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Month: March 2012
The Language of Trees: Ogham (Archaic Irish Script)
One of the stranger ancient scripts one might come across, Ogham is also known as the 'Celtic Tree Alphabet'. Estimated to have been used from the fourth to the tenth century AD it is believed to have been possibly named after the Irish god Ogma but this is debated widely. Ogham actually refers to the characters themselves, the script as a whole is more appropriately named Beith-luis-nin after the order of alphabet letters BLFSN.
The script originally contained twenty letters grouped into four groups of five. Five more letters were later added creating a fifth group. Each of these groups was named after its first letter. There are some four to five hundred surviving ogham inscriptions throughout Britain and Ireland with the largest number appearing in Pembrokeshire. The rest of the inscriptions were located around south-eastern Ireland, Scotland, Orkney, the Isle of Man and around the border of Devon and Cornwall. Ogham was used to write in Archaic Irish, Old Welsh and Latin mostly on wood and stone and is based on a high medieval Briatharogam tradition of ascribing the name of trees to individual characters. The inscriptions containing Ogham are almost exclusively made up of personal names and marks of land ownership.
Origin Theories
There are four popular theories discussing the origin of Ogham. The differing theories are unsurprising considering that the script has similarities to ciphers in Germanic runes, Latin, elder futhark and the Greek alphabet.
The first theory is based on the work of scholars such as Carney and MacNeill who suggest that Ogham was first created as a cryptic alphabet designed by the Irish. They assert that the Irish designed it in response to political, military and/or religious reasons so that those with knowledge of just Latin could not read it.
The second theory is held by McManus who argues that Ogham was invented by the first Christians in early Ireland in a quest for uniqueness. The argument maintains that the sounds of the primitive Irish language were too difficult to transcribe into Latin.
The third theory states that the Ogham script from invented in West Wales in the fourth century BC to intertwine the Latin alphabet with the Irish language in response to the intermarriage between the Romans and the Romanized Britons. This would account for the fact that some of the Ogham inscriptions are bilingual; spelling out Irish and Brythonic-Latin.
The fourth theory is supported by MacAlister and used to be popular before other theories began to overtake it. It states that Ogham was invented in Cisalpine Gaul around 600 BC by Gaulish Druids who created it as a hand signal and oral language. MacAliser suggests that it was transmitted orally until it was finally put into writing in early Christian Ireland. He argues that the lines incorporated into Ogham represent the hand by being based on four groups of five letters with a sequence of strokes from one to five. However, there is no evidence for MacAlisters theory that Ogham's language and system originated in Gaul.
Mythical theories for the origin of Ogham also appear in texts from the eleventh to fifteenth centuries. The eleventh century Lebor Gabala Erenn tells that Ogham was invented soon after the fall of the tower of Babel, as does the fifteenth century Auraicept na n-eces text. The Book of Babymote also includes ninty-two recorded secret modes of writing Ogham written in 1390-91.(Photo credit: Wikipedia)"]
The Characters
- Right side/downward strokesB beith [b] (*betwias)
- L luis [l]
- F fearn [w] (*wernā)
- S saille [s] (*salis)
- N nuin [n]
- Left side/upward strokes
- H úath [j]?
- D duir [d] (*daris)
- T tinne [t]
- C coll [k] (*coslas)
- Q ceirt [kʷ] (*kʷertā)
- Across/pendicular strokes
- notches (vowels)
- A ailm [a]
- O onn [o] (*osen)
- U úr [u]
- E edad [e]
- I idad [i]
Additional Reading
Carney, James. The Invention of the Ogam Cipher 'Ériu' 22, 1975, pp 62 –3, Dublin: Royal Irish Academy
Macalister, Robert A.S. The Secret Languages of Ireland, pp27 – 36, Cambridge University Press, 1937
Macalister, Robert A.S. Corpus inscriptionum insularum celticarum. First edition. Dublin: Stationery Office, 1945-1949.
McManus, Damian. Ogam: Archaizing, Orthography and the Authenticity of the Manuscript Key to the Alphabet, Ériu 37, 1988, 1-31. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy.
McManus, Damian. A Guide to Ogam, Maynooth 1991.
MacNeill, Eoin. Archaisms in the Ogham Inscriptions, 'Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy' 39, pp 33–53, Dublin
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Related articles
- Celtic Gods. (irishmediaman.wordpress.com)
Ammianus Marcellinus: Biographical Record in the Res Gestae
Ammianus Marcellinus is often proclaimed as the 'last great Roman historian' and his Res Gestae (history from AD354-378) as an accurate and objective account of events in the fourth century. But just how useful and reliable is this text in relation to the recounting of events? How does the author himself affect the way these events are portrayed in the Res Gestae? And how does it stand as an autobiographical text?
The Res Gestae is often acclaimed as a reliable history as told by its author, Ammianus Marcellinus; but can this interpretation really be upheld? Matthews asserts that Ammianus' depiction of the period from Nerva to the battle of Adrianoplein in 378 is an accurate representation of the authors own times.[1] An assessment of the Res Gestae could also suggest a different view. Ammianus' works are recognised as our fullest source for the period of the fourth century but their objectivity is also questioned. Barnes maintains a conviction quite opposite to Matthews and states that "Ammianus failed in his obligation as a historian to strive to transcend personal bias."[2]
Ammianus belonging to a select canon of great historians, who are known for reliability, immediately has an affect on the assessment of the Res Gestae.[3] One is tempted to believe that Ammianus' history is truly an objective account. But how can any author really create a work, factual or fictional, that does not contain any amount of bias? When Gibbon examines the ecclesiastical politics of Constantius' reign, he gives Ammianus praise as an 'unbiased witness'[4]. This view of Ammianus and his Res Gestae is debatable because no writing can ever be free of the author's own bias and self-involvement.
An analysis of the Res Gestae as a historical account of events suggests that it is highly subjective. Barnes asserts that Ammianus writes with unusual violence and ferocity indicating a subjective view of depicted events.[5] This is in contrast to the ideas of Gibbons and Matthews. Matthews does not appear to regard Ammianus as a historian but as a writer of the present period.[6] Gibbons praises Ammianus as the author of an 'objective history'. Matthews views the Res Gestae more as a narrative that accurately depicted the period of Ammianus through the eyes of the author and the ideologies of the time. The Res Gestae has been critically discussed in two dimensions, one portraying it as a purely historical work and another as a narrative depicting the times as viewed by the author.
The Res Gestae in modern analyses is seen as a "work of imaginative literature" which "exhibits the creative and imaginative powers of a novelist."[7] Matthews even likens the author's writing to scenes from a play. The confrontation, for instance, between Leonitus and Peter Valvomeres[8] exhibits "contrasting emotions and postures" leading to "ritual violence."[9] This suggests that the Res Gestae was created in part as an entertainment piece, written for a certain audience. In order to formulate this type of work the author has clearly emphasised and omitted several events. This assessment indicates that as an account of the times, the Res Gestae may well be incomplete and inaccurate, more to the likening of a narrative than a distinctly objective work.When critically assessing the Res Gestae as an account of the author's times one notices several inconsistencies within the text in comparison to contemporary works suggesting that the Res Gestae does not fully incorporate the most significant events and issues but more so those that concerned the mind of its author. With this in mind, it is indicative that the Res Gestae does not serve the purpose of a history due to its inability to present events in an objective manner. For instance, the lack of references to the uprising Christian values could be seen as a failing on behalf of Ammianus. Ammianus leaves out the majority of ecclesiastical events and affairs such as those that occupied Constantius' reign. Elliot describes Ammianus as a pagan apologist who treats Christianity unfairly and it appears that there is an irremovable inconsistency in what the author does say about Christianity.[10] Despite the debates, the Res Gestae still is the fullest account of the fourth century that survives to the present day. The surviving half of Ammianus' works provides an overview of events and subjects from the Caesar Gallus to the siege of Adrianople.[11] Particularly significant is its use as a source for Roman policy. Seager examines the account of events on the Rhine and the Danube, asserting that such accounts show that policy was "fundamentally defensive" with a priority of keeping out barbarians or to drive them out.[12] This theme of action in response to barbarian frontier violations is a constant throughout the narrative.
Ammianus also appears to manipulate events subtlety to imply alternate motives of those concerned. This is seen in the account of Constantius on the Rhine against the Alamanni in 354; where Constantius took responsibility in the new found peace.[13] Ammianus recounts that the peace was in fact a result of a fluke and offers religious grounds for the Alamanni seeking peace rather than the actions of Constantius.[14] What Ammianus thought of those concerned shaped his narrative, such as his favourable tone with the emperor Julian and unfavourable tone in reference to Constantius. This while showing the great bias, within the writings which would be unsuitable for a historian, gives the reader an important look at the character of important figures through the eyes of someone who lived under their influence.
The Res Gestae provides a look into the character of the empires and important people of the times. This shows a biographical streak to the writing which is often not so closely associated with the writing of a history. For example, Ammianus gives us an overview of Julian which is almost unrivalled. Ammianus both praises and criticises Julian and provides a unique look into his personality. Ammianus tells us that Julian had an inclination towards pagan practices and gods from a young age but kept up the pretence that he was a Christian for survivals sake, and later his Christian education influenced his take on paganism.[15] This is a view which is in contrast with many others such as Browning's who asserts that Julian broke completely away from Christianity.[16] Ammianus in regards to this biographical theme discloses both his likes and dislikes of the individuals concerned with an unusual vigor. The Res Gestae in terms of this could be seen as more a record of personalities and critics of them, rather than a history of the author's times.
The question still remains whether or not Ammianus faithfully reflects the world that he describes or a completely subjective view. Auerbach analyses Ammianus as portraying a highly grim view of the events of the fourth century and failing to adequately indicate historical and social contexts.[18] This idea is criticised by Matthews who believes that scholars are purely being evasive and that the Res Gestae can not be judged in this manner.[19] Ammianus should instead be seen as a writer of his own times; it will of course have been subject to Ammianus' pessimistic and optimistic views on certain events which he himself witnessed and was affected by.
While the events of the Res Gestae are open to interpretation, Ammianus' writing does give us a rare look into the attitudes of certain social groups. Firstly, Ammianus was a military man and his writings were subject to the attitudes that accompanied this status. One could assert that the Res Gestae can be used as a source for Military attitudes, especially those of the common soldier with which Ammianus was acutely conscious of.[20] The use of the first person in the text within the campaigns he describes indicates that Ammianus had indeed lived and worked hard throughout his life and understood the workings of the military and war.[21] Ammianus' direct involvement in the events of the fourth century provides a rare outlook. Matthews clearly defines this assessment, stating that "Ammianus deserves to be treated as the living product of time, place and memory."[22] With this in mind, the account of the author's times in the Res Gestae regains ground as a significant fourth century text.
From the Res Gestae the reader also gets a look into the priorities and attitudes of the Roman upper classes from Ammianus' treatment of them. One of the most defined of these is their attitude towards foreigners. Thompson states that Ammianus doubted the existence of "sincere friendship at Rome."[23] The Res Gestae accounts several incidents where the attitude towards foreigners is severely negative in the minds of the Roman citizens. Often Ammianus finds significant fault with the Upper classes and their prizing of pride, popularity, wealth and superstition over the intimacy of their fellows, lower classes and foreigners.[24] He also brings particular attention to how they quickly lost interest in new comers when they did greet them.
In the surviving books of the Res Gestae, Ammianus only makes one clear reference to his background. This appears in the closing statements when he reveals 'haec ut miles quondam et Graecus…pro virium explicavi mensura'[25] that he is writing as a soldier and a Greek. Apart from this statement, the life of Ammianus must be interpreted through the many indirect references and the grammar used in the Res Gestae, which holds a strong autobiographical tone. This is firstly illustrated by the author's use of the first person plural with the events of 363 onwards.[26] The assessment that Ammianus was a military man who served in Julian's expeditions is noted from his account of the crossing of the Khabur at Cercusium during Julian's advance in book 23.[27] Here, Ammianus changes his writing to include first person plurals opposed to the third person plurals he had been using in previous books. The Res Gestae provides us with a fair timeline of the author's life through his associations with the military campaigns he recounts, and an overview of his status and background. Ammianus first appears on the staff of Ursicinus in 354 as it clearly states "…Ursicinus, to whose staff I had been attached by the Emperor's order, was summoned from Nisibis…"[28] Ammianus' personal involvement in events becomes more pronounced in progressing Books. He often associates himself with the trials and tribulations of Ursicinus to whom he had great loyalty, as well as indicating his involvement in campaigns of Julian and events close toAntioch, where he may have originated from. Ammianus' on occasion seems to omit himself from the text where one may expect to see him. This suggests that in the intervening years in Julian's reign he was not himself held highly-regarded. What the reader gathers from the Res Gestae about the life of Ammianus is itself bias material which is subject to the author's own wish to glorify himself and his peers and proclaim his own ideas.
Scholars have made reference to a letter of Libanius to a Marcellinus residing in Rome, and regard it as a strong standpoint as to which one can reconstruct the background of Ammianus Marcellinus. There is however argument for and against this Marcellinus being the Marcellinus who penned the Res Gestae. Where Matthews asserts that this Marcellinus is indisputably the author of the Res Gestae, other scholars have critically analysed it with the belief that this letter could have been penned to another with a similar name. Fornara, Bowerstock and Barnes are three such scholar that in recent years have challenged the traditional identification of the recipient.[29] These three scholars have brought to light disputes concerning the place of origin for the recipient being Antioch, however in more recent debates Barnes has moved slightly towards Matthews' view.
With this in mind the modern scholar should turn their attention back to the writing of the author himself and the indications that he personally makes to his life. Barnes asserts that it is necessary to use both indirect indications within a text and any explicit external evidence to recreate the author's life.[30] While this is indeed an important way of exploring evidence and interpretation, in the case of Ammianus where the most accessible external reference is in dispute, the Res Gestae becomes the most significant source of information for the author's own life.
Ammianus Marcellinus' Res Gestae can be assessed from several standpoints. As a historical account it is full of bias and subjectivity that many scholars believe is a failing on the part of the author. But when seen as an account of the author's own life and times, as an account of the present day rather than a historical work these failings emerge as a unique eyewitness view of events. In critically analysing the Res Gestae one sees that the inconsistencies in the text obscure much of the history and as an account of events may be seen as unreliable. The Res Gestae on the other hand provides a record of social ideologies and caricatures, as well as an autobiographical streak that allows for a fair account of the life of the author through indirect references. Ammianus is by no means an objective historian and his works are subject to fault and omission but as an account of his life and times they are invaluable.
[1] Matthews, J., 'Ammianus' (1989), p.228
[2] Barnes, T.D., 'Ammianus Marcellinus and the Representation of Historical Reality' (London, 1998), p.viii
[3] Such authors in this canon include Tacitus and Livy which Ammianus' works are often read in relation and comparison to
[4] Gibbon, E., 'A Vindication of Some Passages in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Chapters of the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire' (London, 1779), p.110-111; 'The English Essays of Edward Gibbon' ed. Craddock, P.A., (Oxford, 1972), p.299
[5] Barnes, op.cit., p.8
[6] Matthews, op.cit, p.28
[7] Barnes, op.cit., p.198
[8] Ammianus, op.cit., 14.11
[9] Matthews, J., 'Homo Victor. Classical Essays for John Bramble' (Bristol, 1987), p.279
[10] Barnes, op.cit., p.18
[11] Ammianus, op.cit, 15
[12] Seager, R., 'Roman Policy on the Rhine and the Danube in Ammianus' The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol.49, No.2 (1999), p.579
[13] Ammianus, op.cit., 10
[14] Seager, op.cit., p.580
[15] Ammianus, op.cit., 25.3-7
[16] Browning, The Emperor Julian (Los Angeles, 1978), p.109
[17] Ammianus, op.cit., p.248 – Julian's extensive sacrifice made even the pagans uneasy, Ammianus' criticism as a pagan scholar illustrates this uneasiness
[18] Auerbach, 'Mimesis' (1953), p.53-60
[19] Barnes, op.cit., p.14
[20] Thompson, E.A., 'Ammianus Marcellinus and the Romans'Greece andRome, Vol.11, No.33 (1942), p.132
[21] ibid.134
[22] Matthews, J., 'The Roman Empire of Ammianus' (Baltimore, 1989), p.7
[23] Thompson, op.cit., p.133
[24] ibid.132
[25] Ammianus, op.cit., 31.16.9
[26] Barnes, op.cit., p.1, Ammianus, op.cit., 23.5.7
[27] Ammianus, op.cit., 23.5.7
[28] Ibid., 14.9
[29] Barnes, op.cit., p.56
[30] Ibid., p.55
Tools of the Trade: Archaeology
An archaeologist is not an archaeologist without their trowel! So think again when describing Indiana Jones or Lara Croft as archaeologists! Impostors!
Bunnings in Australia only does so well when looking for archaeology tools. For the best tools one unfortunately has to look further afield. My first archaeological dig was when I was 17 years old; 12 weeks in the baking sun of the Australian summer (fortunately with a pub next door…but I was 17). The first week there I overheard some of the men betting on how long this little girl would last in archaeology, the bet rested at around a week. Never underestimate anyone my dears. After ten weeks at my 18th Birthday they presented me with my very own proper archaeologist's trowel, among other tools, and respect. Well I use that trowel to this very day and it has served me in archaeology around the world.
Trowels are just the base of the archaeologist's toolbox. We must not forget the range of excavation tools, surveying and drawing tools, finds and storage tools, specialist tools and kits that an aspiring archaeologist may eventually need as they are involved in more and more digs.
So here are the two suppliers I primarily recommend:
Archtools: Archaeology Tools, Trowels and Equipment
Archtools was established to offer a bespoke affordable solution on quality archaeology trowels, tools and equipment. Our products are trusted by professional archaeologists, institutions and universities the world over and have been tried and tested by qualified archaeologists. Because in archaeology, it's the quality that really matters.
I recommend Archtools highly; fast delivery and great variety with reasonable prices.
Past Horizons: The Archaeologist's Toolstore
Poetic License: An Introduction to Greek (and Latin) Meter
The study of Greek poetry is not easy without at least a basic understanding of the Greek meter. Annis (2006) rightly states that scholars have a tendency to become over focused on the meter within a poem but for the those beginning their study of Greek poetry it is an essential point of comprehension. By understanding the meter of Greek poetry one can also appreciate the creation of the text and the art of the poets involved.
First of all there are a few words that must be defined:
Prosody: Prosody is the study of the elements of a poem including meter, rhythm and intonation.
Meter: Meter is the definitive pattern established fir a verse.
Greek Meter
Unlike in English poetry, the Greek meter is based on patterns of long and short syllables.
A long syllable is represented by a macron "―"
A short syllable is represented by a "U"
A syllable which can be long or short is represented by "U"
The length of a syllable is most easily identified in Epic verses. Note that syllable length in meter is determined by the line not the word.
When discussing Greek poetry one must comprehend the basic unit of time, which is in this case a mora. Shorts syllables are one mora and long syllables are two morae. Beyond two morae the one divides them up in a number of ways which form time division patterns forming the fundamental blocks of Greek verse. These are called feet. For instance:
3 Morae
iamb = U― (eg. describe or include)
trochee = ―U (eg. picture or flower)
tribrach = UUU
4 Morae
spondee = ― ― (eg. e–nough)
dactyl = ―UU (eg. an-no-tate)
anapest = UU― (eg. com-pre-hend)
5 Morae
cretic = ―U―
bacchius = U― ―
6 Morae
choriamb = ―UU―
ionic = UU― ―
Some Common Meters
The Hexameter
The Hexameter is the oldest of the Greek Meters. In epic hexameter two short syllables can be replaced by one long syllable but not the other way round. For more information regarding replacement see Halporn et.al (1980).
There are too many variations and rules to include in an introduction so let us look at two of the more common and simpler meters to get an idea of the use of morae, feet, syllable length and use.
Dactylic Hexameter
Also known as heroic hexameter, the dactylic hexameter is traditionally association with epic poetry in both Greek and Latin. It was hence considered the Grand Style of classical poetry. It is used in both of Homer's works, the Iliad and the Odyssey, and in Virgil's Aeneid. It also appears in Hesiod's works.
Dactylic Hexameter is made up of six dactyls ―UU with the last foot appearing as an anceps syllable (a syllable which can appear either short or long). A dactyl never appears in the last foot. The last foot hence takes the form of a spondee ―― or a trochee ―U. It appears as:
A caesura occurs in the middle of the hexameter within the third foot, either after the first long or short syllable. A caesura is a break where a word ends in the middle of a foot. It occurs as a naturally falling slight pause. It is generally indicated by a bar, |. So the third foot will appear as ―|UU or ―U|U. For more information on the Caesurae and Bridges I suggest reading Annis 2006.
Here is an example of Dactylic Hexameter in the Odyssey 1.1:
ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε, μοῦσα, πολύτροπον, ὃς μάλα πολλὰ
Iambic Pentameter
The Iambic Pentameter is commonly used in traditional verse and drama. The word Iambic refers to the type of foot being used (U―). Pentameter indicates that there are five of these feet. In English we see these Iambic morae in words like trapeze where the stress is laid on the last syllable. So a typical Iambic Pentameter would look like this:
Poets have had a tendency to vary their use of the iambic pentameter but keeping the iamb U― as the most common foot. However the second foot is almost always U―. The first foot though often changes through the reverse of syllables to become ―U. We see examples of this inversion in modern languages like in Shakespeare's Richard III 1.1:
Now is the winter of our discontent
Further Reading:
Halporn, J.W. et.al The Meters of Greek and Latin Poetry (1980)
Dale, A.M. Lyric Metres of Greek Drama (2010)
If you are interested in a detailed study of Greek scripts and how to learn them, have a look at THESE RESOURCES.
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Ancient Scripts of Egypt: An Introduction
Writing and literature is a significant part in the development of all cultures and civilisations, Ancient Egypt is no exception. Writing in ancient Egypt has a history of near three thousand years and in the study of this topic one sees that it can be broken down into a large amount of detail, documents and texts can be categorised based on diverse criteria. In order to gain a basic understanding of literature in Ancient Egypt it is important to focus on the process of development and in doing so look at the foundations of the topic.
Writing in ancient Egypt in the very beginning seems confined to a small group of the elite. Literacy was generally a trait of the educated class and the upper-levels of the government, their audience being largely educated individuals like themselves. Writing had a sacred quality for the ancient Egyptians and they were careful about what was written down as they believed that once something was written down it could became true.
The term 'Egyptian literature' generally refers to the entire surviving body of texts from the Pre-Ptolemaic periods, including texts of religious and funerary purpose, fictional or narrative texts and non-practical texts, but appears to have excludes the likes of practical texts such as letters and administrative works. Particular periods of Egyptian history highlight different genres of texts and the introduction of different scripts.
The most revered of the Ancient Egyptian scripts is hieroglyphs; first attested to around the period of Naqada III, with the discovery of inscribed labels in the excavation of Tomb U-j at Abydos. Hieroglyphs were used primarily for ornamental and monumental inscriptions and cursive hieroglyphs for religious texts. Terms for scripts in ancient Egypt relate the different functions and institutional contexts of the scripts. Hieroglyphs were known as 'mdw ntr' meaning 'god's words', illustrating the sacred function of this script. Cursive hieroglyphs are first attested in the first Dynasty and were used by scribes to write more easily in ink.
Aesthetic considerations were a determining factor in the layout of hieroglyphic inscriptions. Although the hieroglyphic script is made up of pictorial symbols, the script was primarily phonetic rather than pictorial with signs mostly having phonetic values.
Hieratic is first encountered from the end of the first dynastic period as a development as the cursive form of hieroglyphs used for everyday purposes. However, finds of such hieratic documents are very rare before Dynasty 5. The script sees a reduction of the pictorial aspect with a tendency to write words out more fully with a greater use of phonetic complements. From the middle kingdom different forms of the hieratic script emerge, including formal and administrative. New kingdom hieratic appears more calligraphic but there was a reform to reintroduce the pictorial aspect of the signs. Cursive hieroglyphs died out in the first millennium BCE, where as hieratic was used to the end for some religious and learned texts.
In terms of literature:
The old kingdom was dominated by religious texts including funerary and pyramid texts. Pyramid texts were found in royal pyramids in dynasties 5 and 6 such as those found in the pyramid of Unas. The Pyramid Texts were funerary inscriptions that were written on the walls of the early Ancient Egyptian pyramids at Sakkara. However, the first Pyramid Text that were actually discovered were from the Pyramid of Pepi I. The pyramid texts eventually evolved into the Book of the Dead.
There is also evidence of medical texts but excavations have not yet recovered any from the old kingdom and no narrative literature is attested. The evidence of writing is at first fragmentary in the first dynasty, and full sentences only appear from the end of the second dynasty, when writing is more extensively used on monuments and in administration.
The middle kingdom saw the introduction of fictional literature including works such as the eloquent peasant, the tale of wonder and the tale of Sinuhe.
The eloquent peasant – Dyn 9/10, popular during the middle kingdom, illustrated a form of writing which appealed to the educated Egyptian. This tale tells of the eloquence of a peasant trader who is held wrongfully by the king so he can hear more of his eloquence.
The tale of Sinuhe – around the 12th dynasty, popularity shown by many copies that have survived; including a Limestone Ostracon with the concluding stanzas of The Tale of Sinuhe written in hieratic on one side.
Such stories also give us some understanding of Egyptian life. The tale of Sinuhe describes the return of an Egyptian courtier from exile which could be used as evidence of court life. These texts purport to be historical but details in the plots indicate fantasies to entertain and they provided a good counterpoint to official texts.
The middle kingdom also saw the inclusion of the coffin texts. The Coffin Texts superseded the Pyramid Texts as magical funerary spells at the end of the Old Kingdom. Although they are mainly seen in the Middle Kingdom there are also examples dating from the Late Old Kingdom. The coffin texts illustrate the spread of afterlife ideas from the nobility classes to whole of the population and eliminated the exclusivity of the Pyramid texts.
A number of popular religious and philosophical texts are also attributed to the middle kingdom, such as the hymn to Hapy and the Dialogue between a Man Tired of life and his Ba. These pieces and expanding genres of literature is an indication of Egypt's increasing cultural achievements in the Middle kingdom as many different forms of literature flourished giving us a more widespread picture of the culture.
The new kingdom witnessed an expansion of existing genres and added categories including offering texts, hymns and funerary texts such as the book of the dead. And further texts were added to the list of fictional texts including the tale of the predestined prince and the tale of the capture of Joppai.
Such fictional texts of this period include the 'the tale of two brothers', which is considered as a historical allegory and a political satire. The text is meant to entertain but also shows a sense of sophistication telling of two semi-divine protagonists and their adventures. The text is dated to around the 19th Dynasty and comes fromMemphis around the time when Seti II was still crown prince.
The book of the dead or 'the book of coming forth by day' is a collection of magical spells derived mainly from earlier coffin and pyramid texts. It was intended to guide the deceased through the various trials they would encounter before reaching the underworld. Knowledge of the appropriate spells was considered essential in surviving and being happy in the afterlife.
Other examples of New Kingdom funerary texts include the 'book of the gates' which made its appearance in the 18th dynasty and referred to the 12 gates as barriers in reference to the hours of the night.
The Amduat or 'the book of the secret chamber' is another example of such funerary books which is aspired to be the oldest of the royal funerary books and appears in tombs such as that of Ramesses VI. The Amduat documents the sun god's journey through the 12 divisions of the underworld, beginning on the western horizon and reappearing as Khepri, the newborn sun in the East. They correspond to the 12 hours of the night.
The late period saw the introduction of the demotic text. Which was initially used for commercial and administrative texts. The demotic text was also used for literary purposes from at least the early Ptolemaic period onwards. Demotion narrative fiction included exploits of heroic individuals such as the tale of Setne/khaemwaset and the cycle of inaros/pedubastis. This appearance and increase in popularity of the heroic exploits in Egyptian Literature suggests influence of Greek heroic texts.
Demotic was known as the popular script and was cursive, known to the Egyptians sekh shat (writing for documents), gradually replacing hieratic except with religious and funerary matters from the 26th Dynasty onwards. Demotic has been regarded as the primary cursive script of the north as early as 700BC and of all of Egypt by 550BC.. It's survival was ensured by features such as in administration as the provision between greek and Egyptian law courts. It was used for business, literature, some religious texts and occasional stone inscriptions, such as seen on the Rosetta stone where it appears in stone along with hieroglyphs and Greek. Three phases can be distinguished in the development of the demotic script, early, Ptolemaic and roman.
Coptic which gradually developed from greek influence and then later gave way to arabic is debated about in regards to whether it can be counted as part of the ancient egyptian culture or a more modern cultural age. Either way I will leave it for later posts.
If you are interested in a detailed study of Egyptian scripts and how to learn them, have a look at THESE RESOURCES.
Note that this website can be followed by pressing the 'Follow by Email' option on the right hand side of the screen


text:
Some specialists believe that some lingering opioid withdrawal symptoms may last for several months or more, states Healthline. However, the first and most acute phase of withdrawal begins between 12 and 30 hours after the last dose of the drug and ends after five days, explains Balboa Horizon Treatment Services.
Opioid withdrawal has three distinct phases, according to Balboa Horizon Treatment Services. The first phase produces symptoms such as insomnia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps and diarrhea. The person detoxing may also feel depressed. The second phase lasts for two weeks, and people may experience leg cramps, chills, goosebumps and dilated pupils during this time. The third phase of opioid withdrawal is the most mild and lasts from a week to two months. Symptoms during this time are less physical and more psychological. They include insomnia, anxiety and restlessness.
Lingering, depressive-like symptoms of opioid withdrawal that last for weeks or months after the initial withdrawal period are known as protracted abstinence syndrome, states Science Daily. These symptoms include the inability to feel pleasure, poor concentration, low sleep quality and reduced energy.
While withdrawal is not usually life threatening, doctors may prescribe certain medications to reduce symptoms, explains Healthline. These drugs include naloxone and clonidine hydrochloride to treat or reduce symptoms of withdrawal. Health care professionals may also administer naltrexone to treat or reverse the symptoms of a heroin overdose.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Discussion > Richard Betts: 20 C Temperature Attribution
Hi Richard,
In the Santer post, you commented about the attribution of temperature variations during the first half of the 20th C.
http://bishophill.squarespace.com/blog/2011/9/5/santer-says.html?currentPage=3#comments : Sep 5, 2011 at 3:17 PM
The reason that the "natural only" warming is greater in the early 20th Century than later is because the increase in solar irradiance is greater then (early 20th Century).
You cited Lean in support of this. However, more recent studies than Lean's suggest that TSI remained approximately constant during early 20th C. For example, slide 16 in http://www.leif.org/research/Does%20The%20Sun%20Vary%20Enough.pdf. Please check the diagram: the difference is very significant and if correct does mean that the attribution you suggested is likely not correct.
Just to spell out the consequences ... If changes in TSI are not able to explain the temperature changes during the early 20th C, then a currently unknown factor was responsible. Late 20th century temperature change can no longer reliably be attributed to rising CO2 levels, because the same unknown factor could be responsible. Similar remarks presumably apply to attribution of ancient changes as well.
Just to be clear, I certainly accept the basics of climate physics and would therefore expect to see a rise in T since 1950 due to CO2 changes. I also strongly support the need to decarbonize energy supplies. Nonetheless, the attribution of early 20th C changes appears to be a mystery that needs and deserves a good answer.
Hi Philip
Thanks, that's very interesting (and nice to have a scientific question!) :-)
I'll get back to you.
Hi Richard,
Thank you very much - I'm curious to find out what the answer is.
By coincidence, some more about this issue in section 4 of this paper from Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society:
The substantial warming during the period 1910-1940 has been attributed by nearly all the modeling groups to some combination of increasing solar irradiance and a lack of major volcanic activity. The cooling and leveling off of average global temperatures during the 1950's and 1960's is attributed primarily to aerosols from fossil fuels and other sources, when the greenhouse warming was overwhelmed by aerosol cooling.
Based upon new and more reliable solar reconstructions, the AR4 (Section 22.214.171.124) concluded that the increase in solar forcing during the period 1900-1980 used in the AR3 reconstructions is questionable and the direct radiative forcing due to increase in solar irradiance is reduced substantially from the AR3. However, consideration of Table S9.1 in the AR4 shows that each climate model used outdated solar forcing (from the AR3) that was assessed to substantially overestimate the magnitude of the trend in solar forcing prior to 1980.
Yes, there are many different 'reconstructions' of solar irradiance and they give very different answers. See for example IPCC AR4 figure 2.10 which shows that the numbers are all over the place. Most climate scientists cherry-pick the Lean paper, because it shows what they want - a rise in the early 20thC and then a leveling off.
See this post by Bob Tisdale for a good discussion of this issue.
It's important to appreciate that we only really know anything about TSI since about 1980.
Before that it is all 'reconstructions', based on speculative assumptions, which explains why different papers get very different answers (to be fair, the IPCC acknowledges that scientific understanding of this is 'low'). Note that the third author on the Lean paper is Ray Bradley, of hockey stick infamy, which sets alarm bells ringing. I would put more weight on papers written by solar physicists only, who have no axes to grind about climate implications.
Regarding the writing of IPCC AR4, see if you can guess which solar physicist the IPCC invited to be a lead author of chapter 2.
Hi Richard,
I'm sorry to keep on at you, but I'm think it's important to have an answer on this one, so I'm going to spell out my concern again:
You told the folks here that:
The reason that the "natural only" warming is greater in the early 20th Century than later is because the increase in solar irradiance is greater then (early 20th Century).
The attribution studies in AR4 are partially grounded in this observation, which derives I think from a 2000 study by Judith Lean. However later studies suggest that TSI was approximately constant during the period. Therefore, the validity of the AR4 attribution studies is called into question.
Apparently, the TSI and other forcings used in the attribution studies derive from data described in chapter 2 of WG1,
Amongst the lead authors of this chapter are both Lean and yourself. The most likely explanation I can see for your comment, is that there is inadequate communication between IPCC lead authors. I have to say though that this conclusion scarcely fills me with confidence about the report's contents.
Having said all this, I imagine I've simply got hold of the wrong end of the stick as usual. But if I have, why not tell me how?
Hi Philip
Sorry to take so long to respond, I've been looking around in the literature. Has the Svalgaard curve been published - I've not been able to find it yet. Bob Tisdale's WUWT post didn't give a reference to a paper.
Hi Richard,
I'm away from my laptop at the moment so can't double check, but from memory slide 16 in Svalgaard's presentation references the original sources:
Hi Philip
Unfortunately not - there is a curve labelled "Svalgaard" but no reference to an actual paper. I've looked through his home page and on Web Of Science and google, and not yet managed to find any actual papers with that curve in. So when you're back online, it would be great if you could point me to any that I've missed.
Hi Richard,
I think the slide I mentioned refers to similar results from a number of other authors, not only Svalgaard. The Curry paper I linked above may also contain the references you are after. She does reference AR4 - that may possibly contain the references. You could try here:
Failing that I'll find them for you when I get back next week.
Thanks Philip. Yes, our AR4 chapter does cite some of the papers, such as Wang et al (2005) (which includes Judith Lean, and which I think is the "Wang" curve on the powerpoint slide although this is not actually stated), but it's the Svalgaard one I'm particularly interested in as it is the most different from the original Lean. Our AR4 chapter cites a Svalgaard paper on his geomagnetic index, and I suspect he's used that as a proxy to reconstruct the TSI in the powerpoint figure, but I can't find a paper either confirming this or showing how it was done.
If you have any better luck than me then please let me know, as this is quite interesting.
The Svalgaard dataset is not presented in a journal article, but I understand from the author that it is based on a regression between the sunspot number and the observed TSI during the satellite era but without adding in any background to the solar minimum. The following links from his research page provide some more information about how the data was derived:
All of the data sets from Svalgaard's presentation are listed here:
The first graph in this piece shows that the "Preminger 2010" reconstruction is very close to Svalgaard's. This reconstruction is described in the following 2006 paper:
The "Krivova 2007" data is also close to Svalgaard's and is discussed here:
and also in this subsequent paper:
Thanks Philip. I'll take a look!
Wonder why he didn't publish it in a journal yet though? Has he tried and been rejected, or just not got round to it yet? If you know the author it would be interesting to know.
This is interesting, but the Lean reconstruction is from 2000. Everything more recent (that Svalgaard shows) is in better agreement with Svalgaard's unpublished result (although it is still the outlier 1700 - 1900 compared to the reconstructions by Wang and by Krivova).
I know exactly nowt about this field, but assuming that the major studies are those shown, Svalgaard seems in better accord with what is apparently current thinking.
As they say, 'following'.
I'm afraid I don't know the author, although he was kind enough to confirm one of the references I mentioned.
There is also a long discussion at Climate Audit which might throw up some further answers:
Thanks Philip (and BBD - good to see you are following this!)
You may be interested to know that in our latest simulations for IPCC AR5 we are using one of the more recent TSI reconstructions which show the much smaller increase over the 20th Century - see figure 13 of this paper by by colleagues.
The TSI reconstruction is from Lean 2009 which uses Wang et al (2005) as cited in the Svalgaard ppt presentation and our IPCC AR4 radiative forcing chapter.
The impacts of this on attribution of the early 20th Century warming haven't been looked at yet (but will be). Looking back over our conversation back to your original question, maybe I've been worrying too much about trying to find the Svalgaard curve in a peer-reviewed paper yet - if the use of Wang et al means that solar forcing cannot explain the temperature rise then the even flatter reconstruction of Svalgaard may not matter anyway!
As you say, there are important uncertainties here. Will be interesting to see the outcome of D&A studies - I'll keep you posted.
Thanks very much for higlighting this very interesting topic!
Wouldn't miss it for the world.
I do wonder about the implications for estimates of GHG forcing over the last century. Contrarians will point to the use of outdated TSI estimates to force the models referenced by AR4 WG1 and claim that it 'proves' GHG forcing is over-estimated. It seems to me equally likely that the opposite could be true.
Oh well, I suppose the whole report will have to be done again. What? AR5, you say? Oh...
Thanks for the reference to the paper by your colleagues, very informative. As you say, it will be interesting to see whether the upcoming model runs are able to exhibit at least the kind of changes seen in 1900-50. Unfortunately, the difficulties in reliably reconstructing forcings prior to 1980 are unlikely to go away, so I imagine that even in AR5 model based attribution will remain vulnerable to criticism of this sort.
Another interesting possibility is that the 1900-50 variations did not result in any straightforward way from external forcings such as TSI. This might be the case I think if there is substance to ideas discussed by Rial, Koutsoyiannis and others. One plausible suggestion is that the real world climate exhibits variations on all scales. I will be interested to find out whether the AR5 runs can also exhibit such behaviour.
I imagine you're well aware of these ideas, especially given that (as I understand) you got your Physics at Bristol. For anyone else reading this not quite so sure, I noticed the following quite nice informal articles:
By coincidence (again!) there is a highly relevant post from today's Climate Etc:
BTW, let me repeat that I don't believe that problems of model-based attribution should change the general conclusion of the need for CO2 emission reductions. I'm just rather interested to understand how far it is reasonable to hope models can go in predicting the future climate system.
Thanks for your comments here. I totally agree with you, it is easy for either camp to take these results as support for their position. Plus ca change etc. I think it is important that the model runs use the best available data as input, and from what Richard says it sounds as though this is being done in the upcoming runs for AR5.
Hello again.
I'm just rather interested to understand how far it is reasonable to hope models can go in predicting the future climate system.
I'll leave that to RB and perhaps Tamsin, if she can be persuaded to visit a civilised backwater like this thread.
Hi Philip
Yes I did do physics at Bristol. I take it you've been following me on Twitter then? (If so, thank you for your interest!)
As it happens, in my first year we were lucky enough to have a guest seminar on fractals by Benoit Mandelbrot. He had to apologise in advance to the over-capacity audience for the predominance of equations over pretty pictures!
In fact I got it from your MO page (just checking up on people's credentials like a sensible boy!). I'm also acutely aware that you're not able to return the compliment - partly because my own background is not so relevant (I'm simply another anxious citizen) and also because at a personal level I've felt intimidated on some sites (although never here). FWIW you can if you want find a little more about my dim and distant science past here ('82), which should also explain why your Bristol affiliation caught my eye.
Philip, if you did a PhD with Michael Berry I don't think you need to feel intimidated about your background!
Regarding future predictions, IPCC AR4 made some rather extravagant claims about this, with some dubious analogies involving coins and dice (see Ch 1 page 105 or here). Roger Pielke got a bit cross about this, describing the claims as absurd and scientifically unsupported. I wonder what MVB would think.
But this is getting a bit off-topic. Has anyone emailed Svalgaard to ask him whether there is a paper somewhere that you haven't found, or if there is one in the pipeline, or if not why not? (I think part of the reason is that he has had some bad experiences with peer review).
Thanks. I e-mailed Svalgaard asking for references for the "Svalgaard 2007" and "Preminger 2010" curves, with the outcome detailed in my comment @ Oct 16, 2011 at 10:19 AM. Regarding what MVB would think about this issue, I don't know. I did consider asking him, but decided that since I hadn't kept in contact it would be unfair to ask.
BTW, I clicked through to your google sites page - it is very useful.


text:
C++ programs create, access, manipulate, and destroy objects. An object is a piece of memory that can be used to store values. You can think of an object as a mailbox, or a cubbyhole, where we can store and retrieve information. All computers have memory, called RAM (random access memory), that is available for programs to use. When an object is defined, a piece of that memory is set aside for the object.
Most of the objects that we use in C++ come in the form of variables.
A statement such as
x = 5; seems obvious enough. As you might guess, we are assigning the value of 5 to x. But what exactly is x? x is a variable.
A variable in C++ is simply an object that has a name.
In this section, we are only going to consider integer variables. An integer is a number that can be written without a fractional component, such as -12, -1, 0, 4, or 27. An integer variable is a variable that holds an integer value.
In order to create a variable, we generally use a special kind of declaration statement called a definition (we'll explain the precise difference between a declaration and a definition later). Here's an example of defining variable x as an integer variable (one that can hold integer values):
int x;
When this statement is executed by the CPU, a piece of memory from RAM will be set aside (called instantiation). For the sake of example, let's say that the variable x is assigned memory location 140. Whenever the program sees the variable x in an expression or statement, it knows that it should look in memory location 140 to get the value.
One of the most common operations done with variables is assignment. To do this, we use the assignment operator, more commonly known as the = symbol. For example:
x = 5;
When the CPU executes this statement, it translates this to "put the value of 5 in memory location 140".
Later in our program, we could print that value to the screen using std::cout:
std::cout << x; // prints the value of x (memory location 140) to the console
l-values and r-values
In C++, variables are a type of l-value (pronounced ell-value). An l-value is a value that has a persistent address (in memory). Since all variables have addresses, all variables are l-values. The name l-value came about because l-values are the only values that can be on the left side of an assignment statement. When we do an assignment, the left hand side of the assignment operator must be an l-value. Consequently, a statement like
5 = 6; will cause a compile error, because 5 is not an l-value. The value of 5 has no memory, and thus nothing can be assigned to it. 5 means 5, and its value can not be reassigned. When an l-value has a value assigned to it, the current value at that memory address is overwritten.
The opposite of l-values are r-values (pronounced arr-values). An r-value refers to values that are not associated with a persistent memory address. Examples of r-values are single numbers (such as 5, which evaluates to 5) and expressions (such as 2 + x, which evaluates to the value of variable x plus 2). r-values are generally temporary in nature and are discarded at the end of the statement in which they occur.
Here is an example of some assignment statements, showing how the r-values evaluate:
int y; // define y as an integer variable
y = 4; // r-value 4 evaluates to 4, which is then assigned to l-value y
y = 2 + 5; // r-value 2 + r-value 5 evaluates to r-value 7, which is then assigned to l-value y
int x; // define x as an integer variable
x = y; // l-value y evaluates to 7 (from before), which is then assigned to l-value x.
x = x; // l-value x evaluates to 7, which is then assigned to l-value x (useless!)
x = x + 1; // l-value x + r-value 1 evaluate to r-value 8, which is then assigned to l-value x.
Let's take a closer look at the last assignment statement above, since it causes the most confusion.
x = x + 1;
In this statement, the variable x is being used in two different contexts. On the left side of the assignment operator, "x" is being used as an l-value (variable with an address) in which to store a value. On the right side of the assignment operator, x is evaluated to produce a value (in this case, 7). When C++ evaluates the above statement, it evaluates as:
x = 7 + 1;
Which makes it obvious that C++ will assign the value 8 back into variable x.
For the time being, you don't need to worry about l-values or r-values much, but we'll return to them later when we start discussing some more advanced topics.
The key takeaway here is that on the left side of the assignment, you must have something that represents a memory address (such as a variable). Everything on the right side of the assignment will be evaluated to produce a value.
Initialization vs. assignment
C++ supports two related concepts that new programmers often get mixed up: assignment and initialization.
After a variable is defined, a value may be assigned to it via the assignment operator (the = symbol):
int x; // this is a variable definition
x = 5; // assign the value 5 to variable x
C++ will let you both define a variable AND give it an initial value in the same step. This is called initialization.
int x = 5; // initialize variable x with the value 5
A variable can only be initialized when it is defined.
Although these two concepts are similar in nature, and can often be used to achieve similar ends, we'll see cases in future lessons where some types of variables require an initialization value, or disallow assignment. For these reasons, it's useful to make the distinction now.
Rule: When giving variables an initial value, favor initialization over assignment.
Uninitialized variables
Unlike some programming languages, C/C++ does not initialize most variables to a given value (such as zero) automatically. Thus when a variable is assigned a memory location by the compiler, the default value of that variable is whatever (garbage) value happens to already be in that memory location! A variable that has not been given a known value (through initialization or assignment) is called an uninitialized variable.
Note: Some compilers, such as Visual Studio, will initialize the contents of memory when you're using a debug build configuration. This will not happen when using a release build configuration.
Using the values of uninitialized variables can lead to unexpected results. Consider the following short program:
#include <iostream>
int main()
// define an integer variable named x
int x; // this variable is uninitialized
// print the value of x to the screen (who knows what we'll get, because x is uninitialized)
std::cout << x;
return 0;
In this case, the computer will assign some unused memory to x. It will then send the value residing in that memory location to std::cout, which will print the value. But what value will it print? The answer is "who knows!", and the answer may change every time you run the program. When the author ran this program with the Visual Studio 2013 compiler, std::cout printed the value
7177728 one time, and
5277592 the next.
If you want to run this program yourself, make sure you're using a release build configuration (see lesson 0.9 -- Configuring your compiler: Build configurations) for information on how to do that). Otherwise the above program may print whatever value your compiler is initializing memory with (Visual Studio uses -858993460).
If your compiler won't let you run this program because it flags variable x as an uninitialized variable, here is a possible solution to get around this issue:
#include <iostream>
void doNothing(const int &x)
int main()
// define an integer variable named x
int x; // this variable is uninitialized
doNothing(x); // make compiler think we're using this variable
// print the value of x to the screen (who knows what we'll get, because x is uninitialized)
std::cout << x;
return 0;
Using uninitialized variables is one of the most common mistakes that novice programmers make, and unfortunately, it can also be one of the most challenging to debug (because the program may run fine anyway if the uninitialized value happened to get assigned to a spot of memory that had a reasonable value in it, like 0).
Fortunately, most modern compilers will print warnings at compile-time if they can detect a variable that is used without being initialized. For example, compiling the above program on Visual Studio 2005 express produced the following warning:
c:vc2005projectstesttesttest.cpp(11) : warning C4700: uninitialized local variable 'x' used
A good rule of thumb is to initialize your variables. This ensures that your variable will always have a consistent value, making it easier to debug if something goes wrong somewhere else.
Rule: Make sure all of your variables have known values (either through initialization or assignment).
Undefined behavior
Using the value from an uninitialized variable is our first example of undefined behavior. Undefined behavior is the result of executing code whose behavior is not well defined by the language. In this case, the C++ language doesn't have any rules determining what happens if you use value of a variable that has not been given a known value. Consequently, if you actually do this, undefined behavior will result.
Code implementing undefined behavior may exhibit any of the following symptoms:
- Your program produces an incorrect result consistently.
- Your program produces different results every time it is executed.
- Your program behaves inconsistently (sometimes produces the correct result, sometimes not).
- Your program seems like its working but produces incorrect results later in the program.
- Your program crashes, either immediately or later.
- Your program works on some compilers but not others.
- Your program works until you change some other seemingly unrelated code.
Or, your code may actually produce the correct behavior anyway. The nature of undefined behavior is that you never quite know what you're going to get, whether you'll get it every time, and whether it'll change when you make other changes.
C++ contains many cases that can result in undefined behavior if you're not careful. We'll ensure we point these out in future lessons. Take note of where these cases are and make sure you avoid them.
Rule: Take care to avoid situations that result in undefined behavior.
Author's note: One of the most common types of comment we get from readers says, "You said I couldn't do X, but I did it anyway and my program works! Why?". The answer is almost always that your program is actually exhibiting undefined behavior, but that undefined behavior just happens to be producing the result you wanted anyway… for now. Tomorrow it might not.
Alternatively, sometimes compiler authors take liberties with the language requirements when those requirements may be more restrictive than needed. For example, the standard may say, "you must do X before Y", but a compiler author may feel that's unnecessary, and make Y work even if you don't do X first. This shouldn't affect the operation of correctly written programs, but may cause incorrectly written programs to work anyway. So an alternate answer to the above question is that your compiler may simply be not following the standard! It happens.
What values does this program print?
int x = 5; // this is an initialization
x = x - 2; // this is an assignment
std::cout << x << std::endl; // #1
int y = x;
std::cout << y << std::endl; // #2
// x + y is an r-value in this context, so evaluate their values
std::cout << x + y << std::endl; // #3
std::cout << x << std::endl; // #4
int z;
std::cout << z << std::endl; // #5
6) What is undefined behavior?
Quiz Answers
To see these answers, select the area below with your mouse.
|1.3a -- A first look at cout, cin, and endl
|1.2 -- Comments


text: i'm looking to get a pair of smaller cabs for smaller gigs (my only other cab right now is my goliath senior - so it's either that or my peavey tko ) and im definitely going avatar. if the TKO is loud and good sounding enough for most of these gigs, a pair of avatars should rock PLENTY. plus, the price is right. so my question is, should i get a pair of the compact 12's, or get a compact 12 and compact 15? my plan is to get a 2-300 watt head for smaller stuff vs. my rack. so i'd have: small head + 1 compact small head + 2 compacts rack + 2 compacts rack + senior another thing - how easy would it be to add a speakon in to the compact 12?


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text:
The objective of the mind-bending game is simple: all nine cubes must show the same color. However, whenever the player taps a cube to change its color, the four adjacent cubes change color as well.
Progression in this game is not only a matter of solving puzzles fast, but also solving puzzles with the fewest clicks possible. Few clicks and speed combined win more time to reach higher levels thereby unlocking new colors.
Hype Cube is a puzzle game that not only challenges the player's affinity for form, geometry and symmetry but also her strategic skills and ability to predict patterns. Hype Cube is a simple yet challenging game.
Available for Android and iOS for the grand price of 90 pence.


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Vegan Coffee?
Neither Jane nor I drink coffee, so we never considered this issue. But are you a vegan if you drink coffee? Technically, the answer is yes, there are no animal products involved in the growth or production of coffee, it comes from a bean… However, as we learned at the Healthy Living Blog, if you're not drinking shade-grown coffee, you may be contributing to a reduction of migratory bird populations. While drinking coffee without the "bird-friendly seal" certainly doesn't mean you're an omnivore, it does stand to reason that we, as vegans, would look for this seal of approval.
(Modern) coffee production to more closely parallel the big business agriculture model that has become so common worldwide. This resulted in a turn away from traditional coffee growing methods. Much of the coffee in Latin America started to be produced on farms where the coffee was either grown under an unnatural canopy of only a few species of mature trees or pretty much right out in the open.
This new approach to coffee growing allowed more sun to reach the coffee plant, but turned out to adversely affect the migratory bird population that winters in Latin America. These migratory birds depend on the varied natural forest ecosystem and it's insect population to survive. Growing coffee this way also introduced the use of chemical fertilizes, pesticides, and disease controlling agents. In addition, the increased sun and fertilizer created a nice environment for weed growth, so the use of herbicides became necessary.
Source : Healthy Living Blog
Simply buying shade grown coffee doesn't guarantee that you're doing the right thing either. Often farms have been repopulated with only one or two varieties of tree, which don't rival the diversity of the natural forests where coffee was originally planted.
The Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center has "bird friendly" criteria which, if met, result in certain coffees earning a seal of approval. According to their website, they are currently active in the following countries:Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, Venezuela. Ethiopia is pending. So, make sure to look for the bird friendly logo (above right) when purchasing your coffee. If not truly vegan, it feels like the "vegan" thing to do.


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I picked a blossom off of this tree and tucked it into an outside pocket on my handbag. Shortly after, a woman approached me and pointed to my bag. "Where did you get that flower?" I told her from a tree around the corner, she wanted to know where this tree was and told me it was a sacred flower. What could I say? I smiled and said it smelled sweet and too sharp at the same time. She told me it was good luck to have it, and went off to find the tree to get a blossom for herself.
Last year I was waiting for someone in a park, and started sniffing the air... the blossoms on a nearby tree smelled really good. But when I approached the tree and sniffed, the blossoms weren't exuding any perfume at all. Then I saw the source: a small woman dressed in grey sweats pacing back and forth on the other side of the tree. I thought I recognized her scent as something by Dior, so I asked what she was wearing. It was J'Adore. (That stuff is fine.) She was wearing way too much, but you can't tell a person that. Good thing it was a breezy day.
From Sephora's website: J'Adore notes:
Mandarin, Champaca Flowers, Ivy, African Orchid, Rose, Violet, Damascus Plum, Amaranth Wood, Blackberry Musk.
Style: For the confident, sensual woman who celebrates her femininity - this is Dior's golden girl.
I hope Dan the Tree Man stops by to identify these trees.


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This essay has been submitted by a law student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers.
Published: Fri, 02 Feb 2018
European Union law related to data protection
This essay will attempt to examine the leading principles that form the European Union law in relation to data protection and evaluate their efficiency and adequacy in the context of information society. The discussion begins with a brief reference to today's information-based reality. Firs of all, the importance and necessity of the use of data in today's world as well as the role of technology towards a faster and more effective data processing will be stressed. Then, the basic principles of the Directive and the basic ways by which they are implemented will be listed and evaluated in relation to the challenges that data protection law is facing today. After a critical comparison between the EU and US approach in relation to Data Protection, the paper will go on and examine whether it is wise or not to have a Data Protection legislation at all. Finally, some recommendations will be suggested as to the improvement of the law surrounding the protection of Data.
Undoubtedly, personal information, that is, any information that can be linked to a specific person [1] , is more and more becoming an invaluable commodity in our society [2] . Data about us is processing everywhere on the web [3] . The average European is tracked in around 500 different databases [4] . Personal data can are certainly the lifeblood of the information-driven economy, being the most powerful asset, a leading organising principle and a critical enabler for business competitiveness in today's world [5] . Information is inherently and unavoidably global and does not respect any geographical boundaries [6] .
Digital technology has facilitated in a great level the ability to easily and quickly obtain, process, store, transfer and manipulate data to third parties [7] . As a result of the digital-based society that we experience, it is much easier for people to be tracked and monitored. Instead of their personal identities, they can now be identified through proxies, a series of information such as passwords, and user identities, bank or credit card information, email addresses, and personal data such as the date of birth or place of birth; information that if put together will create an individual [8] .
On the light of this technological reality, the European Union, which has always been concerned about privacy of information and its importance on the reassurance of democracy, had enacted the Directive 95/46/EC on the protection of Data. In general, a data protection law aims on giving rights to individuals as to how data tracking them is processed and to subject such processing to a certain set of safeguards [9] . The Directive imposes a set of rules on the collection, processing and transfer of personal Data within the EU and between of members of the EU with third countries. Its purpose was to provide the individual with a 'high level of protection' as well as to enable the free flow of data [10] .
However, technology will never stop moving forward. The Data Protection Directive was intended to cope with problems in relation to data processing, as they were understood in 1995. [11] Indeed massive changes have taken place since 1995 in our globalised information society. Today, the legislation in relation to Data Protection is called upon to face the Internet revolution, the emergence of ambient intelligence and the growth capacity of the computers [12] . Even if the EU Directive is technologically neutral, the question whether it is effective on protecting the individual in the 21st century without creating too many restrictions on the essential circulation of data in the networked society remains uncertain. This is a question to be answered through an evaluation of the main principles of the Directive on the background of the information, globalised society that we experience today.
The core principles of the EU Directive on Data Protection are to be found in Article 6. In particular, it states that personal data must be processed fairly and lawfully, collected for specified, explicit and legitimate purposes and not further processed in a way incompatible with those purposes, that the data obtained and processed is adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to the purposes for which they are collected; that it is accurate and, where necessary kept up to date; that the information is kept in a manner which allows for identification of data subjects for no longer than is necessary for the purposes for which the data were collected or for which they are further processed. [13]
Consequently, the Directive does not actually seek to stop the data processors or data controllers from collecting information. Rather, it attempts to create a set of rules so as to ensure that there is lawfulness, transparency and proportionality throughout the procedure of collection and circulation of data in relation to an individual.
Article 7 of the Directive, sets out the circumstances under which data processing is legitimised. The most important criterion for making such a process lawful is that 'the data subject has unambiguously consented to the processing' [14] . On the one hand, one might think that leaving it to the discretion of the data subject to decide whether or not he wishes his data to be shared sounds perfectly fair and reasonable.
However, on the other hand the relevance and appropriateness of 'consent' as the basis to legitimise data processing is heavily questioned in the context of information society and the Internet. Due to the extremely interactive nature of the web, consent is given in order to receive piffling advantages, but beyond this it is very unlikely, even 'abnormal' somehow for a data subject, that is the particular individual, to refuse consent, and therefore pushes the user to give it in the vast majority of cases. [15] At a pragmatic level, individuals are more willing to choose or even required to give up their informational privacy in order to receive commercial or other benefits in exchange, like when purchasing goods online. [16] In some circumstances, if they refuse to submit their personal information, the may be excluded of even prejudiced [17] . Although the aforementioned right of choice as to whether or not to surrender personal information seems like an ideal solution in theory, it breaks down when put into practice.
Article 2(h) of the Directive provides further guidance as to the interpretation of the concept of 'consent'. In particular it provides that 'the data subject's consent' shall mean any freely given specific and informed indication of his wishes by which the data subject signifies his agreement to personal data relating to him being processed. However, companies have provided evidence that access to privacy policies by the consumers is extremely rare [18] . This means that even if the Directive wishes to promote transparency and enrich the individual's awareness as to how, where and for what purpose his information is circulated, this cannot be realised, if the data subjects do not take any time at all to assess terms and conditions [19] .
Another important right that the Directive has attributed to the individual is the right to access the data collected in relation to him and verify them if necessary [20] . This means that even if the data subject does not have the power to stop the data processor from collecting his personal data, he does have the right to make sure that it is accurate, secure and up to date. This is essentially the difference with the totalitarian systems where the state's aim was to collect as much data as possible in relation to people without being concerned about the quality of data. However, it is not possible for a right to be useful if the people who are entitled to it are not aware of its existence. According to a Eurobarometer research, only 32 % is aware about their right to access, correct or erase data concerning them [21] .
The EU Directive in attempting to offer a 'high level of protection did not only give rights to the data subjects but also imposed a number of obligations to the data controllers. Under Article 10, the data collector is required to give notification to the data subject in relation to the collection and the use of data [22] . Moreover, Article 17 requires the data controllers to protect personal data against risks using the appropriate technical and organisational measures.
However, such requirements would be of no value if it were not enforced in reality. According to the findings of another Eurobarometer poll in relation to the compliance with the rules of the Directive from the part of the data controllers, businesses appear to have no valuable interest whatsoever in complying with the requirements of the law due to the very few complaints made by their customers in respect of data security and also due to the very low detection risk as a result of the weak enforcement measures adopted by the Data Protection Authorities [23] .
It can therefore be said that the Directive tried to introduce complex and formal requirements, which in reality are of limited consideration and of negligible enforcement. Certainly, it is admitted that especially in today's information society the implementation of principles relating to Data Protection is not an easy task. However, if the European Union wishes to ensure a high level of informational privacy of the individual then it needs to introduce measures that are realistic, practicable and understandable to both data subjects and data controllers [24] .
When it comes to state security, public safety, defence, the State's activities in relation to the prevention of crime and taxation purposes, the EU Directive exempts from its scope of application the processing of personal data [25] . It is generally accepted that the individual should not only waive his right to informational privacy in receiving back a commercial benefit, but also for reasons that benefit the society as a whole [26] . However, the power given to the States through the above exceptions is extremely wide and the individual cannot object to the collection of his personal information by the state for these legitimate purposes. The states tend to exploit their right to derogate from the provisions of the Directive to a degree that is disproportionate. Thus, the Directive does not protect the individual as far as state intrusion is concerned.
Article 25 deals with the extra-territorial transfer of data. In particular, it provides that data transfers exporting data for circulation is to be permitted by Member States only if the third countries ensure an 'adequate level of protection' [27] . At first glance, it seems encouraging that the Data Protection Directive recognises that data circulation is necessary for the expansion and flourishing of global trade and attempts to form a standard of protection when it comes to transfer of data between the European Union and the rest of the world. However, its attempt to impose onerous, strict and complex requirements for the regulation of trans-border data flow does not seem to be a wise idea since they do not seem to have any realistic application in the online world. As professor Gunasekara argues, 'in an increasingly globalised world, where the market for goods and services spans national borders, national safeguards and regimes for the protection of personal data or information about individuals are of little value, as technology allows the information to be whisked out of the jurisdiction at the proverbial click of a mouse' [28] . In this context therefore, it can be argued that any legislation in relation to data transfer is of little value due to the borderless nature of the Internet.
Moreover, the Commission failed to sufficiently interpret the word 'adequate protection', as the criteria given are vague and unclear [29] . What the Directive states in terms of explaining adequacy is that it will be evaluated in the light of all the circumstances surrounding a data transfer operation, whereby particular consideration shall be given to such factors as the nature of the data, and the purpose and duration of the processing operation [30] . Therefore, not only does the Directive attempt to impose draconian measures in relation to extra-territorial data transfer, but also the power and enforcement of those measures in reality is questioned since the digital reality seems to have no space left for such complex, formal and long procedure rules.
Seven years after the enactment of the Data Protection Directive, the European Union appeared to have concerns in relation to the risks that the sector of electronic communications entails and this led to the enactment of the Directive 2002/58 on the processing of personal data and the protection of privacy in the electronic communications sector. It should be noted that the e-privacy Directive is just supplementary and complementary to the general Data Protection Directive; the latter is a lex generis and applies to the processing of data unless the former, the lex specialis, determines otherwise [31] . Furthermore, while the Data Protection Directive is only applicable to natural persons, the 2002 Directive also embraces subscribers who are legal persons [32] , whose traffic and location data are also to be protected [33] .
In evaluating the relevance and adequacy of the European Data protection law in the context of information society, a critical comparison between the European and the American approach should be of considerable assistance. Unlike the Europeans, which as we saw are following a sui generis protection, that is recognising the importance of data protection per se, Americans appear to be quite hesitating and sceptic in recognising a general privacy right in information and therefore unwilling to set up a Data Protection regime [34] . The US, rather preferred to follow a selective legislative approach as far as data protection is concerned, based on the argument that if the government interferes in the regulation of information, there will be an undue intervention in the free flow of the market [35] . They therefore tend to favour a self-regulatory model in respect of data protection with the belief that such an approach achieves a high quality of data security without adversely affecting the free flow of the market.
It is obvious that there is diversity of views as to the value and importance of the protection of privacy and that it is assessed upon different set of criteria. On the one hand the European Union claims that informational privacy is not just an interest, but a 'fundamental right' [36] and sets out a long and detailed legislation in order to offer a high level of protection to the individual, on the other hand the U.S. appear to have no intention to enact a data protection legislation on the fear that this will block the expansion of businesses and commerce.
At the European level, privacy and the protection started becoming so cardinal in character especially after the aftermath of the Second World War where totalitarian states had been creating large databases of personal data in order to segregate populations, target minority groups and facilitate genocide [37] . However, not everyone feels that classing informational privacy as a priceless and inalienable right is still relevant or can be realistically applicable within the context of our today's information-based society. According to Professor Bergkamp, the EU Directive on Data Protection is a fallacy in that it imposes an onerous set of requirements on all sectors of industries, without holding at hand any empirical data on privacy risks and demand [38] . As noticed before, in general, there is little interest from the part of the individual protecting their data, 'such an important asset'. He therefore criticises the Directive on the basis that its enforcement is expensive, and even 'anti-consumer' and believes that the European industry survives under such a strict regime only because enforcement is very lax [39] . According to his words 'if the EU Data protection regime were abolished in todo tomorrow, very few citizens and consumers would be any worse off, and many would be benefit significantly' [40] .
On the other hand, a complete sweeping away of Data Protection legislation is regarded as too an extreme view by others. When deciding whether it is better to keep or dispose Data Protection legislation, one should bear in mind that the protection of our personal data and therefore of our private lives are essential conditions for the safeguard of liberty and democracy [41] . On this basis, Cate and Staten argue that just because personal information plays an important and critical role in today's world 'essential infrastructure', this does not mean that "privacy of information is unimportant or unprotected" but it must be balanced – as consumers do in their choices every day – with the benefits that they enjoy because of the responsible use of personal Data" [42] . A way therefore needs to be found
In conclusion, as illustrated from the above analysis of the EU Data Protection Directive, the European law in relation to privacy of information failed to operate sufficiently in today's information society. In general, it has not been successful in striking a fair balance between the free flow of information and the rights of the data subject as it imposed too rigid restrictions on the transfer and exchange of data. Moreover, its principles may in theory provide the data subject with a high level of protection, however when put into practice, their fruitfulness is considerably limited.
On the light of the inadequacy of the Directive, certainly the law regarding Data Protection within the European Union should be revised and adapted into today's realities. However, the question that arises at this point is whether there is any law at all that is capable of protecting the data subject and its personal data within the continuously growing information society that we experience. Arguably, a traditional piece of legislation that creates an organisational culture and focuses on meeting formalities to create paper regulatory compliance [43] , would be of valuable assistance when it comes to regulation of the protection of Data, especially in the context of challenges posed by the development of technology. Many commentators believe that technology will continue to "outpace…the imagination of even the most clever law-makers" [44] . It may therefore appear essential for the legislatures to 'stop thinking like lawyers' if they wish to promote a data protection practice that works effectively today [45] . A co-operation between law and technology might be the best way to ensure that the individual is protected in practice whilst at the same time the free flow of Data which is of so vital importance in our society is secured.
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Snooki: NJ Gov. Christie 'just doesn't like us'
New Jersey Gov. Chris Christie was never a fan of MTV's "Jersey Shore," saying it unfairly cast the state in a negative light.
RELATED: Insured celeb body parts
So when Nicole Polizzi, otherwise known as Snooki, got to meet the governor Friday, May 24, and shake his hand, their exchange was a bit awkward.
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Christie and "Jersey Shore" cast members appeared separately on NBC's "Today" show during filming in Seaside Heights, N.J., to talk about the state's recovery from Superstorm Sandy. Seaside is where "Jersey Shore" was filmed.
RELATED: Best off-season bikini bods
In a later exchange captured on video by the Asbury Park Press, an unsmiling Snooki told Christie she hoped he would "start to like us." Christie responded, "Well, we'll do our best."
After they parted ways, Snooki looked at the camera and said, "He just doesn't like us."


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COPENHAGEN – Nike executive Hannah Jones has called on the textile industry to start "making a business out of radical ideas," in order to accelerate the sustainability agenda. Her rallying cry came at a Launch Nordic event in Copenhagen attended by government officials, policy makers and senior figures from business in Scandinavia and the US. Tone Tobiasson reports.
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Medical questions & health advice by board certified doctors
"Is it ok to kiss my girlfriend who has mono?"
My girlfriend has mono and we've been hooking up for about a month before she found out. Now about two to three weeks laters shes gotten better and I still havent shown any symptoms. Should I still wait to kiss her or will it not make a difference?
This is a great question, and I hope that she recovers quickly. It is important to discuss this with you your doctor for more information. Infectious mononucleosis is quite a common condition, one that most of us are exposed to at some point in our life. For many people, the first exposure happens in the teenage years, as it is often encountered by exchanging saliva, and is thus called the kissing disease by some doctors. Many of the people who end up with infectious mononucleosis never even know that they have had it, and it not always normal for people to be diagnosed with having the condition. The reason that I say this is that there is a good chance that you have had mono already, and would thus likely not be susceptible to your girlfriend's infection. That's the good news. The bad news is that, to some degree, your girlfriend may be able to infect you for at least 6 months, and, according to some, longer. The virus stays in the body for the rest of life, although it is usually inactive after some time. Should it become activated, it could potentially infect others for the rest of her life, although this is less likely. And, furthermore, the condition can also potentially be spread through sexual contact. Please speak with your doctor for more information and help.
Need more info?See an infectious disease-specialist today
Zocdoc Answers is for general informational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice. If you think you may have a medical emergency, call your doctor (in the United States) 911 immediately. Always seek the advice of your doctor before starting or changing treatment. Medical professionals who provide responses to health-related questions are intended third party beneficiaries with certain rights under Zocdoc's Terms of Service.


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Chest Tightness after Eating – Causes
Tightness in chest and shortness of breath are the common problems experienced by everyone. It generally happens after eating heavily or taking meals at improper time. There are many factors that result in feeling of tightness in the chest. This problem can only be combated through improving eating habits, chewing the food properly and eating regular meals. Some of the medical conditions cause chest tightening after eating. This article would give a brief gist of those medical conditions, their causes and symptoms.
Acid Reflux
Acid reflux is the main cause for chest tightness.
It is the condition in which excess stomach acids are secreted by the gastric glands that would cause chest tightening. It also results in heartburn and gas. Acid reflux followed by chest tightening may result from the following factors. They are:
- Skipping meals, especially breakfast and staying on an empty stomach
- Malfunctioning of digestive system
- Obesity
- Excessive smoking
- Consuming fried and fat-content foods
- Excessive secretion of hydrochloric acids in stomach
- Avoiding having meals at fixed and regular intervals.
- Being pregnant
It is a condition in which the food is abnormally digested resulting in an uncomfortable feeling in the stomach. A person with dyspepsia would experience chest tightness after eating. Signs of dyspepsia that could arise along with chest tightening include:
- Heartburn
- Nausea
- Vomiting
- Bloating
- GERD (Gastroesophageal reflux disease)
- Upset stomach
- Stomach inflammation
- Ulcers
It is a condition in which the heartbeat is slow, skipped and irregular. It also leads to tightening of chest after eating. It is generally observed in middle-aged people. Arrhythmia followed by chest tightening could result from following factors.
- Prior heart diseases
- Abnormal heart rhythms
- Heart block
- If some other part apart from sinus node acts as the pacemaker
Chest tightening could also result from over-eating. If a person eats food beyond the capability, a pressure develops on the stomach and the entire digestive tract leading to chest tightness. Following the below steps would help a person from chest tightening:
- Avoid drinking water during the meals.
- Have 5 small meals a day than having 3 heavy meals a day.
- Wear loose fitting clothes during eating. This would not constrict your breathing.
- After a meal, wait for half an hour to drink water.


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