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With the Future Behind Them: Convergent Evidence From Aymara Language and Gesture in the Crosslinguistic Comparison of Spatial Construals of Time
- Angelina Griffin
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1 Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 1 49 Copyright 2006 Cognitive Science Society, Inc. All rights reserved. With the Future Behind Them: Convergent Evidence From Aymara Language and Gesture in the Crosslinguistic Comparison of Spatial Construals of Time Rafael E. Núñez a, Eve Sweetser b a Department of Cognitive Science, University of California at San Diego b Department of Linguistics, University of California at Berkeley Received 9 November 2004; received in revised form 1 July 2005; accepted 26 October 2005 Abstract Cognitive research on metaphoric concepts of time has focused on differences between moving ego and moving time models, but even more basic is the contrast between ego- and temporal-reference-point models. Dynamic models appear to be quasi-universal cross-culturally, as does the generalization that in ego-reference-point models, FUTURE IS IN FRONT OF EGO and PAST IS IN BACK OF EGO. The Aymara language instead has a major static model of time wherein FUTURE IS BEHIND EGO and PAST IS IN FRONT OF EGO; linguistic and gestural data give strong confirmation of this unusual culture-specific cognitive pattern. Gestural data provide crucial information unavailable to purely linguistic analysis, suggesting that when investigating conceptual systems both forms of expression should be analyzed complementarily. Important issues in embodied cognition are raised: how fully shared are bodily grounded motivations for universal cognitive patterns, what makes a rare pattern emerge, and what are the cultural entailments of such patterns. 1. Introduction It is widely recognized that time is conceptualized spatially in a wide range of languages and cultures indeed, that all languages so far examined take their vocabulary of time primarily from that of space. Specifically, a few basic metaphoric mappings from the spatial domain to the temporal one recur in language after language. Models involving (a) the temporal experiencer as mover in space (We re coming to the end of the year) and (b) times as entities moving with respect to a static experiencer (The end of the year is approaching) have been noticed as cross-linguistically dominant over and over again. 1 In both these cases, an event in the future is seen as in front of the experiencer assuming that the experiencer is facing the flow of events whereas a past event is behind the experiencer (bygone days are behind us, whereas Correspondence should be sent to Rafael E. Núñez, Department of Cognitive Science, University of California at San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA
2 2 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) the week ahead of us is approaching). Although a language typically has more than one metaphorical model of time, so far all documented languages (with the exception to be discussed later) appear to share a spatial metaphor mapping future events onto spatial locations in front of ego and past events onto locations behind ego, rather than to the left of ego and to the right of ego, for example. Aymara, an Amerindian language spoken in the Andean highlands of western Bolivia, southeastern Peru, and northern Chile, 2 appears to present a fascinating contrast to these well-known patterns, and a challenge to the cross-cultural universals of metaphoric cognition that have been slowly building up in our databases. In Aymara, the basic word for FRONT (nayra, eye/front/sight ) is also a basic expression meaning PAST, and the basic word for BACK (qhipa, back/behind ) is a basic expression for FUTURE meaning. We therefore need to ask how seriously we should take these simple lexical data as evidence about the cognitive construals of Aymara speakers. Further, is it in fact an instance of the same mappings we have seen in other languages, reversed in some way, or are there quite different metaphoric mappings involved? How would we know? Several questions are at issue. Does Aymara really have a configuration of temporal metaphors unattested in other languages? Does it really lack the canonically expected metaphoric mappings of space onto time? If Aymara indeed has different metaphorical mappings, what are their entailments? Answering these questions will require an in-depth study of both the Aymara metaphors and the expected ones. In this article we intend to accomplish four things. First, we shall provide a detailed analysis of the inferential organization of spatial metaphoric construals of time in general. We propose that to answer these questions we must consider a more accurate taxonomy of spatial metaphorical mappings of time than the one commonly found in the literature: one that focuses on reference points rather than on the identity of moving entities. 3 Second, we analyze, from a purely linguistic point of view, a collection of Aymara common linguistic expressions involving temporal uses. We argue that it seems impossible to resolve some of these questions from linguistic data alone. Third, we defend the idea that to resolve such questions, it is possible to take advantage of an added data source in the gestures accompanying Aymara speakers descriptions of time. In doing so, we show the crucial importance of working with complementary linguistic and gestural methodologies to access speakers conceptual structures. Fourth, we want to analyze some issues regarding the embodied nature of human everyday abstraction (as it is manifested in spatial construals of time), its universal constraints, and the possibilities for cultural variation. There is strong evidence (Boroditsky, 2000; Boroditsky & Ramscar, 2002; Bowerman, 1996; Bowerman & Choi, 2001, 2003; Slobin, 1996, 2000, 2003) that language-specific patterns of usage prompt corresponding patterns of categorization and conceptualization that shape the habitual cognitive patterns of speakers in the relevant communities; Slobin has called this thinking for speaking. However, linguistic output only gives a certain amount of insight into what these cognitive patterns are. When a speaker says rock-solid evidence, should we see active metaphoric cognitive construal of the evidence as a physically solid object, or might we rather conclude that this is a historically metaphoric but now purely literal fixed phrase? There are various ways to confirm the liveliness of a thinking for speaking pattern such as a conventional temporal metaphor: Examination of speakers patterns of accompanying inferences (Boroditsky, 2000; Gibbs, 1994; Núñez, 2006) and differences in attention and subsequent
3 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 3 memory access (Slobin, 1996, 2000, 2003) are among them. Examination of real-time gestural production is another important one, and is particularly useful in cases where the data are ethnographic rather than experimental; gesture is always there, and visibly present in the videotaped data. Gestural data thus offer the cognitive scientist crucial complementary information that is unavailable from purely linguistic data. Speech-accompanying gesture is a universal phenomenon, of interest to cognitive science in particular because it is a less conscious and monitored track than language (McNeill, 1992, 2000, 2005). It has been noted (Cienki, 1998a, 1998b; McNeill, 1992; Núñez, 2006; Smith, 2003; Sweetser, 1998a, 1998b) that metaphoric gesture often systematically accompanies metaphoric speech iconic gestures such as a hand moving upward, for example, may accompany an utterance such as prices soared, whereas a downward gesture is highly unlikely in such a context. As with speakers of other languages, we may expect systematic directional gestures accompanying Aymara speakers temporal reference to past and future: The gestures should show coherent mappings of temporal structure onto space, which should elaborate and clarify the metaphoric structure suggested by the linguistic data. Cienki (1998a) argued further that because the gestural track communicates information that can be complementary to (rather than overlapping with) the linguistic track (Goldin-Meadow, 2003; Goldin-Meadow & Alibali, 1999; Kendon, 2000, 2004; McNeill, 1992), aspects of metaphoric cognitive processing can sometimes be accessible to researchers via the gestural track alone. In Aymara, the gestural track indeed clarifies aspects of the metaphoric model of time that are not clear from linguistic data alone. Using complementary linguistic and gestural methodologies, we eventually argue that Aymara has basic time metaphors that represent a radically different metaphoric mapping from the ones commonly found in the languages around the world studied so far. Aymara thus appears to be the first well-documented case presenting a genuine fundamental difference in the organization of time construals. Interestingly, it is not difficult to find an embodied experiential motivation for these different metaphors; it turns out that Aymara and English could be seen as basing their temporal metaphor systems on somewhat different aspects of humans basic embodied experience of the environment. However, given how unusual the Aymara metaphors for time are, further questions are raised about the cultural matrix within which particular spatial experiences of time are developed and linguistically coded. 2. Metaphors for time: Universals and cultural variability 2.1. What counts as a case of future is behind? Lakoff and Johnson have proposed experiential bases for spatial construals of time (M. Johnson, 1987; Lakoff, 1993; Lakoff & Johnson, 1999). These hypothesized bases lie in shared bodily experience of space and its correlation with temporal experience, and thus offer a potentially universal basis for spatiotemporal metaphors. To others it seems equally evident that cultures vary radically in their understandings of time (Dahl, 1995; Grebe, 1990; Klein, 1987; Øyvind, 1995; Thornton, 1987). These two viewpoints are not necessarily incompatible: Humans often have more than one construal of a given complex domain, even in mathematics (for
4 4 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) examples of multiple construals in arithmetic, calculus, and set theory, see Lakoff & Núñez, 1997, 2000; Núñez & Lakoff, 1998, 2005), so it would be perfectly possible for there to be both some very culture-specific and some universal models of time. However, this particular debate seems largely based on inaccurate comparisons, which have led to the postulation of mythical contrasts. To exemplify the problems underlying claims about exotic languages where future is behind and past is in front, let us examine an equally exotic language, English. Noting that English speakers readily say things like Christmas follows Thanksgiving, or Christmas comes after Thanksgiving, meaning that Christmas occurs later than Thanksgiving, we might seize on the later than relation and equate it with (relative) futurity. Because follow and come after are relations of behindness (a follower is behind the person followed), we might now claim that in English the future is behind. However, the crucial question is this: Behind what? We could not say, in English, that Christmas is behind us, or Christmas is following us, to mean that Christmas is future relative to the speaker s NOW. Indeed, Christmas is behind us is perfectly grammatical, but only in the sense that Christmas is in the speaker s past, not his or her future. 4 One could similarly claim that in English the past is in front because we find expressions such as ahead of time, or twenty minutes ahead of one o clock (National Public Radio time announcement for 12:40), where ahead of means earlier than. Here, we have a clear answer to the question, In front of what? this is about the relation between two times, neither of which is the speaker s NOW. One cannot say ahead of us meaning earlier than the present instead, it means later than the present. 5 As Moore (2000) lucidly explained, many of the claims in the literature about languages where future is behind and past is in front seem to be based on this kind of confusion of different reference points for the front back relation. The problem is that we must not confuse futurity (reference to times later than NOW) with posteriority (reference to one time as being later in a sequence than another). Not every instance of later than relations is an instance of later than now. Similarly, we must not confuse past (reference to times earlier than NOW) with anteriority (reference to one time as earlier in a sequence than another). The crucial point is that future and past are inherently deictic semantic categories; you have to know the position of ego (i.e., when the relevant speaker s present is) to be able to calculate the time reference of a future. The situation in Aymara attracted our attention because it is the only case in the literature of a mapping where indeed future (not general posteriority) seems to be metaphorically IN BACK OF EGO, whereas past appears to be IN FRONT OF EGO. As we shall see, our examination of psycholinguistic and ethnographic data has only confirmed these preliminary impressions. There is some evidence suggesting that the mapping is shared by other neighboring languages it may be an areal feature. 6 In any case, this exceptional pattern demands our attention. If the universalists are right, why this exception? If the cultural variability advocates are right, why are the other common patterns so pervasively stable across so many unrelated languages around the world? To explain the Aymara situation, we must first lay out the precise structures of the metaphorical models of time that have been noticed in other languages. Then we must identify the mappings in Aymara, to make sure that we are indeed comparing and contrasting comparable data. We restrict ourselves in this article to a subclass of temporal concepts and metaphors. As Evans (2003) pointed out, humans understand time in a variety of ways; the moment sense, the
5 duration sense, event-structure senses (related to the aspectual structure of an event), and others. Different metaphoric mappings structure different aspects of this complex experiential and conceptual network. There are good cross-linguistic comparative and experimental data specifically on metaphoric understandings of time as relative motion in linear space, most typically motion along a front back parameter; this is the primary focus of our comparison to Aymara Patterns of mapping space onto time R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 5 Research in conceptual metaphor theory since the early 1980s has built up evidence that there is an extensive conventional system of conceptual metaphors in every human conceptual system, mapping inferential structure from a source domain (e.g., space) into a target domain (e.g., time). 7 With respect to time metaphors, Lakoff and Johnson (1980) noticed that in English, people talk both about going to do future actions, and about future events as coming events. They studied in detail the metaphorical mappings underlying such linguistic usages, and modeled their findings with a general conceptual metaphor that allows the conceptualization of time in terms of motion in space. In its general form, this metaphor was known as TIME PASSING IS MOTION metaphor 8 (Lakoff, 1993; Lakoff & Johnson, 1999). In related work, Fleischman (1982a, 1982b) examined the etymological relation of the Romance tense systems to these metaphorical mappings. From these researchers work, as well as from that of Clark (1973), came an important division between moving-time and moving-ego metaphors. Lakoff (1993) identified these as two different special cases of TIME PASSING IS MOTION metaphor; namely, TIME PASSING IS MOTION OF AN OBJECT (moving time), and TIME PASSING IS MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE (moving ego), respectively. The former has a fixed canonical observer where times are seen as entities moving with respect to the observer (Figure 1a), whereas the latter sees times as fixed objects where the observer moves with respect to time (Figure 1b). In these mappings the stationary entity is the deictic center. Psychologists have since given experimental evidence that real or represented physical motion scenarios can prime parallel construals of time perhaps simply by activating the relevant source domain (Boroditsky, 2000; Boroditsky & Ramscar, 2002; Gentner, Imai, & Boroditsky, 2002; McGlone & Harding, 1998). Speakers who have just been moving (e.g., traveling on a plane or a train) or imagining self-motion are primed to give moving-ego rather than moving-time interpretations of metaphorical time phrases in English. For example, they are asked to answer questions involving ambiguous forms such as the meeting was moved forward. This phrase can be interpreted according to either of Lakoff and Johnson s two mappings, moving-ego or moving-time: If time is seen as moving past ego, earlier events are ahead of later ones, and the meeting was rescheduled to an earlier time; whereas if ego is moving through space, then farther future events are farther ahead relative to ego, so moving the meeting ahead is rescheduling it to a later time. With a priming background of self-motion, respondents interpretation is biased toward understanding forward as to a later time (i.e., via moving-ego metaphor) if they are primed by a self-motion scenario. 9 Most of the research cited earlier divides time metaphors into moving-ego and moving-time, and these terms have been used as inverses: Either ego is construed as moving with respect to a temporal landmark, or time is construed as moving with respect to ego. In fact,
6 6 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) Fig. 1. The TIME PASSING IS MOTION metaphor according to Lakoff (1993). The special case TIME PASSING IS MOTION OF AN OBJECT metaphor is depicted in (a), where times are conceived as spatial objects moving, relative to a static canonical observer, from front (future times) to back (past times). In this case, the observer is the deictic center. The other special case of the metaphor, TIME PASSING IS MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE, is illustrated in (b), where the observer moves relative to static objects conceived as times. The deictic center in this case is a static object in the landscape. however, the linguistic data show more complex patterns. Not all spatial language for time is dynamic: There s no time to do my homework because the class meetings are too close together simply treats times as locations. Crucially, when time is construed as moving, it is not always with respect to ego as a reference point. In December follows November, times are construed as moving, and November is a moving reference point (with directional front back orientation) for the location of December; there is no ego reference point, although there is some broader temporal landscape as a frame of reference. This is quite distinct from Christmas is coming, which shows time as moving toward ego as landmark. Moving-ego cases such as We re racing toward the end of the semester or Vacation is just ahead/around the corner, show ego moving or potentially moving on a path relative to temporal landmarks. 10 We therefore make the categorical distinction proposed by Moore (2000) and Núñez (1999), between time-based metaphors and ego-based metaphors (of which moving-time and moving-ego metaphors are subcases). Because the word based is not specific enough, we now prefer to use the terms ego-reference-point (ego-rp) and time-reference-point (time-rp) to clearly distinguish between the question of what is moving (ego or time) and what is the landmark relative to which motion is construed (ego or time). Front back orientation can be established for either a moving or a static landmark. 11 Núñez, Motz, and Teuscher recently gathered experimental evidence from priming that supports the psychological reality of the ego-rp versus time-rp distinction (Núñez, in press;
7 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 7 Núñez, Motz, & Teuscher, in press). After priming with an image of a sequence of cubes moving across a screen horizontally (in either direction), participants responded to the question Last Wednesday s meeting got moved forward 2 days. On what day did the meeting take place? They gave a strong predominance of Monday responses over Friday responses, choosing the interpretation of forward as meaning to an earlier time. If these participants had been construing spatial relations relative to ego, they would presumably construe all of last week as behind them, not in front of them: Forward relative to ego s orientational frame would have meant to a later time, closer to now. The clear choice of Monday rather than Friday, after priming with motion scenes with no reference to ego s location, strongly supports the conclusion that there is no ego-rp involved in the construal of such metaphoric phrases as move a meeting forward (i.e., when forward is taken to mean earlier rather than later ): Event times in such cases are construed as moving with respect to a temporal path or landscape. Let us now analyze in detail the mappings involved in these various conceptual metaphors Time-RP metaphor In this conceptual metaphor time is conceptualized in terms of sequentially arrayed objects moving in space. Unlike the ego-rp metaphors, the time-rp metaphors do not require a canonical observer in the source domain of space. The sequence may move horizontally as a whole, and inthedirectionofoneofitsextremes.table1showsthemappingofthisconceptualmetaphor. Note that in the source domain, front is already a metaphorical front recruited from another conceptual mapping, which allows us to ascribe a precise orientation to objects relative to their prototypical direction of motion (as in the front of a car). For objects lacking inherent orientation relative to motion (e.g., cubes), people ascribe orientation based on actual motion (Núñez et al., in press). For example, we can immediately and unerringly refer to the front side of a cube sliding along a flat surface (Clark, 1973; Fillmore, 1977/1997, 1982; Levinson, 2003). This metaphorical orientation in the source domain of objects forming a moving one-dimensional array is preserved in the target domain of time. The entailments of this conceptual metaphor are the following: 1. If object B follows object A (in the source domain of space), then, via the mapping, time B occurs later than time A (i.e., it is in the future relative to time A). In other words, earlier times are in front, ahead of, later times. Table 1 Time-RP Mapping Source Domain, One-Dimensional Space Objects Sequence of objects Objects in the sequence oriented in terms of front-back relationships (usually given by their direction of motion) An object A located in front/behind an object B Movement of the entire sequence in one direction (usually horizontally) Target Domain, Time Times Chronological order of times Times oriented in terms of front back relationships (usually given by their direction of motion ) A time A occurs earlier/later than time B Passing of time
8 8 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 2. The mapping preserves transitive relations over relative positions in the sequence (source domain). For instance, if object C follows an object B in the sequence, and object B follows an object A, then object C follows object A. Via the mapping, we therefore know that if time B is later than time A and time C is later than time B, then time C is later than (is in the future relative to) time A. 3. Because the sequence of objects is one-dimensional (linear), time is one-dimensional. The time-rp metaphor accounts for both the linguistic form and the semantic entailments of expression like these: Christmas follows Thanksgiving; Greenwich Mean Time is lagging behind the scientific standard time; Boston time is 3 hours ahead of San Francisco time; and It is now 20 minutes ahead of 1 p.m. We should observe that English time-rp metaphors are predominantly moving-time, or at least evoke a source domain involving potential motion along a path. Note the preference for ahead of and behind in the preceding examples; they cannot be replaced by in back of and in front of. This appears to be because ahead of and behind refer to spatial relations between entities in motion (or ranged on a path), whereas in front of and in back of refer to static situations. The Time-RP metaphor is similar to what Evans (2003) called the complex temporal sequence model in that both invoke a sequence, and neither of them require a specification of present, past, and future. There are, however, some important differences. First, unlike the time-rp metaphor, Evans s model is not characterized by a clear mapping from space to time (as is required by conceptual metaphor theory). Instead the model only provides a map from temporal entities such as sequence of temporal events onto chronology of events, and temporal events located before or preceding other events onto earlier events (p. 231). Under the time-rp account, all these elements are entities of the target domain of time, constituting, under the metaphorical mapping, images (in the mapping sense) of purely spatial entities in the source domain. Second, Evans s model is not motivated by the primary role of reference points as time RP is. This can generate some problems. For instance, Evans, reporting on the work by Hill (1978) on the West African language Hausa, mentioned that in some situations speakers of this language elaborate the earlier event in a temporal sequence in terms of after/ behind (baya), whereas describing the later event in a sequence in terms of before/in front of (gaba). Evans cited this case as an instance of the complex temporal sequence model, which contrasts with the pattern observed in English. The linguistic examples in Hausa taken from Hill (1978, p. 528) translate into English as Tuesday is in front of/before Monday and Monday is in back of/after Tuesday. However, a close inspection from the perspective of reference points shows that what is giving the front back orientation to the static array of objects is a well-established pattern in Hausa for characterizing locational relations of objects in space relative to an observer. Objects further away from the observer (in front of him or her) are construed as in front of objects that are closer to the observer. When mapped onto temporal sequences, Tuesday is indeed in front of Monday. The point is that the orientation of objects in the sequence is not intrinsic to it (as required by the time-rp metaphor), but by a background reference point provided by an observer. In this sense, the Hausa data, as analyzed by Evans, are not an instance of a time-rp metaphor, but a form of the ego-rp metaphor where Tuesday is in the future (in front of) relative to Monday.
9 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) Ego-RP metaphor As we have seen, the ego-rp metaphor corresponds to the first metaphor of time discussed in the literature (as Time Passing Is Motion in Lakoff, 1993). It has a somewhat more complex structure than the time-rp metaphor discussed in the preceding subsection. Here times are conceptualized as objects located on a one-dimensional space (e.g., path) relative to a canonical observer (ego), whereas time passing is conceived as the relative motion between the observer and the times. The ego-rp mapping has two variants defined by the nature of the moving agent. These two variants share the same inferential structure when no motion is concerned but differ with respect to the identity of the moving and static agents (i.e., moving-time and moving-ego). 12 For the sake of clarity we follow Núñez (1999) and first describe the shared (static) inferential structure present in both variants, and then we analyze the dynamic variants Ego-RP basic static structure. The mapping of the basic structure of the ego-rp metaphor can be seen in Table 2. The entailments of this shared static portion of the ego-rp metaphor are the following: 1. Transitive properties applying to spatial relations between the observer and the objects in the source domain are preserved in the target domain of time. For example, if, relative to the front of the observer, object A is further away than object B, and object B is further away than object C, then object C is closer than object A. Via the mapping, this implies that time C is in a nearer future than time A. 2. The same relations hold for objects behind the observer and times in the past. The inferential structure of this basic static portion of the ego-rp metaphor accounts for a number of linguistic expressions: The summer is still far away; The end of the world is near; The week ahead of us looks promising; Election day is here; and I am looking ahead to Christmas Ego-RP additional dynamic structure. When relative motion is added to the basic structure of the ego-rp mapping, new inferential properties emerge. An important dimension of this extension is that motion is relative; that is, the mapping requires that there is a moving agent moving relative to a static passive entity: In the source domain either (a) the objects move relative to a static observer, or (b) the observer moves relative to the objects located along the one-dimensional path. The former is the moving-object variant (also referred to as TIME PASSING IS MOTION OF AN OBJECT metaphor), and the latter, the moving-ego variant (also re- Table 2 Ego RP Mapping (Basic Static Structure) Source Domain, Horizontal One-Dimensional Space Objects Order of objects along a horizontal one-dimensional path Objects in front of the observer Objects behind the observer Object colocated with the observer Target Domain, Time Times Chronological order of times Future times Past times Present time
10 10 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) ferred to as TIME PASSING IS MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE metaphor). The additional structure of the two dynamic versions of the ego-rp mapping can be seen in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The moving-object variant has some important entailments, in addition to those outlined earlier for the general ego-rp mappings: 1. The object passing the observer is, via the mapping, the present time. 2. Because there is only one observer, there is only one present. 3. Because the objects all move in the same direction, time change is unidirectional. 4. Time has a perceived velocity relative to the observer. 5. Distant moving objects (in front of the observer) will arrive later at the observer s location. Via the mapping this entails that a temporal experiencer will experience later times that are farther in the future. 6. Because the moving sequence of objects is one-dimensional, the static observer only experiences colocation with each object along the sequence once. Via the mapping this entails the temporal experiencer will experience a given time only once. The following are some linguistic expressions with their semantic entailments modeled by this variant of the ego-rp mapping: The new year is coming upon us; Time is flying by; The time has long since gone when ; The end of the world is approaching; and The time to make a decision has come. The inferential structure of the other dynamic variant of the ego-rp metaphor, the moving-ego variant, can be seen in Table 4. Some important entailments in addition to those of the general ego-rp metaphor are: 1. Time has an extension, and can be measured. 2. An extended time, like a segment of a path, may be conceived as a linear bounded region. Table 3 Moving-Object Dynamic Variant of the Ego RP Metaphor Source Domain, Horizontal One-Dimensional Space Dynamic objects Objects moving horizontally with respect to a static observer (with their fronts in direction of motion) Target Domain, Time Times The passing of time Table 4 Moving-Ego Dynamic Variant of the Ego RP Metaphor Source Domain, Horizontal One-Dimensional Space Fixed objects with respect to which the observer moves Frontal motion of the observer relative to objects The distance moved by the observer Target Domain, Time Times The passing of time The amount of time passed
11 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) A moving observer will arrive later at a destination that is farther forward along her path. Via the mapping, this entails that times that are farther in the future will be experienced later by the temporal observer. 4. Because the space is one-dimensional (one-way passage along a linear path), the moving observer only experiences each location along the path once. Via the mapping this entails that the temporal experiencer experiences a given time only once. This form of the mapping accounts for linguistic usages such as these: She passed the time happily; We are approaching the end of the summer. He left his difficult childhood behind. We are racing through the semester. We are coming to the end of the month; and How long is she staying? As we can see, the two forms of ego-rp mappings have quite different inferential structures, and as Lakoff (1993) pointed out, they are sometimes inconsistent with each other. The same lexical items used in both variants have mutually inconsistent readings. For example, the word approaching in The end of the world is approaching (moving-time variant), and in We are approaching the end of the summer (moving-ego variant) take different arguments. Both refer metaphorically to temporal relations, but the former takes a moving time as a first argument and the latter takes a moving observer as a first argument. The same is valid for come in the time has come and in We are coming to the end of the year. Despite these differences, however, there is a crucial entailment shared by both variants: Whether time A approaches the observer (moving-time variant) or the observer approaches time A (moving-ego variant), it is true, in both cases, that the metaphorical distance between the observer and time A, (a) gets shorter as the action approaching takes place, and (b) will be shorter after the action approaching is over. Núñez (1999) argued that given this general truth, it is tempting to reduce both variants to a unique abstract mapping characterizing this fundamental entailment. Such a mapping, however, would allow also cases in which both entities, the observer and the objects, move simultaneously, as in We and Christmas are approaching each other for which entailments 1 and 2 would also be true. Because such cases have not been empirically observed in natural language, they must be explicitly excluded from the characterization of the ego-rp mapping. This is done by precisely characterizing in the source domains of both variants the impossibility of simultaneous motion of observer and objects. It would be a mistake to consider the two variants of the ego-rp metaphor as cognitively equivalent only because they share inferences about the outcome of relative motion (i.e., the resulting state after the action approaching is over). The two variants are construed, cognitively, through different mechanisms. 13 A plausible explanation for why such simultaneous ego-and-time motion metaphors are not found is the importance of landmark trajector or figure ground structure in the construal of spatial scenes. If ego and time were both construed as figures in motion, against what ground would the motion be cognitively construed? 14 Let us sum up the structural mappings involved. In the moving-ego variant of the ego-rp metaphor, self is a moving person, and time is a linear, unidirectional array along which ego moves. In this mapping, we find that necessarily FUTURE IS IN FRONT OF EGO and PAST IS BEHIND EGO. In any moving-time metaphor, it is necessarily the case that LATER
12 12 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) EVENTS ARE BEHIND EARLIER EVENTS and EARLIER EVENTS ARE IN FRONT OF LATER EVENTS. Future events can coherently be understood as in front of ego whether ego is moving or standing still, so long as ego is construed as facing toward the future. As Moore (2000) pointed out, the basic distinction between ego-rp and time-rp spatializations of time can be clearly made whether or not change or motion is part of the construal. In saying that Christmas follows Thanksgiving, we are talking about the relation of two times in terms of a spatial relation between a landmark and a trajectory object both moving objects. Ego is not referenced. Although the preferred tense of the statement may change, the verb follow will still be appropriate in describing the relationship 2004 follows 2003, whether the 2 years in question are past or future relative to ego and now. In an ego-rp construal, the relation between an event or a time and the experiencer s now is highlighted: Summer vacation is still ahead of me and Summer vacation is coming both specifically reference the futurity of the vacation with respect to now, although only one describes time as moving. It has been pointed out that spatial metaphors for time have a strong experiential basis in everyday human experience of motion along a path, and of moving entities passing us on a path (Emanatian, 1992; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, 1999; Lakoff & Núñez, 2000; Moore, 2000; Núñez, 1999; Sweetser, 1988). For example, if we walk forward along a path from location L 0 to location L K, we experience a correlation between locations along the path and times. The time T K, when wereachl K,isinthefuturerelativetothemomentwhentheactionofmovingbegan(i.e.,T 0 ).The two correlated domains are both linearly structured and preserve a close isomorphism: Just as we cannot get from L 0 to L K without going to the intervening points L 1,L 2, and L 3 along the way, so we cannot get from 4:00 p.m. to 4:05 p.m. without living through the intervening times. This correlation is obviously only partial in our experience: In space, we can step sideways off a path, or turn backward and head the opposite way, while time remains inherently unidirectional and unidimensional. However, there is nonetheless a salient correlation between known past times and known (seen, experienced) locations, and between unknown future times and unknown (still unseen and unexperienced) locations on a partially traversed path. Further, although paths are inherently accessible for traversal in either direction, human bodily interaction with paths is inherently asymmetric at any given time. Due to species-specific morphoanatomy, forward rather than backward (or sideward) motion is effortless, accurate, and generally natural for humans. So human motion experience does in some important respects inherently parallel the intrinsic asymmetry of temporal experience. One would expect these fundamental correlations between time and self-motion to be experienced by all humans and most likely by other animals, surely by primates. Similarly, we all experience objects in motion relative to ourselves. Construals of time as relative motion (whether time or ego is moving) thus seem likely candidates for primary metaphors (Grady, 1997a, 1997b; C. Johnson, 1996, 1999a, 1999b), based on the kind of pervasive and salient experiential correlation of two domains that constitutes a primary scene. Indeed, these mappings seem pervasively salient in the world s languages, being both the primary sources for lexical expressions of temporal reference and the primary sources of tense markers (where the etymologies of these are known; Bybee & Pagliuca, 1985; Bybee, Perkins, & Pagliuca, 1994; Heine, 1993; Heine, Claudi, & Hünnemeyer, 1991; Heine et al., 1993). As one might expect, ego-rp models are the ones involved in deictic temporal reference with re-
13 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 13 spect to now, and thus in tense systems; deictic motion verbs such as come and go are frequently recruited as tense markers, as in the English gonna future (Bybee & Pagliuca 1985; Bybee et al., 1994; Emanatian, 1992; Fleischman, 1982a, 1982b; Sweetser, 1988). Time-RP models are also involved in expression of temporal relations between reference events, independent of relation to now: For example, English before and after, which etymologically meant in front of and behind (and once partook of the same time-rp metaphor as Christmas follows Thanksgiving) refer to the relation between two times, independent of those times relation to the present Evaluating cross-cultural variation in mapping patterns Now that we have laid out the parameters involved in the mapping of time onto space, it is time to directly address the earlier claims in the literature that in certain languages, the future is in back. Cultural analysts have long been interested in cultural differences; they have not been slow to notice languages where words meaning front and back, or in front of and behind, appear to be used in temporal senses opposite to those expressed by European words with the same spatial meanings. Moore (2000) concluded that in the cases accessible in the literature, analysts have been misled by rather sketchy statements of the English mappings, and are not in fact comparing the right data. In most cases, the confusion is between ego-rp and time-rp metaphors. We concur with Moore s (2000) assessment that none of the examples in the literature are adequately supported cases of ego-rp temporal metaphors wherein FUTURE IS IN BACK OF EGO. Thornton (1982, 70ff.) compared Maori uses of FRONT words to mean earlier with parallel classical Greek uses; she appeared to be confusing ego-rp and time-rp metaphors, giving no evidence that the long-past Maori events are seen as in front of ego rather than in front of later events. Dunkel (1983) debunked some of the Greek parallels invoked by Thornton, arguing that there is no evidence that classical Greek has a metaphor PAST IS IN FRONT OF EGO although indeed it does productively construe earlier (and perhaps past) events as in front of later ones. Klein (1987), claiming to provide evidence of a cyclic time model in Toba, wherein the experiencer faces the past and future precedes past, actually provided no concrete evidence for a future-before-past construal. In the process, she gave some quite suggestive evidence for models such as FUTURE EVENTS ARE OBJECTS APPROACHING THE EXPERIENCER very similar to English Christmas is coming. Dahl (1995) argued that for Malagasy, ego faces the past and time is cyclic. However, Dahl s data most clearly show a moving time metaphor, with time-rp uses of IN FRONT OF to mean earlier than no uncommon pattern in Indo-European languages either. The added cyclic structure suggested by Klein and Dahl is another structure, which can be superimposed on linear temporal structure; temporal linearity coexists with and is mapped onto cyclic structure such as the repeating structure of the solar year. In English, as well as in Malagasy, Christmas 2003 precedes Thanksgiving A circular path preserves linear topology, in the sense that at any given point on the path, the traveler is experiencing a local linear environment and forwards orientation with respect to it. Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of such reports is that some anthropologists have described speakers claims that the future is behind ego in the metaphoric sense of being unknown (Hardman, 1988; Hardman, Váásquez, & Yapita, 1988; Miracle & Yapita, 1981; as well as those
14 14 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) cited earlier). One of the top candidates for a universal metaphor is Knowledge Is Vision (C. Johnson 1999a, 1999b; Lakoff, 1993; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, 1999; Sweetser, 1990). In space, things behind ego are visually inaccessible, hence unknown. In temporal experience, Realis (including past) is known, whereas future is unknown. We shall return to this part of the mappings in our discussion of Aymara; here, let us note that the anthropologists evidence is scanty and ambiguous. Klein(1987), for example, said that Toba speakers are looking back over their shoulder at the future a description that is, to say the least, susceptible to multiple interpretations. Someone looking back over his or her shoulder is in one sense facing the direction of gaze; in another sense he or she could be seen as facing in the direction of overall bodily orientation. On top of this, it is unclear in Klein, Øyvind, and Thornton exactly how the speakers described the spatial relation of time to ego, and how much of the construal is the analyst s (as they do not give full linguistic analyses of examples, carefully distinguishing ego-rp reference from time-rp reference). 15 This brings us to a final problem with the claims about temporal metaphor in the literature. Most analysts seem eager to present a given culture as having a single unified model of time. They often seem to connect quite scattered data points to form such a unified broader picture. For languages where analysts have examined a fuller range of data, it seems clear that there is not a single entirely coherent metaphoric model of time. English not only varies between the time-rp and ego-rp construals, but between static and moving construals of time as well. So an added concern, in analyzing the Aymara data, is to avoid mentally creating a single synthesis of the Aymara model of time without sufficiently rich justification. Nor are all spatial metaphors for time based in back front orientation and motion. In Chinese (Yu, 1998), earlier times are also seen as being above later times, and particular set phrases in Chinese vary between this vertical metaphor and the front back models. Some European languages also have up down metaphors that relate to temporal structure. Consider the French historical term basse antiquité (Late Antiquity, lit. low antiquity ), or the two contrasting usages High Middle Ages (in English) and bas moyen age in French (lit. low middle ages ), technical phrases used by historians to refer to the same period, the later medieval period. The French usages seem related to a metaphor such as Earlier Is Higher, Later Is Lower; whereas the English usage seems related to the construal of the later medieval period as culturally and intellectually closer to the following Renaissance, a period of high culture (Greater Cultural Achievement Is Greater Height). Aymara also has some more minor vertical temporal metaphors: alay lunisa ( high Monday ) means next Monday. In none of these cases are front back temporal metaphors missing from the relevant languages linguistic systems but other metaphors are present as well. Similarly, Emanatian (1992) showed that in temporal deixis, as in spatial deixis, it is possible to displace the deictic center; the result is added complexity in spatial metaphors for temporal structure. Once again, this system is not a replacement for, but an elaboration of, the standard options for mapping space onto time. Therefore we have quite broad (although surely not universal) linguistic evidence supporting the position that spatiotemporal metaphors treating time as relative motion, and focusing on back front orientation, recur cross-linguistically precisely because certain patterns of universal human experience motivate these metaphoric structures. In these mappings, FUTURE IS IN FRONT OF EGO, not in back. The next section presents the Aymara linguistic evidence of spatiotemporal metaphoric mappings; the following section sets them in their gestural context.
15 3. What can the Aymara linguistic data tell us about Aymara speakers construals of time? The following are common linguistic expressions in Aymara (Albó, 1988; Briggs, 1993; Grebe, 1990; Hardman et al., 1988; Miracle & Yapita, 1981; Tarifa, 1969). In these examples, we can see the use of the nouns nayra ( eye, sight, front ) and qhipa ( back ) with adjectival and adverbial temporal meanings. Such uses are common in everyday Aymara usage Temporal uses of nayra R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 15 (1) nayra mara ( last year ) literal gloss: nayra mara eye/sight/front year (2) ancha nayra pachana ( a long time ago ) literal gloss: ancha nayra pacha -na a lot eye/sight/front time in/on/at (3) nayra pacha/timpu ( past time ) literal gloss: nayra pacha/timpu* eye/sight/front time *Timpu is borrowed from the Spanish word for time, tiempo. Before addressing the difference between spatial and temporal senses of nayra, we must note that it is not unusual for one word to have the meanings of both eye and face (cf. classical Greek ops), or face and front (cf. English face, or front, which etymologically derives from a Latin word for forehead). These appear to be normal polysemy patterns. The eye is part (a salient andimportantpart)oftheface,sothereisastrongmetonymiclinkbetweenthesesenses.theface is also perhaps the single strongest defining factor in identifying the front of a human being, another crucial frame metonymic link. We shall here assume that it is normal for the same word to mean eye and front our interest is in the link between the senses of front and past. An interpretation offered by previous analysts (Miracle & Yapita, 1981) is that PAST IS IN FRONT in Aymara because the past is known, and the area in front of the speaker is seen. This invokes the Knowledge Is Vision metaphor discussed earlier, mapping a known period of time or sequence of events onto a visually accessible physical area. In somewhat mixed-domain language, Miracle and Yapita (1981) cited a contrast between the unseen future and the visible present-past ; so more precisely, we should say that in Aymara REALIS IS IN FRONT and IRREALIS IS IN BACK. As we shall later see from gestural data, the present is metaphorically located immediately at the front of the speaker s body, whereas the past is the space farther in front of the speaker. Nayra is also regularly used in Aymara to mean first in a narrative sequence another case of a use that means earlier than (some other relevant times or events). A storyteller might start out by saying nayra (lit., front, here first/earliest ), and label subsequent epi-
16 16 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) sodes with ukat ( from that ). In enumerating entities in an ordinal list, speakers also label the first entity as nayra(xa) and subsequent entities as ukat qhiparu (lit., toward-back from-that, backward from that ), where an English speaker might say first, next, next. These uses of nayra do not specifically mean earlier than now ; they appear to refer to the sequential relations between events, without reference to their relation to the present. However, (1) cannot mean the year before ; it means specifically last year (i.e., the year before now). Similarly, (2) means a long time ago (before now), not simply at a much earlier time. And (3) refers to the past, not simply to a time earlier than some other time. These uses of nayra are deictically framed uses, expressing the relation to the speaker s present. This relation is implicit there is no overt reference to I or Now but that is equally true of examples such as the weeks ahead (meaning future weeks) in English, which carries much the same meaning as the weeks ahead of us, despite the lack of an overt noun phrase expressing the landmark of the ahead relation. So we have linguistic evidence for at least two distinct uses of the Aymara word for in front of, one meaning past (ego-rp) and one meaning earlier than (time-rp). Given the fact that there is no overt linguistic expression of the landmarks (like us, in the English ahead of us) in the deictically interpreted nayra examples, it becomes a methodological necessity to add sources of evidence to support our claim that the past senses of nayra are metaphoric interpretations of deictic spatial senses (ego-rp). Gesture is one such source of evidence Temporal uses of qhipa Aymara qhipa ( back ) is used in a parallel fashion, to refer to the future or to relatively later times. Examples (4) through (7) show deictically centered uses, which refer to times in the future relative to now, as being behind (ego). Again, there is no overt expression of the ego-rp nature of these expressions no behind us so gesture may help to solidify our evidence for the deictic semantics of these expressions. (4) qhipüru ( a future day ) literal gloss: qhipa uru back/behind day (5) akata qhiparu ( from now on ) literal gloss: aka -ta qhipa uru this from back/behind day (6) qhipa marana ( in the next [immediately future] year ) literal gloss: qhipa mara -na back/behind year in/on/at (7) qhipa pacha/timpu ( future time ) literal gloss: qhipa pacha/timpu* back/behind time *Timpu is borrowed from the Spanish word for time, tiempo.
17 Example (8), on the other hand, seems ambiguous between a sense of a day that follows some other day, and a future day relative to now. Example (9) refers to a period following some reference year ( that year ) rather than to a period later than now. These seem to be instances of nondeictic, time-rp spatial construals of time. (8) qhipa uruna ( on the next day/on a future day ) literal gloss: qhipa uru -na back/behind day in/on/at (9) uka marata qhiparu ( from that year on ) literal gloss: uka mara -ta qhipa uru this year from back/behind day Example (10) is a conventional phrase of farewell, and appears therefore to mean until a later day (than today) another deictic use. (10) qhipurkama ( until another day; so long ; Briggs, 1993, p. 412) literal gloss: qhipa uru kama back day until 3.3. Other expressions As mentioned earlier, the morphemes nayra and qhipa are also used to refer to positions in a sequence. Here we find this mapping in the terms for various planting or sowing periods in an agricultural cycle (Examples 11 13). Notice that the structure here is richer than that of the narrative and enumerative sequential uses: The annual planting cycle has a front (the start) and a back (the end), and even a middle. There is no deictic structure here, but purely sequential relations unconnected with any specific now: The front planting is simply before other plantings in the same cycle. (11) nayra sata ( first planting ) literal gloss: nayra sata eye/front/sight planting (12) taypi sata ( middle planting ) literal gloss: taypi sata middle/center planting (13) qhipa sata ( last planting ) literal gloss: qhipa sata back/behind planting R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 17 Aymara ego-rp time metaphors appear to be largely static; there are a few uses such as jutir pacha coming time, attested in Inland Iquique in Northern Chile and in some Bolivian dia-
18 18 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) lects (see also Bertonio, 1612/1984). However, far more dominant are static locational forms such as back time for future. Many Aymara speakers are bilingual between Aymara and a distinct regional Spanish-based linguistic variety called Castellano Andino (CA; Andean Spanish). CA shows important influences from its speakers Native American language substrates. Aymara-spoken CA, for example, uses Spanish pluperfect tense forms as evidential markers indicating lack of direct personal knowledge about a described past event (Miracle & Yapita, 1981). Pluperfect forms thus contrast evidentially, in CA, with Spanish perfect and imperfect forms, which are used to mark direct experience of past events. Evidentiality is a category not grammatically marked by Spanish tenses. Among southwestern Aymara speakers, a majority are Aymara CA bilingual to varying degrees, and some are also familiar with more standard dialects of Chilean Spanish. Older speakers with no formal education are more likely to be monolingual Aymara speakers; speakers who have traveled to work in urban areas are naturally more likely to have had exposure to standard varieties of Spanish as well as CA. Bilingual speakers may well be familiar with some of the common Spanish motion metaphors for time, as well as Aymara native metaphors. Núñez, Neumann, and Mamani (1997) noted a potential correlation between temporal uses of Aymara motion verbs and the presence of Spanish loan words; this is worth investigating, as it may show that these Aymara motion-verb uses have been reinforced by Spanish bilingualism. We have noted some linguistic metaphoric uses of spatial terms in CA that are not standard in Spanish. For example, CA speakers use atrás, which in standard Spanish means behind, to mean late(r) (which in standard Spanish would be (más) tarde or después). This use is congruent both with Aymara time-rp use of front back terms to mean earlier and later (nayra sata, qhipa sata), and with standard Spanish time-rp metaphors in which earlier events are seen as in front of later ones (Spanish ante means both before and before the eyes of, in the presence of ; the related delante means spatially in front of ). However, these metaphors stand out more clearly in the Aymara data, where exactly the same lexical material means both front and earlier, or back/behind and later. In the realm of time-rp metaphors, CA may thus have stronger front back metaphoric structure for time than standard Spanish, perhaps because of reinforcement from an Aymara substrate. In sum, Aymara linguistic forms give evidence for both sequential (time-rp) temporal interpretations of nayra and qhipa (as earlier and later, respectively) and deictic tense-marking interpretations (as past and future ), which we have tentatively labeled ego-rp. However, ego and now remain implicit, rather than overtly marked, in Aymara deictic linguistic expressions for next year or last year. Unlike English, where speakers can say I have a tough semester in front of me or That part of my life is behind me, in Aymara we are never overtly told that it is the year in front of me or in back of us (M. Hardman, personal communication, August 26, 1999). Linguistic analysis alone cannot fully answer the crucial question of whether nayra and qhipa operate with a time-rp model or with an ego-rp one. The semantic interpretations of nayra and qhipa as past and future are inherently deictic, suggesting intuitively to an English speaker a metaphoric spatial construal with respect to ego s location; but how do we know for certain that this is how relation to the present is metaphorically construed by Aymara speakers? Perhaps the present is
19 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 19 not metaphorically understood as the speaker s here, but as just another temporal reference point with respect to which to locate times. If nayra and qhipa are used exclusively with a time-rp model, then Aymara has nothing other than the well-known pattern FRONT IS EARLY and BACK IS LATE, behaving very much like the English term ahead, asinit is 20 minutes ahead of 1 p.m. (i.e., 12:40 p.m., which is earlier than 1 p.m.). If, on the contrary, nayra and qhipa are indeed used with an ego-rp model to mean past and future, respectively, then Aymara has a truly rare pattern unlike most languages around the world. The study of gestural data provides the answer to this crucial question. 4. How can Aymara speakers gestures help us where linguistic data do not? We have seen that Aymara linguistic forms do constrain our hypotheses about Aymara time metaphors, but not sufficiently for us to answer some important questions. A neglected but powerful source of data is the gestural track that is universally coproduced with spoken languages. As McNeill (1992, 2000, 2005) and others have argued, it offers unique access to some of the less conscious aspects of the cognitive processes underlying language. And, most important for this investigation, gesture like language, represents metaphoric mappings between domains. We can then make use of gestural phenomena to help address the main questions presented at the beginning. In the last 20 years, the field of gesture studies has moved forward dramatically, thanks to the work of pioneers such as Kendon (1982, 2004), McNeill (1992, 2005), Goldin-Meadow (2003), 16 and many others. Research in a variety of areas, from child development, to neuropsychology, to linguistics, and to anthropology, has shown the intimate link between oral and gestural production. Finding after finding has confirmed that gestures are produced in synchronicity with speech, that they develop in close relation with speech, and that brain injuries affecting speech production also affect gesture production. The following is an abbreviated list of sources of evidence supporting (a) the view that speech and gesture are in reality two facets of the same cognitive linguistic reality; and (b) the embodied approach for understanding language, conceptual systems, and high-level cognition: 1. Universality: Speech-accompanying gesture is a cross-cultural universal (Iverson & Thelen, 1999; Kita & Essegbey, 2001; McNeill, 1992; Núñez & Sweetser, 2001). 2. Largely unconscious production: Gestures are less monitored than speech, and they are to a great extent unconscious. Speakers are often unaware that they are gesturing at all (McNeill, 1992). 3. Speech gesture synchronicity: Gestures are coproduced with speech, in cotiming patterns that are specific to a given language (McNeill, 1992). 4. Gesture production with no visible interlocutor: Gestures can be produced without the presence of interlocutors; for example, people gesture while talking on the telephone, and in monologues; congenitally blind individuals gesture as well (Iverson & Goldin-Meadow, 1998).
20 20 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 5. Speech gesture co-processing: Stutterers stutter in gesture, too, and impeding hand gestures interrupts speech production (Mayberry & Jaques, 2000). 6. Speech gesture development: Gesture and speech development are closely linked (Bates & Dick, 2002; Goldin-Meadow, 2003; Iverson & Thelen, 1999). 7. Speech gesture complementarity: Gesture can provide complementary (as well as overlapping) content to speech content. Speakers synthesize and subsequently cannot distinguish information taken from the two channels (Kendon, 2000). 8. Gestures and abstract metaphorical thinking: Linguistic metaphorical mappings are paralleled systematically in gesture (Cienki, 1998a; McNeill, 1992; Núñez, 2006; Núñez & Sweetser, 2001; Sweetser, 1998a, 1998b). The general results of gesture research pose problems for any approach that builds on the assumption that culture and cognitive structure are only to be found in the conscious mind. Linguistic processing is well known to be largely inaccessible to conscious introspection; also, research on metaphor has clearly shown that much metaphoric cognitive structure is both culture-specific and unconscious (Gibbs, 1994; Lakoff & Johnson, 1999). Although instantiated in the body, and making use of shared, mutually observable space, gestures are also culture-specific, as is language. The first notable example of such culture-specificity lies in what Kendon (1990) labeled quotable gestures (also called emblems), conventional gesture complexes that are meaningful even without accompanying language, and that often have meanings on the same order as those of short colloquial linguistic expressions. Manual quotables include more content-oriented usages such as the thumb-and-index circle ( o hand) used by English speakers to mean nothing or there s none. Note that unlike less conventional hand gestures, this can be correctly or incorrectly produced. It is not acceptable to make a thumb + pinky circle instead of a thumb + index circle, in gesturing none. Some emblematic gestures seem so tightly tied to speech that they are regularly retained when interlocutors cannot observe them; English speakers nod and Japanese speakers bow during telephone conversations. However, McNeill (1992) showed that even less conventionalized gesture so-called free gesture accompanying speech follows tight language-specific patterns in its cotiming with speech, as well as in which aspects of the described situation are depicted in gesture. These patterns are inaccessible to conscious monitoring. Spatial structure is in one sense directly represented in gesture; that is, it is represented in the same medium, space. In another sense, however, the speaker s construal is paramount in this as in other aspects of linguistic and gestural representation. Haviland (1993), for example, described a speaker of Guugu Yimithirr (a native language from Australia), who in retelling a story of a boat capsizing, automatically adjusted his gestural patterns to match the actual absolute compass orientation of the boat s motion in the actual event. Most English speakers would not do this, which may be connected with the fact that English does not normally use absolute spatial coordinates for everyday location of small objects in the immediate environment. In Guugu Yimithirr, unlike English, one would not be able to say that the mug is next to, or in front of, the speaker; one would have to say that it is east, or north, of the speaker, or whatever the appropriate direction might be (Levinson, 2003; Majid et al., 2003).
21 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 21 In short, whenever the speaker is referring to anything besides the actual present physical space, gesture (and sign language, too) necessarily involves some mapping between the real space and represented spatial (or other) structure. The nature of these mappings is culture-specific, and therefore shows more extensive variation cross-culturally than do gestures referring to the actual surrounding space. Our understanding of this is that gestures enact blends (in the sense of Fauconnier & Turner, 1996, 1998a, 1998b, 2002) of the real space with other spaces (Liddell, 1998, 2003); mental space blending principles apply similarly in all cases, but the precise mappings vary. A crucial contrast, for gesture as well as for speech, is between deictically centered and nondeictically-centered gestural structures. Paul Dudis (personal communication, 2002) pointed out to us that in American Sign Language (ASL) spatial arrays, it is possible for the speaker to be located in the array or not (see also Emmorey, 2002, chap. 3). For example, a signer who is asked to identify a student (out of a class not currently in session) might point to a particular locus to his or her left; this might mean, in context, that the student sits in a location in that orientation from the signer s usual location in the classroom. You would have to know the signer s usual classroom location, as well as orientation, to know the relevant student s location. On the other hand, in setting out a map of Berkeley for a signing interlocutor, there might be no place on that map where the signer was located. Although there would inevitably be a perspectival choice of mapping onto the real space (e.g., north = forward away from signer, south = toward signer, east and west = toward the signer s right and left respectively), the signer s own body and bodily location would not be part of that mapping. It is well known that gesture can be used metaphorically. Both in gesture and in signed languages, a gestural form that is iconic for a source-domain concept can be used to express its counterpart in the target domain of some metaphor. For example, an English speaker may move a hand forward to indicate literal forward motion or location; or a very similar gesture may refer to future time. Taub (2001) presented an extended analysis of the relation between metaphor and iconicity in ASL forms, an analysis that has inspired much of the subsequent work on parallel phenomena in gesture. Cienki (1998a) gave detailed examples of hands moving up and down (on virtual vertical scales) to refer to good and bad grades, and to good and bad moral behavior, and Núñez (2006) analyzed cases of mathematicians producing dynamic gestures while explaining series and limits (in ways compatible with the historical origins of these concepts), overruling the fact that the modern formal language used in those domains is fully static. Further examination of metaphoric uses of gesture can be found in Müller (1996), Parrill and Sweetser (2004), Smith (2003), and Sweetser (1998). Cienki (1998a) and Sweetser (1998a, 1998b) argued that such metaphoric uses of iconic gesture provide interesting evidence of the presence of the source-domain concepts in the mind of the speaker. When such gestures accompany metaphoric language, the gesture offers converging evidence, along with the linguistic forms, of the cognitive processing of two domains. Sweetser (1998a) documented a speaker saying put you away, meaning put you in jail, accompanied by a gesture of moving an object (perhaps a box) from one place to another literal putting away. This is additional evidence in support of Gibbs s arguments (based on other data sources) that speakers may be doing metaphoric processing even of very conventional and
22 22 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) idiomatic metaphoric phrases. Cienki also gave examples of cases where speakers use literal language about an abstract domain (good grade, bad grade) while gesturing metaphorically about the same domain (e.g., up and down gestures for good grades and bad grades, respectively). In these cases, only the gestures let us know that the speaker is construing the relevant domain metaphorically. The distinction between deictically centered spaces and spaces without deictic structure is of particular interest in examining metaphoric gestures representing time. As we mentioned earlier, language involves both deictic construals of time (relative to some experiencer s now) and nondeictic representations of temporal sequence. Tense is inherently deictic, as are words like now, then, and ago: a message saying I will arrive 3 days from now would be completely uninformative without knowing the time of writing. Words like before and after, on the other hand, are not based on a deictic frame: They are usable, as in examples cited earlier, even to describe generic repetitive relations such as Christmas comes after Thanksgiving. Gesture shows the same dichotomy. Cospeech gesture and signed languages both manifest (a) spatialization of time relative to now (ego-rp), represented as spatial relation to the speaker s physical location (here), and (b) representation of temporal sequence without reference to now (time-rp). An English speaker, for example, might gesture forward for the future, and point at the ground in front of his or her feet while saying right now; these are part of a general deictic timeline, with future metaphorically located in front and past in back of speaker. 17 This kind of deictic gestural timeline is manifested in other languages as well: Calbris (1990) gave examples of such a timeline in French; it is also regularly manifested in all signed languages for which we have seen data (and well documented in the literature on ASL; see Cogen, 1977, for a seminal early reference; Emmorey, 2001, 2002, for current work). However, the English speaker might also represent a sequence of days or years as a horizontal line from left to right across her gesture space, gesturing to points on that line to refer to particular times or events; in such a left right time line, there is no inherently built-in now, as the speaker s location is not part of the spatial structure that is mapped onto time (time-rp). Levinson (1996a, 1996b, 2003) and colleagues have documented languages whose expression of space is absolute rather than relative. Speakers of such languages appear to conceptualize space in more absolute (e.g., north south or east west) terms rather than in ego-based terms (or displaced ego-based) such as front back or left right. Because it seems clear that understandings of time are universally based on spatial concepts, we are eager to know more about how absolute spatial conceptualization affects the corresponding conceptualization and expression of time. Levinson (2003, p. 262; 1996a, p. 376) hinted that Tenejapan Tzeltal has an uphill downhill (locally, also south north) space time mapping, where time is conceived as stretching up to the south (1996a, p. 376). However, no Tzeltal linguistic or gestural data are provided, making the evaluation of the claim impossible. Moreover, because we have found no full linguistic description of the temporal expressions of any absolute language, we restrict our analysis here to relative spatial languages. In the next section we show that Aymara speakers gestures provide further evidence that their construal of time involves a FUTURE IS IN BACK OF EGO (and PAST IS IN FRONT OF EGO) mapping. Moreover, gestural evidence also shows us aspects of this model that are not directly expressed in speech.
23 5. Empirical observation of Aymara gestural data 5.1. Method R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 23 Speech and gestural data were collected through videotaped ethnographic interviews with Aymara speakers from the Andes highlands of Northern Chile (Núñez et al., 1997). The interviews took place in the two most important Aymara-speaking regions in Northern Chile, namely, inland Arica, and inland Iquique, near the border with Bolivia. From the former region the towns covered were Chapiquiña, Chucuyo, Codpa, Livilcar, Pachama, Pampa Algodonal, Parinacota, Putre, and Socoroma; from the latter, Ancuyo, Cariquima, Chijo, Colchane, Enquelga, Isluga, Mauque, and Villablanca. A few interviews took place in the cities of Arica and Iquique themselves, where there are several communities of Aymara people who have immigrated to these ports. The series of interviews were completed in several trips within 18 months. Approximately 20 hr of raw videotaped interviews were obtained, and later digitized and captured for audio and video analysis Participants As Spanish takes over, the Aymara language is gradually disappearing from the Chilean Andes. This study thus focused on adult senior speakers. In these remote areas, most elderly individuals grew up before the Chilean formal educational system (in Spanish) implemented systematic schooling in the region. Most of them managed to informally learn some form of Spanish (or CA) only in their mid- to late teens. Today the Chilean school system, which is obligatory until eighth grade, is very well established, and functions mostly with Spanish monolingual teachers brought from other regions of the country. Younger generations tend to see Spanish as a language of education, progress, and opportunities, and as a result in many households Aymara is no longer spoken. Nowadays, children who speak Aymara fluently are extremely rare in northern Chile. Thirty Aymara individuals voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. They were all adults; 20 of them were men (66.6%), and 10 were women (33.3%). Their language proficiency (LP) status varied: Half of the participants had full mastery of Spanish (15 participants, 50%) with various degrees of knowledge of the Aymara language. The other 15 participants (50%) spoke fluid Aymara and had either good but not fluent Spanish, or little or no command of it. A more detailed classification of participants LP is the following: LP1 Aymara Monolingual: 1 (3.3%) LP2 Fluid Aymara, with limited Spanish and very strong CA: 3 (10%) LP3 Fluid Aymara, with good but not fluent Spanish and frequent use of CA: 9 (30%) LP4 Bilingual Aymara and Spanish (fully grammatical and good vocabulary in both), and no (or minimal) CA: 9 (30%) LP5 Spanish monolingual with some Aymara comprehension (no spoken Aymara): 3 (10%) LP6 Spanish monolingual: 5 (16.7%)
24 24 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) The age (A) of the participants ranged from 38 to 84 years of age, the median age being 64.5 years. The following is the distribution across age groups: A1 38 to 55 years old: 7 (23.3%) A2 55 to 64 years old: 8 (26.7%) A3 65 to 74 years old: 9 (30%) A4 75 to 84 years old: 6 (20%) Procedure Interviews were informal, and usually lasted 20 to 50 min. They were conducted by an Aymara-Spanish bilingual informant and two Chilean-Spanish native speakers (one of us R. Núñez, and a psychologist, V. Neumann). Two local informants, covering each of the two regions described earlier inland Arica and inland Iquique collaborated in the study. The interview, which was designed to cover discussions involving reference to time, had two parts. In the first part, participants were asked to talk about, make comments, compare, and explain a series of events that had happened or that were expected to happen in the context of their communities. In the second part participants were asked to talk about traditional sayings, anecdotes, and expressions in Aymara involving time, and to give examples of them. In the case of bilingual interviews, participants were asked to translate expressions from Spanish to Aymara and vice versa and to explain them. These expressions were taken from everyday language and from classic texts on Aymara language (Albó, 1988; Bertonio, 1612/1984; Briggs, 1993; Grebe, 1990; Hardman et al., 1988; Miracle & Yapita, 1981; Tarifa, 1969). The course of the interviews was overall rather flexible and open-ended, and the interaction often quite conversational. Depending on the context and the language preference of the participants, interviews took place in Aymara, in Spanish, and sometimes in both, with occasional CA Results General statistical analyses Of the 30 participants, 21 (70%) produced gestures (at least once) cotimed with expressions involving future or past times. 18 Fifteen participants (50%) produced only gestures along the sagittal plane (i.e., frontward, backward), 2 (6.7%) only gestures along the transversal plane (e.g., toward the left or the right), and 4(13.3%) produced both sagittal and transversal gestures Participants producing only past or future gestures. Out of the 15 participants who produced only frontward backward gestures cotimed with past and future expressions, two thirds (10 participants) generated either past-front/future-behind patterns or past-behind/future-front ones. Out of these 10 participants, individuals in the younger group (64 years old or younger) were, with one exception, also those who spoke fully grammatical Spanish (5 participants). Similarly, individuals in the older group (65 years old or older) were, with one exception, those who spoke fluent Aymara with limited command of Spanish (3 participants). Figure 2 shows how these 10 participants were distributed with respect to language proficiency. Out of these 10 participants, all of those who spoke Aymara fluently, CA, or both, but not fluent grammatical Spanish (4 participants, belonging to groups LP1 LP3 mentioned earlier),
25 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 25 Fig. 2. Percentage of Aymara participants producing only sagittal past future gestures, split by language proficiency. gestured with past-front or future-behind patterns. Moreover, all participants gesturing with past-behind or future-front patterns (5 participants) were individuals who spoke Spanish fluently. Only 1 participant who was able to speak Spanish produced gestures in the past-front or future-behind direction. He was a 65-year-old bilingual speaker who also spoke fluent Aymara. These results show that the proportions of participants gesturing with past-front/future-back and past-behind/future-front patterns is not homogeneous with respect to language proficiency (one-tail Fisher s exact probability test, p =.024), suggesting that fluency in Aymara relates to past-front/future-behind gestures, whereas fluency in Spanish relates to past-behind/future-front gestures. Figure 3 shows the distribution of the same sagittal gestural patterns with respect to age. All participants producing past-behind or future-front gestures (5 participants) were below the overall median age (i.e., 64 years old or younger). All 65-year-old participants or older (4 participants) produced past-front or future-behind gestures. Only 1 participant in the younger group produced gestures in the past-front or future-behind direction. She was a 57-year-old bilingual speaker with almost no formal education who spoke fluent Aymara with good but not fluent Spanish (LP3). The results show that the proportions of participants gesturing with past-front/future-behind patterns and past-behind/future-front ones is not homogeneous with respect to the two age groups (one-tail Fisher s exact probability test, p =.024). This suggests that those who produce past-front/future-behind gestures are mostly old individuals (who did not have the opportunity to have formal education in Spanish when they were young), whereas those who produce past-behind/future-front gestures are younger individuals who grew up with (at least a minimum of) formal education in Spanish.
26 26 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) Fig. 3. Percentage of Aymara participants producing only sagittal past future gestures, split by age Participants producing past sagittal gestures. When speaking about the past, 15 participants out of the total 30 (50%) produced at some point cotimed sagittal gestures in either orientation. For the following analyses we divide this group between those who exclusively gestured toward the front when referring to the past 19 and those who gestured at least once toward the back. This is a strong categorization, as those bilingual speakers who may have gestured several times toward the front but who gestured at least once toward the back fall in the latter category, along with all those participants who may have never gestured frontward when speaking about the past. Figure 4 shows how these participants were distributed with respect to language proficiency. All but 1 of the participants (88%) who spoke Aymara, CA, or both, but not fluent grammatical Spanish (7 out of 8 participants belonging to groups LP1 LP3) produced only frontward gestures when referring to the past. Five out of 7 participants (71.4%) who were able to speak Spanish gestured, at least once, toward their backs when speaking about the past. These results show that the proportions of participants producing (or not) exclusively frontward gestures when referring to the past is not homogeneous with respect to language proficiency (one-tail Fisher exact probability test, p =.035), suggesting that fluency in Aymara relates to frontward gestures when referring to the past, whereas fluency in Spanish relates to backward gestures. Figure 5 shows the distribution of the same past sagittal gestural patterns with respect to age. All but one of the participants aged 65 or older (89%, 8 out of 9 participants belonging to groups A3 A4) produced only frontward gestures when referring to the past. All but 1 of the participants aged 64 or younger (83%, 5 out of 6 participants belonging to groups A1 A2) ges-
27 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 27 Fig. 4. Percentage of Aymara participants producing sagittal past gestures, split by language proficiency. Fig. 5. Percentage of Aymara participants producing sagittal past gestures, split by age.
28 28 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) tured, at least once, toward their backs when speaking about the past. These results show that the proportions of participants producing (or not) exclusively frontward gestures when referring to the past is not homogeneous with respect to the two age groups (one-tail Fisher s exact probability test, p =.011). This suggests that older Aymara individuals tend to exclusively produce frontward gestures when referring to the past, whereas younger ones in those cases tend to produce backward gestures Examples of gestures of Aymara speakers The following are examples of Aymara speakers speech gesture coproduction while using time expressions in conversations in Aymara, Spanish, or both Ego-RP gestures. In Example 1 (male speaker, 75, from Socoroma; bilingual interview), an Aymara speaker gestures as he repeats and translates the phrase nayra mara, literally front time. His Spanish translations (actually, expressions in CA) of nayra mara are tiempo antiguo old times and tiempo antes time before. He gestures with his left hand forward from his body as he makes this explanation (Figure 6; person on the right) as he holds a zampoña, a musical instrument, in his right hand. The first two forward strokes (Figures 6a and 6c) are cotimed with the two words tiempo antiguo, and display an almost full extension of the left arm. The third forward stroke occurs approximately 5 sec later as an emphatic response to the interviewer s question requesting clarification (Figure 7). The speaker shifts the instrument to his left hand, and points forward with his now free right index, higher than the previous left-handed strokes; The gesture is coproduced with the phrase el tiempo antes, where the stroke is cotimed with the accentuated first syllable of antes ( before ). In Example 2 (male speaker, 75, from Socoroma; bilingual interview), continuing to explain nayra mara, the speaker says it is what is antiguo ( old ). As he says antiguo, he sweeps his left hand and arm forward (loose five handshape, palm toward body; see Figure 8), starting from a point at the chest (Figure 8a), and finally extending the arm with palm up (Figure 8c). His head is down at the start, and gradually moves up and turns to face the interviewer as the hand gesture moves outward. Similarly, 20 sec later, in explaining pre-spanish times (gentil timpu), the same speaker says in Spanish, es la otra generación ( is the other generation ), meaning distant ancestral Fig. 6. Example of a two forward stroke gesture cotimed with the two Spanish words tiempo antiguo. The timecode shown at the bottom right of each freeze is expressed in minutes:seconds:frames. Each frame unit corresponds to approximately 1/30 of a second (there are frames per second).
29 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 29 Fig. 7. Example of an emphatic right-hand gesture coproduced with the phrase el tiempo antes. The stroke is cotimed with the accentuated first syllable of antes ( before ). Fig. 8. Example of a frontward loose left hand cotimed with the word antiguo ( old ). generations. While uttering this phrase, he extends his right arm in two pointing gestures (with index finger) cotimed with the two words es ( is ) and la otra ( the other ) [generation], respectively. These are directed higher than his earlier points on antiguo and tiempo antiguo the first is at his eye level, the second (Figure 9) is above his head, pointing outward and upward. In Example 3 (male speaker, 73, from Pachama; bilingual interview), the speaker is talking about his ancestors (achachilas) when the interviewer suggests that this might have been the time of the Incas (gentil timpu). The speaker, who is thinking of more immediate ancestors such as great-grandparents, responds in CA (rather ungrammatically in Spanish) Ese es todavía más allá antes, That is even further away before, meaning that the Incas existed far earlier than what he is talking about. He gestures with both hands, an alternating rotating gesture upward and away from the body (Figure 10). At the peak of the right hand s rotation cotimed with más ( more ) in más allá antes (Figure 10c), the right hand forms a point upward and forward (Figures 10d and 10e). All of these clips show Aymara speakers gesturing forward with reference to past time, whether sweeping forward over temporal extent of past years or pointing forward away from the present toward the past. In the next set of clips, we see specific past and present (realis) periods of time metaphorically represented and pointed to contrastively as different spatial points, pointing downward (colocation or immediate proximity) nearer to the body representing times closer to the present.
30 30 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) Fig. 9. Example of frontward index-finger pointing gesture coproduced with the phrase es la otra generación ( is the other generation ), meaning distant ancestral generations. Fig. 10. Example of a rotating bimanual gesture coproduced, while clarifying a misunderstanding, with the rather ungrammatical Spanish sentence ese es todavía más allá antes ( that is even further away before ). In Example 4 (male speaker, 75, from Socoroma; bilingual interview), speaking in Aymara, the speaker says aka maran(a) ( this year ) and gestures with the zampoña he is holding in his right hand, rotating and raising his wrist (Figures 11a 11c), and then quickly pointing downward with the instrument s body right in front of him, between his legs. He holds this position until the word marana is finished. The speaker continues in Spanish, contrasting this year with earlier times. He transfers the zampoña to his left hand (Figures 12a and 12b), as he explains to a Spanish-speaking inteviewer that the past times (antes) were not like these years now (como estos años de ahora). As he is about to say antes ( before ), his right hand gets ready for a pointing position, extending the index finger (Figure 12c). The stroke that follows immediately after is cotimed with the word antes, pointing with the extended index finger forward, slightly outward, at an upward angle (Figure 12d). As he says como estos años de ahora ( like these years now ) he iteratively points downward, with the same index finger, toward a location between his legs where he is sitting (Figure 12e). He performs this iterative gesture five times, cotimed with the remaining words of the sentence, and finishing with ahora ( now ). Eighteen seconds later, referring to gentil timpun, and to el tiempo de los gentiles ( the time of the Incas ) the speaker says antiguamente (Spanish for long ago, in the past ). The zampoña, which in the meantime had been moved back to his right hand, is then once again
31 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 31 Fig. 11. Example of a pointing gesture opportunistically using the tip of a tool (a musical instrument). It is coproduced with the Aymara expression aka maran ( this year ), pointing straight downward, and marking colocation with ego. Fig. 12. Example of a right-hand index finger pointing gesture contrasting past times antes ( before ) and ahora ( now ). transferred to his left hand while he says era el tiempo de los gentiles ( it was the time of the Incas ), such that his right hand is free to prepare for a forward pointing gesture with the index finger (Figures 13a and 13b). The stroke (Figure 13c) is cotimed with the accentuated syllable -ti- of the word antiguamente, long ago, in the past (Figure 13c). In Example 5 (male speaker, 75, from Socoroma; bilingual interview), the speaker is translating and explaining the Aymara phrase mimarat aka mararu, from last year to this year. As he gives his Spanish translation, he gestures pointing forward cotimed with the word del ( from ) (Figure 14a). He then moves his hand slightly downward pointing to a place in front of him as he says año pasado last year (Figure 14b). The pointing here is cotimed with the word pasado, last. Then he proceeds with the gesture, moving his hand toward him and pointing downward again, but this time pointing to a location closer to his body (Figure 14c), as he says a este año, to this year (final point cotimed with año). The Aymara gestural representation of the future we observed is less elaborated than that of the past. There are obvious phonetic reasons why this should be so: Humans cannot gesture
32 32 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) Fig. 13. Example of a forward index finger pointing gesture cotimed with the Spanish word antiguamente ( long ago, in the past ). Fig. 14. Example of a pointing gesture indexing a metaphorical (temporal) range del año pasado ( from last year ) a este año ( to this year ). as far behind their bodies as in front, cannot see the gesture space behind them, and cannot control their over-the-shoulder gestures as accurately as forward gestures. In this respect, Aymara speakers are truly a mirror image of English speakers (or ASL signers), whose spatial-gestural representation of the past is less elaborated than that of the future for exactly the same reasons. We have fewer future gestures in the Aymara data, and they do not actually involve moving the hand to a point behind the speaker, but using it to point backward toward the area behind the speaker. In Example 6 (male speaker, 65, from Arica; bilingual interview), the speaker is discussing tiempo futuro ( future time ). Cotimed with the word futuro, he gestures with his right hand (B handshape) across his body and pointing backward, contralaterally over his left shoulder (Figures 15a and 15b). In Example 7 (male speaker, 65, from Arica; bilingual interview), the speaker is contrasting past and future. He points backward with his right hand (B shape), contralaterally over his left shoulder, twice, as he says futuro (Figure 16). Three seconds later he performs three forward gestures: one frontal partial rotation (C shape) as he mentions in CA tiempo antiguo (Figures 17a 17c), and two sweeping gestures (Figures 17d and 17e) starting from a B shape, palm toward down position, as he says nayra timpu (Aymara past time ). Approximately 5 sec later he points downward twice with his in-
33 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 33 Fig. 15. Example of a contralateral backward gesture coproduced with the Spanish words tiempo futuro ( future time ). Fig. 16. Example of a contralateral backward whole-hand pointing gesture cotimed with the Spanish word futuro ( future ). dex in front of him as he says jicha (Aymara now ), accompanying this with a head nod downward and forward (Figures 17f and 17g). Finally, 3 sec later, he performs an ipsilateral thumb-point, pointing over his right shoulder with his right thumb, as he returns to mention of the future with the word futuro (Figure 17h). In Example 8 (male speaker, 65, from Arica; bilingual interview), at another moment of the conversation, the same speaker refers to the Aymara expression quipa timpun ( future time ). Cotimed with the word quipa (Aymara for back ) he performs another backward ipsilateral thumb-point, pointing over his right shoulder with his right thumb (Figures 18a and 18b) Time-RP gestures. In Example 9 (male speaker, 80, from Mauque; bilingual interview), the speaker is explaining in Aymara the expression uru sarjai (sarjiwa) ukuru ukuru ( day goes, and day after day ), meaning time goes on, day by day. As he says the words of this expression he performs a wavelike gesture zig-zagging up and down and covering, from left to right, all but the right portion of his gestural space. Overall the downward motions have a higher acceleration than the upward ones. He starts by positioning his left hand (B shape) at the lower left side of his gestural space (palm toward right) as he says uru ( day ; Figure 19a), then
34 34 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) Fig. 17. Example of a sequence of gestures produced within an 11-sec period, contrasting Spanish tiempo antiguo ( old times ), Aymara nayra timpu ( past time ), Aymara jicha ( now ), and Spanish futuro ( future ). Fig. 18. Example of an ipsilateral backward thumb-pointing gesture coproduced with the Aymara word qhipa ( back ). as he begins to say sarjai (local dialectal variation of sarjiwa, go ) his hand moves slightly up and toward the right (Figure 19b) and then down again and further to the right as he finishes with the (accentuated) last syllable of the word, -jai (Figure 19c). The gesture proceeds iteratively from left to right, moving up and down, cotiming the downward motion with the words ukuru and ukuru ( day after day ; Figures 19d 19g). Left-to-right gestures like this one can be observed in speakers of many languages around the world. They have no origo at speaker s body, and they accompany language that construes
35 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 35 Fig. 19. Example of a time-rp iterative gesture coproduced with the Aymara expression uru sarjai (sarjiwa) ukuru ukuru ( day goes, and day after day ). time as general motion relative to an unmentioned landscape (time-rp), rather than motion relative to ego. We do not analyze further details of these gestures here, as we are specifically discussing the peculiarity of Aymara s front back ego-rp metaphoric construals of time Examples of gestures of Aymara participants who only speak Spanish The gestures from Aymara speakers analyzed in the previous section contrast sharply with the ones produced by Aymara individuals who only speak Spanish. These participants, younger and with several years of formal education in Spanish, gesture in the same way individuals in the Western world would: toward the front when speaking about the future, and toward the back when speaking about the past. In Example 10 (female speaker, 56, from Putre; Spanish interview), the speaker is comparing how much more sense of community Aymara people had in the past compared to the present. She says era otra generación (Spanish it was another generation ). With her right hand in loose 5 shape, initially with the palm toward left-center (Figure 20a). Then, as she says ge-ne-ra she rapidly bends her elbow and moves her hand toward her left (slightly upper) side of the body. Her thumb points toward the upper back (Figures 20b and 20c). As she says the last syllable ción, her wrist rotates lightly, orienting her palm and thumb toward the center and down (Figure 20d), and then retracting to resting position (Figure 20e). Fig. 20. Example of a Spanish-speaking Aymara gesturing with her right hand (in loose 5 shape). She produces a contralateral backward motion cotimed with the Spanish expression era otra generación ( it was another generation ).
36 36 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) In Example 11 (male speaker, 38, from Putre; Spanish interview), the speaker is talking about how the Aymara community should fit into the modern world. He says Lo que nosotros queremos es proyectarnos mejor hacia el futuro, sin olvidar lo que fuimos nosotros en el pasado, en nuestra historia milenaria ( what we want is to better project ourselves toward the future, without forgetting what we were in the past, in our millennia-old history ). As he says the first syllable pa of pasado (past) he produces a stroke with a B-shaped hand located at center-center, palm toward body/left and finger pointing toward the upper left (left shoulder; Figures 21a 21c). Milliseconds later, he continues by saying en nuestra historia milenaria. He produces a stroke in the syllable to of historia, similar to the previous one, but this time with the fingers pointing a little bit higher up over the left shoulder (Figures 21d 21f). The retraction is produced cotimed with milenaria (Figure 21g). In Example 12 (male speaker, 53, from Pampa Algodonal; Spanish interview), the speaker is talking about new agricultural technologies they have been adopting in his local community (e.g., drip irrigation systems, etc.). He says en estos momentos estamos avanzando pál futuro ( now we are moving ahead toward the future ). As he says pál futuro ( toward the future ) he extends his right hand frontward (Figure 22). The stroke (Figure 22d) is cotimed with the syllable tu of futuro. In Example 13 (male speaker, 60, from Parinacota; Spanish interview), the speaker is discussing, in a rather pessimistic way, why things are not looking good for the future of his community. He acknowledges that he does not know what will happen exactly, but he says parece que estamos yendo a lo peor ( it seems we are going toward the worst ). As he says this, he moves his right hand frontward and slightly downward (Figure 23). He starts the gesture with a loose 5 handshape located at center-center, with the palm toward the body, as he says que Fig. 21. Example of a Spanish-speaking Aymara gesturing with his right hand pointing backward (contralaterally) as he refers to the the millennia-old history of his culture.
37 R. E. Núñez, E. Sweetser/Cognitive Science 30 (2006) 37 Fig. 22. Example of a Spanish-speaking Aymara gesturing with his right hand pointing forward as he says en estos momentos estamos avanzando pßl futuro ( now we are moving ahead toward the future ). Fig. 23. Example of a Spanish-speaking Aymara gesturing while discussing the future of his community. He moves his right hand (in loose 5 shape) forward as he says, rather pessimistically, parece que estamos yendo a lo peor ( it seems we are going toward the worst ). (that; Figure 23a). The gesture unfolds frontward cotimed with the first syllable es of estamos (we are) (Figures 23b and 23c), producing the stroke cotimed with the rest of the word, tamos (Figure 23d). The palm gradually points toward up as the wrist rotates slightly, and he accompanies the forward extension of the arm with a slightly downward movement of his head Discussion In our videotaped data, Aymara speakers gesture both in ego-rp and in time-rp patterns. Alongside the ego-rp spatial language used to represent time as in front (nayra) and in back (qhipa) of ego, they gesturally represent time as deictically centered space: The speaker s front surface is essentially now, as in English speakers gestures. The space behind the speaker is the future, and the space in front of the speaker is the past. Locations in front and closer to the speaker are more recent past times, whereas locations in front and farther from the speaker are less recent times: Speakers contrast last year with this year by pointing downward first at a
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