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Boss Guide
1. Yakra (600 AD, Cathedral) Use X-Strike and Flame Toss on him, stopping to heal yourself with tonics or Frog's Slurp when your HP gets low. He will occasionally counterattack after you attack him. This will hit all members of your party for a decent amount of damage. Beware his needle attack, as it does a lot of damage. Heal right after it. He has 920 hit points, gives 50 experience, 5 tech points, and 600 Gold.
2. Dragon Tank (1000 AD, Guardia Castle) The Dragon Tank has three parts: The Head, the main body, and the Grinder (wheel). The Head repairs damage to the body. It also contains a shield that prevents damage by lightning and fire. Take out the head first if you want to even think about defeating the tank. The head will use a flame attack on you, doing moderate damage. The Grinder will run over you, doing a lot of damage. The Body will either use missiles on you (doing moderate damage) or a laser beam, doing high damage. Destroy the head with your weapons, then attack both the Grinder and the body with Flame Toss and Slash. When your HP gets low, use tonics. The Head has 600 HP. The Grinder has 208 HP. The Body has about 266 HP. For defeating it you get 40 exp., 5 tech points, 500 G.
3. Guardian and Bits (2300 AD, Arris Dome) First, kill off both bits with your weapons. Then concentrate your attack on the main body with your strongest techs. Heal when your HP gets too low, with Aura Beam. The body will regenerate the bits after a time. Repeat the process until you have beaten the body. Each Bit has approximately 200 HP. The Guardian has approximately 1200 HP. For defeating it you get 300 experience, 5 tech points, 1000 G.
4. R Series (2300 AD, Factory Ruins) There are six Robots in all. Your best bet is to use area effect spells to do as much maximum damage as possible. You will only have two people in your party to fight them, so they might be tough if you aren't at a high enough level. Their regular attacks are fairly weak, but they have a few special attacks which are somewhat powerful. They have a version of monster toss, which will hurt both of your people for a decent bit of damage, and when there is only one Robot left, it will use some kind of bomb on you that does a lot of damage. Though Marle might have healed the party, have Lucca with you. Cyclone works well against them, as two cyclones can take out three of them in two attacks, while Lucca makes Flame Tosses on two or three robots at a time, or heals the party with tonics. Each Robot has 150 HP. For beating them, you get 480 Experience, 6 tech points, 600 G.
5. Heckran (1000 AD, Heckran Cave) Magic is the only thing that will hurt him, so wear a MagicScarf. When he says "Go ahead and try to attack me" do not attack him, as he will use a nasty counterattack spell that will do major damage to all of your people. When it says "brief counterattack break" then give him everything you've got: Fire, Ice and Lightning. When he says "Yes Indeed" he will nail one of your characters with a major damage attack. Heal him with Marle. Heckran has approximately 2100 HP. For defeating Heckran, you get 250 experience, 10 tech points, 1500 Gold.
6. Zombor (600 AD, Zenan Bridge) Use Ice Magic or regular attacks on the top section. When the top section dies, it casts MP Buster on you, which will take all of the MP away from the person who killed it. Use Lightning Magic, Fire Magic, or regular attacks on the bottom section. Its' regular attack isn't too bad, but it will sometimes do an earthquake which will hit all of your party for a fair amount of damage. Be sure to heal after that with Marle. The top section has 960 HP The bottom section has about 800 HP. For defeating Zombor, you get 350 experience, 10 tech points, 1500 Gold.
7. Masa and Mune (600 AD, Denadoro Mts.) At first, Masa and Mune seem like innocent children, that is until they turn into monsters and attack you. Your first step is to have Lucca cast Hypno Wave on the two. Now you should attack one of them and make sure the other stays asleep. Attack with your weapons. You only need to defeat one of them to win the battle. They have 1000 HP each. For defeating them, you get 400 experience, 4 tech points, and 400 Gold. Then, it says "Apart, Masa and Mune are powerless." and then you realize the battle is not over. The game says "With Masa's bravery, and Mune's knowledge! Two become one!" Now they turn into big and ugly. Hit this guy with your best attacks and magic. All of his attacks are fairly strong, so beware and keep your HP up with Aura Beam. When it says that he is storing tornado energy, use Crono's Slash attack on him to neutralize it. He may also attack with a Slash attack of his own, doing decent damage to two people in your party. The second form of Masa and Mune has 3600 HP. For defeating him, you get 500 Experience, 10 tech points, 1500 Gold. Masa and Mune then separate, and you get the broken Masamune.
8. Nizbel (65,000,000 BC, Reptite's Lair) As for regular dinosaurs, use Lightning on this guy. Then nail it with everything you have. When it says "releases electrocution energy" he is gonna zap you. This will do an extreme amount of damage, in the upper one hundred range. After that, heal your party with Robo's Heal Beam, for example. You will need to hit him with lightning again. His earthquake attack will do about 40+ points of damage to him. Nizbel has approximately 4200 HP. For defeating him, you get 500 experience, 10 tech points, and no gold or items. If you use Charm on him, you get a Third Eye.
9. Slash (600 AD, Magus' Castle) Like most of the bosses in Magus' Castle, Slash has multiple forms. His first form is rather weak. Use a combination of magic and regular attack on him. His "attack attack attack" move does about 80 points of damage to one character, so make sure your HP is up. You know you have won when he uses an attack that hits the entire party for about 50 damage. The first form has about 3300 HP. He will then grab his sword from the wall, and begin to attack you with his Slash technique. This will hit either one, two, or all three members of your party for about 60 damage. Make sure to heal often with Frog or tonics. His "Yes indeed" attack will do over 100 points of damage to you, and is quite powerful. Heal right after that. Slash has 5200 HP. For defeating Slash, you get 500 experience, 10 tech points, 1500 Gold. You also get the Slasher 1 Sword for winning.
10. Flea (600 AD, Magus' Castle) Flea also has two forms. The first form is rather wimpy however, and doesn't take much to kill. The only real thing it does is steal all of the MP of one of your characters. So make Lucca kill it, since the real Flea is "weak" against weapon attacks, not against Lucca's magic. Then you attack the real Flea. This form is much more powerful than the first. X-Strike works pretty well against it, as well as just regular attacks, and Crono's Spincut works rather well too. Make Lucca use her gun. Flea will use Chaos attacks, Sleep attacks, and Poison attacks against you. Make sure to bring Heals with you to counteract their effects. The Stare will get one of your party to attack the rest of your party, injuring everyone badly. Heal with Frog or tonics to heal the party. Flea has about 4120 HP. For defeating Flea, you get 500 experience, 10 tech points, 1000 Gold and a Magic Tab.
11. Ozzie (600 AD, Magus' Castle) Ozzie puts up a protective barrier so that you can't hurt him. So don't even try to hit him, or he will just counterattack you. Instead, hit the winches that are next to him. This is all you need to do to win the battle. After you've hit them all, Ozzie will fall through the floor, and you will win. For defeating Ozzie, you get nothing.
12. Magus (600 AD, Magus' Castle) Magus is one of the toughest bosses to beat if you don't know what you are doing. You need to pay attention to what magic he is using against you. That is the barrier he has up at the moment. It is best to have a varied party so you can hit him with whatever magic he is using against you: Frog, Chrono and Lucca (and if you can manage it, try to have learnt Delta Storm triple tech before). Have Frog attack with the Masamune when Magus's barrier isn't water-magic. This will help lower his defenses, and help prevent him from casting certain spells on you. He will also use Dark Matter, his strongest spell which will do 200+ points of damage to the whole party. There will come a time during the battle when Frog seems to be doing significantly more damage with his attacks. When this happens, hit him with your best physical attacks and/or with Delta Storm, and he will not counterattack. This is a sign that he is weakening. Magus has 6666 HP. For defeating Magus, you get 1500 experience, 15 tech points, 3000 Gold.
13. Nizbel II (65,000,000 BC, Tyrano Lair) Nizbel II is every bit a pain to beat as the original Nizbel. His charge attack will do a fair amount of damage to everyone in your party. Use Lightning on him to decrease his defense. Rock Throw works well against him. Again, he will discharge the lightning energy, and it will do a lot of damage. Heal with Robo's Heal Beam right after it. Nizbel II has approximately 7000 HP. For defeating Nizbel II, you get 880 Experience, and 15 tech points. If you use Charm on him, you get a Third Eye.
14. Black Tyrano and Azala (65,000,000 BC, Tyrano Lair) This is the final showdown in the battle between the cave people and the reptites. Your first job is to defeat Azala. Regular attacks, Lightning and Fire magic seem to work well on her. Azala will use several attacks that do moderate damage, while the Tyrano will either shoot fire at you for moderate damage, or "eat" one person for some major damage in the 200 range. Azala has 2700 HP, and when Azala dies, the Azala Break spell will reduce your HP by a small amount. Now, heal your characters with Robo's Heal Beam and wait until it says "Removes def, and is storing pwr." Now attack the Tyrano with your best techs. Cat Attack works very well on it, and Fire and Lightning magic both are OK. Spincut works better than Lightning though. When it counts down to 0, it will blast you with a powerful fire attack. Heal then. It has 10,500 HP. For defeating them, you get 1800 Experience, and 25 tech points. If you use Charm on them, you get a PowerTab and a MagicTab.
15. Golem (12,000 BC, Zeal Palace) This is one of the tougher bosses in the game because of the Iron Orb attack it can do. This will reduce one characters life by half. Since his physical counterattacks are really tough, the best way to defeat him is to use magic on him. Alternate different kinds of spells on it, and he won't have time to attack you. Or, if you must use any kind of physical attack use Rock Throw, as it does major damage to him. But be sure to hit him with any kind of magic (his counterattacks against Fire are quite weak) immediately afterwards. The Golem has 7000 HP. For defeating the Golem, you get 1000 Experience, 35 tech points, 2000 Gold. If you use Charm on it, you get a MagicTab.
16. Sir Krawlie (2300 AD, Sewer System) Although this guy barely counts as a boss, I'm including him in the list. If you go after him earlier in the game, he can be fairly tough to beat. But later in the game, he is just a wimp. Nail him with your best attacks, but watch out for his 1 HP move. Krawlie has 500 HP. For defeating Sir Krawlie, you get 100 Experience, 5 tech points, 500 Gold.
17. Blue Beast, Red Beast, and Mud Imp (12,000 BC, Beast's Nest) These guys have a lot of HP, but aren't too tough. For the Red Beast, use Ice Magic on it. For the Blue Beast, use Fire Magic on it. Beat the tar of the Mud Imp with physical attacks. The Red Beast has 5000 HP. The Blue Beast has 5000 HP. The Mud Imp has 1200 HP. Leave the Imp for last. But if you cannot beat the Mud Imp, it will run away. For defeating them, you get 600 experience, 16 tech points, 1600 gold. But if you manage to get them all, you get 954 experience, 26 tech points, 2600 Gold. If you use Charm on them, you get a SpeedTab, a MermaidCap and an Elixir.
18. Giga Gaia (12,000 BC, Mt. Woe) The secret to beating Giga Gaia is defeating the hands. Once you defeat the hands, you have a clear opportunity to beat the tar out of the main body before it regenerates the hands. When it has its hands though, it will use dual attacks on you. It will attack you with Shadow and Fire magic, so if you have the colored armors, now is the time to use them. It is best to have your party wear a Black Mail, a Red Mail, and a Red Vest. That way, someone is always being healed by the attacks, and you don't have to worry much about your HP for the battle. Delta Force works very nicely against Giga Gaia, but if you can manage to have these techs, use Luminaire, Flare and Shock. Each hand has approximately 2000 HP. The main body has 9500 HP. For defeating Giga Gaia, you get 3000 Experience, 30 tech points, 3000 Gold. If you use Charm on the body, you get a SpeedTab.
19. Dalton (12,000 BC, Zeal Palace) Dalton will use the Iron Orb attack, which will drop your HP by half. Heal then. Nail this guy with your best magic attacks, and he is fairly easy to beat. He has 3500 HP. When you defeat him, he will use a weird attack that will damage the entire party. For defeating him, you get 1000 Experience, 30 tech points, 2500 Gold. If you use Charm on him, you get a PowerMeal.
20. Golem Twins (12,000 BC, Ocean Palace) These guys can be tough. They are similar to regular Golems, but having two of them makes things even tougher. You should have Luminaire and Flare by now, so use that on them. If you need, heal with Robo's Heal Beam or tonics. It works rather well. Each Golem has 10,000 HP. For defeating them, you get 2000 Experience, 70 tech points, 4000 Gold. If you use Charm on them, you get 2 MagicTabs.
21. Lavos (12,000 BC, Ocean Palace) Although you aren't supposed to win the battle against Lavos, I'm counting it as a boss, as you can kill it by using the New Game Plus. You will fight the outer core, and it will be much more powerful than fighting it at the end of the game like normal. The attacks will do more damage to you, and will be done more frequently. His "Destruction rains from the Heavens!" attack is really powerful. Heal with Robo right after each of these. You should be able to kill it with Luminaire, Flare and Shock. When you defeat the outer shell, you can refer to the end of this document for the Inner Core of Lavos. The outer Shell should have about 10,000 HP.
22. Golem Boss (12,000 BC, Blackbird) This guy isn't that tough. He doesn't attack you at all. He is afraid of heights, so if you can't beat him on your own, he'll run away after a while. The Golem Boss has 15,000 HP. For defeating him, you get 2500 Experience, 40 tech points, 2000 Gold.
23. Dalton Plus (12,000 BC, Blackbird) It's time to finish the fight with this "king". He will use the Iron Orb attack on you, and a weaker form of the Golem's physical attack also. Dalton has 3500 HP. For defeating Dalton, you get 2500 Experience, 40 tech points, 2000 Gold. If you use Charm on him, you get a PowerMeal.
24. Lavos Spawn (2300 AD, Death Peak) The spawn has two parts to it - a "head" and a "body". Attack the head, or else you won't do any damage to it. Magic and physical attacks work best. But try to avoid hitting the outer shell, or else it will use the needle attack on you. Use Frog's Leap Slash, Robo's Uzzi Punch and Ayla's Triple Kick. It has 4000 HP. There are a total of three of these on Death Peak. For defeating the Lavos Spawn, you get 747 experience points, 120 tech points, 500 Gold and an Elixir.
25. Son of Sun (2300 AD, Sun Palace) There is a very easy way to defeat this boss. First, you need the right armor. The Red Mail, the Red Vest, and the Ruby Armor are a must. Don't even think about it without them. If you have Magus, have him cast Black Hole on it, and two of the flames will disappear. After that, cast any level 2 spell, and see which flame does not counterattack. Now hit that flame. When it does the roulette, just cast another level 2 spell on it. Do not bother to try to attack the center, as you cannot hurt it that way. Whenever you hit the correct flame, the center will take about 215 damage no matter how much or little you do to the outer flame. The Son of Sun has about 2100 HP. For defeating the Son of Sun, you get 3800 experience, 40 tech points, 2000 Gold. If you use Charm on it, you get a Black Mail.
26. Flea Plus (600 AD, Ozzie's Fort) This version of Flea is no different from the original version of Flea. In fact, she is weaker than the first version of Flea you fought. Flea has less than 3000 HP. Just bash her with whatever your favorite technique is. He doesn't put up much of a fight. For defeating her, you get 2000 experience points, 20 tech points, 2000 Gold.
27. Super Slash (600 AD, Ozzie's Fort) This version of Slash is not much different from his other version either. Bash Slash with your favorite technique, or weapons. He has about 2500 HP. For defeating him, you get 2000 Experience, 20 tech points, 2000 gold.
28. Great Ozzie, Super Slash and Flea Plus (600 AD, Ozzie's Fort) Try to concentrate on one person at a time, and watch out for their triple tech, as it can be quite nasty. The best way is to attack the Great Ozzie himself with single techniques like Triple Kick, Uzzi Punch, Confuse, Mega Bomb... so there's only one counterattack each time you attack. When he dies, the others die, too. Super Slash has 4000 HP, Flea Plus has 4000 HP, and Great Ozzie has 6000 HP. For defeating just Slash and Ozzie, you get 5000 experience, 50 tech points, 3000 Gold. For defeating them all, you get 7500 Experience, 80 tech points, 4000 Gold. If you use Charm on them, you get an Ozzie Pants, a Slasher 2 and a Flea Vest.
29. Great Ozzie (600 AD, Ozzie's Fort) This is the last stand of Ozzie. He's a wimp as usual. Just attack the level near him, and this time, you will fall down the hole. Go back up, and he will pretty much defeat himself. Since you don't actually defeat him, you don't get anything for your battle. If you use Charm on him, you get a second Ozzie Pants.
30. Rust Tyrano (600 AD, Giant's Claw) This guy is just like the first Tyrano you fought, only stronger. Again, Red Mail, Red Vest, and Ruby Armor are a must if you want to survive the battle. Also, bring Ayla to steal from the boss if you can. This guy can take a lot of damage, so be ready for a long battle. Luminaire is a good spell to have, as well as Flare and Triple Kick. Again, he will count down from 5 and blast you with Fire Magic. This guy is not meant to be tough, but he does have a lot of HP. In fact, the Rust Tyrano has 25,000 HP. For defeating the Rust Tyrano, you get 3800 Experience, 40 Tech points, and 2000 Gold. You can get the Rainbow Shell after you defeat it. If you use Charm on it, you get a Red Mail.
31. Yakra XIII (1000 AD, Guardia Castle) This guy is a lot like his predecessor. He does use chaos a lot, so be prepared if you can. Blast him with your best stuff. Have Marle, Lucca and Ayla. Charm him to get a White Mail, and then attack him with Antipode 3 and Triple Kick. Yakra has an earthquake attack that will do a decent amount of damage to you. The Needle 13 attack will do a lot of damage to you. When you beat him, he will hit you with one more needle attack. Yakra XIII has 18,000 HP. For defeating Yakra, you get 3500 Experience, 40 tech points, 2000 Gold, and 1 MegaElixir. If you use Charm on him, you get a White Mail.
32. Retinite (600 AD, Sunken Desert) Retinite bears a strong resemblance to Zombor, but looks are about all they have in common. In order to defeat this monster, you need to have someone who can use Water or Ice magic in your party. Every time you hit Retinite, it will raise its' defenses against attack, and water will weaken it. We usually attack the mid section first. Magic will not work on Retinite at all. You need to use your best physical attacks on Retinite. Weaken him with Marle's Ice 2, and then attack with Ayla's Triple Kick, and Crono's Confuse. If you need, heal them all with Aura Beam. The Mid section has about 2000 HP. The top section has about 5,000 HP. The bottom section has between 5,000 and 6,000 HP. For defeating Retinite, you will get 2600 experience, 100 tech points, 2000 gold. If you use Charm on the eye, you get a SpeedTab.
33. Atropos XR (2300 AD, Geno Dome) This is a one on one battle between Atropos XR and Robo. Make sure he is powerful enough to stand up to the task at hand. Atropos has the same moves as Robo can do. She will use Area Bomb and Rocket Punch the most, and will also use the Heal Beam on herself. Area Bomb works good against her. Make sure Robo has the highest magic he can have, as he will need the added boost to win. Once you do enough damage to defeat her, it will take a few moments for her to realize that she is dead and will keep attacking you for a bit. Atropos has 6000 HP. For defeating Atropos XR, you get no experience, no tech points, no gold. But you do get Atropos' Ribbon, which will raise Robo's Speed by 3, and Magic Defense by 10.
34. Mother Brain and Display (2300 AD, Geno Dome) This is the psycho robot in charge of the factory. Shutting her down will shut down the place. The displays around the room will heal her. Don't destroy them. If you destroy all three of them, Mother Brain will use her most powerful attacks on you. If you keep one alive, it will still heal her, but she won't be able to use her most powerful attacks. So use Robo's Uzzi Punch, Ayla's Triple Kick and Crono's Confuse. Each display has 1 HP. Mother Brain has 5000 HP. For defeating the Mother Brain, you get 3000 experience, 40 tech points, 3000 Gold. You also get the Terra Arm and the Crisis Arm. Once you win, you cannot reenter the factory. If you use Charm on them, you get a Blue Mail and Elixirs.
35. Mega Mutant (Black Omen) This sure doesn't look like the Mutants you are used to seeing! Blast this dude with your best techs, Luminaire, Flare and Shock/Dark Matter. It will go down pretty easily. It will use Chaos spells on you, so be prepared for them. You only need to kill either the top or the bottom to destroy it. The top has 3,850 HP. The bottom has 4,600 HP. For defeating the Mega Mutant, you get 900 experience, 50 tech points, 1500 Gold. If you use Charm on it, you get an Elixir and a Vigil Hat.
36. Giga Mutant (Black Omen) This boss isn't much harder than the Mega Mutant. Physical attacks do little damage to it, so blast it with magic. Every time you hit it, it will try to steal some life away from you. It also has a life shaver attack where it reduces your HP to 1 for one person. Heal after that. The Giga Mutant has 4,950 HP for the bottom section. The top section has 5,800 HP. For defeating the Giga Mutant, you get 1500 experience, 80 tech points, 2000 Gold. If you use Charm on it, you get a Hit Ring and a Wall Ring.
37. Terra Mutant (Black Omen) This boss isn't that tough. Magic will tend to heal the lower half, so concentrate on killing the upper half first. The top half has 7,860 HP. The lower half will die when the upper half dies. The lower half has 20,000 HP. For defeating the Terra Mutant, you get 2000 Experience, 100 tech points, 3800 Gold. If you use Charm on it, you get a Muscle Ring and a PowerSeal.
38. Lavos Spawn (Black Omen) This Spawn is very tough to beat. Hit the head only, or it will counterattack you for severe damage. It has a needle attack that will also cause confusion as well as do high damage. It can cast Dark Bomb as well. Use Confuse, Uzzi Punch, Triple Kick... The Lavos Spawn has 10,000 HP. For defeating the Lavos Spawn, you get 2450 Experience, 120 tech points, 2500 Gold. If you use Charm on it, you get a Safe Helm and a Haste Helm.
39. Queen Zeal (Black Omen) This is your first of two battles with the Queen. We suggest to have at least Robo in your party, for he can cure the party with Heal Beams. Her opening attack will be to reduce the HP of your party to 1. But don't worry: She can't kill you. Nail her with cheap magic attacks after this move (to save your MP for later), and if you have them in your party, with Frog's Frog Squash and Ayla's Dino Tail. These techs are the strongest when your HP is at 1. We do not suggest trying to heal yourself, as she will just do the 1 HP move again. On occasion, she will attempt to steal some of your MP. Zeal has 12,000 HP. For defeating her, you get one MegaElixir.
40. Mammon Machine (Black Omen) Still weak from your battle with Zeal, your best bet is to use that MegaElixir you won. From here, pommel it with everything you have. NOTE: The Masamune absorbs energy from the Mammon machine, so you might want to have Frog in your party. When you attack it with Magic, it says that the machines attack power goes up. When you attack it physically, its defense goes up. So your best bet is magic attacks (the most powerful ones you have). When you attack it, and the Mammon M. stands still, it is weakening. Just kill it with your best techs or attacks: Luminaire, Flare and Shock/Dark Matter. The Mammon M. has 18,000 HP. For defeating it you get nothing.
41. Queen Zeal (Black Omen) This is the last battle between you and Zeal. There are three parts to this boss. A head, and two arms. Ignore the arms and go for the head. Make sure you use tech that only hits one section of Zeal, or you will get hit by a nasty counterattack from the hands. The arms' counterattacks are either taking that person's HP to 1, or MP to 0. She also has some nasty regular attacks that can hurt if you don't have good magical protection. Mega Bomb, Triple Kick, Uzzi Punch and Confuse work well here. The Lightning attack she does is not very powerful. Her Water attack is very powerful however. She has been known to use her Hallation/ HP to 1 attack, so beware of it: Heal with Robo' Heal Beam. Queen Zeal has 20,000 HP so it's going to be a long battle no matter what. For defeating her, you get nothing. If you use Charm on her hands, you get a Prism Dress and a Prism Helm.
42. Lavos "Shell" (1999 AD) This is your first step into the final battle. You must now face the many forms of Lavos. Try to have Gold Studs as accessories and wear the best armors you have. These are the forms that Lavos takes:
1. Dragon Tank 2. Guardian and Bits 3. Heckran 4. Zombor 5. Masa & Mune (second form) 6.Nizbel 7. Magus 8. Black Tyrano & Azala 9. Giga Gaia 10. Lavos'' true form
The last form has approximately 10,000 HP and is rather easy to beat, using Luminaire, Flare and Shock/Dark Matter. The other forms are just like their regular counterparts.
43. Lavos "Core 1" (1999 AD) Now that the outer shell is broken, it's time to attack the inner core. We advise a party consisting of Chrono, Lucca and Robo with Gold Studs. Luminaire, Flare and Shock are about the best spells to use against the final forms of Lavos. Lavos has three parts to it. A central part, and two arms. In order to defeat the center, you need to defeat the arms first. Lavos will start with a powerful attack before you can get a move off. You may need to heal afterwards. The left arm appears to have less hit points than the right arm. The left arm has somewhere between 7000 HP and 8500 HP. The right arm appears to have between 8500 HP and 10,000 HP. Be careful about this, because when the left arm is gone, the right arm will cast a spell that will remove all of one characters protective magic, even that which is invoked by armor such as the Vigil Hat. When you beat the right arm, wait till Lavos casts a spell called Obstacle, which is a Chaos type spell. Then the main body's defense will decrease a lot. So now use Luminaire, Flare and Shock till it dies, healing with Robo when you need it. The central core may use Obstacle against you several times during the battle, or something called Flame Battle which is fairly powerful. The central body has about 20,000 HP. You get nothing for winning.
44. Lavos "Core 2" (1999 AD) This is it, the final showdown with Lavos. Lavos has three parts. A central body, a left bit, and a right bit. Be sure to have Chrono, Lucca and Robo (in this order) with Gold Studs. The central body provides a protection for the right bit (the real core): So use Luminaire, Flare and Shock till the center dies. The bits will sometimes heal the central body, and the bits can also attack you. The central body will cast Time Warp which seems to enable itself to cast different spells depending on the time period you are in. After you've destroyed the central body, wait till the right bit shuts off his defense. Since there's no central body, the bits will counterattack each time you hit the left one. So you must only hit the right one: Use Crono's Confuse and Lucca & Robo's DoublevBomb. Since Robo is next to the right bit (if you've made sure to put him in third place), DoublevBomb will do major damage to the right bit, doing more than 7600 damage at level 99! When you need it, cure the party with Robo's Heal Beam. If you don't have anymore MP, use a MegaElixir. The right bit will eventually revive the center body and the left bit if you killed them. The right bit will now raise its defense again. You need to repeat the process over again. The left bit has about 1500 HP, the center has about 10,000 HP, and the right bit has about 30,000 HP. Killing the right bit will kill the other parts of Lavos, thus beating the game!


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Hi, I am asking about business for foreigners in Manila. i came across sites that all agree that foreigners are not allowed to own more than 40% of any business. This is Ok for me but is it safe that my partner owns 60%?
In other words, what does this mean if a partner owns 60% in the Philippines in terms of power and decisions in any company ?
Thank you

subset: commoncrawl


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[UPDATE 10:49 am] Vehicle vs Pedestrian Accident in Fortuna
Fire, medical and Fortuna PD are responding to the report of a vehicle vs pedestrian on Fortuna Blvd near Walgreens. Fire units on scene have shut down the #2 lane.
[UPDATE 10:48 AM] Per scanner traffic, the victim is a 93 year old male who was struck from the rear while riding a trike type bicycle. He was transported to Redwood Memorial Hospital.


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Monday, 16 June 2014
Why Don't You?? Volunteer, That Is.
This blogger/researcher/RVer is currently in her home state county and city, in the stick built home. Man and I have a long list of "real life" issues to be handled. Sell a vehicle or two, one is sold, my hightop custom van has a new home, I cried when it drove away. Buy a new vehicle. I am more in love with my new little mini mini van each time I drive it, it may actually replace my hightop custom van in my heart, who knew that was possible? We have Man's mother's home to sell, the clean up is finished, it goes on the market this week. Our son who has been living there has been packing and shopping for a 'new to him' home. We have, of course, doctors, dentists and eye doctors to make appointments with. Hours of gardening and reclaiming the 3 acres we groom (a couple of years each with many months away have taken a toll on the landscape). Grandchildren to love on, and of course, for this gal, research and input to do.
Sounds busy, eh? We are all busy. We live busy lives, each and every one of us. There are many duties that call our names. And, if you are still employed there is another entire layer of busy!
Have just a few minutes to spare? Probably not many. However, if you can find just a few, may I suggest you do something for others?? Volunteer.
It only takes a few minutes to look up a obit in your local library. It could mean the world to someone living across the country that cannot travel to your locality to do that lookup themselves. You get a few minutes in a peaceful quiet library, someone gets an obituary they are curious about. Just a few minutes, of your time.
Or, how about visiting the local cemeteries and doing a lookup for Find A Grave or BillionGraves. The exercise and the fresh air are a wonderful side benefit to cemetery stomping.
Recently someone did a bit of extra research on a memorial over at Find A Grave, and then contacted me. That reaching out broke down a brick wall in my research family. I wrote about it, at length, on Reflections yesterday. Yes, I am still doing the happy genie dance.
Below, the final resting place of one William A. Darden, Civil War Confederate solider who died of pneumonia. Permission granted for use of photo by Mark B, volunteer at Find A Grave. His volunteer efforts, my brick wall came falling down.
This was the second volunteer from Find A Grave that reached out to me in the last month, I also wrote about that break through on Reflections. I had mentioned that I would love to get a better image of a World War I draft registration on that post. A friend took a few minutes to access that image and sent me a beautiful image. She said she was bored. Knowing her, it only took a few minutes for her to locate and download and forward the file to me. What a nice thing to do for me.
Volunteering can be wonderful for you and for the recipients. Even just a few minutes a week can be rewarding. Stepping back from all the demands on your life for a scenery change can be extremely beneficial to you and you can change some one else's research.
See how just a few minutes can change some one else's research. It will feel great, I'll even go so far as to say, I promise it will feel great.
Just a few minutes.
6 comments:
Thank you for this post. We can all appreciate the immense service that Find a Grave and Billion Graves volunteers perform and the difference they have made in our lives as researchers.ReplyDelete
Even if you can't leave home, you can volunteer as an indexer for Family Search (information at https://familysearch.org/indexing/). Their projects come in small batches that don't take long to work through. We've all probably benefited from their online resources; this is a good way to give back.
I spend just two hours a week helping out at the genealogy department of my local library. They have me cutting and pasting obituaries (the old-fashioned way). When that project is over there will be look-ups for faraway family historians. I learn something new about genealogy every time I go there!
I agree and "get it." The sense of satisfaction is great and the amount of time is usually small - taking the time to help others will make you happy. When someone tells me that a blog post or video helped them make sense out of their database, or Excel, or a record set - I am thrilled. If you give back, you will be amazed what comes back to you. Happy for you Carol that those walls came tumbling down.ReplyDelete
Thanks Tessa, it was a couple of great weeks.ReplyDelete
And, volunteering does not have to be a HUGE project. It takes a lot of small bites to eat the elephant they say! ;-)
Thanks for volunteering!ReplyDelete
I don't have the confidence yet in my deciphering ability to index old records, but this is something I would very much like to do.
However, if you have any ancestors in Virginia, the District of Columbia, Maryland, or West Virginia, I'm more than willing to photograph headstones. My husband thinks my genealogy "addiction" is crazy most of the time, but he never minds going to an old cemetery. Go figure!
That's great Schalene! Thank you for such a nice offer. One small bite, next thing we know, that ole elephant has been devoured. (BTW, who eats elephant?? What a silly saying.)ReplyDelete
You're so right! I get great satisfaction from looking up obits for others, or taking grave photos. I totally believe in making genealogy karma happen! When I'm stumped on something of my own, it's time for me to go looking for something to GIVE to someone else.ReplyDelete
Hello, thanks for leaving a comment on the World Wide Genealogy Blog. All comments are moderated because of pesky spammers!
Best wishes
World Wide Genealogy Team


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Cutting down from a pack a day to half that - 10 cigarettes or fewer - reduces the risk of lung cancer by 27%, according to Nina Godtfredsen, M.D., PhD, of Copenhagen University Hospital here.
But stopping entirely is still the best bet, she said, because earlier studies have shown that cutting down has no effect on other ill health effects of smoking, including the risk of myocardial infarction and hospitalization for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Dr. Godtfredsen and colleagues extracted data on cigarette smoking from three long-running studies in the Copenhagen area, and combined that with lung cancer data collected by the Danish national cancer registry.
All told, they were able to get smoking and cancer data on 19,714 people, with up to 31 years of follow-up and a mean of 18 years, they report in the September 28 edition of the Journal of the American Medical Association.
At the start, study participants were divided into four groups -- those who had never smoked, those who had quit before the study began, those who smoked fewer than 15 cigarettes a day, and those who smoked 15 or more cigarettes a day.
The last two categories were described as "light" and "heavy" smokers; the heavy smokers, on average, consumed more than 20 cigarettes a day.
If heavy smokers reduced their consumption by at least half during the follow-up period, but did not quit outright, they were classified as "reducers," Dr Godtfredsen and colleagues said.
And those who smoked at the start but quit during the follow-up were classified as "quitters," they said.
The study participants had 864 incident lung cancers during the follow-up, 576 of them among the heavy smokers.
Compared to the persistent heavy smokers, the researchers found that:
- Reducers had a 27% lower risk of lung cancer. (The hazard ratio was 0.73, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.54 to 0.98.)
- Light smokers had a 56% risk reduction. (The hazard ratio was 0.44, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.35 to 0.56.)
- Quitters had a 50% reduction. (The hazard ratio was 0.5, with the 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.36 to 0.69.)
- Stable ex-smokers had an 83% reduction in risk. (The hazard ratio was 0.17, with the 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.13 to 0.23.)
- And those who had never smoked had a 91% reduction. (The hazard ratio was 0.09, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.06 to 0.13.)
Interestingly, the researchers note, a mean decrease of about 62% in the amount smoked corresponded with only a 27% reduction in cancer risk. The discrepancy, they suggest, may be explained by "compensatory smoking" - taking deeper puffs in order to get the most out of a limited number of cigarettes.
The study validates cutting down on smoking as a form of harm reduction, according to Lawrence Dacey, M.D. and David Johnstone, M.D., both of Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center in Lebanon, New Hampshire, who argue their case in an editorial that accompanies the study.
They point out that kicking the cigarette habit for "good will provide the greatest benefit," but patients who can't quit "should be strongly encouraged to cut down their cigarette consumption as much as possible."
Active and aggressive education by doctors "will help lessen the great personal suffering and societal burden inflicted by lung cancer," they conclude.
- Reviewed by Zalman S. Agus, MD Emeritus Professor at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine
Primary Source
Journal of the American Medical AssociationSource Reference: Godtfredsen NS et al. Effect of Smoking Reduction on Lung Cancer Risk. JAMA. 2005;294:1505-1510.
View this abstract.
Secondary Source
Journal of the American Medical AssociationSource Reference: Dacey LJ, Johnstone DW. Reducing the Risk of Lung Cancer. JAMA. 2005;294:1550-1.
View this extract.


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Monday, 23 February 2009
Racing Days - 1988
Here's a pic of Jamesy before (probably) the Surrey League Divisional Road Race Championships ('Divs') in 1988.
That's his much-missed mum on the left, looking on proudly. Actually she's probably fascinated - as I am - by WTF those two shaving-nicks from hell are on Jamesy's chiny-chin-chin. I think it's probably something from the photographic process, but can't be sure: I wasn't there that day. Given that Mike used to regularly race with a either the predictably-missed smear of Cramer Atomic Balm, or worse, the oily outline of a chainring on his calf, I wouldn't be surprised if these are actually on his face.
In the background is Graham Douce, part of the local 'Wembley Road Club - Testers of Edenbridge - Dauphin Sport' mafia, and brother of Steve, a zillion-times UK Cyclo Cross champ. The Wembley was also Roger Hammond's club when he use to ride us all into the ground too. Blimey: we really did used to mix it with the best!
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HAMMOND, LA (WAFB) - A somber homecoming Tuesday for a fallen Louisiana soldier.
A special procession rolled from the airport in Hammond, LA through Livingston Parish to Denham Springs, LA for Specialist Chris Drake, who was killed last month in Afghanistan.
"I just want to see him and touch him," said Drake's mother, Rose Drake. She says she has not seen her son since he left for Afghanistan earlier this year in April. Her last conversation with him was last month, just a few days before he was killed. She says he just wanted to know how everyone else was doing. "I just want him to know we love him with everything in us."
Rose Drake says because of her strong faith, she and her family are coping with her sons death. She says Chris joined the U.S. Army to become a mechanical engineer. She says he 'wanted to be somebody.'
"He did the ultimate sacrifice. Something most wouldn't attempt to try," she said.
Drake's body was escorted to the MJR Friendly Service Funeral Home in Denham Springs, LA by military and law enforcement vehicles, including motor units from the Walker Police Department and the Livingston Parish Sheriff's Office.
"We have a son that's deployed," said Stephanie Richardson, standing among the crowd gathered at the airport waving flags. "I worry everyday it could be me."
Richardson, who lives in the same town as the Drake's, says everyone who knew Chris says he had the warmest personality and the best smile. He told them to straighten up and get yourself together, she says. "He was an amazing young man."
Brandon Richardson says he went to school with Chris at Independence High School. Chris graduated in 2011, but Brandon says the two were on the football team together.
"After every game he'd come in and talk about how he loved the team." Tuesday seeing the turnout to welcome the soldier home, Brandon Richardson says shows just how much Chris Drake is loved and respected.
"I can't express it enough," Drake's mother said. "He died a true hero. He's all our hero. It's just so hard. I'm trying to hold these tears back, Lord help me. It's so hard."
His funeral is scheduled for Monday, June 10, at Eagle Heights Church off LA 1064 in Tickfaw at 11 a.m. The service is open to the public.
Drake was killed in Bagram, Afghanistan when his vehicle was attacked by a rocket-propelled grenade on May 26, 2013.
According to the Department of Defense, he was part of Operation Enduring Freedom.
Officials added he was assigned to the 1084th Transportation Company, 165th Combat Support Sustainment Battalion, 139th Regional Support Group, Reserve, LA in the Louisiana National Guard.
Spc. Drake is survived by fiance, her 3-year-old son and numerous family members.
Copyright 2013 WAFB. All rights reserved.


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Grants and Banner
The Grants Accounting Office assigns a unique Fund number for each grant account and creates a new FOAP in Banner. The Grants Accounting Office enters the approved budget into Banner and gives the PI, the department administrator, and the SRO or CFR the Banner FOAP and the Fund/Index number to use for all grant expenses.
The Fund number for a grant account is also that account's Banner Index. If the College has committed cost-sharing ("matching") to the project, a second Index and FOAP may be assigned for all match-related expenditures.
To review grant expenses in Banner:
- Log in to Banner Web.
- Select Finance, then Grant/Budget Queries. More detailed instructions are here.
- Make sure that all expenses charged are allocable to the grant and posted to an account code consistent with the grant budget.
- Move expenses to an appropriate account code if necessary.
As PI/PD, you can authorize other college employees to have Banner access to your grants.
Questions about grants accounting? Contact the Grants Accounting Office.
Questions about using Banner? Contact the Helpdesk (x2200).


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Celebrities in the U.S. Coast Guard and Auxiliary?
Wednesday, January 28, 2015
Posted by: admin
It's a common question to members of the Coast Guard and Auxiliary… Have any celebrities served? You bet! The United States Coast Guard and Auxiliary has had its fair share.
Here are just a few…
With the Bridges, it was a family affair. Commodore Lloyd Bridges was a member of the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary. Mr. Bridges did a number of public service announcements for the United States Coast Guard . His sons both served in the USCG RESERVE, Beau Bridges, a Seaman served from 1959 to 1967 and Jeff Bridges, Petty Officer Second Class served from 1967 to 1975.
Humphrey Bogart, volunteered his beloved yacht Santana (as well as himself) for service with the Coast Guard Temporary Reserve in 1944.
Tim Burton, a saxophonist for the band The Mighty Mighty Bosstones and a member of the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary. He is avid boater and began volunteering at the U.S. Coast Guard Station at Naval Station Mayport during the Bosstones 2006 hiatus.
Sid Caesar, served in the United States Coast Guard from 1939-1945, after studying saxophone at the Julliard School of Music and playing in a number of prominent big bands. In the Coast Guard, he was assigned to play in military revues and shows.
Walter Cronkite was a member of the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary as well as an honorary commodore. His close association with sailing and love of the Coast Guard and Navy saw him serve as a veteran commentator for various "Fleet Weeks" and "Operations Sails" events.
Sam Nunn from Georgia, U.S. Senator from 1972 to 1996, served on active duty with the United States Coast Guard and then served six years in the Coast Guard Reserves.
Arnold Palmer enlisted in the United States Coast Guard in 1950 as a Yeoman and continued to serve until 1953.
Al Roker of the NBC Today Show and the Weather Channel was named as an Honorary Commodore in the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary on May 19th 2014 live on national TV.
Cesar Romero might be best remembered for his portrayal of The Joker on the 1960s television show "Batman." In 1942 Cesar Romero voluntarily enlisted in the United States Coast Guard and saw service in the Pacific Theatre during WWII. He made the rank of Chief Boatswain's Mate before receiving his honorable discharge at the end of the war.
For the full list you can visit: http://www.uscg.mil/history/faqs/celeb.asp
I note that you refer to Reservists as being in the USCG RESERVES. As an official organ of this service Please refer to them as USCG RESERVE.
Thanks for hearing me out
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How One New Yorker Lives Large in Only 300 Square Feet
New Yoker Dustin O'Neal has a very stylish apartment, and it's only 300 square feet. Recently Dustin realized, as he was taking a new direction professionally and entering into the second half of his twenties, that his apartment could use a bit of an overhaul too — so he embarked on a 'makeunder' that involved getting rid of a lot of unnecessary things, and taking his little space from dark and moody to bright and colorful.
Keep only what you need.
Living in a tiny apartment has a way of forcing you into a kind of extreme minimalism that can be strangely freeing — it forces you to think about what you really need, and what you can do without. Dustin's apartment has no dining table, and, in a really bold move, no couch. This might not work for everyone, but it works for him, and it means that his small apartment feels quite spacious.
Make your storage a design feature.
Next to the front door, a set of shelves displays objects d'art alongside more practical things, like shoes.
But conceal things when you need to.
Meanwhile, in the kitchen, decorative boxes provide an attractive spot to stash things that need to be easily accessible but aren't quite as attractive. Don't underestimate the importance of opaque storage — chances are your apartment will look much better if you don't have to look at all your stuff all the time.
Don't be afraid of color.
Even in a small space, Dustin embraces color. We're especially taken with the gorgeous lavender hue of his bedroom, perfect for a sleeping space.
Add character without adding stuff.
Making your space more interesting doesn't have to mean adding more stuff. Dustin's space gets a dose of personality from the geometric wallpaper on the bedroom ceiling and the colorful stripe on the edge of the french doors — two things that don't take up any space at all.
To see more of Dustin's apartment, check out the full tour on Refinery29.
Bonus: You can see the apartment's old look in this slideshow from New York Magazine.
Re-edited from a post originally published 12.15.15-NT


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Q. What can I do to prevent warping of some of my relief carvings? I add kerfs to the back, make certain I am carving on the proper side, and still some of the carvings warp. I use basswood almost exclusively, and most of my carvings are 8 X 10 X 1 inch.
Ivan sez:
Two important points here: Wood is a "living material." It expands and contracts in response to the temperature and the humidity of its environment. Secondly, we're dealing with a rectangular plaque cut from a circular tree with a variable ratio of sapwood to heartwood, depending on the size of the tree and the part of the tree the wood is cut from. Different boards from the same tree will cup at differing rates in different places. The main cause is "differential shrinkage" based on the position in the log each board is sawn from. In the hardwoods, tangential shrinkage is greater than radial shrinkage causing plain-sawn boards to cup towards the outside of the tree.
Of course you can use only boards with the rings 90 degrees to the surface of the board (quarter sawn) as A. However, quarter sawn wood is expensive. The generally available wood is plain sawn, or flat sawn, a good portion of it prone to cupping.
That said, there were several precautions that traditional carvers took to limit the checking and the cupping of their reliefs:
1.Leave more wood than you take away. Rule of thumb, the deepest point of the carving should be less than half the thickness of the wood. That may reduce some cupping but primarily keeps the thin parts from checking as the wood expands and contracts through the seasons. We know the thin parts shrink/expand faster than the thick parts, so avoiding extremes lessens the stresses which lead to checking.
2.On single boards (plaques that are not glued up), carve from the heartwood into the sapwood. (Put the cupped side against the bench, the convex side up.) A board cups towards the sapwood, and since a board may also cup towards the carving, the two forces may cancel each other out. I use "may" here a lot because, as above, the position of the board in the log dictates most of what happens to it.
3.On larger plaques, laminate the wood, flip-flopping the grain. A wide board can cup substantially, so to minimize the effects, it is cut in half or in thirds, depending on its width, the sapwood/heartwood directions are alternated so that the tendency of one segment to cup is counteracted by the opposite cupping of the next segment.
4.Carve away wood in the back of the carving to balance the stresses. This can work for some of the thicker carvings, but can be counterproductive if removing wood from the back gives you very thin areas that dry much faster than surrounding wood.
ILLUSTRATIONS:(Click to enlarge)
Here is a basswood board showing the tendency to cup towards the sapwood.
This carving was from a single board 9 1/2 inches wide. Even though it was carved sap side down, following rules 1 and 2, it still cupped. The growth rings show that the board is from the B position of the log above, prone to cupping.
This carving, on the other hand, shows no cupping because it was laminated, alternating the sapwood/heartwood.
If the plaque is under eight inches wide and I don't mind a little cupping, I'll carve it sap side down, "leaving more wood than I take away." This generally keeps the plaque fairly flat. However, if the plaque is wider than eight inches, and especially if the board is from a less stable section of the log, as shown by the pattern of the growth rings, I'll laminate it, flip-flopping the grain. I'll also leave more wood than I take away. That has proven the best precaution against cupping. I've done many reliefs using these two techniques through the years. Laminated reliefs that I carved 40 years ago still show no signs of cupping or checking.
Make sure the wood is dry and acclimate it to the shop environment before you work with it. Wood that has more moisture than the environment will lose it faster in freshly cut areas and therefore will cup even more into the carving than it would if dry.
Keep in mind that Wood shrinks and expands side to side more than it does the length of the grain. A large plaque can shrink or expand several inches throughout the alternating wet summers/dry winters. If put in a frame, the carving should "float"–that is set in a way that gives it space to expand and contract. (I once got a call from a church about an altar screen that would crack in the winter. They would fill the cracks, only to have them reappear the next winter. The solution to the problem was easier than they realized. After I explained that wood is a "living material" and needed space to expand and contract, they realized that the screen had been mounted wrong—someone had anchored all four corners against the wall. In the winter the carving shrunk but the wall it was mounted on didn't. By slotting the mountings to let the screen float, the opening and closing of the cracks was eliminated.)
I've talked to carvers who said they've straightened boards by putting them concave side down on the grass. The sun dries out the top side and the grass adds moisture to the bottom. I've not tried that, though my concern would be that the cupping might eventually return. I'd prefer glue the plaque up for long term stability.


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South Kasai
|South Kasai
|Unrecognised state
Map of the Congo in 1961 with South Kasai highlighted in red, bordered by secessionist Katanga to the south.
|De Jure:
Autonomous federated state of the Republic of the Congo
De Facto:
|Albert Kalonji
|Historical era
|Congo Crisis
|Congolese independence
|30 June 1960
|Unilateral secession
|9 August 1960
|Monarchy proclaimed
|12 April 1961
|Arrest of Kalonji
|30 December 1961
|Coup d'état
|September 1962
|5 October 1962
|1961 est.;
|30,000 km² (11,583 sq mi)
|1961 est.; est.
|33.3 /km² (86.3 /sq mi)
|Congolese franc
|Today part of
|Democratic Republic of the Congo
|Previously President until July 1961.
South Kasai (French: Sud-Kasaï) was an unrecognised secessionist state within the Republic of the Congo (the modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo)[lower-alpha 1] which was semi-independent between 1960 and 1962. Initially proposed as only a province, South Kasai sought full autonomy in similar circumstances to the much larger neighbouring state of Katanga, to its south, during the political turmoil arising from the independence of the Belgian Congo known as the Congo Crisis. Unlike Katanga, however, South Kasai did not explicitly declare full independence from the Republic of the Congo or reject Congolese sovereignty.
The South Kasaian leader and main advocate, Albert Kalonji, who had represented a faction of the nationalist movement (the Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji or MNC-K) before decolonisation, exploited ethnic tensions between his own ethnic group, the Baluba,[lower-alpha 2] and the Bena Lulua to create a Luba-focused state in the group's traditional heartland in the south-eastern parts of the Kasai region. As sectarian violence broke out across the country, the state declared its secession from the Congo on 9 August 1960[lower-alpha 3] and its government and called for the Baluba living in the rest of the Congo to return to their "homeland". Kalonji was appointed President. Although the South Kasaian government claimed to form an autonomous part of a federal Congo-wide state, it exercised a degree of regional autonomy and even produced its own constitution and postage stamps. The state, supported by foreign powers, particularly Belgium, and funded by diamond exports, resolved numerous crises, including those caused by the large emigration of Luba refugees, but became increasingly militarist and repressive.
Soon after its secession, South Kasaian and Congolese troops clashed after the Congolese central government ordered an offensive against it. The offensive, planned to be the first act of an offensive against Katanga, was accompanied by widespread massacres of Baluba and a refugee crisis termed a genocide by some contemporaries. The state was rapidly overrun by Congolese troops. The violence in the suppression of Kasai provided much legitimacy to Joseph Kasa-Vubu's deposition of Patrice Lumumba from the office of Prime Minister in late 1960 and Lumumba's later arrest and assassination. As a result, South Kasai remained on relatively good terms with the new Congolese government from 1961. Its leaders, including Kalonji himself, served in both the South Kasaian government and the Congolese parliament. South Kasai continued to exercise quasi-independence while Congolese and United Nations troops were able to move through the territory without conflict with the South Kasaian gendarmerie. In April 1961, Kalonji took the royal title Mulopwe ("King of the Baluba") to tie the state more closely to the pre-colonial Luba Empire. The act divided the South Kasaian authorities and Kalonji was disavowed by the majority of South Kasai's parliamentary representatives in Léopoldville.[lower-alpha 4] In December 1961, Kalonji was arrested on a legal pretext in Léopoldville and imprisoned. UN and Congolese troops occupied South Kasai. In September 1962, shortly after his escape from prison and return to South Kasai, Kalonji was ousted by a military coup d'état which forced him into exile and brought the secession to an end.
The end of South Kasai's secession is usually held to be either December 1961, the date of Kalonji's arrest, or October 1962 with the anti-Kalonji coup d'état and final arrival of government troops.
- 1 Background
- 2 Secession
- 3 Collapse and reintegration
- 4 Aftermath
- 5 See also
- 6 Notes and references
- 7 Further reading
- 8 External links
Colonial rule
European colonial rule in the Congo began in the late 19th century. King Leopold II of Belgium, frustrated by his country's lack of international power and prestige, attempted to persuade the Belgian government to support colonial expansion around the then-largely unexplored Congo Basin. The Belgian government's ambivalence about the idea led Leopold to eventually create the colony on his own account. With support from a number of Western countries, who viewed Leopold as a useful buffer between rival colonial powers, Leopold achieved international recognition for a personal colony, the Congo Free State, in 1885.[3] The Luba Empire, the largest regional power in the Kasai region, was annexed into the new state in 1889. By the turn of the century, the violence of Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction had led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country, which it did in 1908, creating the Belgian Congo.[4]
Belgian rule in the Congo was based around the "colonial trinity" (trinité coloniale) of state, missionary and private company interests.[5] The privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that large amounts of capital flowed into the Congo and that individual regions became specialised. On many occasions, the interests of the government and private enterprise became closely tied and the state helped companies break strikes and remove other barriers imposed by the indigenous population.[5] The country was split into hierarchically-organised administrative subdivisions, and run uniformly according to a set "native policy" (politique indigène) – in contrast to the British and the French, who generally favoured the system of indirect rule whereby traditional leaders were retained in positions of authority under colonial oversight.[6]
Before the start of the colonial period, the region of South Kasai formed part of the Luba Empire, a federation of local kingdoms with a degree of cultural uniformity.[7] During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Baluba spread across large parts of the Kasai-Katanga savannah along the Kasai river basin and eventually developed into a number of ethnic subgroups, notably the Luba-Kasai and the Luba-Katanga.[7] Although never united into a single centralised state, the groups retained a degree of emotional attachment based around shared origin myths and cultural practices.[7] Other groups, like the Songye and the Kanyok, also had long histories in the Kasai region.[8]
One of the major legacies of colonial rule in Kasai was the arbitrary redivision of the population into new ethnic groups.[9] Despite the shared language (Tshiluba) and culture of the two groups, colonial administrators believed the inhabitants of the Lulua river area to be ethnically different from the Baluba and dubbed them the Bena Lulua.[9] The colonists believed the Baluba to be more intelligent, hardworking and open to new ideas than the Bena Lulua who were believed to be more reactionary and stupid.[9] As a result, from the 1930s, the state began to treat the two groups differently and applied different policies to each and promoted the Baluba to positions above other ethnicities.[9]
During the 1950s when the Belgians began to fear that the rise of a powerful Luba elite would become a threat to colonial rule, the administration began to support Lulua organisations. This further contributed to the growing ethnic polarisation between the two groups.[10] In 1952, an organisation called the Lulua Frères (Lulua Brothers) was established to campaign for socio-economic advancement of the Lulua group and became an unofficial representative of the Bena Lulua.[10]
In 1959, Luba-Lulua animosity was brought to a head by the discovery of a colonial proposal to move Luba farmers out of Lulua land to the less fertile land on Luba territory. As a result, animosity rose and violent clashes broke out.[10] In August 1959, Luba demonstrations against the plan which were violently repressed by the colonial military and police.[10]
Nationalist movement and Congolese politics
Congolese nationalism
An anti-colonial Pan-African and nationalist movement developed in the Belgian Congo during the 1950s, primarily among the évolué class (the urbanised black bourgeoisie). The movement was divided into a number of parties and groups which were broadly divided on ethnic and geographical lines and opposed to one another.[11] The largest, the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC), was a united front organisation dedicated to achieving independence "within a reasonable" time.[12] It was created around a charter which was signed by, among others, Patrice Lumumba, Cyrille Adoula and Joseph Ileo.[13] Lumumba became a leading figure and by the end of 1959, the party claimed to have 58,000 members.[14] However, many found the MNC was too moderate. A number of other parties emerged, distinguished by their radicalism, support for federalism or centralism and affiliation to certain ethnic groupings. The MNC's main rival was the Alliance des Bakongo (ABAKO) led by Joseph Kasa-Vubu, a more radical party supported among the Kongo people in the north, and Moise Tshombe's Confédération des Associations Tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT), a strongly federalist party in the southern Katanga Province.[15]
Kalonji-Lumumba split and polarisation
Although it was the largest of the African nationalist parties, the MNC had many different factions within it that took differing stances on a number of issues. It was increasingly polarised between moderate évolués and the more radical mass membership.[16] A radical and federalist faction headed by Ileo and Albert Kalonji split away in July 1959, but failed to induce mass defections by other MNC members. The dissident faction became known as the MNC-Kalonji (MNC-K), while the majority group became the MNC-Lumumba (MNC-L). The split divided the party's support base into those who endured with Lumumba, chiefly in the Stanleyville region in the north-east, and those who backed the MNC-K, popular in the south and among Kalonji's own ethnic group, the Baluba.[17] The MNC-K later formed a cartel with ABAKO and the Parti Solidaire Africain (PSA) to call for a united, but federalised, Congo.[18]
The 1959 elections degenerated into an "anti-Baluba plebiscite" in Kasai as the Luba MNC-K succeeded in obtaining a plurality but failed to take control of the provincial government.[10] Instead, Lumumba promoted a Lulua candidate, Barthélemy Mukenge, as provincial governor while Kalonji was refused an important ministerial portfolio in Lumumba's government.[10] Kalonji refused Lumumba's offer of the Agriculture portfolio.[10]
The Kalonjists, who felt rejected and marginalised by the central government, began supporting alternative parties. Among them, the Kalonjists supported Tshombe's CONAKAT party in nearby Katanga which, because of its strongly federalist stance, opposed to Lumumba's conception of a strong central government based in the capital Léopoldville. As part of this, the Kalonjists supported CONAKAT against their main local rivals, the centralist Association Générale des Baluba de Katanga (BALUBAKAT) party led by Jason Sendwe, which, although it represented the Baluba of Katanga Province, was in favour of centralism.[19] The Kalonjists, who believed themselves to be acting on behalf of all the Luba-Kasai, created an animosity between the Luba-Kasai and the Luba-Katanga but also failed to gain the full support of CONAKAT, much of which had racial prejudice against the Baluba and supported only the "authentic Katangese".[19]
Persecution of the Baluba
The Republic of the Congo received independence on 30 June 1960 under a joint government of Kasa-Vubu and Lumumba. Four days previously, MNC-K officials had petitioned the Léopoldville parliament to peacefully divide the Province of Kasai along the lines suggested by Kalonji. The motion, which would have required the modification of the Congo's new constitution (Loi fondamentale), was received by a parliament divided between Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu factions and no agreement could be reached.[2]
In the aftermath of independence, ethnic tensions flared up across the country, much of it directed against the Baluba, and a number of violent clashes occurred.[19] Despite rejecting earlier proposals for Luba repatriations to Kasai in January 1960, the Kalonjists made an official call to the Baluba across the Congo to return to their Kasaian "homeland" on 16 July.[19] Initially, the Kalonjists envisaged the division of Kasai Province in two in order to allow for the creation of a quasi-autonomous MNC-K and Luba-dominated provincial government.[19] The proposed province was termed the Federative State of South Kasai (État fédératif du Sud-Kasaï).[20] Rapidly, however, Kalonji realised that the chaos in the rest of the Congo could be used to secede unilaterally and declare full local independence.[19] This decision was further re-enforced by the full secession of the State of Katanga (État du Katanga), led by Tshombe, on 11 July 1960.[21] Kalonji visited Katanga at the start of August 1960, shortly after its secession, where, on the 8 August, he declared that Kasai "must be divided at all costs."[2]
On 9 August 1960, Kalonji, still in Katanga, declared the region of south-eastern Kasai to be the new Mining State of South Kasai (État minier du Sud-Kasaï) or Autonomous State of South Kasai (État autonome du Sud-Kasaï).[lower-alpha 5] [22][19]
Unlike Katanga, however, South Kasai's secession did not explicitly mean the rejection of its position within the Republic of the Congo. Rather, it resembled the self-declared local governments in Équateur Province.[23] The "Autonomous State" title was chosen in order to re-enforce the impression that the secession was not a rejection of Congolese sovereignty, but the creation of a federally-governed region of the Congo.[20] The secession had some support among journalists, intellectuals and politicians in Léopoldville, with one newspaper calling it "a model by which the many new states now mushrooming in the Congo might form a new federation".[23] In practice South Kasai had considerably more independence than a regular province and, by mandating its own federated powers unilaterally, was effectively seceding from the Congo.[24] Despite this, Kalonji and members of his party continued to sit as deputies in the Congolese parliament in Léopoldville.[20]
Kalonji was declared President and Joseph Ngalula Prime Minister.[19] Although the Luba-Kasai had never lived in a single state before, Kalonji was able to gain the broad support of the Luba chiefs for the secession.[19] Kalonji was able to portray the secession internationally as the result of the persecution and the failure of the Congolese government to sufficiently protect the Baluba in the rest of the Congo.[25] At its height, South Kasai numbered around a million inhabitants and 30,000 square kilometres (12,000 sq mi) of territory. The state's capital was Bakwanga (currently known as Mbuji-Mayi).[20]
Once established in power, Kalonji positioned himself personally as "big man" and patron from whom state power originated.[24] Tribal leaders from Luba and other ethnic groups enjoyed a close, client-like relationship with Kalonji himself and received preferential treatment in exchange for services.[24] In particular, Kalonji was reliant on tribal leaders to mobilise paramilitaries to support the South Kasaian army.[24]
The immediate internal problems faced by South Kasai were large number of unsettled Luba refugees and internal dissent from non-Luba minorities. The state was able to direct money from diamond exporting and foreign support to fund public services which allowed Luba refugees to be settled in employment.[26] Social services were "relatively well-run".[26] On the 12 July 1961, the state adopted a constitution turning itself into the Federated State of South Kasai (État fédéré du Sud-Kasaï), declaring the state itself both "sovereign and democratic" but also part of a hypothetical "Federal Republic of the Congo".[20] The state had its own flag, published its own official journal, the Moniteur de l'État Autonome du Sud-Kasaï, and even produced its own postage stamps.[27]
The South Kasaian army or gendarmerie grew from just 250 members at its inception to nearly 3,000 by 1961.[28] In 1961, the military led a campaign to expand the size of the state's territory at the expense of neighbouring ethnic groups.[29] Despite receiving some support from Belgium, the gendarmerie was poorly equipped and constantly low on supplies and ammunition.[29]
As government authority in South Kasai was consolidated, the government became increasingly militaristic and authoritarian.[26] Non-Luba groups were increasingly marginalised.[29] Political opponents were killed or driven into exile, including Ngalula.[30] Non-Luba groups in the region, especially the Kanyok, fought a constant but low-level insurgency against the South Kasaian government.[26]
International support
Kalonji went to great lengths to secure international recognition and support for the state of South Kasai. The former colonial power, Belgium, distrusted the Congolese central government and supported both the governments of South Kasai and Katanga. Like Katanga, South Kasai had important mineral deposits, including diamond fields, and Belgian companies had large sums of money tied up in mines in the area. A Belgian company, Forminière, was the state's principal supporter and received concessions from South Kasai in exchange for financial support.[25] The comparatively large income from these companies meant that South Kasai was able to support significant public services and cope with large numbers of internally-displaced Luba refugees.[26] In the context of the Cold War, Kalonji was supported by Western powers and moderates in the Congolese government who viewed him as both a moderate pro-Westerner and anticommunist.[26] Although both Katanga and South Kasai were supported by South Africa, France and the Central African Federation, neither state ever received any form of official diplomatic recognition.[31][32]
After the coup d'état which removed Lumumba from power, Kalonji tried to cultivate good relations with the Congolese government.[26] Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, in particular, was able to use South Kasai for the execution of his political opponents and dissident Lumumbists including Pierre Finant.[26]
Kalonji as Mulopwe
Because of the importance of the Luba ethnicity to South Kasai, Kalonji used his support from the traditional Luba tribal authorities to have himself declared Mulopwe.[19] The title, Mulopwe (usually translated as "King" or "Emperor"), was extremely symbolic because it was the title employed by the rulers of the pre-colonial Luba Empire and had been disused since the 1880s. By taking it, along with the extra name Ditunga ("homeland"), Kalonji was able to closely tie himself and the South Kasaian state to the Luba Empire to increase its legitimacy in the eyes of the Baluba.[19] In order to avoid accusations of impropriety, the title was bestowed on Kalonji's father on 12 April 1961, who then immediately abdicated in favour of his son. With the accession of Kalonji to the title of Mulopwe on 16 July, the state's title changed to the Federated Kingdom of South Kasai (Royaume fédéré du Sud-Kasaï).[33]
Kalonji's accession to the position of Mulopwe was heavily criticised even by many Luba in South Kasai.[34] Kalonji remained popular among some groups, but lost the support of the South Kasaian évolués who saw his elevation as flagrant opportunism. Soon after his elevation, Kalonji was publicly condemned and disavowed by ten of South Kasai's 13 representatives in the Léopoldville parliament beginning the disintegration of the secessionist state.[34]
Collapse and reintegration
Campaign of August–September 1960
When South Kasai seceded, government troops from the Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC) were already fighting Katangese troops in the Kasai region.[19] South Kasai held important railway junctions needed by the Congolese army for its campaign in Katanga, and therefore soon became an important objective.[35] South Kasai also had important mineral wealth which the central government was anxious to return to the Congo.[36] The central government also misunderstood the South Kasaian position, believing that, like Katanga, the region had declared full independence from the Congo and rejected Congolese sovereignty.[2]
"[The actions of the ANC in South Kasai] involve a most flagrant violation of elementary human rights and have the characteristics of the crime of genocide since they appear to be directed towards the extermination of a specific ethnic group, the Balubas [sic]."
Initially, Lumumba hoped that the United Nations (UN), which sent a multi-national peacekeeping force to the Congo in July 1960, would help the central government to suppress both Katangese and South Kasaian secessions. The UN was reluctant to do so, however, considering the secessions to be internal political matters and its own mission to be maintaining basic law and order.[38] Rejected by both the UN and United States, Lumumba sought military support from the communist Soviet Union.[36] Within days of the secession and with Soviet logistical support, 2,000 ANC troops launched a major offensive against South Kasai.[39] The attack was extremely successful. On 27 August, ANC soldiers arrived in Bakwanga.[40]
During the course of the offensive, the ANC became involved in ethnic violence between the Baluba and Bena Lulua.[39] As a result, the ANC perpetrated a number of large massacres of Luba civilians.[39] In September, Dag Hammarskjöld, the UN Secretary-General who had recently deployed a large peacekeeping force to the Congo, referred to the massacres as "a case of incipient genocide".[37] The Baluba were also attacked by the Katangese from the south.[41] In the ensuring massacres, in which ANC or Katangese troops often participated, around 3,000 Baluba were killed.[41] The violence of the advance caused an exodus of many thousands of Luba civilians who fled their homes to flee the fighting with more than 35,000 left in refugee camps in Élisabethville (the capital of Katanga) alone.[42] As many as 100,000 sought refuge in Bakwanga.[43] Diseases, notably kwashiorkor but also malaria, smallpox and anemia, were widespread and reached "epidemic proportions" among Luba refugees between October and December 1960.[44]
Allegations of genocide and brutality by the ANC were used to provide legitimacy to Kasa-Vubu's dismissal of Lumumba, with the support of Mobutu, in September 1960.[7] In the aftermath of the campaign, the South Kasaian state was able to provide substantial aid to its refugees, many of whom were resettled in homes and jobs.[26]
Coexistence and attempted reconciliation
Despite the occupation of South Kasai, the South Kasaian state was not dismantled and co-existed with the rest of the Congo.[2] Congolese delegates, as well as ANC and UN troops were generally able to move around the territory without conflict with the South Kasaian authorities while their sporadic campaign against Katangese forces continued.[2] Nevertheless, throughout much of the period, the South Kasaian gendarmerie fought with Kanyok and Lulua militias across the region while local ethnic violence continued.[45]
In mid-1961, conferences were held at Coquilhatville (modern-day Mbandaka) and later in Antananarivo, Madagascar to attempt to broker a peaceful reconciliation between the secessionist factions and the central government in the face of a rebel government in the Eastern Congo led by Antoine Gizenga.[46] It was believed that, with Lumumba dead, it might be possible to create a federal constitution that could reconcile the three parties.[46] The agreements instead led to more uncertainty.[47]
Kalonji's arrest
On 2 December 1961, Kalonji was accused by another deputy, the communist Christophe Gbenye, of having ordered corporal punishment against a political prisoner in South Kasai.[48] Parliament voted to remove Kalonji's political immunity and he was taken into custody by the ANC in Léopoldville.[49] A delegation of around 400 Luba tribal elders sent to Léopoldville to protest were also briefly arrested.[50] Mobutu and Victor Lundula visited Bakwanga soon afterwards.[45]
On 9 March 1962, the recently re-convened Léopoldville Parliament, under Cyrille Adoula, agreed to modify the Constitution and gave South Kasai official provincial status.[2] In April 1962, UN troops were ordered to occupy South Kasai as part of U Thant's new aggressive stance against secession following Hammarskjöld's death. In Léopoldville, Kalonji was sentenced to five years' imprisonment.[45] On 7 September, however, Kalonji escaped from prison and returned to South Kasai where he hoped to regain an official position in local elections and, at the head of a government, regain his immunity.[51]
Coup d'état of 1962
As dissatisfaction with the secession grew, Ngalula and other South Kasaian émigrés in Léopoldville plotted to overthrow the regime in Bakwanga.[29] In September 1962, the Léopoldville government appointed Albert Kankolongo as Special Commissioner (commissaire extraordinaire), giving him full military and civil power, to dismantle the local state. Ngalula approached a Kankolongo to lead a mutiny and coup d'état against Kalonji.[29]
On the night of 29/30 September 1962, military commanders in South Kasai, led by Kankolongo, led a coup d'état in Bakwanga against the Kalonjist regime.[26][2] The coup d'état was followed by calls for South Kasai to be fully re-integrated into the Congo. On 5 October 1962, central government troops again arrived in Bakwanga to support the mutineers and help suppress the last Kalonjist loyalists, marking the end of the secession.[52] Kalonji himself escaped capture during the coup and fled into exile in Barcelona in Francisco Franco's Spain.[53]
In Kasai
In October 1962, South Kasai returned to the Republic of the Congo. The State of Katanga continued to hold out against the central government until it too collapsed in January 1963 after UN forces began to take a more aggressive stance under Thant.[54] As a compromise, South Kasai was one of the 21 provinces formally established by the federalist constitution of 1962.[26] As the Mobutu regime launched a centralist restructuring of the Congolese state from 1965, South Kasai was one of the few provinces which was retained.[26] In order to discourage further secessionist sentiment, the province was later restructured to include new territory in Kabinda and Sankuru Districts and renamed Eastern Kasai (Kasaï-Oriental).[26]
The majority of the South Kasaian soldiers were integrated into the ANC after the dissolution of the state but nearly 2,000 loyalists went into hiding to await Kalonji's possible restoration.[52] The rebels were led by General Mwanzambala and fought a guerrilla war against the new provincial government until 1963 when they also accepted integration into the ANC.[52] Soon after the end of the secession, the city of Bakwanga was renamed Mbuji-Mayi.[43]
End of the Congo Crisis
In 1965, Mobutu launched a second coup d'état against the central government and took personal emergency powers. Once established as the sole source of political power, Mobutu gradually consolidated his control in the Congo. The number of provinces was reduced, and their autonomy curtailed, resulting in a highly centralised state. Mobutu increasingly placed his supporters in the remaining positions of importance.[55] In 1967, to illustrate his legitimacy, he created a party, the Popular Movement of the Revolution (MPR), which until 1990 was the nation's only legal political party under Mobutu's revised constitution.[55] In 1971, the state was renamed Zaire and efforts were made to remove all colonial influences. He also nationalised the remaining foreign-owned economic assets in the country.[56] By the time of its disestablishment, Zaire was characterised by widespread croneyism, corruption and economic mismanagement.[57]
The issues of federalism, ethnicity in politics and state centralisation were not resolved by the crisis and partly contributed to a decline in support for the concept of the state among Congolese people.[58] Mobutu was strongly in favour of centralisation and one of his first acts, in 1965, were to reunify provinces and abolish much of their independent legislative capacity.[59] Subsequent loss of faith in central government is one of the reasons that the Congo has been labeled as a failed state, and has contributed violence by factions advocating ethnic and localised federalism.[58]
See also
Notes and references
- ↑ Not to be confused with the neighbouring state currently known as the Republic of the Congo, formerly the French Congo, with its capital at Brazzaville. The state's name changed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo in August 1964.[1]
- ↑ In most Bantu languages, the prefix ba- is added to a human noun to form a plural. As such, Baluba refers collectively to members of the Luba ethnic group. Its adjectival form is Muluba.
- ↑ Some sources instead date the state's proclamation to 8 August.[2]
- ↑ During the period of Mobutu Sese Seko's rule in the Congo (1965–97), large numbers of place names created during the colonial period were changed as part of his authenticité campaign. For the modern equivalents, see former place names in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
- ↑ In the period shortly after its formation, South Kasai's official title remained unclear. Beside État autonome or État minier, it is sometimes termed Province of the Luba (province muluba) or Mining Province (province minier). The use of the word "state" (état) was deliberately ambiguous, allowing Kalonji to avoid specifying whether the South Kasai claimed to independence as a nation-state in imitation of Katanga, or as a province within the Congo.[2]
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Le Potentiel 2008.
- ↑ Pakenham 1992, pp. 253–5.
- ↑ Pakenham 1992, pp. 588–9.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Turner 2007, p. 28.
- ↑ Turner 2007, p. 29.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007, p. 102.
- ↑ Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007, pp. 102–3.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007, p. 103.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007, p. 104.
- ↑ Freund 1998, p. 199.
- ↑ Zeilig 2008, p. 64.
- ↑ Zeilig 2008, pp. 64–5.
- ↑ Zeilig 2008, p. 76.
- ↑ Zeilig 2008, p. 74.
- ↑ Zeilig 2008, pp. 82–3.
- ↑ Zeilig 2008, pp. 83–5.
- ↑ Haskin 2005, p. 16.
- ↑ 19.00 19.01 19.02 19.03 19.04 19.05 19.06 19.07 19.08 19.09 19.10 19.11 Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007, p. 105.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 Dufresne 2011, p. 26.
- ↑ Nugent 2004, p. 85.
- ↑ Packham 1996, p. 37.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Willame 1972, p. 35.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Willame 1972, p. 66.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 Nugent 2004, p. 86.
- ↑ 26.00 26.01 26.02 26.03 26.04 26.05 26.06 26.07 26.08 26.09 26.10 26.11 26.12 Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007, p. 106.
- ↑ Dufresne 2011, pp. 25–6.
- ↑ Willame 1972, pp. 66–7.
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 Willame 1972, p. 67.
- ↑ Packham 1996, p. 90.
- ↑ Nugent 2004, pp. 97.
- ↑ Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007, p. 101.
- ↑ Gondola 2002, p. 187.
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 Packham 1996, p. 66.
- ↑ Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007, pp. 105–6.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Haskin 2005, p. 5.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 Bring 2011, p. 160.
- ↑ Haskin 2005, p. 5; 23.
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 Zeilig 2008, p. 114.
- ↑ Packham 1996, p. 38.
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 Haskin 2005, p. 26.
- ↑ Haskin 2005, p. 33.
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 UNCHS 1991, p. 129.
- ↑ Lowenstein 1962, p. 751.
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Packham 1996, p. 40.
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Willame 1972, p. 37.
- ↑ Willame 1972, pp. 37–8.
- ↑ Packham 1996, p. 88.
- ↑ Packham 1996, pp. 88–9.
- ↑ Packham 1996, p. 89.
- ↑ Packham 1996, p. 40; 155.
- ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 Willame 1972, p. 68.
- ↑ Congo Indépendant 2010.
- ↑ Boulden 2001, p. 40.
- ↑ 55.0 55.1 Nugent 2004, p. 233.
- ↑ Nugent 2004, pp. 234–5.
- ↑ Nugent 2004, pp. 236–9.
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 Turner 2007, p. 185.
- ↑ Turner 2007, p. 117.
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Further reading
- Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers at line 47: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value).
- Lua error in Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers at line 47: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value).
- De Witte, Ludo (2002). The Assassination of Lumumba (Trans. ed.). London: Verso. ISBN 1-85984-410-3.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Kalonji Ditunga Mulopwe, Albert (2005). Congo 1960, la sécession du Sud-Kasaï: La vérité du Mulopwe. Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-7475-8132-2.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Keller, Edmond J. (2007). "Secessionism in Africa". Journal of African Policy Studies. 13 (1): 1–26.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Muyumba, Valentine Kanyinda (2004). "Luba-Kasai: A Working Bibliography". Electronic Journal of Africana Bibliography. 9.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Omasombo Tshonda, Jean (2014). Kasaï-Oriental: un noeud gordien dans l'espace congolais (PDF). Tervuren: Royal Museum for Central Africa. ISBN 978-9-4916-1524-5.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
External links
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to South Kasai.
- The War in the Congo: Mutiny, Secession, and Foreign Intervention at the Centre for Research on Globalization
- Congo-Zaïre : l'empire du crime permanent : le massacre de Bakwanga at Le Phare
- La Vérité sur le Sud-Kasaï at the Association Kasayienne d'Entre-aide Mutuelle
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- Good articles
- Former countries in Africa
- States and territories established in 1960
- States and territories disestablished in 1962
- Articles containing French-language text
- History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
- Secession in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
- Former unrecognized countries
- Congo Crisis
- Former polities of the Cold War


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Real translucent Apache Tears (merikanite obsidian nodules) only come from Superior, Arizona. The "tears" come embedded in perlite from the Apache Tear Mine in Superior. The mine is now owned by the Harborlite Corporation and is operated as a perlite mine. Perlite is used in insulation and other industrial products.
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The new film explores the idea that Shakespeare did not actually write all those lovely plays. I love a bit of Shakespeare me but I am not that bothered if he wrote them or not, surely the main point is the wonderful body of work.
The people who are most up in arms are the shops and business's in Stratford-Upon-Avon, think of the tea towel sellers, and all those pubs!!!!
The film anonymous looks great but I don't think it will have too much impact on Shakespeare legacy, and as the film looks great it's always worth a look!
"All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances,
And one man in his time plays many parts


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Ryan Beatty
Ryan Beatty – Clovis, California
A couple weeks back while searching for new amazing unsigned artists, I came across this kid on You Tube who immediately blew me away with his vocals.
Ryan is only 15 years old and already has a very supportive 60,000+ followers on You Tube, 49,000+ followers on Twitter…been featured on the Fox Affiliate in Fresno and has even received a shout out from Ashton Kutcher.
I predict great things for Ryan!
If you are in the Fresno area on 7/29 check out his first headlining show at the Tower Theatre.
– Rob Daily
Link: You Tube


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The Montague, Russell Square
|Afternoon Tea | British
15 Montague Street
Phone: 02076128416
Russell Square (305m away)
One Bloomsbury's premier venues for afternoon tea, the Conservatory at the Montague Hotel offers the chance to relax in stylish surroundings. Overlooking the hotel's private gardens, the Conservatory is a light and airy space, decorated in chic, contemporary colours. Between 12pm and 6pm (Monday to Sunday), you can enjoy the delectable afternoon tea, including a selection of delicate finger sandwiches, scones with clotted cream and home-made preserves, Champagne by the glass, a selection of seasonal pastries - and of course: tea! The Montague has also won a UK Tea Guild Award of Excellence for 2012.
Average Price
Main Course £18
Three Course Meal £27.50
Three Course Meal £27.50
Open hoursAfternoon Tea is served from 12:00 to 18:00.
email firstname.lastname@example.com
website www.montaguehotel.com
Recent Customer Reviews of The Montague
Popular Local Sights
British Museum and British Library
Great Russell St. Open Mon-Sat 1000-1700, Sun 1430-1800. Tel 0171 636 1555
Afternoon Tea / British Restaurants near Russell Square:
|North Sea Fish Restaurant
under half a mile away, near Kings Cross St. Pancras
|Amico Bio Holborn
370m away, near Holborn
|Court Restaurant (at The British Museum)
only 160m away, near Holborn