text: 2019 TRACK & FIELD SCHEDULE Starting Times: Field Events: 4:30 p.m. Running Events: 5:00 p.m. Order of Events: 800 Meter Relay (4×200) 800 Meter Run 100 Meter Hurdles 100 Meter Dash 400 Meter Dash 400 Meter Relay (4×100) 200 Meter Dash 1600 Meter Run 1600 Meter Relay (4×400) Tues. April 2nd Meet No. 1 at Lee Hedges Stadium Hosts – League I Teams – Donnie Bickham, Green Oaks, Herndon Magnet, North Caddo, Turner, Walnut Hill Tues. April 9th – Meet No. 2 at Northwood Stadium Hosts – League II Teams – Caddo Magnet, Caddo Middle Careers, Ridgewood, Donnie Bickham, Fair Park, Green Oaks, Caddo Magnet, Caddo Middle Careers, North Caddo, Broadmoor, Keithville, Turner, Walnut Hill, Herndon, Youree Drive, North Caddo Tues. April 16th Linwood Charter Meet at Lee Hedges (CANCELLED) Hosts – Linwood Charter Teams –TBD Tues. April 23rd League I Meet at Lee Hedges Hosts – CMM / Broadmoor Teams – CMCT, CMM, Fair Park, Broadmoor, Keithville, Ridgewood, Youree Drive Tues. April 23rd LEAGUE II MEET at Northwood *District Meet (to qualify for the City Championship, athletes must place in the top four in each event, individual and relays) Hosts – North Caddo and Herndon Teams – Donnie Bickham, Green Oaks, Herndon Magnet, North Caddo, Turner, Walnut Hill Tues. April 30th City Championship at Lee Hedges Hosts – CMCT / Green Oaks *Winners will compete in the "Meet of Champions." This meet will showcase middle school athletes from surrounding parishes, the date and time has yet to be determined.


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Precautions to take before help arrives to clean up your clean water water damage
2/17/2017 (Permalink)
When your home or business suffers from a storm, its critical to know the difference between different levels of contaminated water. There are 3 classes of water, Clean, Gray and Black.
Clean water: Clean water is water from a broken pipe, water from a hot water heater, or sink. The time frame for a clean water water damage is limited as if it sits for longer than 24 hours it is then considered gray water.
Here is a list of precautions to take to protect your personal belongings from a clean source water damage until help arrives.
- Shut off the water source if possible or contact a qualified professional to do so.
- Turn off the circuit breakers for wet areas of the building if access to the power distribution panel is safe from potential electric shock
- Remove as much excess water as possible by mopping and blotting
- remove and prop up wet upholstery cushions to allow a more even drying.
- move any paintings, art objects, computers, documents and other valuable items that may be sensitive to moisture to a safe place
- Do not leave books, newspapers, magazines or other colored items on wet carpet as they may cause staining
- Do not use your household vacuum cleaner to remove water as there is potential for electrical shock or causing damage to the vacuum cleaner
- Do not turn on ceiling fixtures if the ceiling is wet; do not enter rooms where ceilings are sagging from retained water.
When you have a water damage, don't leave your property to chance. Call SERVPRO of Perry Hall White Marsh. We are certified in Water damage, biohazard clean up and mold remediations. We also accept all insurance companies. Call 410-529-1664 for more details.

subset: commoncrawl


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Jump to navigation Jump to search
- Full Name: Trebble
- Race: Tribble
- Date of Birth: Before
- Place of Birth: Tribble Homeworld
- Gender: Neuter
- Telepathic status: T-Negative 1 (can communicate telepathically with animals)
- Height: 6 inches
- Weight: 3 ounces
- Furr Color: Ginger and Black
- Children: None; Trebble is impotent
- Parents : Toodle
- Siblings: Too many to count, much less list by name
- Way Back When: Pooped out of Toodle
- A Bit After that: Exiled from the Tribble Homeworld "For a Tribble that cannot pro-Tribble-ate is no Tribble at all!"
|NPC Listing · Independence-A Senior Staff · Crew History
|CO: Flt.Capt. Sidney Riley · FO: Lt.Cmdr. Darius Clack
|HCO: Ens. Isaac David Hertz · CCO: Ens. Alexander Richards
|CEO: Lt. JG Lluneh Walker · R&D: Lt.Cmdr. Ethan Brice
|COS: Lt. Eyas W'tine · SEC: Lt. Jade Shryker
|CTO: Lt.Cmdr. Danny Wilde · TAC: Ens. Scarlet Delores
|CSO: Lt. Tyriden · ACSO: Lt. Galon Sudra
|CMO: Lt.Cmdr. Charles Sampi · CNS: Ens. Zinna
MO: Ens. Leah St. James · Ens. Velana
|Edit Nav/View Key to Abbreviations


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"The Genius Box "Art and Murals" kit is packed with 8 engaging activities to inspire and educate children.This kit includes :1. 'Rainbow Art' Scratch Card Activity, 2. 'Design Your Own Wrapping Sheet' DIY Activity, 3. 2-Sand Art Activities, 4. 3-Mosaic Art Foam Activities, 5. 'Colouring Fun' Floor Mural Activity and an Amazing Artist Certificate
BOGO Terms & Conditions:1. The customer needs to add 2 activity kits to avail the BOGO offer.2. The 2nd kit has to be of the same or lower price.3. The customer is free to make a purchase of a single activity kit at full price.4. The offer is only valid till 15th April 2020.
The Genius Box 'World Wonders' kit is packed with 5 engaging activities to inspire and educate children. This kit includes : 1. 'My Incredible India' A Engaging Board Game, 2. 'Landmarks Around the World' 30 Piece Jigsaw Puzzle ,3. 'Mount Fuji' A D.I.Y. Project, 4. 'Wonders of The World' A Fun Spoting and Memory Game,5. 'Totem Pole Sculptures' A D.I.Y. Craft Activity and a Landmark Enthusiast Certificate
Getting their early development right
Building on their inner creativity
Keeping their minds productively fed


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PawTool™ - Brass No Touch Tool - Door Opening Tool - TouchScreen Stylus - Bottle Opener
The PawTool™ is an easy-to-use, multi-purpose no touch tool that keeps your hands free from touching common surfaces – effectively lessening the spread of germs to yourself and others. Its design helps you manipulate devices such as door handles, touch screens, elevator buttons, key pads, electronic devices, bathroom fixtures, be it in your daily routine, commute, or on the go. PawTool's special designed conductive stylus nibs let you interact with touchscreens you encounter each and every day at retail locations. PawTool is an EDC and PPE all-in-one tool. Pawtool is proudly made in the USA
Material - Solid Brass
Size 2" x 4" x 3/16"
Weight 2.9oz
Each PawTool includes 1 Stylus Nib
* Patent Pending *
Customer ReviewsWrite a review
I purchased a dozen of these for my family and friends. Everyone loved them! We were so impressed I bought a half dozen more. The second batch I received had stains and fingerprints on each one. It took a while, but I was able to get it off with a rubber eraser and some rubbing alcohol. Other than that, no complaints!
This tool has not failed in any scenario.
Restrooms, gas pumps, retail checkout,
shopping carts. A purchase worth well
more than the price!!
It's great
These days we all carry around a lot of hand sanitizer. I use it every time I touch something outside of my house. That's a lot of 70% alcohol! The Paw tool allows me touch things w/out having to sanitize my hands every time I push an elevator button or open a door. I also love the stylus! One of the grossest things is having to touch a keypad or a pen attached to credit card machine! I know longer have to do either because my Paw Tool does it all! Great buy!
Best purchase ever I absolutely love my PawTool it is so distinguished everybody who sees it wants one and I just give them your number and let them know where they can get one but I absolutely adore mine best thing I could've bought myself


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KABUL — The 2nd China-Afghanistan-Pakistan Foreign Ministers' Dialogue was held on Dec 15 with security, stability and development taking the center stage.
State Councilor and Foreign Minister Wang Yi said at the dialogue that the three sides have been actively implementing the consensus reached in the first trilateral foreign ministers' dialogue convened in December last year in Beijing, with progress achieved in Afghanistan's reconciliation process, continuous improvement witnessed in the relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan and the building of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor as well as the connectivity and communication in the region further pressed forward, demonstrating the vitality and the bright future of the cooperation among the three sides.
With the complex and changing regional and international situation, the three sides are facing new challenges and opportunities in their security and development, said Wang, hoping they will further strengthen dialogue and promote mutual trust.
Wang also hoped that the 2nd China-Afghanistan-Pakistan Foreign Ministers' Dialogue will reach new consensus on promoting the realization of the inclusive Afghan-led, Afghan-owned political reconciliation in the country at an early date, strengthening the momentum of the improvement of relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan, pushing forward the pragmatic cooperation and deepening cooperation in fighting terrorism so as to promote regional security, stability and development.
Afghan Foreign Minister Salahuddin Rabbani and Pakistani Foreign Minister Shah Mahmood Qureshi agreed with Wang's remarks and highly appreciated the long-term efforts China has been making in promoting the peaceful reconciliation and development in Afghanistan and in encouraging Afghanistan and Pakistan to enhance mutual understanding and improve bilateral relations.
The foreign ministers of Afghanistan and Pakistan also fully acknowledged the positive results the three sides have achieved since the first dialogue between the three foreign ministers.
The Afghan and Pakistani sides will maintain the good momentum of improving bilateral relations and faithfully implementing the Afghanistan-Pakistan Action Plan for Peace and Solidarity, they said.
The two sides said they are willing to work with China to expand trilateral cooperation within the framework of jointly building the Belt and Road Initiative and push forward the trilateral cooperation on anti-terrorism so as to jointly safeguard the peace, stability and prosperity in the three countries and in the region.
During the dialogue, the three sides signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on jointly combating terrorism and issued a joint statement.


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Article content
ATHENS, Greece — Coach Oscar Garcia made a winning debut with Olympiakos as they beat lowly Lamia 2-0 to claim the lead in the Greek league on Monday.
Garcia, the former Barcelona player, is the club's third coach this season. The defending Greek champion has struggled to cope with strong challenges from AEK Athens and northern club PAOK.
tap here to see other videos from our team.
Olympiakos leads Greek league after coach's winning debut Back to video
Marko Marin scored early, bursting forward to meet a long pass from Kostas Fortounis.
Karim Ansarifard punished some sluggish defending, helped by Guillaume Gillet, for the tap-in before halftime.
On loan from Everton, winger Kevin Mirallas returned after a five-year absence to Olympiakos at Karaiskakis Stadium.


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Roasted in Wellington since 2000.
One of the original Wellington coffee roasters, Emporio has been creating great coffee in the Capital for 20 years.
Our Wellington espresso bar, 90 Abel Smith St, is open weekdays 7:30am-3pm for coffee and snacks. Order coffee online with delivery nationwide.
Looking for a coffee supplier for your cafe? As previous cafe owners, our team is here to help. Find out about Emporio's wholesale services.


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You might find this context clues worksheet on the noun kaiser useful, especially if you're teaching a global studies class that addresses German politics in the second half of the nineteenth century, and, of course, World War I. Please do remember that this is a derivation of the Latin cognomen Caesar, appended to Augustus, Rome's first emperor. Assisting students in taking that knowledge a step further you can demonstrate to students how far this word traveled by pointing out that the Russian emperor's title Czar also derives from Caesar.
If you find typos in this document, I would appreciate a notification. And, as always, if you find this material useful in your practice, I would be grateful to hear what you think of it. I seek your peer review.


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By: David P. Anderson, Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service
Cull cow prices are sharing in the Spring cattle price rally. Normally, cull cow prices increase from the Fall into late Spring, and that increase is well underway. Cow prices are climbing along with fed cattle prices.
Cow prices in the Southern Plains have increased about $13 per cwt, or 32 percent, from about $40 per cwt in January to $53 at the end of March. The meat market indicates higher values for the meat from cull cows. Ninety percent lean beef prices have climbed 10 percent to $218 per cwt since January. Over the same period the cow-beef cutout value is up 7.7 percent.
Cow Slaughter Historically Large
The rally in cow prices has come in the face of historically large slaughter. Dairy cow slaughter has exceeded 70,000 per week for that last 5 weeks. The 72,700 head sent to market the first week of March was the largest weekly dairy cow slaughter since 1986. Some readers might remember the Dairy Herd Buyout program that contributed to large dairy cow slaughter in 1986. Beef cow slaughter dropped below last year's levels by mid-March, 53,000 head compared to 56,000 head this time last year. Total beef and dairy cow slaughter is the most since drought forced movement in 2012-2013.
Some significantly higher cow prices than those in the Southern Plains have been reported in Northern markets. One of the results of the 2010-2012 Southern Plains drought has been a loss in regional cow packing capacity. New capacity in the Northwest has added value to cull cows further North.
Presumably, dairy cow marketings will decline later in the year as increased culling has an effect on milk production and prices. Some milk market recovery should lead to higher milk prices and slower culling rates. The slowing rate of growth of the beef cow herd should slow beef cow marketings. The combination of slowing culling, limiting the growth in supplies, should provide some price support.
The Markets
Sunshine and warmer weather in Texas has boosted local calf market prices over the last couple weeks. The Choice beef cutout declined a little late in the week, but largely continued the higher trend of the last 6 weeks. The Choice-Select spread ended the week at $7.15 per cwt, a little lower than the week before. The spread typically increases into June.


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Microsoft SideWinder X5 Mouse
Write a review
Cut right to the chase with the Microsoft SideWinder X5 Mouse--another addition to Microsoft's award-winning line of SideWinder gaming products. This fast, durable mouse delivers super-precise action with advanced features like vertical side buttons, 200 to 2000 dpi on-the-fly laser tracking, macros, 5 assignable buttons, and more.
- 2000 DPI Laser Tracking Engine - For fast action
- Built to Last - Main button life: Rated to 10,000,000 clicks
- On-the-Fly DPI Switching - Instantly switch sensitivity between high (2000), medium (800), and low (400) with one click.
- Five Programmable Main Buttons - Customize your main gaming buttons to your preference.
- Macros - Create and assign macros out-of-game using included software.
We Also Recommend


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So I've just got an iPad (behind the times a bit I know) and I want to subscribe to a couple of F1 magazines.
Obviously the first option is Autosport, then F1 Racing and then I came across the F1 Times magazine in the App Store.
Does anybody subscribe to these and or know of any other decent magazines? Preferably don't want just zoomable pdf copies like the first two. The F1 Times one looks nifty as its designed only for tablets and has interactive bits, so it says, but then I'm unsure about the quality of the content?
Can anyone recommend any others?
Digital F1 Magazines?
Started by fanboy89 , Apr 07 2013 09:00
No replies to this topic


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Designed for riders who appreciate versatile, predictable kite performance, the Moto kite is a triple threat for any type of riding in a wide range of conditions. It excels in three of the most exciting disciplines the sport has to offer: Freeride, Freesurf, and Foilboarding.
The all-new Moto leads one into a new era of performance kitesurfing that smashes all conventional thinking. This versatile Freeride / Crossover kite is light to the touch and provides a precise and linear power delivery. The lighter weight and quick response is made possible with its 3-strut hybrid plan form.
The Moto performs its best in challenging wind conditions. Generous depower tames the gustiest winds and widens its wind range considerably. The Moto's fast turning speed not only puts this kite into a performance category of its own, it enhances the kite's amazing versatility.
3-Strut, Moderate aspect ratio hybrid design, Reactive wing tip, Fast, lean and efficient profiles
This is a 2019 product so call 01202 700503 or email to check availability
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Caring as a Connective Foundation of Leadership
If you, as a leader, had to choose whether to do paperwork or get out of your office to meet and talk with your team, which would you do? That's easy: You would choose to spend time with your team.
The hard part: Making that time productive
Just showing up as a leader has value, but using that time to forge emotional connections with your staff is the goldmine where you find productivity gains. Put simply: Showing you care by taking the time to get to know them and their aspirations, and actively supporting their success, reaps great benefits in sustained employee engagement and higher productivity.
A recent article by Scott Edinger on Harvard Business Review's blog supported this view, and we find his quick three bullets on how to establish an emotional connection a useful reminder. Here is the excerpt, along with our own thoughts against the three bullets:
"Leadership has everything to do with how you relate to others and the quality and texture of those relationships. The higher up you go in an organization, the less important your technical skills become and the more your interpersonal skills matter…The ability to make an emotional connection is so often misunderstood because it's not about being emotional or showing emotion. It's about making a human connection — one person to another."
- Give people your undivided attention. Scott cited a past boss who unfailingly dedicated his complete attention to every conversation they had, even if pressed for time. This ability to tune out the rest of what is pressing on you is critical in fostering better relationships, because each interaction counts!
- Be aware that emotions are contagious. Bad moods and good moods are both contagious. Understand the impact each can have on your work relationships. You are allowed to have occasional bad moods, but do not burden others with them: You could use them to bond with teammembers, byadmitting you are in a bad mood and allowing subordinates to commiserate and offer advice! Otherwise,isolate yourself until the bad mood lifts. On the flip side, share your good emotions whenever possible.
- Develop your sense of extraversion. This is not an option for a leader. Scott says "you simply have to develop the ability to reach out to others, engage them in discussion, and actively provide feedback. You're the one who has to be out in front, taking the lead in developing these relationships."
If you are a leader (and we believe anyone can lead), you must manage yourself as actively as you manage others:
- Keep tabs on your emotions
- Control and channel them productively
- Adopt forward-thinking, engaging, action-oriented mindsets
Above all, make it a priority to connect with each employee deeply enough to understand their motivations and talents, to better leverage both to achieve mutually satisfying outcomes.
Does this make sense to you? Leave us a comment to share your perspective, or lesson learned.


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ECOsply Disposable Spatulas
Made of recyclable HDPE plastic (#2), ECOsply Disposable Spatulas provide ideal flexibility while eliminating an often overlooked source of cross-contamination. Glossy non-stick surface. 6-3/4" long. 100 per pack.
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The Sena tribe in Malawi and Mozambique have a proverb: 'Never marry a wife with bigger feet than your own.' The Chinese have an astonishingly similar message. And in Telugu, too, prospective husbands are warned away from women with long feet.
In cultures all over the globe, sex and gender issues have been expressed in proverbs—the world's smallest literary genre. This irresistible book provides revealing insights into the female condition across centuries and continents. The hundreds of proverbs compiled here also perpetuate contrasting views of men and women—men are inexorable tyrants, as well as insecure, fearful beings or easily seduced lovers while women are lamentable victims, and yet extremely powerful. These contradictions are exposed directly and surreptitiously in the examples collated here, speaking to all of us.
Never Marry a Woman with Big Feet collates the experiences of women through proverbs from 245 languages, both culturally and physically—women's bodies as a whole, and each body part; their beautification, ageing and death. The vivid and earthy proverbs also reflect the phases of life—from girl to bride, to wife or co-wife, from mother to mother-in-law, widow and grandmother; the joys and sorrows of love, sex and childbearing; women's work, their talents, and their power. They delineate the feminine ideal and vilify her fear-inducing counterpart—the talented, intelligent, powerful, defiant or occult woman.
Mineke Schipper's stylish critical anthology is an entertaining rough guide showing us how far both sexes have progressed, through the timeless yet ever-evolving nature of cultural sayings and proverbs from every corner of the world.
An African tribesman merely needs to wrap a simple string around the hips and tuck his genitalia out of sight to be correctly dressed while, at the other end of the spectrum, a devout woman is considered naked in many cultures if her head remains uncovered.
Throughout history, different cultures and religions have developed codes to control unruly nakedness, giving rise to a variety of ideas of what it means to be dressed. Now, in a time of globalization, we are confronted by a variety of perspectives on dress: not just what to wear, but who wears it, why and how. Advertisers routinely fall back on the female nude to sell anything from cars to perfume; wearing a traditional khadi kurta vs. a Western-style three-piece suit can send a powerful political message; violent protests take place against the idea of nakednesss, yet nakedness is used as a form of protest; and contemporary interpretations of religious or cultural edicts are met with bafflement, bigotry or outright bans.
Using an engaging mixture of anecdote and historical interpretation, Naked or Covered: A History of Dressing and Undressing Around the World brilliantly dissects our contradictory attitudes to bodily exposure and concealment through time and across cultures. Mineke Schipper's unerringly detailed prose is complemented by aptly chosen photographs and paintings which bring the history of revealment and concealment through clothing to life.


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Insect flight
Insects are the only group of invertebrates that have evolved wings and flight. Insects first flew in the Carboniferous, some 350 million years ago. Wings may have evolved from appendages on the sides of existing limbs, which already had nerves, joints, and muscles used for other purposes. These may initially have been used for sailing on water, or to slow the rate of descent when gliding.
Two insect groups, the dragonflies and the mayflies, have flight muscles attached directly to the wings. In other winged insects, flight muscles attach to the thorax, which make it oscillate in order to induce the wings to beat. Of these insects, some (dipterans and some beetles) achieve very high wingbeat frequencies through the evolution of an "asynchronous" nervous system, in which the thorax oscillates faster than the rate of nerve impulses.
Some very small insects make use not of steady-state aerodynamics but of the Weis-Fogh clap and fling mechanism, generating large lift forces at the expense of wear and tear on the wings. Many insects can hover, maintaining height and controlling their position. Some insects such as moths have the forewings coupled to the hindwings so these can work in unison.
Direct flight[edit]
Unlike other insects, the wing muscles of the Ephemeroptera (mayflies) and Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) insert directly at the wing bases, which are hinged so that a small movement of the wing base downward, lifts the wing itself upward, very much like rowing through the air. Dragonflies and damselflies have fore and hind wings similar in shape and size. Each operates independently, which gives a degree of fine control and mobility in terms of the abruptness with which they can change direction and speed, not seen in other flying insects. This is not surprising, given that odonates are all aerial predators, and they have always hunted other airborne insects.[1]
Indirect flight[edit]
Other than the two orders with direct flight muscles, all other living winged insects fly using a different mechanism, involving indirect flight muscles. This mechanism evolved once and is the defining feature (synapomorphy) for the infraclass Neoptera; it corresponds, probably not coincidentally, with the appearance of a wing-folding mechanism, which allows Neopteran insects to fold the wings back over the abdomen when at rest (though this ability has been lost secondarily in some groups, such as in the butterflies).[1]
In the higher groups with two functional pairs of wings, both pairs are linked together mechanically in various ways and function as a single wing, although this is not true in the more primitive groups. There are also exceptions to be found among the more advanced Neoptera; the ghost moth is able to unlock its pair of wings and move them independently, allowing them to hover like dragonflies.[2]
What all Neoptera share, however, is the way the muscles in the thorax work: these muscles, rather than attaching to the wings, attach to the thorax and deform it; since the wings are extensions of the thoracic exoskeleton, the deformations of the thorax cause the wings to move as well. A set of dorsal longitudinal muscles compresses the thorax from front to back, causing the dorsal surface of the thorax (notum) to bow upward, making the wings flip down. A set of tergosternal muscles pulls the notum downward again, causing the wings to flip upward. [1][3] In a few groups, the downstroke is accomplished solely through the elastic recoil of the thorax when the tergosternal muscles are relaxed.
Several small sclerites at the wing base have other, separate, muscles attached and these are used for fine control of the wing base in such a way as to allow various adjustments in the tilt and amplitude of the wing beats.[citation needed]
Insects that beat their wings fewer than one hundred times a second use synchronous muscle. A synchronous muscle is a type of muscle that contracts once for every nerve impulse, which is more efficient for fast flight.[4]
Insects that beat their wings more rapidly, such as the bumblebee, use asynchronous muscle; this is a type of muscle that contracts more than once per nerve impulse. This is achieved by the muscle being stimulated to contract again by a release in tension in the muscle, which can happen more rapidly than through simple nerve stimulation alone.[5] This allows the frequency of wing beats to exceed the rate at which the nervous system can send impulses. The asynchronous muscle is one of the final refinements that has appeared in some of the higher Neoptera (Coleoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera). The overall effect is that many higher Neoptera can beat their wings much faster than insects with direct flight muscles.[1]
There are two basic aerodynamic models of insect flight: creating a leading edge vortex, and using clap and fling.[6][7]
Leading edge vortex[edit]
Most insects use a method that creates a spiralling leading edge vortex. These flapping wings move through two basic half-strokes. The downstroke starts up and back and is plunged downward and forward. Then the wing is quickly flipped over (supination) so that the leading edge is pointed backward. The upstroke then pushes the wing upward and backward. Then the wing is flipped again (pronation) and another downstroke can occur. The frequency range in insects with synchronous flight muscles typically is 5 to 200 hertz (Hz). In those with asynchronous flight muscles, wing beat frequency may exceed 1000 Hz. When the insect is hovering, the two strokes take the same amount of time. A slower downstroke, however, provides thrust.[6][7]
Identification of major forces is critical to understanding insect flight. The first attempts to understand flapping wings assumed a quasi-steady state. This means that the air flow over the wing at any given time was assumed to be the same as how the flow would be over a non-flapping, steady-state wing at the same angle of attack. By dividing the flapping wing into a large number of motionless positions and then analyzing each position, it would be possible to create a timeline of the instantaneous forces on the wing at every moment. The calculated lift was found to be too small by a factor of three, so researchers realized that there must be unsteady phenomena providing aerodynamic forces. There were several developing analytical models attempting to approximate flow close to a flapping wing. Some researchers predicted force peaks at supination. With a dynamically scaled model of a fruit fly, these predicted forces later were confirmed. Others argued that the force peaks during supination and pronation are caused by an unknown rotational effect that fundamentally is different from the translational phenomena. There is some disagreement with this argument. Through computational fluid dynamics, some researchers argue that there is no rotational effect. They claim that the high forces are caused by an interaction with the wake shed by the previous stroke.[6][7]
Similar to the rotational effect mentioned above, the phenomena associated with flapping wings are not completely understood or agreed upon. Because every model is an approximation, different models leave out effects that are presumed to be negligible. For example, the Wagner effect says that circulation rises slowly to its steady-state due to viscosity when an inclined wing is accelerated from rest. This phenomenon would explain a lift value that is less than what is predicted. Typically, the case has been to find sources for the added lift. It has been argued that this effect is negligible for flow with a Reynolds number that is typical of insect flight. The Wagner effect was ignored, consciously, in at least one recent model.[7] One of the most important phenomena that occurs during insect flight is leading edge suction. This force is significant to the calculation of efficiency. The concept of leading edge suction first was put forth to describe vortex lift on sharp-edged delta wings. At high angles of attack, the flow separates over the leading edge, but reattaches before reaching the trailing edge. Within this bubble of separated flow is a vortex. Because the angle of attack is so high, a lot of momentum is transferred downward into the flow. These two features create a large amount of lift force as well as some additional drag. The important feature, however, is the lift. Because the flow has separated, yet it still provides large amounts of lift, this phenomenon is called stall delay. This effect was observed in flapping insect flight and it was proven to be capable of providing enough lift to account for the deficiency in the quasi-steady-state models. This effect is used by canoeists in a sculling draw stroke.[6][7]
All of the effects on a flapping wing may be reduced to three major sources of aerodynamic phenomena: the leading edge vortex, the steady-state aerodynamic forces on the wing, and the wing's contact with its wake from previous strokes. The size of flying insects ranges from about 20 micrograms to about 3 grams. As insect body mass increases, wing area increases and wing beat frequency decreases. For larger insects, the Reynolds number (Re) may be as high as 10000. For smaller insects, it may be as low as 10. This means that viscous effects are much more important to the smaller insects, although the flow is still laminar, even in the largest fliers.[7][8]
Another interesting feature of insect flight is the body tilt. As flight speed increases, the insect body tends to tilt nose-down and become more horizontal. This reduces the frontal area and therefore, the body drag. Since drag also increases as forward velocity increases, the insect is making its flight more efficient as this efficiency becomes more necessary. Additionally, by changing the geometric angle of attack on the downstroke, the insect is able to keep its flight at an optimal efficiency through as many manoeuvres as possible. The development of general thrust is relatively small compared with lift forces. Lift forces may be more than three times the insect's weight, while thrust at even the highest speeds may be as low as 20% of the weight. This force is developed primarily through the less powerful upstroke of the flapping motion.[7][9]
Clap and fling[edit]
The second method of flight, clap and fling, or the Weis-Fogh mechanism,[10] functions differently. In this process, found in very small insects such as thrips and chalcid wasps, the wings clap together above the insect's body and then fling apart. As they fling open, the air gets sucked in and creates a vortex over each wing. This bound vortex then moves across the wing and, in the clap, acts as the starting vortex for the other wing. By this effect, circulation and thus lift are increased to the extent of being higher, in most cases, than the typical leading edge vortex effect. One of the reasons this method is not employed by more insects is the inevitable damage and wear to the wings caused by repeated clapping. It is prevalent, however, among insects that are very small and experience low Reynolds numbers.[6][7][11] The mechanism is also employed by the marine mollusc Limacina helicina, a sea butterfly.[12][13] Some insects, such as the vegetable leaf miner Liriomyza sativae (a dipteran fly), exploit a partial clap and fling, using the mechanism only on the outer part of the wing to increase lift by some 7% when hovering.[14]
Clap 2: leading edges touch, wing rotates around leading edge, vortices form
Fling 3: new vortex forms at leading edge, trailing edge vortices cancel each other, perhaps helping flow to grow faster (Weis-Fogh 1973)
Governing equations[edit]
A wing moving in fluids experiences a fluid force, which follows the conventions found in aerodynamics. The force component normal to the direction of the far field flow relative to the wing is referred to as lift (L), and the force component in the opposite direction of the flow is drag (D). At the Reynolds numbers considered here, an appropriate force unit is 1/2(ρU2S), where ρ is the density of the fluid, S the wing area, and U the wing speed. The dimensionless forces are called lift (CL) and drag (CD) coefficients, that is:[6]
CL and CD are constants only if the flow is steady. A special class of objects such as airfoils may reach a steady state when it slices through the fluid at a small angle of attack. In this case, the inviscid flow around an airfoil can be approximated by a potential flow satisfying the no-penetration boundary condition. The Kutta-Joukowski theorem of a 2D airfoil further assumes that the flow leaves the sharp trailing edge smoothly, and this determines the total circulation around an airfoil. The corresponding lift is given by Bernoulli's principle (Blasius theorem):[6]
The flows around birds and insects can be considered incompressible: The Mach number, or speed while moving through air, is typically 1/300 and the wing frequency is about 10–103 Hz. Using the governing equation as the Navier-Stokes equation being subject to the no-slip boundary condition, the equation is:[6]
Where u(x, t) is the flow field, p the pressure, ρ the density of the fluid, ν the kinematic viscosity, ubd the velocity at the boundary, and us the velocity of the solid. By choosing a length scale, L, and velocity scale, U, the equation can be expressed in nondimensional form containing the Reynolds number, Re=UL/ν . There are two obvious differences between an insect wing and an airfoil: An insect wing is much smaller and it flaps. Using a dragonfly as an example, Its chord (c) is about 1 cm, its wing length (l) about 4 cm, and its wing frequency (f) about 40 Hz. The tip speed (u) is about 1 m/s, and the corresponding Reynolds number, Re=uc/ν about 103. At the smaller end, a Chalcid wasp has a wing length of about 0.5–0.7 mm and beats its wing at about 400 Hz. Its Reynolds number is about 25. The range of Reynolds number in insect flight is about 10 to 104, which lies in between the two limits that are convenient for theories: inviscid steady flows around an airfoil and Stokes flow experienced by a swimming bacterium. For this reason, this intermediate range is not well understood. On the other hand, it is perhaps the most ubiquitous regime among the things we see. Falling leaves and seeds, fishes, and birds all encounter unsteady flows similar to that seen around an insect.[6]
In addition to the Reynolds number, there are at least two other relevant dimensionless parameters. A wing has three velocity scales: the flapping velocity with respect to the body (u), the forward velocity of the body (U0), and the pitching velocity (Ωc). The ratios of them form two dimensionless variables, U0/u and Ωc/u, the former is often referred to as the advance ratio, and it is also related to the reduced frequency, fc/U0.[6]
If an insect wing is rigid, for example, a Drosophila wing is approximately so, its motion relative to a fixed body can be described by three variables: the position of the tip in spherical coordinates, (Θ(t),Φ(t)), and the pitching angle ψ(t), about the axis connecting the root and the tip. To estimate the aerodynamic forces based on blade-element analysis, it is also necessary to determine the angle of attack (α). The typical angle of attack at 70% wingspan ranges from 25° to 45° in hovering insects (15° in hummingbirds). Despite the wealth of data available for many insects, relatively few experiments report the time variation of α during a stroke. They include wind tunnel experiments of a tethered locust and a tethered fly, and free hovering flight of a fruit fly.[6]
Because they are relatively easy to measure, the wing-tip trajectories have been reported more frequently. For example, selecting only flight sequences that produced enough lift to support a weight, will show that the wing tip follows an elliptical shape. Noncrossing shapes were also reported for other insects. Regardless of their exact shapes, the plugging-down motion indicates that insects may use aerodynamic drag in addition to lift to support its weight.[6]
|Flight parameters[15]
|Aeshnid dragonfly
|Hummingbird hawkmoth
|Syrphid hoverfly
|Large white butterfly[16]
|Thrips (clap and fling)[14]
Many insects can hover, or stay in one spot in the air, doing so by beating their wings rapidly. The ability to do so, though, is complex; requiring the use of sideways stabilization as well as the lift necessary to overcome the force of gravity. The lifting force is caused by the downward stroke of the wings. As the wings push down on the surrounding air, the result reaction force of the air on the wings force the insect up. The wings of most insects are evolved so that, during the upward stroke, the force on the wing is small. Due to the fact that the upbeat and downbeat force the insect down and up respectively, the insect oscillates and winds up staying in the same position.[8]
The distance the insect falls between wingbeats depends on how rapidly its wings are beating. If the insect flaps its wings at a slow rate, the time interval during which the lifting force is zero is longer, and therefore the insect falls farther than if its wings were beating rapidly. One can calculate the wingbeat frequency necessary for the insect to maintain a given stability in its amplitude. To simplify the calculations, one must assume that the lifting force is at a finite constant value while the wings are moving down and that it is zero while the wings are moving up. During the time interval Δt of the upward wingbeat, the insect drops a distance h under the influence of gravity.[8]
The upward stroke then restores the insect to its original position. Typically, it may be required that the vertical position of the insect change by no more than 0.1 mm (i.e., h=0.1 mm). The maximum allowable time for free fall is then [8]
Since the up movements and the down movements of the wings are about equal in duration, the period T for a complete up-and-down wing is twice Δr, that is,[8]
The frequency of the beats, f, meaning the number of wingbeats per second, is represented by the equation:[8]
In the examples used the frequency used is 110 beats/s, which is the typical frequency found in insects. Butterflies have a much slower frequency with about 10 beats/s, which means that they can't hover. Other insects may be able to produce a frequency of 1000 beats/s. To restore the insect to its original vertical position, the average upward force during the downward stroke, Fav, must be equal to twice the weight of the insect. Note that since the upward force on the insect body is applied only for half the time, the average upward force on the insect is simply its weight.[8]
Power input[edit]
One can now compute the power required to maintain hovering by, considering again an insect with mass m 0.1 g, average force, Fav, applied by the two wings during the downward stroke is two times the weight. Because the pressure applied by the wings is uniformly distributed over the total wing area, that means one can assume the force generated by each wing acts through a single point at the midsection of the wings. During the downward stroke, the center of the wings traverses a vertical distance d.[8] The total work done by the insect during each downward stroke is the product of force and distance; that is,
If the wings swing through the beat at an angle of 70°, then in the case presented for the insect with 1 cm long wings, d is 0.57 cm. Therefore, the work done during each stroke by the two wings is:[8]
After, the energy has to go somewhere; here, in the example used, the mass of the insect has to be raised 0.1 mm during each downstroke. The energy E required for this task is:[8]
This is a negligible fraction of the total energy expended which clearly, most of the energy is expended in other processes. A more detailed analysis of the problem shows that the work done by the wings is converted primarily into kinetic energy of the air that is accelerated by the downward stroke of the wings. The power is the amount of work done in 1 s; in the insect used as an example, makes 110 downward strokes per second. Therefore, its power output P is, strokes per second, and that means its power output P is:[8]
Power output[edit]
In the calculation of the power used in hovering, the examples used neglected the kinetic energy of the moving wings. The wings of insects, light as they are, have a finite mass; therefore, as they move they possess kinetic energy. Because the wings are in rotary motion, the maximum kinetic energy during each wing stroke is:[8]
Here I is the moment of inertia of the wing and ωmax is the maximum angular velocity during the wing stroke. To obtain the moment of inertia for the wing, we will assume that the wing can be approximated by a thin rod pivoted at one end. The moment of inertia for the wing is then:[8]
Where l is the length of the wing (1 cm) and m is the mass of two wings, which may be typically 10−3 g. The maximum angular velocity, ωmax, can be calculated from the maximum linear velocity, νmax, at the center of the wing:[8]
During each stroke the center of the wings moves with an average linear velocity νav given by the distance d traversed by the center of the wing divided by the duration Δt of the wing stroke. From our previous example, d=0.57 cm and Δt=4.5×10−3 s. Therefore:[8]
The velocity of the wings is zero both at the beginning and at the end of the wing stroke, meaning the maximum linear velocity is higher than the average velocity. If we assume that the velocity varies sinusoidally along the wing path, the maximum velocity is twice as high as the average velocity. Therefore, the maximum angular velocity is:[8]
And the kinetic energy therefore is:[8]
Since there are two wing strokes (the upstroke and downstroke) in each cycle of the wing movement, the kinetic energy is 2×43=86 erg. This is about as much energy as is consumed in hovering itself.[8]
Insects gain kinetic energy, provided by the muscles, when they accelerate. When the wings begin to decelerate toward the end of the stroke, this energy must dissipate. During the downstroke, the kinetic energy is dissipated by the muscles themselves and is converted into heat (this heat is sometimes used to maintain core body temperature). Some insects are able to utilize the kinetic energy in the upward movement of the wings to aid in their flight. The wing joints of these insects contain a pad of elastic, rubber-like protein called resilin. During the upstroke of the wing, the resilin is stretched. The kinetic energy of the wing is converted into potential energy in the stretched resilin, which stores the energy much like a spring. When the wing moves down, this energy is released and aids in the downstroke.[8]
Using a few simplifying assumptions, we can calculate the amount of energy stored in the stretched resilin. Although the resilin is bent into a complex shape, the example given shows the calculation as a straight rod of area A and length. Furthermore, we will assume that throughout the stretch the resilin obeys Hooke's law. This is not strictly true as the resilin is stretched by a considerable amount and therefore both the area and Young's modulus change in the process of stretching. The energy E stored in the stretched resilin is:[8]
Here Y is the Young's modulus for resilin, which has been measured to be 1.8×107 dyn/cm2. Typically, in an insect the size of a bee the volume of the resilin may be equivalent to a cylinder 2×10−2 cm long and 4×10−4 cm2 in area. In the example given, the length of the resilin rod is increased by 50% when stretched. That is, Δℓ is 10−2 cm. Therefore, in this case the energy stored in the resilin of each wing is:[8]
The stored energy in the two wings is 36 erg, which is comparable to the kinetic energy in the upstroke of the wings. Experiments show that as much as 80% of the kinetic energy of the wing may be stored in the resilin.[8]
Wing coupling[edit]
Some four-winged insect orders, such as the Lepidoptera, have developed a wide variety of morphological wing coupling mechanisms in the imago which render these taxa as "functionally dipterous".[17] All but the most basal forms exhibit this wing-coupling.[18]
The mechanisms are of three different types - jugal, frenulo-retinacular and amplexiform.[19]
The more primitive groups have an enlarged lobe-like area near the basal posterior margin, i.e. at the base of the forewing, called jugum, that folds under the hindwing in flight.[18][20]
Other groups have a frenulum on the hindwing that hooks under a retinaculum on the forewing.[20]
In the butterflies (except the male of one species of hesperiid) and in the Bombycoidea (except the Sphingidae), there is no arrangement of frenulum and retinaculum to couple the wings. Instead, an enlarged humeral area of the hindwing is broadly overlapped by the forewing. Despite the absence of a specific mechanical connection, the wings overlap and operate in phase. The power stroke of the forewing pushes down the hindwing in unison. This type of coupling is a variation of frenate type but where the frenulum and retinaculum are completely lost.[17][21]
The biochemistry of insect flight has been a focus of considerable study. While many insects use carbohydrates and lipids as the energy source for flight, many beetles and flies use the amino acid proline as their energy source.[22] Some species also use a combination of sources and moths such as Manduca sexta use carbohydrates for pre-flight warm-up.[23]
Evolution and adaptation[edit]
Sometime in the Carboniferous Period, some 350 million years ago, when there were only two major land masses, insects began flying. How and why insect wings developed is not well understood, largely due to the scarcity of appropriate fossils from the period of their development in the Lower Carboniferous. There are three main theories on the origins of insect flight: that wings developed from paranotal lobes, extensions of the thoracic terga; that they are modifications of movable abdominal gills, as found on aquatic naiads of mayflies; or that they developed from thoracic protrusions used as radiators.[24] Phylogenomic analysis suggests that the Polyneoptera and winged insects evolved from a terrestrial ancestor, making the evolution of wings from gills unlikely.[25]
Paranotal hypothesis[edit]
The paranotal hypothesis suggests that the insect's wings developed from paranotal lobes, a preadaptation found in insect fossils that is believed to have assisted stabilization while hopping or falling. In favor of this hypothesis is the tendency of most insects, when startled while climbing on branches, to escape by dropping to the ground. Such lobes would have served as parachutes and enable the insect to land more softly. The theory suggests that these lobes gradually grew larger and in a later stage developed a joint with the thorax. Even later would appear the muscles to move these crude wings. This model implies a progressive increase in the effectiveness of the wings, starting with parachuting, then gliding and finally active flight. Still, lack of substantial fossil evidence of the development of the wing joints and muscles poses a major difficulty to the theory, as does the seemingly spontaneous development of articulation and venation, and it has been largely rejected by experts in the field.[24]
Epicoxal hypothesis[edit]
Some entomologists have suggested that a possible origin for insect wings might have been movable abdominal gills found in many aquatic insects, such as on naiads of mayflies. According to this theory these tracheal gills, which started their way as exits of the respiratory system and over time were modified into locomotive purposes, eventually developed into wings. The tracheal gills are equipped with little winglets that perpetually vibrate and have their own tiny straight muscles.[24]
Endite-exite hypothesis[edit]
The hypothesis with perhaps the strongest evidence is that which stems from the adaptation of endites and exites, appendages on the respective inner and outer aspects of the primitive arthropod limb. This was advanced by Trueman based on a study by Goldschmidt in 1945 on Drosophila melanogaster, in which a pod variation displayed a mutation transforming normal wings to what was interpreted as a triple-jointed leg arrangement with some additional appendages but lacking the tarsus, where the wing's costal surface normally would be. This mutation was reinterpreted as strong evidence for a dorsal exite and endite fusion, rather than a leg, with the appendages fitting in much better with this hypothesis. The innervation, articulation and musculature required for the evolution of wings are already present in the limb segments (podomeres).[26]
Other hypotheses[edit]
Suggestions have been made that wings may have evolved initially for sailing on the surface of water as seen in some stoneflies.[27][28] An alternative idea is that it derives from directed aerial gliding descent—a preflight phenomena found in some apterygote, a wingless sister taxa to the winged insects.[29]
See also[edit]
- ^ a b c d Chapman, A. D. (2006). Numbers of living species in Australia and the World. Canberra: Australian Biological Resources Study. pp. 60pp. ISBN 978-0-642-56850-2. Archived from the original on 2009-05-19. Retrieved 2015-09-15.
- ^ March 2013 - Bristol Naturalists' Society[permanent dead link] Photography has revealed that both sexes unlock the pair of wings on each side and move them independently enabling hovering flight, reminiscent of the way dragonflies fly.
- ^ Smith, D.S. (1965). "Flight muscles of insects". Scientific American. 212 (6): 76–88. Bibcode:1965SciAm.212f..76S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0665-76. PMID 14327957.
- ^ "Definition of Synchronous muscle in the Entomologists' glossary". Department of Entomology, North Carolina State University. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2011-03-21.
- ^ "Definition of Asynchronous muscle in the Entomologists' glossary". Department of Entomology, North Carolina State University. Retrieved 2011-03-21.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Wang, Z. Jane (2005). "Dissecting Insect Flight" (PDF). Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics. 37 (1): 183–210. Bibcode:2005AnRFM..37..183W. doi:10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.050802.121940.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Sane, Sanjay P. (2003). "The aerodynamics of insect flight" (PDF). The Journal of Experimental Biology. 206 (23): 4191–4208. doi:10.1242/jeb.00663. PMID 14581590. S2CID 17453426.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Davidovits, Paul (2008). Physics in Biology and Medicine. Academic Press. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-0-12-369411-9.
- ^ "Catching the Wake". Scientific American. June 28, 1999. Retrieved March 31, 2011.
- ^ Weis-Fogh, Torkel (1973). "Quick estimates of flight fitness in hovering animals, including novel mechanisms for lift production". Journal of Experimental Biology. 59: 169–230.
- ^ Lighthill, M. J. (2006). "On the Weis-Fogh mechanism of lift generation". Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 60: 1–17. Bibcode:1973JFM....60....1L. doi:10.1017/S0022112073000017.
- ^ Weisberger, Mindy (19 February 2016). "Swim Like a Butterfly? Sea Snail 'Flies' Through Water". Scientific American. Retrieved 20 February 2016.
- ^ Murphy, D.; Adhikari, D.; Webster, D.; Yen, J. (2016). "Underwater flight by the planktonic sea butterfly". Journal of Experimental Biology. 219 (4): 535–543. doi:10.1242/jeb.129205. PMID 26889002.
- ^ a b Cheng, Xin; Sun, Mao (2016-05-11). "Wing-kinematics measurement and aerodynamics in a small insect in hovering flight". Scientific Reports. 6 (1): 25706. doi:10.1038/srep25706. PMC 4863373. PMID 27168523.
- ^ "Insect Wings in General". Aerodynamics of Insects. Cislunar Aerospace. 1997. Retrieved March 28, 2011.
- ^ "Butterflies in the Pieridae family (whites)". Bumblebee.org. Retrieved 18 March 2018.
- ^ a b Dudley, Robert (2000). The Biomechanics of Insect Flight: Form, Function, Evolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 69. JSTOR j.ctv301g2x.
- ^ a b Stocks, Ian. (2008). Sec.Wing Coupling in Capinera (Ed) (2008) "Encyc. Entom.", Vol 4. p. 4266
- ^ Scoble, Malcolm J. (1995). The Lepidoptera: Form, Function and Diversity. Natural History Museum. pp. 56–60. ISBN 978-0-19-854952-9.
- ^ a b Powell, Jerry A. Ch. Lepidoptera (pp. 631-664) in Resh, & Cardé (Eds). "Encyclopedia of Insects". 2003.
- ^ Gorb, S. (2001) Ch 4.1.5 "Inter-locking of body parts". pp 46–50.
- ^ Woiwod, I.P.; Reynolds, D.R.; Thomas, C.D. (Eds) 2001. Insect Movement: Mechanisms and Consequences. CAB International.
- ^ Joos, B. (1987). "Carbohydrate use in the flight muscles of Manduca sexta during pre-flight warm-up". Journal of Experimental Biology. 133: 317–327.
- ^ a b c Grimaldi, David; Engel, Michael S. (2005). Insects take to the skies. Evolution of the Insects. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 155–159.
- ^ Wipfler, Benjamin; et al. (19 February 2019). "Evolutionary history of Polyneoptera and its implications for our understanding of early winged insects". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (8): 3024–3029. doi:10.1073/pnas.1817794116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6386694. PMID 30642969.
- ^ Trueman, J.W.H. (1990), Comment: evolution of insect wings: a limb exite plus endite model. Canadian Journal of Zoology.
- ^ Thomas, Adrian L. R.; Norberg, R. Åke (1996). "Skimming the surface — the origin of flight in insects?". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 11 (5): 187–188. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(96)30022-0. PMID 21237803.
- ^ Marden, James (2003). "The Surface-Skimming Hypothesis for the Evolution of Insect Flight". Acta Zoologica Cracoviensa. 46: 73–84.
- ^ Yanoviak, SP; Kaspari, M; Dudley, R (2009). "Gliding hexapods and the origins of insect aerial behaviour". Biol Lett. 5 (4): 510–2. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0029. PMC 2781901. PMID 19324632.
Further reading[edit]
- Dickinson, M. H.; Lehmann, F. O.; Sane, S. P. (1999). "Wing rotation and the aerodynamic basis of insect flight". Science. 284 (5422): 1954–60. doi:10.1126/science.284.5422.1954. PMID 10373107.
- Ellington, Charles P.; Van Den Berg, Coen; Willmott, Alexander P.; Thomas, Adrian L. R. (1996). "Leading-edge vortices in insect flight". Nature. 384 (6610): 626–630. Bibcode:1996Natur.384..626E. doi:10.1038/384626a0. S2CID 4358428.
- Ellington, C. P. (1984). "The Aerodynamics of Hovering Insect Flight. I. The Quasi-Steady Analysis". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 305 (1122): 1–15. Bibcode:1984RSPTB.305....1E. doi:10.1098/rstb.1984.0049.
- Ellington, C. P. (1999). "The novel aerodynamics of insect flight: Applications to micro-air vehicles". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 202 (Pt 23): 3439–3448. PMID 10562527.
- Lewin, G. C.; Haj-Hariri, H. (2003). "Modelling thrust generation of a two-dimensional heaving airfoil in a viscous flow". Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 492: 339–362. Bibcode:2003JFM...492..339L. doi:10.1017/S0022112003005743.
- Pringle, J. W. S., Insect flight, Oxford Biology Readers, Vol. 52, 1975.
- Sane, S. P. (2003). "The aerodynamics of insect flight". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 206 (Pt 23): 4191–208. doi:10.1242/jeb.00663. PMID 14581590.
- Savage, S. B.; Newman, B.G.; Wong, D.T.M. (1979). "The role of vortices and unsteady effects during the hovering flight of dragon flies". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 83 (1): 59–77.
- Smyth, T., Jr. 1985. Muscle systems, pp. 227–286. In M.S. Blum [ed.], Fundamentals of insect physiology. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
- Sotavalta, O. (1953). "Recordings of high wing-stroke and thoracic vibration frequency in some midges". Biol. Bull. Woods Hole. 104 (3): 439–444. doi:10.2307/1538496. JSTOR 1538496.
- Van Den Berg, C.; Ellington, C. P. (1997). "The vortex wake of a 'hovering' model hawkmoth". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 352 (1351): 317–328. doi:10.1098/rstb.1997.0023. PMC 1691928.
- Walker, J. A. (September 2002). "Rotational lift: something difference or more of the same?". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 205 (Pt 24): 3783–3792. PMID 12432002.
- Zbikowski, R. (2002). "On aerodynamic modelling of an insect-like flapping wing in hover for micro air vehicles". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 360 (1791): 273–290. Bibcode:2002RSPTA.360..273Z. doi:10.1098/rsta.2001.0930. PMID 16210181. S2CID 2430367.
External links[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Insect flight.
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- Insect Flight


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Altar, miz-BAY-akh, מִּזְבֵּחַ
Altar (Wikipedia)
An altar is a structure upon which offerings such as sacrifices are made for religious purposes. Altars are found at shrines, temples, churches and other places of worship. They are used particularly in Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Shinto and Taoism. Judaism used such a structure until the destruction of the Second Temple. Many historical faiths also made use of them, including Roman, Greek and Norse religion.


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12 February 2019
Andy Murray, head of infrastructure at RSM, said: 'In the age of short termism, it is refreshing to see Transport for the North (TfN) publish a 30-year investment plan.
15 March 2018
Andy Murray, head of infrastructure at RSM reacts to this week's spring statement
26 February 2018
Andy Murray, partner and co-lead for infrastructure at RSM, said: 'The West and Wales Strategic Rail Prospectus sets out a clear vision to maximise the opportunity that HS2 brings by proposing four key transport hubs in the North West.
18 January 2018
With the UK's railway carrying more passengers than ever and demand continuing to rise, is there a plan in place to tackle this? Digital Railway is the industry's improved plan to tackle the UK's capacity issue by accelerating the digital modernisation of the railway. More trains will run on existing tracks – safer, faster and cheaper – helping to increase the impact of vital upgrades like HS2 and Crossrail.
13 November 2017
Recent headlines have documented the early termination of a Nuclear Decommissioning Authority 14 year long contract following a legal challenge from an unsuccessful bidder, costing millions to the UK taxpayer. In 2007, Metronet, responsible for two thirds of the Tube's infrastructure collapsed, costing millions to the UK taxpayer. Are there links between the failures of these and other large scale programmes?
15 September 2017
Experts have again warned that in order to meet the UK's long term climate goals, additional sources of low-carbon energy will be needed. Offshore wind farms and nuclear repeatedly hit the headlines but could batteries provide a solution?
03 July 2017
How will major events in the past 12 months such as Brexit, Trump's election and a minority UK government, affect the infrastructure sector?
25 November 2016
We forecast that existing projects in the infrastructure delivery plan would continue and that further investments would be announced.
19 October 2016
Over the past few years agile methodologies have spread across a wide range of industries and functions and are even influencing behaviour at the executive level.
18 April 2016
Our infrastructure team have developed guidance for HM Treasury & the Cabinet Office.


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CHINAPLAS announced exciting concurrent events, in which industrial giants will share their experiences and attendees gain insights into industrial trends. CHINAPLAS 2017 will be held in Guangzhou from May 16 -19, 2017. Not only will more than 3,300 exhibitors introduce innovative solutions for the plastics and rubber industries, but also will the organizer hold a wealth of concurrent events to meet the industry's multiple needs.
Focusing on the theme of "Intelligent Manufacturing, High-tech Materials, Green Solutions", the organizer of CHINAPLAS, Adsale Exhibition Services Ltd., will administrate three big concurrent events during the exhibition: the 2nd "Industry 4.0 Conference", "Design x Innovation", and the "3rd Medical Plastics Conference". Visitors can expect to grasp the cutting-edge technologies and inspiring case studies in these events, allowing them to hop on the bandwagon and understand market dynamics from multiple dimensions, explore more valuable opportunities for collaborations and expand networks to facilitate development.
China has quickly become the world's second largest national economy, and labour costs have risen sharply. It is no longer a low-wage cost country – all kinds of cost pressures force businesses to opt for more automation equipment and advanced technology in the production processes.
According to Mr. Stanley Chu, Chairman, Adsale Exhibition Services Ltd., China is still a developing country, and has not yet fulfilled the necessary conditions for industrial 4.0.
"Only a few companies are making use of networking production technologies. Industry 4.0 is still a vision for many Chinese companies, but an attainable one, and attainable in the foreseeable future, if it is desired that something be done to cope with cost pressures." It is to this end that CHINAPLAS 2017 gives Industry 4.0 top priority.
The 2nd Industry 4.0 Conference, presented with the support from VDMA, the German Engineering Federation, will be held in the afternoon of May 16, in the morning of May 17 and in the afternoon of May 18, 2017, in Conference Room 1, Level C, Zone B, China Import & Export Fair Complex, Pazhou. As a "signature dish" dedicated to visitors, the conference will provide practical and operational solutions for enterprises targeting urgent manufacturing upgrade. Industry 4.0 will eventually move towards the direction of customized, small batch production, which are also the characteristics of additive manufacturing (3D printing) technology which meet the demands for the development of more personalized products. This is the long-term goal of Industry 4.0.
At the 1st edition of Industry 4.0 Conference, Arburg introduced the technology of additive manufacturing, which will be presented again at the sequel in greater depth and breadth. The Industry 4.0 Conference held last year not only brought together world renowned enterprises such as Arburg, KraussMaffei, Engel, Wittmann Battenfeld, Beckhoff, Volkswagen AG, Haier, and SAP to give presentations, but also attracted nearly 600 local and overseas professionals, who were generally satisfied, and looked forward to more case studies of Industry 4.0, which, combined with their own businesses, would promote the intelligentization of their factories, enhancing production efficiency, improving product quality and achieving lean production status. "The Industry 4.0 Conference was well received by members of the Association, and the delegates agreed that there was quite some useful details," commented by the Anhui Plastics Industry Association. "We realized that Industry 4.0 is not an achievement overnight, but systems engineering of long-term hard work and perseverance in integrating theory and practice."
Furthermore, the Smart Manufacturing Technology Zone, a showcase of cutting-edge automation technologies, will provide a boost to the movement from "Made in China" to "Smartly Made in China."
Enterprise transformation and upgrading calls for industrial design innovation. Since its inception, "Design x Innovation" has attracted a lot of attention. As visitors' needs get more sophisticated, the event itself gets more vibrant – "Innovation Gallery", "Open Forum", "Meet the Designers" are the programs which introduce success stories of innovative industrial designs to visitors, who gain inspirations on application of new materials and at the same time discuss and exchange solutions face-to-face, further creating value.
At the "Design x Innovation" event in 2016, the "Innovation Gallery" showcased a wide range of creative products for use in everyday life, for example, in the stadium, and at transportation hubs, among which the e-floater received great attention. This solar-powered electric scooter could help solve the "Last Mile" problem when applied to short-distance travel in the city. 80% of its materials come from BASF composites and plastics, thereby reducing weight and increasing flexibility in design.
On the other hand, innovative products such as Elastopave® permeable pavement, Running track with ETPU+EPDM composite, artificial turf, air fryer, Volvo integrated leather PU engine sound absorbing decorative covering and other innovative products have left visitors deeply impressed.
In addition, nearly 400 professionals also participated in five "Open Forum" sessions, "tasting" the "delicious chicken soup" prepared by 16 "heavyweight" speakers.
"Plastics, especially new materials, continue to emerge, providing enormous help to the designing process," remarked one of the speakers, Mr. Lian Zhen, General Manager of LKK Design Co., Ltd., Shanghai, in the interview after his presentation.
"During its many years of development, plastics have been inspiring and providing an increasing number of possibilities of designs, including innovations in the upstream and downstream industries, which focus on plastics and injection, and have enriched our imagination, realizing creative ideas that once could only be dreamt but not tried."
"The 'Design x Innovation' open forum is a relatively new format, allowing exchanges between creative designers and technical personnel, through which different sectors manage to understand each other's needs and demands, and leads to better co-operation. I learned a lot from them."
"Meet the Designers" provided more opportunities for interaction and cooperation between industrial designers and end-users. Many acclaimed designers were present. Experienced industrial designers and user enterprises looking for product design came into direct communication, enlightening each other, answering questions and discussing cooperation possibilities concerning product designs. What wonders is "Design x innovation" 2017 going to bring to the industry?
The growing demand for medical devices by the huge population in recent years, the rise of emerging markets and the ageing society is triggering a renewed growth of the medical device market.
China's healthcare industry is at a stage of abundant potentials, but is at the same time having a low level of technology, prompting manufacturers to find adaptive solutions to existing production lines and cost pressures. New and better materials are the key to the future development of medical enterprises.
The concurrent event Medical Plastics Conference has been held successfully in the past two years, receiving very positive feedbacks from the industry. "At the Medical Plastics Conference, the technical experts shared the state-of-the-art technology of the industry and analyzed development direction of medical applications and solutions," praised Shanghai Medical Device Industry Association. "At the same time, processing technology related to the production of precision medical polymer was introduced, offering enterprises knowledge of new materials and direction of development."
The 2nd Medical Plastics Conference lasted two days, attracting 600 professional visitors. Topics covered: the latest medical polymer materials, 3D printing in clinical and surgical model applications, medical laws and regulations, as well as application of surgical models. For instance, Shanghai MicroPort Medical (Group) Co., Ltd. introduced the technology of precision medical polymer tube for invasive medical device, and Wego Holding Co., Ltd. explained the opportunities and challenges of biomedical polymers development in China under the "new normal". Attendees included delegates from 3M China, GE Medical, Poppelmann, UEG medical, Touren, GM, Renolit, Suzhou Baxter medical and other major enterprises.
The 3rd Medical Plastics Conference, to be held in the afternoon of May 17 and in the morning of May 18, 2017 in Conference Room 1, Level C, Zone B, will bring together the upstream and downstream sectors of the industry to discuss the latest applications of medical plastics and cutting-edge production technology.
The conference will also be concurrent with a showcase gallery which focuses on exhibitors' medical products of all types in order to help visitors quickly spot their targets among the massive amount exhibits.
CHINAPLAS 2017 will be held at the China Import & Export Fair Complex, Pazhou, Guangzhou, PR China on May 16 – 19, 2017. To enjoy free admission, please visit www.ChinaplasOnline.com/prereg to pre-register before May 9, 2017.


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1. I'm sure you're all dying to know the results of my online shopping binge following this post. The verdict? Loved the dresses and the Boden top (I went with the gray and yellow) but the Land's End swimsuit was way too revealing. So now it's back to the drawing board. I still really love this one from Rey Swimwear, but they're sold out of bra supports at the moment. I think I'm going to take my sister-in-law, Jenn's, advice and order a whole bunch from Zappos to try on. Also, I got a Boden catalog in the mail this week and kind of fell in love with this top. Definitely keeping an eye out for it to hit the sale section.
2. We had the most beautiful weather this week. Sunny skies and temperatures nearing eighty. We spent as much time outdoors as we could and I even got to dress the girls in the cutest little yellow polka dot rompers. But, of course, this is what the forecast looks like next week. Welcome to spring in Seattle.
3. Maggie is old enough for the swings now, which has made the playground so much more fun! She was pretty ambivalent during her first experience:
But she's enjoying it more and more:
I just realized how dark that video is. Oops. Claire is loving Maggie being able to do some of the same things as here, like sitting next to her in the cart at Costco. And as much as I like Ergo, I'm happy not to have to use it quite so often.
4. When we rented this house, our landlords gave us the expectation that we'd have to spend $100 a month hiring someone to take care of the lawn. But it turns out they're fine with us doing it ourselves, which means we're really renting this house for only $50 more a month than we were paying for our apartment. Adam bought a push mower on Craig's List since it's easy to use while Claire's playing outside. I guess it's a pretty unusual sight, though, because when he was doing the front yard last weekend our next-door neighbor asked him if he'd like to borrow their electric mower!
5. I feel like I've had things spinning around in my head for a while now, so last night I started writing out a packing list for our big trip back east next month. When I showed it to Adam, he said that he needed to start working out more so he'll be able to carry everything into the airport! Oh, this shall be an adventure...
6. Let's talk season finales. We loved Parks & Rec's and Brooklyn 99's. They both got us so excited for the next seasons. I'm really hoping Parenthood's means that Joel and Julia are reconciling. It's been hard to watch ever since their separation and that scene where Sydney was begging her Dad not to leave was just heart-breaking. But will Parenthood even get another season?
7. Well, my copy of Something Other Than God finally arrived today and I can't wait to dive in. Have a fantastic weekend and go see Jen for more quick takes!


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Home > Internet Stuff, The Wackness, Videos > IAIC Awards 2008 – Hypebeast Word/Phrase
IAIC Awards 2008 – Hypebeast Word/Phrase
December 12, 2008 Leave a comment Go to comments
"Swagger" has been a part of our vocabulary for a while now, but the reason why "swagger" is the Hypebeast Word/Phrase is because of Pineapple Express.
Brief Diagram:
M.I.A. – Paper Planes (2007) to Pineapple Express (2008, responsible for widespread knowledge of M.I.A.) to Kanye producing "S.L.U. aka Swagga Like Us" (2008, which makes M.I.A. even more famous)
Jay Z's "Brooklyn" ft. Santogold may take its place in early 2009 propelling Santogold into superstardom.
"Swagger" has even managed to enter Old Spice commercials:
"Dope" could have easily won the top spot of Hypebeast Word/Phrase. I've actually heard that word on the DISNEY Channel…


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We continue answering questions about diet and cancer myths from our chat last month.
Question from Kathy:
Does eating an "alkalizing" diet help prevent cancer? I've never read a medical study that says this is the case, but boy, there are a lot of books touting eating foods that "alkalize" the body. Is there merit to this, or is it just the fact that most "alkalizing" foods happen to be vegetables that this way of eating may help prevent cancer?
A quick search on Google for "alkaline diet" or "pH diet"* results in hundreds of thousands of hits, so yes, it is very popular. Food is considered alkaline or acid based on laboratory combustion of the food.**
It's based on the claim that cancer cells thrive in an acidic environment and can't survive in alkaline surroundings, so an "alkalizing diet" would promote a more alkaline environment in the body. There are problems with this claim.
1. The studies finding that cancer cells thrive in an acidic environment were done in a laboratory setting. It would be nearly impossible to alter the cell environment to create a less-acidic environment in our bodies. For example, the stomach is very acidic for proper digestion, so we wouldn't want it more alkaline.
2. Our acid-base balance is well regulated – blood pH is tightly controlled normally by the body between 7.35 and 7.45. If it becomes too acid or alkaline, that could be life threatening and it is typically an indication of a serious health problem, not the underlying cause.
Generally, vegetables, fruits and seeds are considered to be alkaline and meats, beans, nuts and grains are acid. So, as you say, the diet would be rich in vegetables and fruit and lower in meat. This is similar to AICR's diet recommendations for lowering cancer risk – a mostly plant-based diet, limiting red meat to no more than 18 oz. per week, and avoiding processed meat.
However, some very healthy foods are listed as "acidic" such as whole grains, beans and even some vegetables such as carrots. So keep it simple and follow AICR's New American Plate to lower cancer risk simply by filling at least 2/3 of your plate with vegetables, fruits and whole grains, and 1/3 or less with meat, poultry and fish.
There are many claims about this diet including weight loss, more energy and solutions to other common problems, but according to the American Dietetic Association, "large, well-designed clinical trials on the effectiveness of the many claims made for the alkaline diet are lacking."
Just a note: the pH of urine can be changed somewhat by diet because the kidney is key in maintaining the proper body pH. Some proponents of this diet encourage checking your urine pH to see if your diet is alkaline or acid. Keep in mind that an increase in acid or alkaline in the urine reflects the fact that the kidney is doing its job. A change in urine status does not indicate a change in "overall body pH."
Other factoids:
*pH is a measure of acidity/alkalinity on a scale of 1-14. Seven is neutral, with anything above that alkaline and anything below that acid.
**Alkaline-ash foods or Acid-ash foods: This is based on the ash that remains after the combustion of foods under laboratory conditions.
What Impact Does pH Have on Food and Nutrition
5 comments on "Another Cancer and Diet Claim: The Alkaline Diet"
Corina on
Fruits consist of big quantities of sugar, and ought to be consumed when you need an energy boost.
Kathy Vannoy on
Nice article!
Could you recheck the links or post a pdf of the articles you used. The one from AAND (American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics) is no longer valid. I tried to access it as general public and also a member and it says the link is no longer good.
I'm trying to gather some current information on this topic in reply to another person's question.
(ironically, the Kathy who posed this question in 2010 was not me, but I now have the question 🙂
https://gynaikaygieinidiatrofhkaiastheneia.wordpress.com/ on
Right away I am going away to do my breakfast,
when having my breakfast coming yet again to read addiotional news.


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Krista Davidson is the AI Communications Lead.
Krista holds a Masters in International Journalism from the University of Westminster (UK), and has held senior research communications roles for academic institutions such as University of Toronto (SOSCIP Smart Computing for Innovation) and Memorial University. Krista has extensive communications experience working in both private and public sector organizations, such as CBC and BC Pharmacy Association. Prior to working in communications, Krista worked as a journalist in London, England, and Vancouver, BC.


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Monday, October 19th, 2020
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Designing Effective Multiple-choice Questions for Assessing Learning Outcomes
Nowadays, multiple-choice question tests (MCQs) present a popular tool for assessing learning outcomes because they are flexible, relatively easy to implement and grade, and able to assess a large content in a short time. More important is the fact that these questions are versatile and reliable, which increases their attractiveness. Additionally, the examiners can use question sets in their assessments that are already prepared for previous courses or are available online. On the other hand, many authors argue that MCQs are commonly used to assess cognitive skills on lower levels as defined by Bloom's taxonomy. However, the comprehensive analyses confirm that this type of assessment tool has the capacity to evaluate certain higher-order thinking.
The present research provides an overview of MCQ tests' advantages and limitations when applied in an evaluation process. In addition, it provides a series of practical recommendations for the test developers aiming to prepare MCQs for assessing cognitive skills on a particular level. The research also reveals how to analyze MCQs validity, to insure that the MCQ tests accurately and reliably measure students' learning outcomes.


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Steven Amsterdam
Steven Amsterdam is a Melbourne-based writer and palliative care nurse. He is the author of Things We Didn't See Coming, What the Family Needed and The Easy Way Out.
By this author
A few questions before you go
How do we decide how we die?
This helplessness
I'm afraid we don't have a lot of choices for treatment here."
"You mean I don't have a lot of choices?"
"Then I'm the one who's afraid."
Nick drove from the clinic over to Greta's office. They would continue …
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Experience winter sports in Japan
In Japan there are many areas suitable for snow games and winter sports activities such as Hokkaido or Niigata Prefecture. Many tourists come to Japan especially for the purpose of experiencing these winter sports. However, each region in Japan has different snow cover, so depending on the destination, you may not be able to experience the winter sports as expected.
With this sport, you will be equipped with a specific pair of shoes to help you walk on the soft snow surface easily. Feeling extremely interesting when walking in the white world spread on snowy mountains, you will surely encounter scenery that cannot be found everyday.
You can experience this Snow Trekking sport at "Kurumayama Kogen Ski Area" on the top of Kirigamine Mountain, one of the 100 famous mountains in Japan.
The Shiretoko region of Hokkaido is famous for its ice sports. In winter, the vast Okhotsk sea surface in Hokkaido forms thick ice. You will feel the whole world of ice spreading under your feet, and you can also see Clione jellyfish swimming in the sea below.
With special waterproof clothing and shoes fully equipped, you can enjoy this sport freely. Due to the repulsive sea water, even if you can't swim, you don't have to worry. The instructor will explain in detail from how to wear waterproof clothing to how to fully experience this special sport.
Skating is a skating sport with specialized skates, very popular in Japan. At the Olympic Games, there is speed skating in terms of speed and figure skating competition in performance techniques. Although not playing, just relax your body, slide slowly and glide on the ice rink is a very interesting experience.
Fixed on the base of the board like skateboard, you can conquer the snowy slopes with this sport. This is a favorite sport around the world. In Japan, too, you can experience snowboarding at local ski resorts.