text:
Artiwwery is a cwass of heavy miwitary weapons buiwt to fire munitions far beyond de range and power of infantry's smaww arms. Earwy artiwwery devewopment focused on de abiwity to breach fortifications, and wed to heavy, fairwy immobiwe siege engines. As technowogy improved, wighter, more mobiwe fiewd artiwwery devewoped for battwefiewd use. This devewopment continues today; modern sewf-propewwed artiwwery vehicwes are highwy mobiwe weapons of great versatiwity providing de wargest share of an army's totaw firepower.
In its earwiest sense, de word artiwwery referred to any group of sowdiers primariwy armed wif some form of manufactured weapon or armour. Since de introduction of gunpowder and cannon, de word "artiwwery" has wargewy meant cannon, and in contemporary usage, it usuawwy refers to sheww-firing guns, howitzers, mortars, rockets and guided missiwes. In common speech, de word artiwwery is often used to refer to individuaw devices, awong wif deir accessories and fittings, awdough dese assembwages are more properwy cawwed "eqwipments". However, dere is no generawwy recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forf: de United States uses "artiwwery piece", but most Engwish-speaking armies use "gun" and "mortar". The projectiwes fired are typicawwy eider "shot" (if sowid) or "sheww" (if not). "Sheww" is a widewy used generic term for a projectiwe, which is a component of munitions.
By association, artiwwery may awso refer to de arm of service dat customariwy operates such engines. In some armies one arm has operated fiewd, coastaw, anti-aircraft artiwwery and anti-tank artiwwery, in oders dese have been separate arms and in some nations coastaw has been a navaw or marine responsibiwity. In de 20f century technowogy based target acqwisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and fwash spotting, emerged to acqwire targets, primariwy for artiwwery. These are usuawwy operated by one or more of de artiwwery arms. The widespread adoption of indirect fire in de earwy 20f century introduced de need for speciawist data for fiewd artiwwery, notabwy survey and meteorowogicaw, in some armies provision of dese are de responsibiwity of de artiwwery arm.
Artiwwery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavawry and oder artiwwery. An earwy speciawist devewopment was coastaw artiwwery for use against enemy ships. The earwy 20f century saw de devewopment of a new cwass of artiwwery for use against aircraft: anti-aircraft guns.
Artiwwery is arguabwy de most wedaw form of wand-based armament currentwy empwoyed, and has been since at weast de earwy Industriaw Revowution. The majority of combat deads in de Napoweonic Wars, Worwd War I, and Worwd War II were caused by artiwwery.[1] In 1944, Joseph Stawin said in a speech dat artiwwery was "de God of War".[1]
- 1 Artiwwery piece
- 2 Crew
- 3 Etymowogy
- 4 History
- 5 Ammunition
- 6 Fiewd artiwwery system
- 7 Cwassification of artiwwery
- 8 Modern operations
- 9 Use in monuments
- 10 See awso
- 11 References
- 12 Furder reading
- 13 Externaw winks
Artiwwery piece[edit]
Awdough not cawwed as such, machines performing de rowe recognizabwe as artiwwery have been empwoyed in warfare since antiqwity. Historicaw references show artiwwery was first empwoyed by de Roman wegions at Syracuse in 399 BC.[citation needed] Untiw de introduction of gunpowder into western warfare, artiwwery was dependent upon mechanicaw energy which not onwy severewy wimited de kinetic energy of de projectiwes, it awso reqwired de construction of very warge engines to store sufficient energy. A 1st-century BC Roman catapuwt waunching 6.55 kg (14.4 wb) stones achieved a kinetic energy of 16,000 jouwes, compared to a mid-19f-century 12-pounder gun, which fired a 4.1 kg (9.0 wb) round, wif a kinetic energy of 240,000 jouwes, or a wate 20f century US battweship dat fired a 1,225 kg (2,701 wb) projectiwe from its main battery wif an energy wevew surpassing 350,000,000 jouwes.
From de Middwe Ages drough most of de modern era, artiwwery pieces on wand were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In de contemporary era, artiwwery pieces and deir crew rewied on wheewed or tracked vehicwes as transportation, uh-hah-hah-hah. These wand versions of artiwwery were dwarfed by raiwway guns, which incwudes de wargest super-gun ever conceived, deoreticawwy capabwe of putting a satewwite into orbit. Artiwwery used by navaw forces has awso changed significantwy, wif missiwes repwacing guns in surface warfare.
Over de course of miwitary history, projectiwes were manufactured from a wide variety of materiaws, into a wide variety of shapes, using many different medods in which to target structuraw/defensive works and infwict enemy casuawties. The engineering appwications for ordnance dewivery have wikewise changed significantwy over time, encompassing some of de most compwex and advanced technowogies in use today.
In some armies, de weapon of artiwwery is de projectiwe, not de eqwipment dat fires it. The process of dewivering fire onto de target is cawwed gunnery. The actions invowved in operating an artiwwery piece are cowwectivewy cawwed "serving de gun" by de "detachment" or gun crew, constituting eider direct or indirect artiwwery fire. The manner in which gunnery crews (or formations) are empwoyed is cawwed artiwwery support. At different periods in history dis may refer to weapons designed to be fired from ground-, sea-, and even air-based weapons pwatforms.
The term "gunner" is used in some armed forces for de sowdiers and saiwors wif de primary function of using artiwwery.
The gunners and deir guns are usuawwy grouped in teams cawwed eider "crews" or "detachments". Severaw such crews and teams wif oder functions are combined into a unit of artiwwery, usuawwy cawwed a battery, awdough sometimes cawwed a company. In gun detachments, each rowe is numbered, starting wif "1" de Detachment Commander, and de highest number being de Coverer, de second-in-command. "Gunner" is awso de wowest rank and junior non-commissioned officers are "Bombardiers" in some artiwwery arms.
Batteries are roughwy eqwivawent to a company in de infantry and are combined into warger miwitary organizations for administrative and operationaw purposes, eider battawions or regiments, depending on de army. These may be grouped into brigades; de Russian army awso groups some brigades into artiwwery divisions, and de Peopwe's Liberation Army has artiwwery corps.
The term "artiwwery" is awso appwied to a combat arm of most miwitary services when used organizationawwy to describe units and formations of de nationaw armed forces dat operate de weapons.
During miwitary operations, de rowe of fiewd artiwwery is to provide support to oder arms in combat or to attack targets, particuwarwy in depf. Broadwy, dese effects faww into two categories, eider to suppress or neutrawize de enemy, or to cause casuawties, damage, and destruction, uh-hah-hah-hah. This is mostwy achieved by dewivering high-expwosive munitions to suppress, or infwict casuawties on de enemy from casing fragments and oder debris and bwast, or by destroying enemy positions, eqwipment, and vehicwes. Non-wedaw munitions, notabwy smoke, can awso be used to suppress or neutrawize de enemy by obscuring deir view.
Fire may be directed by an artiwwery observer or oder observer, incwuding manned and unmanned aircraft piwots, or cawwed onto map coordinates.
Miwitary doctrine has pwayed a significant infwuence on de core engineering design considerations of artiwwery ordnance drough its history, in seeking to achieve a bawance between dewivered vowume of fire wif ordnance mobiwity. However, during de modern period, de consideration of protecting de gunners awso arose due to de wate-19f-century introduction of de new generation of infantry weapons using conoidaw buwwet, better known as de Minié baww, wif a range awmost as wong as dat of fiewd artiwwery.
The gunners' increasing proximity to and participation in direct combat against oder combat arms and attacks by aircraft made de introduction of a gun shiewd necessary. The probwems of how to empwoy a fixed or horse-towed gun in mobiwe warfare necessitated de devewopment of new medods of transporting de artiwwery into combat. Two distinct forms of artiwwery were devewoped: de towed gun, which was used primariwy to attack or defend a fixed wine; and de sewf-propewwed gun, which was designed to accompany a mobiwe force and provide continuous fire support and/or suppression, uh-hah-hah-hah. These infwuences have guided de devewopment of artiwwery ordnance, systems, organisations, and operations untiw de present, wif artiwwery systems capabwe of providing support at ranges from as wittwe as 100 m to de intercontinentaw ranges of bawwistic missiwes. The onwy combat in which artiwwery is unabwe to take part in is cwose qwarters combat, wif de possibwe exception of artiwwery reconnaissance teams.[2]
The word as used in de current context originated in de Middwe Ages. One suggestion is dat it comes from de Owd French atewwier, meaning "to arrange", and attiwwement, meaning "eqwipment".
From de 13f century, an artiwwier referred to a buiwder of any war eqwipment; and, for de next 250 years, de sense of de word "artiwwery" covered aww forms of miwitary weapons. Hence, de naming of de Honourabwe Artiwwery Company, which was essentiawwy an infantry unit untiw de 19f century. Anoder suggestion is dat it comes from de Itawian arte de tirare (art of shooting), coined by one of de first deorists on de use of artiwwery, Niccowò Tartagwia.
Mechanicaw systems used for drowing ammunition in ancient warfare, awso known as "engines of war", wike de catapuwt, onager, trebuchet, and bawwista, are awso referred to by miwitary historians as artiwwery.
Invention of gunpowder[edit]
Earwy Chinese artiwwery had vase-wike shapes. This incwudes de "wong range awe inspiring" cannon dated from 1350 and found in de 14f century Ming Dynasty treatise Huowongjing.[3] Wif de devewopment of better metawwurgy techniqwes, water cannons abandoned de vase shape of earwy Chinese artiwwery. This change can be seen in de bronze "dousand baww dunder cannon," an earwy exampwe of fiewd artiwwery.[4] These smaww, crude weapons diffused into de Middwe East (de madfaa) and reached Europe in de 13f century, in a very wimited manner.
In Asia, Mongows adopted de Chinese artiwwery and used it effectivewy in de great conqwest. By de wate 14f century, Chinese rebews used organized artiwwery and cavawry to push Mongows out.
As smaww smoof-bore tubes dese were initiawwy cast in iron or bronze around a core, wif de first driwwed bore ordnance recorded in operation near Seviwwe in 1247.[citation needed] They fired wead, iron, or stone bawws, sometimes warge arrows and on occasions simpwy handfuws of whatever scrap came to hand. During de Hundred Years' War, dese weapons became more common, initiawwy as de bombard and water de cannon. Cannon were awways muzzwe-woaders. Whiwe dere were many earwy attempts at breech-woading designs, a wack of engineering knowwedge rendered dese even more dangerous to use dan muzzwe-woaders.
Expansion of artiwwery use[edit]
In 1415, de Portuguese invaded de Mediterranean port town of Ceuta. Whiwe it is difficuwt to confirm de use of firearms in de siege of de city, it is known de Portuguese defended it dereafter wif firearms, namewy bombardas, cowebratas, and fawconetes. In 1419, Suwtan Abu Sa'id wed an army to reconqwer de fawwen city, and Moroccans brought cannons and used dem in de assauwt on Ceuta. Finawwy, hand-hewd firearms and rifwemen appear in Morocco, in 1437, in an expedition against de peopwe of Tangiers.[7][page needed] It is cwear dese weapons had devewoped into severaw different forms, from smaww guns to warge artiwwery pieces.
The artiwwery revowution in Europe caught on during de Hundred Years' War and changed de way dat battwes were fought. In de preceding decades, de Engwish had even used a gunpowder-wike weapon in miwitary campaigns against de Scottish.[8] However, at dis time, de cannons used in battwe were very smaww and not particuwarwy powerfuw. Cannons were onwy usefuw for de defense of a castwe, as demonstrated at Breteuiw in 1356, when de besieged Engwish used a cannon to destroy an attacking French assauwt tower.[9] By de end of de 14f century, cannon were onwy powerfuw enough to knock in roofs, and couwd not penetrate castwe wawws.
However, a major change occurred between 1420 and 1430, when artiwwery became much more powerfuw and couwd now batter stronghowds and fortresses qwite efficientwy. The Engwish, French, and Burgundians aww advanced in miwitary technowogy, and as a resuwt de traditionaw advantage dat went to de defense in a siege was wost. The cannon during dis period were ewongated, and de recipe for gunpowder was improved to make it dree times as powerfuw as before.[10] These changes wed to de increased power in de artiwwery weapons of de time.
Joan of Arc encountered gunpowder weaponry severaw times. When she wed de French against de Engwish at de Battwe of Tourewwes, in 1430, she faced heavy gunpowder fortifications, and yet her troops prevaiwed in dat battwe. In addition, she wed assauwts against de Engwish-hewd towns of Jargeau, Meung, and Beaugency, aww wif de support of warge artiwwery units. When she wed de assauwt on Paris, Joan faced stiff artiwwery fire, especiawwy from de suburb of St. Denis, which uwtimatewy wed to her defeat in dis battwe. In Apriw 1430, she went to battwe against de Burgundians, whose support was purchased by de Engwish. At dis time, de Burgundians had de strongest and wargest gunpowder arsenaw among de European powers, and yet de French, under Joan of Arc's weadership, were abwe to beat back de Burgundians and defend demsewves.[12] As a resuwt, most of de battwes of de Hundred Years' War dat Joan of Arc participated in were fought wif gunpowder artiwwery.
The army of Mehmet de Conqweror, which conqwered Constantinopwe in 1453, incwuded bof artiwwery and foot sowdiers armed wif gunpowder weapons.[13] The Ottomans brought to de siege sixty-nine guns in fifteen separate batteries and trained dem at de wawws of de city. The barrage of Ottoman cannon fire wasted forty days, and dey are estimated to have fired 19,320 times.[14] Artiwwery awso pwayed a decisive rowe in de Battwe of St. Jakob an der Birs of 1444.
The new Ming Dynasty estabwished de "Divine Engine Battawion" (神机营), which speciawized in various types of artiwwery. Light cannons and cannons wif muwtipwe vowweys were devewoped. In a campaign to suppress a wocaw minority rebewwion near today's Burmese border, "de Ming army used a 3-wine medod of arqwebuses/muskets to destroy an ewephant formation, uh-hah-hah-hah."[15]
Between 1593 and 1597, about 200,000 Korean and Chinese troops which fought against Japan in Korea activewy used heavy artiwwery in bof siege and fiewd combat. Korean forces mounted artiwwery in ships as navaw guns, providing an advantage against Japanese navy which used Kunikuzushi (国崩し – Japanese breech-woading swivew gun) and Ōzutsu (大筒 – warge size Tanegashima) as deir wargest firearms.[16][17]
Bombards were of vawue mainwy in sieges. A famous Turkish exampwe used at de siege of Constantinopwe in 1453 weighed 19 tons[vague], took 200 men and sixty oxen to empwace, and couwd fire just seven times a day. The Faww of Constantinopwe was perhaps "de first event of supreme importance whose resuwt was determined by de use of artiwwery" when de huge bronze cannons of Mehmed II breached de city's wawws, ending de Byzantine Empire, according to Sir Charwes Oman.[18]
Bombards devewoped in Europe were massive smoodbore weapons distinguished by deir wack of a fiewd carriage, immobiwity once empwaced, highwy individuaw design, and noted unrewiabiwity (in 1460 James II, King of Scots, was kiwwed when one expwoded at de siege of Roxburgh). Their warge size precwuded de barrews being cast and dey were constructed out of metaw staves or rods bound togeder wif hoops wike a barrew, giving deir name to de gun barrew.[19][page needed]
The use of de word "cannon" marks de introduction in de 15f century of a dedicated fiewd carriage wif axwe, traiw and animaw-drawn wimber—dis produced mobiwe fiewd pieces dat couwd move and support an army in action, rader dan being found onwy in siege and static defences. The reduction in de size of de barrew was due to improvements in bof iron technowogy and gunpowder manufacture, whiwe de devewopment of trunnions—projections at de side of de cannon as an integraw part of de cast—awwowed de barrew to be fixed to a more movabwe base, and awso made raising or wowering de barrew much easier.[19]
The first wand-based mobiwe weapon is usuawwy credited to Jan Žižka, who depwoyed his oxen-hauwed cannon during de Hussite Wars of Bohemia (1418–1424). However cannons were stiww warge and cumbersome. Wif de rise of musketry in de 16f century, cannon were wargewy (dough not entirewy) dispwaced from de battwefiewd—de cannon were too swow and cumbersome to be used and too easiwy wost to a rapid enemy advance.
The combining of shot and powder into a singwe unit, a cartridge, occurred in de 1620s wif a simpwe fabric bag, and was qwickwy adopted by aww nations. It speeded woading and made it safer, but unexpewwed bag fragments were an additionaw fouwing in de gun barrew and a new toow—a worm—was introduced to remove dem. Gustavus Adowphus is identified as de generaw who made cannon an effective force on de battwefiewd—pushing de devewopment of much wighter and smawwer weapons and depwoying dem in far greater numbers dan previouswy. The outcome of battwes was stiww determined by de cwash of infantry.
Shewws, expwosive-fiwwed fused projectiwes, were awso devewoped in de 17f century.[citation needed] The devewopment of speciawized pieces—shipboard artiwwery, howitzers and mortars—was awso begun in dis period. More esoteric designs, wike de muwti-barrew ribauwdeqwin (known as "organ guns"), were awso produced.[dubious ]
The 1650 book by Kazimierz Siemienowicz Artis Magnae Artiwweriae pars prima[20] was one of de most important contemporary pubwications on de subject of artiwwery. For over two centuries dis work was used in Europe as a basic artiwwery manuaw.[citation needed]
One of de most significant effects of artiwwery during dis period was however somewhat more indirect—by easiwy reducing to rubbwe any medievaw-type fortification or city waww (some which had stood since Roman times), it abowished miwwennia of siege-warfare strategies and stywes of fortification buiwding.[19] This wed, among oder dings, to a frenzy of new bastion-stywe fortifications to be buiwt aww over Europe and in its cowonies, but awso had a strong integrating effect on emerging nation-states, as kings were abwe to use deir newfound artiwwery superiority to force any wocaw dukes or words to submit to deir wiww, setting de stage for de absowutist kingdoms to come.[19]
Modern rocket artiwwery can trace its heritage back to de Mysorean rockets of India. Their first recorded use was in 1780 during de battwes of de Second, Third and Fourf Mysore Wars. The wars fought between de British East India Company and de Kingdom of Mysore in India made use of de rockets as a weapon, uh-hah-hah-hah. In de Battwe of Powwiwur, de Siege of Seringapatam (1792) and in Battwe of Seringapatam in 1799 dese rockets were used wif considerabwe effect against de British."[21] After de wars, severaw Mysore rockets were sent to Engwand, but experiments wif heavier paywoads were unsuccessfuw. In 1804 Wiwwiam Congreve, considering de Mysorian rockets to have too short a range (wess dan 1,000 yards) devewoped rockets in numerous sizes wif ranges up to 3,000 yards and eventuawwy utiwizing iron casing as de Congreve rocket which were used effectivewy during de Napoweonic Wars and de War of 1812.[22]
Napoweonic artiwwery[edit]
Cannons continued to become smawwer and wighter—Frederick II of Prussia depwoyed de first genuine wight artiwwery during de Seven Years' War.
Jean-Baptiste de Gribeauvaw, a French artiwwery engineer, introduced de standardization of cannon design in de mid-18f century. He devewoped a 6-inch (150 mm) fiewd howitzer whose gun barrew, carriage assembwy and ammunition specifications were made uniform for aww French cannons. The standardized interchangeabwe parts of dese cannons down to de nuts, bowts and screws made deir mass production and repair much easier.
These improvements in de French artiwwery were essentiaw for de water miwitary successes of Napoweon. Napoweon, himsewf a former artiwwery officer, perfected de tactic of massed artiwwery batteries unweashed upon a criticaw point in his enemies' wine as a prewude to a decisive infantry and cavawry assauwt.
Modern artiwwery[edit]
The devewopment of modern artiwwery occurred in de mid to wate 19f century as a resuwt of de convergence of various improvements in de underwying technowogy. Advances in metawwurgy awwowed for de construction of breech-woading rifwed guns dat couwd fire at a much greater muzzwe vewocity.
After de British artiwwery was shown up in de Crimean War as having barewy changed since de Napoweonic Wars de industriawist Wiwwiam Armstrong was awarded a contract by de government to design a new piece of artiwwery. Production started in 1855 at de Ewswick Ordnance Company and de Royaw Arsenaw at Woowwich, and de outcome was de revowutionary Armstrong Gun, which marked de birf of modern artiwwery.[23][24] Three of its features particuwarwy stand out.
First, de piece was rifwed, which awwowed for a much more accurate and powerfuw action, uh-hah-hah-hah. Awdough rifwing had been tried on smaww arms since de 15f century, de necessary machinery to accuratewy rifwe artiwwery was not avaiwabwe untiw de mid-19f century. Martin von Wahrendorff, and Joseph Whitworf independentwy produced rifwed cannon in de 1840s, but it was Armstrong's gun dat was first to see widespread use during de Crimean War.[25] The cast iron sheww of de Armstrong gun was simiwar in shape to a Minié baww and had a din wead coating which made it fractionawwy warger dan de gun's bore and which engaged wif de gun's rifwing grooves to impart spin to de sheww. This spin, togeder wif de ewimination of windage as a resuwt of de tight fit, enabwed de gun to achieve greater range and accuracy dan existing smoof-bore muzzwe-woaders wif a smawwer powder charge.
His gun was awso a breech-woader. Awdough attempts at breech-woading mechanisms had been made since medievaw times, de essentiaw engineering probwem was dat de mechanism couwdn't widstand de expwosive charge. It was onwy wif de advances in metawwurgy and precision engineering capabiwities during de Industriaw Revowution dat Armstrong was abwe to construct a viabwe sowution, uh-hah-hah-hah. The gun combined aww de properties dat make up an effective artiwwery piece. The gun was mounted on a carriage in such a way as to return de gun to firing position after de recoiw.
What made de gun reawwy revowutionary way in de techniqwe of de construction of de gun barrew dat awwowed it to widstand much more powerfuw expwosive forces. The "buiwt-up" medod invowved assembwing de barrew wif wrought-iron (water miwd steew was used) tubes of successivewy smawwer diameter.[26] The tube wouwd den be heated to awwow it to expand and fit over de previous tube. When it coowed de gun wouwd contract awdough not back to its originaw size, which awwowed an even pressure awong de wawws of de gun which was directed inward against de outward forces dat de gun's firing exerted on de barrew.[27]
Anoder innovative feature, more usuawwy associated wif 20f-century guns, was what Armstrong cawwed its "grip", which was essentiawwy a sqweeze bore; de 6 inches of de bore at de muzzwe end was of swightwy smawwer diameter, which centered de sheww before it weft de barrew and at de same time swightwy swaged down its wead coating, reducing its diameter and swightwy improving its bawwistic qwawities.
Armstrong's system was adopted in 1858, initiawwy for "speciaw service in de fiewd" and initiawwy he produced onwy smawwer artiwwery pieces, 6-pounder (2.5 in/64 mm) mountain or wight fiewd guns, 9-pounder (3 in/76 mm) guns for horse artiwwery, and 12-pounder (3 inches /76 mm) fiewd guns.
The first cannon to contain aww 'modern' features is generawwy considered to be de French 75 of 1897.[28][29] It was de first fiewd gun to incwude a hydro-pneumatic recoiw mechanism, which kept de gun's traiw and wheews perfectwy stiww during de firing seqwence. Since it did not need to be re-aimed after each shot, de crew couwd fire as soon as de barrew returned to its resting position, uh-hah-hah-hah. In typicaw use, de French 75 couwd dewiver fifteen rounds per minute on its target, eider shrapnew or mewinite high-expwosive, up to about 5 miwes (8,500 m) away. Its firing rate couwd even reach cwose to 30 rounds per minute, awbeit onwy for a very short time and wif a highwy experienced crew. These were rates dat contemporary bowt action rifwes couwd not match. The gun used cased ammunition, was breech-woading, and had modern sights, a sewf-contained firing mechanism and hydro-pneumatic recoiw dampening.
Indirect fire[edit]
Indirect fire, de firing of a projectiwe widout rewying on direct wine of sight between de gun and de target, possibwy dates back to de 16f century.[30] Earwy battwefiewd use of indirect fire may have occurred at Pawtzig in Juwy 1759, when de Russian artiwwery fired over de tops of trees,[31] and at de Battwe of Waterwoo, where a battery of de Royaw Horse Artiwwery fired Shrapnew indirectwy against advancing French troops.[32]
In 1882, Russian Lieutenant Cowonew KG Guk pubwished Indirect Fire for Fiewd Artiwwery, which provided a practicaw medod of using aiming points for indirect fire by describing, "aww de essentiaws of aiming points, crest cwearance, and corrections to fire by an observer".[33]
A few years water, de Richtfwäche (wining-pwane) sight was invented in Germany and provided a means of indirect waying in azimuf, compwementing de cwinometers for indirect waying in ewevation which awready existed. Despite conservative opposition widin de German army, indirect fire was adopted as doctrine by de 1890s. In de earwy 1900s, Goertz in Germany devewoped an opticaw sight for azimuf waying. It qwickwy repwaced de wining-pwane; in Engwish, it became de 'Diaw Sight' (UK) or 'Panoramic Tewescope' (US).
The British hawfheartedwy experimented wif indirect fire techniqwes since de 1890s, but wif de onset of de Boer War, dey were de first to appwy de deory in practice in 1899, awdough dey had to improvise widout a wining-pwane sight.[34]
In de next 15 years weading up to Worwd War I, de techniqwes of indirect fire became avaiwabwe for aww types of artiwwery. Indirect fire was de defining characteristic of 20f-century artiwwery and wed to undreamt of changes in de amount of artiwwery, its tactics, organisation, and techniqwes, most of which occurred during Worwd War I.
An impwication of indirect fire and improving guns was increasing range between gun and target, dis increased de time of fwight and de vertex of de trajectory. The resuwt was decreasing accuracy (de increasing distance between de target and de mean point of impact of de shewws aimed at it) caused by de increasing effects of non-standard conditions. Indirect firing data was based on standard conditions incwuding a specific muzzwe vewocity, zero wind, air temperature and density, and propewwant temperature. In practice, dis standard combination of conditions awmost never existed, dey varied droughout de day and day to day, and de greater de time of fwight, de greater de inaccuracy. An added compwication was de need for survey to accuratewy fix de coordinates of de gun position and provide accurate orientation for de guns. Of course, targets had to be accuratewy wocated, but by 1916, air photo interpretation techniqwes enabwed dis, and ground survey techniqwes couwd sometimes be used.
In 1914, de medods of correcting firing data for de actuaw conditions were often convowuted, and de avaiwabiwity of data about actuaw conditions was rudimentary or non-existent, de assumption was dat fire wouwd awways be ranged (adjusted). British heavy artiwwery worked energeticawwy to progressivewy sowve aww dese probwems from wate 1914 onwards, and by earwy 1918, had effective processes in pwace for bof fiewd and heavy artiwwery. These processes enabwed 'map-shooting', water cawwed 'predicted fire'; it meant dat effective fire couwd be dewivered against an accuratewy wocated target widout ranging. Neverdewess, de mean point of impact was stiww some tens of yards from de target-centre aiming point. It was not precision fire, but it was good enough for concentrations and barrages. These processes remain in use into de 21st Century wif refinements to cawcuwations enabwed by computers and improved data capture about non-standard conditions.
The British major-generaw Henry Hugh Tudor pioneered armour and artiwwery cooperation at de breakdrough Battwe of Cambrai. The improvements in providing and using data for non-standard conditions (propewwant temperature, muzzwe vewocity, wind, air temperature, and barometric pressure) were devewoped by de major combatants droughout de war and enabwed effective predicted fire.[35] The effectiveness of dis was demonstrated by de British in 1917 (at Cambrai) and by Germany de fowwowing year (Operation Michaew).
Major Generaw J.B.A. Baiwey, British Army (retired) wrote:
From de middwe of de eighteenf century to de middwe of de nineteenf, artiwwery is judged to have accounted for perhaps 50% of battwefiewd casuawties. In de sixty years preceding 1914, dis figure was probabwy as wow as 10 percent. The remaining 90 percent feww to smaww arms, whose range and accuracy had come to rivaw dose of artiwwery. ... [By WWI] The British Royaw Artiwwery, at over one miwwion men, grew to be warger dan de Royaw Navy. Bewwamy (1986), pp. 1–7, cites de percentage of casuawties caused by artiwwery in various deaters since 1914: in de First Worwd War, 45 percent of Russian casuawties and 58 percent of British casuawties on de Western Front; in de Second Worwd War, 75 percent of British casuawties in Norf Africa and 51 percent of Soviet casuawties (61 percent in 1945) and 70 percent of German casuawties on de Eastern Front; and in de Korean War, 60 percent of US casuawties, incwuding dose infwicted by mortars.[36]— J.B.A. Baiwey (2004). Fiewd artiwwery and firepower
An estimated 75,000 French sowdiers were casuawties of friendwy artiwwery fire in de four years of Worwd War I.[37]
Precision-guided artiwwery[edit]
Modern artiwwery is most obviouswy distinguished by its wong range, firing an expwosive sheww or rocket and a mobiwe carriage for firing and transport. However, its most important characteristic is de use of indirect fire, whereby de firing eqwipment is aimed widout seeing de target drough its sights. Indirect fire emerged at de beginning of de 20f century and was greatwy enhanced by de devewopment of predicted fire medods in Worwd War I. However, indirect fire was area fire; it was and is not suitabwe for destroying point targets; its primary purpose is area suppression, uh-hah-hah-hah. Neverdewess, by de wate 1970s precision-guided munitions started to appear, notabwy de US 155 mm Copperhead and its Soviet 152 mm Krasnopow eqwivawent dat had success in Indian service. These rewied on waser designation to 'iwwuminate' de target dat de sheww homed onto. However, in de earwy 21st Century, de Gwobaw Positioning System (GPS) enabwed rewativewy cheap and accurate guidance for shewws and missiwes, notabwy de US 155 mm Excawibur and de 227 mm GMLRS rocket. The introduction of dese wed to a new issue, de need for very accurate dree dimensionaw target coordinates—de mensuration process.
Weapons covered by de term 'modern artiwwery' incwude "cannon" artiwwery (such as howitzer, mortar, and fiewd gun) and rocket artiwwery. Certain smawwer-cawiber mortars are more properwy designated smaww arms rader dan artiwwery, awbeit indirect-fire smaww arms. This term awso came to incwude coastaw artiwwery which traditionawwy defended coastaw areas against seaborne attack and controwwed de passage of ships. Wif de advent of powered fwight at de start of de 20f century, artiwwery awso incwuded ground-based anti-aircraft batteries.
The term "artiwwery" has traditionawwy not been used for projectiwes wif internaw guidance systems, preferring de term "missiwery",[citation needed] dough some modern artiwwery units empwoy surface-to-surface missiwes. Advances in terminaw guidance systems for smaww munitions has awwowed warge-cawiber guided projectiwes to be devewoped, bwurring dis distinction, uh-hah-hah-hah.
One of de most important rowes of wogistics is de suppwy of munitions as a primary type of artiwwery consumabwe, deir storage (ammunition dump, arsenaw, magazine ) and de provision of fuses, detonators and warheads at de point where artiwwery troops wiww assembwe de charge, projectiwe, bomb or sheww.
A round of artiwwery ammunition comprises four components:
- Fuze
- Projectiwe
- Propewwant
- Primer
|Wikimedia Commons has media rewated to Fuzes.
Fuzes are de devices dat initiate an artiwwery projectiwe, eider to detonate its high expwosive (HE) fiwwing or eject its cargo (iwwuminating fware or smoke canisters being exampwes). The officiaw miwitary spewwing is "fuze".[38] Broadwy dere are four main types:
- impact (incwuding graze and deway)
- mechanicaw time incwuding airburst
- proximity sensor incwuding airburst
- ewectronic time incwuding airburst
Most artiwwery fuzes are nose fuzes. However, base fuzes have been used wif armour piercing shewws and for sqwash head (HESH or HEP) anti-tank shewws. At weast one nucwear sheww and its non-nucwear spotting version awso used a muwti-deck mechanicaw time fuze fitted into its base.
Impact fuzes were, and in some armies remain, de standard fuze for HE projectiwes. Their defauwt action is normawwy 'superqwick', some have had a 'graze' action which awwows dem to penetrate wight cover and oders have 'deway'. Deway fuzes awwow de sheww to penetrate de ground before expwoding. Armor- or concrete-piercing fuzes are speciawwy hardened. During Worwd War I and water, ricochet fire wif deway or graze fuzed HE shewws, fired wif a fwat angwe of descent, was used to achieve airburst.
HE shewws can be fitted wif oder fuzes. Airburst fuzes usuawwy have a combined airburst and impact function, uh-hah-hah-hah. However, untiw de introduction of proximity fuzes, de airburst function was mostwy used wif cargo munitions—for exampwe, shrapnew, iwwumination, and smoke. The warger cawibers of anti-aircraft artiwwery are awmost awways used airburst. Airburst fuzes have to have de fuze wengf (running time) set on dem. This is done just before firing using eider a wrench or a fuze setter pre-set to de reqwired fuze wengf.
Earwy airburst fuzes used igniferous timers which wasted into de second hawf of de 20f century. Mechanicaw time fuzes appeared in de earwy part of de century. These reqwired a means of powering dem. The Thiew mechanism used a spring and escapement (i.e. 'cwockwork'), Junghans used centrifugaw force and gears, and Dixi used centrifugaw force and bawws. From about 1980, ewectronic time fuzes started repwacing mechanicaw ones for use wif cargo munitions.
Proximity fuzes have been of two types: photo-ewectric or radar. The former was not very successfuw and seems onwy to have been used wif British anti-aircraft artiwwery 'unrotated projectiwes' (rockets) in Worwd War II. Radar proximity fuzes were a big improvement over de mechanicaw (time) fuzes which dey repwaced. Mechanicaw time fuzes reqwired an accurate cawcuwation of deir running time, which was affected by non-standard conditions. Wif HE (reqwiring a burst 20 to 30 feet (9.1 m) above de ground), if dis was very swightwy wrong de rounds wouwd eider hit de ground or burst too high. Accurate running time was wess important wif cargo munitions dat burst much higher.
The first radar proximity fuzes (codenamed 'VT') were invented by de British and devewoped by de US and initiawwy used against aircraft in Worwd War II. Their ground use was dewayed for fear of de enemy recovering 'bwinds' (artiwwery shewws which faiwed to detonate) and copying de fuze. The first proximity fuzes were designed to detonate about 30 feet (9.1 m) above de ground. These air-bursts are much more wedaw against personnew dan ground bursts because dey dewiver a greater proportion of usefuw fragments and dewiver dem into terrain where a prone sowdier wouwd be protected from ground bursts.
However, proximity fuzes can suffer premature detonation because of de moisture in heavy rain cwouds. This wed to 'controwwed variabwe time' (CVT) after Worwd War II. These fuzes have a mechanicaw timer dat switched on de radar about 5 seconds before expected impact, dey awso detonated on impact.
The proximity fuze emerged on de battwefiewds of Europe in wate December 1944. They have become known as de U.S. Artiwwery's "Christmas present", and were much appreciated when dey arrived during de Battwe of de Buwge. They were awso used to great effect in anti-aircraft projectiwes in de Pacific against kamikaze as weww as in Britain against V-1 fwying bombs.[39]
Ewectronic muwti-function fuzes started to appear around 1980. Using sowid-state ewectronics dey were rewativewy cheap and rewiabwe, and became de standard fitted fuze in operationaw ammunition stocks in some western armies. The earwy versions were often wimited to proximity airburst, awbeit wif height of burst options, and impact. Some offered a go/no-go functionaw test drough de fuze setter.
Later versions introduced induction fuze setting and testing instead of physicawwy pwacing a fuze setter on de fuze. The watest, such as Junghan's DM84U provide options giving, superqwick, deway, a choice of proximity heights of burst, time and a choice of fowiage penetration depds.
A new type of artiwwery fuze wiww appear soon, uh-hah-hah-hah. In addition to oder functions dese offer some course correction capabiwity, not fuww precision but sufficient to significantwy reduce de dispersion of de shewws on de ground.
The projectiwe is de munition or "buwwet" fired downrange. This may or may not be an expwosive device.
Traditionawwy, projectiwes have been cwassified as "shot" or "sheww", de former being sowid and de watter having some form of "paywoad".
Shewws can awso be divided into dree configurations: bursting, base ejection or nose ejection, uh-hah-hah-hah. The watter is sometimes cawwed de shrapnew configuration, uh-hah-hah-hah. The most modern is base ejection, which was introduced in Worwd War I. Bof base and nose ejection are awmost awways used wif airburst fuzes. Bursting shewws use various types of fuze depending on de nature of de paywoad and de tacticaw need at de time.
Paywoads have incwuded:
- Bursting: high-expwosive, white phosphorus ("Wiwwie Pete" or "Wiwson Picket"),[citation needed] cowoured marker, chemicaw, nucwear devices; high expwosive anti-tank (HEAT) and canister may be considered speciaw types of bursting sheww.
- Nose Ejection: shrapnew, star, incendiary and fwechette (a more modern version of shrapnew).
- Base Ejection: duaw purpose improved conventionaw munitions (DPICM)-bombwets, which arm demsewves and function after a set number of rotations after having been ejected from de projectiwe (dis produces unexpwoded sub-munitions, or "duds", which remain dangerous), scatterabwe mines, iwwuminating, cowoured fware, smoke, incendiary, propaganda, chaff[40] (foiw to jam radars)[41] and modern exotics such as ewectronic paywoads and sensor-fuzed munitions.
- Rifwed Traditionawwy, artiwwery projectiwes have been spin-stabiwised, meaning dat dey spin in fwight so dat gyroscopic forces prevent dem from tumbwing. Spin is induced by gun barrews having rifwing which engages a soft metaw band around de projectiwe, cawwed a "driving band" (UK) or "rotating band" (U.S.). The driving band is usuawwy made of copper, but syndetic materiaws have awso been used.
- Smoodbore/Fin-Stabiwized In modern artiwwery, smoodbore tubes have been used mostwy by mortars. These projectiwes use fins in de airfwow at deir rear to maintain correct orientation, uh-hah-hah-hah. The primary benefits over rifwed barrews is reduced barrew wear, wonger ranges dat can be achieved (due to de reduced woss of energy to friction and gas escaping around de projectiwe via de rifwing) and warger expwosive cores for a given cawiber artiwwery due to wess metaw needing to be used to form de case of de projectiwe because of wess force appwied to de sheww from de non-rifwed sides of de barrew of smoof bore guns.
- Rifwed/Fin-Stabiwized A combination of de above can be used, where de barrew is rifwed, but de projectiwe awso has depwoyabwe fins for stabiwization,[42] guidance[43] or gwiding.[44]
Most forms of artiwwery reqwire a propewwant to propew de projectiwe at de target. Propewwant is awways a wow expwosive, dis means it defwagrates instead of detonating, as wif high expwosives. The sheww is accewerated to a high vewocity in a very short time by de rapid generation of gas from de burning propewwant. This high pressure is achieved by burning de propewwant in a contained area, eider de chamber of a gun barrew or de combustion chamber of a rocket motor.
Untiw de wate 19f century, de onwy avaiwabwe propewwant was bwack powder. Bwack powder had many disadvantages as a propewwant; it has rewativewy wow power, reqwiring warge amounts of powder to fire projectiwes, and created dick cwouds of white smoke dat wouwd obscure de targets, betray de positions of guns, and make aiming impossibwe. In 1846, nitrocewwuwose (awso known as guncotton) was discovered, and de high expwosive nitrogwycerin was discovered at much de same time. Nitrocewwuwose was significantwy more powerfuw dan bwack powder, and was smokewess. Earwy guncotton was unstabwe, however, and burned very fast and hot, weading to greatwy increased barrew wear. Widespread introduction of smokewess powder wouwd wait untiw de advent of de doubwe-base powders, which combine nitrocewwuwose and nitrogwycerin to produce powerfuw, smokewess, stabwe propewwant.
Many oder formuwations were devewoped in de fowwowing decades, generawwy trying to find de optimum characteristics of a good artiwwery propewwant; wow temperature, high energy, non-corrosive, highwy stabwe, cheap, and easy to manufacture in warge qwantities. Broadwy, modern gun propewwants are divided into dree cwasses: singwe-base propewwants which are mainwy or entirewy nitrocewwuwose based, doubwe-base propewwants composed of a combination of nitrocewwuwose and nitrogwycerin, and tripwe base composed of a combination of nitrocewwuwose and nitrogwycerin and Nitroguanidine.
Artiwwery shewws fired from a barrew can be assisted to greater range in dree ways:
- rocket-assisted projectiwes (RAP) enhance and sustain de projectiwe's vewocity by providing additionaw 'push' from a smaww rocket motor dat is part of de projectiwe's base.
- Base bweed uses a smaww pyrotechnic charge at de base of de projectiwe to introduce sufficient combustion products into de wow-pressure region behind de base of de projectiwe responsibwe for a warge proportion of de drag.
- ramjet-assisted, simiwar to rocket-assisted, but using a ramjet instead of a rocket motor; it is anticipated dat a ramjet-assisted 120-mm mortar sheww couwd reach a range of 22 mi (35 km).[45]
Propewwing charges for tube artiwwery can be provided in one of two ways: eider as cartridge bags or in metaw cartridge cases. Generawwy, anti-aircraft artiwwery and smawwer-cawiber (up to 3" or 76.2 mm) guns use metaw cartridge cases dat incwude de round and propewwant, simiwar to a modern rifwe cartridge. This simpwifies woading and is necessary for very high rates of fire. Bagged propewwant awwows de amount of powder to be raised or wowered, depending on de range to de target. It awso makes handwing of warger shewws easier. Each reqwires a totawwy different type of breech to de oder. A metaw case howds an integraw primer to initiate de propewwant and provides de gas seaw to prevent de gases weaking out of de breech; dis is cawwed obturation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Wif bagged charges, de breech itsewf provides obturation and howds de primer. In eider case, de primer is usuawwy percussion, but ewectricaw is awso used, and waser ignition is emerging. Modern 155 mm guns have a primer magazine fitted to deir breech.
Artiwwery ammunition has four cwassifications according to use:
- Service: ammunition used in wive fire training or for wartime use in a combat zone. Awso known as "warshot" ammunition, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- Practice: Ammunition wif a non- or minimawwy-expwosive projectiwe dat mimics de characteristics (range, accuracy) of wive rounds for use under training conditions. Practice artiwwery ammunition often utiwizes a cowored-smoke-generating bursting charge for marking purposes in pwace of de normaw high-expwosive charge.
- Dummy: Ammunition wif an inert warhead, inert primer, and no propewwant; used for training or dispway.
- Bwank: Ammunition wif wive primer, greatwy reduced propewwant charge (typicawwy bwack powder), and no projectiwe; used for training, demonstration or ceremoniaw use.
Fiewd artiwwery system[edit]
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Because fiewd artiwwery mostwy uses indirect fire de guns have to be part of a system dat enabwes dem to attack targets invisibwe to dem in accordance wif de combined arms pwan, uh-hah-hah-hah.
The main functions in de fiewd artiwwery system are:
- Communications
- Command: audority to awwocate resources;
- Target acqwisition: detect, identify and deduce de wocation of targets;
- Controw: audority to decide which targets to attack and awwot fire units to de attack;
- Computation of firing data – to dewiver fire from a fire unit onto its target;
- Fire units: guns, waunchers or mortars grouped togeder;
- Speciawist services: produce data to support de production of accurate firing data;
- Logistic services: to provide combat suppwies, particuwarwy ammunition, and eqwipment support.
Aww dese cawcuwations to produce a qwadrant ewevation (or range) and azimuf were done manuawwy using instruments, tabwuwated, data of de moment, and approximations untiw battwefiewd computers started appearing in de 1960s and 1970s. Whiwe some earwy cawcuwators copied de manuaw medod (typicawwy substituting powynomiaws for tabuwated data), computers use a different approach. They simuwate a sheww's trajectory by 'fwying' it in short steps and appwying data about de conditions affecting de trajectory at each step. This simuwation is repeated untiw it produces a qwadrant ewevation and azimuf dat wands de sheww widin de reqwired 'cwosing' distance of de target coordinates. NATO has a standard bawwistic modew for computer cawcuwations and has expanded de scope of dis into de NATO Armaments Bawwistic Kernew (NABK)[46] widin de SG2 Shareabwe (Fire Controw) Software Suite (S4).
Suppwy of artiwwery ammunition has awways been a major component of miwitary wogistics. Up untiw Worwd War I some armies made artiwwery responsibwe for aww forward ammunition suppwy because de woad of smaww arms ammunition was triviaw compared to artiwwery. Different armies use different approaches to ammunition suppwy, which can vary wif de nature of operations. Differences incwude where de wogistic service transfers artiwwery ammunition to artiwwery, de amount of ammunition carried in units and extent to which stocks are hewd at unit or battery wevew. A key difference is wheder suppwy is 'push' or 'puww'. In de former de 'pipewine' keeps pushing ammunition into formations or units at a defined rate. In de watter units fire as tacticawwy necessary and repwenish to maintain or reach deir audorised howding (which can vary), so de wogistic system has to be abwe to cope wif surge and swack.
Cwassification of artiwwery[edit]
Artiwwery types can be categorised in severaw ways, for exampwe by type or size of weapon or ordnance, by rowe or by organizationaw arrangements.
Types of ordnance[edit]
The types of cannon artiwwery are generawwy distinguished by de vewocity at which dey fire projectiwes. Types of artiwwery:
- Heavy artiwwery: capabwe of firing a wong distance to bombard its target.
- Fiewd artiwwery: mobiwe weapons used to support armies in de fiewd. Subcategories incwude:
- infantry support guns: directwy support infantry units.
- mountain guns: wightweight weapons dat can be moved drough difficuwt terrain, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- fiewd guns: capabwe of wong range fire.
- howitzers: capabwe of high angwe fire, dey are most often empwoyed for indirect-fire.
- gun howitzers: capabwe of high or wow angwe fire wif a wong barrew.
- mortars: typicawwy short-barrewed, high-trajectory weapons designed primariwy for an indirect-fire rowe.
- anti-tank artiwwery: weapons, usuawwy mobiwe, designed for attacking tanks.
- anti-aircraft artiwwery: weapons, usuawwy mobiwe, designed for attacking aircraft from de ground. Some guns were suitabwe for duaw-rowe anti-aircraft and fiewd (anti-tank) use. The Worwd War II German 88 mm gun was a famous exampwe.
- rocket artiwwery: rocket-waunched instead of shot or sheww.
- Raiwway gun: warge-cawiber weapons dat are mounted on, transported by and fired from speciawwy-designed raiwway wagons.
- Navaw artiwwery: guns mounted on warships and used eider against oder ships or in support of ground forces. The crowning achievement of navaw artiwwery was de battweship, but de advent of airpower and missiwes have rendered dis type of artiwwery wargewy obsowete. They are typicawwy wonger-barrewed, wow-trajectory, high-vewocity weapons designed primariwy for a direct-fire rowe.
- Coastaw artiwwery: Fixed-position weapons dedicated to defense of a particuwar wocation, usuawwy a coast (for exampwe, de Atwantic Waww in Worwd War II) or harbor. Not needing to be mobiwe, coastaw artiwwery used to be much warger dan eqwivawent fiewd artiwwery pieces, giving dem wonger range and more destructive power. Modern coastaw artiwwery (for exampwe, Russia's "Bereg" system) is often sewf-propewwed, (awwowing it to avoid counter-battery fire) and fuwwy integrated, meaning dat each battery has aww of de support systems dat it reqwires (maintenance, targeting radar, etc.) organic to its unit.
Modern fiewd artiwwery can awso be spwit into two oder subcategories: towed and sewf-propewwed. As de name suggests, towed artiwwery has a prime mover, usuawwy an artiwwery tractor or truck, to move de piece, crew, and ammunition around. Towed artiwwery is in some cases eqwipped wif an APU for smaww dispwacements. Sewf-propewwed artiwwery is permanentwy mounted on a carriage or vehicwe wif room for de crew and ammunition and is dus capabwe of moving qwickwy from one firing position to anoder, bof to support de fwuid nature of modern combat and to avoid counter-battery fire. It incwudes mortar carrier vehicwes, many of which awwow de mortar to be removed from de vehicwe and be used dismounted, potentiawwy in terrain in which de vehicwe cannot navigate, or in order to avoid detection, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Organizationaw types[edit]
At de beginning of de modern artiwwery period, de wate 19f century, many armies had dree main types of artiwwery, in some case dey were sub-branches widin de artiwwery branch in oders dey were separate branches or corps. There were awso oder types excwuding de armament fitted to warships:
- Horse artiwwery, first formed as reguwar units in de wate 18f century, wif de rowe of supporting cavawry, dey were distinguished by de entire crew being mounted.
- Fiewd or "foot" artiwwery, de main artiwwery arm of de fiewd army, using eider guns, howitzers, or mortars. In Worwd War II dis branch again started using rockets and water surface to surface missiwes.
- Fortress or garrison artiwwery, manned a nation's fixed defences using guns, howitzers or mortars, eider on wand or coastaw frontiers. Some had depwoyabwe ewements to provide heavy artiwwery to de fiewd army. In some nations coast defence artiwwery was a navaw responsibiwity.
- Mountain artiwwery, a few nations treated mountain artiwwery as a separate branch, in oders it was a speciawity in anoder artiwwery branch. They used wight guns or howitzers, usuawwy designed for pack animaw transport and easiwy broken down into smaww easiwy handwed woads
- Navaw artiwwery, some nations carried pack artiwwery on some warships, dese were used and manhandwed by navaw (or marine) wanding parties. At times, part of a ship's armament wouwd be unshipped and mated to makeshift carriages and wimbers for actions ashore, for exampwe during de Second Boer War, during de First Worwd War de guns from de stricken SMS Königsberg formed de main artiwwery strengf of de German forces in East Africa.
After Worwd War I many nations merged dese different artiwwery branches, in some cases keeping some as sub-branches. Navaw artiwwery disappeared apart from dat bewonging to marines. However, two new branches of artiwwery emerged during dat war and its aftermaf, bof used speciawised guns (and a few rockets) and used direct not indirect fire, in de 1950s and 1960s bof started to make extensive use of missiwes:
- Anti-tank artiwwery, awso under various organisationaw arrangements but typicawwy eider fiewd artiwwery or a speciawist branch and additionaw ewements integraw to infantry, etc., units. However, in most armies fiewd and anti-aircraft artiwwery awso had at weast a secondary anti-tank rowe. After Worwd War II anti-tank in Western armies became mostwy de responsibiwity of infantry and armoured branches and ceased to be an artiwwery matter, wif some exceptions.
- Anti-aircraft artiwwery, under various organisationaw arrangements incwuding being part of artiwwery, a separate corps, even a separate service or being spwit between army for de fiewd and airforce for home defence. In some cases infantry and de new armoured corps awso operated deir own integraw wight anti-aircraft artiwwery. Home defence anti-aircraft artiwwery often used fixed as weww as mobiwe mountings. Some anti-aircraft guns couwd awso be used as fiewd or anti-tank artiwwery, providing dey had suitabwe sights.
However, de generaw switch by artiwwery to indirect fire before and during Worwd War I wed to a reaction in some armies. The resuwt was accompanying or infantry guns. These were usuawwy smaww, short range guns, dat couwd be easiwy man-handwed and used mostwy for direct fire but some couwd use indirect fire. Some were operated by de artiwwery branch but under command of de supported unit. In Worwd War II dey were joined by sewf-propewwed assauwt guns, awdough oder armies adopted infantry or cwose support tanks in armoured branch units for de same purpose, subseqwentwy tanks generawwy took on de accompanying rowe.
Eqwipment types[edit]
The dree main types of artiwwery "gun" are guns, howitzers, and mortars. During de 20f century, guns and howitzers have steadiwy merged in artiwwery use, making a distinction between de terms somewhat meaningwess. By de end of de 20f century, true guns wif cawibers warger dan about 60 mm had become very rare in artiwwery use, de main users being tanks, ships, and a few residuaw anti-aircraft and coastaw guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term dat incwudes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in oder Engwish speaking armies.
The traditionaw definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum ewevation (weww wess dan 45° as opposed to cwose to or greater dan 45°), number of charges (one or more dan one charge), and having higher or wower muzzwe vewocity, sometimes indicated by barrew wengf. These dree criteria give eight possibwe combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher vewocities and wonger barrews dan de eqwivawent "guns" of de first hawf of de 20f century.
True guns are characterized by wong range, having a maximum ewevation significantwy wess dan 45°, a high muzzwe vewocity and hence a rewativewy wong barrew, smoof bore (no rifwing) and a singwe charge. The watter often wed to fixed ammunition where de projectiwe is wocked to de cartridge case. There is no generawwy accepted minimum muzzwe vewocity or barrew wengf associated wif a gun, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Howitzers can fire at maximum ewevations at weast cwose to 45°; ewevations up to about 70° are normaw for modern howitzers. Howitzers awso have a choice of charges, meaning dat de same ewevation angwe of fire wiww achieve a different range depending on de charge used. They have rifwed bores, wower muzzwe vewocities and shorter barrews dan eqwivawent guns. Aww dis means dey can dewiver fire wif a steep angwe of descent. Because of deir muwti-charge capabiwity, deir ammunition is mostwy separate woading (de projectiwe and propewwant are woaded separatewy).
That weaves six combinations of de dree criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in de 1930s when howitzers wif a rewativewy high maximum muzzwe vewocities were introduced, it never became widewy accepted, most armies ewecting to widen de definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By de 1960s, most eqwipments had maximum ewevations up to about 70°, were muwti-charge, had qwite high maximum muzzwe vewocities and rewativewy wong barrews.
Mortars are simpwer. The modern mortar originated in Worwd War I and dere were severaw patterns. After dat war, most mortars settwed on de Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrew, smoof bore, wow muzzwe vewocity, ewevation angwe of firing generawwy greater dan 45°, and a very simpwe and wight mounting using a "basepwate" on de ground. The projectiwe wif its integraw propewwing charge was dropped down de barrew from de muzzwe to hit a fixed firing pin, uh-hah-hah-hah. Since dat time, a few mortars have become rifwed and adopted breech woading.
There are oder recognized typifying characteristics for artiwwery. One such characteristic is de type of obturation used to seaw de chamber and prevent gases escaping drough de breech. This may use a metaw cartridge case dat awso howds de propewwing charge, a configuration cawwed "QF" or "qwickfiring" by some nations. The awternative does not use a metaw cartridge case, de propewwant being merewy bagged or in combustibwe cases wif de breech itsewf providing aww de seawing. This is cawwed "BL" or "breech woading" by some nations.
A second characteristic is de form of propuwsion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Modern eqwipment can eider be towed or sewf-propewwed (SP). A towed gun fires from de ground and any inherent protection is wimited to a gun shiewd. Towing by horse teams wasted droughout Worwd War II in some armies, but oders were fuwwy mechanized wif wheewed or tracked gun towing vehicwes by de outbreak of dat war. The size of a towing vehicwe depends on de weight of de eqwipment and de amount of ammunition it has to carry.
A variation of towed is portee, where de vehicwe carries de gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried dis way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicwe and can eider fire from it or be dismounted to fire from de ground. Since de earwy 1960s it has been possibwe to carry wighter towed guns and most mortars by hewicopter. Even before dat, dey were parachuted or wanded by gwider from de time of de first airborne triaws in de USSR in de 1930s.
In an SP eqwipment, de gun is an integraw part of de vehicwe dat carries it. SPs first appeared during Worwd War I, but did not reawwy devewop untiw Worwd War II. They are mostwy tracked vehicwes, but wheewed SPs started to appear in de 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry wittwe or no ammunition, uh-hah-hah-hah. Armoured SPs usuawwy carry a usefuw ammunition woad. Earwy armoured SPs were mostwy a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering onwy wimited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a fuww encwosed armored turret, usuawwy giving fuww traverse for de gun, uh-hah-hah-hah. Many SPs cannot fire widout depwoying stabiwizers or spades, sometimes hydrauwic. A few SPs are designed so dat de recoiw forces of de gun are transferred directwy onto de ground drough a basepwate. A few towed guns have been given wimited sewf-propuwsion by means of an auxiwiary engine.
Two oder forms of tacticaw propuwsion were used in de first hawf of de 20f century: Raiwways or transporting de eqwipment by road, as two or dree separate woads, wif disassembwy and re-assembwy at de beginning and end of de journey. Raiwway artiwwery took two forms, raiwway mountings for heavy and super-heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicwes" armed wif wight artiwwery in a direct fire rowe. Disassembwed transport was awso used wif heavy and super heavy weapons and wasted into de 1950s.
Cawiber categories[edit]
A dird form of artiwwery typing is to cwassify it as "wight", "medium", "heavy" and various oder terms. It appears to have been introduced in Worwd War I, which spawned a very wide array of artiwwery in aww sorts of sizes so a simpwe categoricaw system was needed. Some armies defined dese categories by bands of cawibers. Different bands were used for different types of weapons—fiewd guns, mortars, anti-aircraft guns and coastaw guns.
Modern operations[edit]
List of countries in order of amount of artiwwery:[47]
- Russia – 26,121[48]
- Democratic Peopwe's Repubwic of Korea – 17,900+[49]
- China – 17,700+[50]
- India – 11,258+[51]
- Repubwic of Korea – 10,774+[52]
- United States – 8,137[53]
- Turkey – 7,450+[54]
- Israew – 5,432[55]
- Egypt – 4,480[56]
- Pakistan – 4,291+[57]
- Syria – 3,805+[57]
- Awgeria – 3,465[57]
- Iran – 3,668+[57]
- Jordan – 2,339[57]
- Iraq – 2,300+[57]
- Finwand – 1,398[58]
- France – 758[57]
- Braziw – 900[57]
- Cameroon – 883[57]
- Morocco – 848[57]
- Hungary – 835
Artiwwery is used in a variety of rowes depending on its type and cawiber. The generaw rowe of artiwwery is to provide fire support—"de appwication of fire, coordinated wif de manoeuvre of forces to destroy, neutrawize or suppress de enemy". This NATO definition, of course, makes artiwwery a supporting arm awdough not aww NATO armies agree wif dis wogic. The itawicised terms are NATO's.[59]
Unwike rockets, guns (or howitzers as some armies stiww caww dem) and mortars are suitabwe for dewivering cwose supporting fire. However, dey are aww suitabwe for providing deep supporting fire awdough de wimited range of many mortars tends to excwude dem from de rowe. Their controw arrangements and wimited range awso mean dat mortars are most suited to direct supporting fire. Guns are used eider for dis or generaw supporting fire whiwe rockets are mostwy used for de watter. However, wighter rockets may be used for direct fire support. These ruwes of dumb appwy to NATO armies.
Modern mortars, because of deir wighter weight and simpwer, more transportabwe design, are usuawwy an integraw part of infantry and, in some armies, armor units. This means dey generawwy do not have to concentrate deir fire so deir shorter range is not a disadvantage. Some armies awso consider infantry operated mortars to be more responsive dan artiwwery, but dis is a function of de controw arrangements and not de case in aww armies. However, mortars have awways been used by artiwwery units and remain wif dem in many armies, incwuding a few in NATO.
In NATO armies artiwwery is usuawwy assigned a tacticaw mission dat estabwishes its rewationship and responsibiwities to de formation or units it is assigned to. It seems dat not aww NATO nations use de terms and outside NATO oders are probabwy used. The standard terms are: direct support, generaw support, generaw support reinforcing and reinforcing. These tacticaw missions are in de context of de command audority: operationaw command, operationaw controw, tacticaw command or tacticaw controw.
In NATO direct support generawwy means dat de directwy supporting artiwwery unit provides observers and wiaison to de manoeuvre troops being supported, typicawwy an artiwwery battawion or eqwivawent is assigned to a brigade and its batteries to de brigade's battawions. However, some armies achieve dis by pwacing de assigned artiwwery units under command of de directwy supported formation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Neverdewess, de batteries' fire can be concentrated onto a singwe target, as can de fire of units in range and wif de oder tacticaw missions.
Appwication of fire[edit]
There are severaw dimensions to dis subject. The first is de notion dat fire may be against an opportunity target or may be prearranged. If it is de watter it may be eider on-caww or scheduwed. Prearranged targets may be part of a fire pwan. Fire may be eider observed or unobserved, if de former it may be adjusted, if de watter den it has to be predicted. Observation of adjusted fire may be directwy by a forward observer or indirectwy via some oder target acqwisition system.
NATO awso recognises severaw different types of fire support for tacticaw purposes:
- Counterbattery fire: dewivered for de purpose of destroying or neutrawizing de enemy's fire support system.
- Counterpreparation fire: intensive prearranged fire dewivered when de imminence of de enemy attack is discovered.
- Covering fire: used to protect troops when dey are widin range of enemy smaww arms.
- Defensive fire: dewivered by supporting units to assist and protect a unit engaged in a defensive action, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- Finaw Protective Fire: an immediatewy avaiwabwe prearranged barrier of fire designed to impede enemy movement across defensive wines or areas.
- Harassing fire: a random number of shewws are fired at random intervaws, widout any pattern to it dat de enemy can predict. This process is designed to hinder enemy forces' movement, and, by de constantwy imposed stress, dreat of wosses and inabiwity of enemy forces to rewax or sweep, wowers deir morawe.
- Interdiction fire: pwaced on an area or point to prevent de enemy from using de area or point.
- Preparation fire: dewivered before an attack to weaken de enemy position, uh-hah-hah-hah.
These purposes have existed for most of de 20f century, awdough deir definitions have evowved and wiww continue to do so, wack of suppression in counterbattery is an omission, uh-hah-hah-hah. Broadwy dey can be defined as eider:
- Deep supporting fire: directed at objectives not in de immediate vicinity of own force, for neutrawizing or destroying enemy reserves and weapons, and interfering wif enemy command, suppwy, communications and observation; or
- Cwose supporting fire: pwaced on enemy troops, weapons or positions which, because of deir proximity present de most immediate and serious dreat to de supported unit.
Two oder NATO terms awso need definition:
- Neutrawization fire: dewivered to render a target temporariwy ineffective or unusabwe; and
- Suppression fire: dat degrades de performance of a target bewow de wevew needed to fuwfiww its mission, uh-hah-hah-hah. Suppression is usuawwy onwy effective for de duration of de fire.
The tacticaw purposes awso incwude various "mission verbs", a rapidwy expanding subject wif de modern concept of "effects based operations".
Targeting is de process of sewecting target and matching de appropriate response to dem taking account of operationaw reqwirements and capabiwities. It reqwires consideration of de type of fire support reqwired and de extent of coordination wif de supported arm. It invowves decisions about:
- what effects are reqwired, for exampwe, neutrawization or suppression;
- de proximity of and risks to own troops or non-combatants;
- what types of munitions, incwuding deir fuzing, are to be used and in what qwantities;
- when de targets shouwd be attacked and possibwy for how wong;
- what medods shouwd be used, for exampwe, converged or distributed, wheder adjustment is permissibwe or surprise essentiaw, de need for speciaw procedures such as precision or danger cwose
- how many fire units are needed and which ones dey shouwd be from dose dat are avaiwabwe (in range, wif de reqwired munitions type and qwantity, not awwotted to anoder target, have de most suitabwe wine of fire if dere is a risk to own troops or non-combatants);
The targeting process is de key aspect of tacticaw fire controw. Depending on de circumstances and nationaw procedures it may aww be undertaken in one pwace or may be distributed. In armies practicing controw from de front, most of de process may be undertaken by a forward observer or oder target acqwirer. This is particuwarwy de case for a smawwer target reqwiring onwy a few fire units. The extent to which de process is formaw or informaw and makes use of computer based systems, documented norms or experience and judgement awso varies widewy armies and oder circumstances.
Surprise may be essentiaw or irrewevant. It depends on what effects are reqwired and wheder or not de target is wikewy to move or qwickwy improve its protective posture. During Worwd War II UK researchers concwuded dat for impact fuzed munitions de rewative risk were as fowwows:
- men standing – 1
- men wying – 1/3
- men firing from trenches – 1/15–1/50
- men crouching in trenches – 1/25–1/100
Airburst munitions significantwy increase de rewative risk for wying men, etc. Historicawwy most casuawties occur in de first 10–15 seconds of fire, i.e. de time needed to react and improve protective posture, however, dis is wess rewevant if airburst is used.
There are severaw ways of making best use of dis brief window of maximum vuwnerabiwity:
- ordering de guns to fire togeder, eider by executive order or by a "fire at" time. The disadvantage is dat if de fire is concentrated from many dispersed fire units den dere wiww be different times of fwight and de first rounds wiww be spread in time. To some extent a warge concentration offsets de probwem because it may mean dat onwy one round is reqwired from each gun and most of dese couwd arrive in de 15 second window.
- burst fire, a rate of fire to dewiver dree rounds from each gun widin 10 or 15 seconds, dis reduces de number of guns and hence fire units needed, which means dey may be wess dispersed and have wess variation in deir times of fwight. Smawwer cawiber guns, such as 105 mm, have awways been abwe to dewiver dree rounds in 15 seconds, warger cawibers firing fixed rounds couwd awso do it but it wasn't untiw de 1970s dat a muwti-charge 155 mm howitzer, FH-70 first gained de capabiwity.
- muwtipwe round simuwtaneous impact (MRSI), where a singwe weapon or muwtipwe individuaw weapons fire muwtipwe rounds at differing trajectories so dat aww rounds arrive on target at de same time.
- time on target, fire units fire at de time wess deir time of fwight, dis works weww wif prearranged scheduwed fire but is wess satisfactory for opportunity targets because it means dewaying de dewivery of fire by sewecting a 'safe' time dat aww or most fire units can achieve. It can be used wif bof de previous two medods.
Counter-battery fire[edit]
Modern counter-battery fire devewoped in Worwd War I, wif de objective of defeating de enemy's artiwwery. Typicawwy such fire was used to suppress enemy batteries when dey were or were about to interfere wif de activities of friendwy forces (such as to prevent enemy defensive artiwwery fire against an impending attack) or to systematicawwy destroy enemy guns. In Worwd War I de watter reqwired air observation, uh-hah-hah-hah. The first indirect counter-battery fire was in May 1900 by an observer in a bawwoon, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Enemy artiwwery can be detected in two ways, eider by direct observation of de guns from de air or by ground observers (incwuding speciawist reconnaissance), or from deir firing signatures. This incwudes radars tracking de shewws in fwight to determine deir pwace of origin, sound ranging detecting guns firing and resecting deir position from pairs of microphones or cross-observation of gun fwashes using observation by human observers or opto-ewectronic devices, awdough de widespread adoption of 'fwashwess' propewwant wimited de effectiveness of de watter.
Once hostiwe batteries have been detected dey may be engaged immediatewy by friendwy artiwwery or water at an optimum time, depending on de tacticaw situation and de counter-battery powicy. Air strike is anoder option, uh-hah-hah-hah. In some situations de task is to wocate aww active enemy batteries for attack using a counter-battery fire at de appropriate moment in accordance wif a pwan devewoped by artiwwery intewwigence staff. In oder situations counter-battery fire may occur whenever a battery is wocated wif sufficient accuracy.
Modern counter-battery target acqwisition uses unmanned aircraft, counter-battery radar, ground reconnaissance and sound-ranging. Counter-battery fire may be adjusted by some of de systems, for exampwe de operator of an unmanned aircraft can 'fowwow' a battery if it moves. Defensive measures by batteries incwude freqwentwy changing position or constructing defensive eardworks, de tunnews used by Norf Korea being an extreme exampwe. Counter-measures incwude air defence against aircraft and attacking counter-battery radars physicawwy and ewectronicawwy.
Fiewd artiwwery team[edit]
'Fiewd Artiwwery Team' is a US term and de fowwowing description and terminowogy appwies to de US, oder armies are broadwy simiwar but differ in significant detaiws. Modern fiewd artiwwery (post–Worwd War I) has dree distinct parts: de forward observer (or FO), de fire direction center (FDC) and de actuaw guns demsewves. The forward observer observes de target using toows such as binocuwars, waser rangefinders, designators and caww back fire missions on his radio, or reways de data drough a portabwe computer via an encrypted digitaw radio connection protected from jamming by computerized freqwency hopping. A wesser known part of de team is de FAS or Fiewd Artiwwery Survey team which setups up de "Gun Line" for de cannons. Today most artiwwery battawions use a(n) "Aiming Circwe" which awwows for faster setup and more mobiwity. FAS teams are stiww used for checks and bawances purposes and if a gun battery has issues wif de "Aiming Circwe" a FAS team wiww do it for dem.
The FO can communicate directwy wif de battery FDC, of which dere is one per each battery of 4–8 guns. Oderwise de severaw FOs communicate wif a higher FDC such as at a Battawion wevew, and de higher FDC prioritizes de targets and awwocates fires to individuaw batteries as needed to engage de targets dat are spotted by de FOs or to perform prepwanned fires.
The Battery FDC computes firing data—ammunition to be used, powder charge, fuse settings, de direction to de target, and de qwadrant ewevation to be fired at to reach de target, what gun wiww fire any rounds needed for adjusting on de target, and de number of rounds to be fired on de target by each gun once de target has been accuratewy wocated—to de guns. Traditionawwy dis data is rewayed via radio or wire communications as a warning order to de guns, fowwowed by orders specifying de type of ammunition and fuse setting, direction, and de ewevation needed to reach de target, and de medod of adjustment or orders for fire for effect (FFE). However, in more advanced artiwwery units, dis data is rewayed drough a digitaw radio wink.
Oder parts of de fiewd artiwwery team incwude meteorowogicaw anawysis to determine de temperature, humidity and pressure of de air and wind direction and speed at different awtitudes. Awso radar is used bof for determining de wocation of enemy artiwwery and mortar batteries and to determine de precise actuaw strike points of rounds fired by battery and comparing dat wocation wif what was expected to compute a registration awwowing future rounds to be fired wif much greater accuracy.
Time on Target[edit]
A techniqwe cawwed Time on Target was devewoped by de British Army in Norf Africa at de end of 1941 and earwy 1942 particuwarwy for counter-battery fire and oder concentrations, it proved very popuwar. It rewied on BBC time signaws to enabwe officers to synchronize deir watches to de second because dis avoided de need to use miwitary radio networks and de possibiwity of wosing surprise, and de need for fiewd tewephone networks in de desert.[60] Wif dis techniqwe de time of fwight from each fire unit (battery or troop) to de target is taken from de range or firing tabwes, or de computer and each engaging fire unit subtracts its time of fwight from de TOT to determine de time to fire. An executive order to fire is given to aww guns in de fire unit at de correct moment to fire. When each fire unit fires deir rounds at deir individuaw firing time aww de opening rounds wiww reach de target area awmost simuwtaneouswy. This is especiawwy effective when combined wif techniqwes dat awwow fires for effect to be made widout prewiminary adjusting fires.
A modern version of de earwier "time on target" is a concept in which fire from different weapons was timed to arrive on target at de same time. It is possibwe for artiwwery to fire severaw shewws per gun at a target and have aww of dem arrive simuwtaneouswy, which is cawwed MRSI (Muwtipwe Rounds Simuwtaneous Impact). This is because dere is more dan one trajectory for de rounds to fwy to any given target: typicawwy one is bewow 45 degrees from horizontaw and de oder is above it, and by using different size propewwing charges wif each sheww, it is possibwe to create muwtipwe trajectories. Because de higher trajectories cause de shewws to arc higher into de air, dey take wonger to reach de target and so if de shewws are fired on dese trajectories for de first vowweys (starting wif de sheww wif de most propewwant and working down) and den after de correct pause more vowweys are fired on de wower trajectories, de shewws wiww aww arrive at de same time. This is usefuw because many more shewws can wand on de target wif no warning. Wif traditionaw vowweys awong de same trajectory, anybody at de target area may have time (however wong it takes to rewoad and re-fire de guns) to take cover between vowweys. However, guns capabwe of burst fire can dewiver severaw rounds in 10 seconds if dey use de same firing data for each, and if guns in more dan one wocation are firing on one target dey can use Time on Target procedures so dat aww deir shewws arrive at de same time and target.
To engage targets using MRSI reqwires two dings, firstwy guns wif de reqwisite rate of fire and sufficientwy different size propewwing charges, secondwy a fire controw computer dat has been designed to compute such missions and de data handwing capabiwity dat awwows aww de firing data to be produced, sent to each gun and den presented to de gun commander in de correct order. The number of rounds dat can be dewivered in MRSI depends primariwy on de range to de target and de rate of fire, for maximum rounds de range is wimited to dat of wowest propewwing charge dat wiww reach de target.
Exampwes of guns wif a rate of fire dat makes dem suitabwe for MRSI incwudes UK's AS-90, Souf Africa's Denew G6-52 (which can wand six rounds simuwtaneouswy at targets at weast 25 km (16 mi) away), Germany's Panzerhaubitze 2000 (which can wand five rounds simuwtaneouswy at targets at weast 17 km (11 mi) away), and Swovakia's 155 mm SpGH ZUZANA modew 2000. The Archer project (devewoped by BAE-Systems in Sweden) is a 155 mm howitzer on a wheewed chassis which is cwaimed to be abwe to dewiver up to six shewws on target simuwtaneouswy from de same gun, uh-hah-hah-hah. The 120 mm twin barrew AMOS mortar system, joint devewoped by Häggwunds (Sweden) and Patria (Finwand),[61] is capabwe of 7 + 7 shewws MRSI. The United States Crusader program (now cancewwed) was swated to have MRSI capabiwity. It is uncwear how many fire controw computers have de necessary capabiwities.
Two-round MRSI firings were a popuwar artiwwery demonstration in de 1960s, where weww trained detachments couwd show off deir skiwws for spectators.
Air burst[edit]
The destructiveness of artiwwery bombardments can be enhanced when some or aww of de shewws are set for airburst, meaning dat dey expwode in de air above de target instead of upon impact. This can be accompwished eider drough time fuzes or proximity fuzes. Time fuses use a precise timer to detonate de sheww after a preset deway. This techniqwe is tricky and swight variations in de functioning of de fuse can cause it to expwode too high and be ineffective, or to strike de ground instead of expwoding above it. Since December 1944 (Battwe of de Buwge), proximity fuzed artiwwery shewws have been avaiwabwe dat take de guesswork out of dis process. These embody a miniature, wow powered radar transmitter in de fuse to detect de ground and expwode dem at a predetermined height above it. The return of de weak radar signaw compwetes an ewectricaw circuit in de fuze which expwodes de sheww. The proximity fuse itsewf was devewoped by de British to increase de effectiveness of anti-aircraft warfare.
This is a very effective tactic against infantry and wight vehicwes, because it scatters de fragmentation of de sheww over a warger area and prevents it from being bwocked by terrain or entrenchments dat do not incwude some form of robust overhead cover. Combined wif TOT or MRSI tactics dat give no warning of de incoming rounds, dese rounds are especiawwy devastating because many enemy sowdiers are wikewy to be caught in de open, uh-hah-hah-hah. This is even more so if de attack is waunched against an assembwy area or troops moving in de open rader dan a unit in an entrenched tacticaw position, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Use in monuments[edit]
Numerous war memoriaws around de worwd incorporate an artiwwery piece which had been used in de specific war or battwe commemorated.
See awso[edit]
- List of artiwwery
- Indirect fire
- Advanced Gun System
- Aiming point
- Artiwwery battery
- Artiwwery fuze
- Artiwwery museums
- Barrage (artiwwery)
- Beehive anti-personnew round
- Combustion wight-gas gun
- Cordite
- Counter-battery fire
- Counter-battery radar
- Fuze
- Project Babywon
- Gun waying
- Howitzer
- Light-gas gun
- Navaw artiwwery
- Nucwear artiwwery
- Paris Gun
- Raiwgun
- Coiwgun
- Sheww (projectiwe)
- Shoot-and-scoot
- Shrapnew sheww
- Sound ranging
- Suppressive fire
- ^ a b Christopher Bewwamy, Oxford Companion to Miwitary History: artiwwery
- ^ Šotnar, Jiří; Carbow, Michaw; Bwaha, Martin, uh-hah-hah-hah. "Modernization of artiwwery reconnaissance" (PDF). INASE. Appwied Madematics, Computationaw Science and Engineering. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
- ^ a b Needham 1987, pp. 314–16
- ^ Needham, Joseph (1987). Science & Civiwisation in China, vowume 7: The Gunpowder Epic. Cambridge University Press. pp. 317–19. ISBN 978-0521303583.
- ^ unknown (1590s). "1526, First Battwe of Panipat, Ibrahim Lodhi and Babur". Baburnama.
- ^ Unknown (1590–95). "Buwwocks dragging siege-guns up hiww during Akbar's attack on Randambhor Fort". de Akbarnama.
- ^ Cook, Weston F., Jr. Warfare and Firearms in Fifteenf century Morocco, 1400–1492. 1993
- ^ (Sieges of Stirwing Castwe)
- ^ Lee, T.W. (2008-12-30). Miwitary Technowogies of de Worwd. ISBN 978-0275995362. Retrieved 17 November 2017.
- ^ Rogers, Cwifford J. (1993). "The Miwitary Revowutions of de Hundred Years' War". The Journaw of Miwitary History. 57 (2): 241–78. doi:10.2307/2944058. ISSN 1543-7795. JSTOR 2944058. (Registration reqwired (hewp)).
- ^ Schmidtchen 1977, p. 162
- ^ DeVries, K: The Use of Gunpowder Weaponry By and Against Joan or Arc During de Hundred Years' War. 1996
- ^ Nicowwe, David (2000). Constantinopwe 1453: The end of Byzantium. London: Osprey Pubwishing. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-1841760919.
- ^ Nicowwe, David (1983). Armies of de Ottoman Turks 1300–1774. Osprey Pubwishing. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-0850455113.
- ^ Royaw Artiwwery. PediaPress.
- ^ "조선왕조실록". siwwok.history.go.kr.
- ^ "조선왕조실록". siwwok.history.go.kr.
- ^ Howmes, p.70
- ^ a b c d Keegan, John, A History of Warfare (Vintage, 1993).
- ^ Ordway, Vice-Commander of Artiwwery of de Powish king, Wwadyswaw IV, Great Art of Artiwwery, de First Part, awso known as The Compwete Art of Artiwwery, pp. 407–16.
- ^ Frederick C. Durant III; Stephen Owiver Fought; John F. Guiwmartin, Jr. "Rocket and missiwe system". Encycwopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 19, 2011.
- ^ "Tipu's missiwe waunch pad in shambwes". The Hindu. Karnataka, India. June 23, 2005. Retrieved December 16, 2011.
- ^ Bastabwe, Marshaww J. (1992). "From Breechwoaders to Monster Guns: Sir Wiwwiam Armstrong and de Invention of Modern Artiwwery, 1854–1880". Technowogy and Cuwture. 33 (2): 213–47. doi:10.2307/3105857. ISSN 1097-3729. JSTOR 3105857. (Registration reqwired (hewp)).
- ^ "Wiwwiam Armstrong".
- ^ "The Emergence of Modern War".
- ^ Armstrong Rifwed Breech Loading (RBL) 6-Pounder Archived February 20, 2002, at de Wayback Machine.
- ^ Howwey states dat Daniew Treadweww first patented de concept of a centraw steew tube kept under compression by wrought-iron coiws.. and dat Armstrong's assertion dat he (Armstrong) first used a wrought-iron A-tube and hence did not infringe de patent, was disingenuous, as de main point in Treadweww's patent was de tension exerted by de wrought-iron coiws, which Armstrong used in exactwy de same fashion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Howwey, Treatise on Ordnance and Armour, 1865, pp. 863–70
- ^ Chris Bishop, "Canon de 75 modèwe 1897", The encycwopedia of weapons of Worwd War II, p. 137
- ^ Prisciwwa Mary Roberts, "French 75 gun", Worwd War One, p. 726
- ^ Artiwwery – its origin, heyday and decwine, Brigadier OFG Hogg, 1970, C Hurst and Company
- ^ Christopher Bewwamy, Red God of War: Soviet Artiwwery and Rocket Forces, London, 1986, p.16, qwoted in Knox, MacGregor; Murray, Wiwwiamson (2001). The Dynamics of Miwitary Revowution. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-0521800792.
- ^ Against Aww Odds!: Dramatic Last Stand Actions; Perret, Brian; Casseww 2000; ISBN 978-0304354566: discussed during de account of de Hougoumont action, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- ^ Knox, MacGregor; Murray, Wiwwiamson (2001). The Dynamics of Miwitary Revowution. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 136. ISBN 978-0521800792.
- ^ Frank W. Sweet (2000). The Evowution of Indirect Fire. Backintyme. pp. 28–33. ISBN 978-0939479207.
- ^ Knox, MacGregor; Murray, Wiwwiamson (2001). The Dynamics of Miwitary Revowution. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0521800792..
- ^ Baiwey, Jonadan B.A. (2004), Fiewd artiwwery and firepower, Navaw Institute Press, ISBN 978-1591140290[page needed]
- ^ Generaw Percin, 1921 Le massacre de notre infanterie, 1914–1918. Percin supports his cwaim wif hundreds of items of battwefiewd correspondence from aww parts of de Western Front.
- ^ http://nso.nato.int/nso/zPubwic/ap/aap6/AAP-6.pdf[permanent dead wink]
- ^ 102.001 – Proximity FuseO, Science Service Historicaw Image Cowwection
- ^ p. 266, Browne & Thurbon
- ^ p. 262, Internationaw Aeronautic Federation
- ^ "Fin-stabiwized artiwwery sheww". patentstorm.us. August 24, 2004. Archived from de originaw on February 9, 2008.
- ^ "Excawibur Precision Projectiwe". gwobawsecurity.org.
- ^ "Guided artiwwery missiwe wif extremewy wong range". patentstorm.us. August 24, 2004. Archived from de originaw on February 9, 2008.
- ^ McNab, Chris; Hunter Keeter (2008). Toows of Viowence: Guns, Tanks and Dirty Bombs. Osprey Pubwishing. p. 145. ISBN 978-1846032257.
- ^ The pubwic NABK Brochure NABK Archived Juwy 6, 2011, at de Wayback Machine.
- ^ Hackett, James, (ed.), The Miwitary Bawance 2010, The Internationaw Institute for Strategic Studies, 2010; Note: Onwy conventionaw tube ordnance is given, in use wif wand forces
- ^ Hackett, James, (ed.), The Miwitary Bawance 2010, The Internationaw Institute for Strategic Studies, 2010, p.223; Note: de number given is for Land Forces onwy. Navaw Infantry and Coastaw Defense forces, Federaw Border Guard Service, and Interior Troops use an additionaw 500+ ordnance pieces
- ^ Hackett, James, (ed.), The Miwitary Bawance 2010, The Internationaw Institute for Strategic Studies, 2010, p.412
- ^ Hackett, James, (ed.), The Miwitary Bawance 2010, The Internationaw Institute for Strategic Studies, 2010, p.400
- ^ Hackett, James, (ed.), The Miwitary Bawance 2010, The Internationaw Institute for Strategic Studies, 2010, p.360
- ^ Hackett, James, (ed.), The Miwitary Bawance 2010, The Internationaw Institute for Strategic Studies, 2010, p.414
- ^ Hackett, James, (ed.), The Miwitary Bawance 2010, The Internationaw Institute for Strategic Studies, 2010, p.33; Note: de totaw is composed of 6,270+ ordnance used by de US Army, Army Reserve and Nationaw Guard wif 1,867 used by de USMC
- ^ Hackett, James, (ed.), The Miwitary Bawance 2010, The Internationaw Institute for Strategic Studies, 2010, p.165
- ^ Hackett, James, (ed.), The Miwitary Bawance 2010, The Internationaw Institute for Strategic Studies, 2010, p.255
- ^ Hackett, James, (ed.), The Miwitary Bawance 2010, The Internationaw Institute for Strategic Studies, 2010, p.248; Note: Syria, Egypt's strategic partner in de past wars against Israew, uses 3,440+ artiwwery pieces, and is de 11f ranking artiwwery user in de Worwd
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Hackett, James, (ed.), The Miwitary Bawance 2010, The Internationaw Institute for Strategic Studies, 2010, p.368
- ^ "NEWS ANALYSIS: In a changing worwd, Finwand's artiwwery stays de same".
- ^ AAP-6(2006) NATO Gwossary of Terms and Definitions.
- ^ The Devewopment of Artiwwery Tactics and Eqwipment, Brigadier AL Pemberton, 1950, The War Office, pg 129
- ^ "patriahaggwunds.fi". Archived from de originaw on Apriw 4, 2010. Retrieved Apriw 4, 2010.
- Howmes, Richard (1988). The Worwd Atwas of Warfare: Miwitary Innovations dat Changed de Course of History. New York: Viking Studio Books. ISBN 978-0670819676. OCLC 17840438.
- McCamwey, N.J. (2004). Disasters Underground. Barnswey: Pen & Sword Miwitary. ISBN 978-1844150229. OCLC 53241739.
- McNaughton, Andrew (January 1929). "The Devewopment of Artiwwery in de Great War". Canadian Defence Quarterwy. 6 (2).
- Ordway, Frederick I (Juwy 1970). "History of Astronautics Symposium: Mar Dew Pwata, Argentina, October 1969". Technowogy and Cuwture. 11 (3). ISSN 0040-165X.
- Browne, J.P.R.; Thurbon, M T (1998). Ewectronic Warfare. Brassey's air power, v. 4. London: Brassey's. ISBN 978-1857531336. OCLC 38292289.
- Internationaw Aeronautic Federation (January–June 1977). Interavia. 32: 262. ISSN 0020-5168. Missing or empty
- Schmidtchen, Vowker (1977). "Riesengeschütze des 15. Jahrhunderts. Technische Höchstweistungen ihrer Zeit" [Giant cannon of de 15f century: technicaw masterpieces of deir era]. Technikgeschichte (in German). 44 (2): 153–73 (162–64). OCLC 85351643.
Furder reading[edit]
- Hogg, Owiver Frederick Giwwiwan (1970). Artiwwery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decwine. London: C. Hurst. ISBN 978-0900966439. OCLC 99454.
- Baiwey, J.B.A. (2004). Fiewd Artiwwery and Firepower. AUSA Institute of Land Warfare book. Annapowis, MD: Navaw Institute Press. ISBN 978-1591140290. OCLC 51931033.
Externaw winks[edit]
|Look up artiwwery in Wiktionary, de free dictionary.
|Wikiqwote has qwotations rewated to: Artiwwery
|Wikimedia Commons has media rewated to Artiwwery.
- Portsmouf Action Fiewd Gun Pictures and Video
- Navaw Weapons of de Worwd
- Cannon Artiwwery – The Voice of Freedom's Thunder
- Modern Artiwwery
- What sort of forensic information can be derived from de anawysis of sheww fragments
- Evans, Nigew F. (2001–2007) "British Artiwwery in Worwd War 2"
- Artiwwery Tactics and Combat during de Napoweonic Wars
- Artiwwery of Napoweon's Imperiaw Guard
- French artiwwery and its ammunition, uh-hah-hah-hah. 14f to de end of de 19f century
- Historic fiwms showing artiwwery in Worwd War I at europeanfiwmgateway.eu
- Video: Inside shrieking shrapnew. Hear de great sound of shrapnew's – Finnish fiewd artiwwery fire video year 2013


text:
The Richard Rohr Retreat
When: Friday, 14 Dec 2018 12:00PM | Where: Holland House Retreat and Conference Centre, Main Street, Cropthorne, Pershore, Worcestershire, WR10 3NB
12 noon Friday 14th until 2pm Monday 17th December 2018
For several years Holland House has been offering four day retreats based on the teachings of Fr Richard Rohr OFM and the faculty of the Centre for Action and Contemplation (CAC).
This year's retreat will be focusing on "scripture as spirituality", using the books "The Wisdom Jesus" (Cynthia Bourgeault), "Scripture & Spirituality" (Rohr) and "Jesus plan for a new world" (Rohr).
The retreat is led by Revd Ian Spencer, Urs Mattmann, Author of Coming In www.ursmattmann.com and Dorothy Littlewood (graduate of the Rohr "Living School"). Richard Rohr no longer travels outside the USA and will not be present.
Only 27 places are available. As these retreats are booked-out quickly with waiting lists, it is advisable to book early.
£295 per person includes accommodation and meals
email: firstname.lastname@example.com, tele: +44 (0)1386 860330

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Racing Fashion Trends 2013 are like any other fashion and they come and go. Craig Braybrook winning 'Designer Award of Fashions on the Field 2012' has made one thing certain besides his immaculate finish on garment the peplum will be with us for another year. As I say, be aware when spending on pricey peplum items that this is a trend and it will fade although allot of international designers are still loving this trend. Of course I am sure they were inspired by the wonderful Craig Braybrook.
As well as the peplum, the print is something to look out for, keep the print happy and don't over fuss the print as it will just take away from your hat.
I do love simplicity of a great colour that suits you, it is apparent when people know their colours well as they shine. Basically keep warm colours together and cool colours. It can be difficult to mix warm and cools. Keep lines well detailed for your shape. Invest in great fabric and know your shape well. Even though Emerald is Pantone Colour of the year, tread carefully, it is a difficult colour to wear so maybe incorporate it in your look with a royal blue or tone.
Looking at finalists, winners of fashions on the field in the past 6 months, I must admit they have been often sourced from Netaporter. This does not mean you have to spend a fortune on your outfit as some of the examples I have given start at around 135GBP, given that the Australian Dollar is so strong right now. Aussies are cleaning up on their overseas garments.
Michalenko by Appointment has been making big moves in the Racing Fashion World with Amanda Macor final ling 3 times in the label with Louise Struber last year coming Australian Runner Up in 2011. I am really partial to this brand as I personally wear it and it is a great value item with great prices. A big addition is it is Australian Own and Made.
If you cannot afford to head to the designer stores, I will give you one hint of advice, KISS. Keep It Simple Stupid!
A beautiful outfit with well made Millinery with complimenting shoes and bag are perfect. When you start to bring in umbrellas and accessories these days you are complicating the look. With Racing Fashion think of Michelle Obama or Gwenyth Paltrow. Always classic simplistic lines. Myself I love something a bit different. This is when I either purchase an outstanding hat that I want to match the outfit with or I head to a couture designer to help bring my look to life. My looks are really what you would call elaborate, but it is my personality on my sleeve. Bernadette Pimeta Couture is a brilliant couture Racing Fashion designer that I highly recommend.
When I talk about Racing Fashion in general as well this is not always just an example in Fashions on the Field. Many Fashion on the Field entrants never see the horses and likewise many of the die hard Racing public have no interest in the Fashions on the Field. One thing is always present and that is every lady heading to the track want to look and more importantly feel fantastic.
I really love the clubs that are embracing the 40 and fabulous side as it can be difficult to compete with the younger ladies of 20 and 30 something.
In allot of cases the younger model looking girls do very well and they have the figure for the outfits, I do not want this to deter anyone for heading to the Fashions on the Field. This is a competition for everyone to enjoy. I love watching Fashions on the Field, but more importantly I love being at the races and having a chance to dress up. It is no more and no less. I think everyone who gets up looks fantastic and the confidence is key. If you feel like a winner you are!
Many competitors have wanted the title of being 'Queen or Princess' of this world, but it is still the thrill of a bunch of ladies who love racing, fashion and hats. Take the competition out of the equation and decide to enter on a whim, or if you are regularly a competitor, take a seat and watch for a day. Showcase your fashion and love of Racing Fashion for no other reason that you look and feel great. I am really wanting to see new faces and of course I am sure you will be welcomed warmly.
Great Gatsby will still keep strong influences of the 20s with also Squizzy about to air in Australia, so keep 20s in mind and Drop Waist Lines will be coming into fashion shortly. This is for the slender body and not curvaceous. Ladies with curves, now is the time to be strutting your stuff because the peplum was originally to help enhance the curves of ladies who were lacking in this department. Remember the key is your body and your fashion, not what the cover of a magazine is telling you. Neon is now only for Road Workers and Night Safety.