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How Do You Select The Best Driveway or Driveway Pavers?
Driveway to a farm Driveway apron and sloped curb to a public street, all under construction
A driveway (also called drive in UK English) Driveway Pavers in Sandton is a type of private road for local access to one or a small group of structures, and is owned and maintained by an individual or group.
Driveways rarely have traffic lights, but some that bear heavy traffic, especially those leading to commercial businesses and parks, do.
Driveways may be decorative in ways that public roads cannot, because of their lighter traffic and the willingness of owners to invest in their construction. Driveways are not resurfaced, snow blown or otherwise maintained by governments. They are generally designed to conform to the architecture of connected houses or other buildings.
Some of the materials that can be used for driveways include concrete, decorative brick, cobblestone, block paving, asphalt, gravel, decomposed granite, and surrounded with grass or other ground-cover plants.
Driveways are commonly used as paths to private garages, carports, or houses. On large estates, a driveway may be the road that leads to the house from the public road, possibly with a gate in between. Some driveways divide to serve different homeowners. A driveway may also refer to a small apron of pavement in front of a garage with a curb cut in the sidewalk, sometimes too short to accommodate a car.
Often, either by choice or to conform with local regulations, cars are parked in driveways in order to leave streets clear for traffic. Moreover, some jurisdictions prohibit parking or leaving standing any motor vehicle upon any residential lawn area (defined as the property from the front of a residential house, condominium, or cooperative to the street line other than a driveway, walkway, concrete or blacktopped surface parking space).[2] Other examples include the city of Berkeley, California that forbids "any person to park or leave standing, or cause to be parked or left standing any vehicle upon any public street in the City for seventy-two or more consecutive hours."[3] Other areas may prohibit leaving vehicles on residential streets during certain times (for instance, to accommodate regular street cleaning), necessitating the use of driveways.
Asphalt concrete
Residential driveways are also used for such things as garage sales, automobile washing and repair, and recreation, notably (in North America) for basketball practice.
Another form of driveway is a 'Run-Up', or short piece of land used usually at the front of the property to park a vehicle on.[citation needed]
Interesting Facts About Driveway Pavers in Rivonia:
About Driveway Pavers in Rivonia:
Bleeding or flushing is shiny, black surface film of asphalt on the road surface caused by upward movement of asphalt in the pavement surface.[1][2] Common causes of bleeding are too much asphalt in asphalt concrete, hot weather, low space air void content and quality of asphalt.[3]
Bleeding is a safety concern since it results in a very smooth surface, without the texture required to prevent hydroplaning.
Driveway Pavers in RivoniaThru lanes indicated by arrows on California CR G4 (Montague Expressway) in Silicon Valley.
In the context of traffic control, a lane is part of a roadway (carriageway) that is designated for use by a single line of vehicles, to control and guide drivers and reduce traffic conflicts.[1] Most public roads (highways) have at least two lanes, one for traffic in each direction, separated by lane markings. On multilane roadways and busier two-lane roads, lanes are designated with road surface markings. Major highways often have two multi-lane roadways separated by a median.
Some roads and bridges that carry very low volumes of traffic are less than 15 feet (4.6 m) wide, and are only a single lane wide. Vehicles travelling in opposite directions must slow or stop to pass each other. In rural areas, these are often called country lanes. In urban areas, alleys are often only one lane wide. Urban and suburban one lane roads are often designated for one-way traffic.
Lane capacity varies widely due to conditions such as neighboring lanes, lane width, elements next to the road, number of driveways, presence of parking, speed limits, number of heavy vehicles and so on – the range can be as low as 1000 passenger cars / hour to as high as 4800 passenger cars /hour but mostly falls between 1500 and 2400 passenger cars / hour.[2]The Ontario Highway 401 in the Greater Toronto area, with 17 travel lanes in 6 separate carriageways visible in the midground. Turning lane on the Rodovia BR-101 (Brazil) Play media Changing lanes, Gothenburg, Sweden Transfer lanes, connecting surface collector lanes with through lanes between two tunnels A left-turn merging lane in Germany, needing explanation by a crafted sign These usages lead to the phrases life in the slow lane and life in the fast lane, used to describe relaxed or busy lifestyles, respectively and used as the titles of various books and songs.
While in general, wider lanes are associated with a reduction in crashes,[7] in urban settings both narrow (less than 2.8 m) and wide (over 3.1~3.2 m) lanes increase crash risks.[8] Wider lanes (over 3.3~3.4m) are associated with 33% higher impact speeds, as well as higher crash rates. Carrying capacity is also maximal at a width of 3 to 3.1 metres (9.8 to 10.2 ft), both for motor traffic and for bicycles. Pedestrian volume declines as lanes widen, and intersections with narrower lanes provide the highest capacity for bicycles.[9] As lane width decreases, traffic speed diminishes.[10]
Advocates for safety of people walking and people on bikes, and many new urbanists disagree with traditional thinking in traffic engineering, saying that safety and capacity are not adversely impacted by reducing lanes widths to as little as 10 feet (3.0 m).[11] Moreover, wider travel lanes also increase exposure and crossing distance for pedestrians at intersections and midblock crossings.assumed widths and heights in road design for Europe (in meters)
The widths of vehicle lanes typically vary from 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 m). Lane widths are commonly narrower on low volume roads and wider on higher volume roads. The lane width depends on the assumed maximum vehicle width with an additional space to allow for lateral motion of the vehicle.
The maximum truck width had been 96 inches (2.438 m) in the Code of Federal Regulations of 1956 which matches with the width of eight-foot for shipping containers. This had been increased to 102 inches (2.591 m) in 1976 which explicitly states to be read as the slightly larger metric 2.6 metres (102.36 in) width respecting international harmonization.[12] The same applies to standards in Europe which had increased the allowable size of road vehicles with a current maximum of 2.55 metres (100.39 in) for most trucks and allowing 2.6 metres (102.36 in) for refrigerator trucks. The minimum extra space had been 0.20 metres (7.87 in) and it is currently assumed to be at least 0.25 metres (9.84 in) on each side. For roads with a lower amount of traffic it is allowed to build the second or third lane in the same direction to an assumed lower width for cars like 1.75 metres (68.90 in), however this is not recommended as a design principle for new roads as changes in the amount of traffic could make for unnecessarily increased risks in the future.
The Interstate Highway standards for the U.S. Interstate Highway System uses a 12-foot (3.7 m) standard for lane width, while narrower lanes are used on lower classification roads. In Europe, as laws and road width vary by country, the minimum widths of lanes is generally between 2.5 to 3.25 metres (8.2 to 10.7 ft).[13] The federal Bundesstraße interurban network in Germany defines a minimum of 3.5 metres (11 ft 6 in) for each lane for the smallest two lane roads with an additional 0.25 metres (9.84 in) on the outer sides and shoulders being at least 1.5 metres (59.06 in) on each side. A modern Autobahn divided highway will have two lanes per direction which are 3.75 metres (12 ft 4 in) wide with an additional clearance of 0.50 metres (19.69 in) on each side, while three lanes per direction are set at 3.75 metres (12 ft 4 in) for the rightmost lane and 3.5 metres (11 ft 6 in) for the other lanes. Urban access roads and roads in low-density areas may have lanes as small as 2.75 metres (9 ft 0 in) in width per lane with shoulders being at least 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) wide.[14]Main article: Road surface marking A typical rural American freeway (Interstate 5 in the Central Valley of California). Notice the yellow line on the left, the dashed white line in the middle, and the solid white line on the right. Also note the rumble strip to the left of the yellow line.
Painted lane markings vary widely from country to country. In the United States, Canada, Mexico, Honduras, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands and Norway, yellow lines separate traffic going opposite directions and white separates lanes of traffic traveling the same direction, but such is not the case in many European countries.
Lane markings are mostly lines painted on the road by a road marking machine, which can adjust the marking widths according to the lane type.[15]
Traffic reports in California often refer to accidents being "in the number X lane." The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) assigns the numbers from left to right.[16] The far left passing lane is the number 1 lane. The number of the slow lane (closest to freeway onramps/offramps) depends on the total number of lanes, and could be anywhere from 2 to 8.
For much of human history, roads did not need lane markings because most people walked or rode horses at relatively slow speeds. Another reason for not using lane markings is that they are expensive to maintain.
When automobiles, trucks, and buses came into widespread use during the first two decades of the 20th century, head-on collisions became more common.
Without the guidance provided by lane markings, drivers in the early days often erred in favor of keeping closer to the middle of the road, rather than risk going off-road into ditches or trees[citation needed]. This practice often left inadequate room for opposing traffic.
The history of lane markings is connected to the mass automobile construction in Detroit. It resulted in the formation of the first Road Commission of Wayne County, Michigan in 1906 which was trying to make roads safer (Henry Ford served on the board in the first year).[17] The commission would order the construction of the first concrete road in 1909 (the Woodard Avenue in Detroit) and it conceived the centerline for highways in 1911. Hence the chairmen of the Road Commission, Edward N. Hines is widely credited as the inventor of line markings.[18]
The introduction as a common standard is connected to June McCarroll, a physician in Indio, California who started experimenting with painting lines on roads in 1917 after she was run off a highway by a truck driver. In November 1924, after years of lobbying by Dr. McCarroll and her allies, California officially adopted a policy of painting lines on its highways. A portion of Interstate 10 near Indio has been named the Dr. June McCarroll Memorial Freeway in her honor.black center line on an Autobahn in Germany (late 1930s)
The first lane markings in Europe were painted at an accident hotspot in the small town of Sutton Coldfield near Birmingham, England in 1921. The success of this experiment made its way to other hotspots and later standardization of white paint for line markings in Great Britain.[19]
The first lane markings in Germany were used in Berlin in 1925 using white paint for line markings and road edge markings. When the standard for the new autobahn network was conceived in the 1930s it mandated the usage of black paint for the center line for each carriageway as black was better visible on the bright surface of the concrete roads.
By 1939, lane markings had become so popular that they were officially standardized throughout the United States. The concept of line markings spread throughout the world becoming standard for most roads. Originally the lines were drawn manually with normal paint which would bleach out quickly. After the war, the first machines for line markings were invented[20] and a plastic strip was becoming standard in the 1950s which led to gradually find line markings on all roads.Main article: Right- and left-hand traffic
SealcoatNot to be confused with cement or mortar (masonry). Exterior of the Roman Pantheon, finished 128 AD, the largest unreinforced concrete dome in the world.[1] Interior of the Pantheon dome, seen from beneath. The concrete for the coffered dome was laid on moulds, probably mounted on temporary scaffolding. Opus caementicium exposed in a characteristic Roman arch. In contrast to modern concrete structures, the concrete used in Roman buildings was usually covered with brick or stone.
Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement (cement paste) that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, such as calcium aluminate cements. However, asphalt concrete, which is frequently used for road surfaces, is also a type of concrete, where the cement material is bitumen, and polymer concretes are sometimes used where the cementing material is a polymer.
When aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses.[2] Often, additives (such as pozzolans or superplasticizers) are included in the mixture to improve the physical properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials (such as rebar) embedded to provide tensile strength, yielding reinforced concrete.
Famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of concrete technology were the ancient Romans, and concrete was widely used in the Roman Empire. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the concrete dome of the Pantheon is the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome.[3] Today, large concrete structures (for example, dams and multi-storey car parks) are usually made with reinforced concrete.
After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century. Today, concrete is the most widely used human-made material (measured by tonnage).[citation needed]
The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" (meaning compact or condensed),[4] the perfect passive participle of "concrescere", from "con-" (together) and "crescere" (to grow).
Small-scale usage of concrete has been documented to be thousands of years old. Concrete-like materials were used since 6500 BC by the Nabataea traders or Bedouins, who occupied and controlled a series of oases and developed a small empire in the regions of southern Syria and northern Jordan. They discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of rubble-wall houses, concrete floors, and underground waterproof cisterns. They kept the cisterns secret as these enabled the Nabataea to thrive in the desert.[5] Some of these structures survive to this day.[5]
In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, builders re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater.
German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC.[6][7] Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC. The Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct (688 BC) made use of waterproof concrete.[8] Concrete was used for construction in many ancient structures.[9]
The Romans used concrete extensively from 300 BC to 476 AD, a span of more than seven hundred years.[10] During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete (or opus caementicium) was made from quicklime, pozzolana and an aggregate of pumice. Its widespread use in many Roman structures, a key event in the history of architecture termed the Roman Architectural Revolution, freed Roman construction from the restrictions of stone and brick materials. It enabled revolutionary new designs in terms of both structural complexity and dimension.[11]
Concrete, as the Romans knew it, was a new and revolutionary material. Laid in the shape of arches, vaults and domes, it quickly hardened into a rigid mass, free from many of the internal thrusts and strains that troubled the builders of similar structures in stone or brick.[12]
Modern tests show that opus caementicium had as much compressive strength as modern Portland-cement concrete (ca. 200 kg/cm2 [20 MPa; 2,800 psi]).[13] However, due to the absence of reinforcement, its tensile strength was far lower than modern reinforced concrete, and its mode of application was also different:[14]
Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details. First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into forms rather than requiring hand-layering together with the placement of aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often consisted of rubble. Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great strength in tension, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon the strength of the concrete bonding to resist tension.[15]
The long-term durability of Roman concrete structures has been found to be due to its use of pyroclastic (volcanic) rock and ash, whereby crystallization of strätlingite and the coalescence of calcium–aluminum-silicate–hydrate cementing binder helped give the concrete a greater degree of fracture resistance even in seismically active environments.[16] Roman concrete is significantly more resistant to erosion by seawater than modern concrete; it used pyroclastic materials which react with seawater to form Al-tobermorite crystals over time.[17][18]Smeaton's Tower
The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures ensured that many survive to the present day. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are just one example. Many Roman aqueducts and bridges, such as the magnificent Pont du Gard in southern France, have masonry cladding on a concrete core, as does the dome of the Pantheon.
After the Roman Empire, the use of burned lime and pozzolana was greatly reduced until the technique was all but forgotten between 500 and the 14th century. From the 14th century to the mid-18th century, the use of cement gradually returned. The Canal du Midi was built using concrete in 1670.[19]
Perhaps the greatest driver behind the modern use of concrete was Smeaton's Tower, the third Eddystone Lighthouse in Devon, England. To create this structure, between 1756 and 1759, British engineer John Smeaton pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate.[20]
Developed in England in the 19th century, a method for producing Portland cement was patented by Joseph Aspdin in 1824.[21] Aspdin named it due to its similarity to Portland stone which was quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. His son William Aspdin is regarded as the inventor of "modern" Portland cement due to his developments in the 1840s.[22]
Reinforced concrete was invented in 1849 by Joseph Monier.[23] In 1889 the first concrete reinforced bridge was built, and the first large concrete dams were built in 1936, Hoover Dam and Grand Coulee Dam.[24]
Many types of concrete are available, distinguished by the proportions of the main ingredients below. In this way or by substitution for the cementitious and aggregate phases, the finished product can be tailored to its application. Strength, density, as well chemical and thermal resistance are variables.
Aggregate consists of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse gravel or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials such as sand.
Cement, most commonly Portland cement, is associated with the general term "concrete." A range of other materials can be used as the cement in concrete too. One of the most familiar of these alternative cements is asphalt concrete. Other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, are sometimes added as mineral admixtures (see below) - either pre-blended with the cement or directly as a concrete component - and become a part of the binder for the aggregate.
To produce concrete from most cements (excluding asphalt), water is mixed with the dry powder and aggregate, which produces a semi-liquid slurry that can be shaped, typically by pouring it into a form. The concrete solidifies and hardens through a chemical process called hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, creating a robust stone-like material.
Chemical admixtures are added to achieve varied properties. These ingredients may accelerate or slow down the rate at which the concrete hardens, and impart many other useful properties including increased tensile strength, entrainment of air and water resistance.
Reinforcement is often included in concrete. Concrete can be formulated with high compressive strength, but always has lower tensile strength. For this reason it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension, typically steel rebar.
Mineral admixtures have become more popular over recent decades. The use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation, and the discovery that such materials often have complementary and valuable properties. The most conspicuous of these are fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants, ground granulated blast furnace slag, a byproduct of steelmaking, and silica fume, a byproduct of industrial electric arc furnaces. The use of these materials in concrete reduces the amount of resources required, as the mineral admixtures act as a partial cement replacement. This displaces some cement production, an energetically expensive and environmentally problematic process, while reducing the amount of industrial waste that must be disposed of. Mineral admixtures can be pre-blended with the cement during its production for sale and use as a blended cement, or mixed directly with other components when the concrete is produced.
The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed and delivered, and how it is placed to form the structure.Main article: Cement A few tons of bagged cement. This amount represents about two minutes of output from a 10,000 ton per day cement kiln.
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and many plasters. British masonry worker Joseph Aspdin patented Portland cement in 1824. It was named because of the similarity of its colour to Portland limestone, quarried from the English Isle of Portland and used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture of calcium silicates (alite, belite), aluminates and ferrites - compounds which combine calcium, silicon, aluminium and iron in forms which will react with water. Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay or shale (a source of silicon, aluminium and iron) and grinding this product (called clinker) with a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum).
In modern cement kilns many advanced features are used to lower the fuel consumption per ton of clinker produced. Cement kilns are extremely large, complex, and inherently dusty industrial installations, and have emissions which must be controlled. Of the various ingredients used to produce a given quantity of concrete, the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker and then grind it into cement. Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most common being used tires. The extremely high temperatures and long periods of time at those temperatures allows cement kilns to efficiently and completely burn even difficult-to-use fuels.[25]
Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely.[26]
As stated by Abrams' law, a lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more durable concrete, whereas more water gives a freer-flowing concrete with a higher slump.[27] Impure water used to make concrete can cause problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure.[28]
Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the reactions proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together the individual sand and gravel particles and other components of the concrete to form a solid mass.[29]
Reaction:[29]Cement chemist notation: C3S + H → C-S-H + CH Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O → (CaO)·(SiO2)·(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2 Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O → 3(CaO)·2(SiO2)·4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2 (approximately; the exact ratios of the CaO, SiO2 and H2O in C-S-H can vary) Crushed stone aggregate Main article: Construction aggregate
Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel, and crushed stone are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction, demolition, and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements for natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted.
The size distribution of the aggregate determines how much binder is required. Aggregate with a very even size distribution has the biggest gaps whereas adding aggregate with smaller particles tends to fill these gaps. The binder must fill the gaps between the aggregate as well as pasting the surfaces of the aggregate together, and is typically the most expensive component. Thus variation in sizes of the aggregate reduces the cost of concrete.[30] The aggregate is nearly always stronger than the binder, so its use does not negatively affect the strength of the concrete.
Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates inhomogeneity due to the influence of vibration. This can lead to strength gradients.[31]
Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular among landscape designers.
In addition to being decorative, exposed aggregate may add robustness to a concrete.[32]Constructing a rebar cage. This cage will be permanently embedded in poured concrete to create a reinforced concrete structure. Main article: Reinforced concrete
Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete adds either steel reinforcing bars, steel fibers, glass fibers, or plastic fibers to carry tensile loads.
Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing.[33] (See the section on Concrete Production, below.)The common types of admixtures[34] are as follows:
Inorganic materials that have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties, these very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete (mineral admixtures),[33] or as a replacement for Portland cement (blended cements).[39] Products which incorporate limestone, fly ash, blast furnace slag, and other useful materials with pozzolanic properties into the mix, are being tested and used. This development is due to cement production being one of the largest producers (at about 5 to 10%) of global greenhouse gas emissions,[40] as well as lowering costs, improving concrete properties, and recycling wastes.Concrete plant facility showing a Concrete mixer being filled from the ingredient silos.
Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients—water, aggregate, cement, and any additives—to produce concrete. Concrete production is time-sensitive. Once the ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete in place before it hardens. In modern usage, most concrete production takes place in a large type of industrial facility called a concrete plant, or often a batch plant.
In general usage, concrete plants come in two main types, ready mix plants and central mix plants. A ready mix plant mixes all the ingredients except water, while a central mix plant mixes all the ingredients including water. A central mix plant offers more accurate control of the concrete quality through better measurements of the amount of water added, but must be placed closer to the work site where the concrete will be used, since hydration begins at the plant.
A concrete plant consists of large storage hoppers for various reactive ingredients like cement, storage for bulk ingredients like aggregate and water, mechanisms for the addition of various additives and amendments, machinery to accurately weigh, move, and mix some or all of those ingredients, and facilities to dispense the mixed concrete, often to a concrete mixer truck.
Modern concrete is usually prepared as a viscous fluid, so that it may be poured into forms, which are containers erected in the field to give the concrete its desired shape. Concrete formwork can be prepared in several ways, such as Slip forming and Steel plate construction. Alternatively, concrete can be mixed into dryer, non-fluid forms and used in factory settings to manufacture Precast concrete products.
A wide variety of equipment is used for processing concrete, from hand tools to heavy industrial machinery. Whichever equipment builders use, however, the objective is to produce the desired building material; ingredients must be properly mixed, placed, shaped, and retained within time constraints. Any interruption in pouring the concrete can cause the initially placed material to begin to set before the next batch is added on top. This creates a horizontal plane of weakness called a cold joint between the two batches.[46] Once the mix is where it should be, the curing process must be controlled to ensure that the concrete attains the desired attributes. During concrete preparation, various technical details may affect the quality and nature of the product.
When initially mixed, Portland cement and water rapidly form a gel of tangled chains of interlocking crystals, and components of the gel continue to react over time. Initially the gel is fluid, which improves workability and aids in placement of the material, but as the concrete sets, the chains of crystals join into a rigid structure, counteracting the fluidity of the gel and fixing the particles of aggregate in place. During curing, the cement continues to react with the residual water in a process of hydration. In properly formulated concrete, once this curing process has terminated the product has the desired physical and chemical properties. Among the qualities typically desired, are mechanical strength, low moisture permeability, and chemical and volumetric stability.See also: Volumetric concrete mixer and Concrete mixer
Thorough mixing is essential for the production of uniform, high-quality concrete. For this reason equipment and methods should be capable of effectively mixing concrete materials containing the largest specified aggregate to produce uniform mixtures of the lowest slump practical for the work.
Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing of cement and water into a paste before combining these materials with aggregates can increase the compressive strength of the resulting concrete.[47] The paste is generally mixed in a high-speed, shear-type mixer at a w/cm (water to cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The cement paste premix may include admixtures such as accelerators or retarders, superplasticizers, pigments, or silica fume. The premixed paste is then blended with aggregates and any remaining batch water and final mixing is completed in conventional concrete mixing equipment.[48]Decorative plate made of Nano concrete with High-Energy Mixing (HEM) Pouring and smoothing out concrete at Palisades Park in Washington DC. Main article: Concrete slump test
Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level of hydration) and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising the water content or adding chemical admixtures increases concrete workability. Excessive water leads to increased bleeding or segregation of aggregates (when the cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. The use of an aggregate blend with an undesirable gradation[49] can result in a very harsh mix design with a very low slump, which cannot readily be made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water. An undesirable gradation can mean using a large aggregate that is too large for the size of the formwork, or which has too few smaller aggregate grades to serve to fill the gaps between the larger grades, or using too little or too much sand for the same reason, or using too little water, or too much cement, or even using jagged crushed stone instead of smoother round aggregate such as pebbles. Any combination of these factors and others may result in a mix which is too harsh, i.e., which does not flow or spread out smoothly, is difficult to get into the formwork, and which is difficult to surface finish.[50]
Workability can be measured by the concrete slump test, a simple measure of the plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards. Slump is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod to consolidate the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material slumps a certain amount, owing to gravity. A relatively dry sample slumps very little, having a slump value of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm) out of one foot (305 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as eight inches. Workability can also be measured by the flow table test.
Slump can be increased by addition of chemical admixtures such as plasticizer or superplasticizer without changing the water-cement ratio.[51] Some other admixtures, especially air-entraining admixture, can increase the slump of a mix.
High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-measuring methods. One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and observing how the mix flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted.
After mixing, concrete is a fluid and can be pumped to the location where needed.A concrete slab ponded while curing.
A common misconception is that concrete dries as it sets, but the opposite is true - damp concrete sets better than dry concrete. In other words, "hydraulic cement" needs water to become strong. Too much water is counterproductive, but too little water is deleterious. Curing allows concrete to achieve optimal strength and hardness.[52] Curing is the hydration process that occurs after the concrete has been placed. In chemical terms, curing allows calcium-silicate hydrate (C-S-H) to form. To gain strength and harden fully, concrete curing requires time. In around 4 weeks, typically over 90% of the final strength is reached, although strengthening may continue for decades.[53] The conversion of calcium hydroxide in the concrete into calcium carbonate from absorption of CO2 over several decades further strengthens the concrete and makes it more resistant to damage. This carbonation reaction, however, lowers the pH of the cement pore solution and can corrode the reinforcement bars.
Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical. Abnormally fast drying and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind during placement may lead to increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained sufficient strength, resulting in greater shrinkage cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be increased if it is kept damp during the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High-early-strength concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by increased use of cement that increases shrinkage and cracking. The strength of concrete changes (increases) for up to three years. It depends on cross-section dimension of elements and conditions of structure exploitation.[54] Addition of short-cut polymer fibers can improve (reduce) shrinkage-induced stresses during curing and increase early and ultimate compression strength.[55]
Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability and avoids cracking where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to avoid freezing or overheating due to the exothermic setting of cement. Improper curing can cause scaling, reduced strength, poor abrasion resistance and cracking.
During the curing period, concrete is ideally maintained at controlled temperature and humidity. To ensure full hydration during curing, concrete slabs are often sprayed with "curing compounds" that create a water-retaining film over the concrete. Typical films are made of wax or related hydrophobic compounds. After the concrete is sufficiently cured, the film is allowed to abrade from the concrete through normal use.[56]
Traditional conditions for curing involve by spraying or ponding the concrete surface with water. The picture to the right shows one of many ways to achieve this, ponding – submerging setting concrete in water and wrapping in plastic to prevent dehydration. Additional common curing methods include wet burlap and plastic sheeting covering the fresh concrete.
For higher-strength applications, accelerated curing techniques may be applied to the concrete. One common technique involves heating the poured concrete with steam, which serves to both keep it damp and raise the temperature, so that the hydration process proceeds more quickly and more thoroughly.Main article: Pervious concrete
Pervious concrete is a mix of specially graded coarse aggregate, cement, water and little-to-no fine aggregates. This concrete is also known as "no-fines" or porous concrete. Mixing the ingredients in a carefully controlled process creates a paste that coats and bonds the aggregate particles. The hardened concrete contains interconnected air voids totalling approximately 15 to 25 percent. Water runs through the voids in the pavement to the soil underneath. Air entrainment admixtures are often used in freeze–thaw climates to minimize the possibility of frost damage.Two-layered pavers, top layer made of pigmented HEM Nanoconcrete.
Nanoconcrete is created by high-energy mixing (HEM) of cement, sand and water. To ensure the mixing is thorough enough to create nano-concrete, the mixer must apply a total mixing power to the mixture of 30 - 600 watts per kilogram of the mix. This mixing must continue long enough to yield a net specific energy expended upon the mix of at least 5000 joules per kilogram of the mix.[57] A plasticizer or a superplasticizer is then added to the activated mixture which can later be mixed with aggregates in a conventional concrete mixer. In the HEM process, the intense mixing of cement and water with sand provides dissipation of energy and increases shear stresses on the surface of cement particles. This intense mixing serves to divide the cement particles into extremely fine nanometer scale sizes, which provides for extremely thorough mixing. This results in the increased volume of water interacting with cement and acceleration of Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H) colloid creation.
The initial natural process of cement hydration with formation of colloidal globules about 5 nm in diameter[58] spreads into the entire volume of cement – water matrix as the energy expended upon the mix approaches and exceeds 5000 joules per kilogram.
The liquid activated high-energy mixture can be used by itself for casting small architectural details and decorative items, or foamed (expanded) for lightweight concrete. HEM Nanoconcrete hardens in low and subzero temperature conditions and possesses an increased volume of gel, which reduces capillarity in solid and porous materials.
Bacteria such as Bacillus pasteurii, Bacillus pseudofirmus, Bacillus cohnii, Sporosarcina pasteuri, and Arthrobacter crystallopoietes increase the compression strength of concrete through their biomass. Not all bacteria increase the strength of concrete significantly with their biomass.[59]:143 Bacillus sp. CT-5. can reduce corrosion of reinforcement in reinforced concrete by up to four times. Sporosarcina pasteurii reduces water and chloride permeability. B. pasteurii increases resistance to acid.[59]:146 Bacillus pasteurii and B. sphaericuscan induce calcium carbonate precipitation in the surface of cracks, adding compression strength.[59]:147Main article: Polymer concrete
Polymer concretes are mixtures of aggregate and any of various polymers and may be reinforced. The cement is more costly than lime-based cements, but polymer concretes nevertheless have advantages, they have significant tensile strength even without reinforcement, and they are largely impervious to water. They are frequently used for repair and construction of other applications such as drains.
Concrete, when ground, can result in the creation of hazardous dust. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health in the United States recommends attaching local exhaust ventilation shrouds to electric concrete grinders to control the spread of this dust.[60]Main article: Properties of concrete
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but much lower tensile strength. For this reason it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often steel). The elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion and shrinks as it matures. All concrete structures crack to some extent, due to shrinkage and tension. Concrete that is subjected to long-duration forces is prone to creep.
Tests can be performed to ensure that the properties of concrete correspond to specifications for the application.Compression testing of a concrete cylinder
Different mixes of concrete ingredients produce different strengths. Concrete strength values are usually specified as the lower-bound compressive strength of either a cylindrical or cubic specimen as determined by standard test procedures.
Different strengths of concrete are used for different purposes. Very low-strength - 14 MPa (2,000 psi) or less - concrete may be used when the concrete must be lightweight.[61] Lightweight concrete is often achieved by adding air, foams, or lightweight aggregates, with the side effect that the strength is reduced. For most routine uses, 20 MPa (2,900 psi) to 32 MPa (4,600 psi) concrete is often used. 40 MPa (5,800 psi) concrete is readily commercially available as a more durable, although more expensive, option. Higher-strength concrete is often used for larger civil projects.[62] Strengths above 40 MPa (5,800 psi) are often used for specific building elements. For example, the lower floor columns of high-rise concrete buildings may use concrete of 80 MPa (11,600 psi) or more, to keep the size of the columns small. Bridges may use long beams of high-strength concrete to lower the number of spans required.[63][64] Occasionally, other structural needs may require high-strength concrete. If a structure must be very rigid, concrete of very high strength may be specified, even much stronger than is required to bear the service loads. Strengths as high as 130 MPa (18,900 psi) have been used commercially for these reasons.[63]The Buffalo City Court Building in Buffalo, NY.
Concrete is one of the most durable building materials. It provides superior fire resistance compared with wooden construction and gains strength over time. Structures made of concrete can have a long service life. Concrete is used more than any other human-made material in the world.[65] As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic meters of concrete are made each year, more than one cubic meter for every person on Earth.[66]Main article: Mass concrete Aerial photo of reconstruction at Taum Sauk (Missouri) pumped storage facility in late November, 2009. After the original reservoir failed, the new reservoir was made of roller-compacted concrete.
Due to cement's exothermic chemical reaction while setting up, large concrete structures such as dams, navigation locks, large mat foundations, and large breakwaters generate excessive heat during hydration and associated expansion. To mitigate these effects post-cooling[67] is commonly applied during construction. An early example at Hoover Dam, installed a network of pipes between vertical concrete placements to circulate cooling water during the curing process to avoid damaging overheating. Similar systems are still used; depending on volume of the pour, the concrete mix used, and ambient air temperature, the cooling process may last for many months after the concrete is placed. Various methods also are used to pre-cool the concrete mix in mass concrete structures.[67]
Another approach to mass concrete structures that minimizes cement's thermal byproduct is the use of roller-compacted concrete, which uses a dry mix which has a much lower cooling requirement than conventional wet placement. It is deposited in thick layers as a semi-dry material then roller compacted into a dense, strong mass.Main article: Decorative concrete Black basalt polished concrete floor
Raw concrete surfaces tend to be porous, and have a relatively uninteresting appearance. Many different finishes can be applied to improve the appearance and preserve the surface against staining, water penetration, and freezing.
Examples of improved appearance include stamped concrete where the wet concrete has a pattern impressed on the surface, to give a paved, cobbled or brick-like effect, and may be accompanied with coloration. Another popular effect for flooring and table tops is polished concrete where the concrete is polished optically flat with diamond abrasives and sealed with polymers or other sealants.
Other finishes can be achieved with chiselling, or more conventional techniques such as painting or covering it with other materials.
The proper treatment of the surface of concrete, and therefore its characteristics, is an important stage in the construction and renovation of architectural structures.[68]40-foot cacti decorate a sound/retaining wall in Scottsdale, Arizona Main article: Prestressed concrete
Prestressed concrete is a form of reinforced concrete that builds in compressive stresses during construction to oppose those experienced in use. This can greatly reduce the weight of beams or slabs, by better distributing the stresses in the structure to make optimal use of the reinforcement. For example, a horizontal beam tends to sag. Prestressed reinforcement along the bottom of the beam counteracts this. In pre-tensioned concrete, the prestressing is achieved by using steel or polymer tendons or bars that are subjected to a tensile force prior to casting, or for post-tensioned concrete, after casting.
More than 55,000 miles (89,000 km) of highways in the United States are paved with this material. Reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and precast concrete are the most widely used types of concrete functional extensions in modern days. See Brutalism.
Extreme weather conditions (extreme heat or cold; windy condition, and humidity variations) can significantly alter the quality of concrete. In cold weather concreting, many precautions are observed.[69] Low temperatures significantly slow the chemical reactions involved in hydration of cement, thus affecting the strength development. Preventing freezing is the most important precaution, as formation of ice crystals can cause damage to the crystalline structure of the hydrated cement paste. If the surface of the concrete pour is insulated from the outside temperatures, the heat of hydration will prevent freezing.
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) definition of cold weather concreting, ACI 306,[70] is:
In Canada, where temperatures tend to be much lower during the cold season, the following criteria is used by CSA A23.1:
The minimum strength before exposing concrete to extreme cold is 500 psi (3.5 MPa). CSA A 23.1 specified a compressive strength of 7.0 MPa to be considered safe for exposure to freezing.
Concrete roads are more fuel efficient to drive on,[71] more reflective and last significantly longer than other paving surfaces, yet have a much smaller market share than other paving solutions. Modern-paving methods and design practices have changed the economics of concrete paving, so that a well-designed and placed concrete pavement will be less expensive on initial costs and significantly less expensive over the life cycle. Another major benefit is that pervious concrete can be used, which eliminates the need to place storm drains near the road, and reducing the need for slightly sloped roadway to help rainwater to run off. No longer requiring discarding rainwater through use of drains also means that less electricity is needed (more pumping is otherwise needed in the water-distribution system), and no rainwater gets polluted as it no longer mixes with polluted water. Rather, it is immediately absorbed by the ground.
Energy requirements for transportation of concrete are low because it is produced locally from local resources, typically manufactured within 100 kilometers of the job site. Similarly, relatively little energy is used in producing and combining the raw materials (although large amounts of CO2 are produced by the chemical reactions in cement manufacture).[72] The overall embodied energy of concrete at roughly 1 to 1.5 megajoules per kilogram is therefore lower than for most structural and construction materials.[73]
Once in place, concrete offers great energy efficiency over the lifetime of a building.[74] Concrete walls leak air far less than those made of wood frames.[75] Air leakage accounts for a large percentage of energy loss from a home. The thermal mass properties of concrete increase the efficiency of both residential and commercial buildings. By storing and releasing the energy needed for heating or cooling, concrete's thermal mass delivers year-round benefits by reducing temperature swings inside and minimizing heating and cooling costs.[76] While insulation reduces energy loss through the building envelope, thermal mass uses walls to store and release energy. Modern concrete wall systems use both external insulation and thermal mass to create an energy-efficient building. Insulating concrete forms (ICFs) are hollow blocks or panels made of either insulating foam or rastra that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure.A modern building: Boston City Hall (completed 1968) is constructed largely of concrete, both precast and poured in place. Of Brutalist architecture, it was voted "The World's Ugliest Building" in 2008.
Concrete buildings are more resistant to fire than those constructed using steel frames, since concrete has lower heat conductivity than steel and can thus last longer under the same fire conditions. Concrete is sometimes used as a fire protection for steel frames, for the same effect as above. Concrete as a fire shield, for example Fondu fyre, can also be used in extreme environments like a missile launch pad.
Options for non-combustible construction include floors, ceilings and roofs made of cast-in-place and hollow-core precast concrete. For walls, concrete masonry technology and Insulating Concrete Forms (ICFs) are additional options. ICFs are hollow blocks or panels made of fireproof insulating foam that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure.
Concrete also provides good resistance against externally applied forces such as high winds, hurricanes, and tornadoes owing to its lateral stiffness, which results in minimal horizontal movement. However this stiffness can work against certain types of concrete structures, particularly where a relatively higher flexing structure is required to resist more extreme forces.
As discussed above, concrete is very strong in compression, but weak in tension. Larger earthquakes can generate very large shear loads on structures. These shear loads subject the structure to both tensile and compressional loads. Concrete structures without reinforcement, like other unreinforced masonry structures, can fail during severe earthquake shaking. Unreinforced masonry structures constitute one of the largest earthquake risks globally.[77] These risks can be reduced through seismic retrofitting of at-risk buildings, (e.g. school buildings in Istanbul, Turkey[78]).Concrete spalling caused by the corrosion of rebar Main article: Concrete degradation
Concrete can be damaged by many processes, such as the expansion of corrosion products of the steel reinforcement bars, freezing of trapped water, fire or radiant heat, aggregate expansion, sea water effects, bacterial corrosion, leaching, erosion by fast-flowing water, physical damage and chemical damage (from carbonatation, chlorides, sulfates and distillate water).[citation needed] The micro fungi Aspergillus Alternaria and Cladosporium were able to grow on samples of concrete used as a radioactive waste barrier in the Chernobyl reactor; leaching aluminium, iron, calcium and silicon.[79]The Tunkhannock Viaduct began service in 1912 and is still in regular use more than 100 years later.
Concrete can be viewed as a form of artificial sedimentary rock. As a type of mineral, the compounds of which it is composed are extremely stable.[80] Many concrete structures are built with an expected lifetime of approximately 100 years,[81] but researchers have suggested that adding silica fume could extend the useful life of bridges and other concrete uses to as long as 16,000 years.[82] Coatings are also available to protect concrete from damage, and extend the useful life. Epoxy coatings may be applied only to interior surfaces, though, as they would otherwise trap moisture in the concrete.[83]
A self-healing concrete has been developed that can also last longer than conventional concrete.[84] Another option is to use hydrophobic concrete.Concrete mixing plant in Birmingham, Alabama in 1936
Concrete is widely used for making architectural structures, foundations, brick/block walls, pavements, bridges/overpasses, highways, runways, parking structures, dams, pools/reservoirs, pipes, footings for gates, fences and poles and even boats. Concrete is used in large quantities almost everywhere mankind has a need for infrastructure. Concrete is one of the most frequently used building materials in animal houses and for manure and silage storage structures in agriculture.[85]
The amount of concrete used worldwide, ton for ton, is twice that of steel, wood, plastics, and aluminum combined. Concrete's use in the modern world is exceeded only by that of naturally occurring water.[86]
Concrete is also the basis of a large commercial industry. Globally, the ready-mix concrete industry, the largest segment of the concrete market, is projected to exceed $100 billion in revenue by 2015.[87] In the United States alone, concrete production is a $30-billion-per-year industry, considering only the value of the ready-mixed concrete sold each year.[88] Given the size of the concrete industry, and the fundamental way concrete is used to shape the infrastructure of the modern world, it is difficult to overstate the role this material plays today.Main article: Environmental impact of concrete
The manufacture and use of concrete produce a wide range of environmental and social consequences. Some are harmful, some welcome, and some both, depending on circumstances.
A major component of concrete is cement, which similarly exerts environmental and social effects.[59]:142 The cement industry is one of the three primary producers of carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas (the other two being the energy production and transportation industries). As of 2001, the production of Portland cement contributed 7% to global anthropogenic CO2 emissions, largely due to the sintering of limestone and clay at 1,500 °C (2,730 °F).[89]
Concrete is used to create hard surfaces that contribute to surface runoff, which can cause heavy soil erosion, water pollution, and flooding, but conversely can be used to divert, dam, and control flooding.
Concrete is a contributor to the urban heat island effect, though less so than asphalt.[90]
Workers who cut, grind or polish concrete are at risk of inhaling airborne silica, which can lead to silicosis.[91] Concrete dust released by building demolition and natural disasters can be a major source of dangerous air pollution.
The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted additives, can cause health concerns due to toxicity and radioactivity. Fresh concrete (before curing is complete) is highly alkaline and must be handled with proper protective equipment.Recycled crushed concrete, to be reused as granular fill, is loaded into a semi-dump truck. Main article: Concrete recycling
Concrete recycling is an increasingly common method for disposing of concrete structures. Concrete debris was once routinely shipped to landfills for disposal, but recycling is increasing due to improved environmental awareness, governmental laws and economic benefits.
Concrete, which must be free of trash, wood, paper and other such materials, is collected from demolition sites and put through a crushing machine, often along with asphalt, bricks and rocks.
Reinforced concrete contains rebar and other metallic reinforcements, which are removed with magnets and recycled elsewhere. The remaining aggregate chunks are sorted by size. Larger chunks may go through the crusher again. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for new construction projects. Aggregate base gravel is laid down as the lowest layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt placed over it. Crushed recycled concrete can sometimes be used as the dry aggregate for brand new concrete if it is free of contaminants, though the use of recycled concrete limits strength and is not allowed in many jurisdictions. On 3 March 1983, a government-funded research team (the VIRL research.codep) estimated that almost 17% of worldwide landfill was by-products of concrete based waste.[citation needed]
The world record for the largest concrete pour in a single project is the Three Gorges Dam in Hubei Province, China by the Three Gorges Corporation. The amount of concrete used in the construction of the dam is estimated at 16 million cubic meters over 17 years. The previous record was 12.3 million cubic meters held by Itaipu hydropower station in Brazil.[92][93][93][94]
The world record for concrete pumping was set on 7 August 2009 during the construction of the Parbati Hydroelectric Project, near the village of Suind, Himachal Pradesh, India, when the concrete mix was pumped through a vertical height of 715 m (2,346 ft).[95][96]
The world record for the largest continuously poured concrete raft was achieved in August 2007 in Abu Dhabi by contracting firm Al Habtoor-CCC Joint Venture and the concrete supplier is Unibeton Ready Mix.[97][98] The pour (a part of the foundation for the Abu Dhabi's Landmark Tower) was 16,000 cubic meters of concrete poured within a two-day period.[99] The previous record, 13,200 cubic meters poured in 54 hours despite a severe tropical storm requiring the site to be covered with tarpaulins to allow work to continue, was achieved in 1992 by joint Japanese and South Korean consortiums Hazama Corporation and the Samsung C&T Corporation for the construction of the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.[100]
The world record for largest continuously poured concrete floor was completed 8 November 1997, in Louisville, Kentucky by design-build firm EXXCEL Project Management. The monolithic placement consisted of 225,000 square feet (20,900 m2) of concrete placed within a 30-hour period, finished to a flatness tolerance of FF 54.60 and a levelness tolerance of FL 43.83. This surpassed the previous record by 50% in total volume and 7.5% in total area.[101][102]
The record for the largest continuously placed underwater concrete pour was completed 18 October 2010, in New Orleans, Louisiana by contractor C. J. Mahan Construction Company, LLC of Grove City, Ohio. The placement consisted of 10,251 cubic yards of concrete placed in a 58.5 hour period using two concrete pumps and two dedicated concrete batch plants. Upon curing, this placement allows the 50,180-square-foot (4,662 m2) cofferdam to be dewatered approximately 26 feet (7.9 m) below sea level to allow the construction of the Inner Harbor Navigation Canal Sill & Monolith Project to be completed in the dry.[103]
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Multilingual files uploader
We need a widget that allows the upload of files in a multilingual scenario. Here we spec out only a multilingual uploader for image files, though it can be extended later to handle other file types.
Image files
We try to use the same logic of our Multilingual_input fiels because the requirements are the same: user needs to be able to see and edit all localized data for the field at once, without any modification in the user interface language and also no other control outside the field itself.
Use cases
Users trying to upload multiple issue covers or uploading website homepage image.
This is a proposal. State 1 is the default one. We can use a bigger thumbnail, but it must be always a fixed size, so we can make sure that the page layout will not break depending on the size of the original image.
After user tabbed or mouse hover the image controller, the second state is shown.
If user mouse out with no clicking inside any link of the multilingual controller, than it will disappear.
If user clicked in any link (info or delete), it can perform those actions and the multilingual will still be opened. It will only close if user clicks outside, just like the default multilingual (maybe we can add a close icon at the top right of the multilingual controllers to make it obvious).
The actions will open a modal (info and upload) and a confirmation modal (delete). The upload action can directly open a file browse to add a file if no other data is required for the file (like alternate text). If alternate text is required, than it should open a modal with both fields.
The info modal can show the filename, size, dimensions, a real image size, etc. But that can be secondary. The primary goal is to present to users a quickly visualization of each file, so they can decide what to do.
Implementation details
I think that we can still use plupload widget to implement this. The only modification will be the case where we want to upload a file directly without any other actions, like add and after upload. I think that's not too complicated to make the plupload trigger itself the upload action after a file is added. Then we can just use the add action, rename it to upload and hide anything else from the plupload widget.
Anyway, if we want we can also change the plupload to another widget and make sure it works for this multilingual file upload.
Other file types
Use cases
We need to be able to upload multilingual files for galleys.
This is the proposal following the same logic from the image uploader.
Implementation details
The idea is basically to show a grid style rows markup, with columns and actions, but cleaner and only if user mouse hover or tab inside the file area.

subset: commoncrawl


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Gluten-Free Frugal South American Cuisine: Vegan Vegetarian Black Refried Bean Recipe
When I posted my recipe for Green Chili Corn Arepa biscuits, one of my readers recommended that I try Venezuelan black bean refried beans as they contain more antioxidents and are just as tasty as pinto beans. I thought that was an interesting idea. Personally, I love vegetarian refried beans made from scratch. I don't know about you, but I've never found those cans of refried beans where the contents are all mushed into an unidentifiable copper-colored block like canned kitty food all that appealing. I want to see and taste all of my ingredients- and I definitely don't want to taste the can that they were stored in. And what is more economical than dry beans? I can get a whole pound of dry beans for the price of a can, but using dried beans, I can make get enough for a huge batch of refried beans AND beans to freeze, and enough beans for another recipe besides. I also like my beans a tad softer than when they are canned, and soaking overnight and simmering in my slow cooker results in soft, melty beans that I just can't resist. Some time back I developed a recipe for Perfect Refried Pinto Beans (scroll down), but I'd never tried making them with black beans. When I went to Whole Foods this weekend, I picked up a bag of black beans to try making a version with black beans, also known as turtle beans. I looked at various recipes online, and then started experimenting. Carrot might be an unconventional ingredient, but we have a huge bag of lovely organic carrots in our refrigerator, and I like the unexpected sweetness it added to the recipe. The DH was a big fan of the green chilies that I added to the recipe on a whim. He said "it's the perfect degree of spiciness- flavor without too much heat." I have to agree- I could eat this stuff like candy. Is that weird? Although this recipe is vegan, I used it in a quesadilla "lasagna" lunch for my non veg hubby, layering a corn tortilla with black refried beans and then cheese, covering it with two corn tortillas and adding another layer of cheese and tortilla. Although the refried beans take a little time to make, once it was made it was a matter of minutes to assemble and microwave the quesadilla. These quesadillas would also be tasty made in a cast iron pan. For me, I was perfectly happy with a vegan taco filled with refried beans. You can take a vegan taco to the next level by topping it with homemade pico de gallo, guacamole, or even avocado cubes. And now, if you don't mind, I think me and my spoon will be heading for the refrigerator to eat some of this refried bean stuff cold…. because it is THAT good.
Oh yes, and about those antioxidents… According to the World's Healthiest Foods web site,
"When researchers analyzed different types of beans, they found that, the darker the bean's seed coat, the higher its level of antioxidant activity. Gram for gram, black beans were found to have the most antioxidant activity, followed in descending order by red, brown, yellow, and white beans. Overall, the level of antioxidants found in black beans in this study is approximately 10 times that found in an equivalent amount of oranges, and comparable to that found in an equivalent amount of grapes or cranberries. "
Not to mention that black beans are high in protein, folate and magnesium. Sounds like a good excuse to make some yummy refried black beans to me! Got any other great ideas for using this black refried bean recipe? Tell me in the comments!
Vegetarian Refried Black Bean Recipe
3 or 4 cups black beans, homemade or canned
1 tbsp. peanut oil (or favorite oil)
1 onion, diced
1 garlic clove, crushed
1 medium carrot, diced
1 can mild green chilies (4 oz) or roasted, diced anaheim peppers
1 tsp or more cumin seeds
1 tsp oregano
generous amounts of salt, pepper
dash of apple cider vinegar
fresh cilantro, to taste
Prepare beans and rinse. If using homemade black beans, you can reserve some of the cooking liquid.
Heat oil in a cast iron pan to medium and saute your onion until almost translucent. Add garlic clove and diced carrot and continue cooking until carrot softens slightly. Toss in your cumin seeds and oregano, letting them heat and release their fragrance. Mix in your can of chilies and season with salt and pepper. Take out 1/2 cup or so of the onion mixture and combine in blender either with reserved cooking liquid (1/2 to 1 cup) or water. Add your beans to the cast iron pan and combine thoroughly. Add extra cumin and/or oregano if you think it needs it after tasting. Let beans heat and flavors permeate. After at least 10 minutes fold your blended liquid into the other ingredients in the pan. Let cook for another 10-20 minutes (adding extra water or cooking liquid if it gets too dry) and then taste again, adjusting seasonings- you may need more salt. Sprinkle in a dash of apple cider vinegar and fold in some fresh cilantro. A few minutes later, take the pan off the burner and serve.
DH loved this recipe!
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#7498 - STILETTO V12 BODY (200mm/WB255mm)
1/10 Touring Car Size/Use 3mm offset wheel for 190mm width chassis
Available clear and pre-painted! HPI bodyshell designers were given total freedom to design a genuine HPI sports car bodyshell for the 200mm chassis. Optimized aerodynamics for optimal handling and cool look was the goal. The result is the genuine HPI Stiletto V12 body - a state of the art sports car design with optimum down-force for best possible track handling. A moulded black plastic wing is included, ready to be mounted to the bodyshell. It gives the Stiletto additional down-force at the rear and a cool, ?race look?! Available in clear and pre-painted versions: #7498 - STILETTO V12 BODY #7733 - STILETTO V12 BODY PRE PAINTED & PRE-CUT
The clear HPI Stiletto bodyshell is made from high quality polycarbonate and offers the same great features as all other HPI bodyshells: 1. Photorealistic pre-cut premium vinyl decals include window frames, headlight, grille, back lights, official logos and more.. > For a perfect finish with a lot of details. 2. Pre-cut vinyl window masks > For easy and precise window masking 3. Wheel centre point marks > For accurate wheel cutting 4. Overspray film > For a immaculate finish without overspray 5. High quality polycarbonate with excellent dimensional stability and impact resistance > For extra strength and longer life 6. Dimple marks for body post drill locations that fits all HPI and Tamiya cars (TL-01 size) > For easy drilling and accurate fitting to the chassis 7. Wings incl. winglets and mounting screws (not for all types) > For optimal down force and cool look 8. Decal and mounting instructions sheet > To make fitting as easy as possible


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January 2000:
|January 17
|No talk scheduled
|January 24
|Dieter E.A. Nuernberger (Astronomisches Institut, Univ.
"NGC 3603: The Galactic's Densest OB Cluster and Its Adjacent GMC --- Evidence for Triggered Star Formation!?
|January 31
|Jennifer Johnson (OCIW)
"Heavy Metal Abundances in Metal Poor Stars"
February 2000:
|February 7
|Ralf Launhardt (Caltech)
"Large-Scale Properties of the Nuclear Bulge of the Milky Way"
|February 14
|Joel E. Tohline (LSU)
"Fission as a Mechanism for Forming Binary Stars"
|February 21
|Presidents' Day
Caltech Holiday
|February 28
|Joseph Mohr (University of Chicago)
"Galaxy Cluster Evolution and Cosmology"
March 2000:
|March 2
(Thursday - 12:15pm)
|Saleem Zaroubi (MPA)
"Power Spectrum Analysis from Cosmic Flows"
|March 6
| Kris Stanek (CFA/Harvard)
"Fixing the Lower Rungs of the Cosmological Distance Ladder"
|March 13
|Karl Gebhardt (UCSC)
"Central Black Holes and Galaxy Evolution"
|March 20
|Christopher Matzner (CITA)
"Modeling Bipolar Outflows as Agents of Feedback in Low-Mass Star and Star Cluster Formation"
|March 27
|Titus Galama (Caltech)
"Gamma-Ray Burst Afterglows"
April 2000:
|April 3
|James Larkin (UCLA)
"Exploring the Structure of Distant Galaxies with Adaptive Optics"
|April 10
|Volker Bromm (Yale University)
"The Very First Stars in the Universe: Population III and its Legacy"
|April 17
|David Buote (UCSC)
"X-Rays, Metal Enrichment, and Star Formation in Galaxies, Groups, and Clusters"
|April 24
|Sheng-Yuan Liu (Caltech)
"Complex Molecules in Hot Molecular Cores"
May 2000:
|May 1
|No talk scheduled
|May 8
|Pat Hartigan (Rice University)
"Momentum Transfer in Stellar Jets"
May 10 (Wednesday)
|Patrick Ogle (MIT)
"Chandra X-ray Spectra of Active Galaxies"
|May 15
| Marco Salvati (Arcetri)
"Obscuring Matter Around Active Galactic Nuclei"
|May 22
|Tom Murphy (Caltech)
"Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxies and Their Place in Merger History"
|May 29
|Memorial Day - no talk scheduled
July 2000:
4:00 pm
Room 106, Robinson
|Chip Kobulnicky (Univ. of Wisconsin)
"The Evolution of the Chemical and Dynamical Properties of Galaxies at z ~ 3"
|Wayne Barkhouse (University of Toronto)
"Dwarf Galaxies in Nearby Clusters"
12 noon
Room 106, Robinson
|Sebastian Wolf (Thuringien State Observatory)
"Aligned Disks of Young Binary Stars"
October 2000:
|David Lee (Anglo-Australian Observatory) & Gordon
Robertson (Sydney University)
"SPIRAL and ATLAS; Pioneering New Techniques on Old Telescopes"
|John Monnier (CfA)
"Interferometry with a Keck Telescope"
12 noon
Room 106, Robinson
|Nahum Arav (UC Berkeley)
"The First Realistic Determination of Abundances in Quasar Outflows"
|Scott Chapman (OCIW)
"The Nature of the Luminous Sub-Millimeter Sources at High Redshift (...Are They Lyman Break Galaxies or Optically Faint Radio Sources?)"
|No talk scheduled
|Henry McCracken (MRS)
"Galaxy Clustering Evolution in the Canada-France Deep Fields Survey"
November 2000:
|No talk scheduled
|No talk scheduled
|Andrew Cumming (U.C. Berkeley)
"Coherent Oscillations During Type I X-Ray Bursts: Measuring Spins of Accreting Neutron Stars"
|Peter Jonker (Univ. of Amsterdam)
"The Third kHz QPO in the X-ray Emission of Three Neutron Stars; Sign of General Relativistic Effects?"
December 2000:
|Myungshin Im (UCSC)
"Evolution of Field Early-Type Galaxies out to z=1: Results from DEEP"
|John O'Meara (UCSD)
"Observations of the Primordial D/H Ratio Towards QSOs"
|No talk scheduled.
To: Current schedule
Previous talks: 1999, 1998
Last update: 12/19/00 by firstname.lastname@example.com


text:
To post photos:
Log in to the site.
Go into Breeders section.
Scroll all the way down and click on the "NEW TOPIC" button.
If you are posting new photos and you already have a posting in that section then when you get into the Breeders section click on the posting with your name.
Scroll all the way down and click on the "POST REPLY" button.
You can change the Subject line as you wish.
New Photos etc.
Only the very first posting needs to have your first and last name, since that is a new topic vs. now you are just doing a posting.
Now inserting the photos:
You have 3 options to do this.
1st and most simple one:
Below the text box for the new message you will see a red button called "UPLOAD ATTACHMENT".
Click on that and a "BROWSE" button will appear.
Clicking that button will allow you to browse your computer and select the photo you like to post in to your message.
Once you select the photo click "ADD THE FILE" button.
Now you see the name of the photo appear on the area below the main text box and the "UPLOAD ATTACHMENT" button area.
Above the name of the file you just loaded there is a file comment box where you can write things describing the photo.
Those descriptions will show up right below the photo nce you finish your posting.
If you wan to continue adding photos to the same message follow the same steps over and over.
I would recommend at most 10 photos per message.
More then that maeks it difficult for the viewers.
If you can make your photos' width 750 pixels or smaller it will display the best once posted.
With this way of posting photos you have to put some text into the main message box.
Otherwise you will get an your message contains too few characters message when you try to use the post button.
If you don't want to put any text then once you load each photo as above, click the "Place inline" button next to each photo.
It might sound complex but once you do a couple of photos it is really not a big deal.
Before pushing the "SUBMIT" button click on the "PREVIEW" button to make sure things are right.
If you skip this and after submitting you see something you don't like there use the "EDIT"button that shows at teh top right corner of the message to go in and make the changes.
This edit option will be available by the system to you for about an half an hour.
If you miss that window and you are still not happy, contact me.
2nd way of doing it:
Doing the photos with the first way is the simplest way but the draw backs of it is the resizing of the photos and photos posted this way can not be viewed by non-members (which might be a preference for some of you).
What I mean by resizing is once you post your photo (some photos only) you will notice not all of it is showing to a visitor unless they click on it.
It will look something like this:
Here is a way to get around that.
Load your photo (again if you can keep the width to max 750 pixels you will get the best view of the photo on the site) into a image hosting web service like imageshack.
Once loaded they give you a web address for each photo.
Now, right above the text box of your new message on our site you will see a "Img" button.
Click that.
In the text box will appear.
You will paste the address of your photo in between the"]["
Like [img]address%20goes%20here[/img]
You are set to go.
Repeat the action for the next set of photos in the same message box.
To display the photos nicely you can push enter after each entry to leave space between the photos.
3rd way.
You don't like the how the 1st way looks and the 2nd way is too much of an hassle.
Do it the first way and send me a message.
I'll go in and make it right.
If all goes south
Email me the photos.
Go in to where you are going to post the photos and post a mock message with only the text.
I will go in and insert the photos for you.
If I do the posting directly then it will show me as the owner of the message.
So you would need to do the posting.


text:
Article Summary: Troubleshooting Autodiscover (Free/Busy) Connectivity in Outlook 2007
You can use Outlook 2007 to troubleshoot problems with the Autodiscover service. To determine whether the Autodiscover service is unable to provide information to clients by using Outlook 2007, log on to the mailbox of the user for whom you want to troubleshoot Autodiscover connectivity, and then follow these steps:
In Outlook 2007, on the Tools menu, click Options, click the Other tab, and then click Advanced Options.
On the Advanced Options page, select Enable logging (troubleshooting), and then click OK.
Restart Outlook 2007, and then try to view free/busy information for another user.
In Microsoft Windows, click Start, click Run, and then type %temp%.
In Windows Explorer, open the olkdisc.log file and locate the files in the olkas directory.
The information that is contained in this directory can frequently provide information about which service is not functioning correctly.
You can also use Outlook 2007 to test the AutoConfiguration information that is provided by the Autodiscover service. To use the Outlook 2007 client to test AutoConfiguration by using Outlook 2007, log on to the mailbox of the user for whom you want to test the AutoConfiguration, and then do the following:
While Outlook 2007 is running, hold down the CTRL key, right-click the Outlook icon in the notification area, and then select Test E-mail AutoConfiguration.
Verify that the correct e-mail address is in the box next to E-mail Address.
Clear the check boxes next to Use Guessmart and Secure Guessmart Authentication.
On the Test E-mail AutoConfiguration page, verify that the check box next to Use AutoDiscover is selected, and then click the Test button.
AutoConfiguration Error Codes in Outlook 2007
0x80072EE7 – ERROR_INTERNET_NAME_NOT_RESOLVED This error is usually caused by a missing host record for the Autodiscover service in the Domain Naming service.
0X80072F17 – ERROR_INTERNET_SEC_CERT_ERRORS This error is usually caused by an incorrect certificate configuration on the Exchange 2007 computer that has the Client Access server role installed.
0X80072EFD – ERROR_INTERNET_CANNOT_CONNECT This error is usually caused by issues that are related to Domain Naming service.
0X800C820A – E_AC_NO_SUPPORTED_SCHEMES This error is usually caused by incorrect security settings in Outlook 2007.
Article ID: SLN249296
Last Date Modified: 09/25/2014 04:03 PM
Thank you for your feedback.


text:
Grand Theft Auto IV: The Ballad of Gay Tony
|Kibbutz Number One
At some point, Tony will call you up and let you know that someone he owes money to needs some help (big surprise!) This guy's name is Mori, and he's located over in Broker, off of Mohanet Avenue on the western edge of the borough. Get there however you want -- it will likely involve you driving over the Broker Bridge or Algonquin Bridge from the borough of Algonquin. When you arrive, you'll find a rather strange, eccentric bodybuilder named Mori. This guy seems awfully familiar, doesn't he? Well that's because, as you will soon find out, Mori's little brother is none other than Brucie, who shows up on the scene eventually. Nonetheless, after some ribbing back and forth, Mori and Luis head outside to go about their business.
When the cutscene's run its course, you'll find yourself automatically placed in a nice car outside of Mori's and Brucie's place. You'll have to drive due northward, to the borough of Bohan, in order to continue on with your quest. As usual, the GPS will get you to your destination rather easily, but if you're looking for a good route to use, simply head northward to Harrison Street, bear westward over the East Borough Bridge, drive north over the bridge, over Charge Island, and into Bohan. You can then head to the southern end of Attica Avenue, along the docks, to proceed with the mission at hand.
When you arrive at the southern edge of Attica Avenue, you'll be asked to step out of the car and approach the nearby dock. Do just that. When you do, a cutscene will ensue. It appears that some low-life drug dealers are Mori's new target. These guys have been ripped off by Mori in the past, and refuse to do business with him anymore. Instead of doing business, these guys become outright hostile, forcing you into a gunfight right there at the docks.
Luis will automatically seek cover, and you'll be able to kill most of the enemies from behind this very cover. Mori will also take up arms against these foes, so you'll have some help in taking down this rather minor threat. The red dots on your HUD represent enemies in your vicinity, so you should be able to spot where they all are. If you're getting shot at from an unknown location, the fired shots are likely raining down on you from the building to your left, so be sure to take out any gunners up there, especially the foe with the RPG, as he can end your day real quick if you aren't careful. Then, continue to press down the dock, eliminating any remaining foes.
When the last enemy at the far end of the dock is finished, a brief cutscene will show Luis and Mori running to a boat docked nearby. The drug dealers are making their getaway in three boats of their own, and it's up to you to chase them. Don't worry about firing shots, as Mori will do all of that for you. Instead, follow the on-screen instructions to wield and toss explosives at the enemy boats. To do this effectively, you're going to need to get right next to the boat in question. Then, use the D-Pad, as instructed on-screen, to detonate the explosives. Do this to all three ships before they reach their destination, and you'll be right as rain. All that's left to do now is to drop Mori off at shore, and this mission will come to a conclusion.
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text:
Gurudev Sri Sri Ravi Shankar: Early life.
An Introduction to Gurudev Sri Sri Ravi Shankar
Gurudev Sri Sri Ravi Shankar is a humanitarian leader, spiritual teacher and ambassador of peace. His vision of a stress-free, violence-free society has united millions of people the world over through service projects and the courses of The Art of Living.
The Beginning
Born in 1956 in Southern India, Gurudev was a gifted child. By the age of four, he was able to recite the Bhagavad Gita, an ancient Sanskrit scripture and was often found in meditation. His first teacher was Sudhakar Chaturvedi, a scholar, who had a long-standing association with Mahatma Gandhi. Gurudev holds degrees in, both, Vedic literature and physics.
Founding The Art of Living & the IAHV
Gurudev entered a ten-day period of silence in Shimoga located in the Indian state of Karnataka. The Sudarshan Kriya, a powerful breathing technique, was born, out of this silence. With time, the Sudarshan Kriya became the center-piece of the Art of Living programs.
Gurudev started The Art of Living foundation as an international, non-profit, educational, humanitarian organization. Its educational and self-development programs offer powerful tools to eliminate stress and foster a sense of well-being. Appealing not only to a specific population, these practices have proven effective globally and at all levels of society.
In 1997, he also founded the International Association for Human Values (IAHV) to coordinate sustainable development projects, nurture human values and coordinate conflict resolution in association with The Art of Living. In India, Africa and South America, the two sister organizations' volunteers are spearheading sustainable growth in rural communities, and have already reached out to 40,212 villages.
Inspiring Service & Globalizing Wisdom
A noted humanitarian leader, Gurudev's programs have provided assistance to people from a wide range of backgrounds – victims of natural disasters, survivors of terror attacks and war, children from marginalized populations and communities in conflict, among others. The strength of his message has inspired a wave of service based on spirituality through a huge body of volunteers, who are driving these projects forward in critical areas around the globe.
As a spiritual teacher, Gurudev has rekindled the traditions of yoga and meditation and offered them in a form that is relevant to the 21st century. Apart from reviving ancient wisdom, Gurudev has created new techniques for personal and social transformation. These include the Sudarshan Kriya® which has helped millions of people find relief from stress and discover inner reservoirs of energy and peace in daily life. In a mere 34 years, his programs and initiatives have touched the lives of over 370 million people in 154 countries.
A Figure of Peace
As an ambassador of peace, Gurudev plays a key role in conflict resolution and spreads his vision of non-violence at public forums and gatherings world-wide. Regarded as a neutral figure with a sole agenda of peace, he represents hope to people in regions of conflict. He has received particular credit for bringing opposing parties to the negotiating table in Iraq, the Ivory Coast, Kashmir and Bihar. He was appointed the Chairman of the Reception Committee for the 500th anniversary celebrations of the Coronation of Krishnadevaraya (by the Government of Karnataka, India). Gurudev is also a member of the Amarnath Shrine Board (appointed by the Government of Jammu and Kashmir, India).
Through his initiatives and addresses, Gurudev has consistently emphasized the need for reinforcing human values and recognizing humanity as our highest identity. Fostering interfaith harmony and calling for multi-cultural education as the remedy for fanaticism are two of the significant aspects of his efforts to achieve sustainable peace on our planet.
His work has touched the lives of millions of people around the world, going beyond the barriers of race, nationality and religion with his message of a "One-World Family"; that inner and outer peace are possible; and that a stress-free, violence-free society can be created through service and the reawakening of human values.


text:
He was looking to toast his old friend, Angela Bassett. The two had co-starred in the intense Tina Turner biopic "What's Love Got to Do With It?" but Fishburne had seen something special pour out of Bassett on this night.
"He came back and said, `Where has she been? Where you been hiding her?"' Bassett recalls, a wistful smile playing over her beautiful face. "And that's someone who knows me."
Bassett is certainly turning in an otherworldly performance in playwright Katori Hall's fictional drama set in the Lorraine Motel in Memphis on the night before the 1968 assassination of the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.
Opposite Samuel L. Jackson as King, Bassett is turning heads in the heaven-sent role of a mysterious motel maid, Camae, who delivers coffee to the civil rights leader's room and sparks conversation. It's a rich, physical, delicious part after years of scraps and a reminder of Bassett's prodigious power.
"It's like if you've been starving and get this great meal with all these nutrients -- vegetables and fruit and, then all of a sudden, every cell of your body is like, `Ohhh!"' she says in a dressing room at the Bernard B. Jacobs Theatre. "It's like been a little sluggish and it springs to life. I've just been loving it."
Already extended, "The Mountaintop" will end its run Jan. 22 because Jackson has a movie commitment.
Bassett, 53, came to Camae -- her first Broadway role since 1988 -- fresh, not having seen the production in London. She sees Camae as a country girl without a lot of schooling but plenty of common sense, and drew on her Florida roots to give the maid a strong Southern drawl.
Director Kenny Leon, who has known Bassett since ninth grade, said she pretty much walked in the door and claimed the role. "I love how she goes way, way beneath the surface to create these amazing characters," he says. He calls her a real theater beast who gets her entire body involved, "from her fingernails to her toenails."
"I think five years from now people will remember things about what she did in `The Mountaintop,"' he adds. "I don't think people really realize how great she is. I think time will demonstrate her greatness in that role."
In the play, audiences watch King flirt, curse, smoke Pall Malls, sip booze and even have a pillow fight with Camae, who oozes sass (At one point, King teasingly asks the maid whether he should shave off his mustache. "Well," she replies, "have you axed `yo wife?").
Bassett wasn't uncomfortable with showing the fleshy, banal side of a civil rights saint. "I accept the humanity of people -- the good, the bad, the frailties, whatever. I try not to make people out as gods," she says. "We all make mistakes. We are fallible human beings. And that's OK. So I didn't have any queasiness that we were about to tarnish his legacy."
Every night, Bassett has a routine. She gets to the theater, puts her bag down and stands on the empty stage, breathing it in. She also runs her hand over the "306" on the prop hotel room door in a silent tribute.
Before going on, she checks to make sure she has the seven items she needs for every show: a lighter, a pack of matches in case the lighter doesn't work, a handkerchief, a flask, two packs of cigarettes and a special prop ring.
It's been more than two decades since Bassett left New York for Los Angeles to break into film. The Yale-educated actress, whose last Broadway credit was in 1988's "Joe Turner's Come and Gone," did a few smallish movie parts.
But it wasn't until she stepped into a pair of spiky high heels for her strutting, hip-shimmying performance as Tina Turner in "What's Love Got to Do With It?" that Bassett became a star, receiving an Academy Award nomination.
Other roles followed -- among them "Waiting to Exhale" and "How Stella Got Her Groove Back" -- but not always up to her level. She seems to shine most with strong women like Camae.
"This is up there. This is up there with the special ones," she says of her "Mountaintop" role, her voice soft as a down pillow. "I haven't had a character like this in a long time where I could bring this to bear."
Reared by an aunt in Harlem until she was 5, Bassett moved to St. Petersburg, Fla., with her mother, who struggled alone to raise two daughters.
Bassett got interested in acting during a class trip to Washington when she was in the 11th grade. One night, she saw James Earl Jones rip up the stage in "Of Mice and Men" at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. Bassett says she left trembling and inspired.
Her up-and-down career can partly be blamed on her own high standard. She takes parts with a view for the long term. "Film lives forever," she says. Bassett famously turned down the female lead in "Monster's Ball," which would go on to earn Halle Berry an Oscar, after deeming it stereotypical. (In a twist, Bassett herself took over the role of Camae after Berry pulled out.)
"It's not just a career for me. It's a calling. I feel like I was called to be an actress," Bassett says. "If I respond only because of monetary or just being asked, then I might lose the ability to affect because I'm not acting out of love."
Bassett has worked steadily -- she was recently in "Green Lantern" and "Jumping the Broom" -- but they have been smaller parts despite the fact that her lithe, muscular frame and smooth, unlined face rivals any actress in her 30s. "I try to make the most out of whatever it is," she says.
To help create her own outlet, she and her husband -- Courtney B. Vance of the "Law & Order" franchise -- formed the company Bassett/Vance Productions and hired Dwayne Johnson-Cochran to write a screen adaptation of the novel "Erasure" by Percival Everett. Bassett plans to direct as well as perform in the dramatic comedy, now called "United States."
She hopes the film, as well as more projects sparked by her turn in "The Mountaintop," will end musings about where she's been hiding. "We all have a purpose," she says, "we all have gifts."


text:
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Product Summary:
Create a stunningly beautiful and outstanding atmosphere in your garden with our Dolabra Planter. Designed to meet today's artistic customers desire. Constructed with Glass fiber Reinforced Concrete, which is makes it lighter and more durable than cast stone. This planter is sure to be unique to your backyard, deck, patio or landscape.
Create a stunningly beautiful and outstanding atmosphere in your garden with our Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete Products (GFRC). They are the choice of "Top Landscape Designers" because GFRC is lighter and more durable than cast stone. Our "Resort Quality Products" are a welcome addition to any landscape.
About Our Handcrafted Products from Gist
Gist Decor is an able group of creative and technical teams with unmatched ability to sculpt, cast and fabricate just about anything. They work with GFRC, GRG, fiberglass, metal and other materials to strike emotional chords with those who view our themed architectural creations and stylish decor for every environment.
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