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Diet and diversity at later medieval fishergate The isotopic evidence.код для вставкиСкачать
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 134:162–174 (2007) Diet and Diversity at Later Medieval Fishergate: The Isotopic Evidence Gundula Müldner1* and Michael P. Richards2,3 1 Department of Archaeology, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 6AB, UK Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany 3 Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK 2 KEY WORDS stable isotope; bone; diet; gender; status ABSTRACT We present the results of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of bone collagen for 155 individuals buried at the Later Medieval (13th to early 16th century AD) Gilbertine priory of St. Andrew, Fishergate in the city of York (UK). The data show significant variation in the consumption of marine foods between males and females as well as between individuals buried in different areas of the priory. Specifically, individuals from the crossing of the church and the cloister garth had consumed significantly less marine protein than those from other locations. Isotope data for four individuals diagnosed with diffuse idiopathic skeleResearch into diet and nutrition has a long tradition in anthropology where it is a well-known concept that food consumption is governed by numerous social and cultural preferences (see Parker Pearson, 2003). Gender, age, social group, ethnicity, and religion are only some of the factors that can significantly affect what and how humans eat, and diachronic trends in food consumption patterns are often directly related to important cultural or economic changes within a society (Goodman et al., 2000; Spencer, 2004). The investigation of diet has been an important theme in Medieval studies since the 1960s, and today a substantial amount of scholarly literature is concerned with the complex social relations that are expressed through Medieval foodways (e.g. Flandrin and Montanari, 1996; Carlin and Rosenthal, 1998; Woolgar et al., 2006). Stable isotope analysis of bone collagen is a relatively recent addition to the suite of techniques employed to study Medieval diet (see Müldner and Richards, 2006). Historical sources indicate substantial variation in the access to plant and animal foods between different social groups. Wealthy lay people and well-off monastic communities consumed large amounts of meat and fish while the lower classes derived most of their dietary protein from plants and dairy products (Harvey, 1993; Dyer, 1998; for a brief overview: Müldner and Richards, 2005). Although stable isotope data characterizes food consumption only in rather broad terms, the differences in the consumption of plant and animal protein, aquatic and terrestrial foods outlined by documentary sources are in principle well suited for investigation by stable isotope analysis. Bone chemistry therefore has the potential to contribute new information to the study of social variation in Medieval subsistence. In a small pilot study (Müldner and Richards, 2005), we observed large isotopic differences between the rural village of Wharram Percy C 2007 V WILEY-LISS, INC. tal hyperostosis (DISH) are consistent with a diet rich in animal protein. We also observe that isotopic signals of individuals with perimortem sharp force trauma are unusual in the context of the Fishergate dataset. We discuss possible explanations for these patterns and suggest that there may have been a specialist hospital or a local tradition of burying victims of violent conflict at the priory. The results demonstrate how the integration of archaeological, osteological, and isotopic data can provide novel information about Medieval burial and society. Am J Phys Anthropol 134:162–174, 2007. C 2007 V Wiley-Liss, Inc. and other Medieval sites in northern England which could be explained by the historically attested differences between monastic, upper and lower class diets. However, other factors, such as chronology and geographical locations of the sites under study, could be equally important (see Müldner and Richards, 2006). While this earlier investigation highlighted large variation between sites of different function, so far few isotopic studies have reported social variation in Medieval diet within the same burial population, for example by comparing humans from different burial locations (Mays, 1997), discrete age, and stature categories (Herrscher et al., 2001) or individuals with certain pathological conditions (Polet and Katzenberg, 2003). All of these investigations were limited to relatively small sites or sample sizes which make it difficult to evaluate some of the findings. To explore the potential of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope data for studying Medieval food consumption patterns on a larger scale, we conducted analyses of 155 adult individuals from the Later Medieval priory of St. Andrew, Fishergate in York (northern England). Since there is good evidence that the individuals buried in var- Grant sponsor: Arts and Humanities Research Board (AHRB) Reference 02/61246. *Correspondence to: Gundula Müldner, Department of Archaeology, University of Reading, Whiteknights, PO Box 227, Reading, RG6 6AB, UK. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com Received 5 December 2006; accepted 5 April 2007 DOI 10.1002/ajpa.20647 Published online 13 June 2007 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). 163 DIET AT FISHERGATE ious locations throughout the priory's precinct belonged to different social groups, Fishergate is a key assemblage for biocultural investigations into Medieval British society and has been extensively studied osteologically (Stroud and Kemp, 1993; Kemp and Graves, 1996; see for example Knüsel et al., 1997; Sullivan, 2004; Rhodes and Knüsel, 2005). A previous small-scale stable isotope study of 19 individuals conducted by Mays (1997) has also already shown significant variations in carbon isotope ratios within the population which suggested that the inmates of the priory consumed more marine foods than lay people buried at the site. Following on from this earlier investigation, yet with a greatly increased number of samples, the present study therefore aims to test the hypothesis that stable isotope analysis of bone collagen can trace the social variation in Medieval diet which is indicated by the documentary evidence and therefore that it can make a contribution to wider questions surrounding diet and society in the Middle Ages. This work was part of a larger project exploring dietary change from the Roman to the Early Modern period in York by stable isotope analysis (Müldner, 2005). While a detailed discussion of diet at Fishergate within its chronological context is presented elsewhere (Müldner and Richards, 2007), this article will focus on intrapopulation patterns in the isotopic data. BONE COLLAGEN STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS AND DIETARY RECONSTRUCTION Stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen for dietary reconstruction is based on the principle that the isotopic composition of body tissues reflects that of the food consumed by individuals during tissue formation. Stable carbon isotope ratios (d13C) differ characteristically between foods from certain environments, such as plants of different photosynthetic pathways (C3 and C4) or between (C3-based) terrestrial, and marine ecosystems (Schwarcz and Schoeninger, 1991). Stable nitrogen isotope ratios (d15N) are generally higher in aquatic than in terrestrial ecosystems, but most importantly, they increase by 3–5% with each trophic level. d15N ratios can consequently be employed to infer the relative importance of plant and animal products in the diet (Katzenberg, 2000; Sealy, 2001). Crucially, however, they cannot distinguish between meat and dairy products from the same animal (O'Connell and Hedges, 1999). Stable isotope measurements of skeletal remains are most frequently obtained from bone collagen, not only because it is the only significant source of nitrogen in bone, but also because its preservation can be assessed by chemical indicators during routine analysis (DeNiro, 1985; van Klinken, 1999). Collagen is synthesized chiefly from dietary protein (''protein routing'') and the isotopic data are therefore biased towards high protein foods (Ambrose and Norr, 1993; Tieszen and Fagre, 1993). Collagen turnover rates vary between different types of bone but available data for adults indicate that the isotopic composition of bone collagen reflects an average of the dietary protein consumed over the last 10–30 years of life (Wild et al., 2000). BURIAL AND SOCIAL STATUS AT THE GILBERTINE PRIORY AT FISHERGATE Despite the lack of grave goods and the apparent uniformity of the burial rite, Later Medieval burials were highly differentiated in terms of social background and status of the deceased. Burial location especially, at a particular church, cathedral, or monastery and ideally in direct proximity to a sacred focus such as an altar or shrine, was regarded as an important means, not only for displaying the social position of the deceased to the world, but also for assisting in the swift passage of the soul through Purgatory and into Heaven (Daniell, 1997; Hadley, 2001; Gilchrist and Sloane, 2005). The Medieval tradition of lay burial within monasteries became increasingly popular from the 12th century onwards and was usually granted in exchange for a bequest of land or money. A resting place in a religious house was not only more prestigious than burial at the local parish church, it also meant that the souls of the deceased were included in the daily prayers of the community (Daniell, 1997). The Gilbertines are the only monastic order to be founded in Medieval England. They were established in AD 1139 by St. Gilbert of Sempringham, who adopted the Augustinian Rule to regulate the life of his followers. Hence, male Gilbertine religious houses were priories, with a complement of canons headed by a prior who were aided by lay brothers in manual and administrative tasks (Golding, 1995). The Gilbertine priory at the Church of St. Andrew, Fishergate in York was probably established in AD 1195 and existed until the Dissolution under Henry VIII c. AD 1538. Construction of the first priory buildings began around AD 1200 (Period 6a) and reconstructions and alterations were carried out throughout the 14th to early 16th century (Periods 6b–f). They provide stratigraphic evidence for dating many of the burials on the priory grounds (Kemp and Graves, 1996; see captions Table 1). The presence of numerous females and nonadults among the individuals recovered from the priory site indicates that the canons were accommodating lay burial. Although Fishergate was not a particularly prosperous community and it probably never attracted the patronage of exceptionally wealthy benefactors, the patterns of burials in different areas, in open cemeteries to the south and east of the church as well as in various locations inside the priory buildings (Fig. 1), allow some differentiation of individuals in terms of their occupation and social status (Stroud and Kemp, 1993; Kemp and Graves, 1996). These will be outlined below. The eastern cemetery The individuals buried east of the priory church were identified almost without exception as male and are thought to represent members of the monastic community. In particular, a distinct group of early burials immediately east of the church, has been interpreted as that of inmates of the priory, perhaps the initial complement of the House (Stroud and Kemp, 1993; Kemp and Graves, 1996). The southern cemetery Graves in the cemetery south of the church were often shallow, and it has been suggested that many of the servants or laborers employed by the canons were interred here. Among these, the burials of two priests (YFG1428 and YFG6128) can be identified by the inclusion of a mortuary chalice and/or paten in the graves (Stroud and Kemp, 1993; see Daniell, 1997). American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa 164 G. MÜLDNER AND M.P. RICHARDS 13 TABLE 1. d C and Sample (YFG) 1,082 1,085 1,410 1,425 1,428 1,432 1,436 1,443 1,457 1,464 1,479 1,494 1,550 1,562 1,585 1,592 1,722 2,049 2,086 2,094 2,123 2,125 2,148 2,157 2,159 2,163 2,170 2,172 2,173 2,178 2,183 2,185 2,196 2,220 2,222 2,227 2,231 2,237 2,244 2,246 2,255 2,257 2,261 2,270 2,291 2,297 2,306 2,309 2,322 2,325 2,336 2,344 3,111 3,152 3,195 3,202 3,203 3,258 3,365 3,522 3,527 3,530 3,536 3,557 3,567 4,460 5,022 5,023 5,024 15 N ratios, collagen quality indicators, osteological, and archaeological information for humans from later Medieval Fishergate d13C d15N C/N %C %N %Coll.a Sex Age Period Location Comments 18.7 19.4 19.6 18.4 18.9 18.5 18.9 19.7 18.9 19.9 19.4 19.0 18.8 19.4 20.2 19.2 19.2 18.1 18.8 18.3 18.9 17.9 19.5 18.7 19.0 18.7 18.8 18.6 18.9 18.7 19.5 18.7 18.4 18.9 19.6 17.9 19.5 18.7 18.6 19.3 19.2 18.9 19.1 18.8 19.6 20.0 18.7 18.9 20.5 19.4 18.7 19.5 18.4 18.4 18.8 19.2 19.0 19.0 19.2 19.4 19.8 18.7 19.5 17.9 19.4 19.2 19.1 18.2 19.0 13.5 11.1 11.2 13.3 13.8 13.3 12.9 10.3 13.4 10.2 12.2 14.4 13.8 11.7 10.8 13.3 11.9 14.8 14.3 14.7 13.5 15.2 13.3 13.4 14.4 12.9 13.2 13.1 13.5 14.2 11.1 14.4 15.2 12.4 13.3 14.0 11.6 13.5 14.1 11.5 12.9 14.0 12.4 13.4 13.1 11.7 13.0 12.7 9.1 9.8 12.8 11.8 14.3 14.2 13.7 12.8 13.8 13.3 12.9 12.8 10.3 13.6 13.8 14.9 13.4 12.7 11.4 12.8 11.9 3.3 3.2 3.4 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.6 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.4 3.5 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.5 3.4 45.1 41.8 43.4 44.3 45.2 42.7 45.2 45.0 41.4 44.9 41.5 44.8 41.7 42.4 42.6 42.3 44.3 44.0 42.7 43.8 42.1 43.5 43.4 42.5 40.7 44.7 41.2 37.0 45.4 43.6 42.3 41.8 44.7 39.3 46.3 45.9 42.9 42.0 43.3 41.2 31.2 40.3 41.4 43.0 39.6 41.8 44.3 42.3 44.5 43.4 43.3 39.1 44.9 42.1 42.1 44.2 38.0 42.8 43.1 41.7 44.3 45.4 45.1 44.4 41.3 41.8 42.7 43.7 44.0 15.7 15.5 14.9 16.2 16.4 15.0 15.6 15.7 14.6 15.6 14.7 16.5 15.0 15.3 15.1 15.6 15.5 15.6 15.1 15.6 15.0 15.6 15.6 15.1 14.5 14.8 14.5 13.0 15.9 15.5 14.9 14.8 16.0 13.9 16.5 15.8 15.6 14.9 15.0 14.6 10.3 14.4 13.8 15.3 13.8 15.0 15.2 15.2 15.5 15.3 15.5 13.7 16.7 15.3 14.8 15.5 12.8 14.5 14.6 15.0 15.5 16.0 15.7 15.5 13.7 15.3 14.9 14.7 15.1 12.4 1.6 3.9 2.3 4.9 2.5 5.2 5.9 2.9 10.2 2.4 7.2 4.4 2.4 3.2 2.3 4.0 3.0 1.8 3.1 1.0 3.6 2.2 2.4 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.2 3.5 2.7 2.3 3.5 3.7 0.9 11.6 9.6 2.8 2.2 2.5 1.9 0.9 1.4 1.2 5.2 5.4 2.4 5.1 2.3 3.5 1.6 1.8 4.2 6.1 2.5 1.4 2.3 3.1 1.7 0.7 7.0 8.5 7.8 5.3 5.3 0.5 7.7 1.4 2.8 1.7 M F M M M M M F M F M M M M M M M M M M M M F M M F M M F M F M M M F M F F M ?F M M M M F M F M F M M F M M M M M F F F F M ?M M F M M M M 36–45 26–35 46þ 18–25 26–35 46þ 18–25 26–35 26–35 18–25 18–25 26–35 46þ 18–25 18–25 18–25 18–25 26–35 26–35 46þ 26–35 46þ 46þ 46þ 26–35 18–25 26–35 26–35 36–45 36–45 26–35 46þ 36–45 26–35 36–45 46þ 18–25 26–45 36–45 36–45 18–25 36–45 36–45 26–35 36–45 36–45 26–35 26–35 18–25 18–25 46þ 36–45 26–35 18–25 36–45 18–25 18–25 36–45 adult 26–35 26–35 36–45 36–45 26–45 36–45 46þ 26–35 18–25 26–35 6b 6b 6b 6b 6b 6b 6b 6b 6b 6b 6b 6c 6c 6a 6b 6a 6a 6c 6c 6b 6c 6c 6c 6c 6c 6b 6b 6b 6c 6c 6a/b 6b 6b 6b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a 6a 6a/b 6a/b 6a 6a/b 6c 6a/b 6a 6c 6c 6b 6a 6a 6a 6a/b 6b 6a/b 6b 6b 6a 6a 6a 6a 6a 6a 6a 6a 6b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave nave ChH alley ChH alley alley alley alley alley alley alley alley alley alley alley E cem E cem E cem eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg sc; priest eg eg eg; blade eg; blad eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg; eg eg eg eg eg eg eg; DISH eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg eg; blade eg eg eg eg nc eg eg eg eg sc sc sc tg eg tg eg nc nc nc (continued) American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa 165 DIET AT FISHERGATE TABLE 1. (Continued) Sample (YFG) 5,062 5,063 5,064 5,070 5,071 5,075 5,076 5,078 5,079 5,082 5,086 5,089 5,090 5,095 5,099 5,120 5,133 5,136 5,137 5,138 5,149 5,150 5,156 5,157 5,162 5,183 5,190 5,192 5,251 5,253 5,259 5,266 5,301 5,313 5,315 5,324 5,325 5,327 5,331 5,332 5,334 5,335 5,336 5,340 5,341 5,349 5,350 5,351 5,354 5,356 5,357 5,362 5,585 5,641 5,642 5,690 5,720 5,724 6,063 6,068 6,082 6,094 6,097 6,109 6,128 6,171 6,183 6,187 6,189 6,192 6,218 13 d C 15 d N C/N %C %N %Coll.a Sex Age Period Location Comments 19.2 18.6 18.6 18.2 18.4 18.7 19.3 19.3 19.2 19.2 19.2 18.6 19.0 19.2 18.4 18.9 18.9 18.3 18.8 18.5 19.0 19.7 18.5 19.2 19.0 18.8 19.3 18.7 18.7 19.2 19.4 20.2 20.2 19.8 19.7 20.3 20.4 20.1 20.6 18.1 19.4 18.8 19.6 18.9 18.8 18.4 18.3 18.6 20.8 19.9 20.4 18.4 19.6 19.0 18.3 18.8 16.5 18.7 19.3 18.4 19.1 19.4 18.7 18.7 18.1 18.7 19.4 19.2 20.0 19.7 19.4 12.6 12.5 13.3 14.1 13.2 12.7 12.7 13.1 13.2 13.1 11.8 12.0 13.0 12.9 14.2 13.3 12.7 12.7 13.5 14.7 13.7 10.7 14.0 12.3 13.7 12.4 12.8 12.5 14.4 13.3 12.7 11.2 9.9 11.4 11.4 10.7 10.4 10.7 10.7 14.0 11.2 13.7 11.7 12.7 13.8 14.2 13.8 13.8 9.8 10.8 11.1 13.3 12.4 13.7 14.7 13.2 17.2 13.1 12.8 12.5 13.4 12.7 14.5 12.5 14.4 12.7 12.5 12.0 11.6 12.4 12.4 3.4 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.2 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.2 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 44.2 43.4 46.3 43.2 44.3 43.3 43.9 43.7 44.8 43.6 43.7 43.0 45.2 40.7 44.8 43.4 44.6 43.2 45.5 42.1 44.1 44.3 44.9 44.6 44.6 45.4 44.3 45.0 43.9 43.1 44.6 43.6 40.1 43.5 44.7 45.4 43.4 43.7 44.3 42.2 44.7 41.6 43.1 44.9 45.1 44.7 44.5 44.9 42.3 43.7 44.0 44.0 45.3 43.9 43.9 45.2 45.1 44.5 41.0 44.6 44.8 44.2 45.2 44.9 45.2 41.4 41.9 41.5 40.0 43.7 45.2 15.3 15.3 15.2 15.1 16.2 14.9 15.4 15.4 15.3 15.9 14.8 15.2 16.0 14.6 15.9 15.4 15.8 14.8 16.4 15.1 15.7 15.9 15.9 15.6 15.8 16.1 15.7 16.0 15.7 14.8 16.1 15.5 14.2 15.4 15.6 15.9 15.5 15.5 15.7 15.0 15.9 14.9 15.1 16.1 16.1 16.2 15.8 16.5 14.8 15.7 15.5 15.5 16.7 15.9 15.5 16.2 16.4 15.7 14.2 15.2 15.2 14.9 16.0 15.5 15.6 14.8 15.0 15.0 14.1 15.6 16.0 3.2 3.2 2.9 2.7 6.1 2.8 2.3 3.6 4.9 7.3 2.7 3.2 4.5 2.3 3.4 5.6 3.0 1.9 6.1 3.2 3.8 4.3 4.5 1.5 7.2 3.5 9.3 4.4 4.4 2.2 8.2 1.9 1.6 3.3 2.9 2.1 1.6 3.7 8.0 2.1 3.8 9.9 1.9 4.7 10.9 5.4 3.2 7.2 1.7 2.7 1.8 3.2 5.9 7.5 5.7 7.2 2.9 2.6 1.7 3.6 3.3 2.3 13.4 4.5 12.6 12.5 2.7 2.4 1.7 2.9 5.9 M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M F M M M M M F M M F M M M M F F F F M M M M M M M M M M M M F M M M M M M M F M M F M M M F M M F M M 36–45 36–45 46þ 46þ 26–35 26–35 36–45 46þ 36–45 36–45 26–35 36–45 46þ 46þ 46þ 26–35 26–35 36–45 26–45 18–25 36–45 36–45 36–45 26–35 36–45 46þ 46þ 26–35 36–45 46þ 26–35 36–45 36–45 18–25 36–45 36–45 26–35 26–35 36–45 46þ 26–35 18–25 18–25 18–25 46þ 36–45 adult 46þ 26–35 26–35 26–35 36–45 36–45 46þ 36–45 46þ 18–25 36–45 46þ 26–35 36–45 46þ 18–25 26–35 36–45 26–35 26–35 36–45 26–35 26–35 36–45 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6c 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a 6a/b 6a/b 6a 6a 6a 6a 6a 6a 6a 6a 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a 6a 6a 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6c 6a/b 6a/b 6c 6c 6c 6c 6c 6c 6a 6b 6c 6a 6c 6a 6c E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem trans trans E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem trans E cem cross trans trans cross cross cross cross cross cross cross cross E cem E cem E cem E cem Presb Presb Presb E cem E cem cross cross cross E cem E cem E cem E cem E cem ChH E cem nave nave nave nave nave nave S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem nc nc nc nc; DISH nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc sc sc nc eg nc nc nc nc sc nc nc nc nc eg nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc lime eg nc nc; DISH nc; blade nc; blade nc nc nc nc nc sts; DISH nc; blade nc eg eg eg eg eg eg eg; priest eg eg nc eg eg eg (continued) American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa 166 G. MÜLDNER AND M.P. RICHARDS TABLE 1. (Continued) Sample (YFG) 6,245 6,250 6,256 6,274 6,277 6,303 6,367 7,016 7050 7,052 7,053 10,013 10,266 10,268 10,269 13 d C 15 d N C/N %C %N %Coll.a Sex Age Period Location Comments 18.7 19.7 19.5 19.4 19.1 20.0 20.0 20.6 20.3 19.3 19.8 19.2 18.0 19.9 18.5 13.4 12.0 12.1 11.4 12.3 11.8 12.4 11.2 10.9 10.7 10.8 12.9 14.3 12.7 14.6 3.4 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2 38.0 45.5 42.6 42.8 42.6 44.8 43.6 44.2 43.0 42.3 40.1 43.1 43.6 42.0 41.5 13.1 16.8 15.7 15.7 15.1 16.0 15.3 16.1 15.3 15.0 14.4 15.5 15.6 15.0 14.9 1.9 2.8 8.6 1.4 0.9 5.1 4.1 4.7 2.4 3.4 3.6 2.9 13.2 2.1 2.1 M M F F M M M M M M M F M F M 46þ 46þ 36–45 26–35 18–25 36–45 46þ 26–35 18–25 18–25 18–25 36–45 36–45 26–35 46þ 6c 6c 6a 6a 6a 6a 6a 6z 6z 6z 6z 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b 6a/b S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem S cem garth garth garth garth E cem E cem E cem E cem eg eg eg eg eg eg nc nc nc; blade nc; blade nc; blade nc nc eg nc Osteological data after (Stroud and Kemp, 1993, age categories modified after assessment by GM (see Müldner, 2005). Period key: 6a ¼ AD1195 – late 13th century; 6b ¼ late 13th to early 14th century; 6c ¼ early – mid 14th century; 6z ¼ 13th to 16th century. Locations key: alley ¼ cloister alley; ChH ¼ chapter house; cross ¼ church crossing; E cem ¼ eastern cemetery; garth ¼ cloister garth; presb ¼ presbytery; S cem ¼ southern cemetery; trans ¼ northern transept chapel. Comments key: blade ¼ with perimortem sharp force trauma; eg ¼ earth grave; nc ¼ no grave cut observed; priest ¼ priest burial identified by mortuary chalice and/or paten; sc ¼ stone coffin; sts ¼ stone slabs; tg ¼ tile grave (see Stroud and Kemp 1993, for details on burial types). a Note that the use of ultrafilters reduces collagen yields by 50% or more (GM, unpublished data). The church and claustral buildings Inside the priory church, several burial zones were identified. The presence of females in the nave, the crossing and the northern transept chapel indicates that these areas probably contained the graves of lay benefactors. Burial in the presbytery, the eastern end of the church where the canons were seated, may have been reserved for members of the clergy (Stroud and Kemp, 1993; Kemp and Graves, 1996). A similar classification is possible for the burial areas north of the church: the chapterhouse, cloister garth, and eastern cloister alley. Only the alley contains female burials, although the presence of males with peri-mortem blade injuries (sharp-force trauma consistent with a sword or other large blade weapon which showed no evidence of healing before death) in both the cloister garth and the chapterhouse caused the excavators to question whether these places were exclusive to members of the order or rather locations of special significance that also accommodated lay burial (Stroud and Kemp, 1993, see further discussion below; Kemp and Graves, 1996). All samples were prepared according to a modified Longin method (Brown et al., 1988) as described in Müldner and Richards (2005), and analyzed by continuous-flow isotope ratio mass spectrometry in the Department of Archaeological Science, University of Bradford. The analytical error (1r) affecting the isotopic measurement was calculated from repeat analysis of internal laboratory standards and was determined to be 60.2% for both elements. The Fishergate dataset does not fulfill the conditions for the application of parametric statistical tests (normal distribution, equality of variances) and also has other properties (presence of outliers, large differences in group sizes) that make it unsuitable for the application of the t test. Since the nonparametric equivalent, the Mann-Whitney test, also assumes equality of variances (Kasuya, 2001), the less well-known and conservative two-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test was chosen to statistically validate interpretations of the dataset (Conover, 1999). All statistics were computed with the assistance of SPSS 11.5 for Windows. RESULTS METHODOLOGY Altogether 271 individuals (males, females, and nonadults) were recovered from the priory excavations. The male/female ratio of about 3.1 (173 males vs. 55 females) likely reflects the monastic character of the site but also the fact that lay burial in monasteries was requested more often for men than for women (Stroud and Kemp, 1993; Daniell, 1997). A total of 155 individuals were sampled for isotope analysis. This selection originally comprised all adult individuals for whom a well-defined age and sex category had been determined and who could be assigned to one of the more closely dated sub-phases 6a–c (see Stroud and Kemp, 1993). This sample was then modified to include individuals from all burial locations. Basic biological and archaeological information for each individual is presented in Table 1. Collagen quality indicators of all 155 samples were within the accepted range (DeNiro, 1985; van Klinken, 1999; see Table 1). Basic statistics for the data-set are skewed by the presence of one extreme outlier (YFG5720) which exhibits carbon and nitrogen isotope values that are more than three standard deviations greater than the population means: d13C ratios of the whole population range over 4.3% (2.9% without YFG5720), from 20.8 to 16.5% (17.9%), with a mean of 19.1% 6 0.6% (1r) (unchanged). d15N values range over 8.1% (6.1% without YFG5720), from 9.1 to 17.2% (15.2%), with a mean of 12.8% 6 1.3% (unchanged). The distribution of isotope values for males and females show significant overlap (male mean 18.9% 6 0.6%, 13.0% 6 1.3%; female mean 19.5% 6 0.5%, 12.1% 6 1.2%). However, it is notable that the highest values (d13C > 18.5% and d15N > 14.0%) are exhibited American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa 167 DIET AT FISHERGATE Fig. 1. Plan of the church and claustral buildings at Fishergate (Period 6a) with indication of the different burial locations discussed in the text. (Modified from original map, Kemp and Graves (1996), copyright by York Archaeological Trust). exclusively by males (Fig. 2). The resulting differences are statistically significant (two-sample K-S test P < 0.001 for d13C, P ¼ 0.01 for d15N). No isotopic variation is apparent between individuals of different age-at-death or stature (males and females considered separately; see Müldner, 2005). Data exploration reveals only a few differences between individuals buried in different locations on the priory grounds. Average carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios from the cemeteries south and east of the church, the nave, presbytery, and north transept chapel as well as the burials from the cloister alley are very similar (Fig. 3). Nevertheless, individuals buried in the crossing of the church and the cloister garth display low carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in comparison with other locations (two-sample K-S test P < 0.001 for d13C and d15N). The average for the three individuals from the chapterhouse is notably higher than the population mean; however, this is caused by the extreme outlierYFG5720 (see above). Regardless of burial locations, various individuals were set apart from the rest by way of special containers (e.g. stone sarcophagi), grave inclusions (e.g. mortuary chalice), or pathological lesions. However, with the exception of the unusual distribution of values for individuals with perimortem blade injuries, their isotopic data revealed few interesting patterns (see further discussion below). DISCUSSION The wide range of stable isotope values from the Fishergate priory suggests large dietary variation between individuals. Nevertheless, the population mean is rather typical of Later Medieval sites in northern England (Müldner and Richards, 2005) and has also been American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa 168 G. MÜLDNER AND M.P. RICHARDS Fig. 2. Carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios for males (n ¼ 119) and females (n ¼ 36) from Fishergate. Also shown are average isotope values (61r) for Later Medieval fauna (marine and freshwater fish from the Roman to the Post-Medieval period) from York (after Müldner and Richards, 2007). Herbivores are cattle (n ¼ 4) and sheep/goat (n ¼ 5); carnivores are cat (n ¼ 1) and cat/fox (n ¼ 1); pigs (n ¼ 9); domestic fowl (n ¼ 2); freshwater fish are cyprinid (n ¼ 3), pike (n ¼ 2) and eel (n ¼ 5); herring þ salmonid are herring (n ¼ 5) and salmonid (n ¼ 6); offshore marine are gadid (n ¼ 3), haddock (n ¼ 3), ling (n ¼ 3), and thornback ray (n ¼ 2). observed in contemporaneous samples from coastal Belgium (Polet and Katzenberg, 2003) and northern Germany (Schäuble, 2006). The interpretation of the dietary signal from Fishergate in the context of other human populations from York and animal background data is discussed in detail in Müldner and Richards (2007) and can be outlined here only very briefly. In short, the significant positive correlation of d13C and d15N values indicates that the majority of the population consumed marine fish in varying amounts. The disproportionately high d15N ratios must likely be attributed to the consumption of pigs fed omnivorous diets and perhaps minor contributions from other 15N enriched foods (such as riverine fish, eggs, or poultry) that were available in the Medieval city. The greatly increased importance of marine fish in Later Medieval diet in comparison to earlier periods may be explained by the rise of commercial deep-sea fisheries from about AD 1000, which was fuelled by the increase in demand for fish due to fasting regulations imposed by the Catholic Church. These banned the consumption of meat on nearly half the days of the year (see Barrett et al., 2004). The remainder of this article will focus on specific patterns identified within the Fishergate dataset, which relate exclusively to variation in the amount of marine protein consumed by different individuals. Male/female differences It is generally accepted that there are no systematic differences in the isotopic composition of male and female body tissues due to physiological reasons (Schwarcz and Schoeninger, 1991; Vanderklift and Ponsard, 2003). Although Fuller et al. (2004) recently reported a temporary decrease in hair d15N values in pregnant women, this ''pregnancy effect'' would probably Fig. 3. Mean d13C and d15N values (61r) for individuals buried in different locations at Fishergate priory. Individuals buried in the crossing of the church and the cloister garth display markedly lower values than the rest. (Note: group means change only marginally when only males are considered to remove possible bias on account of male–female differences). not be seen in metabolically less active tissues such as bone collagen. In any case, since not only the nitrogen but also carbon isotope ratios of the Fishergate females are lower than those of the males, it is most likely that the observed differences are dietary. It therefore appears that, on average, women at Fishergate consumed less marine foods than men. There can be no doubt that males and females had very different roles in medieval society. There is little information, however, on whether and how these functions may have affected their diet. Medieval dietary theory, drawing mainly on classical writers like Hippocrates and Galen, recognized differences between males and females regarding their make-up of the four humors: blood, choler, phlegm, and melancholy. These gave rise to differences in temperament between the sexes and, in consequence, different foods would have been recommended to them for best possible health (Woolgar, 2006). The classification was complex, however, and the most beneficial diet was decided on not only by considering a person's gender but also their age as well as various environmental factors. Mode of food preparation also had a significant impact on whether a meal was considered warm or cold, dry or moist, and therefore suitable for a specific temperament (Scully, 1995). While the influence of Medieval dietetics on public opinion therefore likely made a difference to the diet of certain individuals, it is less clear whether they could be responsible for the general male/female variation observed in the Fishergate dataset. Indeed, the stable isotope data for three male/ female double burials (YFG2163 and 2171, 2261 and 2246, 2157 and 2173) from inside the church suggest no differences between men and women of the same household and status (see Table 1). Migration into towns is another possible explanation for the observed pattern. Especially in the decades after the Black Death (AD 1349), the number of women migrating to York from the surrounding countryside in search of labor exceeded that of men (Goldberg, 1992). Stable isotope data from the village of Wharram Percy in North Yorkshire (Richards et al., 2002) indicates that diet in rural settlements could differ significantly from American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa DIET AT FISHERGATE towns (see Müldner and Richards, 2006). Because of the long turnover time of bone collagen a previous diet would still be reflected in the bones of a migrant for years after their move (see Cox et al., 2001). Historical evidence could therefore provide a framework for explaining the observed dietary variation between the sexes. Unfortunately, since the majority of the burials at Fishergate cannot be dated more accurately than between the 13th and early 16th century (Periods 6a/b), it is difficult to tie in the isotopic data with documented historical processes. However, it is also worth remembering that the individuals buried at the priory are not wholly representative of the population of Later Medieval York. The male group especially contains both lay men and members of the order which are often impossible to distinguish from the burial record. The monastic character of the site may therefore offer yet another explanation for the apparent male/female differences in the data (see below). Lay versus monastic diet In an earlier investigation of stable carbon isotope values of individuals from Fishergate, Mays (1997) observed significantly higher d13C ratios in males buried in the eastern (''monastic'') cemetery than in individuals from the nave of the priory church. He concluded that the canons consumed more marine foods than secular individuals. Our investigation, which benefits from a larger sample size, shows that although the trend observed by Mays was real, its interpretation nevertheless needs to be revised. Seven out of 10 individuals selected from inside the church for the 1997 study were female, deliberately chosen to ensure that the majority of the samples were indeed of lay people. The results therefore more likely reflect the observed dietary variation between males and females, than differences between burial locations. If only males are considered, stable isotope values for the eastern cemetery are in fact remarkably similar to the data from the nave of the church, the southern cemetery, or the cloister alley, all areas accommodating lay burial (values in Fig. 3 change only marginally; twosample K-S tests, P > 0.05). Similarly, the two priests buried in the southern cemetery (YFG1494 and 6128) fall within one standard deviation of the male mean. Although there are examples of lay benefactors who chose to enter a priory later in life, it is thought that the majority of Gilbertines joined the order when they were children (Golding, 1995). Age at entry into a monastic life-style (and therefore ''residual'' signals of a former ''laymen's'' diet in the bones of the canons) should therefore not give rise to significant variation in the monastic group, even though this possibility cannot be completely dismissed. On the whole, the evidence therefore suggests that differences in diet between the religious community and lay people buried at Fishergate were not significant enough to be detected by isotope analysis. This finding is consistent with historical evidence that the relatively strict dietary regulations set out for religious orders were often rather loosely interpreted by the Later Middle Ages and that there was often very little difference between the diet of a prosperous monastic community and well-off lay people (see Harvey, 1993). Alternatively however, it may simply not be possible to sufficiently distinguish between canons and lay men on grounds of the burial location to contrast the two groups. 169 Fig. 4. Individuals with skeletal lesions characteristic of DISH in comparison with rest of the male population. Note that all four plot above the male mean (18.9% 6 0.6%; 13.0% 6 1.3%). For faunal data see captions Figure 2. Although there is evidence that religious orders often kept separate cemeteries, in reality the spatial arrangements were extremely variable and the boundaries often blurred (Kemp and Graves, 1996, see Gilchrist and Sloane, 2005). This is evident, for example, by the burial of three females on the fringes of the ''monastic'' cemetery at Fishergate (Stroud and Kemp, 1993). The inability to separate members of the order and the laity among the males offers an alternative explanation for the observed male/female differences: They could be the result of a bias of the male data towards more marine values due to the presence of monastic individuals in the sample. A similar explanation was also offered for male/ female differences observed in a much smaller sample from the Augustinian friary at Warrington (Müldner and Richards, 2006). Dietary data from nonmonastic sites is needed to further evaluate this hypothesis. DISH. Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) is a degenerative disease which manifests itself by ossification of ligaments and tendons, especially of the spine (Ortner, 2003). DISH is clinically linked to obesity and acquired diabetes and, because of its perceived frequency at ecclesiastical sites, has often been associated with a rich monastic diet (Rogers and Waldron, 2001; but see Mays, 2006). It is therefore appropriate to consider individuals with the condition in this context. Four of the seven individuals from Fishergate diagnosed with DISH were included in this study (Stroud and Kemp, 1993). While all of these plot with the great majority of the males which are not visibly affected by DISH (Fig. 4), it is notable that all afflicted individuals plot above the male mean of 18.9% (d13C) and 13.0% (d15N). These values are consistent with a diet rich in animal protein, which included a significant proportion of marine foods. The isotopic data, although not ultimately conclusive, therefore does not contradict the assumption of diet as one of several factors predisposing an individual to DISH (Rogers and Waldron, 2001). A note of caution is nevertheless appropriate. There are suggestions that some pathological conditions have an effect on bone stable isotope values, independent of the diet of an individual. For example, White and Armelagos (1997) observed significantly higher bone collagen d15N American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa 170 G. MÜLDNER AND M.P. RICHARDS Fig. 5. Males and females buried in the crossing of the priory church in comparison with the individuals buried in other locations (for faunal data see captions Fig. 2). With one exception (YFG5251) their d-values are significantly depleted in 13C and 15N: two-sample K-S test nave vs. crossing, P < 0.001 for both elements; southern cemetery vs. crossing P < 0.01 for d13C, P < 0.001 for d15N. ratios in a group of Nubian mummies diagnosed with osteopenia in comparison with a ''healthy'' control group. Katzenberg and Lovell (1999) reported 15N enrichment of about 1.8% in bone affected by osteomyelitis over macroscopically healthy bone from the same skeleton. Although no bone with visible pathological lesions was sampled for the present study, it therefore cannot be excluded that physiological rather than dietary factors are responsible for the isotopic data observed for the individuals with DISH. High and low status At first glance, the Fishergate dataset suggests little in terms of dietary differences between high and low status individuals as suggested by their burial location (Fig. 3). In particular, individuals from the presumed low status southern cemetery are—although somewhat more depleted in 13C and 15N—not significantly different from more prestigious areas such as the church or the claustral buildings (two-sample K-S tests, P > 0.05). Many of the individuals buried in the southern cemetery are thought to have belonged to the canons' lay workforce, and it is therefore likely that they would have shared at least some of the food from the priory's kitchen. The fact that Fishergate's lay benefactors were only of very moderate wealth may further serve to blur differences between the groups. Nevertheless, if the interpretation of the southern cemetery as ''low status'' is taken at face value, it has to be concluded that stable isotope analysis of bone collagen may not always be sensitive enough to reflect the relative differences in the consumption of plant and animal protein between rich and poor which, according to historical accounts, were substantial in the Later Middle Ages (see above). Easy access of the lower classes to animal protein in the form of dairy products or herrings—both known as relatively inexpensive food items (Dyer, 1998)—are a possible explanation for the lack of differentiation seen in the dataset. Fig. 6. Mean d13C and d15N values (61r) for individuals buried in different chronological periods (see captions Table 1 for details). Individuals buried in the crossing of the church (all Period 6a) were excluded to remove bias due to differences between burial locations. The differences between the remaining groups are not significant (two sample K-S tests, P > 0.05 for all elements and groups). Special burials? The general distribution of isotopic data from the Fishergate priory indicate that marine protein in varying proportions played a significant part in the diet of most individuals. It is therefore surprising that those individuals whose d-values suggest no or relatively little consumption of marine foods (d13C < 19.0%; d15N < 11.5%) appear to be preferentially buried in two locations: the crossing of the church and the cloister garth (Fig. 3). An explanation for the observed pattern is not immediately obvious. Documents suggest that by the Later Middle Ages not only monastics but also higher status lay people, who would have been buried in these special locations (see Gilchrist and Sloane, 2005), consumed fish on a regular basis (Woolgar, 2000; Barrett et al., 2004). The crossing. The burials in the crossing comprise males, females, and nonadults. With the exception of YFG5251, a middle adult (36–45 years of age) male, all individuals plot significantly lower than the population mean (Fig. 5). Since more than half of all adults from the area were sampled, this trend should be robust. The burials in the crossing are all dated to Period 6a (13th century) and belong to the earliest interments at the priory. There is no evidence for a general increase in the consumption of marine foods from Period 6a to 6b and 6c across the site as a whole (Fig. 6). It therefore appears that the individuals from the crossing belonged to a group separate from the rest, perhaps a family that was connected with early benefactors of the priory. They may even have given funds towards the construction of the first church and were subsequently granted burial in a specially designated area. This interpretation as a household group could account for the fact that several individuals with a similar diet were buried in the same location. However, there is no easy explanation as to why they did not consume American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa DIET AT FISHERGATE measurable amounts of marine foods when these were obviously a regular component of the diet of citizens with a similar status, i.e. those buried in the same period in adjacent areas of the church. As Barrett et al. (2004) have recently shown, marine fish were increasingly common in York from as early as around AD 1000. The isotopic evidence from the parish cemetery of St. Andrew, Fishergate shows, however that fish were being regularly consumed only by a minority of the population in the later 11th and 12th centuries (Müldner and Richards, 2007). This data, so far available for one site only, may of course not be representative of the population of York as a whole. Combined with the evidence from the priory phase it suggests, however, that as late as the early 13th century the observation of lay fasts or perhaps the acceptance of fish as a fasting food was by no means universal among upper-status families. The majority of historical sources about lay food consumption date to the 14th century and later (see Dyer, 1998). However, they also show considerable variation in the fasting regimes of individual households (Woolgar, 2006). The cloister garth. All four adult males buried in the cloister garth display relatively low carbon and nitrogen isotope values, which are closely comparable to those of the group from the church crossing. Three of these individuals (YFG7050, 7052, 7053) suffered extensive perimortem blade injuries and were buried together in a triple grave. Although the fourth (YFG7016) was interred a short distance apart, it can be suggested on the grounds of the isotopic evidence that he was connected to the others by more than just a coincidence in burial location. Unfortunately, none of these burials can be dated more precisely than between the 13th to 16th century (Period 6z). The cloister garth as a burial location was of varying significance in Medieval monasteries and, depending on the religious order, was used for both monastic and secular burial (Gilchrist and Sloane, 2005). Because of their violent death which ''is difficult to reconcile [with] monastic vows and the expected lifestyle of cloistered canons'' (Stroud and Kemp, 1993 p 143), it has usually been assumed that the individuals from Fishergate priory were lay people. A similar explanation as for the group from the crossing could therefore be suggested for the apparent lack of marine foods in their diet. Nevertheless, the evidence becomes more intriguing when these samples are considered in the context of other individuals with perimortem trauma buried at the Fishergate priory. Samples were obtained for nine out of ten individuals with blade injuries from the priory phase. As Figure 7 shows, with the exception of one young adult male (YFG1592) from the southern cemetery who plots close to the population mean, all other samples appear rather unusual when compared with the males from the site, with d-values that are either noticeably lower or, in one case (YFG5720) significantly higher than the rest. Although burial locations may partly be responsible for this pattern—apart from the triple burial in the cloister garth, two of the individuals in question are from the crossing of the church—this configuration seems at the very least a curious coincidence. Blade-injured individuals. The site at Fishergate is well-known for its unusually high frequency of sharp force perimortem trauma. In a recent paper, Daniell (2001) considered possible explanations, including trial by combat, a specialist hospital for the treatment of 171 Fig. 7. Individuals with perimortem blade injuries in comparison with other males buried at Fishergate (see Table 1 for details). With exception of YFG1592, all exhibit values that are either significantly higher or lower than the bulk of the male samples. For faunal data see captions Figure 2. weapon injuries at the priory and an unrecorded tradition among the Gilbertines of burying victims of violent conflict. With the additional information from the stable isotope data, the latter two possibilities now seem increasingly likely. The dietary evidence strongly suggests that the blade-injured individuals did not belong to the ''usual clientele'' that chose to be buried at Fishergate. Their presence may be best explained if they were brought to the priory because this was usual practice whenever men were injured or died as the result of a violent encounter and their bodies were not claimed for burial elsewhere. For this, it is not even necessary to invoke the idea of a universal Gilbertine custom for the treatment or burial of combat victims. A local burial tradition could already have developed at Fishergate in its prepriory days. The preceding 11th and 12th century cemetery of St. Andrews is also notable for a high incidence of perimortem trauma. While most Period 6 blade-injured individuals from Fishergate appear unusual because of the apparent lack of marine protein in their diet, the young male YFG5720 (dated Period 6a/b) is an extreme outlier from the rest of the population because he evidently consumed significantly more marine foods than any of his contemporaries. At the same time, he exhibits very high d15N values that could suggest the consumption of high trophic level marine mammals such as whales or seals were it not for the fact that these animals were not very widely eaten in Medieval England. No similar isotopic signature has been observed for any human in the York dataset (see Müldner and Richards, 2007), or indeed in any isotopic data available from early historical England (Richards et al., 1998; Privat et al., 2002; Müldner and Richards, 2005; Fuller et al., 2006). The closest parallel so far is in data reported from Medieval Orkney in the Scottish Isles (Richards et al., 2006). However, the d15N ratio of YFG5720 is still almost 2% higher than in the Scottish individuals with similar d13C values. The same is the case when the individual is compared with human populations, which are known to have subsisted primarily on marine resources (e.g. Richards and Hedges, 1999; Coltrain et al., 2004). Although this might still suggest that YFG5720 is a migrant from abroad, his values, unusual American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa 172 G. MÜLDNER AND M.P. RICHARDS Fig. 8. Line-of-best-fit computed for the Fishergate population excluding YFG5720. Note that the outlier nevertheless falls directly on the regression line, which suggests a diet similar to the rest of the population, yet with a significantly greater contribution of marine protein. For faunal data see captions Figure 2. as they are, nevertheless fit into the context of the Fishergate dataset. They lie directly on a regression line computed for the priory population when YG5720 is excluded (Fig. 8). His d-values therefore could be explained by increased consumption of marine protein in combination with the diet that was otherwise typical for York, which included various 15N-enriched foods and especially pork (Müldner and Richards, 2007). YFG5720 was buried in the priory's chapterhouse, a position often assigned to superiors of the order (Gilchrist and Sloane, 2005; but see Daniell, 1997). If he was indeed part of the Fishergate community, he must have kept a separate table. Otherwise the large dietary differences between him and the remainder of the population could not be explained. At the abbot's table at Westminster Abbey, for example, fish was served more frequently and in greater quantities than in the ordinary messes (Harvey, 1993). The house at Fishergate was only small, however, and by no means wealthy. It is therefore doubtful whether even its priors could have afforded the very special life-style that is attested by the stable isotope data. The probability of a monastic vocation for YFG5720 has previously been questioned on account of his violent death (Stroud and Kemp, 1993). If one nevertheless accepts that his place of burial indicates an affiliation with the Church, he may have been a high-ranking cleric from elsewhere in town, perhaps with a political function in the retinue of the Archbishop of York. Nevertheless, certain lay people also used stricter abstinence from meat than their peers (usually in favor of fish) as a means to demonstrate their religious devotion (Woolgar, 2006). If the priory at Fishergate was indeed traditionally the burial place of those who had suffered a violent death in or around York, then a particularly pious lifestyle, as suggested by his diet, could have been the reason why YFG5720 was awarded a privileged burial location in the chapterhouse. CONCLUSIONS When the stable isotope data from St. Andrew's priory are considered in comparison with other early historical populations from York, the diversity of diets that is reflected in the Fishergate dataset is obvious (Müldner and Richards, 2007). It suggests profound social differentiation expressed by ways of food consumption that is well known from documentary evidence about Medieval diet. However, when the data are analyzed in detail, the observed patterns do not conform easily with prior expectations about the diet of individuals buried in ''high'' and ''low'' status locations or areas reserved for the members of the Gilbertine order. Instead, they highlight certain groups or individuals that would not necessarily have appeared ''special'' by other lines of inquiry. Stable isotope data thereby offer new information for interpreting the complex spatial and social organization of burial at the site. Although dietary reconstruction by stable isotope analysis may therefore not be sensitive enough to track all of the inequalities that characterized Medieval food consumption, this capacity to draw attention to previously unrecognized patterns makes it, in our view, a much more useful tool than if the data merely reiterated the results of other methods. The results of this study emphasize the importance of large sample sizes for identifying real trends within a population. With the technical advancements of the last decade it is now possible to analyze greater numbers of samples with relative ease and at (comparatively) low costs. We can therefore considerably increase the amount and quality of new information gained for a particular site or time period. Finally, Fishergate priory is of course a special type of site and its burial population is by no means representative of the inhabitants of Later Medieval York. Further investigations, especially of nonmonastic cemeteries, are therefore needed to refine or challenge the interpretations presented here. The data already available demonstrate that such analyses have great potential to significantly increase our knowledge of the complex interactions between life-style and burial in Medieval England. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We gratefully acknowledge the York Archaeological Trust Finds Department and especially thank Christine McDonnell, Beverley Shaw, and Annie Jowett for providing samples and much support. We thank Ken Neal and Andrew Gledhill for assistance with the analytical work, Chris Woolgar for many instructive discussions, and Ben Fuller and Mandy Jay for constructive criticism on the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED Ambrose SH, Norr L. 1993. Experimental evidence for the relationship of the carbon isotope ratios of whole diet and dietary protein to those of bone collagen and carbonate. In: Lambert JB, Grupe G, editors. Prehistoric human bone: archaeology at the molecular level. Berlin: Springer. p 1–37. Barrett JH, Locker AM, Roberts CM. 2004. 'Dark Age economics' revisited: the English fish bone evidence AD 600-1600. Antiquity 78:618–636. Brown TA, Nelson DE, Vogel JS, Southon JR. 1988. Improved collagen extraction by modified longin method. Radiocarbon 30:171–177. Carlin M, Rosenthal JT. 1998. Food and eating in Medieval Europe. London: Hambledon Press. American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa DIET AT FISHERGATE Coltrain JB, Hayes MG, O'Rourke DH. 2004. Sealing, whaling and caribou: the skeletal isotope chemistry of Eastern Arctic foragers. J Archaeol Sci 31:39–57. Conover WJ. 1999. Practical non-parametric statistics, 3rd ed. New York: Wiley. Cox G, Sealy J, Schrire C, Moriss A. 2001. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic analyses of the underclass at the colonial Cape of Good Hope in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. World Archaeol 33:73–97. Daniell C. 1997. Death and burial in Medieval England 1066– 1550. London: Routledge. Daniell C. 2001. Battle and trial: weapon injury burials of St Andrew's church, Fishergate, York. Mediev Archaeol 45:220– 226. DeNiro MJ. 1985. Postmortem preservation and alteration of in vivo bone collagen isotope ratios in relation to palaeodietary reconstruction. Nature 317:806–809. Dyer C. 1998. Standards of living in the Later Middle Ages: social change in England c. 1200–1520. Revised edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Flandrin JL, Montanari M, editors. 1996. Histoire de l'Alimentation. Paris: Fayard. Fuller BT, Fuller JL, Sage NE, Harris DA, O'Connell TC, Hedges REM. 2004. Nitrogen balance and d15N: why you're not what you eat during pregnancy. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 18:2889–2896. Fuller BT, Molleson TI, Harris DA, Gilmour LT, Hedges REM. 2006. Isotopic evidence for breastfeeding and possible adult dietary differences from Late/sub-Roman Britain. Am J Phys Anthropol 129:45–54. Gilchrist R, Sloane B. 2005. Requiem: the Medieval monastic cemetery in Britain. London: Museum of London Archaeology Service. Goldberg PJP. 1992. Women, work, and life cycle in a medieval economy. Women in York and Yorkshire c.1300–1520. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Golding B. 1995. Gilbert of Sempringham and the Gilbertine Order c.1130–c.1300. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Goodman AH, Dufour DL, Pelto GH, editors. 2000. Nutritional anthropology: biocultural perspectives on food and nutrition. Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing. Hadley DM. 2001. Death in Medieval England. Stroud, Gloucs.: Tempus. Harvey B. 1993. Living and dying in England 1100-1540. The monastic experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Herrscher E, Bocherens H, Valentin F, Colardelle R. 2001. Comportements alimentaire au Moyen Âge à Grenoble: application de la biogéochimie isotopique à la nécropole Saint-Laurent (XIIIe-XVe siècles, Isère, France). C R Acad Sci III 324:479– 487. Kasuya E. 2001. Mann-Whitney U test when variances are unequal. Anim Behav 61:1247–1249. Katzenberg MA. 2000. Stable isotope analysis: a tool for studying past diet, demography and life history. In: Katzenberg MA, Saunders SR, editors. Biological anthropology of the human skeleton. New York: Wiley-Liss. p 305–327. Katzenberg MA, Lovell NC. 1999. Stable isotope variation in pathological bone. Int J Osteoarchaeol 9:316–324. Kemp RL, Graves CP. 1996. The church and Gilbertine priory of St. Andrew, Fishergate. York: Council for British Archaeology. Knüsel CJ, Göggel S, Lucy D. 1997. Comparative degenerative joint disease of the vertebral column in the Medieval monastic cemetery of the Gilbertine priory of St. Andrew, Fishergate, York, England. Am J Phys Anthropol 103:481–495. Mays S. 2006. The osteology of monasticism in Medieval England. In: Gowland R, Knüsel C, editors. The social archaeology of funerary remains. Oxford: Oxbow. p 179–189. Mays SA. 1997. Carbon stable isotope ratios in Mediaeval and later human skeletons from Northern England. J Archaeol Sci 24:561–567. Müldner G. 2005. Eboracum—Jorvik—York: a diachronic study of human diet in York by stable isotope analysis. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Bradford. 173 Müldner G, Richards MP. 2005. Fast or feast: reconstructing diet in Later Medieval England by stable isotope analysis. J Archaeol Sci 32:39–48. Müldner G, Richards MP. 2006. Diet in Medieval England: the evidence from stable isotopes. In: Woolgar C, Serjeantson D, Waldron T, editors. Food in Medieval England: history and archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p 228–238. Müldner G, Richards MP. 2007. Stable isotope evidence for 1500 years of human diet at the city of York, UK. Am J Phys Anthropol doi 10.1002/ajpa .20561. O'Connell TC, Hedges REM. 1999. Investigations into the effect of diet on modern human hair isotopic values. Am J Phys Anthropol 108:409–425. Ortner DJ. 2003. Identification of pathological conditions in human skeletal remains, 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press. Parker Pearson M. 2003. Food, culture and identity: an introduction and overview. In: Parker Pearson M, editor. Food, culture and identity in the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. Oxford: Archaeopress. p 1–30. Polet C, Katzenberg MA. 2003. Reconstruction of the diet in a Mediaeval monastic community from the coast of Belgium. J Archaeol Sci 30:525–533. Privat KL, O'Connell T, Richards MP. 2002. Stable isotope analysis of human and faunal remains from the Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Berinsfield, Oxfordshire: dietary and social implications. J Archaeol Sci 29:779–790. Rhodes JA, Knüsel CJ. 2005. Activity-related skeletal change in medieval humeri: cross-sectional and architectural alterations. Am J Phys Anthropol 128:536–546. Richards MP, Fuller BT, Molleson TI. 2006. Stable isotope palaeodietary study of humans and fauna from the multiperiod (Iron Age, Viking and Late Medieval) site of Newark Bay, Orkney. J Archaeol Sci 33:122–131. Richards MP, Hedges REM. 1999. Stable isotope evidence for similarities in the types of marine foods used by Late Mesolithic humans at sites along the Atlantic Coast of Europe. J Archaeol Sci 26:717–722. Richards MP, Hedges REM, Molleson TI, Vogel JC. 1998. Stable isotope analysis reveals variations in human diet at the Poundbury Camp cemetery site. J Archaeol Sci 25:1247–1252. Richards MP, Mays S, Fuller BT. 2002. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values of bone and teeth reflect weaning age at the Medieval Wharram Percy site, Yorkshire, UK. Am J Phys Anthropol 119:205–210. Rogers J, Waldron T. 2001. DISH and the monastic way of life. Int J Osteoarchaeol 11:357–365. Schäuble A. 2006. Ernährungsrekonstruktion dreier mittelalterlicher Bevölkerungen anhand der Analyse stabiler Isotope und Spurenelemente. Ph.D. thesis, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin. Available at: http://www.diss.fu-berlin.de/2006/1/ (accessed 12/07/2006). Schwarcz HP, Schoeninger MJ. 1991. Stable isotope analyses in human nutritional ecology. Yrbk Phys Anthropol 34:283–321. Scully T. 1995. The art of cookery in the Middle Ages. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Sealy J. 2001. Body tissue chemistry and palaeodiet. In: Brothwell DR, Pollard AM, editors. Handbook of archaeological science. Chichester: Wiley. p 269–279. Spencer C. 2004. British food. An extraordinary thousand years of history. London: Grub Street. Stroud G, Kemp RL. 1993. Cemeteries of the church and priory of St Andrew, Fishergate. York: Council for British Archaeology. Sullivan A. 2004. Reconstructing relationships among mortality, status, and gender at the Medieval Gilbertine priory of St. Andrew, Fishergate, York. Am J Phys Anthropol 124:330– 345. Tieszen LL, Fagre T. 1993. Effect of diet quality and composition on the isotopic composition of respiratory CO2, bone collagen, bioapatite and soft tissues. In: Lambert JB, Grupe G, editors. Prehistoric human bone: archaeology at the molecular level. Berlin: Springer. p 121–155. American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa 174 G. MÜLDNER AND M.P. RICHARDS van Klinken GJ. 1999. Bone collagen quality indicators for palaeodietary and radiocarbon measurements. J Archaeol Sci 26:687–695. Vanderklift MA, Ponsard S. 2003. Sources of variation in consumerdiet d15N enrichment: a meta-analysis. Oecologia 136:169–182. White CD, Armelagos GJ. 1997. Osteopenia and stable isotope ratios in bone collagen of nubian female mummies. Am J Phys Anthropol 103:185–199. Wild EM, Arlamovsky KA, Golser R, Kutschera W, Priller A, Puchegger S, Rom W, Steier P, Vycudilik W. 2000. 14C dating with the bomb peak: an application to forensic medicine. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res B 172:944–950. Woolgar C. 2000. ''Take this penance now, and afterwards the fare will improve'': seafood and Late Medieval diet. In: Starkey DJ, Reid C, Ashcroft N, editors. England's sea fisheries: the commercial sea fisheries of England and Wales since 1300. London: Chatham. p 36–44. Woolgar C. 2006. Group diets in Late Medieval England. In: Woolgar C, Serjeantson D, Waldron T, editors. Food in Medieval England: history and archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p 191–200. Woolgar C, Serjeantson D, Waldron T, editors. 2006. Food in Medieval England: history and archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa

subset: commoncrawl


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Oh god not the "____ needs the ____ treatment" articles again


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It may be tempting to hire the first HVAC company in the phone book, but it's important to get references from them. You must know whether or not their customers have had an issues, and this includes trouble with the quote they were given or workers not showing up on time. You can avoid scam artists, yet only when you actually check up on references.
When deciding where to place your AC, condition the direction of air flow. If you're stuck with putting it in a corner, buy one that lets the air flow to be redirected so that it is not flowing towards the wall.
An HVAC system is expensive. Therefore, you want to make sure that you work with a reputable contractor or company to ensure that you get the most from your investment. Always get references from anyone that you are considering working with, and make sure to follow up on each of those references.
Consider which direction the air flows out of your air conditioner when you decide where to place it. If you have to place it in a corner, get one with moving vents.
When you hire a contractor to do a job, be sure to listen to what they tell you. For Elk Grove, CA mold damage public adjuster , they can give you advice on how to keep your HVAC in working order. Ask about maintenance tips and how often you should be cleaning or servicing the unit.
You do not want your living environment too hot or too cold, and having a good HVAC system that is running how it is supposed to is key. Thankfully, you just learned some helpful tips that showed you how to spot problems, along with how to properly maintain your HVAC system. Keep these tips in mind as you perform regular maintenance on your HVAC system.


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ASOS Style notes:
Lounge set by asos design, high neck, come together embroidered design, spread a little love, contrast stripe to trims, ribbed trims, matching shorts, drawstring waist. Giving you the confidence to express your individuality, asos design interprets major trends, adding a unique asos spin from our london design team. All the denim, dresses, jackets and pieces you need and in all our fit ranges: asos curve, tall, petite and maternity to invent a style thats all yours, then switch it up again tomorrow, making every day, night and everything in-between as extraordinary as you are. Your life is eclectic and unexpected and, now, so is your wardrobe.
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Would you like to know more about mind control, seeking positive energies, and being a productive part in society ? Join Jansenius T. (Tito) Lange Jr. with radio host Gigi, as he presents to you learning tools to enhance your mind. Learn how to efficiently lose the negative baggage that bogs your spirit down. Re-direct your life on a new life pathway with Learning The Mind and all of the capabilities it offers you. Tito is a modern philosopher who has the experience in teaching you all the elemental keys to a better life. You can find more in detail in his book, Wise Mind by visiting www.wiseminddevelopment.org.
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U shaped desk ikea – Many workers began to consider some of the advantages of working at home, and many companies now allow their employees to telecommute. Every day more and more people are choosing to start their own home based business to avoid the dreaded 9-5 working days. It doesn't matter why you did it, if you choose to…
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Receive a business credit card. You'll find a lot of offers online, or you might want to cease into your bank and Examine. Question when they report back to the credit bureaus and go along with a card that does. It's also possible to Examine to discover Should the card features benefits or details.
If you need to benefit from a condition's tax and lawful Positive aspects, it is best to file a Certificate of Incorporation with that Secretary of State when developing your business. For example, about 50 % of general public corporations prefer to incorporate in Delaware and Nevada to save lots of taxes.
three assessments While this account doesn't provide fascination, it's nevertheless an awesome selection for small business house owners who are merely getting started, as Additionally, it lacks a regular rate, ATM expenses and costs for online Monthly bill shell out. You will find a $3 payment for paper statements, while. Find out more 18867 Very best for Money Businesses
When entrepreneurs start thinking of their business as getting fiscally different from on their own, It truly is generally a good signal. It displays that their way of thinking has shifted to development.
Incorporate your business. Despite the fact that you might be incorporated any time you're reading through this, it warrants a mention. With sole proprietorships and typical partnerships, the business is lawfully the same as the owner; for that reason, there might be no separation of business credit historical past from personal.
Your business credit score will most likely change by credit bureau mainly because Each individual bureau calculates scores in a different way. But generally, The easiest method to build business credit is usually to update your business facts with business credit bureaus, establish trade lines, borrow from lenders that report to credit bureaus, and make payments early or punctually.
Create a small business bank account –in advance of deciding on a fiscal establishment for your banking make a listing of the economical products you may have. Think about a credit union or Local community bank since they are much additional adaptable in nowadays's economic surroundings.
A Corporation is an Affiliation of people, made by regulation and existing being an entity with powers and liabilities independent of People of its users. In the situation of revenue corporations, its house owners are shareholders. The homeowners of nonprofits are users or from time to time shareholders.
Establish a business telephone number. Regardless of whether you utilize a landline, cellphone or you employ VoIP, Have got a individual number for your business and as part of your business's authorized identify. Checklist that number from the Listing so it are available.
How am i able to build business credit? I am an entrepreneur looking to build my business credit into a different entity aside from my personal credit. Is it possible to give some assistance on how To do that, and a far more instant query: Will making use of to get a personal card ding my business credit? -- Sanjay
Thank you for that comments Lazaro and you also might want to check out my hottest put up on the highest twenty five business credit building principles for small business homeowners.
But opening a business checking account by itself is not plenty of to build a robust small-business credit profile. It really is a good idea to open a business credit card and use it relatively generally. Fork out the bill in time and ideally, in comprehensive, every month, and don't max out the card.
to provide a normal FICO score, business pop over to these guys credit scores are much less streamlined. Just about every business credit bureau has another formula for calculating scores, and diverse lenders report different types of information, suggests Gavin Harding, a senior business guide at Experian.
Articles of incorporation would be the doc needed to register a corporation which has a point out and acts to be like it a constitution to acknowledge the establishment of the corporation. The doc outlines The essential information and facts needed to sort a corporation, the governance of the corporation, and the corporate statutes in the state in which the articles of incorporation is filed. In the United States, articles of incorporation are filed Along with the Workplace of your Secretary of State while in the point out exactly where the business chooses to incorporate.
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India Buildings Limited announces the appointment of Thomas & Adamson as project managers and quantity surveyors for the landmark development of the first Virgin Hotel outside of the US.
The 225-bed project will occupy the 19th century India Buildings on Victoria Street in the Old Town of the Scottish Capital and is set to open in 2020. India Buildings forms part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site, bordered by the historic Cowgate and the Grassmarket to the South and Victoria Street to the North, which leads up onto the world-famous Royal Mile and Edinburgh Castle.
Thomas & Adamson will oversee the development of the five-star blend of bedrooms with multiple bars and restaurants. The property will include one of the brand's flagship Commons Club restaurants, meeting and conference facilities and function rooms. The scope of work for the project comprises refurbishment of the three existing listed buildings and a new-build pavilion extension housing guest rooms, landscaping and public realm works.
The project will be developed by Flemyn LLP assisted by Jansons Property and managed by Virgin Hotels.
Brian Donaldson, Partner at Thomas & Adamson, said, "We are delighted to have been selected to work on an iconic project such as the country's first Virgin Hotel, which has attracted such international interest. We have some fantastic hospitality projects under our belts across the UK and Middle East in particular. This sector, despite the widely anticipated challenges of Brexit, has continued to develop. We have a strong pipeline of hospitality projects coming through this year and expect growth to continue."


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The apartment is located in water Eye zone, 800 meters from the beach of Belharucas and beach water eyes. You can enjoy the tranquility of the area as well as the Water eye center where you will find all serviçoes.
The apartment comprises:
, Parking, shared garden.
1 double bedroom, 1 double sofa bed, 1 en-complete bathroom, 1 separate kitchen and 1 terrace with barbecue.
TV, fitted kitchen with appliances:
fridge, oven, microwave, washing machine, toaster.