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Japanese American internment was the forced relocation and internment by the United States government in 1942 of approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese residing along the Pacific coast of the United States to camps called "War Relocation Camps," in the wake of Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.[1][2] The internment of Japanese Americans was applied unequally throughout the United States. Japanese Americans residing on the West Coast of the United States were all interned, whereas in Hawaii, where more than 150,000 Japanese Americans composed nearly a third of that territory's population, only 1,200[3] to 1,800 Japanese Americans were interned.[4] Of those interned, 62% were United States citizens.[5][6]
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt authorized the internment with Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, which allowed local military commanders to designate "military areas" as "exclusion zones," from which "any or all persons may be excluded." This power was used to declare that all people of Japanese ancestry were excluded from the entire Pacific coast, including all of California and most of Oregon and Washington, except for those in internment camps.[7] In 1944, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the exclusion orders,[8] while noting that the provisions that singled out people of Japanese ancestry were a separate issue outside the scope of the proceedings.[9]
In 1988, Congress passed and President Ronald Reagan signed legislation which apologized for the internment on behalf of the U.S. government. The legislation stated that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership".[10] Over $1.6 billion in reparations were later disbursed by the U.S. government to Japanese Americans who had either suffered internment or were heirs of those who had suffered internment.[11]
In the first half of the 20th century, California experienced a wave of anti-Japanese prejudice, in part because of the concentration there of new immigrants. This was distinct from the Japanese American experience in the broader United States. Over 89% of Japanese immigrants to the USA settled in California, where labor and farm competition fed into general anti-Japanese sentiment.[12] In 1905, California's anti-miscegenation law outlawed marriages between Caucasians and "Mongolians" (an umbrella term which, at the time, was used in reference to the Japanese, among other ethnicities of East Asian ancestry).[12] In October 1906, the San Francisco Board of Education separated the Japanese students from the Caucasian students. It ordered ninety-three Japanese students in the district to a segregated school in Chinatown.[13] Twenty-five of the students were American citizens. That anti-Japanese sentiment was maintained beyond this period is evidenced by the 1924 "Oriental Exclusion Law," which blocked Japanese immigrants from attaining citizenship.[12]
In the years 1939–1941, the FBI compiled the Custodial Detention Index ("CDI") on citizens, enemy aliens and foreign nationals, in the interest of national security. On June 28, 1940, the Alien Registration Act was passed. Among many other loyalty regulations, Section 31 required the registration and fingerprinting of all aliens above the age of 14, and Section 35 required aliens to report any change of address within 5 days. In the subsequent months, nearly five million foreign nationals registered at post offices around the country.[14][15]
Of 127,000 Japanese Americans living in the continental United States at the time of the Pearl Harbor attack, 112,000 resided on the West Coast.[16] About 80,000 were nisei (Japanese born in the United States and holding American citizenship) and sansei (the sons or daughters of nisei). The rest were issei (immigrants born in Japan who were ineligible for U.S. citizenship).[17]
The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 led some to suspect that Imperial Japan was preparing a full-scale attack on the West Coast of the United States. Japan's rapid military conquest of a large portion of Asia and the Pacific between 1936 and 1942 made its military forces seem unstoppable to some Americans.
Shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, head of the Western Command, sought approval to conduct search and seizure operations aimed at preventing alien Japanese from making radio transmissions to Japanese ships.[18] The Justice Department declined, however, stating that there was no probable cause to support DeWitt's assertion, as the FBI concluded that there was no security threat.[18] On January 2, the Joint Immigration Committee of the California Legislature sent a manifesto to California newspapers which attacked "the ethnic Japanese," whom it alleged were "totally unassimilable."[18] This manifesto further argued that all people of Japanese heritage were loyal subjects of the Emperor of Japan; Japanese language schools, furthermore, according to the manifesto, were bastions of racism which advanced doctrines of Japanese racial superiority.[18]
The manifesto was backed by the Native Sons and Daughters of the Golden West and the California Department of the American Legion, which in January demanded that all Japanese with dual citizenship be placed in concentration camps.[18] Internment was not limited to those who had been to Japan, but included a small number of German and Italian enemy aliens.[18] By February, Earl Warren, the Attorney General of California, had begun his efforts to persuade the federal government to remove all people of Japanese heritage from the West Coast.[18]
Civilian and military officials had concerns about the loyalty of the ethnic Japanese, although these concerns seemed to stem more from racial prejudice than actual risk. Major Karl Bendetsen and Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt each questioned Japanese American loyalty. DeWitt, who administered the internment program, repeatedly told newspapers that "A Jap's a Jap" and testified to Congress,
I don't want any of them [persons of Japanese ancestry] here. They are a dangerous element. There is no way to determine their loyalty... It makes no difference whether he is an American citizen, he is still a Japanese. American citizenship does not necessarily determine loyalty... But we must worry about the Japanese all the time until he is wiped off the map.[19][20]
Those that were as little as 1/16th Japanese could be placed in internment camps.[21] There is evidence supporting the argument that the measures were racially motivated, rather than a military necessity. For example, orphaned infants with "one drop of Japanese blood" (as explained in a letter by one official) were included in the program.
Upon the bombing of Pearl Harbor and pursuant to the Alien Enemies Act, Presidential Proclamations 2525, 2526 and 2527 were issued designating Japanese, German and Italian nationals as enemy aliens.[22] Information from the CDI was used to locate and incarcerate foreign nationals from Japan, Germany and Italy (although Germany and Italy did not declare war on the U.S. until December 11).
Presidential Proclamation 2537 was issued on January 14, 1942, requiring aliens to report any change of address, employment or name to the FBI. Enemy aliens were not allowed to enter restricted areas. Violators of these regulations were subject to "arrest, detention and internment for the duration of the war."
Racial hatred of the Japanese could take various expressions, for example some US soldiers in Hawaii that had returned from Iwo Jima paraded in front of Japanese-Americans and waving a Japanese skull taunted, "There's your uncle on the pole."[1] see (American mutilation of Japanese war dead)
Executive Order 9066, signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt on February 19, 1942, allowed authorized military commanders to designate "military areas" at their discretion, "from which any or all persons may be excluded." These "exclusion zones," unlike the "alien enemy" roundups, were applicable to anyone that an authorized military commander might choose, whether citizen or non-citizen. Eventually such zones would include parts of both the East and West Coasts, totaling about 1/3 of the country by area. Unlike the subsequent detainment and internment programs that would come to be applied to large numbers of Japanese Americans, detentions and restrictions directly under this Individual Exclusion Program were placed primarily on individuals of German or Italian ancestry, including American citizens.[23]
These edicts included persons of part-Japanese ancestry as well. Anyone with at least one-eighth Japanese ancestry was eligible.[citation needed] Korean-Americans,[citation needed] considered to have Japanese nationality (since Korea was occupied by Japan during World War II), were also included.
Internment was popular among many white farmers who resented the Japanese-American farmers. "White American farmers admitted that their self-interest required removal of the Japanese."[18] These individuals saw internment as a convenient means of uprooting their Japanese American competitors. Austin E. Anson, managing secretary of the Salinas Vegetable Grower-Shipper Association, told the Saturday Evening Post in 1942:
"We're charged with wanting to get rid of the Japs for selfish reasons. We do. It's a question of whether the white man lives on the Pacific Coast or the brown men. They came into this valley to work, and they stayed to take over... If all the Japs were removed tomorrow, we had never miss them in two weeks, because the white farmers can take over and produce everything the Jap grows. And we do not want them back when the war ends, either."[25]
The Roberts Commission Report, prepared at President Franklin D. Roosevelt's request, has been cited as an example of the fear and prejudice informing the thinking behind the internment program.[18] The Report sought to link Japanese Americans with espionage activity, and to associate them with the bombing of Pearl Harbor.[18] Columnist Henry McLemore reflected growing public sentiment fueled by this report:
"I am for the immediate removal of every Japanese on the West Coast to a point deep in the interior. I don't mean a nice part of the interior either. Herd 'em up, pack 'em off and give 'em the inside room in the badlands... Personally, I hate the Japanese. And that goes for all of them."[26]
Other California newspapers also embraced this view. According to a Los Angeles Times editorial,
"A viper is nonetheless a viper wherever the egg is hatched... So, a Japanese American born of Japanese parents, nurtured upon Japanese traditions, living in a transplanted Japanese atmosphere... notwithstanding his nominal brand of accidental citizenship almost inevitably and with the rarest exceptions grows up to be a Japanese, and not an American... Thus, while it might cause injustice to a few to treat them all as potential enemies, I cannot escape the conclusion... that such treatment... should be accorded to each and all of them while we are at war with their race."[27]
State politicians joined the bandwagon that was embraced by Leland Ford of Los Angeles, who demanded that "all Japanese, whether citizens or not, be placed in [inland] concentration camps."[18] Internment of Japanese Americans, who provided critical agricultural labor on the West Coast, created a labor shortage, which was exacerbated by the induction of many American laborers into the Armed Forces. This vacuum precipitated a mass immigration of Mexican workers into the United States to fill these jobs,[28] largely under the banner of what became known as the Bracero Program. Many Japanese internees were even temporarily released from their camps- for instance, to harvest Western beet crops- to address this wartime labor shortage.[29]
The presence of Imperial Japanese spying within the United States is attested to by the case of Velvalee Dickinson,[30] an American who sold intelligence to Japan, as well as the widely reported cases of the Tachibana spy ring and the Niihau Incident. The Tachibana spy ring involved a group of Japanese nationals,[31] whereas the so-called Niihau Incident occurred just after the Pearl Harbor attack, and involved two Japanese Americans on Niihau assisting a downed Japanese pilot there. Despite the latter incident taking place in Hawaii, the Territorial Governor rejected calls for mass internment of the Japanese Americans there.
In Magic: The Untold Story of US Intelligence and the Evacuation of Japanese Residents From the West Coast During World War II, David Lowman, a former NSA operative, argues that Magic intercepts ("Magic" was the code-name for American code-breaking efforts) posed "the frightening specter of massive espionage nets," thus justifying internment.[32] Lowman contended that internment served to ensure the secrecy of US code-breaking efforts, because effective prosecution of Japanese Americans might necessitate disclosure of secret information. If US code-breaking technology was revealed in the context of trials of individual spies, the Japanese Imperial Navy would change its codes, thus undermining US strategic wartime advantage.
Many of the controversial conclusions drawn by Lowman were defended by pundit Michelle Malkin in her book, In Defense of Internment.[33] Malkin, and other modern defenders of racial profiling such as Daniel Pipes,[34] continue to cite Lowman's Magic arguments, although they are widely regarded as biased or substandard scholarship.[35][36][37][38] According to history professor Greg Robinson of the University of Quebec, Lowman's book has long since been "refuted and discredited".[39] Latter day "revisionist" defenders of internment, such as Malkin and Pipes, have been associated with an effort to suspend or curtail the civil liberties of Muslim Americans.[40]
A report by General DeWitt and Colonel Bendetsen depicting racist bias against Japanese Americans was circulated and then hastily redacted in 1943-1944. The report stated flatly that, because of their race, it was impossible to determine the loyalty of Japanese Americans, thus necessitating internment.[citation needed] The original version was so offensive — even in the atmosphere of the wartime 1940s — that Bendetsen ordered all copies to be destroyed.
In 1980, a copy of the original Final Report: Japanese Evacuation from the West Coast - 1942 was found in the National Archives, along with notes showing the numerous differences between the original and redacted versions.[citation needed] This earlier, racist and inflammatory version, as well as the FBI and ONI reports, led to the coram nobis retrials which overturned the convictions of Fred Korematsu, Gordon Hirabayashi and Minoru Yasui on all charges related to their refusal to submit to exclusion and internment.[citation needed] The courts found that the government had intentionally withheld these reports and other critical evidence, at trials all the way up to the Supreme Court, which would have proved that there was no military necessity for the exclusion and internment of Japanese Americans. In the words of Department of Justice officials writing during the war, the justifications were based on "willful historical inaccuracies and intentional falsehoods."
While this event is most commonly called the internment of Japanese Americans, in fact there were several different types of camps involved. The best known facilities were the Assembly Centers run by the Wartime Civil Control Administration (WCCA), and the Relocation Centers run by the War Relocation Authority (WRA), which are generally (but unofficially) referred to as "internment camps." The Department of Justice (DOJ) operated camps officially called Internment Camps, which were used to detain those suspected of actual crimes or "enemy sympathies." German American internment and Italian American internment camps also existed, sometimes sharing facilities with the Japanese Americans. The WCCA and WRA facilities were the largest and the most public. The WCCA Assembly Centers were temporary facilities that were first set up in horse racing tracks, fairgrounds and other large public meeting places to assemble and organize internees before they were transported to WRA Relocation Centers by truck, bus or train. The WRA Relocation Centers were camps that housed persons removed from the exclusion zone after March 1942, or until they were able to relocate elsewhere in America outside the exclusion zone.
During World War II, over 7,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese from Latin America were held in internment camps run by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, part of the Department of Justice. In this period, Latin Americans of Japanese ancestry were rounded up and transported to American internment camps run by the U.S. Justice Department.[41][42][43] These Latin American internees were eventually, through the efforts of civil rights attorney Wayne M. Collins,[44][45] offered "parole" relocation to the labor-starved farming community in Seabrook, New Jersey.[46] Many became naturalized American citizens or Japanese Americans after the war.
There were twenty-seven U.S. Department of Justice Camps, eight of which (in Texas, Idaho, North Dakota, New Mexico, and Montana) held Japanese Americans. The camps were guarded by Border Patrol agents rather than military police and were intended for non-citizens including Buddhist ministers, Japanese language instructors, newspaper workers, and other community leaders.
In addition 2,264 persons of Japanese ancestry[42] taken from 12 Latin American countries by the U.S. State and Justice Departments were held at the Department of Justice Camps.[47] Approximately two-thirds of these persons were Japanese Peruvians.[42] There has been some speculation that the United States intended to use them in hostage exchanges with Japan,[48] a plot in part facilitated by local prejudice against Japanese communities in various South American countries.[42] After the war, Peru refused to accept the return of the Japanese Peruvians they had acquiesced to interning in American camps; of this group, some were transferred to Japan, some were granted American citizenship, and a small minority of approximately 100 managed to achieve repatriation into Peru by asserting special circumstances, such as marriage to a non-Japanese Peruvian.[42] Three hundred of the Japanese Peruvians who fought deportation in the courts were allowed to settle in the United States, and were granted American citizenship in 1953.[42]
Executive Order 9066 authorized the evacuation of all persons of Japanese ancestry from the West Coast; it was signed when there was no place for the Japanese Americans to go. When voluntary evacuation proved impractical, the military took over full responsibility for the evacuation; on April 9, 1942, the Wartime Civilian Control Agency (WCCA) was established by the military to coordinate the evacuation to inland relocation centers. However, the relocation centers were far from ready for large influxes of people. For some, there was still contention over the location, but for most, their placement in isolated undeveloped areas of the country exacerbated problems of building infrastructure and housing. Since the Japanese Americans living in the restricted zone were considered too dangerous to freely conduct their daily business, the military decided it was necessary to find temporary "assembly centers" to house the evacuees until the relocation centers were completed.[49]
|Max. Pop'n
|March 1942
|Tule Lake
|May 1942
|May 1942
|Gila River
|July 1942
|August 1942
|Heart Mountain
|August 1942
|August 1942
|September 1942
|September 1942
|October 1942
The War Relocation Authority (WRA) was the U.S. civilian agency responsible for the relocation and detention. The WRA was created by President Roosevelt on March 18, 1942 with Executive Order 9102 and officially ceased to exist June 30, 1946. Milton S. Eisenhower, then an official of the Department of Agriculture, was chosen to head the WRA. Dillon S. Myer replaced Milton Eisenhower on June 17, 1942, three months after Milton took control. Myer served as Director of the WRA until the centers were closed.[51] Within nine months, the WRA had opened ten facilities in seven states, and transferred over 100,000 people from the WCCA facilities.
The WRA camp at Tule Lake, though initially like the other camps, eventually became a detention center for people believed to pose a security risk. Tule Lake also served as a "segregation center" for individuals and families who were deemed "disloyal" and for those who were to be deported to Japan.
There were three types of camps. Civilian Assembly Centers were temporary camps, frequently located at horse tracks, where the Nisei were sent as they were removed from their communities. Eventually, most were sent to Relocation Centers, also known as internment camps. Detention camps housed Nikkei considered to be disruptive or of special interest to the government.[52]
These camps often held German and Italian detainees in addition to Japanese Americans:[52]
The Citizen Isolation Centers were for those considered to be problem inmates.[52]
Detainees convicted of crimes, usually draft resistance, were sent to these camps:[52]
These camps often held German and Italian detainees in addition to Japanese Americans:[52]
Somewhere between 110,000 and 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry were subject to this mass exclusion program, of whom approximately two-thirds were U.S. citizens.[2] The remaining one-third were non-citizens subject to internment under the Alien Enemies Act; many of these "resident aliens" had long been inhabitants of the United States, but had been deprived the opportunity to attain citizenship by laws that blocked Asian-born nationals from ever achieving citizenship.
Internees of Japanese descent were first sent to one of 17 temporary "Civilian Assembly Centers," where most awaited transfer to more permanent relocation centers being constructed by the newly-formed War Relocation Authority (WRA). Some of those who did report to the civilian assembly centers were not sent to relocation centers, but were released under the condition that they remain outside the prohibited zone until the military orders were modified or lifted. Almost 120,000[2] Japanese Americans and resident Japanese aliens would eventually be removed from their homes in California, the western halves of Oregon and Washington and southern Arizona as part of the single largest forced relocation in U.S. history.
Most of these camps/residences, gardens, and stock areas were placed on Native American reservations, for which the Native Americans were formally compensated. The Native American councils disputed the amounts negotiated in absentia by US government authorities and later sued finding relief and additional compensation for some items of dispute.[54]
Under the National Student Council Relocation Program (supported primarily by the American Friends Service Committee), students of college age were permitted to leave the camps to attend institutions willing to accept students of Japanese ancestry. Although the program initially granted leave permits to only a very small number of students, this eventually grew to 2,263 students by December 31, 1943.[55]
The exclusion from Military Area No. 1 initially occurred through a voluntary relocation policy. Under the voluntary relocation policy, the Japanese Americans were free to go anywhere outside of the exclusion zone; however the arrangements and costs of relocation were borne by the individuals. The night-time curfew, initiated on 27 March 1942, was the first mass-action restricting the Japanese Americans.
According to a 1943 War Relocation Authority report, internees were housed in "tar paper-covered barracks of simple frame construction without plumbing or cooking facilities of any kind." The spartan facilities met international laws, but still left much to be desired. Many camps were built quickly by civilian contractors during the summer of 1942 based on designs for military barracks, making the buildings poorly equipped for cramped family living.
To describe the conditions in more detail, the Heart Mountain War Relocation Center in northwestern Wyoming was a barbed-wire-surrounded enclave with unpartitioned toilets, cots for beds, and a budget of 45 cents daily per capita for food rations.[57] Because most internees were evacuated from their West Coast homes on short notice and not told of their assigned destinations, many failed to pack appropriate clothing for Wyoming winters which often reached temperatures below zero Fahrenheit. Many families were forced to simply take the "clothes on their backs."[citation needed]
Armed guards were posted at the camps, which were all in remote, desolate areas far from population centers. Internees were typically allowed to stay with their families, and were treated well unless they violated the rules. There are documented instances of guards shooting internees who reportedly attempted to walk outside the fences. One such shooting, that of James Wakasa at Topaz, led to a re-evaluation of the security measures in the camps. Some camp administrations eventually allowed relatively free movement outside the marked boundaries of the camps. Nearly a quarter of the internees left the camps to live and work elsewhere in the United States, outside the exclusion zone. Eventually, some were authorized to return to their hometowns in the exclusion zone under supervision of a sponsoring American family or agency whose loyalty had been assured.[58]
The phrase "shikata ga nai" (loosely translated as "it cannot be helped") was commonly used to summarize the interned families' resignation to their helplessness throughout these conditions. This was even noticed by the children, as mentioned in the well-known memoir Farewell to Manzanar. Although that may be the view to outsiders, the Japanese people tended to comply with the U.S. government to prove themselves loyal citizens. This perceived loyalty to the United States can be attributed to the collective mentality of Japanese culture, where citizens are more concerned with the overall good of the group as opposed to focusing on individual wants and needs.[59]
Some Japanese Americans did question the American government, after finding themselves in internment camps. Several pro-Japan groups formed inside the camps, particularly at the Tule Lake location.[60] When the government passed a law that made it possible for an internee to renounce her or his U.S. citizenship, 5,589 internees opted to do so; 5,461 of these were at Tule Lake.[60] Of those who renounced their citizenship, 1,327 were repatriated to Japan.[60] Many of these individuals would later face stigmatization in the Japanese-American community, after the war, for having made that choice, although even at the time they were not certain what their futures held were they to remain American, and remain interned.[60]
These renunciations of American citizenship have been highly controversial, for a number of reasons. Some apologists for internment have cited the renunciations as evidence that "disloyalty" or anti-Americanism was well-represented among the interned peoples, thereby justifying the internment.[61] Many historians have dismissed the latter argument, for its failure to consider that the small number of individuals in question were in the midst of persecution by their own government at the time of the "renunciation":[62][63]
[T]he renunciations had little to do with "loyalty" or "disloyalty" to the United States, but were instead the result of a series of complex conditions and factors that were beyond the control of those involved. Prior to discarding citizenship, most or all of the renunciants had experienced the following misfortunes: forced removal from homes; loss of jobs; government and public assumption of disloyalty to the land of their birth based on race alone; and incarceration in a "segregation center" for "disloyal" ISSEI or NISEI...[63]
Minoru Kiyota, who was among those who renounced his citizenship and swiftly came to regret the decision, has stated that he wanted only "to express my fury toward the government of the United States," for his internment and for the mental and physical duress, as well as the intimidation, he was made to face.[64]
[M]y renunciation had been an expression of momentary emotional defiance in reaction to years of persecution suffered by myself and other Japanese Americans and, in particular, to the degrading interrogation by the FBI agent at Topaz and being terrorized by the guards and gangs at Tule Lake.[65]
Civil rights attorney Wayne M. Collins successfully challenged most of these renunciations as invalid, owing to the conditions of duress and intimidation under which the government obtained them.[64][66] Many of the deportees were Issei (first generation Japanese immigrants) who often had difficulty with English and often did not understand the questions they were asked.[citation needed] Even among those Issei who had a clear understanding, Question 28 posed an awkward dilemma: Japanese immigrants were denied US citizenship at the time, so when asked to renounce their Japanese citizenship, answering "Yes" would have made them stateless persons.[67]
When the government circulated a questionnaire seeking army volunteers from among the internees, 6% of military-aged male respondents volunteered to serve in the U.S. Armed Forces.[citation needed] Most of those who refused, however, tempered that refusal with statements of willingness to fight if they were restored their rights as American citizens. 20,000 Japanese American men and many Japanese American women served in the U.S. Army during World War II.[68]
The famed 442nd Regimental Combat Team, which fought in Europe, was formed from those Japanese Americans who did agree to serve. This unit was the most highly decorated US military unit of its size and duration.[69] Most notably, the 442nd was known for saving the 141st (or the "lost battalion") from the Germans. The 1951 film Go For Broke! was a fairly accurate portrayal of the 442nd, and starred several of the RCT's veterans.
As early as 1939, when war broke out in Europe and while armed conflict began to rage in East Asia, the FBI and branches of the Department of Justice and the armed forces began to collect information and surveillance on influential members of the Japanese community in the United States. These data were included in the Custodial Detention index ("CDI"). Agents in the Department of Justice's Special Defense Unit classified the subjects into three groups: A, B and C, with A being "most dangerous," and C being "possibly dangerous."
After the Pearl Harbor attacks, Roosevelt authorized his attorney general to put into motion a plan for the arrest of individuals on the potential enemy alien lists. Armed with a blanket arrest warrant, the FBI seized these men on the eve of December 8, 1941. These men were held in municipal jails and prisons until they were moved to Department of Justice detention camps, separate from those of the Wartime Relocation Authority (WRA). These camps operated under far more stringent conditions and were subject to heightened criminal-style guard, despite the absence of criminal proceedings.
Crystal City, Texas, was one such camp where Japanese Americans, German Americans, Italian Americans, and a large number of US-seized, Axis-descended nationals from several Latin-American countries were interned.[44]
Canadian citizens with Japanese ancestry were also interned by the Canadian government during World War II (see Japanese Canadian internment). Japanese people from various parts of Latin America were brought to the United States for internment, or interned in their countries of residence.[44]
Although there was a strong push from mainland Congressmen (Hawaii was only a US territory at the time, and did not have a voting representative or senator in Congress) to remove and intern all Japanese Americans and Japanese immigrants in Hawaii, it never happened. 1,200 to 1,800 Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans from Hawaii were interned, either in two camps on Oahu or in one of the mainland internment camps.
The vast majority of Japanese Americans and their immigrant parents in Hawaii were not interned because the government had already declared martial law in Hawaii and this allowed it to significantly reduce the supposed risk of espionage and sabotage by residents of Japanese ancestry. Also, Japanese Americans comprised over 35% of the territory's population, with approximately 150,000 inhabitants; detaining so many people would have been enormously challenging in terms of logistics. Also, the whole of Hawaiian society was dependent on their productivity.[citation needed] However, among the small number interned were a number of community leaders and prominent politicians, including territorial legislators Thomas Sakakihara and Sanji Abe.[70]
There were five internment camps in Hawaii, referred to as "Hawaiian Island Detention Camps".[71] One camp was located at Sand Island, which is located in the middle of Honolulu Harbor. This camp was prepared in advance of the war's outbreak. All prisoners held here were "detained under military custody... because of the imposition of martial law throughout the Islands". Another Hawaiian camp was the Honouliuli Internment Camp, near Ewa, on the southwestern shore of Oahu; it was opened in 1943 to replace the Sand Island camp. In total, five internment camps operated in Hawaii.[71][72]
In December 1944 (Ex parte Endo), the Supreme Court ruled the detainment of loyal citizens unconstitutional, though a decision handed down the same day (Korematsu v. United States) held that the exclusion process as a whole was constitutional.
On January 2, 1945, the exclusion order was rescinded entirely. The internees then began to leave the camps to rebuild their lives at home, although the relocation camps remained open for residents who were not ready to make the move back. The freed internees were given $25 and a train ticket to their former homes. While the majority returned to their former lives, some of the Japanese Americans emigrated to Japan.[73] The fact that this occurred long before the Japanese surrender, while the war was arguably at its most vicious, weighs against the claim that the relocation was a security measure. However, it is also true that the Japanese were clearly losing the war by that time, and were not on the offensive. The last internment camp was not closed until 1946;[74] Japanese taken by the U.S. from Peru that were still being held in the camp in Santa Fe took legal action in April 1946 in an attempt to avoid deportation to Japan.[75]
One of the WRA camps, Manzanar, was designated a National Historic Site in 1992 to "provide for the protection and interpretation of historic, cultural, and natural resources associated with the relocation of Japanese Americans during World War II" (Public Law 102-248). In 2001, the site of the Minidoka War Relocation Center in Idaho was designated the Minidoka National Historic Site.
Many internees lost irreplaceable personal property due to the restrictions on what could be taken into the camps. These losses were compounded by theft and destruction of items placed in governmental storage. A number of persons died or suffered for lack of medical care, and several were killed by sentries; James Wakasa, for instance, was killed at Topaz War Relocation Center, near the perimeter wire. Nikkei were prohibited from leaving the Military Zones during the last few weeks before internment, and only able to leave the camps by permission of the camp administrators.
Psychological injury was observed by Dillon S. Myer, director of the WRA camps. In June 1945, Myer described how the Japanese Americans had grown increasingly depressed, and overcome with feelings of helplessness and personal insecurity.[76]
Some Japanese-American farmers were able to find families willing to tend their farms for the duration of their internment. In other cases, however, Japanese-American farmers had to sell their property in a matter of days, usually at great financial loss. In these cases, the land speculators who bought the land made huge profits. California's Alien Land Laws of the 1910s, which prohibited most non-citizens from owning property in that state, contributed to Japanese-American property losses. Because they were barred from owning land, many older Japanese-American farmers were tenant farmers and therefore lost their rights to those farm lands.
To compensate former internees for their property losses, the US Congress, on July 2, 1948, passed the "American Japanese Claims Act," allowing Japanese Americans to apply for compensation for property losses which occurred as "a reasonable and natural consequence of the evacuation or exclusion." By the time the Act was passed, however, the IRS had already destroyed most of the 1939-42 tax records of the internees, and, due to the time pressure and the strict limits on how much they could take to the assembly centers and then the internment camps, few of the internees themselves had been able to preserve detailed tax and financial records during the evacuation process. Thus, it was extremely difficult for claimants to establish that their claims were valid. Under the Act, Japanese-American families filed 26,568 claims totaling $148 million in requests; approximately $37 million was approved and disbursed.[77]
During World War II, Colorado governor Ralph Lawrence Carr was the only elected official to publicly apologize for the internment of American citizens. The act cost him reelection, but gained him the gratitude of the Japanese American community, such that a statue of him was erected in Sakura Square in Denver's Japantown.[78]
Beginning in the 1960s, a younger generation of Japanese Americans who were inspired by the Civil Rights movement began what is known as the "Redress Movement," an effort to obtain an official apology and reparations from the federal government for interning their parents and grandparents during the war, focusing not on documented property losses but on the broader injustice of the internment. The movement's first success was in 1976, when President Gerald Ford proclaimed that the internment was "wrong," and a "national mistake" which "shall never again be repeated".[79]
The campaign for redress was launched by Japanese Americans in 1978. The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) asked for three measures to be taken as redress: $25,000 to be awarded to each person who was detained, an apology from Congress acknowledging publicly that the U.S. government had been wrong, and the release of funds to set up an educational foundation for the children of Japanese American families.
In 1980, Congress established the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC) to study the matter. On February 24, 1983, the commission issued a report entitled Personal Justice Denied, condemning the internment as "unjust and motivated by racism rather than real military necessity".[80] The Commission recommended that $20,000 in reparations be paid to those Japanese Americans who had been victims of internment.
In 1988, U.S. President (and former California governor) Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which had been sponsored by Representative Norman Mineta and Senator Alan K. Simpson — the two had met while Mineta was interned at a camp in Wyoming — which provided redress of $20,000 for each surviving detainee, totaling $1.2 billion dollars. The question of to whom reparations should be given, how much, and even whether monetary reparations were appropriate were subjects of sometimes contentious debate.[81]
On September 27, 1992, the Civil Liberties Act Amendments of 1992, appropriating an additional $400 million to ensure all remaining internees received their $20,000 redress payments, was signed into law by President George H. W. Bush, who also issued another formal apology from the U.S. government.
Some Japanese and Japanese Americans who were relocated during World War II received compensation for property losses, according to a 1948 law. Congress appropriated $38 million to meet $131 million of claims from among 23,000 claimants.[82] These payments were dispersed very slowly, the final dispersal occurring in 1965.[82] In 1988, following lobbying efforts by Japanese Americans, $20,000 per internee was paid out to individuals who had been interned or relocated, including those who chose to return to Japan. These payments were awarded to 82,210 Japanese Americans or their heirs at a cost of $1.6 billion; the program's final disbursement occurred in 1999.[11]
Under the 2001 budget of the United States, it was also decreed that the ten sites on which the detainee camps were set up are to be preserved as historical landmarks: "places like Manzanar, Tule Lake, Heart Mountain, Topaz, Amache, Jerome, and Rohwer will forever stand as reminders that this nation failed in its most sacred duty to protect its citizens against prejudice, greed, and political expediency".[83]
Article I, Section 9 of the U.S. Constitution states "The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it." but the clause's location implies this authority is vested in Congress, rather than the President.
President Abraham Lincoln suspended habeas corpus during the Civil War. On February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt followed in his footsteps by signing Executive Order 9066, permitting exclusion of persons from wartime military zones.
Following the reluctance or inability of the vast majority of ethnic Japanese to establish new residences beyond the coastal regions of California, Oregon, and Washington, the U.S. government interned, in family groups, as many as 122,000 ethnic Japanese residing in what became the Red War Zone. A significant number of Japanese living outside of the coastal areas requested and were granted the opportunity of joining friends or family in the relocation centers.[citation needed]
Former Supreme Court Justice Tom C. Clark, who represented the US Department of Justice in the "relocation," writes in the epilogue to the 1992 book Executive Order 9066: The Internment of 110,000 Japanese Americans:[84]
The truth is—as this deplorable experience proves—that constitutions and laws are not sufficient of themselves...Despite the unequivocal language of the Constitution of the United States that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, and despite the Fifth Amendment's command that no person shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law, both of these constitutional safeguards were denied by military action under Executive Order 9066.[85]
To this day, some believe that the legality of the internment has been firmly established as exactly the type of scenario spelled out in the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798.[citation needed] Among other things, the Alien Enemies Act (which was one of four laws included in the Alien and Sedition Acts) allowed for the United States government, during time of war, to apprehend and detain indefinitely foreign nationals, first-generation citizens, or any others deemed a threat by the government. As no expiration date was set, and the law has never been overruled, it was still in effect during World War II, and still is to this day.[citation needed] Therefore, some continue to claim that the civil rights violations were, in fact, not violations at all, having been deemed acceptable as a national security measure during time of war by Congress, signed into law by President John Adams, and upheld by the Supreme Court. However, the majority of the detainees were American-born, thus exempt under law from the Alien and Sedition Acts except if found to directly be a threat due to their actions or associations. This exemption was the basis for drafting Nisei to fight in Europe,[citation needed] as the Laws of Land Warfare prohibit signatory nations (including the United States) from compelling persons to act against their homelands or the allies of their homelands in time of war.
Several significant legal decisions arose out of Japanese-American internment, relating to the powers of the government to detain citizens in wartime. Among the cases which reached the Supreme Court were Yasui v. United States (1943), Hirabayashi v. United States (1943), ex parte Endo (1944), and Korematsu v. United States (1944). In Yasui and Hirabayashi the court upheld the constitutionality of curfews based on Japanese ancestry; in Korematsu the court upheld the constitutionality of the exclusion order. In Endo, the court accepted a petition for a writ of habeas corpus and ruled that the WRA had no authority to subject a citizen whose loyalty was acknowledged to its procedures.
Korematsu's and Hirabayashi's convictions were vacated in a series of coram nobis cases in the early 1980s.[86] In the coram nobis cases, federal district and appellate courts ruled that newly uncovered evidence revealed the existence of a huge unfairness which, had it been known at the time, would likely have changed the Supreme Court's decisions in the Yasui, Hirabayashi, and Korematsu cases.[8][24] These new court decisions rested on a series of documents recovered from the National Archives showing that the government had altered, suppressed and withheld important and relevant information from the Supreme Court, most notably, the Final Report by General DeWitt justifying the internment program.[86] The Army had destroyed documents in an effort to hide the fact that alterations had been made to the report.[24] The coram nobis cases vacated the convictions of Korematsu and Hirabayashi (Yasui died before his case was heard, rendering it moot), and are regarded as one of the impetuses for the Civil Liberties Act of 1988.[86]
The rulings of the US Supreme Court in the 1944 Korematsu and Hirabayashi cases, specifically in its expansive interpretation of government powers in wartime, have yet to be overturned. They are still the law of the land because a lower court cannot overturn a ruling by the US Supreme Court. However, the coram nobis cases totally undermined the factual underpinnings of the 1944 cases, leaving the original decisions without the proverbial legal leg to stand on.[86] Nonetheless, in light of the fact that these 1944 decisions are still on the books, a number of legal scholars have expressed the opinion that the original Korematsu and Hirabayashi decisions have taken on renewed relevance in the context of the War on Terror.
There has been much discussion over what to call the internment camps.[87] The WRA officially called them "War Relocation Centers." Manzanar, for instance, was officially known as the Manzanar War Relocation Center. Because of this, the National Park Service has chosen to use "relocation center" in referring to the camps.[88] Some historians and scholars, as well as former internees, object to this wording, noting that the internees were literally imprisoned, such that "relocation" becomes a euphemism.[88]
Another widely used name for the American camps is "internment camp". This phrase is also potentially misleading, as the United States Department of Justice operated separate camps that were officially called "internment camps" in which some Japanese Americans were imprisoned during World War II.[31][89]
"Concentration camp" is the most controversial descriptor of the camps. This term is criticized for suggesting that the Japanese American experience was analogous to the Holocaust and the Nazi concentration camps.[90] For this reason, National Park Service officials have attempted to avoid the term.[88] Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower and Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes each referred to the American camps as "concentration camps," at the time.[91] When the nature of the Nazi concentration camps became clear to the world, and the phrase "concentration camp" came to signify a Nazi death camp, most historians turned to other terms to describe Japanese internment.
Recognizing the controversy over the terminology, in 1971, when the Manzanar Committee applied to the California Department of Parks and Recreation to have Manzanar designated as a California State Historical Landmark, it was proposed that both "relocation center" and "concentration camp" be used in the wording of the plaque for the landmark.[92] Some Owens Valley residents vehemently opposed the use of "concentration camp," and it took a year of discussion and negotiation before both terms were accepted and included on the plaque.[87][92]
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Archives and Records Administration.


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Board of Directors
H.E. Oknha Rat Sokhorn – Chairman
High Excellency Oknha Rat Sokhorn is a high ranking Royal Official in the Kingdom of Cambodia. He is also a very strong businessman with companies all over South East Asia.
Ace Cruz-Herrera – Executive Director/CEO
Ace Cruz was raised in Los Angeles, California, and from the age of 13, he aspired to be in the film industry. He graduated from the University of Southern California Theater School with a Bachelor of Fine Arts Degree in Drama.
After college, Ace started acting in theater and then ventured into Hollywood independent films. After 10 years in theater, Ace went back to USC film school to study writing and directing.
Ace made 6 independent Hollywood films where he wrote, produced, directed, edited, acted and distributed them. In 2009, one of Ace's films, "Outrage" starring Michael Madsen, won an award for best picture at the Action International Film Festival in Hollywood.
Ace's knowledge of both the creative and business worlds of making movies has given what he needs to be a Hollywood player. He's worked with Hollywood actors like Michael Madsen (Sin City, Kill Bill), Lee Majors (Six Million Dollar man), Michael Pare' (Streets of Fire), Natasha Lyonne (American Pie), Michael Berryman (Hills have Eyes) and many more. He understands how to deal with actors, writers, and editors as much us what's needed to market and distribute a film.
Ace believes in making movies that are creative, entertaining and commercial. Ace has attended the American Film Market and Cannes Film Festival for the past 12 years to study and comprehend the psychology of his audience so that he can make films that will appeal to a world market. His dedication to learning everything there is about the Hollywood Film industry has paid off so that he can now concentrate on writing, directing, or acting in his future films.
Ace's 25 years of experience and knowledge in the Hollywood film industry has given him the edge. One day soon, he will make a Box Office commercial film or an Oscar Awarding winning film.
Michael Madsen – Board of Advisors
Michael Madsen is an American Hollywood actor, poet and photographer. He has appeared in more than 150 films, including Reservoir Dogs, Thelma & Louise, Wyatt Earp, Free Willy, Donnie Brasco, Species, Kill Bill, Sin City, and The Hateful Eight (his third collaboration with director Quentin Tarantino).
Madsen is also credited with voice work in several video games, including Grand Theft Auto III, True Crime: Streets of L.A., DRIV3R, Dishonored, The Walking Dead: Season Two, and Call of Duty: Black Ops II.

subset: commoncrawl


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Kevin Yeaton is the Purchasing Manager for Southern Development Homes and has been with the team for eight years.
Why do I love Charlottesville? I think a good indication of how much I like Charlottesville is the fact that prior to moving here I lived in 12 other cities in 10 different states. I've lived in Charlottesville area for the last 25 years. Having lived in areas from Florida to Upstate New York, I have a real appreciation for the moderate climate this area has to offer. We enjoy 4 distinct seasons, each with their own character, and most years each season last long enough to enjoy the unique activities the seasons have to offer.
Favorite Floor plan? The Savannah. I like the efficiency of the design, also the open and airiness of the plan.
How you do enjoy your days off? I enjoy getting involved with projects, my current project is a wood and fabric, open-cockpit airplane that I'm building in my basement. It's a challenging project that will keep me occupied for years to come.
Favorite Restaurant: Bang. Eclectic, fun place with lots of gluten-free items to choose from.


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Now available from Arrow Scientific , GlutenTox is a gluten test for use by food processors to test equipment or food contact surfaces for the presence of gluten before it is used.
Many products manufactured today contain one or more allergens. The dilemma for many processors is that all major allergens have to be declared, however small the amount. All ingredients that contain protein derived from any of the eight major allergenic foods and food groups must be listed on the product label. These foods are: milk, eggs, fish, Crustacean shellfish, tree nuts, peanuts, wheat, or soybeans, and account for 90% of all food allergies.
Products may be end up containing an allergen for many reasons, the most common of which is cross-contamination with other ingredients during manufacturing. This cross-contamination is often enough to force a recall of products if the allergens are not listed on the label.
One of these dangerous allergens is gluten, which can be particularly harmful to coeliac disease sufferers. Now, researchers have developed a sensitive gluten test to detect this major allergen in food or on equipment surfaces. Two types of gluten tests are available, one to measure the exact quantity of gluten in a sample, and another simpler test to screen for the presence at levels of 3 ppm or more.
With minimal handling or equipment, the GlutenTox gluten tests allow processors to test equipment or food contact surfaces for the presence of gluten before being used or after cleaning. These gluten tests can also be used to screen incoming ingredients for gluten.


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Patinas are one of my passions.
These happened to catch my eye in the past few weeks.
Love these irregular plates and their verdigris patina seen at a brocante in Rouen.
Did you know there is a wrought iron museum? Neither did we. We'll visit there soon...
This has a little bit of everything!
As you stroll down the avenue that leads to the Château de Versailles, you are quite aware of this very tall sculpture that, in all honesty, seems a bit out of place. But, somehow, it works.
Bernar Venet created seven monumental works that are temporarily exhibited in the gardens of the Château de Versailles and Château de Marly through November 1, 2011. His project is called "Venet at Versailles" and has been quite controversial.
The two vertical arcs stand 72 feet high, weigh 125 tons and frame the Château. How they ever installed them is amazing.
They present quite a contrast to the refined rooftops of Versailles. The rust is simply fabulous!
Which patina do you prefer?


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Magugpo Poblacion, Philippines [ show map ]
Hide photo
I'm here to meet guys from 27 to 60 years old for dating, friendship and serious relationship.
I am simple loving sweet girl...looking for someone real...someone who can accept me for who i am and love me for what i am...hope to meet u my mr.right....
my viber is -----------
my Skype Id is shinez80
I would like to meet my mr.Right here and he must be respectful,honest,caring,someone who is real,and have a good sense of humor ..physical apperance does'nt matter to me what's important is inside of it..
please be nice to me..& let us see if we belong to each other.
WARNING: To all my visitors who are just looking for fun..can you please stay away from me..im not interested of you ok?i dont want to waste my time for all your Shit.....gRrr


text: A Camels Toe Posted by admin on May 8, 2013 in Blog, Funny Cameltoe | In the story of " A Camels Toe " , two camels are talking about cameltoe while the other one sleeps… Is she really sleeping? NAH!! Related PostsSay No to Camel ToeFunny Cameltoe CostumeJoe Camel Camletoe anyone? My huge Camel ToePut Batteries in Camel toe?Arabian Camel Toe Costume


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University of Vermont
Teaching in Higher Education
Thursday, April 19 2018
@ 9:00 AM- 11:00 AMThis workshop will help you reflect on your teaching practice. We will discuss your teaching so far in your career and we share current research on teaching practices. These practices include: Kuh's High Impact Practices and Universal Design for Learning. (This workshop is a requirement of the Graduate Teaching Program)
Event details:
- Contact: Holly Buckland; Buckland Parker; Parker, firstname.lastname@example.com, +1 802-656-1124
- Facilitated By:
Holly Buckland; Buckland Parker; Parker, Leadership and Development Sci; Ctr for Teaching & Learning
Susanmarie Harrington, English; Writing in the Disciplines
- Location: 303 Bailey/Howe Library


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Lewis Hamilton superseded Nigel Mansell as the Briton to have led the most race laps in Formula 1, as he scored a decisive win over Mercedes team mate Nico Rosberg in Canada. Valtteri Bottas took Williams' first podium of the year in third, albeit almost 40s down the road.
Starting from pole, Hamilton never lost the lead except for one lap as he made his pit stop – but while his victory may therefore have looked easy, in truth it was a tense nip and tuck race throughout as Rosberg never let Hamilton escape.
Both were pushing hard – the Briton was asked to lift and coast more than once too conserve fuel, while Rosberg had to ease back and keep his front brake temperatures within limits at one stage. During these respective phases the gap between them opened and closed, with the pair separated by just over one second on several occasions. In the final laps however Hamilton eased away, allowing him to win by 2.2s despite backing off slightly on the final lap.
Victory moves him onto 151 points, 17 clear of Rosberg's 134 in the title chase.
Behind them, a spin at the hairpin on lap 27 cost Kimi Raikkonen and Ferrari the final podium slot, and after a hard drive that position fell deservedly to his countryman Bottas.
Having started 18th, Sebastian Vettel drove through to fifth – despite a brush with McLaren's Fernando Alonso – while Felipe Massa did likewise from 15th to take sixth in the other Williams.
Lotus had both cars in the points for the first time this season, though it could have been better than it was. In the end, Pastor Maldonado opened his 2015 tally with a solid seventh, but Romain Grosjean threw away the chance of fifth when he tagged Will Stevens' Marussia heading into the final corner on the 49th lap. Both cars had to veer into the pits, and the Frenchman fell to an eventual 10th at the flag. He was also given a five-second penalty for the incident, but had a sufficient margin over Force India's Sergio Perez to hold onto the final point.
Perez's team mate Nico Hulkenberg meanwhile lost ground after an incident with Vettel, again in the final chicane, on the 43rd lap. As Vettel attempted to pass him on the outside on turn-in, Hulkenberg had to go over the inside kerb and spun. The stewards decided it was a racing incident.
Daniil Kvyat took an unhappy ninth for Red Bull, fending off Grosjean to the flag, as Perez led home Carlos Sainz and last year's bitterly disappointed winner Daniel Ricciardo in the second Red Bull. Sauber's Marcus Ericsson had a mighty battle with Toro Rosso's Max Verstappen and kept him at bay to take 14th, as Felipe Nasr brought the other Sauber home 16th ahead of Marussia's Will Stevens, who was the final finisher.
Besides the Marussia of Roberto Merhi, neither of the McLarens made the finish in what was a disastrous race for the team. Jenson Button had to serve a drive-through penalty within the first three laps after failing to qualifying because of engine troubles, and then suffered the same exhaust problem which had taken out Fernando Alonso.
Follow Auto Racing Daily on Twitter @AutoRacingDaily or like Auto Racing Daily on Facebook (facebook.com/autorcngdaily).
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parentchannel.tv is an online service designed to support and encourage parents and carers of children aged 5-19, with a collection of videos addressing day-to-day questions and concerns spanning wellbeing, behaviour and learning.
Our library of parenting resources was built up in partnership with colleagues at the Family and Parenting Institute and named in honour of Richard Evans, the benefactor of the Artemis Trust, the first funder of Parenting UK. Richard Evans and his late wife, Gai, made an indispensible contribution to making available services that are respectful of parents and children.


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There's a renewed interest in voluptuous backsides, as Kim Kardashian and other celebrities regularly update us on their best assets. Not everyone is genetically blessed with such an attractive line to their figure, and some have quietly resorted to plastic surgery involving fat grafting or implants for enhancement.
Now you can eliminate a sagging behind; add shape and volume and get terrific results without any of the risk or expense of surgery. Therapie Clinic introduces the Non-Invasive Brazilian Bum Lift; the most effective way to enhance your rear appeal; sculpt the curves of your derriere and erase cellulite using the latest non-surgical breakthrough in body contouring.
Traditional buttock augmentation involves surgical redistribution of fatty tissue to create anaesthetically pleasing shape to a flat behind; an expensive procedure that carries risk and a long recovery time.
Therapie Clinic uses clinically proven technology to allow patients to benefit from a tighter, lifted and contoured behind, with improved firmness, toned smooth skin and better contouring of the buttocks in only three treatments. The procedure has no downtime; is a fraction of the cost of a surgical procedure and is proven to be safe and effective.
The Therapie Clinic non-invasive Brazilian Bum Lift uses a combination of bipolar radio frequency and infrared heat with vacuum rollers to travel painlessly through the body's layer of subcutaneous fat.
The combination of technologies melts the fat pockets that cause dimpled and lumpy skin, repositioning some of the malleable fat for a more appealing buttock contour. Broken down liquefied fat is then disposed of naturally by the body.
An effective, non-surgical solution
for reshaping your bum and remove cellulite
Obviously the reduced risk of a non-invasive procedure and lack of downtime is a plus – but patients who have had traditional Brazilian Bum lift surgery under the knife are often left unhappy with the appearance of heavily dimpled skin remaining on their buttocks that can be seen in a bikini or underwear.
The non-invasive system used by Therapie Clinic leaves skin smooth and firm, without heavy dimpling.
Patients commonly see improvement after their first treatment, with treated skin surfaces feeling smoother, firmer, and tighter. Cellulite reduction becomes apparent as broken-down fat passes out of the body.
For best results, a course of three treatments is recommended with the Brazilian Bum Lift. Skin quality; tone and lift will last even longer when combined with a balanced diet and regular exercise.


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The Year 1o class that I currently teach consists primarily of boys with weak literacy skills, and a couple of girls, who equally struggle. The boys are for the most part nice lads – but they are lads. Lads who come in asleep for periods 1 and 2 (and sometimes 3), who are passionate about football, farting, gaming, texting, sticking each other with compasses, slapping each other with plastic document wallets, and brooding darkly about something that happened to them on the way to school. And they really REALLY hate reading.
Even with every reluctant reader reading scheme known to man at my disposition, I know that I won't get these lads to read a book. Not by themselves anyway. I have high hopes for next term, when I teach them Of Mice and Men. In twelve years I've never known the story to fall flat – not once. Maybe it's my terrible American accent or the way I say 'ketchup' that keeps them entertained, but whatever the reason, the story resonates with every adolescent I've taught. The themes? Persecution of the underdog, bullying, prejudice, the power of friendship, loneliness and the misuse of power. What adolescent – especially one who doesn't achieve as highly as his or her 'average' or 'above average' peers – has never at some point felt confused, alienated, that they don't belong, that people might be talking about them, or simply unsure of the way forward in the adult world?
We can't always find the right book for the right (non)reader, but sometimes it's more a question of getting our boys (and girls) to simply get used to reading something by themselves. Often it'll be non-fiction – the fiction nut is a tough one to crack. But try these in your tutor groups for starters, Year 9 through to Year 11.
- A Tesco/Argos/Index catalogue. Good for teaching/alerting them to the features of non-fiction texts. They have to read the descriptions of the latest mobile phone or electronic drum kit.
- The local paper. Bear in mind that some very reluctant teen readers have reading ages of below 8. Pictures, huge headlines, easy-to-follow bold paragraphs on the latest misdemeanor, car adverts, job advertisements, lonely hearts. You can also try sharing This is Bristol on your IWB.
- The Guinness Book of Records. Not a real book, and never intended as one. But you can have real success developing skimming and scanning skills with the simple directive 'find the man with the most piercings and tell me three things about him'. You might need a few copies – but how about asking your group whether they could bring in their own copies (of GBR or Ripley's Believe it or Not).
- Cookery books. My favourite! A way to get kids to read is to appeal to their stomachs! There are some great kids' cook books which combine simple instructions with mouth-watering descriptions. Sam Stern is a teen who put his money where his mouth was. Steer clear of Nigella though unless you want 15 year old boys sniggering at the mere thought of 'plumptious beauties', aka cherries. Apparently.
- Where's Wally. Well, if you're desperate. But, it does teach kids to patiently seek out the geek in the bonnet. Why not try a word version? Where's Verby? Or Where's Nouny? (I actually think I might try this.)
One of the most important things to bear in mind with our under-confident readers is that they are always, without a doubt, acutely aware that they are not very good at something that everyone keeps telling them they should be better at, or should enjoy, or that will improve their grades/lives. It's simply not like that with some kids. So, if your Yr 10 has finally found his soul-mate in Mr Gum, or Matilda, or the Famous Five – never be anything but encouraging. It's a small victory that they are enjoying something by themselves, perhaps for the first time in ages.
I'm off to read the Ikea catalogue again. Half-term = Billy Bookcase and a couple of Smorbjas.


text:
Merlijn Tishauser
No talks so far
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(19.May.2011)ZCE 5.3 Exam Preparation
I was awake all day! Loved the mentos after the break. But seriously... you did a great job! It was more basic as I expected it to be, but I can see you need to have all the basic stuff really right and exam ready when taking the test. I think I might do the certification, which I was not planning to do so before today.
(21.May.2011)TDD and getting paid
Good presentation.
(21.May.2011)Agility and Quality
Good overview. Nice to hear thewriter of awesome software.
(21.May.2011)So you think you know REST?
Sorry, i had expected more practical information on the implementation of rest. Not a overview of http statuscode i can look up on wikipedia as welll. Although i didn't knew about 418.
(21.May.2011)IPv6 for PHP Developers
Great content well presented. Good stuff.
(21.May.2011)The hitchhikers guide to agile
Loved this talk. Good talker, knows how to present his content. Likd the historical overview and it was educational for me.
(21.May.2011)Managing a shared MySQL farm
Thijs knows how to prsent himself, but i was hugely disapointed by the content. I had expected practical information about setting up and strategies for mysql farms, not sheet after sheet with lame sql queries for enabling/disabling a user/database. Shame to have such a presentationtalent wasted on this content imho
(21.May.2011)Large-Scale Data Processing with Hadoop and PHP
More more! The only talk with really new stuff for me. I wont use it anywhere soon, but loved the talk! Sorry for the rude early leaving while you where answering questions, but had to go.
(21.May.2011)First Class APIs
Not enough content for 45m, I am pretty sure helgi has enough stories up his sleeve for days, this keynote didn't deliver it.
(18.Apr.2014)Build That Phing
Good run down on the basics of phing. I hoped for more advanced content, but the talk was well delivered.
(28.Jun.2014)Creating models
Great talk, easy to follow and pleasure to listen to!
(05.Sep.2014)Testing Ivan The Terrible's API
Humorous, bit chaotic though. Insightful for me to consider node.js for api testing. Could you post your slides?
(02.Oct.2016)Imposter Syndrome: Am I Faking It?
Clear and concise storytelling with great examples. Loved listening.
Events They'll Be At
No events so far
Events They Were At
PHP North West 2016 Sep 29, 2016
Dutch PHP Conference 2011 May 18, 2011


text:
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Download and watch Baggage Claim movie online.2-22.09.13


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Thomas Ha
Life Traveler's Blog
Life of travel
by Thomas Ha
Making a short film with foreign people
I've directed and produced a short film; One time. At the begining, I made a movie club; Green Line. I got a presentation to find people who want to help and make a film with me. I've worked with 5 writers, 2 actresses, 2 actors, 1 audioman. We've spent for 1 month to make the film.
1st presentation to get people who want to help and work with me.
- https://youtu.be/5NTZ3qml_W0
The world premiere of One time.
- http://youtu.be/w5SXl0SOfI8
Short film; One time.
- https://youtu.be/V_gEkhEL4GQ
Working at Korean Air Force
- Airplane engine repairing department
I did 2 kind of job. At the begining, I assisted airplane engine mechanics. I've learned how mechanics worked. They had very organized process to repair the engines. 2nd part of my army term, I assisted the superviser. I supervised life term of airplane engine. I've made several program to superviese it by excel.
What I learned
- How to progress the big project step by step.
- How to lead the people to work.
- How to use the tools.
- How to organize the complecate plan.
- To make programs by excel.
Unmanned Solar vehicle challenge
I've worked at laboratory in University for 2 years. We've designed and analyzed the body of car by the program Solid Works. We've tested the car's driving motion in computer by the program Python and controled the car by C. My specific research fields were braking system and solar panel.
What I learned
- How to design and analyze the machine by Solid Works
- How to control the machine by the program; C
- Airo dynamics
- Solar charging system
Global challenge in Hong Kong - IP Policy
By the time I was junior, Intelligent Propertie Policy had been big issue because of trials between Samsung and Apple. I participated the symposium about IP policy in Korea and I realized It was really important, So I applied the global challenge to participate Asian Licensing Conference in Hong Kong. I got admission, so I've been conference in Hong Kong.
Because I study mechnical engineering, I have an opportunity to get a job in Research and Develope field. It is very close to Intellgent Property. I thought I needed to learn about IP Policy. I decided to go to China which has the largest quentities of IP in the world. They faced big issue about the IP Policy like I'd expected, So It was very good opportunity to learn the IP Policy.
Twenties' representative at the Forum
- We are the electors
Just before election of Korean president, it was big issue in Korea how many elder and young people would elect because elder people preferred democratics and young people preferred republicans. I represented twenties' opions about election at the forum
I had interviewed a lot of twenties to know their opinions. I thought they would have similler opinions but it wasn't. They got their own opinion and knew why they thought like that. It gave me fresh impact. It helped me to think deffrently and objectively. I learned how to talk about my opinion with basis, how to think objectively, and why we needed to elect while I was preparing.
Computer programming tutor - python
When I was sophomore, I tought the program Python to freshman. Because all of them were beginers, I needed to tought the basic and algorithm. It helped me to remind basic programming and think differently to build the program. Students who were tought by me got better grade compared to others.
I've learned many way to build the programs which were complicated. I just built the programs before I was tutor. However while I was preparing to teach, I needed to know how to explain the way to approach the result step by step. I drawed the rought map includes resuld, found which function I needed, searched open sources which had fuction I needed, and finished the map. Sometimes it took more time but much easyer to fix.
Main actor of University drama club
The play was about the school which blinds studied. In the play, I was the person who just moved in the school. My personality was negative but attractive. Before I moved in the school, the students had been positive, but they were attracted my personality and getting negative except one person.
I got huge self-confidence while I was preparing the play. I learned how to speak in front of many people. I've got many presentation. Most of them were successful because I had known how to speak and got confident to say in front of many people. This ability is one of the most important for me.
Making my ideas a reality


text:
We have had a bit of an odd lead up to winter here, warm sunny days, cold windy days, gloomy rainy days, a frost and some foggy mornings, and so I have spent the better part of the last few weeks sorting clothes into various piles in order to see who needs what for the colder months and put together some kind of sewing strategy.
The twins have got loads of hand me downs, and growing oh so fast, so I probably won't sew much for them this winter, and I am pretty much sorted, but poor Miss C's one and only winter jacket from last year is a size 4! She must have fitted into it last year, as it's the only one she has, and as we pretty much walk everywhere we need to go, it was pretty urgent to get something together for her before it really gets cold.
As she is now a very headstrong 6 year old, I figured that if I wanted her to actually wear the jacket then I should let her pick the fabric and pattern. I narrowed down the choices and we ended up with this.
I think it is going well so far, but oh so slowly!
I haven't attempted anything like this for a long time so I have really had to concentrate.
It took two nights to trace the pattern, one night to cut the wool, another night to cut the linings, another night to fuse, and today I managed to get the yokes, hood and seams of the coat done. Phew!
I had forgotten what a joy wool is to sew. This piece is vintage, probably 1970's, and extremely good quality, so it presses and handles beautifully. I could never afford to buy wool like this today, so I am lucky that I was able to squeeze the pieces onto the slightly less than 1 metre that I had.
The fit though is very slim, so I will be lucky if she gets two seasons out of it, still if she likes it and actually wears it this winter than I will count that as a win!
Now just to get it finished before it snows.


text:
Cover artist: Marc Sasso
Jason reflects on his introduction to Gen Con and AD&D.
Readers offer us praise, complaints, and questions.
Previews, news, and gear for gamers.
Rain fire and wreak havoc with all five chromatic dragons—as playable monster classes!.
Delve into the maddening realm of Khyber with EBERRON\'s Cults of the Dragon Below.
From blood to bones, a dragon\'s value comes not only from its hoard.
Learn the secrets of the oft-underestimated spawn of Kurtulmak with this expansive ecology.
Not everything in a dragon\'s hoard benefits those who steal from it.
Explore Faerûn\'s Rage of Dragons with \'\'Realms of the Dragons II\'\'.
The sage answers your rules questions.
Topic: Complete Arcane.
Optional rule, plus new feat: \'Altered State\'
4 backgrounds
Alternate weapon choices for every domain
Dderwydd Chymdeithas, sample druidic society
4 new weapon styles


text:
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text: There are rumors that the 2.3 update will be released shortly. Assuming a 2.3 update is released, my question is what happens to those of us with rooted phones who are still using the stock rom? I had rooted my phone simply so I could delete all of the bloatware. Everything else is stock. Will the 2.3 update install correctly on my phone or will it not install or should I unroot my phone now before the update is released? Can anyone chime in who experienced this with the 2.2 update.


text:
The Bitter Lemons' Top Rated Los Angeles Theater Productions of 2015
Okay, folks, this is the sumbitch that actually demands some work. And math. Nasty, nasty nasty math. I don't like math. But I do like you, LemonHead, so I'm pushing through the pain, shaking hands with the demons, and making this list for y'all for the FIFTH YEAR IN A ROW because that's how we roll here at the Lemon.
Deep breath. And release.
These are the Top Rated Los Angeles Theater Productions of 2015, pulled directly from our LemonMeter, the ones that the critics liked the best, as indicated by their supreme 100% Sweetness on the Meter. There's no subjectivity with this list, folks, these are not our "opinions," it's all percentages and numbers, objectively culled, dispassionately calculated.
While it's true that our Best Of LA Theater and our Best Stories of LA Theater and our forthcoming Wish List for LA Theater in 2016 are all completely subjective and mostly fabricated, this list consists of shows that held up under the scrutiny of YOUR Los Angeles Theater Critics and came out raving, roaring and redeemed.
The categories have been divided thusly: Premiere of a Play (LA or World), Revival of a Play, Premiere of a Musical, Revival of a Musical, Solo Show and Season.
As always the main criterion that needed to be met before a show could even be considered for this vaunted analysis were 1) A show must have garnered AT LEAST SIX PRESS REVIEWS and 2) A show must have received A PERFECT 100% RATING and 2a) We also took into consideration THE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF THE INDIVIDUAL REVIEWS themselves; e.g. a show that received 20 reviews and kept its 100% Sweetness tops a show that received 6 reviews and kept its 100% Sweetness, likewise, a show with 20 full-out-raves skews better than a show that received 20 good-but-not-great reviews and to even be giving a second look for the Top Rated Season category a theater company needed to have produced at least 3 shows that received LemonMeter Ratings in the calendar year of 2015.
Now some numbers:
- Currently in 2015 there are AT LEAST 293 people writing reviews for Los Angeles Theater. Yep. 293. And there are approximately 90 or so review outlets currently publishing reviews for Los Angeles Theater. Out of that number I'd say maybe 50 of those writers are worth reading. The rest, unfortunately, are churning out crap. Well-intentioned crap, yes, but crap nonetheless. I leave you to sort out that conclusion in any way you so desire.
- Approximately 750 shows were listed with Bitter Lemons in 2015. I'm guessing there were closer to 1000 shows produced in totum in Los Angeles in 2015; Equity, Non-Equity, one-offs, limited runs, fringe shows, and everything in-between, but all I know is that approximately 750 different shows appeared on our site in one form or another. That felt like a rise from 2014. Ponder at your leisure.
- Out of those approximately 750 shows, we calculated and published exactly 363 LemonMeter Ratings in 2015. Free of charge. Yep. All on our own dime. No, really, it's okay, don't mention it, you rarely do and we appreciate the consistency. These were the shows that garnered at least three credentialed press reviews during their run in 2015. And when I say "credentialed" I mean that YOU gave them free tickets to your show. Again, I will let you sort out that conclusion as you so desire.
- 363 LemonMeter Ratings in 2015 is up a bit from 2014 when 313 were tabulated, which was down from the previous years, 401, 415 and 440, respectively in 2013, 2012 and 2011. Again, I think this is a healthy trend; a slight contraction in output, crap gets culled, leading to some slight growth. Smells like sound economics to me. Shivers.
- The total LemonMeter rating for Los Angeles Theater as a whole in 2015 was 84% Sweet. Yeah, we were actually able to do that through our top secret algorithm and the result was…exactly the same as last year's! I kid you not. The dial has not budged: 84% in 2013, 84% in 2014, 84% in 2015. We are nothing if not a consistent artistic community.
Double gasp.
Okay. What else? Oh yes!
Congrats to all who unknowingly participated and contributed to these dastardly data deeds and an especial huzzah to all those that reached the heights of critical consensus in 2015. When Western Civilization collapses, the LemonMeter Ratings for Los Angeles Theater circa 2008-2015 will still be here. And that is a very horrifying thought indeed.
Alrighty then. Think I've covered just about…yup.
So now, without any further Freddy Adu (look him up), here are…
The Bitter Lemons' Top Rated Los Angeles Theater Productions of 2015
Premiere of a Play
1) The Painted Rocks at Revolver Creek (Fountain Theatre)
2) Four Clowns Presents The Halfwits Last Hurrah (Four Clowns)
3) A Small Fire (Echo Theatre)
4) Guards at the Taj (Geffen Theatre)
5) Booty Candy (Celebration Theatre)
6) Lifeboat (The Wallis)
7) The Trouble We Come From (Falcon Theatre)
8) The Temptation of St. Antony (Four Larks)
Honorable Mention: Trevor (Circle X): 97%
Revival of a Play
1) Awake & Sing! (Odyssey Theatre)
2) The Homecoming (Pacific Resident Theatre)
3) Hellman vs. McCarthy (Theatre 40)
4) Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (The Group Rep)
5) Four Clowns Presents Hamlet (Four Clowns)
6) To Kill a Mockingbird (Theatricum Botanicum)
7) Urban Death (Zombie Joe's Underground)
8) August: Osage County (Theatricum Botanicum)
9) The Gospel at Colonus (Ebony Rep)
10) Perfect Timing (Theatre 40)
Honorable Mention: Uncle Vanya (Antaeus): 97% (with 18 reviews), Picnic (Antaeus): 95% (with 21 reviews!)
Premiere of a Musical
1) Sondheim Unscripted (Impro Theatre)
2) Shakespeare's Last Night Out (Orgasmico Theatre)
3) Loch Ness, A New Musical (Chance Theatre)
Honorable Mention: None.
Revival of a Musical
1) Jesus Christ Superstar (DOMA)
2) Santa Claus is Coming to Motown (Troubadors/Falcon Theatre)
3) Cinderella (Center Theatre Group)
4) Singing in the Rain (Musical Theatre West)
5) Sweeney Todd (Kelrick Productions)
6) Nunsense (Crown City Theatre)
Honorable Mention: American Idiot (DOMA): 97%
Solo Show
1) Shakespeare's Last Night Out (Orgasmico Theatre)
2) The Money Fi$H (Hudson Theatre)
3) Not that Jewish (Jewish Women's Theatre)
4) A Carlin Home Companion (Falcon Theatre)
5) '57 Chevy (Latino Theatre Company)
Honorable Mention: None.
1) Zombie Joe's Underground Theatre Group: 96%
2) Theatre 40: 94%
3) Falcon Theatre: 93%
4) Independent Shakespeare Company: 93%
5) Chance Theater: 92%
6) Theatre of NOTE: 92%
7) Echo Theatre Company: 92%
8) Road Theatre Company: 92%
9) Antaeus Theatre Company: 91%
10) Will Geer's Theatricum Botanicum: 90%
Honorable Mention: Son of Semele: 89%, Theatre West: 88%, La Mirada Theatre for the Performing Arts: 87%, The Wallis Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts: 86%, Fountain Theatre, 86%, Coeurage Theatre: 86%, Theatre Unleashed: 86%, The Group Rep: 85%, South Coast Repertory: 85%. Eclectic Company Theatre: 85%.
Special Mentions: (for their indefinable nature and their 100% Sweetness): Urban Death: Tour of Terror, Kurios, Sondheim Unscripted. Shakespeare's Last Night Out.
Comments (2)
Thanks for doing this, Colin! And a Happy Holidays to one and all at Bitter Lemons, and across the LA Theatre scene. What a treat to be part of so much variety and Kulcha!
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text:
Law & Government Externship (LAW-754-009)
Tenney, Cross
Law & Government LLM Students Only.
The Law & Government Externship is available only to LLM in Law & Government students. It is a tutorial externship program that allows LLM in Law & Government students to work in a variety of legal settings while reflecting on their experiences and furthering their legal careers. Up to six experiential learning credits may count toward the LLM in Law & Government degree. To register, please complete the online Externship Contract at www.wcl.american.edu/llm/externship. Once the contract has been electronically signed by all parties, the registrar will add the credits to your schedule.
Textbooks and Other Materials
The textbook information on this page was provided by the instructor. Students should use this information when considering purchases from the AU Campus Store or other vendors. Students may check to determine if books are currently available for purchase online.
First Class Readings
Not available at this time.
Use your MyAU username and password to access the syllabus in the following format(s):


text:
Uko Zylstra wrote:
> In discussion concerning divine action, Howard Van Till asks "What word, other
> than "persuasion", describes an action that is effective but not coercive?"
> Although I am not keen on the distinctions introduced by the terms "persuasive"
> or "coercive", it strikes me that the word Howard is looking for is "law". By
> law, I do not mean the human law statements, but rather law as the relation
> between God and the creation ( and all things in the creation.). It is through
> God's laws that God governs the creation. What we experience, we experience as
> created things subject to the law. That applies to the unfolding of the creation
> in the appearance of created things in time as well. Such unfolding is law
> governed, not just an actualizing of potentialities that are present in some
> "lower level" entities.
> In that regard, Howard's comment with regard to the violin metaphor I think
> also extends to molecules, even complex molecular structures. Molecules are also
> "dead". They do have the ability to act but only in a chemical/physical way,
> just as the violin does. But to grant life functions to "dead" things is
> something that doesn't just come about by actualizing of potentialities. Such
> actualizing of life functions is an indication of things responding to biotic
> laws for life activity.
> Without the recognition that God governs creation through laws, one would be
> lead to a view of the autonomy of everything in the world which I would find
> antithetical to a Biblical view of God and the created world.
1) As to the general idea, yes - but God also (at least in the vast
majority of cases) limits his action in the world to what can be done in accord with
the laws of nature (to which our "laws" are only approximations). This is the sense
in which divine action is non-coercive.
2) In what sense are "biotic laws" different from "physical laws"?
George L. Murphy
"The Science-Theology Dialogue"
This archive was generated by hypermail 2b29 : Thu Jun 07 2001 - 17:25:47 EDT


text:
Exports of grain cargoes from Ukraine
+38 (0562) 32-15-95 (ext. 113)
+7 495 789-44-19
The exports of agricultural products from Ukraine, in particular the exports of grain cargoes, became almost single direction of foreign economic activity of the country, which still shows the positive dynamics. Moreover, there are all signs for continuation of the upward trend in the reporting market segment in the nearest future.
In terms of the upward tendencies of export volumes of Ukrainian grain cargoes, it is useful to analyze the current market situation, and estimate the prospects of further development of the segment, including its export infrastructure.
The new study of APK-Inform Agency analyzes the export segment of five major agricultural crops - wheat, barley, corn, rapeseed and soybeans, which are highly export-oriented ones. In 2014, the reporting crop volumes covered nearly 87% of the general export supplies of Ukrainian grain cargoes, including its by-products.
Plan of the study
1. Dynamics and directions of export grain supplies from Ukraine
1.1. General export dynamics
1.2. Export geography
1.3. Ratings of exporters of the major crops
2. Transport maintenance of the export supplies of grain cargoes
3. Export shipment of grain cargoes by the major ports of Ukraine
4. Characteristics of the transshipment capacities of Ukraine and its effectiveness
5. Prospects for the exports of grain cargoes from Ukraine, and development of the port transshipment capacities
Summary & Conclusions
Appendix 1.1. Monthly dynamics of the grain export supplies for 5 recent years
Appendix 1.2. Monthly dynamics of the oilseed export supplies, and grain & oilseed by-products for 5 recent years
Appendix 2.1. Monthly dynamics of the major crops supplying from Ukraine to the TOP-10 of countries-importers in 2015
Appendix 3.1. Supplied volumes of the major crops from Ukraine by the TOP-10 of companies-exporters
Appendix 4.1. Main characteristics of grain terminals in Ukraine
Appendix 5.1. Forecasts of changes of the major crops supplying by the key countries-importers of Ukrainian commodities
List of charts
List of tables
Contacts: +38 0562 32-15-95 (ext. 113), email@example.com


text:
Product Description
This adorable Duck Bank figurine would make a beautiful addition to any child's bedroom dresser or bookshelf. She is glazed in high gloss "Sun Yellow" glaze. I have added a large coin slot and a large rubber stopper in the belly for easy coin addition and removal. Dimensions: 7" tall x 5" wide x 7" beak to tail. "This Bank is Made-To-Order"
I poured it using a 70's vintage mold and fired the green ware in the kiln to cone 04 to turn it to bisque. I then glazed it and fired again to cone 06 to make the glaze turn to glass.
Remember: "This Bank is Made-To-Order" This bank can be ordered in any color. Make your color choice in the notes to seller at checkout. If there is not a color choice made then you will get the color shown in the picture.
Hello, welcome to my shop. Here you will find my quality hand made, hand painted ceramic art pieces. I have over 2000 vintage molds. I slip cast my own pieces which means that I can customize any piece before it is fired into bisque; make a planter, bank or lamp or cut shapes into it. If you would like to order a customized piece contact me and I can get the details for a custom order. You can also order the piece in bisque.