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The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, c. 509 BC, and lasted over 450 years until its subversion, through a series of civil wars, into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period.
The Roman Republic was governed by a complex constitution, which centered on the principles of a separation of powers and checks and balances. The evolution of the constitution was heavily influenced by the struggle between the aristocracy, or the patricians, and other talented Romans who were not from famous families, the plebeians. Early in its history, the republic was controlled by an aristocracy of individuals who could trace their ancestry back to the early history of the kingdom. Over time, the laws that allowed these individuals to dominate the government were repealed, and the result was the emergence of a new aristocracy which depended on the structure of society, rather than the law, to maintain its dominance.
During the first two centuries, the Republic saw its territory expand from central Italy to the entire Mediterranean world. In the next century, Rome grew to dominate North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, Greece, and what is now southern France. During the last two centuries of the Roman Republic, it grew to dominate the rest of modern France, as well as much of the east. At this point, the republican political machinery was replaced with imperialism.
The precise event which signaled the end of the Roman Republic and the transition into the Roman Empire is a matter of interpretation. Towards the end of the period a selection of Roman leaders came to so dominate the political arena that they exceeded the limitations of the Republic as a matter of course. Historians have variously proposed the appointment of Julius Caesar as perpetual dictator in 44 BC, the defeat of Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the Roman Senate's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian (Augustus) under the first settlement in 27 BC, as candidates for the defining pivotal event ending the Republic.
Many of Rome's legal and legislative structures can still be observed throughout Europe and the rest of the world by modern states and organisations. The Romans' Latin language has influenced grammar and vocabulary across Europe and the world.
According to the more or less legendary traditional accounts, Rome's republican era began after the overthrow of the last Roman King of the Tarquin monarchy by Lucius Junius Brutus in 509 BC. The republic of Rome was then ruled by the Senate and its assembly which were put in place as far back as the beginning of the monarchy.[2]
The Roman Republic was governed by a largely complex constitution, which centred on the principles of a separation of powers and comprised a host of checks and balances. The evolution of the constitution was heavily influenced by the struggle between the aristocracy and the other prominent Romans who were not from the nobility. Early in its history, the republic was controlled by an aristocracy, the patricians, who could trace their ancestry back to the early history of the kingdom. Over time, the laws that allowed these individuals to dominate the government were repealed, and the result was the emergence of a new aristocracy which depended on the structure of society, rather than the law, to maintain its dominance.
Rome also saw its territory expand dramatically during this period, from central Italy to the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries, Rome's influence expanded to cover the whole of Italy. During the next century, Rome's military muscle and developing economy dominated North Africa, Spain, Greece, and what is now southern France. During the last two centuries of the Roman Republic, Rome overcame resistance across the rest of modern France, as well as much of Anatolia and Syria.
The Constitution of the Roman Republic was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent.[3] The Roman constitution was not formal or even official. It was largely unwritten, uncodified, and constantly evolving.
The Senate's ultimate authority derived from the esteem and prestige of the Senate.[4] This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom, as well as the high calibre and prestige of the Senators.[5] The Senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consultum. This was officially "advice" from the Senate to a magistrate. In practice, however, these were usually obeyed by the magistrates.[6] The focus of the Roman Senate was directed towards foreign policy.[7] Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict, the Senate ultimately was the force that oversaw such affairs. The senate also managed the civil administration in the city and the town. The requirements for becoming a senator included having at least 100,000 denarii worth of land, being born of the patrician (noble aristocrats) class, and having held public office at least once before. New Senators had to be approved by the sitting members.
It was the People of Rome - and thus the assemblies - who had the final say regarding the election of magistrates,[8] the enactment of new laws,[9] the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances.[8] There were two types of legislative assemblies. The first was the comitia ("committees"),[10] which were assemblies of all citizens. The second was the concilia ("councils"), which were assemblies of specific groups of citizens.[11]
Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes. The centuries and the tribes would each gather into their own assemblies. The Comitia Centuriata ("Century Assembly") was the assembly of the centuries. The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually a consul.[12] The centuries would vote, one at a time, until a measure received support from a majority of the centuries. The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had imperium powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare war, and ratify the results of a census.[13] It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases.[14]
The assembly of the tribes, the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul,[12] and was composed of thirty-five tribes. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical subdivisions.[15] The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot.[16] Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes, the voting would end. While it did not pass many laws, the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.[17]
The Plebeian Council[18] was an assembly of plebeians, the non-patrician citizens of Rome, who would gather into their respective tribes. They elected their own officers, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles. Usually a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly. This assembly passed most laws, and could also act as a court of appeal. Since it was organized on the basis of the tribes, its rules and procedures were nearly identical to those of the Comitia Tributa.
Each magistrate was vested with a degree of maior potestas ("major power").[19] Each magistrate could veto any action that was taken by a magistrate of an equal or lower rank. Plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles, on the other hand, were independent of the other magistrates.[12][19]
Each republican magistrate held certain constitutional powers. Only the People of Rome (both plebeians and patricians) had the right to confer these powers on any individual magistrate.[20] The most powerful constitutional power was imperium. Imperium was held by both consuls and praetors. Imperium gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force. All magistrates also had the power of coercion. This was used by magistrates to maintain public order.[21] While in Rome, all citizens had an absolute protection against coercion. This protection was called provocatio (see below). Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens. This power would often be used to obstruct political opponents.
One check over a magistrate's power was his collegiality. Each magisterial office would be held concurrently by at least two people. Another check over the power of a magistrate was provocatio. Provocatio was a primordial form of due process. It was a precursor to habeas corpus. If any magistrate was attempting to use the powers of the state against a citizen, that citizen could appeal the decision of the magistrate to a tribune.[22] In addition, once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again. Since this did create problems for some consuls and praetors, these magistrates would occasionally have their imperium extended. In effect, they would retain the powers of the office (as a promagistrate), without officially holding that office.[23]
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The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate.[12][24] Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government.[12] They would preside over the senate and the assemblies. While abroad, each consul would command an army.[12][25] His authority abroad would be nearly absolute.[12]
Praetors would administer civil law[26] and command provincial armies. Every five years, two censors would be elected for an eighteen month term. During their term in office, the two censors would conduct a census. During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate.[27] Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, such as managing public games and shows. The quaestors would usually assist the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces. Their duties were often financial.
Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity. One obvious consequence of this sacrosanctity was the fact that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with a tribune.[28]
In times of military emergency, a dictator would be appointed for a term of six months.[29] Constitutional government would dissolve, and the dictator would become the absolute master of the state.[30] When the dictator's term ended, constitutional government would be restored.
The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases. The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the monarchy in 509 BC. The final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic, and thus created the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. Throughout the history of the republic, the constitutional evolution was driven by the struggle between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens.
According to legend, the last king was overthrown in 509 BC. The historical monarchy, as the legends suggest, was probably overthrown quickly, but the constitutional changes which occurred immediately after the revolution were probably not as extensive as the legends suggest. The most important constitutional change probably concerned the chief executive. Before the revolution, a king would be elected by the senators for a life term. Now, two consuls were elected by the citizens for an annual term.[31] Each consul would check his colleague, and their limited term in office would open them up to prosecution if they abused the powers of their office. Consular political powers, when exercised conjointly with a consular colleague, were no different from those of the old king.[32] In the immediate aftermath of the revolution, the senate and the assemblies were as powerless as they had been under the monarchy.
In 494 BC, the city was at war with two neighboring tribes. The plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy, and instead seceded to the Aventine hill. The plebeians demanded the right to elect their own officials. The patricians agreed, and the plebeians returned to the battlefield.[33] The plebeians called these new officials "plebeian tribunes". The tribunes would have two assistants, called "plebeian aediles". In 367 BC a law was passed, which required the election of at least one plebeian aedile each year. In 443 BC, the censorship was created, and in 366 BC, the praetorship was created. Also in 366 BC, the curule aedileship was created.[34] Shortly after the founding of the republic, the Comitia Centuriata ("Assembly of the Centuries") became the principal legislative assembly. In this assembly, magistrates were elected, and laws were passed.
During the fourth century BC, a series of reforms were passed. The result of these reforms was that any law passed by the Plebeian Council would have the full force of law. This gave the tribunes (who presided over the Plebeian Council) a positive character for the first time. Before these laws were passed, the only power that the tribunes held was that of the veto.
After the plebeian aedileship had been created, the patricians created the curule aedileship.[35] After the consulship had been opened to the plebeians, the plebeians were able to hold both the dictatorship and the censorship. In 337 BC, the first plebeian praetor was elected.[36]
In 342 BC, two significant laws were passed. One of these two laws made it illegal to hold more than one office at any given point in time. The other law required an interval of ten years to pass before any magistrate could seek reelection to any office.[37]
During these years, the tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close. The senate realized the need to use plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals.[38] To win over the tribunes, the senators gave the tribunes a great deal of power and the tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate. As the tribunes and the senators grew closer, plebeian senators were often able to secure the tribunate for members of their own families. In time, the tribunate became a stepping stone to higher office.[39]
Around the middle of the fourth century BC, the Concilium Plebis enacted the "Ovinian Law". During the early republic, only consuls could appoint new senators. The Ovinian law, however, gave this power to the censors. It also required the censor to appoint any newly-elected magistrate to the senate.[40] By this point, plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices. Thus, the number of plebeian senators probably increased quickly. However, it remained difficult for a plebeian to enter the senate if he was not from a well-known political family, as a new patrician-like plebeian aristocracy emerged.[41] The old nobility existed through the force of law, because only patricians were allowed to stand for high office. The new nobility existed due to the organization of society. As such, only a revolution could overthrow this new structure.[42]
By 287 BC, the economic condition of the average plebeian had become poor. The problem appears to have centered around widespread indebtedness. The plebeians demanded relief, but the senators refused to address their situation. The result was the final plebeian secession. The plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill. To end the secession, a dictator was appointed. The dictator passed a law (the "Hortensian Law"), which ended the requirement that the patrician senators must agree before any bill could be considered by the Plebeian Council.[43] This was not the first law to require that an act of the Plebeian Council have the full force of law. The Plebeian Council acquired this power during a modification to the original Valerian law in 449 BC.[44] The significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the patricians of their final weapon over the plebeians. The result was that control over the state fell, not onto the shoulders of voters in a democracy, but to the new plebeian nobility.[45]
The plebeians had finally achieved political equality with the patricians. However, the plight of the average plebeian had not changed. A small number of plebeian families achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic patrician families had always had, but the new plebeian aristocrats became as uninterested in the plight of the average plebeian as the old patrician aristocrats had always been.[42]
The great accomplishment of the Hortensian Law was in that it deprived the patricians of their last weapon over the plebeians. Thus, the last great political question of the earlier era had been resolved. As such, no important political changes would occur between 287 BC and 133 BC.[46] The critical laws of this era were still enacted by the senate.[47] In effect, democracy was satisfied with the possession of power, but did not care to use it. The senate was supreme during this era because the era was dominated by questions of foreign and military policy.[48] This era was the most militarily active era of the Roman Republic.
The final decades of this era saw a worsening economic situation for many plebeians. The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms to fight, only to return to farms that had fallen into disrepair. The landed aristocracy began buying bankrupted farms at discounted prices. As commodity prices fell, many farmers could no longer operate their farms at a profit.[49] The result was the ultimate bankruptcy of countless farmers. Masses of unemployed plebeians soon began to flood into Rome, and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies. Their economic state usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered the most for them. A new culture of dependency was emerging, which would look to any populist leader for relief.[50]
The prior era saw great military successes, and great economic failures. The patriotism of the plebeians had kept them from seeking any new reforms. Now, the military situation had stabilized, and fewer soldiers were needed. This, in conjunction with the new slaves that were being imported from abroad, inflamed the unemployment situation further. The flood of unemployed citizens to Rome had made the assemblies quite populist. The ultimate result was an increasingly aggressive democracy.
Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune in 133 BC. He attempted to enact a law which would have limited the amount of land that any individual could own. The aristocrats, who stood to lose an enormous amount of money, were bitterly opposed to this proposal. Tiberius submitted this law to the Plebeian Council, but the law was vetoed by a tribune named Marcus Octavius. Tiberius then used the Plebeian Council to impeach Octavius. The theory, that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people, was counter to Roman constitutional theory. If carried to its logical end, this theory would remove all constitutional restraints on the popular will, and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority.[51] His law was enacted, but Tiberius was murdered when he stood for reelection to the tribunate.
Tiberius' brother Gaius was elected tribune in 123 BC. Gaius Gracchus' ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces.[52] In the past, for example, the senate would eliminate political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). Both devices would allow the senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had. Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions, and declared the senatus consultum ultimum to be unconstitutional. Gaius then proposed a law which would grant citizenship rights to Rome's Italian allies. By this point, however, the selfish democracy of Rome deserted him. He stood for election to a third term in 121 BC, but was defeated and then murdered. The democracy, however, had finally realized how weak the senate had become.[53]
In 118 BC, King Micipsa of Numidia (current-day Algeria and Tunisia) died. He was survived by two legitimate sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and an illegitimate son, Jugurtha. Micipsa divided his kingdom between these three sons. Jugurtha, however, turned on his brothers, killing Hiempsal and driving Adherbal out of Numidia. Adherbal fled to Rome for assistance, and initially Rome mediated a division of the country between the two brothers. Eventually, Jugurtha renewed his offensive, leading to a long and inconclusive war with Rome. He also bribed several Roman commanders, and at least two tribunes, before and during the war. His nemesis, Gaius Marius, a legate from a virtually unknown provincial family, returned from the war in Numidia and was elected consul in 107 BC over the objections of the aristocratic senators. Marius invaded Numidia and brought the war to a quick end, capturing Jugurtha in the process. The apparent incompetence of the senate, and the brilliance of Marius, had been put on full display.[54] The populares party took full advantage of this opportunity by allying itself with Marius.
Several years later, in 88 BC, a Roman army was sent to put down an emerging Asian power, king Mithridates of Pontus. The army, however, was defeated. One of Marius' old quaestors, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, had been elected consul for the year, and was ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates. Marius, a member of the democratic ("populares") party, had a tribune revoke Sulla's command of the war against Mithridates. Sulla, a member of the aristocratic ("optimates") party, brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome. Sulla was so angry at Marius' tribune that he passed a law intended to permanently weaken the tribunate.[55] He then returned to his war against Mithridates. With Sulla gone, the populares under Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city.
During the period in which the populares party controlled the city, they flouted convention by re-electing Marius consul several times without observing the customary ten year interval between offices. They also transgressed the established oligarchy by advancing unelected individuals to magisterial office, and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation.
Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates. In 83 BC, he returned to Rome, overcame all resistance, and recaptured the city. Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius' supporters. Sulla, having observed the violent results of radical popular reforms, was naturally conservative. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and by extension the senate.[56] Sulla made himself dictator, passed a series of constitutional reforms, resigned the dictatorship, and served one last term as consul. He died in 78 BC.
In 77 BC, the senate sent one of Sulla's former lieutenants, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great"), to put down an uprising in Spain. By 71 BC, Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission. Around the same time, another of Sulla's former lieutenants, Marcus Licinius Crassus, had just put down the Spartacus led gladiator/slave revolt in Italy. Upon their return, Pompey and Crassus found the populares party fiercely attacking Sulla's constitution.[57] They attempted to forge an agreement with the populares party. If both Pompey and Crassus were elected consul in 70 BC, they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla's constitution. The two were soon elected, and quickly dismantled most of Sulla's constitution.[58]
Around 66 BC, a movement to use constitutional, or at least peaceful, means to address the plight of various classes began.[59] After several failures, the movement's leaders decided to use any means that were necessary to accomplish their goals. The movement coalesced under an aristocrat named Lucius Sergius Catiline. The movement was based in the town of Faesulae, which was a natural hotbed of agrarian agitation.[60] The rural malcontents were to advance on Rome,[61] and be aided by an uprising within the city. After assassinating the consuls and most of the senators, Catiline would be free to enact his reforms. The conspiracy was set in motion in 63 BC. The consul for the year, Marcus Tullius Cicero, intercepted messages that Catiline had sent in an attempt to recruit more members. As a result, the top conspirators in Rome (including at least one former consul) were executed by authorization (of dubious constitutionality) of the senate, and the planned uprising was disrupted. Cicero then sent an army, which cut Catiline's forces to pieces.
The most important result of the Catilinarian conspiracy was that the populares party became discredited. The prior 70 years had witnessed a gradual erosion in senatorial powers. The violent nature of the conspiracy, in conjunction with the senate's skill in disrupting it, did a great deal to repair the senate's image.[61]
In 62 BC, Pompey returned victorious from Asia. The senate, elated by its successes against Catiline, refused to ratify the arrangements that Pompey had made. Pompey, in effect, became powerless. Thus, when Julius Caesar returned from a governorship in Spain in 61 BC, he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey. Caesar and Pompey, along with Crassus, established a private agreement, now known as the First Triumvirate. Under the agreement, Pompey's arrangements would be ratified. Caesar would be elected consul in 59 BC, and would then serve as governor of Gaul for five years. Crassus was promised a future consulship.[62]
Caesar became consul in 59 BC. His colleague, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, was an extreme aristocrat. Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the assemblies. Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws, and so Caesar used violent means to ensure their passage.[62] Caesar was then made governor of three provinces. He facilitated the election of the former patrician Clodius to the tribunate for 58 BC. Clodius set about depriving Caesar's senatorial enemies of two of their more obstinate leaders in Cato and Cicero. Clodius was a bitter opponent of Cicero because Cicero had testified against him in a sacrilege case. Clodius attempted to try Cicero for executing citizens without a trial during the Catiline conspiracy, resulting in Cicero going into self-imposed exile and his house in Rome being burnt down. Clodius also passed a bill that forced Cato to lead the invasion of Cyprus which would keep him away from Rome for some years. Clodius also passed a bill that gave the populace a free grain dole, which had previously just been subsidised.[63]
Clodius formed armed gangs that terrorised the city and eventually began to attack Pompey's followers, who in response funded counter-gangs formed by Titus Annius Milo. The political alliance of the triumvirate was crumbling. Domitius Ahenobarbus ran for the consulship in 55 BC promising to take Caesar's command from him. Eventually, the triumvirate was renewed at Luca. Pompey and Crassus were promised the consulship in 55 BC, and Caesar's term as governor was extended for five years. Crassus led an ill-fated expedition with legions led by his son, Caesar's lieutenant, against the Kingdom of Parthia. This resulted in his defeat and death at the Battle of Carrhae. Finally, Pompey's wife, Julia, who was Caesar's daughter, died in childbirth. This event severed the last remaining bond between Pompey and Caesar.
Beginning in the summer of 54 BC, a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome.[64] This chaos reached a climax in January of 52 BC, when Clodius was murdered in a gang war by Milo. On January 1 of 49 BC, an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the senate. The ultimatum was rejected, and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year, he would be considered an enemy of the republic.[65] On January 7 of 49 BC, the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum, which vested Pompey with dictatorial powers. Pompey's army, however, was composed largely of untested conscripts. On January 10, Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his veteran army (in violation of Roman laws) and marched towards Rome. Caesar's rapid advance forced Pompey, the consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece. Caesar entered the city unopposed.
The era that began when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC and ended when Octavian returned to Rome after Actium in 29 BC, saw the constitutional evolution of the prior century accelerate at a rapid pace. By 29 BC, Rome had completed its transition from being a city-state with a network of dependencies, to being the capital of a world empire.[66]
With Pompey defeated and order restored, Caesar wanted to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed. The powers which he would give himself would ultimately be used by his imperial successors.[67] He would assume these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions.
Caesar would hold both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship.[67] In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers. This made his person sacrosanct, gave him the power to veto the senate, and allowed him to dominate the Plebeian Council. In 46 BC, Caesar was given censorial powers,[68] which he used to fill the senate with his own partisans. Caesar then raised the membership of the senate to 900.[69] This robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made it increasingly subservient to him. While the assemblies continued to meet, he submitted all candidates to the assemblies for election, and all bills to the assemblies for enactment. Thus, the assemblies became powerless and were unable to oppose him.[70]
Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome would limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC, and all consuls and tribunes in 42 BC. This, in effect, transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the dictator.[69]
Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC. The motives of the conspirators were both personal and political. The assassination was lead by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus. Most of the conspirators were senators, many of whom were angry that Caesar had deprived the senate of much of its power and prestige. Others believed he was a tyrant, abusing his power and clearing a path to absolute rule as a king. The senators took it upon themselves to destroy Caesar before he made himself invulnerable, and they stabbed Caesar to death in the senate chamber on March 15 (44 BC). The civil war that followed destroyed what was left of the republic.[71]
After the assassination, Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's adopted son and great-nephew, Gaius Octavian. Along with Marcus Lepidus, they formed an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate.[72] They held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution. As such, the senate and assemblies remained powerless, even after Caesar had been assassinated. The conspirators were then defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. Eventually, however, Antony and Octavian fought against each other in one last battle. Antony was defeated in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and he committed suicide with his love, Cleopatra. In 29 BC, Octavian returned to Rome as the unchallenged master of the empire and later accepted the title of Augustus- "Exalted One".
Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the city of Rome, and its famed seven hills. The city also had several theaters.[73] gymnasiums, and many taverns, baths and brothels. Throughout the territory under Rome's control, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas, and in the capital city of Rome, to the residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word "palace" is derived. The vast majority of the population lived in the city center, packed into apartment blocks.
Most Roman towns and cities had a forum and temples, as did the city of Rome itself. Aqueducts were built to bring water to urban centers[74] and wine and oil were imported from abroad. Landlords generally resided in cities and their estates were left in the care of farm managers. To stimulate a higher labor productivity, many landlords freed a large numbers of slaves.
Beginning in the middle of the second century BC, Greek culture was increasingly ascendant,[75] in spite of tirades against the "softening" effects of Hellenized culture. By the time of Augustus, cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young (sometimes even the girls). Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the villas, and much Roman cuisine was essentially Greek. Roman writers disdained Latin for a cultured Greek style.
Many aspects of Roman culture were borrowed from the Greeks.[75] In architecture and sculpture, the difference between Greek models and Roman paintings are apparent. The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch and the dome. Rome has also had a tremendous impact on Western cultures following it. Its significance is perhaps best reflected in its endurance and influence, as is seen in the longevity and lasting importance of works of Virgil and Ovid. Latin, the Republic's primary language, remains used for liturgical purposes by Roman Catholic Church, and up to the nineteenth century was used extensively in scholarly writings in, for example, science and mathematics. Roman law laid the foundations for the laws of many Western countries.
The center of the early social structure was the family,[76] which was not only marked by blood relations but also by the legally constructed relation of patria potestas.[77] The Pater familias was the absolute head of the family; he was the master over his wife, his children, the wives of his sons, the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen, disposing of them and of their goods at will, even putting them to death.[78] Roman law recognized only patrician families as legal entities.
Slavery and slaves were part of the social order; there were slave markets where they could be bought and sold. Many slaves were freed by the masters for services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by legislation. It is estimated that over 25% of the Roman population was enslaved.[79][80]
The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by plebeians, or common people, like shepherds and slaves, was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool.[81] A knight or magistrate would wear an augusticlavus, a tunic bearing small purple studs. Senators wore tunics with broad red stripes, called tunica laticlavia.[82][83] Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia, wore the toga praetexta, which was a toga with a crimson or purple border. The toga virilis, (or toga pura) was worn by men over the age of 16 to signify their citizenship in Rome. The toga picta was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield. The toga pulla was worn when in mourning.
Even footwear indicated a person's social status. Patricians wore red and orange sandals, senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. Men typically wore a toga, and women a stola. The woman's stola looked different than a toga, and was usually brightly colored. The Romans also invented socks for those soldiers required to fight on the northern frontiers, sometimes worn in sandals.[84]
Romans had simple food habits. Staple food was simple, generally consumed at around 11 o'clock, and consisted of bread, salad, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. The Roman poet, Horace mentions another Roman favorite, the olive, in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance."[85] The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table. Fingers were used to eat solid foods and spoons were used for soups.
Wine was considered a staple drink,[86] consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap. Cato the Elder once advised cutting his rations in half to conserve wine for the workforce.[87] Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for alcoholism, whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were known to the Romans. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic was an effective way to discredit political rivals. Prominent Roman alcoholics included Mark Antony,[88] and Cicero's own son Marcus (Cicero Minor). Even Cato the Younger was known to be a heavy drinker.
Following various military conquests in the Greek East, Romans adapted a number of Greek educational precepts to their own fledgling system.[89] physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual recruitment into the army. Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis. Girls generally received instruction[90] from their mothers in the art of spinning, weaving, and sewing.
Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of reading, writing and counting. By the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin, Greek, grammar and literature, followed by training for public speaking. Oratory was an art to be practiced and learnt, and good orators commanded respect. To become an effective orator was one of the objectives of education and learning. In some cases, services of gifted slaves were utilized for imparting education.[90]
The native language of the Romans was Latin. Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation. Rome's expansion spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages.[91] Many of these languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian and Spanish, flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time. Although English is Germanic rather than Romanic in origin, English borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words.
Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His Aeneid tells the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of the city that would become Rome. Lucretius, in his On the Nature of Things, attempted to explicate science in an epic poem. The genre of satire was common in Rome, and satires were written by, among others, Juvenal[92] and Persius. The rhetorical works of Cicero are considered to be some of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity.
In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Portrait sculpture[93] during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, often depicting Roman victories.
Music was a major part of everyday life. The word itself derives from Greek μουσική (mousike), "(art) of the Muses".[94] Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and maneuvers. In a discussion of any ancient music, however, non-specialists and even many musicians have to be reminded that much of what makes our modern music familiar to us is the result of developments only within the last 1,000 years; thus, our ideas of melody, scales, harmony, and even the instruments we use would not be familiar to Romans who made and listened to music many centuries earlier.
Over time, Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements changed, and the civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. The Roman concrete has remained a riddle, and even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand magnificently.[95] The architectural style of the capital city was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence. Roman cities were well planned, efficiently managed and neatly maintained.
The city of Rome had a place called the Campus Martius ("Field of Mars"), which was a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers. Later, the Campus became Rome's track and field playground. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Riding, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, pastime also included fishing and hunting. Board games played in Rome included Dice (Tesserae or Tali), Roman Chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon.[96] There were several other activities to keep people engaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical performances,
Roman religious beliefs date back to the founding of Rome, around 800 BC. However, the Roman religion commonly associated with the republic and early empire did not begin until around 500 BC, when Romans came in contact with Greek culture, and adopted many of the Greek's religious beliefs. Private and personal worship was an important aspect of religious practices. In a sense, each household was a temple to the gods. Each household had an altar (lararium), at which the family members would offer prayers, perform rites, and interact with the household gods. Many of the gods that Romans worshiped came from the Proto-Indo-European pantheon, others were based on Greek gods. The two most famous deities were Jupiter (the king God) and Mars (the god of war). With its cultural influence spreading over most of the Mediterranean, Romans began accepting foreign gods into their own culture, as well as other philosophical traditions such as Cynicism and Stoicism.[97]
The structural history of the Roman military describes the major chronological transformations in the organization and constitution of the Roman armed forces. The Roman military was split into the Roman army and the Roman navy, although these two branches were less distinct than they tend to be in modern defense forces. Within the top-level branches of army and navy, structural changes occurred both as a result of positive military reform and through organic structural evolution.
|This article is part of the series on:
Military of ancient Rome (portal)
|Structural history
|Roman army (unit types and ranks, legions, auxiliaries, generals)
|Roman navy (fleets, admirals)
|Campaign history
|Lists of wars and battles
|Decorations and punishments
|Technological history
|Military engineering (castra, siege engines, arches, roads)
|Personal equipment
|Political history
|Strategy and tactics
|Infantry tactics
|Frontiers and fortifications (limes, Hadrian's Wall)
During this period, Roman soldiers seem to have been modeled after those of the Etruscans to the north,[98] who themselves seem to have copied their style of warfare from the Greeks. Traditionally, the introduction of the phalanx formation into the Roman army is ascribed to the city's penultimate king, Servius Tullius (ruled 578 to 534 BC).[99] According to Livy[100] and Dionysius of Halicarnassus,[101] the front rank was composed of the wealthiest citizens, who were able to purchase the best equipment. Each subsequent rank consisted of those with less wealth and poorer equipment than the one before it.
One disadvantage of the phalanx was that it was only effective when fighting in large, open spaces, which left the Romans at a disadvantage when fighting in the hilly terrain of central Italy. Sometime during the fourth century BC, the Romans abandoned the phalanx in favour of the more flexible manipular formation. This change is sometimes attributed to Marcus Furius Camillus and placed shortly after the Gallic invasion of 390 BC; it is more likely, however, that they were copied from Rome's Samnite enemies to the south,[102] possibly as a result of Samnite victories during the Second Samnite War (326 to 304 BC).[103]
During this period, an army formation of around 5,000 men (of both heavy and light infantry) was known as a legion. The manipular army was based upon social class, age and military experience.[104] Maniples were units of 120 men each drawn from a single infantry class. The maniples were typically deployed into three discreet lines based on the three heavy infantry types.
Each first line maniple were leather-armoured infantry soldiers who wore a brass breastplate and a brass helmet adorned with 3 feathers approximately 30 cm (12 in) in height and carried an iron-clad wooden shield. They were armed with a sword and two throwing spears. The second infantry line was armed and armoured in the same manner as was the first infantry line. The second infantry line, however, wore a lighter coat of mail rather than a solid brass breastplate. The third infantry line was the last remnant of the hoplite-style (the Greek-style formation used occasionally during the early republic) troops in the Roman army. They were armed and armoured in the same manner as were the soldiers in the second line, with the exception that they carried a lighter spear.[105]
The three infantry classes[106] may have retained some slight parallel to social divisions within Roman society, but at least officially the three lines were based upon age and experience rather than social class. Young, unproven men would serve in the first line, older men with some military experience would serve in the second line, and veteran troops of advanced age and experience would serve in the third line.
The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion.[106] The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians. There was an additional class of troops who followed the army without specific martial roles and were deployed to the rear of the third line. Their role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples. The light infantry consisted of 1,200 unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes. They were armed with a sword and a small shield, as well as several light javelins.
A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after about 300 BC, but it was massively upgraded about forty years later, during the First Punic War. After a period of frenetic construction, the navy mushroomed to a size of more than 400 ships on the Carthaginian ("Punic") pattern. Once completed, it could accommodate up to 100,000 sailors and embarked troops for battle. The navy thereafter declined in size.[107]
The extraordinary demands of the Punic Wars, in addition to a shortage of manpower, exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion, at least in the short term.[108] In 217 BC, near the beginning of the Second Punic War, Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long-standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners. During the second century BC, Roman territory saw an overall decline in population,[109] partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars. This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes. As a result, the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, which it had not had to do in the past.
The distinction between the heavy infantry types began to blur, perhaps because the state was now assuming the responsibility of providing standard-issue equipment. In addition, the shortage of available manpower led to a greater burden being placed upon Rome's allies for the provision of allied troops.[110] Eventually, the Romans were forced to begin hiring mercenaries to fight alongside the legions.[111]
In a process known as the Marian reforms, Roman consul Gaius Marius carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military.[112] In 107 BC, all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for entry into the Roman army. This move formalized and concluded a gradual process that had been growing for centuries, of removing property requirements for military service.[113] The distinction between the three heavy infantry classes, which had already become blurred, had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry. The heavy infantry legionaries were drawn from citizen stock, while non-citizens came to dominate the ranks of the light infantry. The army's higher-level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy.[114]
Unlike earlier in the Republic, legionaries were no longer fighting on a seasonal basis to protect their land.η[›] Instead, they received standard pay, and were employed by the state on a fixed-term basis. As a consequence, military duty began to appeal most to the poorest sections of society, to whom a salaried pay was attractive. A destabilizing consequence of this development was that the proletariat "acquired a stronger and more elevated position"[115] within the state.
The legions of the late Republic were, structurally, almost entirely heavy infantry. The legion's main sub-unit was called a cohort and consisted of approximately 480 infantrymen. The cohort was therefore a much larger unit than the earlier maniple sub-unit, and was divided into six centuries of 80 men each.[116] Each century was separated further into 10 "tent groups" of 8 men each. Legions additionally consisted of a small body, typically 120 men, of Roman legionary cavalry. The cavalry troops were used as scouts and dispatch riders rather than battlefield cavalry.[117] Legions also contained a dedicated group of artillery crew of perhaps 60 men. Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied (non-Roman) troops.[118]
However, the most obvious deficiency of the Roman army remained its shortage of cavalry, especially heavy cavalry.[119] As Rome's borders expanded and its adversaries changed from largely infantry-based to largely cavalry-based troops, the infantry-based Roman army began to find itself at a tactical disadvantage, particularly in the East.
After having declined in size following the subjugation of the Mediterranean, the Roman navy underwent short-term upgrading and revitalization in the late Republic to meet several new demands. Under Caesar, an invasion fleet was assembled in the English Channel to allow the invasion of Britannia; under Pompey, a large fleet was raised in the Mediterranean Sea to clear the sea of Cilician pirates. During the civil war that followed, as many as a thousand ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities.[107]
The core of the campaign history of the Roman Republican military is the account of the Roman military's land battles. Despite the encompassing of lands around the periphery of the Mediterranean sea, naval battles were typically less significant than land battles to the military history of Rome.
As with most ancient civilizations, Rome's military served the triple purposes of securing its borders, exploiting peripheral areas through measures such as imposing tribute on conquered peoples, and maintaining internal order. From the outset, Rome's military typified this pattern and the majority of Rome's campaigns were characterized by one of two types. The first is the territorial expansionist campaign, normally begun as a counter-offensive,[120] in which each victory brought subjugation of large areas of territory. The second is the civil war, of which examples plagued the Roman Republic in its final century.
Roman armies were not invincible, despite their formidable reputation and host of victories. Over the centuries the Romans "produced their share of incompetents"[121] who led Roman armies into catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of even the greatest of Rome's enemies, such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal,[122] to win the battle but lose the war. The history of Rome's campaigning is, if nothing else, a history of obstinate persistence overcoming appalling losses.
The first Roman republican wars were wars of both expansion and defense, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region.[123] Initially, Rome's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages,[124] or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond. One by one Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities that were either under Etruscan control or else Latin towns that had cast off their Etruscan rulers.[125] Rome defeated Latin cities in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC,[124][126] the Battle of Mons Algidus in 458 BC, the Battle of Corbione in 446 BC,[127][128] the Battle of Aricia,[129] and an Etruscan city in the Battle of the Cremera in 477 BC,[130][131]
By the end of this period, Rome had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan and Latin neighbours,[132] as well as secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the tribes people of the nearby Apennine hills.
By 390 BC, several Gallic tribes had begun invading Italy from the north as their culture expanded throughout Europe. The Romans were alerted of this when a particularly warlike tribe[133] invaded two Etruscan towns from the north. These two towns were not far from Rome's sphere of influence. These towns, overwhelmed by the size of the enemy in numbers and ferocity, called on Rome for help. The Romans met them in pitched battle at the Battle of Allia River around 390-387 BC. The Gauls, under their chieftain Brennus, defeated the Roman army of around 15,000 troops and proceeded to pursue the fleeing Romans back to Rome itself and sacked the city[134] before being either driven off or bought off. Now that the Romans and Gauls had bloodied one another, intermittent warfare was to continue between the two in Italy for more than two centuries. The Celtic problem would not be resolved for Rome until the final subjugation of all Gaul by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC.
After recovering surprisingly swiftly from the sack of Rome,[135] the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy. The First Samnite War of between 343 BC and 341 BC was a relatively short affair: the Romans beat the Samnites in two battles, but were forced to withdraw from the war before they could pursue the conflict further due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the Latin War.[136][137] Rome bested the Latins in the Battle of Vesuvius and again in the Battle of Trifanum,[137] after which the Latin cities were obliged to submit to Roman rule.[138]
The Second Samnite War, from 327 BC to 304 BC, was a much longer and more serious affair for both the Romans and Samnites.[139] The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated throughout its course. The Romans then proved victorious at the Battle of Bovianum and the tide turned strongly against the Samnites from 314 BC onwards, leading them to sue for peace with progressively less generous terms. By 304 BC the Romans had effectively annexed the greater degree of the Samnite territory, founding several colonies.
Seven years after their defeat, with Roman dominance of the area looking assured, the Samnites rose again and defeated a Roman army in 298 BC, to open the Third Samnite War. With this success in hand they managed to bring together a coalition of several previous enemies of Rome.[140] In the Battle of Populonia in 282 BC Rome finished off the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region.
By the beginning of the third century, Rome had established itself as a major power on the Italian Peninsula, but had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers in the Mediterranean at the time: Carthage and the Greek kingdoms.[141][142]
When a diplomatic dispute between Rome and a Greek colony[143] erupted into open warfare in a naval confrontation, the Greek colony appealed for military aid to Pyrrhus, ruler of the northwestern Greek kingdom of Epirus. Motivated by a personal desire for military accomplishment, Pyrrhus landed a Greek army of some 25,000 men on Italian soil in 280 BC.
Despite early victories, Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable. Rome steadfastly refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus as long as his army remained in Italy.[144] Facing unacceptably heavy losses with each encounter with the Roman army, Pyrrhus withdrew from the peninsula. In 275 BC, Pyrrhus again met the Roman army at the Battle of Beneventum. While Beneventum was indecisive, Pyrrhus realized his army had been exhausted and reduced, by years of foreign campaigns, and seeing little hope for further gains, he withdrew completely from Italy.
The conflicts with Pyrrhus would have a great effect on Rome. Rome had shown it was capable of pitting its armies successfully against the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean, and that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad. Rome quickly moved into southern Italia, subjugating and dividing the Greek colonies.[145] Now, Rome effectively dominated the Italian peninsula,[146] and won an international military reputation.[147]
The First Punic War began in 264 BC when settlements on Sicily began to appeal to the two powers between which they lay - Rome and Carthage - to solve internal conflicts. The war saw land battles in Sicily early on, but the theatre shifted to naval battles around Sicily and Africa. Before the First Punic War there was no Roman navy to speak of. The new war in Sicily against Carthage, a great naval power,[148] forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors.[149]
The first few naval battles were catastrophic disasters for Rome. However, after training more sailors and inventing a grappling engine,[150] a Roman naval force was able to defeat a Carthaginian fleet, and further naval victories followed.[151] The Carthaginians then hired Xanthippus of Carthage, a Spartan mercenary general, to reorganize and lead their army.[152] He managed to cut off the Roman army from its base by re-establishing Carthaginian naval supremacy. With their newfound naval abilities, the Romans then beat the Carthaginians in naval battle again at the Battle of the Aegates Islands and leaving Carthage without a fleet or sufficient coin to raise one. For a maritime power the loss of their access to the Mediterranean stung financially and psychologically, and the Carthaginians sued for peace.
Continuing distrust led to the renewal of hostilities in the Second Punic War when Hannibal Barca attacked a Spanish town,[153] which had diplomatic ties to Rome.[154] Hannibal then crossed the Italian Alps to invade Italy.[155] Hannibal's successes in Italy began immediately, and reached an early climax at the Battle of Cannae, where 70,000 Romans were killed.
In three battles, the Romans managed to hold off Hannibal but then Hannibal smashed a succession of Roman consular armies. By this time Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal Barca sought to cross the Alps into Italy and join his brother with a second army. Hasdrubal managed to break through into Italy only to be defeated decisively on the Metaurus River.[155] Unable to defeat Hannibal himself on Italian soil, the Romans boldly sent an army to Africa under Scipio Africanus with the intention of threatening the Carthaginian capital. Hannibal was recalled to Africa, and defeated at the Battle of Zama.
Carthage never managed to recover after the Second Punic War[156] and the Third Punic War that followed was in reality a simple punitive mission to raze the city of Carthage to the ground.[157] Carthage was almost defenseless and when besieged offered immediate surrender, conceding to a string of outrageous Roman demands.[158] The Romans refused the surrender, and the city was stormed after a short siege and completely destroyed. Ultimately, all of Carthage's North African and Spanish territories were acquired by Rome.
Rome's preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedon, located in the north of the Greek peninsula, to attempt to extend his power westward. Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal's camp in Italy, to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome.[159][160] However, Rome discovered the agreement when Philip's emissaries were captured by a Roman fleet.[159] The First Macedonian War saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations, but they ultimately achieved their objective of pre-occupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal.
Macedon began to encroach on territory claimed by Greek city states in 200 BC and these states pleaded for help from their newfound ally Rome. Rome gave Philip an ultimatum that he must submit Macedonia to being essentially a Roman province. Philip refused, and Rome declared war against Philip in the Second Macedonian War.[161] Ultimately, in 197 BC, the Romans defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae,[162] and Macedonia was forced to surrender.
Rome now turned its attentions to one of the Greek kingdoms, the Seleucid Empire, in the east. A Roman force defeated the Seleucids at the Battle of Thermopylae and forced them to evacuate Greece.[163] The Romans then pursued the Seleucids beyond Greece, beating them in the decisive engagement of the Battle of Magnesia.[163][164]
In 179 BC Philip died[165] and his talented and ambitious son, Perseus, took his throne and showed a renewed interest in Greece.[166] Rome declared war on Macedonia again, starting the Third Macedonian War. Perseus initially had greater military success against the Romans than his father. However, as with all such ventures in this period, Rome responded by simply sending another army. The second consular army duly defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC[165][167] and the Macedonians duly capitulated, ending the Third Macedonian War.[168]
The Fourth Macedonian War, fought from 150 BC to 148 BC, was the final war between Rome and Macedon. The Romans swiftly defeated the Macedonians at the Second battle of Pydna. Another Roman army besieged and destroyed Corinth in 146 BC, which led to the surrender and thus conquest of Greece.[169]
The Jugurthine War of 111-104 BC was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of the North African kingdom of Numidia. It constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa,[170] after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. Following Jugurtha's usurpation of the throne of Numidia,[171] a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars,[172] Rome felt compelled to intervene. Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation. Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery.
In 121 BC, Rome came into contact with two Celtic tribes (from a region in modern France), both of which they defeated with apparent ease. The Cimbrian War (113-101 BC) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121 BC. The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons[173] migrated from northern Europe into Rome's northern territories,[174] and clashed with Rome and her allies.[175] At the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae both tribes were virtually annihilated, which ended the threat.
The extensive campaigning abroad by Roman generals, and the rewarding of soldiers with plunder on these campaigns, led to a general trend of soldiers becoming increasingly loyal to their generals rather than to the state.[176] Rome was also plagued by several slave uprisings during this period, in part because vast tracts of land had been given over to slave farming in which the slaves greatly outnumbered their Roman masters. In the last century BC at least twelve civil wars and rebellions occurred. This pattern did not break until Octavian (later Caesar Augustus) ended it by becoming a successful challenger to the Senate's authority, and was made princeps (emperor).
Between 135 BC and 71 BC there were three "Servile Wars" involving slave uprisings against the Roman state, the third and final uprising was the most serious.[177] involving ultimately between 120,000[178] and 150,000[179] slaves under the command of the gladiator Spartacus. Additionally, in 91 BC the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy over dissent among the allies that they shared the risk of Rome's military campaigns, but not its rewards. Although they lost militarily, the allies achieved their objectives with legal proclamations which granted citizenship to more than 500,000 Italians.
The internal unrest reached its most serious state, however, in the two civil wars that were caused by the consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla at the beginning of 82 BC. In the Battle of the Colline Gate[180] at the very door of the city of Rome, a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Roman senate, entered the city, and marched on Rome. Sulla's actions marked a watershed in the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars which ultimately overthrew the republic, and caused the founding of the Roman Empire.
Mithridates the Great was the ruler of Pontus,[181] a large kingdom in Asia Minor (modern Turkey), from 120 to 63 BC. Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom,[181] and Rome for her part seemed equally keen for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring.[181][182] In 88 BC, Mithridates ordered the killing of a majority of the 80,000 Romans living in his kingdom.[183] The massacre was the official reason given for the commencement of hostilities in the First Mithridatic War. The Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla forced Mithridates out of Greece proper, but then had to return to Italy to answer the internal threat posed by his rival, Gaius Marius. A peace was made between Rome and Pontus, but this proved only a temporary lull.
The Second Mithridatic War began when Rome tried to annex a province that Mithridates claimed as his own. In the Third Mithridatic War, first Lucius Licinius Lucullus and then Pompey the Great were sent against Mithridates.[184] Mithridates was finally defeated by Pompey in the night-time Battle of the Lycus.[185]
The Mediterranean had at this time fallen into the hands of pirates,[185] largely from Cilicia.[186] The pirates not only strangled shipping lanes but also plundered many cities on the coasts of Greece and Asia. Pompey was nominated as commander of a special naval task force to campaign against the pirates.[184][185] It took Pompey just forty days to clear the western portion of the sea of pirates and restore communication between Iberia (Spain), Africa, and Italy.
During a term as praetor in Iberia (modern Spain), Pompey's contemporary Julius Caesar defeated two local tribes in battle.[187] Following his term as consul in 59 BC, he was then appointed to a five year term as the proconsular Governor of Cisalpine Gaul (current northern Italy), Transalpine Gaul (current southern France) and Illyria (the modern Balkans).[187][188] Not content with an idle governorship, Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul, which would give him the dramatic military success he sought. When two local tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near (not into) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul, Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars, fought between 58 BC and 49 BC.
Caesar defeated large armies at major battles 58 BC and 57 BC. In 55 and 54 BC he made two expeditions into Britain, becoming the first Roman to do so. Caesar then defeated a union of Gauls at the Battle of Alesia,[189] completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul. By 50 BC, the entirety of Gaul lay in Roman hands. Gaul never regained its Celtic identity, never attempted another nationalist rebellion, and remained loyal to Rome until the fall of the western empire in 476.
By 59 BC an unofficial political alliance known as the First Triumvirate was formed between Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great") to share power and influence.[190] In 53 BC, Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire (modern Iraq and Iran). After initial successes,[191] he marched his army deep into the desert;[192] but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory, surrounded and slaughtered at the Battle of Carrhae in which Crassus himself perished. The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and, consequently, Caesar and Pompey began to move apart. While Caesar was fighting in Gaul, Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar[193] and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar's political enemies. In 51 BC, some Roman senators demanded that Caesar not be permitted to stand for consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state, which would have left Caesar defenseless before his enemies. Caesar chose Civil War over laying down his command and facing trial.
By the spring of 49 BC, the hardened legions of Caesar crossed the river Rubicon and swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome, while Pompey ordered the abandonment of Rome. Afterwards Caesar turned his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Iberia (modern Spain)[194] but decided to tackle Pompey himself in Greece.[195] Pompey initially defeated Caesar, but failed to follow up on the victory, and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC,[196] despite outnumbering Caesar's forces two to one, albeit with inferior quality troops.[197] Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where he was murdered.
Pompey's death did not result in an end to the civil war as Caesar's enemies were manifold and continued to fight on. In 46 BC Caesar lost perhaps as much as a third of his army, but ultimately came back to defeat the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in the Battle of Thapsus, after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Iberia. Caesar then defeated the combined Pompeian forces at the Battle of Munda.
Caesar was now the primary figure of the Roman state, enforcing and entrenching his powers and his enemies feared that he had ambitions to become an autocratic ruler. Arguing that the Roman Republic was in danger a group of senators hatched a conspiracy and murdered Caesar in the Senate in March of 44 BC.[198] Mark Antony, Caesar's lieutenant, condemned Caesar's assassination, and war broke out between the two factions. Antony was denounced as a public enemy, and Caesar's adopted son and chosen heir, Gaius Octavian, was entrusted with the command of the war against him. At the Battle of Mutina Antony was defeated by the consuls Hirtius and Pansa, who were both killed.
Octavian came to terms with Caesarians Antony and Lepidus in 43 BC when the Second Triumvirate was formed.[72] In 42 BC Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fought the Battle of Philippi with Caesar's assassins Brutus and Cassius. Although Brutus defeated Octavian, Antony defeated Cassius, who committed suicide. Brutus joined him shortly afterwards.
However, civil war flared again when the Second Triumvirate of Octavian, Lepidus and Mark Antony failed. The ambitious Octavian built a power base of patronage and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony.[198] At the naval Battle of Actium off the coast of Greece, Octavian decisively defeated Antony and Cleopatra. Octavian was granted a series of special powers including sole "imperium" within the city of Rome, permanent consular powers and credit for every Roman military victory, since all future generals were assumed to be acting under his command. In 27 BC Octavian was granted the use of the names "Augustus" and "Princeps" indicating his primary status above all other Romans, and he adopted the title "Imperator Caesar" making him the first Roman Emperor.[199]
Late Republic
The Roman Republic was a phase in history of the Ancient Roman Civilization. According to legend, the city of Rome was founded by Romulus in 753 BC. It was a kingdom until 510 BC, when the last King, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was overthrown. With that date, the Roman Republic began.
The Roman Republic was very well organised for ancient times. The Roman people elected Consuls, who ruled for a short time. Some of the ideas of the Roman Republic are still used today.
The end of the republic is still a matter of dispute; different scholars will give different dates for it. Usually, the dates of the start of the First Triumvirate or the Second Triumvirate are given. (The Triumvirates were groups of three men who had much power)
The end of the republic is often said to be when Gaius Julius Caesar was appointed as dictator (single ruler) by the Senate of Rome. This happened after a series of civil wars that lasted from about 49 BC to the year 44 BC.
Some people say the republic ended with the naval Battle of Actium between Marcus Antonius and Octavian. They both had been in the Second Triumvirate. It was fought on September 2, 31 BC). Octavian won. Later on, he was proclaimed Roman Emperor. The end date could also be when Octavian was given the title of the first Augustus. This was on January 16, 27 BC.
These are modern views though. In the view of the early emperors, the res publica (what is translated to Republic) still existed. It was simply "under their protection". They promised it would some day, maybe, be restored to its original form, even though this never happened. After the Roman Republic ended, the Roman Empire began.


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Subject: I have found a DVD that I think you would enjoy
|Fire on the Amazon
Actors: Craig Sheffer, Sandra Bullock, Juan Fernández, Judith Chapman, Ramsay Ross
Director: Luis Llosa
Genres: Action & Adventure, Drama
R 2005 1hr 27min
Deep in the hot and steamy Amazon jungle, activist Alyssa Rothman (Sandra Bullock) helps a brash photojournalist (Craig Sheffer) investigate the assassination of a famous environmentalist at the risk of their own lives.
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Movie Reviews
If you're watching this for the plot, don't waste your time.
Mark Harris | El Paso, TX United States | 03/12/2006
(2 out of 5 stars)
"This is an awful movie. No plot, terrible acting (even by Ms. Bullock, who is one of my favorite actors), and even bad lighting and camera angles on the one scene you're probably getting this movie to see. The two stars are simply because this is the first and probably only film in which Sandra is actually buck naked-- not that you can really see anything of substance, but it's a novelty when an A-lister like Sandra takes it all off. If owning her one and only skin flick is your goal, buy it. Otherwise, just admire her beauty fully clothed in one of her good movies."
Amateurish film, even for Bullock or Amazon fans
D. Meyer | Hartselle, AL USA | 07/13/2000
(1 out of 5 stars)
""Fire on the Amazon" was a major disappointment...With Sandra Bullock ("Speed", "The Net") and Craig Sheffer ("Fire in the Sky") in an Amazon rainforest setting, I was sure "Fire on the Amazon" was going to be a keeper to add to my collection of favorite films. Unfortunately, I was dead wrong and extremely disappointed!The plot starts out with our "reporter" (Sheffer) meeting Bullock working with a Sierra Club type of environmental group in a nameless South American country. The character of our "reporter" fluctuates from "don't give a damn" about the rainforest, to suddenly demanding to venture into the rain forest with Bullock in a dugout canoe to determine if an Indian was murdered by the police. The entire plot is weak, and the excuses for plot development are not at all credible. Character development is thin, as there is really no strong chemistry between Bullock and Sheffer - the cliche animosity towards each other at the beginning of the film is weak and not developed, and there is little or no excuse for them to team up in the middle of the film. And there is no character development or warming up towards each other as the film progresses. Suddenly there is the requisite cliche "love" scene for no reason at all (let's just call it a "skin and sex" scene with no feelings), which is so poorly edited that there is no continuity at all (some scenes mostly nude, with other partially clad scenes edited in, all with no sense of flow, buildup, or climax.)The overall quality of the cinematography was extremely poor and appeared to be low budget - in many cases handheld, poor focus, poor framing, and just plain noticeable sporadic amateur jerkiness, quite obviously not intentially meant to be handheld POV shots. The film color is dismally washed out and out of focus throughout most of the film, the editing looked like it was done by amateurs (the credits revealed two Editors and two "Apprentice Editors" who may have done much of the editing). Weak acting and botched lines seemed very "high schoolish" throughout the film. Native costumes were not at all authentic (looked like Polynesian towels and grass skirts, not at all like the breechcloths and ornamentation I have have experienced firsthand of real rain forest tribes!), setting was not established well (no shots of rainforest villages or developments of Indian characters that I was hoping for), hair styling was mostly wet and ragged for both main characters throughout the film, music was for the most part amateurish or non-existent in many scenes, and even the theme-song at the end of the film was extremely amateurish (was it Bullock herself trying to sing the theme-song? No mention of the song or singer in the credits).Overall the film was extrememly amateurish, unbelievable, and highly disappointing. It wasn't until later that I realized this film was an early, apparently low-budget film for Bullock, shot in 1990 and never released until now that she is popular. If you like Bullock, don't get this film! If you like Amazon rainforest films, I would rather recommend seeing "Emerald Forest", "The Medicine Man" or "The Mission" instead."
A complete waste of time
brianofwestwood | 08/12/2000
(1 out of 5 stars)
"The only positive thing I can say about this film is that it is only 78 minutes long. I was inspired to rent it after the morning TV news reported it's release and how Sandra Bullock allegedly tried to block it because of a nude scene. Well, I would say she tried to block its release because it is so embarassingly awful. I have seen better student films. The dialog is so bad at times it makes you laugh. The male lead (a photo journalist) take so many pictures of everything it is comical right out of a Saturday Night Live skit. He even holds out his camera to take a picture of himself while he is being held in a choke hold with a knife to his throat. As for the nude scene, it is just a series of headshots and hair flips barely enough to justify an R rating (no T&A). The plot is so weak it makes you wonder how they are going to end it as you check your watch to see how much time is left. Don't waste your time with this one..."
Not like the other Bullock movies
Rayne | Montgomery, AL USA | 09/21/2000
(2 out of 5 stars)
"This movie was somewhat of a disappointment. From watching it, I really thought it was an older movie not one that was recently released. The story didn't catch my interest. The plot was developed enough and the quality of the film was poor.I watched it mainly because of Sandra Bullock, I've loved all her films so far, but this one is nothing like any of her others. I wonder what made her do it. It is so unlike her and the movie surely didn't measure up to her usual standard. I definitely didn't think it was a worthy film and I didn't even get through most of it. It just wasn't gripping enough to keep me watching to the end."

subset: commoncrawl


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Being that search and rescue missions are time-sensitive to ensure that all parties are located safe and sound, new drone technology is now coming to light to help aid rescuers.
Developed by a team of researchers from the University of Zurich, NCCR Robotics and Dalle Molle Institute for Artificial Intelligence, the drone technology enables drones to follow man-made tracks and trails.
The software was fed 20,000 images of different trail varieties to help the system understand what could and could not lead to a lost hiker. The testing has resulted in the drones being able to correctly identify the correct path 85% of the time, which is welcome news to those that operate search and rescue missions.
The new drone technology software could help to increase the efficiency of rescue missions in the near future.
Lost Hiker-Tracking Drones
More Stats +/-
Compact Forestry Robots
Hybrid Drone Toys
Large-Scale Passenger Drones
Solar-Powered Delivery Drones
Dedicated Commercial Droneports
New Drone Technology Could Aid in Search and Rescue Missions
- By: Michael HemsworthFeb 11, 2016
References: ieeexplore.ieee.org & damngeeky
References: ieeexplore.ieee.org & damngeeky


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A waist trainer is a garment similar to a cortex that you can tightly wrap around your waist. It constantly provides high compression to the waist to make it look slimmer. It is an advanced version of the corsets that women used to wear under their dress back in 1800s to make their waist look slimmer and to give an hourglass look to their body. However, the waist trainers used today are not as extreme and harmful. Unlike conventional corsets, they provide greater mobility as they have the tendency to stretch to the shape of the body both horizontally and vertically. There are numerous benefits of waist training. Here is a list of a few.
Boost your confidence
Wearing a best waist trainer will make you look slimmer instantly. It will make your waist look 3 to 4 inches smaller than its actual size. This will make you look good in whatever clothes you are wearing and give a boost to your confidence. Many women prefer wearing it under their dresses for special occasions to give themselves an hourglass look and a slimmer waist.
Back support and posture
Back ache is a common issue nowadays. If you are experiencing the same issue, waist trainer will help you tremendously. Wearing it for extended hours will provide you with the necessary back support and posture improvement. For patients with scoliosis, it helps by correcting their posture. Their back curve will become less prominent over time. With regular use of a waist trainer, they will notice significant positive change in their bodies.
Permanent reduction of your waist size
Along with regular exercise and proper diet, waist trainers will help you in weight loss and a pronounced reduction of your waist size. Wearing a waist trainer while exercising will stimulate more sweat around the waist make losing weight a faster process. Many users have claimed to see positive results only within weeks of its use. Some users who want even faster results wear it even during sleep. However, waist training during the day time is sufficient to meet your fitness goals.
Prevent you from overeating
If you are looking for ways to promote weight loss, one such way is to eat with your waist trainer on you. With your stomach being tightly compressed while you are sitting at your dining table, you will only eat what's necessary to eliminate your hunger and not more than that. This will without doubt be a very efficient way to control your diet and help you lose weight. You can find more information about waist training here.
Getting rid of your post pregnancy belly
After they have had a baby, many females are looking for ways to get rid of their post pregnancy bellies and regain the body structure they had before pregnancy. For many females, it is a slow process and is achieved over months. Some females do not achieve the same flat belly even after months if they leave it untreated. With the regular use of waist trainers, your belly will be pushed back to its original, pre-pregnancy size within weeks.


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from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition
- adj. Easily resuming original shape after being stretched or expanded; flexible. See Synonyms at flexible.
- adj. Springy; rebounding.
- adj. Physics Returning to or capable of returning to an initial form or state after deformation.
- adj. Quick to recover, as from disappointment: an elastic spirit.
- adj. Capable of adapting to change or a variety of circumstances.
- n. A flexible stretchable fabric made with interwoven strands of rubber or an imitative synthetic fiber.
- n. An object made of this fabric.
- n. A rubber band.
from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License
- adj. Capable of stretching; particularly, capable of stretching so as to return to an original shape or size when force is released.
- adj. Made of elastic.
- adj. Of clothing, elasticated.
- adj. Sensitive to changes in price.
- adj. springy; bouncy; vivacious
- n. An elastic material used in clothing, particularly in waistbands and cuffs.
- n. An elastic band.
from the GNU version of the Collaborative International Dictionary of English
- adj. Springing back; having a power or inherent property of returning to the form from which a substance is bent, drawn, pressed, or twisted; springy; having the power of rebounding
- adj. Able to return quickly to a former state or condition, after being depressed or overtaxed; having power to recover easily from shocks and trials
- n. An elastic woven fabric, as a belt, braces or suspenders, etc., made in part of India rubber.
from The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia
- Serving, as a catapult, to hurl missiles by the force of a spring.
- Having, as a solid body, the power of returning to the form from which it is bent, extended, pressed, pulled, or distorted, as soon as the force applied is removed; having, as a fluid, the property of recovering its former volume after compression.
- Figuratively Admitting of extension; capable of expanding and contracting, according to circumstances; hence, yielding and accommodating: as, an elastic conscience; elastic principles.
- Possessing the power or quality of recovering from depression or exhaustion; able to resist a depressing or exhausting influence; capable of sustaining shocks without permanent injury: as, elastic spirits.
- n. A piece or strip of india-rubber, or of webbing or belting made elastic by the incorporation of india-rubber, used as a band, garter, or the like. [U. S.]
from WordNet 3.0 Copyright 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.
- n. a fabric made of yarns containing an elastic material
- n. a narrow band of elastic rubber used to hold things (such as papers) together
- adj. able to adjust readily to different conditions
- adj. capable of resuming original shape after stretching or compression; springy
from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition
from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License
There's a want of what I call elastic power in your mind, Catherine -- the very quality for which your father was so remarkable; the very quality which Mr. Presty used to say made him envy Mr. Norman.
Light streamed among them, reaching outward in elastic fields of energy.
The big question that drives this is, for RPGs in general, and for a given product, how elastic is the price curve really?
At the friendly neighborhood non-corporate thrift store, we found an old lady dress in the perfect fabric and shape (I removed the shoulder pads, the polyester lining and the elastic from the waist) $3.
Each Moleskine notebook also has a built-in elastic closure that holds the sturdy cover closed a ribbon placeholder, and an expandable accordion pocket in the back made of cardboard for holding tickets, notes and clippings.
Her best satin pair was sprouting tiny ropes of elastic from the waistband.
Excerpt: The Sisterhood of The Traveling Pants by Ann Brashares
If you know anything about economics, you know the terms elastic, inelastic, and luxury in reference to goods and services.
Politicians do understand that energy responds to what economists term elastic demand.
"ThosSpence: As usual your are factually and historically inaccurate about islam that preaches hate for all" non believers "(a term elastic enough to include some that claim other strains of the cult or some reluctance to engage in the extreme dictates of the likes of the Taliban when in power).
Rock at that temperature is 'elastic' - it will actually flow.


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On Last Week Tonight in September, John Oliver did a bit on the student debt problem that largely pointed a finger at for-profit colleges. The schools have been criticized for encouraging students to enroll in programs that have little chance of resulting in professions that would enable them to pay off the debt incurred to take them in the first place. Now, after much debate, the federal government is setting rules for those programs and federal student loans and grants to address the growing student debt/for-profit colleges issue.
Federal financial aid reportedly accounts for 90 percent of the annual revenue received by for-profit colleges. In the future, however, the schools may not qualify for the funding, which would preclude most students from attending, unless they improve their graduates' ability to obtain gainful employment that realistically enables them to make payments on their student loans.
To meet the "gainful employment" requirement, the educational program must be able to demonstrate that the expected loan payments for the average graduate will not exceed 8 percent of total income or 20 percent of discretionary income. That requirement, which is scheduled to go into effect next summer, will prove daunting for most for-profit colleges. The federal government estimates that 1,400 programs will not pass the standard without changes, which will affect 840,000 students based on current enrollment.
Oliver attacked the schools for sky-high prices and deceptive recruiting, both of which have drawn federal scrutiny as well. One reason is that for-profit colleges have the lowest graduation rates and highest student loan default rates. Oliver's monologue, for example, cited a report that of the 115 students who started an engineering program at one ITT Tech school in 2012, only one-fourth graduated and a mere 13 wound up working in engineering. One can assume that the others left school with additional debt and nothing to show for their efforts.
The rules being set by the federal government are an attempt to added the growing criticism toward for-profit colleges and the debt incurred by the typical student. In recent years, the for-profit colleges have typically attracted people who are not likely to pursue decrees at more traditional higher education institutions, such as those who did not do well in high school, were laid off from other jobs or are veterans. Several are really vocational programs, such as schools for nursing, culinary arts and such. Critics say they charge too much programs that will not enable students to pay for them. They claim the schools prey on students with aggressive recruiting and promises that they can get federal financial aid that will not need to be paid back for years.
U.S. Education Secretary Arne Duncan pointed out that too many of the for-profit colleges fail to provide the promised training and leave students buried in debt they cannot repay. The standards being introduced will "eliminate the worst-performing programs that are poorly serving students and taking advantage of taxpayers," he added.
The for-profit colleges defend themselves saying that they provide educational programs for people who would not normally have access to higher education. They maintain that they are being targeted unfairly in the attempt to address the student debt problem, even though more of the defaults are tied to for-profit colleges, and that the federal rules being introduced will result in fewer educational opportunities for those most in need of training programs.
By Dyanne Weiss


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|iPROMISE offers Bioinformatics analysis of sequencing data generated from both prokaryotic and eukaryotic samples. Currently, our pipelines have suited for the elucidating in depth information in both small and large genomes, whether in singular or multiple samples. Customers may choose to consult us in order to acquire an optimal approach for their bioinformatics-related projects.
Read quality analysis
Whole-genome assembly
Variant analysis
Gene annotation
We analyze the transcriptomic data to infer gene expression levels in the customer-provided samples. In addition, information such as alternative splicing and variations in the transcriptome may also be aanalyzed.
|Metagenomics analysis
We provide the analysis of metagenomes to acquire the relative abundance of different bacteria within a sample. Our pipeline also allows for the annotation of the metagenomes, providing an overview of the different genes present.
Comparative genomics analysis


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The Stafford Brothers were born into a closely-knit family and raised and educated among Atlanta's elite. But the six sons of one of Atlanta's most successful doctors have not always walked in their father's footsteps. Charles, Jesse and Vic, Jr. followed the medical path. Marc and Greg took different routes. Nick isn't sure which way he wants to go. The brothers have challenges to face, secrets to keep and stories to tell.
Buy The Stafford Brothers series Here
Chicki Brown's Website
Follow Chicki Brown on Facebook
Follow Chicki Brown on Twitter
Chicki Brown's GoodReads Profile


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Words that end in avatera
Found 1 words that end in avatera. Browse our Scrabble Word Finder, Words With Friends cheat dictionary, and WordHub word solver to find words that end with avatera. Or use our Unscramble word solver to find your best possible play! Related: Words containing avatera
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We will be open on Monday, Memorial Day, from 10- 4pm.
Come on by!
We have lots of great products to help you with organic gardening.
Let's begin with Pest Control:
-Lady Bugs: they will eat the aphids.
-Praying Mantis eggs: Each egg has approximately 300 baby Praying Mantis'. They will eat aphids and other soft bodied insects.
-Year Round Oil Spray (sometimes called Horticultural Oil): made from a petroleum organic oil; safe to use on edibles. Great for treating aphids, mealy bug, scale, and other insects. One of our favorite products.
-Insecticidal Soap Spray: made from potassium fatty acids.
-Safer Brand Caterpillar Killer: made from Bacillus thuningiensis. Good for treating worms and caterpillars.
-Sluggo: controls snail and slugs in your yard, and is non-toxic to pets and wildlife. Made from iron phosphate.
-All Natural Snail and Slug Spray RTU: 100% organic.
-Copper Tape: protect your potted plants from slugs and snails.
We have a large variety of organic fertilizers from E.B. Stone / Master Nursery.
-Starter Food
-All Purpose Plant Food
-Rhody, Azalea, & Holly Food
-Citrus & Fruit Food
-Tomato & Vegetable Food
-Rose & Flower Food
-Bat Guano
-Bone Meal
-Blood Meal
-Agricultural Lime (Dolomite Lime)
-Granular Gypsum
-Compost Maker
-Cottonseed Meal
-Nature's Green Lawn Food
-Liquid Fish Emulsion
-And Japanese Maple Fertilizer by Fox Farm. Soil
We have great soil products from E.B. Stone / Master Nursery that are made with organic ingredients.
-Professional Potting Soil
-Potting Soil
-Gold Rush
-Camellia, Azalea, Gardenia Planting Mix
-Steer Manure
-Chicken Manure
-Earthworm Castings
-Copper Fungicide: a great product to treat powdery mildew, black spot, rust and early blight.
-Serenade Garden Disease Control: certified organic.
Organic Plants and Seeds
We have a small selection of organic seeds and a larger selection of organic herbs and edibles.
Seeds from Ferry Morse:
-Romaine Lettuce
-Bibb Lettuce
-Black Seeded Simpson Lettuce
-Common Thyme
-Squash- Straightneck
Organic Starts in 3 inch pots:
-Italian Parsley
-Italian Oregano
-Cinnamon Basil
-Lemon Balm
-Genovese Basil
-Lemon Basil
-Ground Cherry Tomato
-Winter Squash
-Eversweet Strawberry
Stop by Encinal Nursery this weekend for organic products. Please note: herbs and veggies that are listed here are not always in stock! If you can't find what you are looking for, please ask questions!
Mother's Day is Sunday, May 8th. We have lots of great gift ideas:
-Rose bushes
-Fruit trees– lemon, apple, pear, etc.
-Blueberry, raspberry, and strawberry plants
– Herb bowls
And much more!!
As always, gift certificates are available. Come by this weekend!
Hours: Monday- Saturday 9-5:30
Sunday 9 – 5:00pm
Questions? Call us at (510) 522-8616