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In Public Health, the word virus is dreaded. This is because when a virus enters a community, just an ordinary sneeze from one person can spread the disease in the whole community, and before we are aware everybody and their dogs get infected. That is on the negative side. The positive side comes online when you employ the same powerful tactics using an eBook to get everybody to spread the message about your ebook, and thereby build your list.
The cliche that you come across as soon as you land in the "Make Money Online" Niche is, "The money is in the List," and guess what, it is true. There are a varied number of ways to build that list. Whatever method that you use, the basics are the same. There should be:
- A Squeeze page containing an opt-in section A Give Away token to serve as a "bribe" to entice visitors to release their contact details. And this
- Give Away should be a valuable commodity like a software or an ebook.
And this is how you can use an eBook to build the list:
- First, you must create the eBook, because it is a simple fact that you cannot give what you don't have. The eBook must be a really content rich one full of interesting and informative facts.
- It must have links to your squeeze page.
- Next, allow people to recommend or give the book to other people all over cyberspace. Let this be one of the rights you give people when they download their copy. The incentive is to make it clear that this book is free to give away, either by posting it on their websites or using it as a bonus product or bundle it with other products.
- To start with, give it to three people. In the book, encourage those three people to give the eBook to their friends and family. The trick is that they can download the book only from your website by first giving you their contact details.
- Most importantly, make sure that you send a clean and neat eBook out to the world. It is imperative that you double-check the spelling and grammar because obvious errors can be very disastrous and reflect negatively on you.Next test all links to be sure that they reach the intended target.
- Post your eBook to eBook directories.
The sum effect of all this is that your eBook becomes your Viral List Builder. Before you realize it, the eBook is spreading across the Internet uncontrollably like a virus. Digital information as you are already aware, duplicates and replicates easily and quickly so much so that you would be amazed at the thousands of people who are reading your free eBook.
And next, check this very Viral List E-Book I have found for you.
Click on the link below NOW to download this FREE Super Tips E-book which will show you the step by step know-how!
===> http://freewebsitevisitors.info
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Anthony_Kpodo


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DailyDirt: Quantum Computing Works Now (Sorta)
from the urls-we-dig-up dept
- A D-Wave quantum computer tested by Google (and hosted by NASA) has been demonstrated to outperform a traditional computer -- at least for one very specific task. Google has been trying to see what it can do with more and more qubits, and it looks like if Google and D-Wave can keep adding more qubits to their system, they might actually get a quantum computer that can beat our old digital computers (without rigging up a contrived test). [url]
- Cambridge Quantum Computing is working on a quantum computer operating system. It's a bit difficult to imagine how an operating system is created when the underlying hardware can potentially be built in numerous (and sometimes unproven) ways. [url]
- Curious folks can play with a virtual 22-qubit quantum computer -- the Quantum Computing Playground (from Google). This demo runs in a browser and just simulates how a quantum computer could work with a scripting language. This isn't going to print "Hello, World!" a gazillion times. [url]
- If you're wondering what quantum computers might be good for, one of the examples is "optimization problems" -- such as a class of math problems that are NP hard, like the traveling salesman problem. Some folks think quantum computing will unlock a breakthrough for artificial intelligence, allowing computers to "brute force" their way into tackling complex problems without having to invent faster and smaller semiconducting chips. (But there's a chance that we'll have to figure out how to invent ways to make more and more qubits?) [url]

subset: commoncrawl


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Custom vinyl Motorcycle Sponsor Decals by Graphic Mafia. These great decals are cut using the highest quality materials available and are suitable to apply to various types of bodywork metals, plastics or glass (inside or out).
The price you see is for a pair of redbull graphics shown in the original colours shown.
The size of the graphics are determined by measuring just one of the graphics.
NB. If you would like to contact us about this graphic for any reason please click CONTACT US or the CHAT button to speak to an advisor.


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We offer high-quality textile materials in the form of the most delicate – available on the polish market – velcro straps. The plush part and injection hook are ideal for use in clothing for babies and children without causing irritation or scratches in contact with sensitive skin of the youngest ones. There are different variants of the hook + loop, so we can adjust the strength of attachment to your requirements.
We also offer velcro sleeve cuff, which not only improves the comfort of using your jacket, but also can be a wonderful showcase of your Company by placing your logo on it.
The use of our product range is very wide, like: clothing for babies and adults, sports products, medical equipment, packaging, shoes, hats, bags, toys and many others.
hook + loop – a certificate of compliance with the RoHS Directive
velcro sleeve cuff – Oeko – Tex Standard 100


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Animal Regulation Series
-Bekledim de gelmedin. -Su içsem yarıyo. "25 year old chinese photographer, di liu has been awarded the 2010 lacoste elysée prize. twelve nominees were selected and given carte blanche to capture and adapt photographically, the codes of the famous lacoste polo shirt, L. 12.12. each of the selected artists were given a scholarship of CHF 3,000 and had three months to undertake … Okumaya devam et Animal Regulation Series


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MacRumors is reporting that the new iPhone 3.2 SDK, now available via developer.apple.com, but (currently?) only supporting the just-announced iPad, brings a couple interesting new features to the
table tablet.
- External displays, which had potential but no official APIs in previous iPhone SDKs, looks like they've gone legit. Video out to come? No word on an HDMI cable still...
- Shared file directory, which mounts on both Mac and PC. It isn't the Mobile Finder we've wanted, but it sounds like it might make getting docs on and off a whole lot easier.
- Universal apps, which means developers can make a single build that will support both the smaller iPhone and iPod touch, and the bigger iPad.
In addition, MacRumors says iCall Free VoIP [Free - iTunes link] has told them:
With the latest revisions Apple has made to the iPhone developer agreement and Software Development Kit, iCall for the iPhone and iPod Touch now enabled unrestricted free local and long distance calling over 3G data networks.
Finally (for now), 9to5mac shows that while the demo iPad only had 4 apps in its dock, like the iPhone, the SDK simulator has room for 6. Makes sense given the extra width. (Pictures above
We'd wondered what happened with VoIP over 3G. Will iPhone 3.2 be the answer?
This post may contain affiliate links. See our disclosure policy for more details.


text: I am using windows 7 so the htc sync does not work. I know that there is a workaround for this but I am able to connect Eris through usb and then tap on mount sd card and then drag and drop music files from my pc to my Eris. The problem is that the Eris music app does not show any of the album art. The art is in the files so I don't know why it won't show. I created a folder called music, and in that folder is a folder for each artist which contains folders for each album. The art is in each album folder. I tried Mixzing media player for a while and some of the album art appeared but maybe only 25%. I like the stock app if it would just show the album art. Can anyone help please?


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The Phoenix Suns are coming off a tough loss Friday night in San Antonio, in which they built a 21-point first quarter lead, but fell behind in the third period and lost to the Spurs 112-104.
No time to rest for the Suns as they travel upstate in Texas to face the Dallas Mavericks Saturday night. Dallas is just a half-game ahead of Phoenix entering the contest, and to say the game is critical for both teams would be an understatement.
Early Saturday, the two teams engaged in some mild pregame trash talk on their Twitter accounts. It wasn't as heated as the Suns-Trail Blazers social media banter earlier in the season, but both Phoenix and Dallas came off sounding pretty confident entering the must-win game.
The Mavericks kicked it off with the following tweet.
Psst @Suns, Nice day today. Want to hoop later? #DALvsPHX
— Dallas Mavericks (@dallasmavs) April 12, 2014
And the Suns initially had a friendly reply.
@dallasmavs We're in. Does 7:30 p.m. your time work? We just happen to be in town and are looking for some good competition. #SunsAtMavs
— Phoenix Suns (@Suns) April 12, 2014
But the Mavericks didn't stop there.
.@Suns Sounds good, meet you at our house. No need to bring anything we got you covered! #DALvsPHX
— Dallas Mavericks (@dallasmavs) April 12, 2014
And that's when the Suns got a little cocky, and the conversation was kicked up a notch from then on.
.@Suns sounds a little creepy but we'll go ahead and have something waiting for you as well. #DALvsPHX #goodguys
— Dallas Mavericks (@dallasmavs) April 12, 2014
.@Suns if you insist, sounds like it's going to be a heck of a night at @insideaacenter! #goodguysVSotherguys #DALvsPHX
— Dallas Mavericks (@dallasmavs) April 12, 2014


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Team Gina live on Audioasis 2/16
photo by Nathan Feder
This Saturday Audioasis will kick off its portion of the 2008 Spring Membership Drive. Audioasis DJ Lisa Wood and Assistant Producer Sharlese will be asking for gifts to support KEXP. Your gifts go a long way to support all the great things you love about the station and Audioasis.
Already this year Audioasis started with a huge bang! We've had incredible, and sometimes hilarious, in-studios by bands that are playing great music around the NW. It's only February and we've had Team Gina, Partman Parthorse, and Police Teeth. Within the next couple months, Calvin Johnson, Awesome, and The Heavy Hearts will playing live.
Live at High Dive at the beginning of every month, Audioasis supports Northwest non-profits by putting on a benefit featuring local bands and artist. Grayskul, Sky Cries Mary, and Feral Children are just a few of bands that have not only volunteered their time to play music but also gave back to their own community.
For the spring drive, Audioasis will have special pledge packs that were hand selected by Audioasis DJ's to give you a special insight into what they're listening to. Each pledge pack contains 5 CD's of awesome local music donated by the bands themselves and can be your gift with your support.
Give your gift to KEXP and support local music.


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As part of the Foodbuzz Tastemaker Program, I received 2 bottles of Pace Picante sauce. They arrived just in time, making my cooking dinner easier as i was under the weather and did not feel like cooking an elaborate dinner, not that i cook elaborate everyday but at least it must be substantial.
I would usually serve pan-fried fish , fillets or whole fish with some maggi or soya sauce as this way it is more friendly for the younger ones in the household, but since i have Pace Picante Sauce, i decided to serve the adult's portion of the fish with some Pace Picate Sauce, smeared on top, straight from the bottle. It was a hit and thank you Foodbuzz Tastemaker Program.
Continue HERE for recipe


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The Arts Council of Northern Ireland will no longer be responsible for funding local arts.
United Kingdom/ 3. Competence, decision-making and administration
3.2 Overall description of the system
The Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) is responsible for government policy on the arts, sport, the National Lottery, tourism, libraries, national museums and galleries in England, broadcasting, creative industries including film, the music industry, fashion design, advertising and the arts market, as well as press freedom and regulation, licensing, gambling and the historic environment.. DCMS is the Department responsible for the 2012 Olympic Games and Paralympic Games.
DCMS is also responsible for the listing of historic buildings and scheduling of ancient monuments, the export licensing of cultural goods, the management of the Government Art Collection and the Royal Parks Agency. It works jointly with the Department for Business Innovation and Skills (BIS) on design issues (including sponsorship of the Design Council) and on relations with the computer games and publishing industries.
DCMS is headed by a Secretary of State for Culture, Olympics, Media and Sport, who is assisted by a Minister for Tourism and Heritage, a Minister for Sport and the Olympics and a Minister for Culture, Communications and Creative Industries.
The Secretary of State has overall responsibility for Departmental strategy, expenditure and organisation. The Minister for Culture covers arts, media, museums and galleries, libraries, creative industries and aspects of telecoms, broadband and digital switchover (some of these responsibilities are shared with the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills). The Minister for Sport and the Olympics is responsible for those areas. The Minister for Tourism and Heritage is in addition responsible for the built environment, Royal Parks and Royal Household, National Lottery, gambling and horse racing.
There is a separate Parliamentary Select Committee for Culture, Media and Sport, appointed by the House of Commons to examine the expenditure, administration and policy of the DCMS and its associated public bodies.
In general, the UK spending on culture operates on an "arm's length" basis, through a number of Non-Departmental Public Bodies (NDPBs). These include organisations responsible for the arts, sport, film and heritage in England and their counterparts in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Many museums and galleries are also run as NDPBs, including the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Natural History Museum and the Tate Galleries. Some "public bodies", including the four Arts Councils, also act as distributors of National Lottery funds.
The UK Parliament and Government retain both legislative and policy responsibility for the whole of the UK in the following areas:
- acceptance in lieu of tax (e.g. the acquisition of works of art and heritage for the nation instead of payment of death duties);
- broadcasting;
- export controls on cultural objects;
- government indemnity scheme (i.e. insurance for cultural objects on loan);
- legislative responsibility for the national lottery (but responsibility for policy directions is shared with the devolved administrations);
- public lending right (except for Northern Ireland).
DCMS also retains legislative and policy responsibility for film, and also for alcohol and public entertainment licensing, in Wales. Responsibility for gambling law and regulation is shared between the UK Parliament and the devolved administrations. All other subject areas are the responsibility of the devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
Over 95% of the Department's budget is allocated to the public bodies that help deliver its strategic aims and objectives. These bodies have three year funding agreement with the Department, which explains what they will deliver for the funding allocated to them. The agreement summarises strategic priorities, key activities and outputs to be delivered, and is regularly reviewed.
Cultural policy in the regions is delivered through the four DCMS NDPBs which have had a significant regional presence in recent years - namely, Arts Council England, English Heritage, Museums, Libraries and Archives Council and Sport England - in collaboration with key partners such as the Regional Development Agencies (though these face abolition by government) and local authorities. These arrangements have replaced the role formerly played by the Regional Cultural Consortiums (abolished in 2008-09). Strategies for culture in London remain the responsibility of the Greater London Assembly (GLA).
The new Conservative - Liberal Democratic Coalition Government elected in 2010 has indicated that a number of cultural quangos are to be abolished, including the UK Film Council, and the Museums, Libraries & Archives Council, while the future of others may be in doubt.
Arts Council England
Probably, the most changes in the past two decades have occurred in the Arts Council system. One of the most significant of these was the creation, in 2002, of Arts Council England by the merger of former regional arts boards in England with the Arts Council of England to create a single, unified development body for the arts.
In February 2008 Arts Council England commissioned an external review of its investment strategy in Regularly Funded Organisations. This followed considerable criticism of how ACE had approached the future funding of its Regularly Funded Organisations for 2008-2011 and the withdrawal of funds for almost one-fifth of them. Baroness McIntosh led the review and her report published in May 2008, made a range of recommendations on Arts Council England's structure, governance, relationships with the sector and capacity building. The Arts Council responded positively to the recommendations and further details can be found on its website: http://www.artscouncil.org.uk/publications/publication_detail.php?browse=recent&id=626
In July 2009 Arts Council England announced details of an organisation-wide restructure to save GBP 6.5 million a year in administration costs and re-invest it in the arts. The principal changes include:
- an overall reduction in staff numbers across the organisation of 21%;
- nine streamlined regional offices grouped in four areas --North; Midlands and South West; East and South East; London;
- a smaller head office, to be shared with the London regional office;
- a smaller Executive Board - 9 members instead of 14; and
- a centralised Grants for the Arts process based in Manchester.
Further administrative savings have to be made as the result of a GBP 4 million reduction in its grant imposed on the Council by the Labour Government before the General Election in 2010 and by a further GBP 19 million cut required by the newly elected Conservative-Liberal Democrat Government in the financial year 2010/2011.
The administration of cultural matters in Scotland is the responsibility of the Scottish Government. The Minister for Culture, External Affairs and the Constitution and the Scottish Government's Culture, External Affairs and Tourism (CEAT) Directorate have responsibility for policy covering the arts, film, creative industries, cultural heritage, the Gaelic language, tourism and liaison with the UK Government on broadcasting. The CEAT Directorate also has responsibility for grant-aiding a number of cultural NDPBs, including Creative Scotland, the three national institutions (the National Museums of Scotland, the National Galleries of Scotland and the National Library of Scotland), and Bòrd na Gàidhlig, the Gaelic development agency. The Group's Culture Division directly funds the Scottish Library and Information Council (SLIC) and the Scottish Museums Council (SMC). These are both membership organisations that take a national developmental role within their sectors and provide advice and briefing to the government.
The Scottish Arts Council and Scottish Screen were abolished in 2010 and their functions absorbed by a new national arts development agency, Creative Scotland, as the single national statutory public body for the arts and film in Scotland. Responsibility for funding national arts organisations is being transferred from the Arts Council to government, which has given an assurance that the "arm's length" principle will be maintained. Creative Scotland, became fully operational in Summer 2010 and will be expected to work as an effective partner with Scotland's local government sector.
Historic Scotland is an Executive Agency of the Scottish Government and is directly responsible to Scottish Ministers for safeguarding and promoting the country's historic environment. As part of these responsibilities, it compiles and maintains lists of historic buildings and scheduled monuments, and an Inventory of Historic Gardens and Designed Landscapes. Historic Scotland's Corporate Plan can be accessed at: http://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/corporate-plan-2008-2011.pdf
The CEAT Directorate also has responsibility for the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS) and Architecture and Design Scotland (ADS). RCAHMS is responsible for recording the historic built environment and maintaining the National Monuments Record of Scotland, much of which is now accessible on-line. RCAHMS works closely with the Welsh equivalent body (RCAHMW) in widening electronic public access to the information held by their respective archives. Architecture and Design Scotland replaced the Royal Fine Art Commission for Scotland in 2005 and has a much wider remit as the Executive's "champion" for good architecture in Scotland, with a key role to play in implementing the commitments within A Policy on Architecture for Scotland.
The National Assembly for Wales has devolved responsibilities in Wales for culture and related issues. Within the Welsh Assembly Government the portfolio of the Assembly Minister for Culture, Welsh Language and Sport covers the arts, museums, archives and libraries, language, heritage, sport and physical activity and lottery issues. Since 1999 a number of public agencies, e.g. the Arts Council of Wales, the Welsh Language Board, Sports Council for Wales, National Library of Wales and Amgueddfa Cymru - National Museum Wales, have been funded by, and accountable to, the Assembly following the transfer of responsibility from the former Welsh Office. These organisations are referred to under the collective title of Assembly Sponsored Government Bodies.
The Welsh Assembly Government's historic environment division (CADW: Welsh Historic Monuments) is responsible for the country's built heritage. The Design Commission for Wales promotes sustainable development by providing bespoke training to councillors, planners etc., championing best practice and acting as a non-statutory consultee within the urban planning process.
CyMAL: Museums, Archives and Libraries Wales was established as a new policy division of the Welsh Assembly Government from April 2004 to develop strategic direction for local museums, archives and libraries and provide financial support and advice.
Northern Ireland
The Northern Ireland Executive was established as part of the so called Good Friday Agreement. The Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure (DCAL), one of 11 Northern Ireland Departments created in 1999, is responsible for setting policy, bringing forward legislation and resourcing the following areas: arts and creativity; museums; libraries; sport and leisure; inland waterways and inland fisheries; the Public Record Office (PRONI) the national archives for Northern Ireland; and language policy. DCAL supports a number of arms length bodies including the Arts Council of Northern Ireland, which became a statutory body in 1995; the National Museums and Galleries of Northern Ireland, established in 1998 by the merger of four major museums and heritage collections; and the Northern Ireland Museums Council, which is the main channel of the Executive's support to local museums. DCAL also supports the Northern Ireland Screen Commission (NISC). The NISC also receives aid from the local economic development agency, Invest Northern Ireland. Local government also has a role in supporting cultural activity, including local museums.
As part of the ongoing Review of Public Administration (RPA) decisions taken in 2006, the public library service in Northern Ireland is delivered by a single, dedicated library authority known as Libraries NI instead of being part of the wider remit of five Education and Library Boards.
Arts Council of Northern Ireland (ACNI) has a history of working and supporting local government in delivering a range of services throughout the region. For example, ACNI worked closely with Belfast City Council in the development of Integrated Cultural Strategy (2007-2010), a five year plan for the arts in Belfast. Furthermore, ACNI have been supporting local government in preparation for the restructuring of the current 26 councils to 11 "super-councils" in 2011. The Arts Council will continue to fund major arts bodies, but will no longer be responsible for funding local arts, which will be under the remit of a new tier of district councils at local level.
Chapter published: 15-04-2011


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Vim illam electricam nobis placet appellare [Gilbert]
Originally the word described substances which, like amber, attract other substances when rubbed. Meaning "charged with electricity" is from 1670s; the physical force so called because it first was generated by rubbing amber. In many modern instances, the word is short for electrical. Figurative sense is attested by 1793. Electric light is from 1767. Electric toothbrush first recorded 1936; electric blanket in 1930. Electric typewriter is from 1958. Electric guitar is from 1938; electric organ coined as the name of a hypothetical future instrument in 1885.
Electricity seems destined to play a most important part in the arts and industries. The question of its economical application to some purposes is still unsettled, but experiment has already proved that it will propel a street car better than a gas jet and give more light than a horse. [Ambrose Bierce, "The Cynic's Word Book," 1906]
Electrocution, unless better performed than in the first instance, is a retrograde step rather than the contrary. The preliminary arrangements: the shaving of the head, the cutting of the clothing, the strapping in a chair, add much to the horror of the occasion. It is safe to say that electrocution is not the coming method of execution. ["The Medical Era," vol. vii, no. 9, Sept. 1890]
Elegant implies that anything of an artificial character to which it is applied is the result of training and cultivation through the study of models or ideals of grace; graceful implies less of consciousness, and suggests often a natural gift. A rustic, uneducated girl may be naturally graceful, but not elegant. [Century Dictionary]


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In this months Ultra VW, Louis' first project car for many years gets a full 6 page feature.
It all started in the winter of 1988/89 at the age of 18 when Louis built built his first car, a 1967 lemon yellow Cal Looker which was a feature cover car in the June '89 edition of Volksworld Magazine. Although it was no show winner it did receive a fair bit of attention at the time due to the overall concept of following the colour scheme from the outside right through to the inside.
Fast forward 22 years and just after hitting the big 4 0 midlife crisis mark in 2011, and with New Beetle's being fairly cheap now, he thought it would be great to recreate the concept, but with a future retro twist.
Photos by Gwynn Clark courtesy of Ultra VW
Paint & body by iKustoms
Debadged, shaved front indicators, side repeaters, door handles, roof aerial, and 3rd
brake light. Votex side sills and US spec bumper for smaller licence plate with clear
fog light to match reverse light. Black wing mirrors with LHD passenger mirror used
as the drivers mirror so both match.
Interior by Bernard Newbury Auto Interiors
Front and rear (modified) MK4 Golf seats with Audi RS4 head rests, custom dash
with 7" android powered tablet, retro eyeball air vents, smooth solenoid operated
glove box with hidden stereo system, custom interior door panels and Lupo 3L
steering wheel all trimmed in a mix of plain & perforated yellow leather with satin
silver detailing. Modified Bora centre console with added ipod dock, sunglasses
holder, leather handbrake and gear level gator. The Head lining and A/B/C pillars
are trimmed in black tweed with deleted rear view mirror and silver grey seat belts.
The Boot is trimmed in black tweed with JBL sub bass tube trimmed in perforated
leather. Other modifications include custom speaker grilles, sweeping door handle and
smoothed door caps on the front interior door panels and hidden speakers in the rear,
plus hidden power window and boot lock switches.
Wheels, suspension & brakes.
17" satin black Audi A3 sport alloys, fully detailed FK high sport coilovers and fully
detailed stock brakes.
Detailed stock engine with K&N 57i Induction
Best New Beetle @ Ultimate Dubs 2012
Best Beetle @ Early Edition 2012
Best Interior @ Early Edition 2012
Best Interior @ Bug Jam 2012
Best Of Show, Best Paint & Best Interior @ VW Action 2012
Featured in August 2012 Ultra VW
Best Beetle @ Deutsch Connection 2013


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How did your first week of January go? For some, it can be a slow transition back into the everyday grind after holiday time away. For others, this month will likely be a whirlwind of deadlines and goal-setting and important meetings.
For those reading this article, we're excited to announce the launch of our updated Quick Wage and Tax Guide to help you through the rest of the year!
We've compiled state-by-state wage information, unemployment insurance rates and federal numbers for taxable wages, contribution limits, and more.
Click here to download your free copy now.
Click each of these stats to tweet to your followers.
22 states & territories will have new #minimumwages this year. Learn more from @PrimePay in their Quick Wage & Tax Guide!
For earnings in 2018, the #SocialSecurity taxable wage base is $128,400. Learn more from @PrimePay's Quick Wage & Tax Guide!
In addition, here are 7 general things to know about payroll and taxes this year.
1. Extension announced for providing Forms 1095 to individuals.
First, some good news (a little bit of breathing room).
The IRS issued guidance extending the deadline to distribute 2017 Forms 1095-B/C from January 31, 2018 to March 2, 2018.
No extension has been granted for filing forms with the IRS. If filing by paper, the Forms 1094/1095 will be due Feb. 28, 2018. If filing electronically, forms will be due April 2, 2018. Learn all about this update by clicking here.
2. Minimum wages increases.
Twenty-two states (including D.C. and the U.S. Virgin Islands) have updated minimum wages for 2018. See our latest blog post for information on what has changed (or will change) this year.
3. Form W-2 filing deadlines.
Most states have a Jan. 31 deadline for filing Forms W-2. However, Hawaii, Michigan, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oklahoma and West Virginia have until Feb. 28 to file Forms W-2.
For tips you can share with your employees on how to read a W-2, please click here.
4. Unemployment taxes.
Seventeen states have increased the amount of taxable wages subject to unemployment tax.
Eight states have lowered their taxable wage base. These can be found in our tax guide.
5. Social Security wage base increases.
The Social Security Administration announced back in October, 2017 that the 2018 Social Security wage base will be $128,400 for 2018. That is an increase of $1,200 from $127,200 in 2017.
6. Standard mileage rate.
The rate for transportation or travel expenses involving a business's use of an automobile is 54.5 cents a mile for 2018. That's up from 53.5 cents in 2017. You can learn more about this from the IRS by clicking here.
7. Developing: The Tax Cuts and Job Act.
President Trump officially signed H.R. 1, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act in December. What we know so far is that personal exemptions have been eliminated and the standard deduction has doubled.
The IRS has said that it anticipates releasing withholding guidance to implement the new tax reform law this month. For employers and payroll providers like us, the changes are expected to be implemented in February.
Read our latest guidance on this here and be sure to check back as we'll continue to update.


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Our semi-regular feature at BCC, in which Scott and Steve answer questions from our readers and then Rank stuff. Have a question you want us to answer? Send us an email!
First question!
Well, see they've got this smooth, brown stone…
To pick the new SP, a GA comes and interviews the outgoing SP, high council, and all bishops. Some of them have nifty forms they use to collect recommendations and thoughts. By the end of the interviews they extend the calling to the new SP. They may have preconceived notions of who the new SP should be, but there are anecdotes served up in General Conference sometimes about how the Lord directs them to pick another guy with a big house and jet skis instead of the intended guy with a big house and jet skis.
Could you provide a list for Sacrament Meeting etiquette?
-TRY to arrive on time…
-Feed your kids BEFORE meeting
-Don't get up and walk out until speaker is finished
-At what point is a child TOO rowdy, and should be taken out? (Out of the chapel, that is).
No. No such list exists or should exist. We're already too crazy in our Sabbath observance. The Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath. We're a lay clergy, and a lazy one at that. Don't try to make Church more difficult for people! Here's your list:
1. Don't be rude
One of the new Temple Ordinance movies is the least of my favorites, however the music track is the most beautiful. Could this track of music be had for my personal enjoyment (preparing to attend the temple)?
No. But here are some alternates that sound pretty temple-ish:
-Soundtrack to Empire of the Sun
-Soundtrack to Tree of Life
-Soundtrack to Maximum Overdrive
The temple music is just your average soaring theme. There's nothing that amazing about it, just as there is nothing amazing about anything in the temple film. It shouldn't be amazing. It's an ordinance, not Laser Floyd. If you want to get a glimpse of what the endowment really should be, go to Manti or SLC to take in a live session. That's how the ceremony was designed and that's how it should be. Make up your own music in your head as you go.
If EQ had their own version of the "good news minute" à la RS, what would the shared experiences be?
Probably about their high scores in Madden or about how Maximum Overdrive was on last night.
People give Brigham Young a lot of crap for his comments about the moon and the sun being inhabited. What if he turned out to be right, and some future NASA expedition discovers some below-surface Moon Paradise? Would anyone ever eat crow for making fun of Brigham Young? PS is it possible that there is life on the moon?
Nobody will ever repent for making fun of Brigham Young. If we're suddenly dealing with sun-men and moon-maidens, people will just say that BY was lucky. People don't like admitting when they're wrong, even when they're ecclesiastically obligated to do so. Look at it this way: what do you think Brigham Young would say now about his moonmen theories? Right.
Is it possible that there's life on the moon? Beats me, but people can live in Idaho, so why not the moon?
If Mitt Romney had been a woman (same background, qualifications, race, family relations, only the gender is different) would she have won the 2012 presidential election?
No. Are you kidding me? The only thing people hate more than Mormons are women! No way. Look at Carly Fiorina if you want to see how badly women are treated in GOP politics.
Where did the phrase "cultural hall" come from?
They had lots of Halls in the Olden Timez. Masonic Halls, Dance Halls, Halls and Oates, you name it. You have to remember that people were living in adobe huts and were eating sand and sharpening sticks to hunt sabretooth tigers. The Hall was the single large structure in newly-founded towns for popular events. You can still find towns across America where the Masonic Lodge or Elks or what have you is the hub for any large group gathering. Anyways, they had a Cultural Hall in Nauvoo (originally a Masonic Hall), and various plays, dances and other activities went on there — in part because of the aforementioned adobe huts and sand. The phrase itself? Who knows, but Mormons didn't invent it.
When do the first Kynzleeys and Remyngtynns become general auxiliary/authority members? I'm in my mid-20s and hope i'm dead before then.
They don't. Best-case scenario, those ridiculous names become their initials, so Rmyngtynn Monson becomes R. Rockwell Monson or somesuch. Those poor kids. Weep for them. They have no future.
Fictional Missions, Ranked
As always, these rankings are authoritative.
- Hyrule South
- Finland, Helsinki, Summertime-Only, English-Speaking
- Spain, Barcelona, Non-Proselytizing
- Illinois, Chicago, Catholic Orphanage-Saving Service Mission
- Comic-Con Cosplay Mission
- Family Defense Service Mission
- Pacific Coast Trail Mission
- Southeast Asia Culinary Mission
- Netflix and Chill, French-Speaking
- The One Where You Don't Feel Crushing Guilt and Inadequacy


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Digital Magazines
Tuesday, February 05, 2013
Your Forsyth library card now gives you access to digital magazines that can be read on your computer, smart phone, or tablet. Twenty magazines, including Bloomberg Businessweek, Good Housekeeping, Newsweek, and Consumer Reports are available through the Zinio link on the "materials search" section of the library's web page. This service provides unlimited, simultaneous use of the magazines through any Internet-enabled device. Available apps for many devices allow users to view magazines online or download issues for off-line viewing. A user's guide and a video tutorial are available as you log into the Zinio site.
The complete list of available magazines: Bloomberg Businessweek, Consumer Reports, Discover, Do It Yourself, ESPN, Family Handyman, Field and Stream, Games, Good Housekeeping, House Beautiful, Kiplinger's Personal Finance, Martha Stewart Living, Mental Floss, Motor Trend, Newsweek, Outdoor LIfe, PC Magazine, Popular Science, Reader's Digest, and Taste of Home.


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Get This and
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Sunflowers Happy New Year
Description : Beautiful frame of colorful sunflowers with sunflower letter arrange in the words Happy New Year, clipping path included.
Photographer : Exsodus
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This image has a Royalty Free license. You can use the images an unlimited amount of times for almost any purpose* without having to pay extra. The rights granted are non-transferable and personal to you or your company. For resale you'll need a Pro Plan.
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- Websites


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Album: Car Wheels on a Gravel Road
Year: 1998
And another long wait. This time, six years.
But at the end of it, her acknowledged masterpiece. Car Wheels on a Gravel Road topped the Village Voices' 1998 Pazz & Jop critics poll, won a Grammy and went gold, to boot.
And for all that, I've never fell completely in love with it: it's obviously an incredibly strong and consistent record, but outside of the title track and maybe "Joy," doesn't have any tracks that I truly love in practice as much as I know I should love in theory.
Sittin' in the kitchen, a house in Macon
Loretta's singing on the radio
Smell of coffee, eggs and bacon
Car wheels on a gravel road
But then again, check out the detail in that opening verse. You can completely picture her sitting there, figuring that she's probably listening to "Fist City," while enjoying a tasty breakfast, when suddenly she hears a sound that can truly only be one thing.
With a guitar riff that always resolved exactly where it should, jangling leads as counterpoint and Gurf Morlix harmonies on the chorus, "Car Wheels on a Gravel Road" is machine-tooled precision in every way.
"Car Wheels on a Gravel Road"
Every Certain Song Ever
A filterable, searchable & sortable somewhat up to date database with links to every "Certain Song" post I've ever written.
Certain Songs Spotify playlist
(It's recommended that you listen to this on Spotify as their embed only has 200 songs.)
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Go to my Patreon page
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text:
Say NO to canned soup! This soup is easy to make and perfectly delicious as it combines the flavors of summer with the char of the grill. Try it!
10-12 Tomatoes
1 Onion
4 cloves Garlic
1 Jalapeno
2-4 tsp Salt
2-3 Tb. Tarragon
1 + cups Water
Lemon Zest, to finish
1. Rinse tomatoes and put on a vegetable grilling tray. If you don't have one, order NOW…trust me!
2. Grill tomatoes, onion, garlic, and jalapeno until nicely charred.
3. Remove grilled items and put in a soup pot. I mashed the tomatoes, garlic, and jalapeno with a fork first then added in the onion before blending with my hand blender.
4. Add some water to your desired consistency, probably 1 cup.
5. Complement with fresh garden tarragon (thyme, basil, rosemary, oregano would also work) and fresh lemon zest.
6. Serve hot or room temperature. This is also a great base for a gazpacho.


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Follow This Company
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Maintenance Mechanic position open for millwright work; minimum of 4 years' experience as a full Millwright - no apprenticeships or apprentices. Job includes but is not limited to: repair of conveyor belts, bucket elevators, crushers, ball mills, screens, pumps, etc. Experience in industrial construction and/or repair may count.
Hourly Wage: $29.75/hour, varied schedule/40 hours per week.
Medical, Vision, Dental and 401K, vacation after 6 months, Safety Bonus and Perfect Attendance Bonus.
Additional KSA's: Job requires a thorough knowledge of the load bearing capabilities of the equipment used as well as an understanding of blueprints and technical instructions. Primary purpose of installing, maintaining, upgrading and fabricating machinery and equipment according to layout plans, blueprints, and other drawings in industrial establishment.
Typical duties include: Read blueprints and schematic drawings to determine work procedures. Dismantle machinery or equipment, using hammers, wrenches, crowbars, and other hand tools. Moves machinery and equipment, using hoists, dollies, rollers, and trucks. Assembles and installs equipment, such as shafting, conveyors, and tram rails, using hand tools and power tools. Constructs foundation for machines, using hand tools and building materials, such as wood cement, and steel. Aligns machines and equipment, using hoists, jacks, hand tools, squares, rules, micrometers, lasers, and plumb bobs. Assembles machinery and bolts, welds, rivets, or otherwise fastens them to foundation or other structures, using hand tools and power tools. May operate engine lathe or milling machine to grind, file, and turn machine parts to dimensional specifications. Required repair and lubricate machinery and equipment. Selects cables, ropes, chains, pulleys, winches, blocks, and sheaves, according to weight and size of load to be moved. Attaches load with grappling devices, such as loops, wires, ropes, and chains, to crane hook. Sets up, braces, and rigs hoisting equipment's, using hand tools and power wrenches. May direct workers engaged in hoisting of machinery and equipment. In addition may perform all duties of General Laborer, Skilled Laborer and Carpenter and possibly electrician.
Drug Free Workplace; Medical/Dental/Vision after 80 days; Vacation after 6 months; 401K after 6 months with company match and profit sharing; Attendance Bonus; Safety Bonus.
Premier Magnesia, LLC, is an Equal Opportunity employer that offers a variety of medical and wellness benefits, 401(k), growth potential, and the opportunity to join the company at an exciting phase of the project. Candidates may be required to undergo educational and criminal background checks. Chosen candidates will be required to successfully pass a physical and drug screening. Premier Magnesia, LLC, is committed to equal opportunity in the terms and conditions of employment for all employees and job applicants without regard to race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, age, gender identity or gender expression, national origin, disability or veteran status. Premier Magnesia, LLC, also complies with all applicable national, state and local laws governing nondiscrimination in employment. This job is open only to Lawful Permanent Residents (as defined by 8 U.S.C. 1101(a)(20)), or Protected Individuals (as defined by 8 U.S.C. 1324b(a)(3), namely, U.S. Citizens, Refugees, and Asylees.


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- Research
- Open Access
An economic perspective of message-dropping attacks in peer-to-peer overlays
- Kevin W Hamlen1Email author and
- William Hamlen2
© Hamlen and Hamlen; licensee Springer. 2012
- Received: 9 July 2011
- Accepted: 12 March 2012
- Published: 12 March 2012
Peer-to-peer networks have many advantageous security properties, including decentralization, natural load-balancing, and data replication. However, one disadvantage of decentralization is its exclusion of any central authority who can detect and evict malicious peers from the network. It is therefore relatively easy to sustain distributed denial-of-service attacks against these networks; malicious peers simply join the network and fail to forward messages.
This article shows that peer-to-peer message-dropping attacks can be understood in terms of a well-established category of economic theory: the theory of the second best. In particular, peers who wish to continue service during an attack seek a second best solution to a utility optimization problem. This insight reveals useful connections between economic literature on the second best and computer science literature on peer-to-peer security. To illustrate, we derive and test an economics-inspired modification to the Chord peer-to-peer routing protocol that improves network reliability during message-dropping attacks. Under simulation, networks using the modified protocol achieve a 50% increase in message deliveries for certain realistic attack scenarios.
- Social Welfare Function
- Optimal Behavior
- Message Delivery
- Malicious Behavior
- Relative Reliability
1 Introduction
Peer-to-peer networks are an increasingly popular vehicle for highly fault-tolerant, light-weight, and low-cost distributed computing across heterogeneous hardware. Cloud computing [1], digital music exchange [2], digital libraries [3], secure data management systems [4], and bioinformatics databases [5] are just a few of the venues where this technology is being used today. Unlike traditional networks, peer-to-peer networks lack any centralized server; every agent acts as both server and client. This provides a natural resistance to many attacks, since adversaries must compromise a large number of peers instead of just a few central servers to corrupt data integrity or disrupt its availability.
Unfortunately, decentralization can leave peer-to-peer networks vulnerable to a different sort of denial-of-service attack wherein malicious agents join the network and misroute or drop messages, thereby disrupting communication. Constraining this message-dropping behavior is difficult since victims typically learn only that their messages weren't delivered, not who was at fault. Even when malicious behavior is localized to a particular peer, there is no central authority who can evict the peer from the network, leaving it free to perpetuate the attack. A small number of malicious agents can amplify their message-dropping with a Sybil attack[6], in which each joins the network many times under various false identities to occupy a greater percentage of the overlay space. Since dropping messages is computationally inexpensive for the attacker, a relatively small number of attackers can significantly disrupt overlay traffic.
We gain insight into this problem by connecting it to economic theories of the second best[7] (cf., [8]). Second best economic solutions are required when one or more units contravene the first best solution, and there is no way to remove the misbehaving units from the system. The second best solution incorporates (takes as given) the misbehavior of the deviate units to obtain a second best optimum. In the case of peer-to-peer networks, we find that application of second best theory to the secure routing problem yields recommendations that advise non-malicious peers on how to route messages optimally given observed misbehavior of their neighbors. By taking the network topology as given, such recommendations can be implemented atop any given topology to achieve better performance during a message-dropping attack.
Adopting the piecemeal approach of Davis and Whinston [9] further allows each peer to optimize its own behavior with only local knowledge, and without requiring cooperation from other peers. Thus, the recommendations can be implemented fully automatically by individual peer clients without a central authority that has global knowledge, and without requiring other agents to adopt the new protocol.
We show how these theoretical insights can be used in practice by deriving a simple modification to the Chord peer-to-peer networking protocol [10] that improves overlay performance during message-dropping attacks. When faced with message-dropping agents, peers approximate a second best alternative to optimal overlay routes. Simulation of our modified protocol shows that message delivery rates improve by over 50% with a corresponding increase in overall system utility under realistic attack scenarios. The modified protocol is simple to implement since it does not require any change to the network topology and uses only information that is already available in a standard Chord network.
We begin by summarizing related work in §2. Section 3 reviews the economic theory of the second best and argues its relevance to peer-to-peer systems. The individual and social welfare perspectives are each elaborated in §4, yielding a general framework for expressing peer-to-peer message-dropping attacks as second best utility optimization problems. The framework is general enough to include many different definitions of utility, including those that incorporate both reliability and risk. Section 5 applies this framework to Chord, showing its effectiveness in resisting both non-coordinated and coordinated, distributed, message-dropping attacks. Finally, §6 concludes with a summary and suggestions for future work.
2 Related Work
Over the past decade there has been an explosion of research devoted to peer-to-peer security (cf., [11]). Relevant issues include robust search [12], pollution prevention (i.e., inhibiting the spread of unwanted objects), secure data storage, and data confidentiality. Most work on these assumes a secure routing framework that facilitates reliable, robust communication between peers. For example, reputation-based trust managers such as EigenTrust [13], Credence [14], and Penny [15], aggregate local reputation information whose exchange requires a secure routing framework.
Secure routing is divisible into three sub-problems [16]: secure identifier assignment, routing table maintenance, and message forwarding. Secure identifiers prevent attackers from misrepresenting or abusing their overlay positions to intercept more than their share of traffic. Secure routing tables maintain peers' connections to appropriate sets of neighbor peers. Finally, secure message forwarding delivers messages using the secure identifiers and routing tables. This last sub-problem is the focus of our work.
Secure message forwarding has been studied from an economic perspective in the context of selfish routing[17]. Selfish routers enjoy the message-forwarding services provided by fellow peers, but fail to forward the messages of others. Unlike message-droppers, selfish routers desire services from the network. This has led to incentive-based solutions such as pricing networks [18], negotiating contracts for mutual message delivery [19], rewarding message delivery with increased reputation [20], and rewarding message delivery with increased quality of service [21]. In contrast, message-droppers only desire to disrupt service, making incentivization inapplicable.
Economists have also studied peer-to-peer networks in the context of free-riding. Free-riding peers obtain shared resources from the network but fail to share their own resources. Krishnan et al. [22] observe that the shared resources resemble public goods[23]--an insight that has generated a growing body of work devoted to incentivizing free-riding peers to share [24]. However, unlike public goods, the connectivity that is threatened during a message-dropping attack is not equally available to all peers; it is influenced by the position of the attackers relative to each peer. This leads us to a different economic model for message-dropping.
Message forwarding in peer-to-peer networks can be divided into protocols for structured and unstructured networks. Structured networks route queries using a multi-hop protocol that passes the message from peer to peer. Examples include CAN [25], Pastry [26], Chord [10], and Tapestry [27]. Unstructured peer-to-peer networks like Gnutella broadcast queries using a multicast protocol that floods the query to all peers within a given radius. The unstructured approach tends to be more robust against message-dropping because of its high redundancy, but it does not always scale well [28]. Although our work is potentially applicable to unstructured topologies, we focus on structured ones since message-dropping tends to be a more significant threat in those contexts.
A large body of prior work improves the robustness of structured networks by augmenting their topologies with redundant routing paths (e.g., [29–31]). Route redundancy increases the probability that at least one message replica reaches its destination. Such topologies can be improved further via adaptive techniques that adjust the topology dynamically in response to observed failures (e.g., [32, 33]) or based on the interaction history of peers (e.g., [34, 35]). In contrast to these approaches, our work adapts routing flow rates without modifying the topology. Our work therefore complements the above by optimizing routing behavior once a (possibly dynamic) topology is chosen.
Adaptive techniques, including ours, require a means of detecting message-dropping behavior. Section 5 adopts a sampling approach in which non-malicious peers test for malicious behavior by periodically sending probe messages. Such sampling has been effectively used in unstructured networks to detect and identify message-droppers [36]. Introduction graphs [37] and flow rate histories [38] can further help to identify and isolate malicious peers, but sampling has the advantage of being easy to implement atop networks that do not collect this extra information.
3 Peer-to-peer and the Second Best
3.1 Overview of the Second Best
The theory of the second best has had a significant impact on economics throughout the past half-century, being applied to such subjects as health care, antitrust, and international trade [8]. In the case of peer-to-peer overlays, the original design of the overlay topology can be thought of as a first best solution that optimizes message delivery when all peers are non-malicious. Adapting individual peer routing behavior to the presence of malicious peers can therefore be viewed as a second best solution to this optimization problem.
Economic theory generally begins with economic subunits such as consumers, households, or firms that attempt to optimize their own objective functions subject to various constraints. These economic subunits work within a larger administrative perspective that is defined by the set of rules governing the system and the degree of decentralization. This leads to a larger fundamental problem first formulated by Nobel laureate Paul Samuelson [39], who observed that every society acts as if it is attempting to maximize a (known or unknown) social welfare function subject to constraints.a The welfare function is so named because it incorporates the goals of all economic subunits. For any viable system, the optimal conditions derived from the fundamental problem must also be consistent with the optimal behavior of the economic subunits.
The objective function is F, the binding constraint is G, and the choice variables are x i with i ∈ 1..n. In a decentralized, consumer-oriented economy these choice variables are selected by independent economic subunits (e.g., consumers). The objective function is related to the maximization of the consumers' objective functions (utility functions) subject to constraints reflecting consumer income limitations. In a peer-to-peer network the choice variables are selected by individual peers and the constraints are those imposed by the routing protocol and the overlay topology.
where F i and G i are partial first derivatives and λ is a Lagrange multiplierb associated with the constraint in Equation 1. To obtain the first best solution, individual subunits solve their respective constrained optimization problems, and these must be consistent with the necessary conditions given by Equation 2.
Samuelson was the first to recognize that when some economic subunits fail to adhere to Equation 2, the ramifications extend beyond that deviate sector:
"First, what is the best procedure if for some reason a number of optimum conditions are not realized? What shall we do about the remaining ones which are in our power? Shall we argue that 'two wrongs do not make a right' and attempt to satisfy those we can? Or is it possible that failure of a number of conditions necessitates modifying the rest? Clearly the latter alternative is the correct one." [[39], p. 252]
In other words, if the first best solution is unobtainable because one sector behaves suboptimally, then the second best solution does not necessarily imply that the remaining sectors should continue to satisfy their first best optimization conditions; many subunits may need to change their optimal behaviors.
where F ji and G ji are the partial cross-derivatives between subunits i and j and μ is the new Lagrange variable associated with constraint 3. Thus, unless the cross-derivatives are zero, each sector i ∈ 1..n has optimal behavior that deviates from Equation 2.
The coefficients α i are the final weights given by the implicit social welfare to the utility of the economic subunits.d
These weights have a specific economic interpretation: Each consumer or household's weight is the reciprocal of its marginal utility of income. Thus, if a wealthy family places relatively low value on the last dollar earned, it receives a relatively high weight in the objective function of the society. In essence, the system tends to weight the more successful households (in terms of income).
We find a similar result in the case of peer-to-peer systems. During a message-dropping attack, non-malicious peers can be defined as those that derive utility from message deliveries. This leads to a social welfare (administrative objective) function that weights peers by the reciprocal of their relative reliability--i.e., their message delivery success rates. When all weights are equal (a standard assumption when applying utility theory to information systems problems [43]), this corresponds to the special case where all peers in the network are equally reliable.
Davis and Whinston [9] used Negishi's result to provide a piecemeal approach to the second best problem. They concluded that the difficulties of implementing a complex set of second best conditions is often overestimated since, based on Equation 5, many of the second derivatives are zero in a decentralized system and can therefore be dropped. In the context of a peer-to-peer network, this implies that it is possible to approach the second best solution without the need to share global information amongst peers. Instead, each peer adapts its own behavior individually, based on its own knowledge.
Based on the economic development above, there are two separate aspects of the problem: the mathematical method proposed by Lipsey and Lancaster, and the welfare and utility considerations discussed by Samuelson and Negishi. Section 3.2 examines the former aspect and §4.2 the latter.
3.2 Example Application of the Second Best to a Peer-to-peer System
Application of the second best approach to resisting message-dropping attacks in peer-to-peer overlays can be illustrated by a simple example. We begin by considering a single peer p of degree k in a network of size n (with k ≪ n). Peer p periodically receives messages for other peers, each of which it must forward to one of its k neighbors. We assume a flat identifier space for this example, and that peer p may forward each message to any one of its k neighbors (though for any given message, certain neighbors are better positioned than others to deliver it).
That is, a uniformly distributed set of random messages is delivered most effectively when the k neighbors of p have identifiers that are evenly spaced along the interval [0, n).
The above implicitly assumes that peers behave optimally, forwarding each message to the neighbor closest to its destination. A second best solution is needed when some peers behave suboptimally and there is no way (short of centralizing the system) to force optimal behavior. One option in this case is to implement a new first best solution, but this requires global information about the overlay topology, which isn't typically available to peers once the network has been deployed and malicious behavior becomes evident. The second best solution takes the topology as given and re-solves the optimization problem to obtain a new recommended optimal behavior for peer p given the suboptimal behavior of its neighbor(s).
Even though peer p cannot change the identifiers of its neighbors, it should forward its messages as if neighbor m - 1 had identifier and neighbor m + 1 had identifier . As peer m's reliability decreases, β increases and and approach N m . Peer p therefore forwards fewer messages to neighbor m since fewer destinations are closer to N m than to or . In the limiting case where (i.e., neighbor m is completely unreliable), peer p only forwards to m those messages whose final destinations are m itself.
We next generalize this approach to a larger class of topologies and message-dropping attacks, and we examine the second best approach from both the perspective of individual peers and that of the system as a whole.
4 Attack Resistance As Utility Optimization
Economic formulations of the second best typically have two aspects: an individual perspective in which individuals in the society seek to maximize their own utility subject to individual constraints, and an administrative perspective in which the society as a whole acts as if it is seeking to maximize an objective function subject to administrative constraints. In this section we develop the each of these aspects as they relate to message-dropping attacks in peer-to-peer overlays. The analysis of the individual perspective yields a piecemeal approach [9] to resisting message-dropping attacks, wherein each peer individually adjusts its optimal behavior to account for the suboptimal behavior of its immediate neighbors. The analysis of the administrative perspective yields a measure of the network's success in resisting message-dropping attacks, providing a means to evaluate defense effectiveness. We initially consider only peer reliability; risk is added in §4.3.
4.1 The Individual Perspective
The first derivative of utility is the marginal utility and the second assumption above is the law of diminishing marginal utility.
where w ij ∈ [0,1] is the relative share of its messages that peer i forwards to neighbor j, and R ij (w ij ) is the reliability that peer i estimates for neighbor j. R ij is a function of w ij because the observed reliability of neighbor j typically varies with the share of messages it receives from i. As j receives a larger share, a greater portion of their destinations are farther from j, making those messages harder for j to deliver. Thus, ∂R ij /∂w ij ≤ 0.
where ϕ i and λ i are the Lagrange multipliers.
Hence, we advise peer i to use neighbor m less than it uses neighbor j by a factor of .
4.2 The Administrative Perspective
In this section we derive a measure of the social welfare (i.e., overall system utility) of a peer-to-peer system using the results from the previous sections. This provides a general measure of the performance of the system during a message-dropping attack in terms of peer utilities. In particular, networks that attain higher social welfare can be characterized as more robust against message-dropping attacks. Section 4.3 illustrates the generality of this metric by showing how it can incorporate risk as well as reliability, and §5 uses this measure to evaluate the performance of our method when implemented in an actual peer-to-peer network.
Thus, the system behaves as if an administrator determines the relative reliabilities of all members, knowing that the selection must ultimately account for the various utility functions of the members as well as their respective optimization behaviors.
A peer-to-peer network's success in resisting a message-dropping attack can therefore be measured by computing the objective function in Equation 15. Combining the optimality result of the individual behavior described by Equation 13 with the administrative optimal behavior described by Equation 15, we find (see the appendix) that consistency between the individual behavior and the administrator's optimal solution requires that , where δ is the Lagrange multiplier associated with the constraint in Equation 15 and . This implies that weight α i is directly related (up to common factor δ) to peer i's relative reliability and inversely related to its marginal utility. Using U i = log yields ϕ i = 1 for all i ∈ 1..n. Since constant factor δ has no effect on optimization problem 15, this simplifies to .
where is the fraction of the messages forwarded by peer i that were ultimately delivered to their destinations. This can be interpreted as a familiar result from information theory. It is the negation of the Shannon entropy of the peer-to-peer system, and the administrative problem therefore reduces to the problem of minimizing the entropy subject to the constraints. When there are no additional constraints, the optimal solution is obviously one in which all peers are equally reliable--i.e., . In the case where there are additional constraints (e.g., some peers are malicious and therefore have constrained reliabilities), the optimal solution is non-trivial, as we see in §5.
4.3 Risk
In coordinated, distributed, message-dropping attacks, malicious peers vary their behavior over time, dropping some but not all messages they receive in an effort to evade detection. Malicious peers may even coordinate their behavior changes so as to keep each individual peer's reliability relatively high while keeping overall availability of network services low. Peer reliability alone is not an adequate measure of malicious behavior during such an attack; one must also consider variance or risk.
where is the relative reliability of peer i as defined in §4.2 and Cov[X, Y] denotes the covariance of random variables X and Y.
The first best solution is obviously one in which all peers are invariably equally reliable. Since zero variation implies , this reduces to the same optimization problem as derived in §4.2; we therefore conclude that as before. When the variance is non-zero for some peers, we seek a second best solution. In that case the form of the social welfare function stays the same but is evaluated at the second best solution. Thus, in that case as well, and we conclude that social welfare can be measured by weighting each peer's expected utility by its relative reliability. The optimal conditions for Equations 19-20 are derived in the appendix.
Since the shares w ij are all relative, we choose some arbitrary benchmark neighbor b ∈ 1..k in terms of which peer i computes the other optimal shares.
Peers that use Equation 25 to guide their relative usage of their neighbors tend to maximize expected reliability and minimize risk as they forward messages. This can have some interesting ramifications for peer behavior. For example, depending on their risk aversion a i , they may sometimes forward messages through less reliable peers to avoid a more reliable but much riskier one. Risk-averse peers also tend to diversify their message-forwarding behavior similar to an investor's diversification of a portfolio. This can result in a better outcome when resending a dropped message since there is a higher chance that the message will not take the same route to its destination even when the overlay topology remains static.
5 Implementation
To put our approach into practice, we implemented it within a Chord network [10]. We begin with a review of Chord's overlay structure and routing protocol in §5.1. Section 5.2 then formulates the Chord protocol as a utility optimization problem using the second best. Finally, §5.3 describes our experimental methodology and results.
5.1 The Chord Protocol
Chord [10] is a structured peer-to-peer protocol with a ring-shaped overlay. Each peer's ring position is defined by an integer identifier. Identifiers are derived via secure hash functions so that attackers cannot easily choose their positions. Each peer is directly connected to k = ⌊log2n⌋ neighbors, where n is the size of the identifier space. For example, in a Chord network that can accommodate 2160 peers, each peer has 160 neighbors.
The neighbor set of peer i is densest near i and thins farther away. Specifically, the j th neighbor of peer i is the peer whose identifier is closest to (but no less than) (id i + 2j-1) mod n (∀j ∈ 1..k). Thus, peer i's first neighbor is its successor in the ring, each subsequent neighbor is approximately twice as far from i as its previous neighbor, and peer i's last neighbor is approximately halfway around the ring. To send a message to peer h, peer i forwards it to the neighbor whose identifier is closest to but no greater than h's identifier (modulo n). When all peers adhere to this protocol, messages are delivered to their final destinations in at most O(log2n) hops because each hop at least halves the distance from the message's current position to its destination. Without malicious peers, the topology is naturally load-balancing in that a uniform distribution of message sources and destinations tends to solicit equal relative use of each peer's k neighbors.
During a message-dropping attack, however, malicious peers drop the messages they receive instead of forwarding them. Since Chord is deterministic, a single malicious peer on the route from i to h can thereby prevent i from sending any messages to h until the topology changes (e.g., due to churn). With multiple attackers, the identifier assignment process tends to distribute attackers approximately uniformly across the identifier space. As a result, attackers can intercept a significant portion of the overlay traffic. For example, even when malicious peers comprise only 10% of the network they can intercept about 40% of the messages on average [47].
5.2 Applying the Second Best Approach to Chord
Peers can forward messages via different neighbors than the ones prescribed by the Chord protocol at the expense of longer message delivery paths. This flexibility allows peers to potentially improve message delivery rates in the presence of malicious peers via a second best routing strategy. Specifically, a peer can potentially forward each message to any neighbor between itself and the message's intended destination, not just the closest one to the destination.
However, this flexibility must be exercised in moderation to avoid unacceptably long routing paths, since forwarding messages in very small hops greatly increases the worst-case path length bound given in §5.1. For example, if each peer forwards messages to its nearest neighbor, the worst-case path length is O(n), which is clearly unreasonable when n ≈ 2160. More generally, when peers forward messages to their r th-closest neighbors, the worst-case path length increases by a factor of (r - log2(2 r - 1)) -1. Hence, forwarding to the 2nd-closest neighbor multiplies the worst-case path length by a factor of about 2.4, and forwarding to the 3rd-closest multiplies it by a factor of over 5.
To keep the worst-case path length reasonable, we therefore modify the Chord protocol to allow (non-malicious) peers to forward each message only to the closest neighbor or 2nd-closest neighbor to the message's intended final destination. In our experiments we found that allowing peers to forward to other neighbors is seldom useful, since during a message-dropping attack greatly increased path lengths almost always include at least one malicious peer.
respectively, for all i ∈ 1..n.
where A is defined by Equations 28-29 and ψ controls the rate of convergence. (In our implementation we used ψ = 1.) Equation 31 reflects the inflexibility of traffic forwarded to a peer's first neighbor (since no neighbors fall between a peer and its first neighbor).
In summary, non-malicious peers in our modified system continuously adjust their relative usage of neighbors in small increments, based on the most current information available concerning neighbor reliability and riskiness. These adjustments are made so as to maximize reliability and minimize risk. That is, each peer optimizes its own expected utility subject to the constraints imposed by the routing protocol.
5.3 Experimental Results
To test our solution, we simulated a Chord network in which non-malicious peers maximize expected utility by adapting their relative use of their neighbors according to Equation 30. Malicious peers drop some or all messages they are asked to forward. To assess the network's success in resisting the attack, we computed the social welfare (Equation 16) that it attained over each simulation. We also measured the total percentage of messages that were successfully delivered. Each simulation involved sending a total of one million randomly generated messages through the overlay, and simulation results were averaged over 50 trials each.
We assume that senders learn whether their messages were ultimately delivered, but not who dropped undelivered messages. This is consistent with networks in which delivered messages solicit unforgeable, direct responses from recipients. For example, object lookups in Chord solicit a direct response that does not use the overlay, and that can be authenticated via cryptographic message signing. This information allows each peer i to estimate a running mean E[P ij ] and running variancefVar[P ij ] for each neighbor j ∈ 1..k. Each peer also tracks its own relative usage s ij of each neighbor.
Non-malicious peers begin the simulation with w ij = 1 and s ij = 1 for all i ∈ 1..n and j ∈ 1..k. That is, each peer initially behaves as in a traditional Chord network, forwarding each message to the closest neighbor and using all neighbors approximately equally. At regular intervals, non-malicious peers modify w ij according to Equation 30. (If w ij rises above 1 or descends below 0, it is truncated down to 1 or up to 0, respectively.) In our simulation, peers recomputed w ij after every 1000 messages they sent. We used a convergence rate of ψ = 1, a distance penalty of d = 0.8, and a risk aversion of a i = 1 to strike a roughly even balance between reliability maximization and risk minimization.
The curve for the optimal Chord network was computed by exhaustively deciding for each possible source-destination pair whether there exists a route through the overlay that does not include any malicious peers (subject to the constraint that non-malicious peers must not route messages farther away than their 2nd-closest neighbor to the message's intended destination). We simulated networks with up to 10K peers, but the number of peers did not influence any of our results (except that computing the optimal curve for very large networks was not feasible). The curves shown in Figure 1 are for a network with 256 peers.
We next considered a more sophisticated message-dropping attack in which the attackers vary their behavior over time in an effort to avoid detection. Malicious peers coordinate these behavior changes to keep each malicious peer's observed reliability relatively high while keeping overall network connectivity low. In our simulation, attackers chose their reliabilities from a normal distribution of mean 0.3 and variance 0.12. A coordinated, distributed, denial-of-service attack of this kind can be quite effective against defense mechanisms that rely on average reliability as the sole indicator of maliciousness. Our protocol's inclusion of risk as a secondary indicator was therefore important for resisting this attack.
During testing, our utility optimization strategy demonstrated little sensitivity to parameter changes and implementation details. For example, different convergence rates ψ, different distance penalties d, different approximation methods for Equations 28-29, and different refresh rates for recomputing shares w ij resulted in little or no change to the results reported here (except when parameters were set to extreme values). This seems to indicate that our method is does not require much manual tuning to perform well.
6 Conclusion
The theory of the second best has played a significant role over the past several decades in solving numerous important problems in economics. In this article we have shown that it also applies to the problem of resisting message-dropping attacks in peer-to-peer overlay networks. If one views the design of the underlying overlay topology as an optimization problem, the second best solution yields recommendations on how to make optimal use of that existing topology in the presence of malicious peers who drop messages.
This has implications both for individual peers and for the peer-to-peer system as a whole. For individual peers, the second best solution provides peer-specific recommendations on how to forward messages so as to maximize each peer's individual reliability and minimize its risk. For the system as a whole, it maximizes the overall objective of the system given the misbehavior of the attackers. We found that in this context the overall objective can be expressed as a weighted sum of the utility functions of the individual peers, where the weights are the relative reliabilities of the peers. When individual utility functions are standard Bernoulli logarithmic functions, this equates to minimizing the Shannon entropy of the peer-to-peer system.
As a practical application of our work, we solved the above optimization problem for the Chord peer-to-peer network protocol [10] and implemented it in a simulator. Non-malicious peers in our modified network forward messages according to the recommendations prescribed by the second best solution. Rather than compute the second best solution directly, each peer approximates it iteratively using an efficient quasi-Newtonian algorithm. We simulated simple message-dropping attacks in which attackers drop all messages, as well as coordinated, distributed message-dropping attacks in which attackers vary their behavior to avoid detection. The modified protocol achieves a 50% increase in message deliveries and a 60% increase in social welfare when malicious peers comprise about 20% of the network. Behavior variations are not effective as a means of disguising the attack; they only result in higher message delivery rates and higher social welfare in networks equipped with our adaptive protocol.
In future work we intend to apply our approach to other distributed computing paradigms, such as clouds. Tapestry [27] networks are more densely connected than Chord networks, incorporating extra routing links for improved fault tolerance. These extra links could provide more opportunities for second best optimization. CAN [25] poses interesting mathematical challenges for our method since it uses a multidimensional identifier space.
In addition, much prior work on adaptive overlay routing has focused on adapting the overlay topology in response to observed peer behavior and performance. Since our second best optimization approach takes the topology as given, it could be implemented atop one of these adaptive topologies. Future work should investigate the interaction between these two approaches.
Finally, we plan to investigate second best optimization approaches to protecting these networks from other forms of attacks, such as message misrouting, message integrity and confidentiality violations, and reputation mismanagement. These are all significant current-day threats to large, distributed data management systems, and would likely benefit from second best optimization.
for all i ∈ 1..n, where ϕ i is the Lagrange multiplier associated with the constraint.
The assumption in §4.1 that peer m is a factor ε less reliable than peer j implies that d im = εd ij . This yields the result given by Equation 14.
Section 4.2 describes how this result leads directly to the conclusion that .
In the above, ϕ i is the Lagrange multiplier associated with the constraint requiring that each peer i's relative usage of its neighbors sums to 1. In most situations the constraint would be binding and ϕ i > 0. This complicates the solution for any single w ij . We can, however, examine the ratio E[U i ]z ij = ϕ i to E[U i ]z ib = ϕ i for any two shares w ij , w ib > 0. The benchmark neighbor b is arbitrarily chosen by peer i as the standard by which its other neighbors are assessed. From the conditions above we see that z ij = z ib , leading to the system of linear equations given in Equation 23.
a This "as if" approach is attributed to Nobel laureate Milton Friedman [49], who recognized that participants need not know or understand a model for it to adequately explain an outcome. Kenneth Arrow [50], another Nobel laureate, later proved that there are limits on what any welfare function can achieve. b Samuelson [39] and others used the Lagrange method, which requires binding constraints. Subsequent work used the Kuhn-Tucker conditions [44], which allow non-binding constraints. c If λ = h j in Equation 4, the Lagrange multiplier μ is zero, re-attaining the first best solution. Only when λ ≠ h j does the added constraint change the solution. d Hamlen and Hamlen [51] show that Negishi's solution, while important in defining the social welfare function, can be evaluated only at the equilibrium solution and therefore does not aid in obtaining the solution. e This follows from isoelasticity of natural logarithm [46]. f Neither running mean nor running variance require maintaining any message history. We computed running variance via . g Partial derivatives ∂ are used here to remind us that the administrator's objective function contains all P i ∀i ∈ 1..n.
This work includes material supported by the National Science Foundation under award NSF-0959096. Any opinions or findings expressed are those of the authors and not of the NSF.
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Hello friends!
Welcome to my blog and to my last layout as Design Team Member for Stuck Sketches! My term is up and I am going to be sad to not be part of this amazing team any more. At the same time, you know how much I've struggled to find time to scrap in the last few months, so my term being up perhaps not the end of the world.
This month's sponsors are Creative Embellishments and Scrapbook Nerd and this is the gorgeous sketch that I've based my layout on:
And here's my page!
As you can see, I have used one long photo rather than two square ones.
This photo was taken at last October's Scrap Cafe retreat and I am so happy to be surrounded by super talented scrapbookers!
Thanks for joining me today, and read you soon hopefully!