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|Top state leaders in 1646
|Top state leaders in 1750
|Top state leaders in 1704
|Top state leaders in 1658
|Top state leaders in 1642
|Top state leaders in 1632
|Top state leaders in 1630
|Top state leaders in 1570
|Top state leaders in 1792
|Top state leaders in 1783
|Top state leaders in 1781
|Top state leaders in 1779
|Top state leaders in 1691
|Top state leaders in 1687
|Top state leaders in 1686
|Top state leaders in 1684
|Top state leaders in 1682
|Top state leaders in 1673
|Top state leaders in 1665
|Top state leaders in 1657
|Top state leaders in 1653
|Top state leaders in 1650
|Top state leaders in 1637
|Top state leaders in 1627
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formed by the 1569 Union of Lublin between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and lasted until 1795. The new Commonwealth was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th-century Europe.[2][3][4][5]
The new union possessed features unique among contemporary states: the Commonwealth's political system (known alternately as the Noble's Democracy or Golden Freedom) was characterized by strict checks upon monarchical power. These checks were enacted by a legislature (Sejm) controlled by the nobility (szlachta). This idiosyncratic system was a precursor to modern concepts of democracy,[6] constitutional monarchy[7][8][9] and federation.[10] The two component states of the Commonwealth were formally equal, yet Poland was the dominant partner in the union.[11]
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was marked by high levels of ethnic diversity and by unusual religious tolerance,[12][13] though the degree of religious tolerance varied over time.[14]
After several decades of power and greatness,[15][16][17] the Commonwealth entered a period of protracted political,[9][18] military and economic[19] decline. Its growing weakness led to its partitioning among its more powerful neighbors, Austria, Prussia and Russia, during the late 18th century. Shortly before its demise, the Commonwealth adopted a massive reform effort and enacted the Constitution of May 3, 1791, which has been described as the second oldest codified national constitution of modern history.[20][21][22][23]
The official name of the Commonwealth was Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Polish: Królestwo Polskie i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie, Lithuanian: Lenkijos Karalystė ir Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė, Belarusian: Каралеўства Польскае і Вялікае Княства Літоўскае). It was referred to in written sources prior to the 18th century by its Latin name Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae. Since the 17th century it was usually referred to as The Most Serene Commonwealth/Republic of Poland[24] (Polish: Najjaśniejsza Rzeczpospolita Polska, Latin: Serenissima Res Publica Poloniae) in international diplomatic correspondence. Its inhabitants referred to it in Polish as "Rzeczpospolita" (Ruthenian: Рѣч Посполита, Lithuanian: Žečpospolita). Foreigners often simply called it Poland, applying the pars pro toto synecdoche.
The recently widespread Polish term "Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów" ("The Commonwealth of Both/Two Nations") was coined only in the 20th century.[25]
Poland and Lithuania underwent an alternating series of wars and alliances during the 14th and early 15th centuries. Several relatively weak agreements between the two (the Union of Kraków and Vilna, the Union of Krewo, the Union of Vilnius and Radom, the Union of Grodno, and the Union of Horodło) were struck before the more permanent 1569 Union of Lublin. This agreement was one of the signal achievements of Sigismund II Augustus, last monarch of the Jagiellon dynasty. Sigismund believed he could preserve his dynasty by adopting elective monarchy. His death in 1572 was followed by a three-year interregnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system; these adjustments significantly increased the power of the Polish nobility and established a truly elective monarchy.[26]
The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the early 1600s. Its powerful parliament was dominated by nobles who were reluctant to get involved in the Thirty Years' War; this neutrality spared the country from the ravages of a political-religious conflict which devastated most of contemporary Europe. The Commonwealth was able to hold its own against Sweden, Russia, and vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and even launched successful expansionist offensives against its neighbors. During several invasions of Russia, Commonwealth troops managed to take Moscow and hold on to it from September 27, 1610 to November 4, 1612, until driven out after a siege.
Commonwealth power began waning after a series of blows during the following decades. A major rebellion of Cossacks in the southeastern portion of the Commonwealth (the Khmelnytskyi Uprising in modern-day Ukraine) began in 1648. It resulted in a Ukrainian request, under the terms of the Treaty of Pereyaslav, for protection by the Russian Tsar.[27] Russian influence over the Ukraine gradually supplanted that of the Polish. The other blow to the Commonwealth was a Swedish invasion in 1655. Supported by troops of Transylvanian duke George II Rakoczy and Friedrich Wilhelm I, Elector of Brandenburg, The Deluge was the Swedish royal response to years of Commonwealth belligerence.
In the late 17th century, the weakened Commonwealth's King John III Sobieski allied himself with Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor to deal crushing defeats to the Ottoman Empire. In 1683, the Battle of Vienna marked the final turning point in a 250-year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe and the Islamic Ottoman Empire. For its centuries-long stance against the Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of Antemurale Christianitatis (bulwark of Christianity).[10][28] During the next 16 years the Great Turkish War would drive the Turks permanently south of the Danube River, never to threaten central Europe again.[citation needed]
By the 18th century, destabilization of its political system brought Poland to the brink of anarchy. The Commonwealth was facing many internal problems and was vulnerable to foreign influences. An outright war between the King and the nobility broke out in 1715 and Tsar Peter the Great's mediation put him in a position to further weaken the state.[29] The Russian army was present at the Silent Sejm of 1717, which limited the armed forces to 24,000 and specified its funding, reaffirmed the liberum veto, and banished the King's Saxon army; the Tsar was to serve as guarantor of the agreement.[29] Western Europe's increasing exploitation of resources in the Americas rendered the Commonwealth's supplies less crucial.[30] In 1768 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth became a protectorate of the Russian Empire.[31] Control of Poland was central to Catherine the Great's diplomatic and military strategies.[32] Attempts at reform, such as the Four-Year Sejm's May Constitution came too late. The country was partitioned in three stages by the neighboring Russian Empire, Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Monarchy. By 1795, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map of Europe. Poland and Lithuania would not be re-established as independent countries until 1918; Ukraine and Belarus established independence in the 1990s.
The political doctrine of the Commonwealth was: our state is a republic under the presidency of the King. Chancellor Jan Zamoyski summed up this doctrine when he said that Rex regnat et non gubernat ("The King reigns but does not govern"). The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a Senat and an elected king. The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in King Henry's Articles as well as in pacta conventa, negotiated at the time of his election.
The monarch's power was limited, in favor of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to subscribe to King Henry's Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of religious tolerance). Over time, King Henry's Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point onwards, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of senators. The Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones).
The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the "Golden Liberty" (Polish: Zlota Wolność, a term used from 1573 on), included:
The three regions (see below) of the Commonwealth enjoyed a degree of autonomy.[33] Each voivodship had its own parliament (sejmik), which exercised serious political power, including choice of poseł (deputy) to the national Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had its own separate army, treasury and most other official institutions.[34]
Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar political systems existed in the contemporary city-states like the Republic of Venice.[35] (Interestingly, both states were styled "Serenissima Respublica" or the "Most Serene Republic".[36]) At a time when most European countries were headed toward centralization, absolute monarchy and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with decentralization,[10] confederation and federation, democracy, religious tolerance, and even pacifism. The Sejm's usual veto of wars has been described as an example of democratic peace theory.[37]
This political system unusual for its time stemmed from the victories of the szlachta noble class over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of:
Once the Jagiellons had disappeared from the scene in 1572, the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government was disrupted. Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility.
When presented with periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not found another strong dynasty. This policy often produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the able Transylvanian Stefan Batory (1576–86), the kings of foreign origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. This was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish House of Vasa, whose politics brought the Commonwealth into conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as The Deluge (1655), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline.
Zebrzydowski's rokosz (1606–07) marked a substantial increase in the power of the magnates, and the transformation of szlachta democracy into magnate oligarchy. The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies bribed[42][43] by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over a century, from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th, while its neighbors stabilized their internal affairs and increased their military might.
The Commonwealth did eventually make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in 1791 the May 3rd Constitution, Europe's first[23] codified national constitution in modern history, and the world's second, after the United States Constitution, which had been ratified two years earlier. The revolutionary Constitution recast the erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian federal state with a hereditary monarchy and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system. The new constitution:
These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors which were content to leave the Commonwealth alone as a weak buffer state, but reacted strongly to king Stanisław August Poniatowski's and other reformers' attempts to strengthen the country.[33] Russia feared the revolutionary implications of the May 3rd Constitution's political reforms and the prospect of the Commonwealth regaining its position as a European empire. Catherine the Great regarded the May constitution as fatal to her influence[44] and declared the Polish constitution Jacobinical.[45] Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin drafted the act for the Confederation of Targowica, referring to the constitution as the "contagion of democratic ideas".[46] Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria, also afraid of a strengthened Poland, used it as a pretext for further territorial expansion.[45] Prussian minister Ewald von Hertzberg called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy",[47] fearing that strengthened Poland would once again dominate Prussia.[48][44] In the end, the May 3rd Constitution was never fully implemented, and the Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after the Constitution's adoption.
The economy of the Commonwealth was dominated by feudal agriculture based on the plantation system (serfs).[19] Slavery in Poland was forbidden in the 15th century; in Lithuania, slavery was formally abolished in 1588.[49] They were replaced by the second enserfment. Typically a nobleman's landholding comprised a folwark, a large farm worked by serfs to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes in the early era of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the grain trade.[50] The economic strength of Commonwealth grain trade waned from the late 17th century on. Trade relationships were disrupted by the wars and the Commonwealth proved unable to improve its transport infrastucture or its agricultural practices.[51] Serfs in the region were increasingly tempted to flee.[52] The Commonwealth's major attempts at countering this problem and improving productivity consisted of increasing serfs' workload and further restricting their freedoms in a process known as second serfdom.[51][52]
The Commonwealth's preoccupation with agriculture, coupled with the szlachta's privileged position when compared to the bourgeoisie, resulted in a fairly slow process of urbanization and thus a rather slow development of industries.[citation needed] While similar conflicts among social classes may be found all over Europe, nowhere were the nobility as dominant at the time as in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. There is, however, much debate among historians as to which processes most affected those developments, since until the wars and crises of the mid-17th century the cities of the Commonwealth had not markedly lagged in size and wealth behind their western counterparts. The Commonwealth did have numerous towns and cities, commonly founded on Magdeburg rights. Some of the largest trade fairs in the Commonwealth were held at Lublin. See the geography section, below, for a list of major cities in the Commonwealth (commonly capitals of voivodships).
Poland-Lithuania played a significant role in the supply of 16th century Western Europe by the export of three sorts of goods, notably grain (rye), cattle (oxen) and fur.[53] These three articles amounted to nearly 90% of the country's exports to western markets by overland- and maritime trade.[53]
Although the Commonwealth was Europe's largest grain producer, the bulk of her grain was consumed domestically. Estimated grain consumption in the Polish Crown (Poland proper) and Prussia in 1560–70 was some 113,000 tons of wheat (or 226,000 łaszt – a łaszt, or "last", being a large bulk measure; in the case of grain, about half a ton). Average yearly production of grain in the Commonwealth in the 16th century was 120,000 tons, 6% of which was exported, while cities consumed some 19% and the remainder was consumed by the villages. Commonwealth grain achieved far more importance in poor crop years, as in the early 1590s and the 1620s, when governments throughout southern Europe arranged for large grain imports to cover shortfalls in their jurisdictions.
Still, grain was the largest export commodity of the Commonwealth. The owner of a folwark usually signed a contract with merchants of Gdansk (German Danzig), who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain north to that seaport on the Baltic Sea.[55] Many rivers in the Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes: the Vistula, Pilica, Western Bug, San, Nida, Wieprz, Niemen. The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with river ports and granaries. Most of the river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber. Hrodna become an important site after formation of a customs post at Augustów in 1569, which became a checkpoint for merchants travelling to the Crown lands from the Grand Duchy.[56]
From Gdańsk, ships, mostly from the Netherlands and Flanders, carried the grain to ports such as Antwerp and Amsterdam.[citation needed] Besides grain, other seaborne exports included lumber and wood-related products such as ash and tar.[citation needed] The land routes, mostly to the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire such as the cities of Leipzig and Nuremberg, were used for export of live cattle (heads of around 50,000 head) hides, furs, hemp, cotton (mostly from Wielkopolska) and linen.[citation needed]
The Commonwealth imported wine, fruit, spices, luxury goods (e.g. tapestries), clothing, fish, beer and industrial products like steel and tools. A few riverboats carried south imports from Gdańsk like wine, fruit, spices and herring. Somewhere between the 16th and 17th centuries, the Commonwealth's trade balance shifted from positive to negative.
With the advent of the Age of Exploration, many old trading routes such as the Amber Road lost importance as new ones were created. Poland's importance as a caravan route between Asia and Europe diminished, while new local trading routes were created between the Commonwealth and Russia. Many goods and cultural artifacts continued to pass from one region to another via the Commonwealth. For example, Isfahan rugs imported from Persia to the Commonwealth were actually known in the West as "Polish rugs" (French: Polonaise).[57]
Commonwealth currency included the złoty and the grosz. The City of Gdańsk had the privilege of minting its own coinage.
Tapestry with the Arms of Michał Kazimierz Pac, Jan Leyniers, Brussels, 1667–1669.
Silver tankard by Józef Ceypler, Kraków, 1739–1745.
Example of the merchant architecture: Konopnica's tenement house in Lublin, 1575.
Hussars' armours, first half of the 17th century.
The Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by philosophers such as Erasmus; and, during the Counter-Reformation, was known for near-unparalleled religious tolerance, with peacefully coexisting Catholic, Jewish, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant and Muslim communities. The Commonwealth gave rise to the famous Christian sect of the Polish Brethren, antecedents of British and American Unitarianism.[58]
With its political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to political philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503–72), Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki (1530–1607) and Piotr Skarga (1536–1612). Later, works by Stanisław Staszic (1755–1826) and Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812) helped pave the way for the Constitution of May 3, 1791, the first modern codified national constitution in Europe,[23] which enacted revolutionary political principles for the first time on that continent.
Kraków's Jagiellonian University is one of the oldest universities in the world. Vilnius University and the Jagiellonian University were the major scholarly and scientific centers in the Commonwealth. The Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, (Polish for Commission for National Education), formed in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education.[59] Commonwealth scientists included: Martin Kromer (1512–1589), historian and cartographer; Michał Sędziwój (1566–1636), alchemist and chemist; Jan Brożek (Ioannes Broscius in Latin) (1585–1652), polymath: a mathematician, physician and astronomer; Krzysztof Arciszewski (Crestofle d'Artischau Arciszewski in Portuguese) (1592–1656), engineer, ethnographer, general and admiral of the Dutch West Indies Company army in the war with the Spanish Empire for control of Brazil;[60] Kazimierz Siemienowicz (1600–1651), military engineer, artillery specialist and a founder of rocketry; Johannes Hevelius (1611–1687), astronomer, founder of lunar topography; Michał Boym (卜弥格 in Chinese) (1612–1659), orientalist, cartographer, naturalist and diplomat in Ming Dynasty's service; Adam Adamandy Kochański (1631–1700), mathematician and engineer; Baal Shem Tov (הבעל שם טוב in Hebrew) (1698–1760), considered to be the founder of Hasidic Judaism; Marcin Odlanicki Poczobutt (1728–1810), astronomer and mathematician; Jan Krzysztof Kluk (1739–1796), naturalist, agronomist and entomologist. In 1628 the Czech teacher, scientist, educator, and writer John Amos Comenius took refuge in the Commonwealth, when the Protestants were persecuted under the Counter Reformation.[58][61]
The works of many Commonwealth authors are considered classics, including those of Jan Kochanowski, poet, Wacław Potocki, Ignacy Krasicki, and Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz. Many szlachta members wrote memoirs and diaries. Perhaps the most famous are the Memoirs of Polish History by Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł (1595–1656) and the Memoirs of Jan Chryzostom Pasek (ca. 1636–ca. 1701). Jakub Sobieski (1590–1646) (father of John III Sobieski) wrote notable diaries. During the Khotyn expedition in 1621 he wrote a diary called Commentariorum chotinensis belli libri tres (Diary of the Chocim War), which was published in 1646 in Gdańsk. It was used by Wacław Potocki as a basis for his epic poem, Transakcja wojny chocimskiej (The Progress of the War of Chocim). He also authored instructions written for the journey of his sons to Kraków (1640) and France (1645) which contain the principles of best liberal education of the times.
A common art form of the Sarmatian period were coffin portraits, particular to the culture of the Commonwealth, used in funerals and other important ceremonies.[62] As a rule, such portraits were nailed to sheet metal, six – or eight – sided in shape, fixed to the front of a coffin placed on a high, ornate catafalque.[63]
Another characteristic is common usage of black marble. Altars, fonts, portals, balustrades, columns, monuments, tombstones, headstones and whole rooms (e.g. Marble Room at the Royal Castle in Warsaw, St. Casimir Chapel of the Vilnius Cathedral and Vasa Chapel of the Wawel Cathedral) were decorated with black marble.
Music was a common feature of religious and secular events. To that end many noblemen founded church and school choirs, and employed their own ensembles of musicians. Some, like Stanisław Lubomirski build their own opera houses (in Nowy Wiśnicz). Yet others, like Janusz Skumin Tyszkiewicz and Krzysztof Radziwiłł were known for their sponsorship of arts which manifested itself in their permanently retained orchestras, at their courts in Vilnius.[64] Musical life further flourished during the reign of the Vasas. Both foreign and domestic composers were active in the Commonwealth. King Sigismund III brought in Italian composers and conductors, such as Luca Marenzio, Annibale Stabile, Asprilio Pacelli, Marco Scacchi and Diomedes Cato for the royal orchestra. Notable home grown musicians, who also composed and played for the King's court, included Bartłomiej Pękiel, Jacek Różycki, Adam Jarzębski, Marcin Mielczewski, Stanisław Sylwester Szarzyński, Damian Stachowicz, Mikołaj Zieleński and Grzegorz Gorczycki.[64]
Magnates often undertook construction projects as monuments to themselves: churches, cathedrals, and palaces like the present-day Presidential Palace in Warsaw and Pidhirtsi Castle built by Grand Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski herbu Pobóg. The largest projects involved entire towns, although in time many of them would lapse into obscurity or be totally abandoned. Usually they were named after the sponsoring magnate. Among the most famous is the town of Zamość, founded by Jan Zamoyski and designed by the Italian architect Bernardo Morando. The magnates throughout Poland competed with the kings. The monumental castle Krzyżtopór, built in the style palazzo in fortezza between 1627 and 1644, had several courtyards surrounded by fortifications. Due to efforts of powerful Radziwiłł family, the town of Nesvizh in today's Belarus came to exercise significant influence in many domains – the Nesvizh manufactures of firearm, carpets, kontusz sashes and tapestries as well as school of painting produced renowned and luxury items.[65] Late baroque fascination with the culture and art of the "central nation" is reflected in Queen Masysieńka's Chinese Palace in Zolochiv.[66] 18th century magnate palaces represents the characteristic type of baroque suburban residence built entre cour et jardin (between the entrance court and the garden). Its architecture - a merger of European art with old Commonwealth building traditions are visible in Branicki Palace in Białystok and in Warsaw, Potocki Palace in Radzyń Podlaski, Raczyński Palace in Rogalin and Sapieha Palace in Ruzhany.
Pažaislis Monastery in Kaunas, Pietro Puttini, built 1674–1712.
Allegory of Summer, Jerzy Siemiginowski, 1684-1686, Wilanów Palace.
Branicki Palace in Białystok, Tylman Gamerski, built 1691-1697.
The prevalent ideology of the szlachta became "Sarmatism", named after the Sarmatians, alleged ancestors of the Poles. This belief system was an important part of the szlachta's culture, penetrating all aspects of its life. Sarmatism enshrined equality among szlachta, horseback riding, tradition, provincial rural life, peace and pacifism; championed oriental-inspired attire (żupan, kontusz, sukmana, pas kontuszowy, delia, szabla); and served to integrate the multi-ethnic nobility by creating an almost nationalistic sense of unity and of pride in the szlachta's Golden Freedoms.
In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism represented a positive cultural movement: it supported religious belief, honesty, national pride, courage, equality and freedom. In time, however, it became distorted. Late extreme Sarmatism turned belief into bigotry, honesty into political naïveté, pride into arrogance, courage into stubbornness and freedom into anarchy.[67] The faults of Sarmatism were blamed for the demise of the country from the late 18th century onwards. Criticism, often one-sided and exaggerated, was used by the Polish reformists to push for radical changes. This self-deprecation was accompanied by works of Prussian, Russian and Austrian historians, who tried to prove that it was Poland itself that was to blame for its fall.[68]
The population of the Commonwealth was never overwhelmingly either Roman Catholic or Polish. This circumstance resulted from Poland's possession of Ukraine and confederation with Lithuania, in both of which countries ethnic Poles were a distinct minority. The Commonwealth comprised primarily four nations: Lithuanians, Poles, Belarusians and Ukrainians; the latter two usually referred to as the Ruthenians. Sometimes inhabitants of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were called Litvins, a Slavic term for Lithuanians, despite being of different ethnicities. Shortly after the Union of Lublin, the Commonwealth population was around 7 million, with a rough breakdown of 4.5 m Poles, 0.75 m Lithuanians, 0.7 m Jews and 2 m Ruthenians.[69] In 1618, after the Truce of Deulino, the Commonwealth population increased together with its territory, reaching 11.5 million people, which was composed roughly of 4.5 m Poles, 3.5 m Ukrainians, 1.5 m Belarusians, 0.75 m Lithuanians, 0.75 m Prussians, 0.5 m Jews, and 0.5 m Livonians. At that time nobility was 10% of the population, and burghers were 15%.[70] In the period from 1648–57, populations losses are estimated at 4 m.[70] Coupled with further population and territorial losses, in 1717 the Commonwealth population had fallen to 9 m, with roughly 4.5 m Poles, 1.5 m Ukrainians, 1.2 m Belarusians, 0.8 m Lithuanians, 0.5 m Jews, and 0.5 m others.[70]
To be Polish, in the non-Polish lands of the Commonwealth, was then much less an index of ethnicity than of religion and rank; it was a designation largely reserved for the landed noble class (szlachta), which included Poles but also many members of non-Polish origin who converted to Catholicism in increasing numbers with each following generation. For the non-Polish noble such conversion meant a final step of Polonization that followed the adoption of the Polish language and culture.[71] Poland, as the culturally most advanced part of the Commonwealth, with the royal court, the capital, the largest cities, the second-oldest university in Central Europe (after Prague), and the more liberal and democratic social institutions had proven an irresistible magnet for the non-Polish nobility in the Commonwealth.[10] Many referred to themselves as "gente Ruthenus, natione Polonus" (Ruthenian by blood, Polish by nationality) since 16th century onwards.[72]
As a result, in the eastern territories a Polish (or Polonized) aristocracy dominated a peasantry whose great majority was neither Polish nor Roman Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge colonization efforts to Ukraine, heightening the tensions among nobles, Jews, Cossacks (traditionally Orthodox), Polish and Ruthenian peasants. The latter, deprived of their native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, turned for protection to cossacks that facilitated violence that in the end broke the Commonwealth. The tensions were aggravated by conflicts between Eastern Orthodoxy and the Greek Catholic Church following the Union of Brest, overall discrimination of Orthodox religions by dominant Catholicism,[73] and several Cossack uprisings. In the west and north, many cities had sizable German minorities, often belonging to Reformed churches. The Commonwealth had also one of the largest Jewish diasporas in the world – by the mid-16th century 80% of the world's Jews lived in Poland.[74]
Until the Reformation, the szlachta were mostly Catholic or Eastern Orthodox. However, many families quickly adopted the Reformed religion. After the Counter-Reformation, when the Roman Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusively Roman Catholic, despite the fact that Roman Catholicism was not a majority religion (the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches counted approximately 40% of the population each, while the remaining 20% were Jews and members of various Protestant churches)[citation needed].
The Crown had about double the population of Lithuania and five times the income of the latter's treasury. As with other countries, the borders, area and population of the Commonwealth varied over time. After the Peace of Jam Zapolski (1582), the Commonwealth had approximately 815,000 km² area and a population of 6.5 million. After the Truce of Deulino (1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 1 million km² (990,000 km²) and a population of 10–11 million (including some 4 million Poles).
The Duchy of Warsaw, established in 1807, traced its origins to the Commonwealth. Other revival movements appeared during the November Uprising (1830–31), the January Uprising (1863–64) and in the 1920s, with Józef Piłsudski's failed attempt to create a Polish-led Międzymorze ("Between-Seas") federation that would have included Lithuania and Ukraine. Today's Republic of Poland considers itself a successor to the Commonwealth,[93] whereas the Republic of Lithuania, re-established at the end of World War I, saw the participation of the Lithuanian state in the old Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth mostly in a negative light at the early stages of regaining its independence,[94] although this attitude has been changing recently.[95]
While the term "Poland" was also commonly used to denote this whole polity, Poland was in fact only part of a greater whole—the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which comprised primarily two parts:
The Commonwealth was further divided into smaller administrative units known as voivodships (województwa). Each voivodship was governed by a voivod (wojewoda, governor). Voivodships were further divided into starostwa, each starostwo being governed by a starosta. Cities were governed by castellans. There were frequent exceptions to these rules, often involving the ziemia subunit of administration.
The lands that once belonged to the Commonwealth are now largely distributed among several Central and East European countries:
Poland, Ukraine, Moldova (Transnistria), Belarus, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. Also some small towns in Slovakia, then within the Kingdom of Hungary, became a part of Poland in the Treaty of Lubowla.
Other notable parts of the Commonwealth often referred to, without respect to region or voivodship divisions, include:
Commonwealth borders shifted with wars and treaties, sometimes several times in a decade, especially in the eastern and southern parts. After the Peace of Jam Zapolski (1582), the Commonwealth had approximately 815,000 km² area and a population of 6.5 million. After the Truce of Deulino (1618), the Commonwealth had an area of some 990,000 km² and a population of 10–11 million (including some 4 million Poles and close to a million Lithuanians).
In the 16th century, the Polish bishop and cartographer Martin Kromer published a Latin atlas, entitled Poland: about Its Location, People, Culture, Offices and the Polish Commonwealth, which was regarded as the most comprehensive guide to the country.
Kromer's works and other contemporary maps, such as those of Gerardus Mercator, show the Commonwealth as mostly plains. The Commonwealth's southeastern part, the Kresy, was famous for its steppes. The Carpathian Mountains formed part of the southern border, with the Tatra Mountain chain the highest, and the Baltic Sea formed the Commonwealth's northern border. As with most European countries at the time, the Commonwealth had extensive forest cover, especially in the east. Today, what remains of the Białowieża Forest constitutes the last largely intact primeval forest in Europe.
a. ^ Historians date the change of the Polish capital from Krakow to Warsaw between 1595 and 1611, although Warsaw was not officially designated capital until 1793.[96] The Commonwealth Sejm began meeting in Warsaw soon after the Union of Lublin and its rulers generally maintained their courts there, although coronations continued to take place in Krakow.[96] The modern concept of a single capital city was to some extent inapplicable in the feudal and decentralized Commonwealth.[96] Warsaw is described by some historians as the capital of the entire Commonwealth.[97][98] Vilnius, the capital of the Grand Duchy, [29][99][100] is sometimes called the second capital of the entity.[101][102]
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a federation of two countries of the 16th century. In 1569, Jagiellon Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania formed this federation. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth covered more lands than the present lands of Poland and Lithuania. The lands of the Commonwealth also covered all the lands of present day Belarus; a large part of Ukraine and Latvia; and western part of present day Russia. This Commonwealth lasted for more than 200 years. It ended with the final Partitions of Poland in 1795. The Commonwealth was an extension of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, a personal union between those two states that had existed from 1386.


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subset: commoncrawl


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Mohsen Samir Mohammed never wanted more than four kids, but as his cousins and brothers living down the block in Ezbet Khairallah, one of Cairo's poorest and most densely populated districts, welcomed son after son—and even insulted his manhood—the amiable 35-year-old started to wonder: Did he have enough children? Annoyed by their taunts, he persuaded his wife to go off birth control. Over the next four years, they added a fifth, sixth and seventh new member of the family.
Sitting in the unlit stairwell of his building, Mohammed now has regrets. His meager salary from a factory that makes steel shutters is barely enough to feed his family, which subsists on stewed fava beans and bread. With no means of affording even the 15-cent bus rides to school, his children don't attend. But in a country where large households have long been the norm, Mohammed says he felt powerless to buck the trend. "My father had many, many children, my grandfather had many, many children, and everyone here has many children," he says. "It's not easy to do something different."
Not easy at all. Egypt's population is multiplying fast. From a little over 66 million at the turn of the century, it hit almost 93 million earlier this year. If current birth rates hold, demographers project that the country's total will be 150 million by 2050.
That kind of growth would be a challenge for almost any state, but for Egypt, politically fragile after three regime changes in six years and in the throes of food and water shortages, this population boom threatens to undermine the country's already fragile stability. "It even constitutes a threat to national security," says Amal Fouad, director of social research studies at CAPMAS, the state statistics-gathering body.
Nowhere is Egypt's struggle with food more evident than in the country's trade and supply ministries. Egypt is already the world's largest wheat importer, and as the country's population grows, it's going to have to import more and more food, which it often subsidizes. That's expensive, and it comes as the populous Nile-side cities, like Assiut and Sohag, are eating up more and more precious farmland. So both the authorities and the country's beleaguered farmers feel they've been saddled with an impossible task. "More food for more people on less land," says Bashir Abdullah, a farmer and labor organizer in Giza, who's been fighting developers' encroachment on local fields for a decade. "It's like they think we're miracle workers."
The surge in demand is affecting Egypt's great river too. With each person using about 160,000 gallons of water per year—98 percent of which is drawn from the Nile—Egypt has been short on water for a decade. But by 2030, when the population is forecast to be near 120 million, that figure will have dropped below 130,000 gallons. At a time when dam construction in Ethiopia threatens to cut the river's flow—at least temporarily—the lifeblood of the pharaohs might soon be reduced to a pitiful dribble.
Severe food and water shortages could lead to bread riots or other kinds of civil unrest, which worries the country's security services. The revolution of 2011 was sparked, in part, by the economy's inability to cope with the hundreds of thousands of young men entering the workforce each year. Now, with economic growth rates even weaker, and the education system still among the worst in the region, it's no wonder some officials fear Egypt's population growth. It's "worse than terrorism," Abu Bakr al-Gendy, the general in charge of CAPMAS, told a Cairo newspaper in December. Analysts suggest President Abdel-Fattah el-Sissi has almost come to fear millennials.
What's doubly frustrating for family-planning advocates: The boom was preventable. Until recently, Egyptian authorities appeared to have a strong population control strategy. From a high of over 3.5 percent in the 1970s, growth rates fell to 1.7 percent in the early 2000s. Through a wall-to-wall awareness campaign over several decades, which included billboards in poor rural areas and an expansion in access to contraception, analysts say Egypt appeared close to resolving its growth problem.
But starting in 2008 and 2009, three years before the uprising that unseated Hosni Mubarak, Egypt's longtime president, the government tried something different. Perhaps complacent after earlier success, Cairo officials eased their support for various family-planning initiatives. At the same time, international nongovernmental organizations reeled in their spending, believing they could better deploy those resources elsewhere. Shortly before the 2011 revolution, the growth rate ticked up to 2.23 percent. After the overthrow of the regime, that figure leapt to 2.48 percent in 2011-12. And there was a notable spike in November 2011, exactly nine months after Mubarak's toppling.
Some say Egypt's post–Arab Spring baby boom wasn't coincidental: The country's most dramatic year-on-year population surge came during the Muslim Brotherhood's period in power. Right after President Mohammed Morsi's time in office, the annual growth rate peaked at 2.55 percent, with births in the Brotherhood's southern strongholds returning to heights unseen since the 1980s. Islamist lawmakers tabled legislation that would have lowered the legal age of marriage from 18 to 13, increasing the likelihood that women—or, in some cases, girls—would have babies sooner and thereby undermining a key plank of global population control. Given the Brotherhood's history of refusing to stock contraceptives in the vast network of clinics it once operated, it's not unsurprising the group's cadres displayed little interest in resurrecting the birth control media campaigns that had lapsed around the revolution.
Family-planning advocates are also frustrated by how Sissi, Morsi's successor, has handled the country's population growth. Fixated on security threats real and perceived, the ex-general's government has pushed a raft of anti-NGO laws, which have driven away many foreign organizations, including family-planning providers. In 1995, NGOs supplied 10 percent of all contraceptives in Egypt, but by last year that fell to 0.6 percent.
A half-decade of chaos and disjointed policies are not easily undone. Between 2009 and 2014, the number of children young Egyptians deem desirable for a family increased from an average of 2.5 to 3, according to Population Council studies. Contraceptive availability dropped—to 58 percent of the population, several percentage points below the pre-revolutionary average.
Despite officials' warnings, Egypt's large population doesn't need to be a burden, demographers maintain. If the young were properly educated, they say, this enormous cohort of 20-something men and women could easily become a nation-building boon, boosting the economy, much like China's youth bulge. Sissi and his senior generals have an impressive array of resources at their disposal, like gold, gas and fertile riverside land. But critics say they've mismanaged them, which has compounded the shortages stemming from the country's growing population.
After decades of dictators governing in a shortsighted fashion, much of the damage has already been done. From the enormous desert cement factories, built to cater to the building boom, to the ballooning outer districts of the capital that now almost surround the pyramid complex of Giza, soaring population numbers continue to reshape the country.
To Mohsen Samir Mohammed, it seems inconceivable that his corner of Cairo might accommodate even one more person. "There are new people here, new people there," he says. "Everywhere there are people, people, people. Where are we going to put them?"


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Sorry for the odds and ends post, but I wanted to share with you a couple things that are important, albeit unrelated.
First is what's happening with Texas political media. In case you've missed it, Evan Smith is leaving Texas Monthly to start the "Texas Tribune," a non-profit news agency that will cover deep political issues of Texas. I've heard some describe it as Texas' own "POLITICO," which would be incredible. He's amassed an impressive cast of characters from across the state to join him, including Texas Weekly's Ross Ramsey. From the Texas Tribune press release:
Incoming Texas Tribune CEO Evan Smith announced today that the non-profit public media organization has acquired Texas Weekly, the premier newsletter for government and politics in Texas, and has hired longtime Texas Weekly editor and owner Ross Ramsey as its managing editor. Smith also formally announced the hiring of the first five reporters on the Tribune's newsroom team: Brandi Grissom, Elise Hu, Emily Ramshaw, Abby Rapoport, and Matt Stiles.
Best of luck to the new organization!
In other news, Sarah Palin seems to be catching some eyes lately. For whatever reason, a growing number of people seem to think she may break from the Republican party for form an independent third party. These theorists claim that her resignation as Alaska's governor was the first step toward that goal.
As a unique voice in the Republican party, Palin has both her supporters and detractors within the party. I would imagine that most–no matter their thoughts of her–don't want her leaving the party, though. Former Gov. Mike Huckabee voiced his concern not long ago, as The Hill mentions:
Huckabee said that he hopes Sarah Palin is not thinking of "going independent," as she brought electricity to the Republican Party in her run with John McCain. It might be worth wondering if she is thinking of running in 2012 as a candidate for the Alaska Independence Party (AIP).
Palin has been on eight trips outside her Anchorage base since announcing her resignation.
Palin leaving the GOP does, however, line up with her recent comments that she would gladly campaign for Democrats. If she's trying to build a coalition of voters for her new party, whatever it might be called, that would be a necessary first step. Keep your eyes focused Northward… That might be where the action is, come 2012.


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ARC's Chinese Joint Venture Acquires Shenzhen Firm
Wednesday, September 28, 2011
Press release from the issuing company
WALNUT CREEK, CA, – ARC, one of the nation's leading document solutions companies, today announced that UNIS Document Solutions ("UDS"), its joint venture in China, has acquired a leading print-on-demand service provider in Shenzhen, China, through a newly-formed subsidiary which will operate under the brand name "UNIS Print General," or "UPG."
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Reporting and review plan for greenhouse gases
Proposals for a reporting mechanism to enable the European Commission to monitor the EC's progress towards stabilising its carbon dioxide emissions at 1990 levels by 2000 were issued by the Commission on 1 June.1 The arrangements would pave the way for subsequent Community measures to ensure that the burden of curbing CO2 emissions is shared equitably among the Member States, and for future Community action on other greenhouse gases.
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Capoeira Paranaue Only the Strong HD
raniel britto - Published on Aug 9, 2013
This post showcases two videos of the Brazilian Capoeira song "Paranaue". Lyrics for that song, and information about the meaning of those lyrics are also provided in this post.
The content of this post is presented for educational, historical, folkloric, entertainment, and aesthetic purposes. The copyrights remain with their owners.
My thanks to the performers, musicians, and video producers of these featured videos. Thanks also to the uploaders of these videos, the authors of the comments that are quoted.
Axe* to all capoeristas!
*Axe = Portuguese for the Yoruba (Nigeria) word "ase" [ashay] meaning power & blessings.
From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capoeira:
Capoeira... is a Brazilian martial art that combines elements of dance and music. It was created in Brazil mainly by descendants of African slaves with Brazilian native influences , probably beginning in the 16th century. It is known by quick and complex moves, using mainly power, speed, and leverage for leg sweeps...
More than a fighting style, it was created as a hope of survival, a tool with which an escaped slave, completely unequipped, could survive in the hostile, unknown land and face the hunt of the capitães-do-mato, colonial agents armed and mounted in charge of finding escapees.
Capoeira songs feature the berimbau musical instrument.
From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berimbau:
"The berimbau... is a single-string percussion instrument, a musical bow, from Brazil. The berimbau's origins are not entirely clear, but there is not much doubt about its African origin, as no Indigenous Brazilian or European people use musical bows, and very similar instruments are played in the southern parts of Africa."
Click http://www.jambalayah.com/node/1140 "Videos Of Traditional Musical Instruments A-C for videos of that instrument.
Editor: Both of these showcased videos include the version of "Paranaue" from the Capoeira movie "Only The Strong". That song was sung by Serapis Bey.
Video #1: Only the Strong - Capoeira - Paranaue
This video is presented at the top of this page.
"Paranaue" became known in the United States through the 1994 Capoeira movie "Only The Strong". Click http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Only_the_Strong for information that movie. The complete movie is posted on YouTube.
Video #2: Capoeira - Paranaue
Uploaded by PemBe55 on Jul 11, 2008
Capoeira is a combination of dance, ritual and martial arts that developed out of the Portugese trade of African slaves to Brazil the 16th century.
From http://www.capsprings.com/Music/Lyrics.aspx:
Paranaue, paranaue, parana
Vou me embora enquanto e cedo
que a noite tenho medo!
Parana Paranaue, paranaue, parana
Mulher pra ser bonita, parana
Nao precisa se pintar, parana.
Paranaue, paranaue, parana
A pintura e do artista, parana,
A beleza e Deus que da, parana.
English translation:
Paranaue, paranaue, parana
I'm leaving while it's early
because at night I'm afraid!
Parana Paranaue, paranaue, parana
for a woman to be beautiful, parana
she doesn't need to paint herself, parana.
Paranaue, paranaue, parana
A painting is by an artist, parana,
Beauty is given by God, parana.
"Parana is the name of a state in Brazil. It has come to represent freedom and is used symbolically in many capoeira songs. Aruande and Luanda (the capital of Angola) are often used similarly representing freedom, or even heaven, and often carry a feeling of nostalgia. Of course this would be a common theme among slaves singing of desired freedoms. What types of freedom might modern capoeiristas be seeking?"
Here's more information about why the Brazilian state of Paranaue symbolizes freedom:
From http://webpages.scu.edu/ftp/mmooney/music.htm:
"Songs are symbolic, calling on the gods of Candomble (an Afro-Brazilian religion) or elements of the natural world, citing historic locations and battles during slavery, or paying respect to famous mestres. Without an understanding of Portuguese and the history of capoeira and Brazil, it is difficult to understand the songs. One of the most beautiful songs is "Paranaue," a song commemorating the many capoeiristas who fought in the War of Paraguay to win their liberty from the Brazilian government."
From http://www.capoeira.com/community/forum/topic/Paranaue-song-lyrics...htm:
"Parana'e is one of these songs that are seen as a staple of trademark of Capoeira. Besides the usual chant (the one that says "E' Parana-e, parana, parana, parana-e, parana...", there are a few common verses used. Bear in mind, a lot of good capoeira singers also improvise during the song, based on what's happening in the roda or any particular situation related to capoeira.
Having said that, these are a few of the common verses (I used these a lot...):
Vou dizer minha mulher, Paraná
Capoeira me venceu, Paraná
[i][b]Paraná ê, Paraná ê, Paraná[/b][/i]
E bateu com o pé firme, Paraná
Isso não aconteceu, Paraná
[i][b]Paraná ê, Paraná ê, Paraná[/b][/i]
E Parana ê, Paraná
Paraná, Paranaguá, Paraná
[b][i]Paraná ê, Paraná ê, Paraná[/i][/b]
Vou me embora, vou me embora, Paraná
Como já disse que vou, Paraná
[i][b]Paraná ê, Paraná ê, Paraná[/b][/i]
Eu aqui não sou querido, Paraná
Mas na minha terra eu sou, Paraná
[i][b]Paraná ê, Paraná ê, Paraná[/b][/i]
Muito axe e salve!
- posted by pricansnowbrdr on 11/03/2005
Click http://pancocojams.blogspot.com/2012/04/zum-zum-zum-mata-um-videos-lyrics.html for another Capoiera song "Zum Zum Zum Mata Um". Video #2 of that post also includes a sound file of "Paranuae".
Thanks for visiting this page.
Viewer comments are welcome.


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Back in a 2011 Forbes article , a book about psychopathology ("The Psychopath Test: A Journey Through the Madness Industry", by Jon Ronson) revealed that around 4% of corporate CEO's are sociopaths. (Sociopath: One who is affected with a personality disorder marked by antisocial behavior – www.thefreedictionary.com) In case you were wondering, the term sociopath is often used interchangeably with the term psychopath, but clinically is used to refer to an antisocial person who became that way from being brought up in an antisocial or criminal subculture, while a psychopath has somewhat different personality traits and a condition that is often inherited. (Psychopath: A person with an antisocial personality disorder, manifested in aggressive, perverted, criminal, or amoral behavior without empathy or remorse – www.thefreedictionary.com). The most severe among psychopaths sometimes become serial killers or other types of criminal, and many wind up in jail but, more importantly, the less severe cases are much harder to spot without extended interaction and observation. Thinking on this made me wonder if the seemingly predatory behavior of some corporations isn't indicative of psychopathology at the top. Needless to say, people with this disorder can be very harmful to their employer and the people around them, and often behave in ways business managers, coworkers, and investors would not appreciate, so how can you avoid hiring them in the first place?
Psychopaths and sociopaths can be very hard to detect. There is no reason psychopaths have to be weird or unlikable. In fact, many of those with a less severe condition learn from childhood to get along relatively well in society and many are quite charismatic and likeable, though they may have few close social relationships because they tend to be manipulative and cold. They get educations and jobs just like the healthy folks, but they can at the same time be self-centered and ruthless, not because they are mean people but because true psychopaths are often incapable of understanding or even perceiving the feelings of others. This key fact means they can be extremely ruthless or vicious, often in subtle and sophisticated ways, and that they essentially have no conscience. When efforts are made to teach them empathy they may learn to mimic emotions to manipulate people, thus becoming even harder to detect. Many at the low end of the scale are characterized as having narcissistic personality disorder, which means that everything they do and think is about and for them alone. These people walk among us, and though their numbers are small (0.6% of the population according to one British study and around 1% in some other studies), they can be very ambitious, successful, and can attain high position in business or government. Some of them become entrepreneurs, which makes sense since they tend not to "play well with others" in the long term, and some are very successful, in spite of or sometimes because they don't cooperate well with others. This makes it pretty obvious that you should avoid hiring such people. Unfortunately they can be extremely difficult to detect.
Addendum 4-Sep-15: A newly released study provides new insights into psychopath behavior and speech patterns that can be used to identify them. While a clever psychopath can imitate emotions and feign concern in conversations, hiding their condition from those with whom they interact, they can't experience empathy nor recognize when they are speaking unemotionally, patterns which can be used to identify them.
Working with a psychopath, or being in any kind of relationship with one, can be extremely difficult. A psychopath is likely to wreak havoc on an organization, sooner or later, and in the meantime they can traumatize good coworkers and damage the performance of otherwise effective teams and departments, almost always in blind pursuit of their own ambitions. The old (and stupid) game of "Not from MY budget you don't!", that sub-optimizes so many organizations internally, takes on new meaning when one or more of the key players is a psychopath, as they may be charismatic and convincing to higher management and quite capable of distorting the internal politics and workings of an organization while at the same time making their own performance numbers and those of their team or department look exceptionally good. The tragedy is that, as they accomplish their ends, they tend to harm the careers of good people around them and often traumatize coworkers and drive them from the organization.
Economic downturns, and a lot of bad corporate behavior, can't be blamed on sociopaths. A CBS news article makes some very good points, more in addition to the discussion than opposed to it. While individual CEO's can make decisions affecting thousands of people inside and millions of people outside their organizations, the recent economic problems, the mid-2000's housing bubble and the deep recession that closely followed it, were not due to the actions of a few people, but were systemic problems that arose from poor decisions by heavily corporate-lobbied legislatures over decades along with many other factors I won't attempt to mention here. As usual, it is the systems we set up that define most of what the people within them will do. Much as people might like to, we can't hang the responsibility for our national or global problems on a few psychopathic CEO's. Still, I have to believe that, when a media empire like Fox News creates a political movement fueled by fear, half-truths, and lies, or a few big energy corporations have secret meetings with top government heads after which the EPA somehow fails to carry out its mandates for protecting air quality effectively, there are quite possibly one or more psychopaths in positions of power behind it. When a major multinational corporation repeatedly reports record profits during the worst economic collapse the United States has experienced since the great depression, one has to wonder if something is amiss. I have not looked into whether an organization can, systemically, behave in a psychopathic way, but there is no doubt that charismatic psychopaths can and do rise more rapidly in many organizations than healthy people, and that some can reach top management positions where they can turn what might otherwise be publicly responsible corporations into vicious, litigious, and marauding multinationals. As one of the developers of the psychological metrics for identifying psychopaths, Robert Hare said "Serial killers ruin families," and "Corporate and political and religious psychopaths ruin economies. They ruin societies." Certainly, "economies" can just as easily refer to businesses.
Only recently I've considered how all this impacts interviewers, recruiters, and human resource departments. For years, especially since at least once having worked for one, I have pondered how organizations, companies, non-profits, or governmental agencies can avoid hiring psychopaths that could potentially be destructive to the organization as well as individuals who come in contact with them on their way "up the ladder". I hadn't been able to think of a simple way to avoid this until I read a recent posting by successful entrepreneur and philanthropist Richard Branson in his blog on LinkedIn.com. I interpret his method for hiring as including a simplistic way to limit the influx of psychopaths to an organization: hire based on personality first. This makes a lot of sense when you consider that an average healthy person with a good outlook can perform well in the right environment with good management, and can learn and grow in most positions if given the opportunity and reasonable management support. Avoiding hiring psychopaths isn't easy, however.
How can you avoid hiring a psychopath? It is hard to tell, when considering a candidate for a job, how much of their past sometimes-stellar performance was due to being in the right place at the right time, let alone how much of it might actually be factual. It is even harder to consider the impact they might have if they turn out to be not just poorly suited for the position, but actually dangerous to the operation in some way. Richard Branson's hilariously simple statement regarding this (which he attributes to Funding Circle CEO Samir Desai) is: "It's better to have a hole in your team than an asshole in your team." This doesn't mean you can screen out sociopaths easily, as some will be too sophisticated in the way they present themselves to the world to easily permit detection, but as an interviewer you can study and understand this problem and ask probing and educated questions. As always, intuition may be your best and final arbiter when all the facts you can get are before you, but you can enhance your skills by familiarizing yourself with an analytical tool originally developed by Robert Hare, the B-Scan 360, at this website (http://www.decision-making-confidence.com/psychopath-test.html). This site also provides links to a number of related resources and articles, including computer and smart phone apps, and provides helpful learning tools for HR interviewers and managers.
This may be new thinking to some in the human resource profession. While Richard Branson's priority for hiring (putting personality first) may seem counter to past teachings for a lot of human resource professionals, it is pretty clear that hiring based on personality first makes a great deal of sense. Personally, I can't agree with Mr. Branson more and I hope you will educate yourself on psychopathology and adopt Richard's thinking in your future hiring activities. "It's better to have a hole in your team than an asshole in your team."
Richard Branson's blog article: http://www.linkedin.com/today/post/article/20130923230007-204068115-how-i-hire-focus-on-personality
The Forbes article: http://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffbercovici/2011/06/14/why-some-psychopaths-make-great-ceos/
Additional reading on this important subject:
http://www.lovefraud.com/beware-the-sociopath/whats-a-sociopath/ NOTE: I find this chilling – the comments of apparently admitted psychopaths in the forums on this site who believe that love and trust aren't real but are weaknesses, and that since these things "aren't real" the sociopath can't base any part of his or her life including relationships on them. Even more chilling are those that believe that they (psychopaths) are an evolutionary advance over healthy people, apparently using this to justify their actions.
Interesting video on this topic:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KUsGDVOCLVQ Are You a Psychopath? Take the test – Kevin Dutton – BigThink on youtube.com


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Case Reports in Critical Care
Volume 2013, Article ID 920729, 3 pages
Shigella Bacteremia in a Patient with Visceral Leishmaniasis
1School of Biomedical and Laboratory Sciences, University of Gondar, P.O. Box 196, Gondar, Ethiopia
2Leishmanaisis Research and Treatment Center, University of Gondar, P.O. Box 196, Gondar, Ethiopia
3Department of Internal Medicine, University of Gondar, P.O. Box 196, Gondar, Ethiopia
4Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
Received 30 June 2013; Accepted 24 July 2013
Academic Editors: C. Lazzeri, K. Lenz, and G. Pichler
Copyright © 2013 Mengistu Endris et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Bacteremia due to Shigella is rare. A 26-year-old HIV-negative male presented with a persistent high-grade fever of two months duration to the Leishmaniasis Research and Treatment Center of University of Gondar Hospital. He was anorexic and had lost significant weight (from 76 to 57 kg in 4 months, BMI = 17.2 kg/m2). He also complained of headache, chills, and rigor. In the last one year, he was experiencing a few episodes of acute bloody diarrhea, the last episode being two months ago. Microscopy from splenic aspiration showed Leishman-Donovan bodies with parasite load of +3. The blood culture showed Shigella species, but the stool was culture negative. The isolate was sensitive to most tested antibiotic discs, sulfamethoxazole, ceftriaxone, gentamicin, tetracycline, and norfloxacilin, except ampicillin. Therefore, requesting blood culture for identifying unexpected type of organisms causing infections in patients with underlying diseases like visceral leishmaniasis should be encouraged.


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Routes : North America : United States : California : Western Sierra : Sonora Pass Highway Higher Elevation Areas : Watchtower : Riders on the Strom
Riders on the Strom - 5.11cAverage Rating : 0.00 out of 5
Route sequence (left to right): 0
Route Summary | Ascent Notes (0)
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Double cams to #2, include very small. one # 3, 4 and 5 if doing the left last pitch option. Include a #6 if doing the middle option. If doing the right option, no #4,5,6 is required, but consider 2 #3s for first pitch.
Description:Make three one hundred foot rappels to base of route. Follow hand crack to big roof where fiddly gear is possible and essential. Turn roof and up overhanging hands to good stance. 11C. Pitch 2. Follow corner to brushy ledge. 10 C. Pitch 3. Three options. Left Go straight up fist crack, and then go left over small overhang to exit. 10B Middle--Go up fists and through block grainy OW. 10D. Right. Head down a bit and over to right crack system. Make a few severe layback moves into a handcrack, and onto a face. Another two bolt anchor awaits. 11B.
Descent Options:You top out where you start.
Submitted by: stevecurtis on 2014-08-25
Views: 275
Route ID: 115365


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Hotel Overview
News Room
Phulay Bay, A Ritz-Carlton Reserve Invites Guests for a Memorable Easter Holiday in Paradise by the Andaman Sea
For media inquiries, please contact:
Mafalda Costa Tavares
Director of Sales & Marketing
Phulay Bay, a Ritz-Carlton Reserve (Bangkok Sales Office)
59/3 Soi Sukhumvit 39
Sukhumvit Rd., Klongton Nua,
Wattana, Bangkok 10110 Thailand
Telephone: +66 2 260 6481
Fax: +66 2 260 6487
Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
Krabi, Thailand – February 26, 2016 – Phulay Bay, A Ritz-Carlton Reserve invites guests to celebrate the Easter holiday overlooking the Andaman Sea surrounded by a tropical paradise. During their stay, guests will enjoy themed activities, a special holiday BBQ, spa treatments, dedicated butler service and much more.
Guests will begin each day with complimentary breakfast in Jampoon Restaurant followed by a selection of activities on and off the property. Themed events will bring hotel guests and staff members together for this special holiday with a selection of family events including Olympic games, egg painting and hunting, and kayak racing in the pool. Guests will also enjoy an Easter BBQ on the pool lawn, complete with various gourmet food stations for all palates.
For relaxation, guests can venture to The Spa and enjoy a seasonal Sun-Kissed Skin treatment, where pampering includes a soothing Aloe Vera and honey body mask, an aromatic body massage and an express facial complete with a cold compress. Guests can further extend their tranquil state back at the suite with a soak in their private outdoor bath and enjoy cocktails brought directly to them by a dedicated butler.
For guests seeking adventure during their stay, the lush jungle surrounding Phulay Bay lends itself to a number of outdoor pursuits. Guests can venture through the Andaman Sea by yacht exploring the multiple karst rock formations and islands, kayak through a mangrove jungle, rock climb at the popular Railay Beach, snorkel at Hong Island and much more.
Rates begin at $400 per person for a three-night stay in a Reserve Pavilion over Easter, and are inclusive of daily breakfast in Jampoon restaurant.
For reservations, please visit www.RitzCarltonReserve.com or call +66 (0)75-628-111.


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The huge SMITE launch tournament concluded over the weekend and a big congrats goes out to Team SoloMid for winning the entire tournament and taking home a cool $200,000. The tournament may be over but that doesn't mean Hi-Rez hasn't been hard at work with new content for the game.
A new patch is scheduled to be released tomorrow and with it brings the very long awaited reworking of Bastet, a new skin for Tyr and the return of the Feaster Bunny Bakasura skin.
Bastet's old model was pretty bad compared to the rest of the roster but now she has been given a massive upgrade to her art, 3D model, special FX, and voicepack and she looks great.
A new PrivaTyr skin is also available for Tyr complete with new VO and if you own the voicepack, you have new custom voice commands as well. A few weeks ago we got a Sith Lord type skin for Sun Wukong and this week we get a pirate skin for Tyr. There have been so many amazing skins made over the last few months, I cannot wait to see what Hi-Rez has in store for the future. Now if my main girl Isis could get some love, that would be great.
Since Easter is right around the corner, the Bakasura Feaster Bunny skin will be making its return for a limited time as well. Both the Feaster Bunny skin and PrivaTyr skin will cost 400 Gems.
Finally the new god rotation is Isis, Athena, Odin, Anhur and Loki.
To check out the full list of patch notes and join in on the conversation, be sure to check out SMITE's official Reddit page.


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Metal Slug 7 follows in the footsteps of its predecessors by continuing to deliver the high-energy and frantic, fast-paced 2-D shooting action that the franchise has always been widely renowned for.
Players will join Marco, Tarma, Eri, Fiolina, Clark and Ralph as they prepare to take on Modern's Forces across 7 new missions that will bring them from Garbage Island to the Fortress of Ruins and beyond. Aside from featuring 7 brand new and fully detailed missions and six playable characters, Metal Slug 7 will also feature a host of new weapons, colossal new bosses, new Slugs to pilot and new gameplay modes for added replay value.


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Car Barn Sport | Land Rover Freelander 2 (2013) | New features and equipment options more convenient, a number of advantages for the customer looking for a modern, all-terrain, multi-purpose vehicles bring improved. A crisp new instrument panel with a 5-inch screen with information on primary vehicle, such as temperature and fuel levels, gear position, Terrain Response ® mode, is now between the dials on the scope of the Freelander model, supplemented with steering wheel toggle switches to operate the vehicle lighter menu and set-up details.
Cabin space and safety are improved by the introduction of an electric parking brake Brake intelligently adjusting the braking force according to the inclination of the vehicle is parked. The system is so smart even considered whether the brakes are hot or cold. An additional safety feature to ensure the brake is not released when the driver's seat is occupied. The system also includes' Hitch Assist ", a graphic overlay chamber. The navigation system comes with a faster disk-based system, which.
For the first time in the Land Rover Freelander 2 is the premium Meridian audio system with a choice of 380W or 825W. The sound system is delivered excellent Meridian with a 7-inch color touch screen and wants a new 380W, with 11 speakers for superior sound quality stereo or surround sound impressive 825W 17 Speaker System with Trifield technology to create a natural, with concert offer similar experience for all occupants. Equipped with AM / FM and DAB radio tuner, the music player supports CD, DVD, Virtual CD, iPod and USB. Three new shades of blue in the stunning range Freelander, Aintree Green, Havana and Mauritius added while another all-new 17-inch alloy wheel design is standard on derivative as Standard.
Boasting the latest LED technology, Xenon, front and rear have been renovated to give the Land Rover Freelander 2 an even sportier new look purposeful, with a new signature daytime running light graphic on the front left. Entry into the series, the Freelander S comes standard with cloth seats. The Dynamic version has a kit full of styling and a glossy black finish fender openings, vertical slats and grille surround, complemented inside with three options colourway sports-themed electric leather seats. New and unique dynamic painted in Germany 19-inch wheels of 10-spoke alloy with a. The HSE is reinforced with wood interior trim and offers a wide range of standard equipment, including: panoramic sunroof, memory function for driver seat and exterior mirrors and 825W Meridian surround sound audio system.
Freelander buyers can still outstanding between two diesel engines and very refined, the 150 hp 2.2-liter 190PS TD4 and SD4 select four-wheel drive. The particles within 80 percent At the same time, the NOx emissions were improved by 28 percent and the response time of the system stop / start by 22 percent overall. Further improvements to increase efficiency include a revised strategy shift automatic, engine oils low drag, bearing designs evaluated, while noise levels are reduced in all-wheel drive models (TD4 and SD4) are all ruling with the same equipment class, intelligent all-wheel-drive system as before. The system responds to changes in handle 150 milliseconds, in order to adjust the torque between the front and rear axles. Terrain Response ® optimizes the electronic systems of conditions and there are four drive settings, general, grass-Gravel-Snow Mud and Ruts and Sand.
When it comes to on-road handling is dynamic, the Land Rover Freelander 2 is top tier, partly thanks to the excellent body rigidity. Structural undertray bears on the front sub-frame to increase steering precision, while the engine of the Freelander 2 in four-point mounting aids engine stability and improved embodiment driving. A full range of stability systems provide an additional safety net for the inmates, including anti-lock braking system (ABS), electronic traction control (ETC), Distribution Electronic Brake-force Distribution (EBD), Cornering Brake Control (CBC), Emergency Brake Assist (EBA) , Dynamic Stability Control (DSC), Roll Stability Control (RSC) and Engine Drag Control. Style fresh, plentiful standard equipment with leading Land Rover combines off-road capability, so that the Freelander seriously compelling customer proposition
Find Car Barn Sport


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Video HowTo: Cherry MX stem&spring swap
A switch is held together by four latches (two to each side). The video shows how you can pop the switch open in 3 easy steps. I did this with a french Goupil G80-1861 keyboard which originally used MX Black linear switches. A Cherry G80-1000 served as a donor for MX Blue stems and springs.
Goupil G80-1861 stem & spring swap from Bojan Kotur on Vimeo.
The end result:


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You are viewing Cheat Codes for Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas
System : PC - Windows
Date Added : 2005-04-08 14:56:37
Views : 11417
Unlock Freeway
Get all Bronze awards in Bike School.
Unlock Hotring racer
Get First place in 8-Track.
Unlock Police Outfit
100% with Barbara
Unlock Pimp Outfit
100% with Denise Robinson
Unlock Ak-47 to spawn in the Johnson's Family Home
complete all 100 tags in Los Santos.
Unlock Hotknife
Get all gold medals in the Driving school.
Unlock Sawn-Off Shotgun to spawn in the Johnson's Family Home
complete all 100 tags in Los Santos.
Keep weapon after getting wasted
Date Katie
Save two cars in your garage
This works in the same way as the previous games. Normally you can only save one car in your garage, but with this you can save two or more! All you have to do is get your two or however many cars and bring them up to your garage. Drive one of them until the garage door opens, and then drive it half way in and get out of the car. This will keep the door open for you. Next, get into the other car and drive that all the way into the garage. Then get into the car half way in and drive it the rest of the way in and get out and leave the garage. Et viola! You now have two cars stored in your garage!
Unlock Rustler
Get all Bronze medal in pilot school.
Unlock Jet Pack
Complete the Airstip asset near Las Venturas.
Unlock BF Injection
Get First place at the Dirt ring race Las Venturas Stadium.
Unlock Monster Truck
Win it by beatin the 8-Track Tournament.
Unlock Racing Outfit
100% with Michelle
Unlock NRG 500
Get all gold medals in Bike School. This bike can be found quite easily in a car park near the Johnson house.
Unlock pimping mission
Enter a broadway (low-rider vehicle) and press R3. Drive the prostitutes to their destinations for big cash. After the tenth "trick" prostitutes PAY you rather than you paying them.
Unlock Stunt plane
Get all silver medals at the pilot school.
Unlockable Outfits
These are all the Unlockable Outfits in the game...
Croupier Uniform - Complete the mission "Breaking the bank at Caligula's"
Gimp Suit - Complete the mission "The Key to her Heart"
Medic Uniform - Date Katie to %100
Overall's Outfit - Date Helena to %100
Pimp Suit - Date Denise to %100
Police Uniform - Date Barbara to %100
Racing Outfit - Date Michelle to %100
Valet Uniform - Complete the mission "555-WE-TIP"
Unlock Tec-9 to spawn in the Johnson's Family Home
complete all 100 tags in Los Santos.
Unlock Super GT
Get all Bronze medal in Driving school.
Enable fireproof
Complete level 12 of the fire fighter missions.
Unlock Dune Buggy
Beat the score of 25 at the Dirt Ring.
Unlock 50 percent extra health
complete level 12 of the paramedic mission.
Unlock Molotov Cocktails to spawn in the Johnson's Family Home
complete all 100 tags in Los Santos.
Unlock Medic Outfit
100% with Katie Zhan
Cheat Codes
Type/enter these codes during gameplay. The set code can be uppercase or lowercase.
Code - Effect:
MUNASEF - Adrenaline Mode
YLTEICZ - Aggressive Drivers
COXEFGU - All Cars Have Nitro
ZEIIVG - All green lights
XJVSNAJ - Always Midnight
CIKGCGX - Beach Party
IOWDLAC - Black traffic
CPKTNWT - Blow Up All Cars
AFSNMSMW - Boats fly
BSXSGGC - Cars Float Away When Hit
RIPAZHA - Cars Fly
ASNAEB - Clear Wanted Level
BMTPWHR - Country Vehicles and Peds, Get Born 2 Truck Outfit
ASBHGRB - Elvis is Everywhere
FOOOXFT - Everyone is armed
YSOHNUL - Faster Clock
PPGWJHT - Faster Gameplay
BTCDBCB - Fat
CFVFGMJ - Foggy Weather
OUIQDMW - Full Weapon Aiming While Driving
PRIEBJ - Funhouse Theme
MROEMZH - Gang Members Everywhere
MROEMZH - Gangs Control the Streets
BAGOWPG - Have a bounty on your head
YECGAA - Have Jetpack
AIYPWZQP - Have Parachute
HESOYAM - Health, Armor, $250k
NCSGDAG - Hitman In All Weapon Stats
JHJOECW - Huge Bunny Hop
OSRBLHH - Increase Wanted Level Two Stars
WANRLTW - Infinite Ammo, No Reload
BAGUVIX - Infinite Health
CVWKXAM - Infinite Oxygen
XICWMD - Invisible car
JYSDSOD - Max Muscle
OGXSDAG - Max Respect
EHIBXQS - Max Sex Appeal
LFGMHAL - Mega Jump
IAVENJQ - Mega Punch
AEDUWNV - Never Get Hungry
AEZAKMI - Never Wanted
AFPHULTL - Ninja Theme
OFVIAC - Orange Sky 21:00
ALNSFMZO - Overcast Weather
AJLOJYQY - Peds Attack Each Other, Get Golf Club
BGLUAWML - Peds Attack You With Weapons, Rocket Launcher
PGGOMOY - Perfect Handling
LLQPFBN - Pink traffic
AUIFRVQS - Rainy Weather
SJMAHPE - Recruit Anyone (9mm)
ZSOXFSQ - Recruit Anyone (Rockets)
THGLOJ - Reduced Traffic
IOJUFZN - Riot Mode
CWJXUOC - Sandstorm
LJSPQK - Six Star Wanted Level
KVGYZQK - Skinny
LIYOAAY - Slower Gameplay
BEKKNQV - Slut Magnet
JCNRUAD - Smash n' Boom
CQZIJMB - Spawn Bloodring Banger
RZHSUEW - Spawn Caddy
EEGCYXT - Spawn Dozer
OHDUDE - Spawn Hunter
JUMPJET - Spawn Hydra
AGBDLCID - Spawn Monster
AKJJYGLC - Spawn Quad
PDNEJOH - Spawn Racecar
VPJTQWV - Spawn Racecar
JQNTDMH - Spawn Rancher
AIWPRTON - Spawn Rhino
AQTBCODX - Spawn Romero
KRIJEBR - Spawn Stretch
URKQSRK - Spawn Stunt Plane
AMOMHRER Spawn Tanker Truck
UBHYZHQ - Spawn Trashmaster
KGGGDKP - Spawn Vortex Hovercraft
SZCMAWO - Suicide
AFZLLQLL - Sunny Weather
VKYPQCF - Taxis Have Nitrous, L3 Bunny Hop
MGHXYRM - Thunderstorm
BGKGTJH - Traffic is Cheap Cars
FVTMNBZ - Traffic is Country Vehicles
GUSNHDE - Traffic is Fast Cars
ICIKPYH - Very Sunny Weather
LXGIWYL - Weapon Set 1, Thug's Tools
KJKSZPJ - Weapon Set 2, Professional Tools
UZUMYMW - Weapon Set 3, Nutter Tools
Keep weapon after getting busted
Date Barbara
Not enough codes for you? Search for more cheats at cheat codes club.
Or simply Click here to find more Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas cheat codes.
Copyright © 2004 - 2019 A Cheat Codes. All Rights Reserved. Privacy Statement


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Growing up in the Jefferson City area, Dr. Bechtel knew from an early age that he wanted to go into medicine. After completing a chemical engineering degree, he went to medical school at the University of Missouri-Columbia and completed his residency in radiation oncology from University of North Carolina Hospitals. He brings special expertise in stereotactic radiosurgery, stereotactic ablative radiotherapy, and image-guided radiotherapy.
SSM Health Cancer Center at JCMG
1241 W. Stadium Blvd.
Jefferson City, MO 65109
office: 573-635-2282
fax: 573-635-2536
- University of Missouri-Columbia
Board Certifications:
- Radiation Oncology


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This Bobbin Wagtail (2017) Hybrid Bike is no longer available although you may find similar or newer versions below:
Wagtail is the brainchild of Bobbin's surfer uncle Steve, who moved to California in 1989. It's an instantly delightful ride, a workhorse, weekend fun machine or both. Swept-back bars and a long MTB stem give a nice cruisey position for sun-dappled foraging expeditions, or for getting you to the beach and back. The forged alloy chainset, Microshift bar-mounted shifters and canti brakes complete this cult classic.
A Shimano Claris 16 speed drivetrain is what powers the Scout up the rough lanes or through the city, making it that little bit easier for you to get to your destination. The reliable and trusty Shimano indexing paired with downtube shifters should keep your confidence up and never let you down. With a 48-32 compact chainset to assist the drivetrain you shall not only be able to power up the hills with ease but descend at a fast pace.
With a Classic urban bike you want a classic style brake. Bobbin have spec'd up the Wagtail with a reliable set of Tektro cantilever brakes. Offering up a solid performing brake with maximum stopping power.
Each Bike is fully built, tested and tuned by Wiggle's team of qualified bike mechanics to ensure you're bike arrives in perfect condition. To find out which size fits you use the size chart below.
Note: Manufacturer may reserve the right to change the specification of that listed or shown on this page.
Sizing Information
The size chart below will get you on the right size bike. Experienced riders may also wish to refer to the geometry chart for more detail.
Getting the Right Fit
At Wiggle we measure each of our bikes to build accurate size charts for our customers. Our qualified team of mechanics then individually check each order, against measurements supplied by you, to ensure the size chosen is correct. Another reason you can have complete confidence when buying a bike from Wiggle!
If you are on the change over between sizes both options will fit. Racers and experienced riders would usually select a smaller size as this offers quicker handing. A larger bike offers more stability and is more suited to new and intermediate riders.
|Wheel Size
|167.5 - 183cm
|175 - 190cm
|5′ 6″ - 6′ 0″
|5′ 9″ - 6′ 3″
|Inside Leg
|76 - 84cm
|81 - 92cm
|30″ - 33″
|32″ - 36″
We will happily refund any item purchased on Wiggle if returned to us within 365 days; excluding Wiggle gift vouchers, nutrition and customised products, except when faulty.
Please note: Bikes and other bulky items cannot be returned using our local returns service (where applicable). Please contact us and we can arrange to collect these from you using our discounted courier rates. There is a fee for all collections, except for faulty products.Returned goods must be unused and supplied with their original packaging, unless the goods are faulty. Wiggle will pay the return postage costs for any faulty items.


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Simon Reed
I've been on the Regenerate system for about 8 weeks now and I plan on continuing for the full 12 weeks. For years I have struggled to put on lean mass, yo yo'ing between phases of 'bulking' to gain weight, which always added a bunch of fat, and then 'leaning out' to lose the fat and pretty much most of the muscle along with it! I've been doing this for years.
To be honest I did wonder how much I would learn from your system given that I considered myself to be pretty well read on nutrition. I was proved VERY wrong!!!
I have put on almost half a stone in scale weight, but I am annoyed with myself that I didn't take body-fat measurements as I'm certain they would show I have gained more lean weight than that as I have noticeably lost fat too. To put this into perspective; the last time I was up to my current weight my waist was 2.5 inches bigger than it is now.
It should be clear by now that I am immensely happy with the results and I would recommend your system to anyone who is serious about their physique as probably one of the best investments you could make.
Marc Sheppard
On the 4 week fat loss I went from 98kg to 92kg and hit a low of 89kg in August before holidays. At the start of the regenerate program I weighed about 92kg, I finished the program this morning and weight was 94.6kg. Very pleased with this as I'm very paranoid about putting on body fat so probably didn't eat enough carbs after training as I should of done?.
My body shape especially arms have change a lot in this time, and waist hasn't increased and if anything in the last week starting to feel and look a lot leaner. I found the eating hard at the start trying to get enough protein into me but have found a new love for cottage cheese lol. The training was very hard as I did as much as possible in an hour, as not able to train twice a day. On the other days had rugby training and Saturday would have a game.
Been working hard in conditioning sessions but have noticed a big difference in recovery during a game and work rate has increased.
The first week of the deep fascia stretching program leg session my legs the next day were in bits lol and didn't recover until the weekend but now the weight has gone up and the soreness has gone, as I said the sessions were tough and not much talking going on but they were more than worth it. When I do this program again in the new year I will take my body fat before and every 2 weeks during and maybe measurements of waist, chest, thighs arms?


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Chance and I rose late today. I was one of the idiots watching last night's pathetic debate. I'm sorry but he said, she said is not debate. These candidates need to go back to college and learn the rules of engagement. Least I remember the formalities.
Today, we completed training # 17 of 27. We are 63% of the way. I am working on eating habits, rather than weights. I have decided to postpone weights until I complete the 9 week training program. No, I am not going to stop running, but I feel that that is a goal that needs to be accomplished first before I add a new one. Plus, I need to learn to manage working, and running, before juggling some more stuff in.
I read a blog from one of Wifey's friend bloggers...about eating disorders and compulsive eating. I do that, I eat for no reason, and my mission this month, since Flylady says it takes a month to learn a new habit is to eat better. Not off to a good start. Since DH is away, I've dined on rotel and chips and red-beans and rice, two of my favorites that he will not eat. But I'm diving into apples and veggies for supper and going to keep trying. My return to vitamins and natural energy sources like caffeine (I know, it's not natural but I need it...I don't drink cokes, but I crave caffeine) is helping. So is being sick every time I eat food re-heated in the microwave. DH says to go to the dr, but maybe it's good for me. maybe there's an underlying condition, like stop eating microwaved food! We'll see. No dr.'s though, they don't usually have your best interest, unless you wave money at them.
My blog is free flowing...lately gardening but you never know what you'll find me pondering. And I digress frequently. I have a love for plants, nature, animals (especially my dog), family and friends. I am interested in any and everything, and I love, love, love living in Florida. To borrow the description of Cannon Ball from some of our dear friends, my home is Jumangi, complete with birds at the entrance and plants everywhere. Enjoy.
Friday, October 3, 2008
1 comment:
- Dr. Wifey said...
hmmm, i did not know that you got sick with microwaved foods...that is strange. i too have a problem with compulsive eating, trying to combat it though
- October 7, 2008 at 7:17 PM
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Thursday, 04 August 2011 05:52 PM
SAN ANGELO, Texas (AP) — A Texas jury has convicted polygamist leader Warren Jeffs on child sexual assault charges in a case stemming from two young followers he took as brides in what his church calls "spiritual marriages."
The 55-year-old head of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints stood stone-faced as the verdict was read.
The charges came after a massive 2008 raid of the church's remote West Texas ranch. Jeffs faces up to life in prison.
A forensic analyst testified that Jeffs was an almost certain DNA match to the child of a 15-year-old mother. Jeffs also was accused of assaulting a 12-year-old girl..
Jeffs acted as his own attorney and claimed he was a victim of religious persecution.
© Copyright 2019 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.
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Keep discussions on topic, avoid personal attacks and threats of any kind. Links will not be permitted.
Newsmax, Moneynews, Newsmax Health, and Independent. American. are registered trademarks of Newsmax Media, Inc. Newsmax TV, and Newsmax World are trademarks of Newsmax Media, Inc.


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2016/09/02 Scalptrade - long eurusd
FX:EURUSD Fx Euro/Dolar U.S.
Dilihat 102 kali
Komen: got stopped out for this trade, this is real trading, some trade will not work out, the key is to protect your capital. we stopped out for about 20 pips and we will make it back soon.
you are doing great job !!! scalping is too risky , although I lost 20 pips, but still satisfied , losing is part of trading .... looking further for your future trades :)


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We believe that good taste is a reflection of our clients unique prospective. We create a harmonious environment that at times can be unexpected but has character and style. interior design
Read More>>
Former magazine and TV advertising stylist, decorator and Editor of Better Homes and Gardens, Australia, with a degree in Psychology and Masters in Finance. I like people and work to understand their needs; so listening, timing and follow through are important.
"Diana is a miracle worker. And Diana put it together so well. It's a source of great pride and a lot of fun. The home has been ideally suited for us."
Nancy Van Duyne, quoted from a feature in Small Room Decorating magazine
Thank you for all the things you have done for my family.
You did our house so quickly and it should have been a reality makeover TV show.
Our designed homes have been featured on the 'House Tour of Capitol Hill' and 'Wesley Heights' and national magazines.


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Do you dream of getting married on the beach but don't have a clue how to make it happen?
Are you tired of spending hours researching the laws and residency requirements for your location?
Want to be treated like a princess on your special day?
Terrified you will make a mistake in picking the resort or destination?
With the excitement and craziness of planning a wedding, do you feel overwhelmed and want some help?
Who We Are
Look no more. Divine Destinations works with busy couples who want to realize their dream of a perfect Destination Wedding in an exotic location but don't want the stress or hassle of trying to do it themselves. As a Certified Destination Wedding planner and self proclaimed Destination Diva, Jennifer Maki combined her unique skill of match making couples to the perfect destination and her passion for travel and created Divine Destinations which focuses on the busy couple who dreams of a wedding in a special locale but doesn't want to risk such an important milestone to chance.


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Monday, September 29, 2008
Christina Calayca, Monday4 the Missing
Christina Calayca, Monday4 the Missing
Christina Calayca has one of the widest, happiest smiles I have ever seen along with a twinkle in her eye that makes her whole face sparkle with life.
Christina was not a rugged outdoors type person according to family members and it is a mystery to them that she would be jogging at the Rainbow Falls Provincial Park in Canada. She had told family members that she was planning a trip to Montreal for a Christian retreat over a long weekend, and they feel if she went camping it would be somewhere that there was a semblance of civilization and amenities, not in a primitive, rugged area. Apparently Christina and her friends decided to ditch the Montreal plans and headed for the area near Thunder Bay.
It is reported that she was going for a jog with a fire fighter friend, got tired and said she was turning back. She never made it back to the rugged campsite and what happened next continues to be a mystery. The park is so rugged that searchers who were covering the are were injured and a search dog also went missing. There are several drop offs in the hilly, rough terrain and the family was kept back from the search area because of the dangers.
After 17 days of massive searching they turned up no clues as to what happened to Christina. They continue to go up and down the many trails that she could have taken and the authorities do not suspect foul play from any of her friends she travelled there with. Black bear attack has been ruled out, also.
A year after she went missing on August 6, 2007, her mother has peace within feeling that Christina is in heaven. Her friends live with the regrets of leaving her to jog alone, but no one has forgotten her and that beautiful smile.
By all accounts she was a vibrant 20 year old and loved by many. She is missed by her close knit family and friends. Her family is trying to raise $100,000 to renew extensive searching for her.
"The peace that I have after that," Rutledge (Christina's mother)breathes. "I said truly she is in heaven. She is really taken care of by God."
*If you would like to feature this Monday4 the Missing entry on your blog and become part of the Monday4 the Missing Blogroll, please just copy and paste to your own blog,or write an entry from your own perspective, email firstname.lastname@example.com and you will be included in the effort to get these individual cases exposed each Monday. We need as many bloggers as possible!
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text: I kept playing the clarinet and saxophone in public on the street and gradually evolved into mastering the little wooden recorder flute, easy to carry and fun to play. When I was living up at the Harvard Camp tipi site, I passed some dumpsters on the way home one day and inside found a nice little Hopf recorder in a carrying case with a fingering chart. I learned to play it and in about 8 months could whip it out in public for jams and Irish tunes. By this time I was living at my Stillwinds Tipi and rode a little motorcycle into town, or hitched during the big snowstorms.