDF). Organisation internationawe de wa Francophonie. Archived from de originaw (PDF) on 7 Apriw 2013. () p. 9 "Nous y agrégeons néanmoins qwewqwes données disponibwes pour des pays n'appartenant pas à w'OIF mais dont nous savons, comme pour w'Awgérie (11,2 miwwions en 20081)," and "1. Nombre de personnes âgées de cinq ans et pwus décwarant savoir wire et écrire we français, d'après wes données du recensement de 2008 communiqwées par w'Office nationaw des statistiqwes d'Awgérie."
- ^ New, The (19 November 2008). "Awgeria's wiberation terrorism and Arabization". bwogs.nytimes.com. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
- ^ Lecwerc, Jacqwes (5 Apriw 2009). "Awgérie: Situation géographiqwe et démowinguistiqwe". L'aménagement winguistiqwe dans we monde (in French). Université Lavaw. Archived from de originaw on 24 January 2010. Retrieved 8 January 2010.
- ^ a b Pew Research Center's Rewigion & Pubwic Life Project: Awgeria. Pew Research Center. 2010.
- ^ http://citypopuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah.de/Awgeria-Cities.htmw
- ^ "Tahar Djaout". French Pubwishers' Agency. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
- ^ "Short guide to contemporary Awgerian cinema". Mapping Contemporary Cinema.
- ^ a b "Mohammed Khadda". Khadda.com. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
- ^ Source: Honorary and Goodwiww Ambassadors (2017-01-20). "Awgerian novewist Ahwem Mosteghanemi designated UNESCO artist for peace. | United Nations Educationaw, Scientific and Cuwturaw Organization". Unesco.org. Retrieved 2017-06-05.
- ^ "Festivaw de Cannes: Chronicwe of de Years of Fire". festivaw-cannes.com. Archived from de originaw on 26 September 2012. Retrieved 27 Apriw 2009.
- ^ Awi, Sahar (25 March 2014) ALGÉRIE. European Audiovisuaw Observatory
- ^ "Sports and recreation". Retrieved 9 December 2012.
- ^ "Awgeria". Retrieved 9 December 2012.
- ^ "Awgeria nationaw footbaww team". Sky Sports. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
- ^ "Luce Ben Aben, Moorish Women Preparing Couscous, Awgiers, Awgeria". Worwd Digitaw Library. 1899. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
- ^ "Library of Congress Country Studies – Awgeria" (PDF).
- ^ Kemp, Thomas Jay (2009). Internationaw Vitaw Records Handbook. Geneawogicaw Pubwishing Com. p. 347. ISBN 978-0-8063-1793-9.
- ^ a b "Taux d'Anawphabétisme et taux d'Awphabétisation de wa popuwation âgée de 10 ans et pwus sewon we sexe et wa wiwaya de résidence" (PDF). Office Nationaw des Statistiqwes.
- ^ "Ecowes privées, Tamazight, enseignement du Français, syndicats ... – Les vérités de Benbouzid". Presse-dz.com. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
- ^ "Le taux d'anawphabétisme en Awgérie est de 21,3%". Awgerie-dz.com. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
- ^ "Awgeria | Ranking Web of Universities". Webometrics.info. Archived from de originaw on 8 February 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
- Ageron, Charwes-Robert (1991). Modern Awgeria – A History from 1830 to de Present. Transwated from French and edited by Michaew Brett. London: Hurst. ISBN 978-0-86543-266-6.
- Aghrout, Ahmed; Bougherira, Redha M. (2004). Awgeria in Transition – Reforms and Devewopment Prospects. Routwedge. ISBN 978-0-415-34848-5.
- Bennoune, Mahfoud (1988). The Making of Contemporary Awgeria – Cowoniaw Upheavaws and Post-Independence Devewopment, 1830–1987. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30150-3.
- Fanon, Frantz (1966; 2005 paperback). The Wretched of de Earf. Grove Press. ASIN B0007FW4AW, ISBN 978-0-8021-4132-3.
- Horne, Awistair (1977). A Savage War of Peace: Awgeria 1954–1962. Viking Aduwt. ISBN 978-0-670-61964-1, ISBN 978-1-59017-218-6 (2006 reprint)
- Laouisset, Djamew (2009). A Retrospective Study of de Awgerian Iron and Steew Industry. New York City: Nova Pubwishers. ISBN 978-1-61761-190-2.
- Roberts, Hugh (2003). The Battwefiewd – Awgeria, 1988–2002. Studies in a Broken Powity. London: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-85984-684-1.
- Ruedy, John (1992). Modern Awgeria – The Origins and Devewopment of a Nation. Bwoomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34998-9.
- Stora, Benjamin (2001). Awgeria, 1830–2000 – A Short History. Idaca, New York: Corneww University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-3715-1.
- Sidaoui, Riadh (2009). "Iswamic Powitics and de Miwitary – Awgeria 1962–2008". Rewigion and Powitics – Iswam and Muswim Civiwisation. Farnham: Ashgate Pubwishing. ISBN 0-7546-7418-5.
Externaw winks[edit]
|The Wikibook Wikijunior:Countries A–Z has a page on de topic of: Awgeria
- Peopwe's Democratic Repubwic of Awgeria Officiaw government website (in Arabic) / (in French)
- "Awgeria". The Worwd Factbook. Centraw Intewwigence Agency.
- Awgeria web resources provided by GovPubs at de University of Coworado Bouwder Libraries
- Awgeria at Curwie
- Awgeria profiwe from de BBC News
- Awgeria Atwas Map (PDF) (Map). United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Apriw 2007. Archived (PDF) from de originaw on 9 December 2016.
- Wikimedia Atwas of Awgeria
- Key Devewopment Forecasts for Awgeria from Internationaw Futures
- EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Awgeria
- Awgeria
- Norf African countries
- Maghrebi countries
- Saharan countries
- Arab repubwics
- Repubwics
- Arabic-speaking countries and territories
- Berber-speaking countries and territories
- French-speaking countries and territories
- G15 nations
- Member states of OPEC
- Member states of de African Union
- Member states of de Arab League
- Member states of de Organisation of Iswamic Cooperation
- Member states of de Union for de Mediterranean
- Member states of de United Nations
- States and territories estabwished in 1962
- 1962 estabwishments in Awgeria
- 1962 estabwishments in Africa
- Countries in Africa


text:
We opened the media journal.
--> waltz_sofa <--
Friend it.
Cause our tastes are super.
To those of you who wanted in on it but aren't: Maybe in the future? We're gonna try it with four people for now. ^^ But thanks for offering.
For my friends who make kmusic icons: The join post for the third challenge at kmusic_lims went up the other day. I feel that you should join it.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
They have a long experience in jewelry and diamond broker business. The establishment is BBB accredited since 11/16/2006. The gold needed by the organization is strictly for their own manufacturing needs only, and now they also accepting high end watches of all kinds for selling or buying both. Estate Jewelers pays top dollar for gold, silver, platinum, diamond and estate jewelry as well.
Sylvania, OH -- (SBWIRE) -- 01/16/2015 -- The Estate Jewelers of Toledo, Ohio are now accepting high end watches of all types along with offering the best price in the market for gold, silver, platinum, diamond and estate jewelry as well. Now in this business for more than 40 years their expert and very friendly staff take in their long in depth experience with jewelry and diamond broker business. It is a family owned business that is known for its fair prices and excellent customer satisfaction levels.
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About Estate Jewelers
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As described by the people at Estate Jewelers, they do this by: heartening and supporting best practices by engaging with and educating customers and businesses, they celebrate marketplace role models, they also work towards creating a community of trustworthy businesses and charities, their mission also involves calling out and addressing substandard marketplace behavior in the industry and thus setting a new standard for marketplace trust. Estate Jewelers is owned by the revered Ed Szymanski who believes in BBB's vision of seeing trust as a function of two key factors which are integrity and performance.
When asked about her comments on the service standard of Estate Jewelers, Heidi Johnson Roth a satisfied customer said, "Brought my antique engagement ring to be fixed after someone else made a mess of it. Courtney did a wonderful job with it and it looks like new again!! I'm so happy! I would recommend them to anyone and will definitely return! Thanks again!!"
Contact info:
Address: 5442 Monroe St, Sylvania, Ohio
Phone: 419-885-9100


text:
Safety is one of the major concerns when one decided to embark on any diet, especially on one of the most popular cayenne pepper diets known as the master cleanse. Of course one would love to cleanse the body, remove the toxins, and even lose weight, however it is essential to consider the potential dangers of any diets. Some diet skeptics are overly concerned with the long fasts that may cause vitamin deficiencies, muscle breakdown, lack of vital nutrients.
Let us discover in some ways where you can ensure that your health is protected!
- Firstly, you would need to ensure that you are following the accurate directions. It is either you get some professional advice from books, online paid guide, or even doctor's advice. Do not try to shrimp money and rely on free instructions on some websites. We would recommend you this book at Master Cleanse Secrets Guide.
- Secondly, follow the instructions closely. Most people failed to do so by trying to change the diet to suit their likings. Some even swapped the lemon with other fruits like cranberries, oranges etc.It is essential to follow closely to the instructions as it has been passed down decades ago.Changing the recipe and ingredients may have some unforeseen and adverse effects on your health and body.
- Knowing your body – You would need to know your body well to ensure that you are suitable or eligible for the diet. If you have special conditions and health problems, you should not embark on the master cleanse. Pregnant women and people with diabetics should avoid doing this diet as well.
Other than these 3 points, you should rest assured that the Master Cleanse has helped several hundred of thousands of people to cleanse their body and hence there is very little possibility that you would harm your body if you follow the directions correctly and obediently.


text:
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