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Extracting function from a β-trefoil folding motif
Edited by Michael Levitt, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, and approved May 12, 2008 (received for review February 12, 2008)
This article has a correction. Please see:
Despite having remarkably similar three-dimensional structures and stabilities, IL-1β promotes signaling, whereas IL-1Ra inhibits it. Their energy landscapes are similar and have coevolved to facilitate competitive binding to the IL-1 receptor. Nevertheless, we find that IL-1Ra folds faster than IL-1β. A structural alignment of the proteins shows differences mainly in two loops, a β-bulge of IL-1β and a loop in IL-1Ra that interacts with residue K145 and connects β-strands 11 and 12. Bioassays indicate that inserting the β-bulge from IL-1β confers partial signaling capability onto a K145D mutant of IL-1Ra. Based on the alignment, mutational assays and our computational folding results, we hypothesize that functional regions are not central to the β-trefoil motif and cause slow folding. The IL-1β β-bulge facilitates activity and replacing it by the IL-1Ra β-turn results in a hybrid protein that folds faster than IL-1β. Inserting the β11–β12 connecting-loop, which aids inhibition, into either IL-1β or the hybrid protein slows folding. Thus, regions that aid function (either through activity or inhibition) can be inferred from folding traps via structural differences. Mapping functional properties onto the numerous folds determined in structural genomics efforts is an area of intense interest. Our studies provide a systematic approach to mapping the functional genomics of a fold family.
The folded structure of a protein contains information about both its function and its folding (1–8). One must decouple the effects of the two to control folding (9) and design fast folding scaffolds. These scaffolds can then be programmed for specific function (10). The decoupling of folding and function requires a detailed understanding of how functional regions and binding sites affect protein folding. Evolutionary pressure is toward conserving protein function and evidence has been accumulating that the functional regions of natural proteins do not significantly aid folding and might in fact interfere with it. Early mutation studies showed that binding site residues are not optimized for protein stability (11, 12), and protein stability is partially correlated with folding rates (13). More recent evidence from WW domains shows that there exist independent networks of residues that contribute either to function or to structural integrity (14, 15) and likely to folding. Folding simulations (16) and experiments (17, 18) on these domains have shown that folding rates can be increased at the expense of function. In fact, the folding barrier for these small domains can be removed altogether through functional loop mutations (18). In this article, we systematically mutate the functional residues of two structurally similar proteins to computationally examine the connections between structure, function, and folding of complex proteins.
Proteins with similar native structures fold similarly (19). The cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-1Ra (IL-1Ra) have coevolved to competitively bind the IL-1 receptor (20–22). Despite having a similar number of residues (23), the same stability (23) and the same global fold (21, 22) (Fig. 1 A and B), IL-1Ra folds faster than IL-1β (experiments by K. Hailey and P.A.J., unpublished results, and MD simulations: Fig. 1 C). Their fold, the β-trefoil, is characterized by 12 β-strands folded into three similar β–β–β-loop–β (trefoil) units (25). The overall fold has a pseudo threefold symmetry and consists of a six-stranded-barrel capped by a triangular hairpin triplet (25, 26) (Fig. 1 C and D). Proteins that fold to this structure are known to fold slowly (9, 26–29).
IL-1β, a natural activator, has two known binding sites, A and B. Both sites bind the IL-1 receptor, but only the B-site triggers a signal cascade (21, 22, 30, 31). The inhibitor, IL-1Ra, has only the A-site (22, 30, 31) (Fig. 1 B), so it binds the receptor and blocks further signaling (22, 30). Most of the B-site can be extracted from structural differences between the two proteins. In fact, a structural alignment (24, 32, 33) of the proteins shows that the largest loop insertion in IL-1β is a β-bulge located in the B-site (Fig. 1 D and E). β-bulges are formed because of a mismatch of hydrogen bonds in a β-sheet and are usually functional (34). The alignment also shows that the only insertion in IL-1Ra is in the connecting loop between β-strand 11 and β-strand 12 (Fig. 1 D and E). This longer loop makes contact with K145 only in IL-1Ra (35). It has been experimentally observed (36) that replacing the corresponding tight β-turn of IL-1Ra with the functional β-bulge partially restores signaling activity in a K145D IL-1Ra mutant. In the present article, we explore the effect of functional loops on folding by making the opposite mutations (replacing the IL-1β β-bulge with the IL-1Ra β-turn and inserting the IL-1Ra β11–β12 connecting loop) in folding simulations of IL-1β.
Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of a coarse-grained structure-based model of IL-1β have uncovered backtracking along the folding route (29). Backtracking is the formation, breaking, and refolding of a subset of native contacts as the protein proceeds from the unfolded to the folded state. IL-1β folds slowly in simulations in part because of this backtracking. The first contacts formed after backtracking are between the β-bulge (residues 48–53) and a cap loop (residues 92–4: the 90s loop) (29). We replace the β-bulge with the tight β-turn from IL-1Ra and create a hybrid model of IL-1β (HYBβ). This mutation reduces the tertiary interactions between the turn and the long cap loop in HYBβ, simplifies the shape of the protein, and possibly disrupts the B-site (21). Backtracking and the barrier to folding also reduce significantly. Thus, the existence of the B-site complicates folding.
The mutation K145D in IL-1Ra is known to restore partial signaling activity in cell assays (36, 37). Although residue 145 is well aligned in both proteins, the K145 of IL-1Ra makes contacts with the longer β11–β12 connecting loop, whereas the D145 of IL-1β has no corresponding interactions (35). As stated earlier, the longer connecting loop is a structural difference between the proteins (Fig. 1 D and E). Inserting this loop and its associated contacts with K145 into IL-1β and the hybrid, HYBβ, decreases the folding rate and changes the folding route. The longer connecting loop and K145 improve inhibition, which is the function of IL-1Ra. Thus, our results indicate that within proteins of a fold family, structurally different regions not only interfere with folding but are also involved in function. The conserved structural regions likely facilitate protein folding.
Structural Differences Coincide with Residues Used to Activate the Inhibitor, IL-1Ra.
We use the structural alignment algorithm, STAMP (32), to align IL-1β and IL-1Ra and examine the local structural differences between them. Fig. 2 shows different views of this alignment. Despite a low sequence similarity (26%) (23), the two proteins are remarkably similar and the A-site (21, 22, 31) common to both, aligns well and has no insertions or major structure changes (Fig. 2 D). In this article, we focus on those regions that are the most different, namely gaps in the structural alignment (red and blue spheres in Fig. 2 B, C, and D). We find that there are two main structural differences.
The B-site region, (21, 31), present only in IL-1β, has the largest structural differences. The β-bulge (21, 31), one of two loops that make up the B-site, is the longest insertion in the structure of IL-1β. To reduce the differences between the structures of the proteins, we replace the β-bulge (residues 46–57) in IL-1β by the tight β-turn (residues 50–55) of IL-1Ra. The structure and contact map of the hybrid protein, HYBβ are given in Fig. 3 A and B.
IL-1Ra is longer than IL-1β in only one region, a β11–β12 connecting loop that interacts with K145. The inserted residue, G140, makes the loop longer and more flexible and allows for interaction with K145. There are no interactions (35) between the corresponding loop and the D145 of IL-1β, and a K145D mutation restores partial activity in IL-1Ra (36). We introduce the longer connecting-loop of IL-1Ra (residues 125–136 of HYBβ are replaced by residues 130–142 of IL-1Ra) with its associated contacts with K145 into HYBβ to create a new mutant, HYBβ,L (Fig. 4 A and B). We start and end replacements from Cα atoms of residues that align within 0.5 Å of each other (see Methods for a detailed description). Thus, a longer region of the β11–β12 connecting loop is replaced. It should be noted that both the mutated loops are surface loops and not part of the core of the protein. For detailed structure and contact map pairs of IL-1Ra, HYBβ, and HYBβ,L similar to Fig. 1 D and E see supporting information (SI) Fig. S1.
HYBβ Folds Faster than IL-1β and Has Significantly Reduced Backtracking.
To study the effect of replacing the β-bulge on folding, we compare MD simulations of a structure-based Cα model (38) (see Methods) of IL-1β with those of HYBβ. We use Q, the fraction of native contacts formed, as a reaction coordinate (38) (see Methods). Q varies from 0 to 1 as the protein folds. We partition (29) the IL-1β and HYBβ contacts into four parts and examine the dynamics of each of these as the protein folds. The average number of contacts formed in a given part is denoted by Qpart and calculated by averaging over all protein snapshots that have a given Q. The parts approximately correspond to intratrefoil contacts of the three trefoil regions (the N-terminal trefoil: QN-term, the C-terminal trefoil: QC-term, the central trefoil region: Qcenter) and intertrefoil contacts (Qitc). The exact contacts included in each of the Qparts for IL-1β and HYBβ are given in the Insets of Fig. 3 C and D.
Fig. 3 C and D show that the C-terminal contacts are formed early in both proteins. However, in IL-1β, as Q increases, the C-terminal contacts break (QC-term decreases), whereas Qcenter increases (Fig. 3 C). The C-terminal contacts are reformed at higher Q values. We term this formation, unraveling, and reformation of the C-terminal contacts backtracking. IL-1β folds slower than other β-trefoil proteins because of this backtracking (29). The first contacts that form after the unfolding of the C-terminal region, i.e., after backtracking, are contacts between the 90s loop and the β-bulge (Figs. 1 D and E and 2 A). As stated, these contacts are involved in the B-site binding surface (21, 31).
The C-terminal contacts of HYBβ form early but, unlike in IL-1β, stay folded (Fig. 3 D). At intermediate Q values (0.3–0.6), the central trefoil is formed in addition to the C-terminal contacts. There is almost no backtracking present in HYBβ. When we focus on the B-site, we find that the few remaining contacts between the 90s loop and the shorter β-turn form late (Q ≈ 0.8) in the folding transition. Based on these observations, we conclude that the structure of HYBβ is less complex and easier to fold to.
The β-bulge interacts with the cap loop and creates a binding surface for the third domain of the receptor (Fig. 1 A). Similar surfaces have been found in other members of the interleukin family (39, 40), and it is clear that the B-site and contacts between the two distal loops are required for function. It is this necessity to conserve function that complicates folding.
Insertion of the Longer IL-1Ra β11–β12 Connecting Loop and Its Contacts with K145 into HYBβ Hinders Folding.
It is easier to analyze and dissect the result of topological complexity in a protein when its folding is compared with that of a less-complex structure. Thus, HYBβ is a better control for the insertion of additional loops because it is a simpler structure and faster folding than IL-1β. We call the protein with both the IL-1Ra β-turn and the IL-1Ra connecting-loop HYBβ,L. Its structure and contact map are given in Fig. 4 A and B.
Unlike HYBβ (Fig. 4 C) and wild-type IL-1β (Fig. 3 C), the C-terminal region of HYBβ,L forms late. The central trefoil contacts form and stabilize earlier (Fig. 4 C and D: at Q ≈ 0.4, Qcenter (HYBβ) ≈45%, whereas Qcenter (HYBβ,L) ≈70%). A comparison of the free-energy (ΔG) profile shows that this change in folding route is also accompanied by an increase in barrier to folding (Fig. 4 E). We find that HYBβ has the lowest barrier, whereas HYBβ,L has a barrier almost identical to that of wild-type IL-1β. This increased barrier is not caused by backtracking. The folding rate decreases even further in a mutant of IL-1β with only the β11–β12 connecting loop replaced (results not shown).
The contacts between the β11–β12 connecting loop and the IL-1Ra residue K145 pins the loop to the barrel and makes the third trefoil of IL-1Ra less flexible than that of IL-1β. This lack of flexibility interferes with signaling and aids inhibition. The stiffer shape is harder to fold to, and we again observe a tradeoff between function and folding.
Two Competing "Modes" of Folding in IL-1β.
On further examination of the IL-1β trajectories (26) and B-site contact formation, we find that there are two competing modes of folding. Fig. 5 gives a schematic representation of the two modes. The first, barrel closure, requires that the N- and C-terminal trefoils be partially stable (Fig. 5 A). The other, formation of the B-site, stabilizes the central trefoil but induces lateral pinching of the barrel along its axis while forming contacts between the 90s cap loop and the β-bulge. This pinch destabilizes the terminal trefoils (Fig. 5 B). The two modes compete with each other.
The C-terminal trefoil gets stabilized first because of the arrangement of local contacts (29). This impedes the formation of the B-site, and the trefoil must unfold before further folding. The central trefoil and the B-site can then be stabilized, followed eventually by barrel formation. This folding, unfolding, and refolding is backtracking. Occasionally, the protein proceeds by the first mode and takes the entropically unfavorable route of barrel closure before stabilizing the more local central trefoil. Removing the pinch in the barrel by mutating the β-bulge makes the topology of the protein simpler. The central trefoil can now form in conjunction with the C-terminal trefoil, and backtracking is almost eliminated.
In simulations of IL-1β, the two modes are finely balanced and models of IL-1β with a slightly altered ratio of secondary-to-tertiary structure let the protein fold by alternative routes that favor one mode over the other (26, 29).
Functional Sites Cause Topological Traps in Both IL-1β and IL-1Ra.
There has been evidence (18) that functional residues are a hindrance to folding. The reasoning is as follows: A mutation in binding site residues causes reduced function. In order for the protein to function correctly, such residues need to be conserved and cannot be optimized for folding. The rest of the protein can evolve to make folding more efficient by making the energy landscape more funnel-like (19, 41–44). Thus, it is possible that the most hard-to-fold parts of the protein (which cause trapping during folding) are the functional sites. The above argument has been put forth to explain why binding site mutations increase folding rate (17, 18).
Trapping, which causes reduced folding rates, can either be energetic (45) (e.g., nonnative interactions get stabilized while folding) or topological (46) (e.g., the shape of the protein makes it hard to fold to). Larger proteins have folding units (foldons) (47) that cause topological complexity and can lead to multiple possible folding routes (26, 47). The route that a protein folds by is decided by the details of the protein sequence and structure. Thus, functional loops that cause complexity and trapping can modulate folding routes and rates. Loops can increase complexity by increasing local contact order. At other times, functional loops from distant sites within the protein can interact to create a binding surface, as in the B-site of IL-1β. Such interactions make the overall fold topology significantly more complicated. (A cartoon of both these types of functional interactions is given in Fig. S2.)
IL-1β is a signaling protein and functions by binding the third domain of the IL-1 receptor (20, 21, 30, 31) (Fig. 1 A). It does this by providing a binding surface that contains the β-bulge (21). The function of IL-1Ra, on the other hand, is to block the receptor and provide signaling control (20, 30, 31). This seems to be achieved in a number of ways, one of which is the reduction in flexibility of the third trefoil cap region. Thus, in both IL-1β and IL-1Ra, structural insertions are functionally significant, make the shape of the protein more complex, and complicate and slow folding.
Function evolves in proteins through the acquisition of surface loops (48), and such loops are believed to not affect protein stability (49) and folding. Our results indicate that protein structure, function, and folding are inextricably related and that the structural differences between structurally similar proteins correlate not only with functional regions but also with topological folding traps. The structurally conserved regions between such proteins may facilitate structural stability and folding.
Are All Structural Differences Functional?
In addition to the two main structural differences treated earlier, three single-residue structural differences exist between IL-1β and IL-1Ra. Two of these, Y24 and S153, are insertions in the IL-1β sequence. The third, K63 in IL-1β, exists in both proteins and has different structures. All three residues lie on the interface between the two binding sites (Fig. 2 D). The mutation K63S in IL-1β, affects signaling without affecting binding (31) and thus disrupts cross-talk between the A and B sites of IL-1β. It is possible that the other two residues, Y24 and S153, have a similar role and foster communication between the two binding sites. (S153 may be a false positive because it is the C-terminal residue of IL-1β.)
Structure Alignment.
To create a structure of IL-1β with the IL-1Ra loops, we begin by aligning the two structures (PDB ID codes 6I1B and 1ILR) using the structural alignment extension (Multiseq) (33) of the program VMD (24) (Fig. 2). We then create HYBβ from this alignment by deleting residues 46–57 of IL-1β and replacing them by residues 50–55 of IL-1Ra. We start and end replacements from residues whose neighboring Cα atoms (not in the loop to be replaced) are within 0.5 Å. To create HYBβ,L, we replace residues 125–136 of HYBβ by residues 130–142 of IL-1Ra. Residues D145 of IL-1β and K145 of IL-1Ra align well. Various views of the aligned structures, and the hybrid proteins are shown in Fig. 2, 3 A, and 4 A. The resulting proteins have 153 (IL-1β), 145 (IL-1Ra has 152 residues, but the PDB structure has only residues 8:152), 147 (HYBβ), and 148 (HYBβ,L) residues.
The Multiseq (33) extension of VMD (24) uses the measure Qres to determine how similar in structure a given residue is to another. Because we concentrate on structural gaps (Qres = 0) in this article, we do not use this measure to determine subtle structural differences.
Contact Maps.
The contact map gives all of the possible interactions between a given residue and the other residues in a given structure of the protein. These maps are calculated from the IL-1β and hybrid folded structures by using contacts of structural units (CSU) analysis (35). The interactions of each residue are then projected onto its Cα atom. The contact maps of native IL-1β and the hybrids are given in Figs. 1 D, 3 B, and 4 B. The proteins have 422 (IL-1β), 400 (IL-1Ra), 384 (HYBβ), and 398 (HYBβ,L) contacts. (Also see Fig. S1.)
We also add the contacts of Asp 145 from IL-1Ra into our model for HYBβ,L. The residues that are part of the contacts are shown in Fig. 4 A. The residues whose interactions are added are numbered 98, 100, and 133 in HYBβ,L. The residue whose interaction is deleted is numbered 118. K/D 145 align with residues 139 and 140 in HYBβ and HYBβ,L, respectively.
Native Structure-Based (Gō) Model and Molecular Dynamics.
We use a coarse-grained and energetically unfrustrated model (38) of the proteins in our MD simulations. Our model contains only the Cα atom of each residue, and the interactions between the Cα atoms are only those given by the contact map. Nonnative interactions are not included. Because the native-state contact map specifies all of the interactions present, the model protein has a global energy minimum at its native state. Details of the model are given in refs. 29 and 38. The model is summarized in Fig. S3. Simulations are performed at folding temperature, which is the temperature at which the unfolded and folded states are equally populated at equilibrium. This ensures that we have adequate sampling of not only the folded and the unfolded states but also the transition region. Proteins that have similar stabilities have similar folding temperatures. We use the sander_classic program of the AMBER5 (50) package to perform all simulations.
To ensure that the change in folding routes are not the result of a change in the balance of the energy between the contacts and dihedrals (because of a change in the number of residues and contacts in the three proteins) we also performed control simulations where the contact strengths in the two hybrids are tuned such that the balance of energies is the same as in wild-type IL-1β (153 residues, 422 contacts) (26). We find that this does not significantly alter folding routes or barriers.
IL-1Ra has a disulfide bond (22). These "chemical" bonds are stronger than the usual "physical" contact interactions and are not well represented in "vanilla" Cα models of proteins. Thus, results from simulations of IL-1Ra might not have significant experimental relevance unless the disulfide bond is mutated. The experiments that we cite have been done with the disulfide bond mutated out. Also, the "cut and paste" technique that we use to create hybrid structures is not useful to recreate structural regions like the B-site, where the 90s loop is structured differently in both proteins. For these reasons, we do not present any IL-1Ra-based hybrid simulations in this article.
Enhanced Sampling.
The β-trefoil fold is a topologically difficult structure to fold to. It is slow folding and not easily accessible in normal constant-temperature MD simulations. Thus, to acquire adequate sampling of the whole energy landscape, we use a modified multicanonical method (29). The sampling is enhanced in the transition region between the folded and the unfolded states by rescaling the usual MD force by a Gaussian weight. The resulting sample is then reweighted (51) to acquire the usual canonical distribution. Further details of the method are given in Gosavi et al. (29)
Reaction Coordinate.
We use the fraction of native contacts (Q) formed in a given snapshot of the protein as the reaction coordinate (38). To examine the progress and the mechanism of folding, we plot the free energy (ΔG), the number of contacts made in a given part of the protein (Qpart), etc., as functions of Q.
We thank Dr. Leslie Chavez for valuable discussions and support especially during the initial part of the project, Kendra Hailey and Dominique Capraro for providing us with unpublished results, and Nikolaos Sgourakis for suggestions during the preparation of the manuscript. This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation-sponsored Center for Theoretical Biological Physics (Grants PHY-0216576 and -0225630) by Grant MCB-0543906. P.C.W. was supported by National Institutes of Health Molecular Biophysics Training Grant T32 GM08326 at the University of California at San Diego.
- ‡To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: jonuchic{at}ucsd.edu
Author contributions: S.G., P.A.J., and J.N.O. designed research; S.G. performed research; S.G. and P.C.W. analyzed data; and S.G., P.C.W., P.A.J., and J.N.O. wrote the paper.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
This article is a PNAS Direct Submission.
This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/0801343105/DCSupplemental.
- © 2008 by The National Academy of Sciences of the USA
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I'm thinking of organising a day trip here, and am interested in the shojin ryori. Any good recommendations for where to eat? I'm not really interested in a super fancy blowout meal, but just something good to try.
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Skip to comments.Terri's Day and nation's independence protects life culture
Posted on 05/30/2006 11:14:37 AM PDT by KevinNuPac
click here to read article
Since you are apparently ignorant of FreeRepublic's terminology (bjs1779, since 1998-04-23), I will gladly give you some refreshment of that information, troll. In FReep-lore, a troll is someone begging for attention, or trying to disrupt. You fit that quite nicely, as do many of the supporters of this entire thread.
It is standard to "ping" (list them in the address line) a person, as a courtesy, when you talk about them. Whenever a post is made to a person, red characters alert you on the FR bannerhead, to let you know you have new posts (or new mail). I realize you should already know all of this, but you must need the attention. You are succeeding in trollery.
It is also common to discuss matters with intelligent responses, regardless of form or unflattering remarks. As yet, I have not seen anything resembling intelligence in anything you have posted to me, just rude, bigoted remarks. I beleive that is what you first accused me of doing.
I repeat, please do not ping me to this thread, nor use a post to me, as a ping for your list. Crawl back under your bridge.
For all I know, you might be right, nowadays.
Just in case I get kicked out of here, I note this post of yours, your first post I believe.
Why is this thread, which has almost no followers, still being served to us in "Breaking news"?
Of course it was never in breaking news. But then again, you know all the rules around here.
As I also know, you are a troll.
You can read a few posts later where I acknowledged my error, and correctly changed it to reflect that. But that wouldn't within fit your small mind, or your need for attention!
Now, now, remember what I told you when you first appeared on our thread bent on derailing it all in the name of Our Lord. I told you what projection was. Haters call people they hate haters. You keep doing it and calling us Christians sinners.
Christians as you take pride in claiming, are pro life, yet you fume at us for defending the legacy of Terri and people like her.
I do not know what your problem is, but you are just about the most projecting person I have seen on these threads. You only attracted one real support and that turned out to be a bona fide troll. You came here specifically to disrupt and you then accuse us of disruption. That is what I mean. You may be hijacking this from a liberal site because projection is a trait of liberals.
I, myself, have never called you a troll, but you are defining yourself that way on this thread real fast. Whatever you post elsewhere does not concern me, but you are way over the top on this one.
Quit trolling.
Haters call those they hate haters. You still don't get it, do you? 'Bout every post you made in accusation is a fault you show of yourself.
Tell me this. We have been on this thread quite awhile. You waded right on just as you suggest to disrupt us from the very start, to shut us down all in the name of Our Lord.
And you call us trolls????
Hello!! Anyone home??
The hearing was today. Here is what his Mom says.
We have good news to report from today's guardianship hearing. No changes were made to Scott's guardianship, allowing him to remain with his mom. Please continue to pray for them as they work toward his full recovery.
Not me.
"If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us." 1 John 1:8
Though one may lead a "good life" on the outside, God looks on the heart. It is the nature of man to look on the outward, but outward appearances can be deceiving.
"Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye are like unto whited sepulchres, which indeed appear beautiful outward, but are within full of dead men's bones, and of all uncleanness. Even so ye also outwardly appear righteous unto men, but within ye are full of hypocrisy and iniquity." Matt. 23:27-28 We cannot deal with our sin by "cleaning ourselves up" the outside, when our problem is a heart condition. "Verily, verily, I say unto you, Whosoever committeth sin is the servant of sin." John 8:34 We are all slaves to our sinful nature, and we can only be cleansed from within.
Since sin is the root cause of all our troubles, we must deal with our sin first if we want less troubles in our lives. How do we get rid of sin? God tells us in His Word that by nature we are "...dead in trespasses and sin;" (Ephesians 2:1) and that we are "...alienated from the life of God..." (Ephesians 4:18). Just as a body without physical life is declared physically dead, so anyone who is separated from God is described in the Bible as spiritually dead. As long as we remain spiritually dead, we cannot know God.
We all need a new life. We need to be cleansed from sin and it's penalty (which is death) and restored to fellowship with God who made us all. That is what Jesus Christ (God's Son) meant when He said we "must be born again" (John 3:7). "...Except a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God" (John 3:3). Without the experience of the "new birth" we have no hope of enjoying the glories of heaven nor escaping the terrors of hell. Have you been born again?
The "new birth" is not a religion, not living up to a creed, not a set of rituals, nor joining a church or denomination. It's a transformation. Our old nature is changed and we receive a new one. Old things pass away and all things become new in Christ. We receive a new heart, new desires, new ideas, and a new direction because of this new nature. A birth is the coming into being of a new life which has the nature of its parents. When you were born the first time, you were made a partaker of the nature of natural man. When you are born again, you become a partaker of the divine nature (II Peter 1:4). God can become your heavenly Father.
The greatest attribute of God is that He is a God of love. He loves you and me. He loves all sinners and wants to save every one of us from hell and the terrible results of our sin. His Word tells us, "But God commendeth His love toward us, in that, while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us" (Romans 5:8). "For He hath made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin; that we might be made the righteousness of God in him" (II Corinthians 5:21). God hates sin because of what it produces-- war, sickness, poverty, etc., but God loves the sinner.
God sent Jesus Christ, His only Son, so that we might have new, everlasting life. The Bible tells us, "For God so loved the world that He gave His only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should not perish, but have everlasting life" (John 3:16). By His death and resurrection, Jesus paid for our salvation. He broke the power of sin and death, making it possible for us to have everlasting life. The life of God raised Jesus from the dead and He was the first born Son into the kingdom of God.
"Giving thanks unto the Father, which hath made us meet to be partakers of the inheritance of the saints in light: Who hath delivered us from the power of darkness, and hath translated us into the kingdom of his dear Son: In whom we have redemption through his blood, even the forgiveness of sins: Who is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of every creature: For by him were all things created, that are in heaven, and that are in earth, visible and invisible, whether they be thrones, or dominions, or principalities, or powers: all things were created by him, and for him: And He is before all things, and by Him all things consist. And he is the head of the body, the church: who is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead; that in all things he might have the preeminence" (Colossians 1:12-18).
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was nailed to a cross by ungodly men for no sin of His own. He was an innocent man-- the only man who was ever perfect and sinless. He never sinned, yet He took your sins and mine by taking an unjust death. Because He did this willingly, He was raised from the dead by His Father and given life and authority over the powers of darkness. God now imparts that same life and authority to all those who come receiving His provision for their sin. "...the blood of Jesus Christ his Son cleanseth us from all sin" (I John 1:7)
We must accept God's Word that says we all are sinners and know that it is sin that separates us from God and repent or "turn away" from that sin. Until we each acknowledge, and ask forgiveness for our own guilt, we will never be free from it. It will eventually lead us right into hell.
"The Lord is...not willing that any should perish, but that all should come to repentance" (II Peter 3:9)
God wants to give us His power over sin. We cannot conquer sin without that power. God wants to give us life for death, beauty for ashes, health for sickness, joy for grief, peace for strife, love for hate. God's Word says, "...I am come that they might have life and that they might have it more abundantly" (John 10:10). Do you want abundant life? This abundant life comes only as we are born again and as we follow on and receive all that God promises us.
It isn't always easy following God, but nothing worthwhile ever was. You may be ridiculed and persecuted. You will face many temptations to fall back into your old nature. But you can be assured that God is with you, and He will give you power to overcome every one of them.
"But what things were gain to me, those I counted loss for Christ. Yea doubtless, and I count all things but loss for the excellency of the knowledge of Christ Jesus my Lord: for whom I have suffered the loss of all things, and do count them but dung, that I may win Christ, and be found in him, not having mine own righteousness, which is of the law, but that which is through the faith of Christ, the righteousness which is of God by faith." Phil 3:7-9
You can pray right now and ask God to come into your heart and receive the new birth. Simply talk to Him as you would talk to another person. You might pray a prayer similar to this:
God, I come to you in the name of Jesus, I do not know you personally, but I want to know you. I believe that Your Word, the Bible is true. I repent for hardening my heart toward you, and delighting myself in things you hate. I don't want to go to hell; I really want to be free of my sin. Dear God, I ask Jesus to come into my heart and cleanse me of the guilt of my sins and give me the power to overcome those sins. I want to be Your child and learn of Your ways. Keep me from evil and save my soul. I am asking to receive Jesus Christ as Savior and Lord so that I can experience God's love and plan for my life. Amen
If you said that prayer and meant it from your heart, you are now a child of God. You will need to do four things faithfully every day so you will grow in God.
Ask God to cleanse you of all sin and impure thoughts and motives. Satan, our enemy, will try to break our fellowship with God by getting us back into sin or trying to get us angry at God. Guard against this by resisting the devil daily.
"Keep thy heart with all diligence; for out of it are the issues of life" (Proverbs 4:23).
"Submit to God. Resist the devil and he will flee from you" (James 4:7).
Was this your post?
Excuseme, News/current events... I thought TS died some time ago! I didn't realize the difference. Excuuuussssse me!
Is this the spam you promised to flood our thread so as to gum us up? You told us at the beginning you were going to do just that. Are you panicking that our thread keeps going?
Sounds like I can ratched down my concerns for Scott for awhile!
Please print the post where I even mentioned spam. It wasa you and your trolling tactics.
You should be happy I bumped it along. Just use your own buddies for your bumps, next time, and don't talk behind my back. I don't really expect the last part, though! I suspect that must be part of your cathechism.
BJS, do you think he read the passages on Proverbs? I wonder if he did because I must have posted it a couple of times with easy to follow links. If he had, he would have realized what was happening, no? I really hoped he would get it and save the embarrassment.
I tried to be nice at the beginning even after he identified himself, but what we say is of no meaning to him, only what he says has meaning to him.
He is getting panicked because he has failed to derail us and he is starting to get mad. So he pings Admin hoping to get them on his side. He did that at the beginning, too.
Must be tough to be so angry.
Mr. Schindler is way too kind. Charlie Christ didn't "let Terri die"--he let Michael Schiavo kill her.
Given all of the previous, I don't think I want to be around here anymore 8mm.
I hear you, know what you mean.
You do realize, my last post was 1779.
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A Short Course in Foundation Engineering by N.E. Simons and B.K. Menzies (Auth.)
By N.E. Simons and B.K. Menzies (Auth.)
Even if there at the moment are a number of computing device programmes for fixing all kinds of starting place layout difficulties, the necessity to fee those outputs through 'hand-calculation' has turn into extremely important. This ebook concentrates on getting the basics correct after which utilizing them in sensible applications.
The e-book is illustrated with various labored examples and with quick-reference tables and charts
Read or Download A Short Course in Foundation Engineering PDF
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Example text
60 40 * 40 σ> σ ·♦-» 1 / 20" / Ellipse fitted at axes * ^ \\ \\ CL o c u a 20 n V . 1971 ) Modified conventional triaxial cell (after Arthurand Philips, 1973) oo 80, Γ 60 40 20 0 - · ^ . \ *·» # \ - \ -4t y " ^\^' /'. O s \ >»s\ \Nl . 1 . 1 20 4 0 60 80 IOO °/o of S y with 0*90° O 2 0 4 0 60 8 0 «OO °/oof SuWithe^O 0 Fig. 20 Polar diagrams showing variations of soil strength measured in compression tests: Θ denotes inclination of bedding with respect to vertical axis of test specimen (a) drained tests on dense rounded Leighton Buzzard sand, after Arthur & Menziesf 1971); (b) undrained tests on lightly over-consolidated Weiland clay, after Lo( 1965); (c) undrained tests on heavily overconsolidated blue London clay, after Simons (1967); (d) undrained tests on heavily overconsolidated London clay, after Bishop (1967) ferences in type of apparatus include the control of deformation (one stress control, the other, displacement control), the geometric proportions of the specimens, and the application of the boundary stresses (one with uniform pressures on each face and one with rigid ends).
20(a) adequately represents the variation. An elliptical variation of strength with direc tion was first proposed by Casagrande and Carillo (1944) in a theoretical treatment. 20(b)). Simons (1967) on the other hand, found a non-elliptical variation 24 ■ φ ♦ —m Direct shear Compression Extension Circle Ellipse fitted at axes ID— A //III - 20 40 6O 8O ΙΟΌ I20 I40 I6O Percentage of triaxial compression S^with bedding horizontal -ek T Fig. 20(c)). 20(d)). Geometrical anisotropy, ox fabric as it is sometimes called, not only gives rise to strength variations with orientation of the test axes but is also probably partly the cause of undrained strength variations between test type.
6X1 = 316 kN/m 2 . This is satisfactory. 58 Width of foundation (B) not less than 1 m. 0X100 These values are based on the assumption that the foundations are carried down to unweathered rock The resistance to sliding along the base may be assessed as follows, neglecting the passive resistance of the soil which may be affected by softening, etc. 75 times the undrained shear strength. For further discussion on adhesion between clay and concrete, see Chapter 6. Factor of safety against sliding = 150/75 = 2.


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Published on April 9, 2014
Author: oncel
Source: slideshare.net
Revista Brasileira de Geof´ısica (2006) 24(1): 81-89 © 2006 Sociedade Brasileira de Geof´ısica ISSN 0102-261X www.scielo.br/rbg COMPARATIVE TESTS OF SEISMIC SOURCES AND GEOPHONES AIMING AT SHALLOW REFLECTION SEISMIC INVESTIGATION IN URBAN AREAS Oleg Bhokonok1 , Renato Luiz Prado2 and Liliana Alcazar Diogo3 Recebido em 24 outubro, 2005 / Aceito em 23 fevereiro, 2006 Received on October 24, 2005 / Accepted on February 23, 2006 ABSTRACT. Pseudo walkaway noise tests were accomplished in study area in S˜ao Paulo city, Brazil, in order to evaluate the potentiality of seismic reflection technique in shallow geological/geotechnical investigation in urban environment, where there is usually the presence of different types as well as intensities of noises and the paved surface. Data acquisition was conducted with a 24 channel seismograph with 24 bit A/D converter, 28 Hz and 100 Hz geophones, as well as sledge hammer and seismic rifle as sources. The best results were obtained with: (i) 100 Hz geophones with 0.18 m spike and hammer source with steel plate; (ii) 100 Hz geophones coupled through clay on asphaltic coverage with hammer source applied on asphalt. Laboratory tests were also accomplished in shake table in order to evaluate geophone responses when they were coupled with different types of clay. Tests indicated clay employment is a good alternative to couple geophones, notwithstanding kaolinitic clays are less indicated. Keywords: seismic reflection, seismic sources, shallow geophysics, geophones, seismic in S˜ao Paulo city. RESUMO. Visando avaliar a potencialidade do emprego da s´ısmica de reflex˜ao na investigac¸˜ao geol´ogico-geot´ecnica rasa em ambientes urbanos, nos quais nor- malmente h´a a presenc¸a de ru´ıdos de diferentes tipos e intensidades, assim como de superf´ıcies pavimentadas, foram realizados diversos ensaios de an´alise de ru´ıdos (pseudo walkaway noise test) em uma ´area teste na cidade de S˜ao Paulo, Brasil. Na aquisic¸˜ao dos dados foram empregados um sism´ografo de 24 canais com conversor A/D de 24 bit, geofones de 28 Hz e 100 Hz e fontes s´ısmicas do tipo marreta e rifle s´ısmico. Os melhores resultados foram obtidos com: (i) geofones de 100 Hz com ponteira de 0,18 m e fonte marreta com placa de metal; (ii) geofones de 100 Hz acoplados atrav´es de argila na cobertura asf´altica com fonte marreta aplicada sobre asfalto. Tamb´em foram realizados ensaios de laborat´orio em mesa vibrat´oria para avaliar as respostas dos geofones quando acoplados com diferentes tipos de argila. Os testes indicaram que o emprego de argilas ´e uma boa alternativa para acoplar os geofones, sendo as argilas caulin´ıticas as menos indicadas. Palavras-chave: s´ısmica de reflex˜ao rasa, geofones, fontes s´ısmicas, geologia da cidade de S˜ao Paulo. 1Graduate Program, Instituto de Astronomia, Geof´ısica e Ciˆencias Atmosf´ericas, Universidade de S˜ao Paulo, Rua do Mat˜ao, 1226, 05508-090 Cidade Universit´aria, S˜ao Paulo, SP, Brasil. Phone: (11) 3091-2762; Fax: (11) 3091-5034 – E-mail: email@example.com 2Instituto de Astronomia, Geof´ısica e Ciˆencias Atmosf´ericas, Universidade de S˜ao Paulo, Rua do Mat˜ao, 1226, 05508-090 Cidade Universit´aria, S˜ao Paulo, SP, Brasil. Phone: (11) 3091-2762; Fax: (11) 3091-5034 – E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com 3Instituto de Astronomia, Geof´ısica e Ciˆencias Atmosf´ericas, Universidade de S˜ao Paulo, Rua do Mat˜ao, 1226, 05508-090 Cidade Universit´aria, S˜ao Paulo, SP, Brasil. Phone: (11) 3091-4672; Fax: (11) 3091-5034 – E-mail: email@example.com
82 SHALLOW SEISMIC IN URBAN AREAS INTRODUCTION Since the 1990s in great Brazilian urban centres, an expressive in- crease of civil works focused in infrastructure needs is happening, and, following a worldwide tendency, they have been concentrated in underground infrastructure and facilities such as road tunnels, overflow retention reservoirs, pipelines, power lines, etc. Aiming at elaborating design-build projects and executing the previously mentioned works a good geological knowledge is ne- cessary such as spatial distribution of geological strata and thick- nesses, as well as recognition and positioning of geological struc- tures. In this context, shallow seismic reflection presents a great application potential, once it allows mapping structures continu- ously, interpolating subsurface geological information obtained from drilling at discrete locations (Hunter et al., 1984; Jeng, 1995; Steeples & Miller, 1990). However, urban environment presents several aspects that damage or hamper the acquisition as well as the analysis of seismic data, as restricted operation space and altered superfi- cial strata (earth embankments and asphaltic coverage), likewise background noise associated to power lines and shake noise from the traffic. Those factors are contributed so that seismic reflection does not be considered yet an effective investigative method for buil- ding practitioners in Brazilian urban centres. (Prado et al., 2001). In order to investigate the accuracy and potentiality of shal- low seismic reflection method in the described conditions, seve- ral pseudo walkaway noise tests were accomplished in a densely occupied area of S˜ao Paulo city. Another assay was also accom- plished as comparative tests in controlled laboratory conditions for evaluating the spectral content of seismic signal by using clay in geophone coupling. Results of acquisition, carried out with different types of geo- phones and sources, as well coupling conditions are presented. We discuss the results of comparative tests among geopho- nes of different frequencies and plant in soils and on asphaltic coverage through spikes and clay. Geophone responses obtained from tests in shake table are also discussed. LOCATION AND GEOLOGICAL CONTEXT OF STUDY AREA The study area is located in Western S˜ao Paulo city, in the left margin of Pinheiros River (Figure 1). The choice of this place was conditioned by several factors: i) existence of geological infor- mation from nearby boreholes; ii) possibility to do simultaneous acquisition on asphaltic coverage and soil; iii) to be placed in a typical urban space, with heavy traffic of vehicles and people. The geology of this area consists of tertiary sediments of Itaquaquecetuba Formation from S˜ao Paulo Sedimentary Basin, which settles on Precambrian basement. PP1 well description lo- cated closetheacquisition areaprovidesthefollowing information about main lithofacies: (1) sands until 25 m depth; (2) conglome- rate from 25 m to 35m; (3) sands from 35 m to 52 m; (4) clays from 52 m to 80 m; (5) granite-gneisse basement. METHODOLOGY Initially, 1D geological model was obtained, analysing information from PP1 well (Figure 2a); synthetic seismograms were generated from this model by using Triseis algorithm of Seismic Unix soft- ware (Stockwell & Cohen, 1998) in order to estimate the reflection travel time from the interfaces (Figure 2b). Following, several pseudo walkaway tests were executed. The tests were made using 28 Hz and 100 Hz geophones, both coupled to soil with spikes of 0.1 m and 0.18 m length, and fixed with clay in paved area (Figures 3a, 3b). On soil, two types of sources were used: (1) 12-caliber rifle (Figure 3d), fired in holes of approxima- tely 0.4 m deep; (2) sledge hammer of 6 Kg (Figure 3c) impacted on steel plate. Hammer was used on pavement with impacts on plate and directly on asphalt. Table 1 presents parameters and geometry employed in these tests. Table 1 – Pseudo walkaway tests acquisition parameters. Number of chanels 24 Minimum offset 0,5 m Maximum offset 72 m Receiver spacing 0,5 Geophone type 28 Hz and 100 Hz Source type 12-caliber rifle and Sledgehammer - 6 Kg Coupling Spike (0,10 m and 0,18 m), Kaolinitic clay Sample rate 0,25 ms Recording time 200 ms Pre A/D low cut filter 3 Hz The main objective of these field tests was to compare res- ponsesofdifferentgeophones, indifferentcouplingsituationsand with wave generation of several seismic sources, and starting from this study finding to establish equipment and ideal parameters to improve the quality and resolution of shallow seismic reflection. The comparative study was based on the analysis of ampli- tude spectra obtained by different test conditions, as well as on final results of seismogram processing. Since these first results, a second field test was carried out aiming at checking previous results in a more controlled envi- Revista Brasileira de Geof´ısica, Vol. 24(1), 2006
OLEG BHOKONOK, RENATO LUIZ PRADO and LILIANA ALCAZAR DIOGO 83 Figure 1 – Site map showing seismic test line, wells and local geology (adapted from Iritani, 1993). ronment in which geophone parameters (frequency and coupling) were tested simultaneously by the same energy generation. For that, a walkaway test was made with five parallel linear arrays, with 0.4 m equidistant one each other, and 4 geophones each one (1 m spacing). All arrays were connected to the same seismic cable and acquisition system. New records were acquired with variations of sources, geophones and coupling, concurrently, with minimum offsets of 20, 40 and 60 meters (Figure 4). Besides field tests, tests with geophones were also done un- der controlled laboratory conditions, in order to evaluate their res- ponses using different clay mineral for coupling. The experiment (Figure 5) was constituted by APS Dynamics Inc shake table (APS Electro-six model) positioned at a mas- sive block of concrete, Entelbra audio generator (ETB511 model), APS Dynamics Inc Power Amplifier signal amplifier (124 mo- del), OYO seismograph (DAS-1 model), Tectronix oscilloscope (TDS220 model), four 100 Hz geophones, and three different clay samples (Table 2). A tray, specifically projected for this experi- ment, was fixed to shake table. This tray allowed fixing rigidly one of the four geophones, along with reproducing a similar surface of paved area via small rugosities (Figure 6). Laboratory tests were executed as following: i) firstly, 4 geo- phones were rigidly fixed to the table, and simultaneously submit- ted to the same shake signal to attest the equivalence among their responses (Figure 6a); ii) subsequently one of them was used as reference for an ideal coupling (rigidly fixed to the table), and the other ones coupled with three different clay samples (Table 2). 02-geophone was coupled by using 01-Sample; 03-geophone by using 02-Sample; and 04-geophone, 03-Sample (Figure 6b); iii) The shake table was submitted to a sinusoidal excitation with a frequency bandwidth from 80 Hz up to 120 Hz (in 5 Hz steps), characteristic of shallow seismic field test previously got done; Brazilian Journal of Geophysics, Vol. 24(1), 2006
84 SHALLOW SEISMIC IN URBAN AREAS Figure 2 – (a) Geological model generated from PP1 log; (b) synthetic seismogram generated from the geological model. Event 1: interface soil/water table, 5 m of depth, Vint = 0.4 km/s (interval velocity); event 2: top of conglomerate, 25 m of depth, Vint = 1.7 km/s; event 3: top of clay, 52 m of depth, Vint = 2.1 km/s; event 4: basement, 80 m of depth, Vint = 2.4 km/s. iv) simultaneous records were made with oscilloscope and seis- mograph. The same clay samples were submitted to mineralogical analysis by X-Ray difratometry (Table 2). Results indicated the clay from 01-Sample was predominantly kaolinitic (90-95%) dif- ferently to the two other ones that contained a considerable amount of smectite and illite (up to 55%). Table 2 – Mineralogical Analysis of clay samples originated from X rays difratometry. Sample Clay mineral Semiquantification (%) Kaolinite 90 – 95 Sample 01 Illite 3 – 5 Smectite < 2 Kaolinite 50 Sample 02 Smectite 35 – 40 Illite 10 – 15 Kaolinite 60 – 65 Sample 03 Illite 20 – 25 Smectite < 15 An analysis was also made to establish the moisture content of these samples. The moisture content was determined as the rate between water weight and dry solid material weight expres- sed in percentage. Results are presented in Table 3. It is possi- ble to observe the found contents were relatively similar, although the largest value (24%) was associated to more kaolinitic sample (01-Sample). Table 3 – Moisture content of clay samples. Sample Moisture content (%) Sample 01 24,64 Sample 02 19,25 Sample 03 23,30 RESULTS After the acquisition of first in situ data, the initial processing had as objective to identify the reflections in the seismograms and to compare them with synthetic seismograms generated since infor- mation from PP1 well. Revista Brasileira de Geof´ısica, Vol. 24(1), 2006
OLEG BHOKONOK, RENATO LUIZ PRADO and LILIANA ALCAZAR DIOGO 85 Figure 3 – (a) Geophones with spikes of 0.1m and 0.18m (b) geophones coupled through clay; (c) sledge hammer of 6 Kg; (d) 12' seismic rifle. Figure 4 – Outline illustrating the type of array used in the second comparative field test: (a) 100 Hz geophones coupled through clay; (b) 100 Hz geophones with spike of 0.18 m; (c) 100 Hz geophones with spike of 0.1 m; (d) 28 Hz geophones with spike of 0.18 m; (e) 28 Hz geophones with spike of 0.1m. Brazilian Journal of Geophysics, Vol. 24(1), 2006
86 SHALLOW SEISMIC IN URBAN AREAS Figure 5 – Design of shake table test: (a) APS Dynamics Inc. shake table (APS Electro-six model); (b) massive block of concrete; (c) Entelbra audio generator (ETB511 Model); (d) APS Dynamics Inc. Power Amplifier signal amplifier (124 model); (e) OYO-1 seismograph; (f) Tectronix oscilloscope (TDS220 Model); (g) four 100 Hz geophones; (h) geophone "tray". Figure 6 – (a) Geophone rigidly fixed to table and submitted to shake signal; (b) 01-geophone used as reference of an ideal coupling (rigidly fixed to the table), and the other ones coupled with 3 different clay samples. 02-geophone coupled by using 01-Sample, 03-geophone by using 02-Sample, and 04-geophone by using 03-Sample. Processing challenge was to preserve the high frequency con- tents and to enhance shallow reflections from "noisy" events such as direct wave, refractions, ground roll, and airwave. Initially passband frequency filters were applied. Several bandwidth and different slopes were tested, with no satisfactory results to an increase in signal/ noise ratio. F-k filter was applied in order to eliminate events associated to ground roll and airwave, taking care to extend the fan reject zone to spectrum part associated to spatial aliasing of airwave. Finally, applying an AGC gain, final seismogram was obtai- ned, presenting three evident reflection events in 50 milliseconds, relative to the top of conglomerate; 75 ms, associated to the top of clay; and 100 ms, related to the basement (Figure 7). Figure 8 presents responses of four geophones that were fi- xed to the shake table and simultaneously submitted to an input signal programmed by audio generator. As suggested by data, all responses are equivalent. It can be also observed in Figure 8b – generated from oscilloscope measurements – and in Figure 8c – generated from traces recorded in seismograph – 01-geophone, with ideal coupling, has a frequency distribution similar to three geophones coupled to different clays. However, the record ob- tained with 02-geophone (red line), coupled predominantly with kaolinitic clay (01-Sample), presents a decrease of energy. CONCLUSIONS Comparative analysis of all seismograms from walkaway tests after processing, showed the best results were obtained with: Revista Brasileira de Geof´ısica, Vol. 24(1), 2006
OLEG BHOKONOK, RENATO LUIZ PRADO and LILIANA ALCAZAR DIOGO 87 Figure 7 – (a) Seismogram recorded with 100 Hz geophones coupled through spikes of 0.18 m on soil by using sledge hammer impacted on steel plate; (b) record obtained with 100 Hz geophones coupled through clay on asphal- tic pavement by using hammer impacted on steel plate. The events interpreted starting from the analysis of synthetic seismogram generated since the description of PP1 well (Figure 2). Event 2: top of conglomerate, 25 m of depth, Vint = 1.7 km/s; event 3: top of clay, 52 m of depth, Vint = 2.1 km/s; event 4: basement, 90 m of depth, Vint = 2.4 km/s. (i) 100 Hz geophones with spike of 0.18 m, and hammer source with steel plate; (ii) 100 Hz geophones coupled through clay on asphaltic coverage with hammer source applied on asphalt. Analyses of amplitude spectra for the second field experiment indicated: (1) increase of length spike (from 0.10 m to 0.18 m) did not improve the signal/ noise ratio (Figure 9a); (2) 100 Hz geophones coupled through clay on pavement achieved an equi- valent result to geophones coupled with spikes on soil, since their amplitude spectra were analogous (Figure 9c); (3) 100 Hz geophone had its higher energy response in band of frequen- cies from 30 Hz up to 120 Hz, differently to 28 Hz geophone that showed an accentuated fall in its spectrum of approximately 20 db between predominant frequency (∼20 Hz), and the highest fre- quencies (> 60 Hz), which explains the worst quality of acquired data by using 28 Hz geophones (Figure 9b); (4) results obtained with hammer applied on pavement and in plate on pavement were equivalent to those ones obtained with hammer applied in plate on soil (Figure 9c); (5) data obtained from laboratory tests sug- gest that clay is a good alternative to couple geophones, notwiths- tanding kaolinitic clays are not the most appropriate. According to Souza-Santos (1989) clay mineral from kaolinitic group with 30-60% of moisture content passes to liquid state (liquidity li- mit), differently, for example, of clay mineral of smectite group that remains in plastic state even when moisture content is near or higher than 60%. It can be conclude although the three sam- ples (particularly 01-Sample and 03-Sample) have presented si- milar moisture content (Table 3), predominantly kaolinitic clay (90-95% – 01-Sample) had an inferior performance (larger at- tenuation of induced energy) at the moment of the tests due to its mechanical properties. Obviously, it is necessary to observe other samples with different clay mineral contents in order to obtain an embracing conclusion. Brazilian Journal of Geophysics, Vol. 24(1), 2006
88 SHALLOW SEISMIC IN URBAN AREAS Figure 8 – Spectra obtained from records in comparative experimental tests in laboratory: a) responses of 01, 02, 03, 04- geophones rigidly fixed to table, and simultaneously submitted to the same shake signal; b) responses of 02, 03, 04-geophones coupled through clay, and of 01-geophone with ideal coupling measured directly in oscilloscope; c) responses of 02, 03, 04- geophones coupled through clay, and of 01-geophone with ideal coupling recorded in seismograph. Figure 9 – Spectra of field records obtained with different types of geophones, sources and coupling conditions: (a) 100 Hz geophones with spike of 0.18 m and 0.1 m, sledge hammer source; (b) 100 Hz (10 impacts) and 28Hz (1 impact) geophones, hammer impacted on steel plate; (c) 100 Hz geophones coupled with spike of 0.18 m, and hammer impacted on steel plate (blue), and coupled through clay on pavement with impact directly on pavement (green), and on steel plate (red). Revista Brasileira de Geof´ısica, Vol. 24(1), 2006
OLEG BHOKONOK, RENATO LUIZ PRADO and LILIANA ALCAZAR DIOGO 89 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thanks CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa, Brasil). We are also grateful for comments from two anonymous reviewers that helped clarify the manuscript. REFERENCES HUNTER JA, PULLAN SE, BURNS RA, GAGNE RM & GOOD RL. 1984. Shallow seismic reflection mapping of the overburden-bedrock interface with the engineering seismograph – some simple techniques. Geophy- sics, 49: 1381–1385. IRITANI MA. 1993. Potencial Hidrogeol´ogico da Cidade Universit´aria de S˜ao Paulo. S˜ao Paulo, SP. 97 p. Dissertac¸˜ao de Mestrado (Geociˆencias). IGc-USP. JENG Y. 1995. Shallow seismic investigation of a site with poor reflection quality. Geophysics, 60: 1725–1726. PRADO RL, MALAGUTTI FILHO W & DOURADO JC. 2001. The use of shallow seismic reflection technique in near surface exploration of urban sites: an evaluation in the city of S˜ao Paulo, Brasil. Brazilian Journal of Geophysics, 19(3): 293–302. STOCKWELL JW & COHEN JK. 1998. The New SU (Seismic Unix) User's Manual. CWP – Colorado School of Mines, USA, version 2.2. STEEPLES DW & MILLER RD. 1990. Seismic reflection methods applied to engineering, environmental and groundwater problems, in WARD S., Ed., Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics, Volume I: Review and Tutorial: Soc. Expl. Geophys., 1–30. SOUZA-SANTOS P. 1989. Ciˆencia e tecnologia de argilas. S˜ao Paulo, EDUSP, 1089 pp. NOTES ABOUT THE AUTHORS Oleg Bhokonok. He obtained his B.Sc in Geology from Kharkiv National University, Ukraine (1999) and his MSc in Geophysics from S˜ao Paulo University, IAG/USP, Brazil, 2005. Currently he is working at Grant Geophysical Int. His current interests include seismic methods (processing and acquisition). Renato Luiz Prado. He obtained his B.Sc in Geology from S˜ao Paulo University, USP, Brazil (1982), his MSc in Geophysics (IAG/USP, 1994) and Ph.D. in Geosciences and Environment from S˜ao Paulo State University, UNESP (2001). From 1982 to 2001 he was employed as Researcher at Institute for Technological Researches, IPT, Brazil. In 2001, he joined the faculty at geophysical department of S˜ao Paulo University. His primary research interests include seismic methods and GPR. Liliana Alcazar Diogo. She obtained her B.Sc in Geophysics from S˜ao Paulo University, USP, Brazil (1989) and her Ph.D. in Geophysics from Federal University of Bahia (UFBA, 1995). Since 1997 she is professor at the geophysical department of USP. Her current research interests include seismic processing, imaging and inversion. Brazilian Journal of Geophysics, Vol. 24(1), 2006
COMPARATIVE TESTS OF SEISMIC SOURCES AND GEOPHONES AIMING AT SHALLOW ... plished as comparative tests in ... characteristic of shallow seismic field test ...
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Comparative tests of seismic sources and geophones ... Comparative tests of seismic sources ... Vibrations generated by passive seismic sources ...
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Comparative tests of seismic sources and geophones aiming at shallow reflection seismic investigation in urban areas . Oleg Bhokonok I; Renato Luiz Prado ...
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Comparative test of various high-frequency seismic sources ... the system response of these geophones is
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manufacturer of precision geophones used in seismic data . ... Sensor Geophones. ... test equipment ensure consistency in manufacture and operation ...
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Comparative tests of seismic sources and geophones ... 28 hz and 100 hz geophones, as well as sledge hammer and seismic rifle as sources. the best ...
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Comparative tests of seismic sources and ... 100 hz geophones with 0.18 m spike and hammer source with ... system as seismic source. seismic ...
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A certain number of geophones ... In this type of seismic survey, the source and/or geophones are located in a hole ... Cross hole seismic tests, ...
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Perfume Bottle Design More And More Artistic Temperament
Perfume bottle as this year's collection of upstart, to the nostalgic boys and girls to provide a variety of memories can be sent to the node. Just as every bottle of perfume has its story, when these perfume bottles come to the hands of thousands of people in the world, they are given a second life.
Age: Generally speaking, Perfume Bottle the sooner the production of perfume bottles on the more collection and appreciation of part-time, this and all the same collection.
Origin: different origin of the perfume bottle records of different rural folk, enjoy them, can feel the different cultural atmosphere.
Material: glass and crystal is the main raw material for perfume bottle design. Can focus on the collection of a certain type of perfume bottle.
Decoration: Exquisite design plays a decisive role in the visual field. Perfume Bottle Visual art and olfactory art have the same value.
Now perfume bottle design more and more artistic temperament, crystal clear bottle like a piece of exquisite glass bottles. For some collectors, the taste of fragrance relegated to second, Perfume Bottle people at first sight of the glamorous appearance is to attract their big pocket reason.
Perfume bottle design
Good perfume should be unusual, not weird, have a strong personality, can make people remember, and is dynamic and strength, mellow aroma is gradually distributed out, will not interrupt, spread well, there is endurance , The aroma is stable, the atmosphere fragrant lingering. At the same time, Perfume Bottle but also have a unique perfume bottle and perfume packaging, the formation of organic unity, giving a noble, elegant sense. The aroma of the air can not be left through the packaging, but the good design will make people feel the taste of the air. Perfume packaging shape, color, structure, text and auxiliary image design, can impress the viewer's sense of smell, as if to distinguish the smell of perfume in the air.
Women are not the only customers of perfume. In foreign countries, Perfume Bottle men's fragrance occupies the shelf 2/5 position, so, can not ignore the male perfume market. Due to the traditional definition of the different men and women, so that the use of perfume also has a distinction between custom, men and women on the smell of different preferences, men with perfume perfume than women more light, do not reveal traces. Perfume Bottle Men and women perfume packaging is also very different from the packaging, modeling, color can be identified on the out. Eastern and Western people feel different taste of perfume, the West more women like the rich hot aroma, immersed in the heart, sultry heart, people feel gorgeous light. The Oriental women like fresh and elegant aroma, it is tracing to find, free and easy, like the fragrance of people feel relaxed and natural, comfortable. Two kinds of style perfume, Perfume Bottle each with charming charm, can be through the packaging of color, shape and other forms of performance.
Women's fragrance packaging, whether from the bottle type, color, or packaging design, should be consistent with the characteristics of perfume itself. Such as: some female perfume performance is romantic, gentle and sexy; some pursuit of elegant decent, delicate, quiet, harmonious; some performance noble, elegant; also some innocent, lovely, fresh, full of confidence and happiness. Such as: "CoCo" perfume. Perfume Bottle The performance of the Xilian, extremely accurate and full of confidence in the idea. Its perfume bottle is simple and modern, gold (information, quotes) ratio of the bottle design, pure and refined lines, the cap on the twenty-six diamond cutting surface reflects the bright light, completely subvert the traditional aesthetic Concept, Perfume Bottle making this perfume bottle into a modern art of the classic works, it was the 1959 New York Metropolitan Museum of the best bottle design award, is still in the New York Metropolitan Museum. Another is: "flower of water" female perfume, fragrance inspired by the story of the mysterious garden in Japan, which is a want to pass a transparent texture of perfume, so the use of water to interpret the crystal clear crystal clear, its bottle Designed to capture the water lines and water droplets of the movement. Water is the "flower of the water," the origin, so the water droplets and flying girl in the water has become the composition of the bottle, fine, Perfume Bottle such as art sculpture of the bottle, fully embodies the feminine soft, sympathetic, it is worth Fine taste and collection of works of art.
Men's fragrance gives a simple, elegant, harmonious sense. It is more rigorous shape, heavy, the use of more straight lines, full of masculinity of the gas. Men's perfume design, style and diverse, some for the creativity, vitality, love life, romantic and decent man design, and thus some of the design is vigorous, classical, elegant, but some are back to basics, leisure and easy of.
Men's fragrance, perfume bottle design from the old man essential things, flat gunpowder, its shape is suitable for men's hand, it is for the love of travel, fantasy of the future design of men, is brave, smart, rich Adventure fully embodies, it is both essential and balanced, both traditional and modern rationality, both far and near, it is pure, natural atmosphere, loved by men.
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Stour Valley Way: Cutt Mill, Hinton St Mary
Just upstream from Sturminster Newton (Dorset, England), Cutt (or Cut) Mill is one of three grain mills in the area, the others being at Fiddleford and Sturminster Newton.
The mill is now a ruin after a fire in 2003 and the present bricks and mortar date from the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. However, it is believed that grain may have been milled on this site for 2000 years or more,
Certainly there was a working mill at Hinton St Mary at the time of the Domesday Book in 1086.
The earliest millers on record were John Rake and his son Ambrose, who died in 1752 and 1789 respectively.
Search 'Stour Valley Way' for other views of the River Stour.
Date: 16th September 2018.


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Fifty years ago this week, The Beatles created stadium rock
The August 15, 1965 show by The Beatles at New York's Shea Stadium was a seminal moment in the history of rock music, writes Michael K. Bohn
On a hot and muggy night 50 years ago this week, four mop-haired young men walked across the top of New York's Pan Am Building and boarded a waiting helicopter. A few minutes later, the aircraft carrying The Beatles - John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr - approached Shea Stadium in Flushing Meadows, Queens. There, 55,600 screaming fans, then the largest crowd in show business history, waited in a frenzy for their arrival.
The undisputed leaders of the British Invasion were about to launch their second sortie on American soil, one year after their debut tour. The Shea Stadium concert was the first stop in an 18-day, 11-city tour that showcased The Beatles in front of a total of 300,000 fans. The Shea concert generated the biggest crowd and biggest hype during the trip, and the event helped cement The Beatles as music's most influential rock 'n' roll band.
Moreover, the tour itself became important in other ways. First, it reflected The Beatles at the apex of their career. In his 2006 memoir, John, Paul, George, Ringo and Me, Beatles press agent Tony Barrow wrote of the significance of the 1965 concerts. "This was the group's brightly shining summer solstice, after which all the Beatles' days would insidiously grow a little darker."
Second, Beatles biographer Bob Spitz described the impact of the 1965 tour as "a giant step toward reshaping the concert business. For promoters everywhere, the Shea Stadium concert was a major breakthrough. It freed them from the constraints imposed by a gym or cinema, thus turning a pop performance into an event."Shea was a circular baseball park, with an opening between the foul lines in the outfield, and people completely packed its four tiers of seats. Security staff confined the hysterical fans, predominantly teenage girls, to the grandstands to protect The Beatles. Promoter Sid Bernstein had erected a stage at second base, and police roamed both infield and outfield.
When the Beatles moved to the third-base dugout, the crowd noticed the commotion and unleashed a hurricane of noise. The Fab Four were "gobsmacked" at the sight of the crowd, as Barrow later recalled. George, in The Beatles: Off the Record, described his reaction: "It was terrifying at first, but I don't think I have ever felt so exhilarated in all my life." As the four emerged from the dugout, with George, John and Paul carrying their guitars, they looked up in awe at row upon row of screaming young people. "Their immature lungs produced a sound so staggering," wrote The New York Times' Murray Schumach from the press box, "so massive, so shrill and sustained that it quickly crossed the line from enthusiasm into hysteria and was soon in the area of the classic Greek meaning of the word pandemonium - the region of all demons."
The three guitarists plugged into their amps, and Ringo sat behind his Ludwig drum set. Paul repeatedly shouted "Hello" into the mic. But the three others couldn't hear him over the incredible din, and the din-makers couldn't hear Paul. Seeing that any opening talk was impossible, the band quickly launched into a punchy cover of Twist and Shout.
Through the first number and the second, She's a Woman, the crowd noise prevented the Beatles from hearing their own instruments. Dave Schwensen, in his book The Beatles at Shea Stadium, described the band's dynamics. "George and Ringo concentrated more on trying to hear what they were playing and John bashed away on his rhythm guitar. Paul continually moved about his side of the stage singing and playing his bass to every fan in every section of the stadium."
As The Beatles moved on to Dizzy Miss Lizzy, Ticket to Ride, and others on their 12-song set, fans began to leap onto the field and start running toward second base. Police intercepted all immediately, save for a teenage girl who made a beeline for Lennon, who seemed to wave her on.
The band finished with I'm Down, the recording of which had featured John on electronic organ, but this was his first live performance. "I really didn't know what to do, because I felt naked without a guitar," Lennon recalled in The Beatles Anthology. He bounced about the organ, sometimes using his elbow or foot to play, like Jerry Lee Lewis, adding, "George couldn't play for laughing." The age of stadium rock had arrived.
Two days later, the band and handlers flew on a chartered Lockheed Electra, a four-engine turboprop, to Toronto for two shows at the Maple Leaf Gardens. The next day The Beatles played a concert in front of 30,000 at the new Atlanta Stadium.
The group then flew to Chicago for two performances at Comiskey Park on August 20; the evening show drew 37,000 fans. Next was a performance at Metropolitan Stadium near Minneapolis-St Paul. The next stop would be Portland, Oregon, and as the aircraft neared its destination, fear gripped the passengers. "Oi, look!" George shouted, pointing at the right outboard engine. "The bleedin' thing's on fire!" British journalist Chris Hutchins included George's reaction in his account of the incident years later.
American TV journalist Larry Kane said both pilots were in the rear of the cabin chatting with John and Paul, and had left the automatic pilot in charge. Kane yelled at them, "There's a fire in the right engine."
He later described how the incident ended. "A half-hour later, smoke still pouring from the engine, the plane landed in a sea of foam and an army of firefighters."
Following the Portland concerts, the Beatles flew to Los Angeles, arriving before dawn on August 23. In a rented hillside home, they settled in for a scheduled five-day respite from flying and singing.
The first four days in Beverly Hills featured guests such as David Crosby and Roger McGuinn of The Byrds, folk singer Joan Baez and actor Peter Fonda, as well as helicopters full of teenage girls hovering overhead.
The break also marked a change in the Beatles' drug experiences. Half of the band had resolved to introduce the other half to LSD. "John and I decided that Paul and Ringo had to have acid," George recalled, "because we couldn't relate to them any more." Harrison explained in The Beatles Anthology that LSD had changed John and him so much that they wanted the others to share the experience.
The week's highlight came on the evening of August 27. The band had longed to meet Elvis Presley, one of their greatest influences. "We just idolised the guy so much," Lennon said years later. Now was the chance.
Hutchins had brokered a meeting four days earlier between Presley's manager, Colonel Tom Parker, and Epstein. The two men agreed that the Beatles would visit Presley's home in Bel Air, a few miles west of the band's rented house. Elvis was in Hollywood finishing the filming of Paradise, Hawaiian Style. Hutchins accompanied the Beatles that evening and wrote of the epic meeting in his 1994 book, Elvis Meets the Beatles.
The Beatles fought their nervousness on the way to Bel Air by smoking marijuana and had the giggles as they entered the house about 10pm. They found the King and Priscilla Beaulieu, his future wife, on a horseshoe-shaped couch. Elvis wore tight slacks, a red shirt, and a high-collared jacket. Twenty-year-old "Cilla" wore heavy make-up and a minidress, and her black bouffant hairdo towered over her head. Paul thought she looked like a Barbie doll.
The early moments were awkward as the Beatles quietly arrayed themselves around Elvis, who finally broke the uncomfortable silence. "If you guys are just gonna sit there and stare at me, I'm goin' to bed … I didn't mean for this to be like subjects calling on the King. I thought we'd sit and talk about music and maybe jam a little."
"That would be great," said Paul, sensing a way out of the mess.
"Somebody bring in the guitars," Elvis said to his entourage. Soon they were exploring common musical ground and swapping anecdotes about touring. Elvis showed Paul his newly acquired skills on the bass guitar, and received encouragement. After a few hours, the Beatles walked to the limos, and Parker said to Hutchins, "Tell the fans it was a great meeting." Hearing that, Lennon interjected, "Tell them the truth - it was a load of rubbish." The band travelled by chartered bus to San Diego the next day, and cars full of fans chased them along the freeway. Two concerts followed at the Hollywood Bowl, a large outdoor amphitheatre, on August 29 and 30, each to capacity crowds of 18,000.
At San Francisco's Cow Palace, the tour's last stop on August 31, the band gave two concerts. During the second show, fans spilled through barriers and rushed the stage. The Beatles retreated backstage until security staff had regained control.
The Beatles reportedly grossed US$357,000 during the tour, a sum equal to US$2.6 million in 2014. Barrow told Kane nearly 20 years later that the Beatles enjoyed the 1965 tour more than the others. "They were suddenly playing at being superstars. The boys were all smiles … they were happiest in 1965." Barrow added: "1964 was tough, 1966 was forgettable because they were ready to stop touring, but 1965 was the best for them."
Tribune News Service
For this story and more see The Review, published with the Sunday Morning Post, on August 16
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Cam 4 tiny tits video chat - Who is olga fonda dating
Olga Fonda (born Olga Tchakova on October 1, 1982 in Siberia, Russia) is a Russian-born American actress and model.
She moved to the United States when she was 14 years old, and began modeling internationally in 2007.
The actress got engaged to her boyfriend of two and a half years, Liam Waite, on New Year's Eve.
And she revealed details of the romantic proposal on the red carpet: "Just before midnight, he got down on one knee and proposed. It was very romantic." Olga's fiancé designed the ring himself, what do you think of it?
Since then she has been modeling in Japan, Italy, and the United States.


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text: The ethics of Big Data by Angela Daly 19 October 2014 SOCIETY, RELATIONSHIPS AND CULTURE; TECHNOLOGY Share this article The hi-tech rise of Big Data has generated both hype and trepidation. Angela Daly considers the ethics of this increasing capacity to track our online lives. Big Data is one of the current much-hyped and much-talked about technology trends, along with the Internet of Things, wearable devices and 3D printing. But what precisely is 'big data'? Different people use the term in different ways, but it can mean any collection of very large and complex datasets that would be difficult to process and analyse using traditional methods. It is also increasingly applied to just any, very large amount of data which might be controlled by the State, for instance via Centrelink, e-health services and tax, or by large information corporations such as Google and Apple, or 'old' industries such as banks and supermarkets. Even politicians are excited, with European Commission Vice President Neelie Kroes urging governments to 'embrace big data'. There are some obvious positive aspects to Big Data. Particular analyses, not possible due to technical limitations and restrictions of scope and scale can now be performed, revealing certain new information about ourselves and the world we live in. Indeed, it can reveal new information beyond our world and ourselves. My colleagues in the Swinburne Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing would not be able to do their job without the accumulation of Big Data about our universe. Aside from some issues about ownership and intellectual property, this kind of Big Data gathering does not pose too many ethical questions. However, when Big Data gets personal, collecting and analysing information about human beings or data made by them, is when the problems start. A good (or bad) example is the recent Facebook 'emotional contagion' study that involved an in-house Facebook researcher and some academics from Cornell University in the US. During one week in January 2012, over 600,000 Facebook users unwittingly had their News Feeds manipulated to include either 'positive' or 'negative' stories. The aim was to determine whether their exposure lead to similar expressions. The lack of informed consent from the participants proved highly controversial and data protection authorities in the UK and Ireland are investigating the extent to which the study complies with EU data protection law. A complaint has also been made to the US Federal Trade Commission that this research may have been conducted illegally. Big Data involving accumulations of personal information, or 'profiling', can also build very detailed and intrusive pictures about individuals. The Facebook experiment highlights one of the 'dark sides' of Big Data: the use of people's information without their consent or control. While it will be interesting to see the results of any investigation into the legality of what Facebook did, it is nevertheless true that the privacy laws in place are not particularly strong. They are not well-adapted for changes in technology and the proliferation of data, and they are not always well-enforced. The fact that data may be stored in the 'cloud' (a location that is not the equipment of the person giving or receiving the data) or a location somewhere 'out there', is also problematic. Foreign laws might be governing the data or foreign law enforcement agencies might be able to access the data and it can be difficult, if not impossible, to ensure that it is being stored securely. Although this applies to any data stored in the cloud, the 'bigness' of the data intensifies the issue. Big Data involving accumulations of personal information, or 'profiling', can also build very detailed and intrusive pictures about individuals. Indeed, the information does not necessarily have to be 'personal' to be revealing. A study by a Stanford graduate on telephone 'metadata' (such as the phone numbers the user called and the numbers of received calls) showed that this information could reveal a person's political and religious affiliation, among other intimate details about their life. This is a significant finding for Australians, given the government's current plans to introduce the mandatory retention of all communications metadata. Further ethical questions arise regarding the uses of Big Data and the conclusions drawn from it. Kate Crawford has warned of 'data fundamentalism' – 'the notion that correlation always indicates causation, and that massive data sets and predictive analytics always reflect objective truth'. Given that there is an element of human design behind the gathering and processing of the data, there can accordingly be hidden biases in it. Big Data might be best used alongside traditional qualitative methods rather than in place of them. However, if techno-dystopian Evgeny Morozov is to be believed, then we are moving towards the opposite situation in practice. 'Smart' devices and Big Data are aiding policy interventions in the US, making initial steps towards 'algorithmic regulation' by which social objectives are achieved through data and technology. Aside from the problems of bias in the data, and it not presenting a complete picture of reality, in practice 'algorithmic regulation' is unlikely to address the causes of social problems. It will instead deal with their effects and inequalities are likely to persist. As ever with new technologies, Big Data is neither good, nor bad, nor neutral. Design, implementation and use will determine whether it is ethical. We must also acknowledge its limitations and exercise caution when using the data to generalise the state of the world. Whilst Big Data seems to be a useful tool for research, it's worth cutting through the hype to realise it is not the only one, and the old ways can still be good ways. Angela Daly is a member of Electronic Frontiers Australia's Policy and Research Standing Committee and the Australian Privacy Foundation's Board of Directors. She is also a Research Fellow in media and communications law at the Swinburne Institute for Social Research. Share this article Other articles that might interest you Read 01 June 2009 Bored to tears Jackie Randles At Sydney's annual happiness conference, Jackie Randles couldn't help but notice an elephant in the room. At the... 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