text:
Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article Nutrients and Botanicals for Treatment of Stress: Adrenal Fatigue, Neurotransmitter Imbalance, Anxiety, and Restless Sleep Kathleen A. Head, ND, and Gregory S. Kelly, ND Abstract Research shows a dramatic increase in use of the medical system during times of stress, such as job insecurity. Stress is a factor in many illnesses – from headaches to heart disease, and immune deficiencies to digestive problems. A substantial contributor to stress-induced decline in health appears to be an increased production of stress hormones and subsequent decreased immune function. Non-pharmaceutical approaches have much to offer such patients. This article focuses on the use of nutrients and botanicals to support the adrenals, balance neurotransmitters, treat acute anxiety, and support restful sleep. (Altern Med Rev 2009;14(2):114-140) Introduction It is estimated that 75-90 percent of visits to primary care physicians are related to stress – either acutely or because of chronic problems associated with stress.1 An October 2008 American Psychological Association (APA) press release on stress in America claims eight of 10 Americans cite the economy as a significant source of stress, up from 66 percent six months earlier. In June 2008, more people were reporting symptoms associated with stress compared to the previous year, with nearly half polled indicating stress had increased in the past year. The APA conducted an online Harris poll. Table 1 outlines some of the results.2 Stress responses have evolved from the original "fight or flight" mechanism, designed to protect from imminent physical danger. Chronic exposure to psychological stress results in chronic engagement of the fight Page 114 or flight mechanism. Physiological changes associated with the fight or flight mechanism include increased blood pressure, heart rate, and blood sugar. In addition, blood tends to be shunted away from the digestive system. These effects are associated with overreaction of the sympathetic nervous system that ramps up secretion of stress hormones such as cortisol and epinephrine.1 Physiology of Stress Within seconds of an acutely stressful event, norepinephrine is released from nerve endings in preparation for a rapid response, and the adrenal glands release epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream, resulting in the familiar fight or flight response. Within minutes of a stressful event (and possibly lasting for several hours), a much more complex interaction between the nervous and endocrine systems and other forms of internal communication occurs, resulting in an intricate stress adaptation response. During this time the adrenal glands release extra cortisol into the circulation. Kathleen A. Head, ND – 1985 graduate of National College of Naturopathic Medicine; Technical Advisor, Thorne Research, Inc; Editor-in-chief, Alternative Medicine Review. Correspondence address: Thorne Research, Inc, PO Box 25, Dover, ID 83825 Email: [email protected] Gregory Kelly, ND – Founding partner of Direct Access eHealth; contributing editor, Alternative Medicine Review; past instructor at the University of Bridgeport in the College of Naturopathic Medicine; published articles on various aspects of natural medicine and contributed three chapters to the Textbook of Natural Medicine, 2nd edition; teaches courses on weight management, the role of stress in health and disease, chronobiology of performance and health, and mind-body medicine. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article Table 1. Stress-Associated Behaviors Stress-Associated Behavior Overeating/eating unhealthful foods Skipped meals Fatigue Drink alcohol to manage stress Smoke to handle stress Lying awake at night Feeling of anger/irritability Percent Reporting this Behavior 48% 39% 52% 18% 16% 52% 60% Several other endocrine glands are critical to the stress response. The hypothalamus, the "master gland" in the brain, responds to stress by releasing corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). This hormone signals the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol. With the rise in stress hormones, a complex mechanism of feedback controls is set in motion, eventually signaling the hypothalamus to stop producing CRF (Figure 1). A wide range of events or conditions is considered physiologically stressful because the adrenals are stimulated to release stress hormones. These occurrences include calorie restriction,3-7 surgery,8 sleep deprivation,9,10 excessive exercise,3,11-13 and various mental states – all of which can result in elevated cortisol and catecholamine stress hormones.14,15 Stress exerts a disruptive influence on normal circadian release of cortisol. A study conducted on military cadets subjected to a five-day training course of heavy physical exercise and food and sleep deprivation found cortisol levels went up and performance deteriorated due to the stressful nature of the training. The researchers also found, "the circadian rhythm was extinguished." Even after 4-5 days of rest, circadian rhythms had not completely normalized.3 This and other research demonstrates the physiological and psychological consequences of acute and chronic stress can persist well past cessation of a stressful event.3,16 Health Consequences of Chronic Stress Stress is a factor in many illnesses – from headaches to heart disease, and immune deficiencies to digestive problems (Table 2). A substantial contributor to stress-induced decline in health appears to be an increased production of stress hormones and subsequently decreased immune function.17 Cardiovascular Health Stress and emotions associated with stress are important risk factors for cardiovascular disease. The Mayo Clinic reported that among individuals with existing coronary artery disease psychological stress is the strongest risk factor predictive of future cardiac events, including myocardial infarction (MI) and cardiac death. In this study, the economic cost because of rehospitalization comparing individuals experiencing high and low stress was $9,504 and $2,146, respectively.18 When researchers interviewed heart attack survivors they found the intensity and timing of a stressful emotion, like anger, dramatically increased their risk.19 The Normative Aging Study also provided compelling evidence that emotions associated with a higher stress level are significant risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD) and MI: ÂÂ Anger: Compared with men reporting the lowest levels of anger, relative risk among men reporting the highest levels of anger is 3.15 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.94-10.5) for total CHD (nonfatal MI plus fatal CHD). A dose-response relation was found between level of anger and overall CHD risk.20 ÂÂ Anxiety: Compared with men reporting no symptoms of anxiety, men reporting two or more anxiety symptoms had elevated risks of fatal CHD (age-adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 3.20; 95% CI: 1.27-8.09) and sudden death (age-adjusted OR = 5.73; 95% CI: 1.26-26.1).21 ÂÂ Worry: Compared with men reporting the lowest levels of worry, men reporting the highest levels had multivariate adjusted relative risks of 2.41 (95% CI: 1.40-4.13) for nonfatal MI and 1.48 (95% CI: 0.99-2.20) for total CHD (nonfatal MI and fatal CHD). A dose-response relation was found between level of worry and both nonfatal MI and total CHD.22 Page 115 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress Figure 1. The Hypothalamic-PituitaryAdrenal Hormone Cascade and Feedback Loop Stress Hypothalamus + CRF + Pituitary ACTH + Hydrocortisone Adrenal Cortex CRF = corticotropin-releasing factor ACTH = adrenocorticotropic hormone Immune Performance Research indicates a bout of acute stress of any kind will cause a temporary decrease in immune system functioning, while chronic stress will result in continued decline in immunity. Natural Killer Cell Cytotoxicity Overwhelming evidence demonstrates virtually any type of stress has a detrimental effect on the ability to maintain optimal levels of natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxic activity.14,23-25 A severe life stress may be associated with up to a 50-percent reduction of NKcell activity.26 Since NK-cell activity plays a vital role in immune system surveillance against viruses and cancer cells, a sustained decrease in this aspect of immune performance can have serious consequences. A study of breast cancer patients found test scores assessing an individual's overall stress level due to the diagnosis of breast cancer were strongly correlated to NK-cell activity. A high degree of stress predicted a lowered ability of NK cells to destroy cancer cells and significantly predicted a poorer response to interventions aimed at improving NK-cell activity.27 Chronic stress preceding an acutely stressful event can significantly impact NK-cell activity. A study examined two groups, one experiencing chronic stress and a second relatively stress-free. A single acutely stressful event experienced by both groups resulted in a greater sense of subjective distress, higher peak levels of epinephrine, a more pronounced immediate reduction in NK-cell activity, and a protracted decline of NK-cell activity in the individuals suffering from chronic stress. Individuals without chronic stress readily rebounded from the acute stress with no long-term impact on NKcell activity. This study demonstrates chronic stress can measurably reduce the ability of the immune system to respond to an acute psychological challenge.28 Secretory IgA The ability to produce secretory IgA (sIgA) also appears to be influenced by stress.29-31 sIgA may be the single-most important aspect of humoral immunity in the mucus secretions of the digestive system, mouth, lungs, urinary tract, and other body cavities, and any decline in its levels can decrease resistance to microbial pathogens.32 Higher levels of the catecholamine stress hormone epinephrine are significantly associated with lower sIgA concentrations.33 Daily problems, lack of a sense of humor,34 and negative emotions can decrease sIgA levels.15 To demonstrate the profound effect of emotions, a single five-minute experience of anger can produce a significant decrease in sIgA levels that can be measured up to five hours after the experience.15 Intestinal Microflora Stress has a significant influence on the balance of intestinal microflora.35 Moore et al found, "The composition of the flora was not significantly affected by drastic changes in diet, but statistically significant shifts in the proportions of some species were noted in individuals under conditions of anger or fear stress."36 Page 116 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article Table 2. Health Consequences of Chronic Stress Health Consequence Natural killer cell activity Secretory IgA Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli Enterobacteria and E. coli Risk for myocardial infarction Specific Effect ⇓ ⇓ ⇓ ⇑ ⇑ To examine the impact of high stress on intestinal microflora, Lizko et al investigated the preparation for and participation in space flight. During the preparation phase they found a distinct decrease in the numbers of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacilli and a corresponding increase in the numbers of E. coli and Enterobacteria. These imbalances worsened until launch, illuminating the effect of nervousemotional stress on altering the balance of beneficial and pathogenic organisms. After the flight the numbers of potentially pathogenic Enterobacteria and Clostridia were also substantially increased, while the number of Lactobacilli was decreased, suggesting the physiological strain of space flight disrupted the microflora balance.37 Botanicals: Adrenal/Central Nervous System Adaptogens The term "adaptogen" categorizes plants that improve the non-specific response to and promote recovery from stress. Coined by researcher I.I. Brekhman, an adaptogen has four general properties: (1) it is harmless to the host; (2) it has a general, rather nonspecific effect; (3) it increases the resistance of the recipient to a variety of physical, chemical, or biological stressors; and (4) it acts as a general stabilizer/normalizer.38 In the 1950s, Soviet researchers determined that many plants, especially those in the Araliaceae family, have adaptogenic properties. The two bestknown adaptogens are Panax ginseng and Eleutherococcus senticosus. Other adaptogenic plants include Withania somnifera, Glycyrrhiza species, and Rhodiola rosea. Panax, Eleutherococcus, and Withania appear to exert adaptogenic effects primarily on the adrenal glands; whereas, Rhodiola appears to be primarily a central nervous system (CNS) adaptogen. Panax ginseng (Korean ginseng) An abundance of research demonstrates an enhanced response to physical or chemical stress in animals administered Panax ginseng or its active components.39-43 The combination of Panax ginseng and a multivitamin-mineral preparation appears to have an additive adaptogenic effect.44 While the anti-stress mechanisms of Panax ginseng are not completely understood, experiments demonstrate a variety of actions on both the adrenal glands and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Animal studies show contradictory effects of ginseng, some indicating increased activity,45,46 while others demonstrate an inhibition of steroidogenesis.46,47 At the level of the brain or HPA axis, ginseng saponins appear to stimulate ACTH and subsequent cortisol production, suggesting ginseng might help potentiate an acute stress response.48 The binding of corticosteroids to certain regions of the brain was increased in adrenalectomized rats given ginseng saponins,49 possibly indicating ginseng acts to improve the negative feedback loop and sensitivity of the HPA axis to cortisol. Although available evidence demonstrates multiple activities, some of which appear contradictory, ginseng clearly has the ability to directly impact both the adrenal glands and the HPA axis. An explanation for some of the apparently contrasting actions might lie in the definition of adaptogen, which implies the capability for a bi-directional or normalizing effect on physiological function. Unfortunately, while animal studies on Panax ginseng and stress are relatively abundant, human studies are limited. In a double-blind study, ginseng root extract added to the base of a multivitamin improved subjective parameters in a population exposed to the stress of high physical and mental activity, suggesting an adaptogenic or anti-stress effect of such a combination in humans.50 In a study of endurance athletes experiencing training stress, 2 g/day dried Panax root for six weeks had no effect on measured immune parameters or cortisol, testosterone, or testosterone:cortisol ratios.51 Page 117 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress Eleutherococcus senticosus Experimental evidence supports the use of Eleutherococcus senticosus (also known as Acanthopanax senticosus or Ciwujia, and previously known as Siberian ginseng) as an adaptogen. Extracts of Eleutherococcus prolonged the exercise-time-to-exhaustion in swimming rats,52 and modulated changes of the HPA axis in rats under extreme conditions.53,54 Most clinical trials examining the anti-stress effects of Eleutherococcus in humans have been conducted by Soviet researchers and generally have not been published in English language journals. However, Farnsworth et al reviewed the results of many of these clinical trials on more than 2,100 healthy human subjects, ranging in age from 19-72 years. The data indicates Eleutherococcus increases the ability to accommodate to adverse physical conditions, improves mental performance, and enhances the quality of work under stressful conditions.55 In a double-blind study, 45 healthy volunteers (20 men, 25 women; ages 18-30) were randomized to receive Eleutherococcus senticosus or placebo for 30 days. Patients were subject to the Stroop Colour-Word (Stroop CW) test to assess stress response, along with heart rate and systolic and diastolic blood pressure, before and after treatment. Unlike placebo, those taking the herb had a 40-percent reduction in heart rate response to the Stroop CW stressor. Moreover, in females but not males, Eleutherococcus accounted for a 60-percent reduction in systolic blood pressure response to the cognitive challenge test. These facts suggest Eleutherococcus may be helpful for stress adaptation.56 The study cited on endurance athletes in the discussion of Panax ginseng was a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial that also included a group who took Eleutherococcus (8 mL daily of a 33-percent ethanolic extract equivalent to 4 g/day) for six weeks. The group taking Eleutherococcus (ES) experienced a significant decrease in the testosterone:cortisol ratio, with elevated cortisol being the primary contributor to the ratio change. The authors said this result, "may be consistent with animal research suggesting a threshold of stress below which ES increases the stress response and above which ES decreases the stress response." This is the definition of an adaptogen.51 Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice)/ Glycyrrhiza uralensis Glycyrrhiza appears to have modest glucocorticoid activity and might act synergistically with cortisol. Components of licorice (primarily glycyrrhizin, which is structurally similar to corticoids) can bind to glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors, weakly mimicking the role of endogenous steroid hormones,57 and can spare cortisol, essentially extending its half-life by suppressing 5-beta reductase activity.58 Components of licorice can also counteract some of the adverse immunosuppressive effects of excess levels of glucocorticoid.59 Glycyrrhiza attenuated the effects of vibrational stress on red blood cell indices in an animal model.60 Based on available evidence, Glycyrrhiza would seem to be appropriate for individuals producing inadequate levels of cortisol. In support of this, Glycyrrhiza uralensis has been used in China in combination with corticosteroids in the early stages of Addison's disease.61 The potential synergistic effect of Glycyrrhiza on cortisol has prompted concern about the prudence of administering it to individuals with already normal or high levels of cortisol. However, in human subjects given a hot-water extract of 100 g Glycyrrhiza daily (equivalent to 0.7 g/day glycyrrhizic acid), plasma cortisol remained stable while urinary cortisol increased.62 Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) Withania somnifera (ashwagandha), also called Indian ginseng, is considered to be the pre-eminent adaptogen from the Ayurvedic medical system. In situations of experimental physical stress in animals, it has shown anti-stress and anabolic activity similar to Panax ginseng.42 When Withania was administered to animals it counteracted many of the biological changes accompanying extreme stress, including changes in blood sugar, adrenal weight, and cortisol levels.63,64 The withanolides in Withania somnifera are biological substances with a sterol structure and are thought to be the component responsible for its adaptogenic and glucocorticoid-like effects.65 An animal study found Withania improved depression- and anxiety-associated behavior caused by social isolation.66 In an animal model of chronic stress, Withania somnifera and Panax ginseng extracts Page 118 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article were compared for the ability to attenuate the effects of chronic stress. Both botanicals decreased the number and severity of stress-induced ulcers, reversed stressinduced inhibition of male sexual behavior, and inhibited the adverse effects of stress on retention of learned tasks. While both botanicals reversed stress-induced immunosuppression, only Withania increased peritoneal macrophage activity. Although the activity of Withania was approximately equal to that of Panax ginseng, Withania has an advantage over Panax ginseng in that it does not appear to result in ginseng-abuse syndrome, a condition characterized by high blood pressure, water retention, muscle tension, and insomnia when excess amounts are consumed.67 Withania somnifera has been investigated as a means to counteract radiation and chemotherapeutic stress on the hematopoietic system. Results in animal models are promising, with Withania appearing to stimulate stem cell proliferation and improve red blood cell, white blood cell, and platelet parameters.68,69 Rhodiola rosea The adaptogenic properties, cardiopulmonary protective effects, and CNS activities of Rhodiola rosea have been attributed primarily to its ability to influence levels and activity of the biogenic monoamines serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in the cerebral cortex, brain stem, and hypothalamus. It is believed the changes in monoamine levels are due to inhibition of the activity of enzymes responsible for monoamine degradation and facilitation of neurotransmitter transport within the brain.70 In addition to these central effects, Rhodiola has been reported to prevent both catecholamine release and subsequent cyclic AMP elevation in the myocardium and the depletion of adrenal catecholamines induced by acute stress.71 Rhodiola's adaptogenic activity might also be secondary to induction of opioid peptide biosynthesis and activation of both central and peripheral opioid receptors.72-75 Rhodiola has been shown to prevent stressinduced catecholamine activity in cardiac tissue71 and to reduce adrenaline-induced arrhythmias in animals.76 Rhodiola rosea extract prevented the decrease in cardiac contractile force secondary to environmental stress (in the form of acute cooling) and contributed to stable contractility.77 Injection of a Rhodiola extract was found to prevent stress-induced increases in cAMP and decreases in cGMP in heart tissue of experimental animals.78 Animal studies have also found Rhodiola rosea extract can prevent stress-induced increases in betaendorphin,72 as well as behavioral changes brought on by chronic stress.79 It is suggested Rhodiola has utility as a therapy in asthenic conditions (decline in work performance, sleep disturbances, poor appetite, irritability, hypertension, headaches, and fatigue) developing subsequent to intense physical or intellectual strain or illness.80 A small pilot study was conducted to determine the effects of Rhodiola on patients with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Participants with DMS-IV diagnosed GAD received 170 mg Rhodiola rosea (Rhodax) twice daily for 10 weeks. Subjects experienced significant (p=0.001) differences between baseline (23.4±6.0) and post- Rhodiola (14.10 ±8.0) scores on the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A).81 In a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial (RCT) 60 subjects with stress-related fatigue were given a standardized proprietary Rhodiola rosea product (SHR5; 576 mg) or placebo in two daily doses (morning and lunchtime) for 28 days. The Rhodiola group experienced improved concentration associated with decreased stressrelated fatigue and significant decreases in salivary cortisol compared to the placebo group.82 Rhodiola supplementation (SHR-5) favorably influenced fatigue and mental performance in physicians during the first two weeks on night duty.83 Students receiving 50 mg twice daily of a standardized extract of Rhodiola rosea (SHR-5) demonstrated significant improvements in physical fitness, psychomotor function, mental performance, and general well-being. Subjects receiving the Rhodiola extract reported statistically significant reductions in mental fatigue, improved sleep patterns, a reduced need for sleep, greater mood stability, and a greater motivation to study. The average exam scores between students receiving the Rhodiola extract and placebo were 3.47 and 3.20, respectively.84 Page 119 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress Studies of Combination Adaptogens A commercial combination of Rhodiola, Eleutherococcus, and Schisandra chinensis (ADAPT-232) was given to mice for seven days prior to swimming until exhaustion, resulting in a seven-fold increase in swimming time. Repeated dosing of the herbal combination also resulted in a dose-dependent increase in Hep72, a protein induced by stressful conditions, including hyperthermia, oxidative stress, and pH changes.85 In a clinical study, the effect of adaptogens on ultra-weak photon emission (UPE) was examined. UPEs are a result of weak light emitted from living organisms. UPE emission can increase in disease states and under stressful conditions. In a double-blind RCT, 30 subjects were assigned to Rhodiola rosea (SHR-5 containing 144 mg Rhodiola, 2.7% rosavins), ADAPT-232 (140 mg of proprietary blend including Schizandra, Rhodiola, and Eleutherococcus; 0.5% schizandrin, 0.47% salidroside, 0.59% rosavins, 11% eleuth B, and 19% eleuth E), or placebo (10 in each group) for one week. UPE was measured on the dorsal side of the hand before and after one week of supplementation. In addition, subjects were evaluated for perceived levels of stress and fatigue. After one week, subjects in the Rhodiola group experienced a significant decrease in UPE and level of fatigue compared to placebo (p=0.027 and p=0.049, respectively).86 Cortisol Modulators Phosphatidylserine Some researchers suggest chronic oral administration of phosphatidylserine (PS) might counteract stress-induced activation of the HPA axis. PS appears to beneficially modulate aspects of this endocrine response by exerting a buffering effect on the over-production of cortisol and ACTH in response to physical stress. A double-blind, crossover study measured the hormonal and perceptual effects of 800 mg PS daily or placebo on 11 male subjects undergoing two weeks of intensive weight training. PS resulted in decreased postexercise cortisol levels and attenuated the perception of muscle soreness and the psychological depression that often accompanies overtraining.87 Pretreatment of eight healthy men with 50 and 75 mg of intravenous PS within 10 minutes of commencing exercise blunted the ACTH and cortisol response to physical stress.88 Oral administration of 800 mg PS daily for 10 days significantly blunted the ACTH and cortisol responses to physical exercise (p=0.003 and p=0.03, respectively). The effect of PS on the HPA axis appears to be dose-dependent; participants receiving 400 mg PS daily experienced plasma cortisol reductions, although the effectiveness of the lower dose was substantially less than the 800-mg dose.89 In a crossover RCT, 10 healthy males given 600 mg PS for 10 days exhibited significant decreases in peak cortisol and area under the curve (AUC) for cortisol compared to placebo.90 Although most studies have examined the effect of PS on exercise-induced stress, a small study examined its effect on mental/emotional stress. Four groups of 20 subjects each were given a phosphatidic acid complex and phosphatidylserine (PAS) at a dose of 400 mg, 600 mg, 800 mg, or placebo for three weeks. At the end of three weeks the subjects were exposed to stress by the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). The 400-mg PAS group experienced blunting of serum ACTH and serum and salivary cortisol and decreased emotional responses to TSST-induced stress; no statistically significant effects were noted with placebo or the higher-dose PAS groups. The authors did not speculate on the lack of effect with higher doses.91 Fish Oil In a small study, plasma levels of cortisol and epinephrine (also typically elevated by stress) were measured in seven healthy men exposed to 30 minutes of mental stress (math test) before and after three weeks of fish oil supplementation (7.2 g daily). At baseline, average epinephrine levels were 60.9 and 89.3 pg/mL and cortisol levels were 291 and 372 µmol/L before and after test stress, respectively. After three weeks of fish oil supplementation, the cortisol spike following test stress was abolished and the epinephrine spike significantly blunted.92 EPA and DHA or DHA alone lowers norepinephrine levels in healthy non-stressed subjects as well as students experiencing stress from taking exams.93,94 Page 120 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article Plant Sterols and Sterolins Plant sterols and sterolins are phytochemicals generally described as plant "fats" that, while chemically very similar to cholesterol, appear to have biological "adaptogenic" activity. Running a marathon consistently stresses the immune system and adrenals.12,13 In a double-blind trial of marathon runners, Bouic et al investigated the effects of a 100:1 mixture of plant sterols/sterolins on stress-induced immune system depression. Given prior to participation in a marathon this mixture offset post-marathon declines in red and white blood cell counts seen in the placebo group. CD3 and CD4 lymphocyte subsets increased in the sterol/ sterolin group and declined in the placebo group. Neutrophils rose in the placebo group (possibly indicating an infection) but remained stable in the treatment group. Interleukin-6 (an inflammatory cytokine) decreased in the sterol/sterolin treatment group but increased in the placebo group. Consistent with previous research, cortisol levels increased in marathon runners receiving the placebo; however, cortisol levels remained constant in the sterol/sterolin treatment group, indicating a reduction in the adrenal stress response to the event. Also indicative of a buffering effect on the stress response, the treatment group experienced an increase in dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) levels and a decrease in the cortisol:DHEA ratio.95 alpha-Lipoic Acid alpha-Lipoic acid might be of indirect benefit when cortisol levels are high since it can partially restore hydrocortisone-induced suppression of helper T-cell activity.96 Lipoic acid, primarily known as an antioxidant, has also been shown to prevent accumulation of catecholamines in cardiac tissue secondary to stress and enhance the elimination of catecholamine degradation products.97 Anxiolytic/Sedative Botanicals and Plant Extracts A number of botanicals have been used historically as sedative/calmatives – including L-theanine, Passiflora incarnata, Valeriana officinalis, Humulus lupulus, Matricaria chamomilla, Galphimia glauca, Bacopa monniera, Centella asiatica, Melissa officinalis, Piper methysticum, Scutellaria lateriflora, and Ziziphus jujuba. These can be beneficial for anxiety during the day as well as for sleep disturbances. L-Theanine L-theanine is an amino acid extracted from green or black tea. A cup of black tea contains approximately 20 mg theanine. In the brain L-theanine increases dopamine,98,99 serotonin,98 and the inhibitory neurotransmitter glycine.99 Green tea is often used as a relaxing beverage. Although it can contain more caffeine than coffee, theanine appears to counteract its stimulant effect to some degree. In rats, theanine administered intravenously after caffeine dosing, and at approximately the same dose, blunted the stimulant effect of caffeine seen on electroencephalographic recordings. When given by itself in a smaller dose (20-40% of the original dose), theanine administration resulted in excitatory effects, suggesting a dual activity of theanine depending on the dose.100 Studies show L-theanine induces alpha-brain wave activity, which correlates with a perceived state of relaxation. A small Japanese study of university students showed oral L-theanine administration of 200 mg led to increased alpha-brain waves and a subjective sense of relaxation. Theanine administration caused a dose-dependent relaxed, yet alert, state of mind without sedation, beginning approximately 40 minutes after oral dosing.101 A study determined more recently that even lower doses of L-theanine can induce alpha-wave production. Electroencephalogram (EEG) tracings were obtained from 54 healthy participants at baseline and 45, 60, 75, 90, and 105 minutes after 50 mg L-theanine (n=16) or placebo (n=19). The theanine group demonstrated a statistically significantly greater increase in alpha-wave production (p<0.05) than the placebo group; both groups sat quietly with eyes closed during the EEG evaluations.102 The acute stress response elicited by a math test was attenuated by 200 mg theanine – assessed by heart rate and salivary sIgA.103 Bacopa monniera Both animal and clinical research supports the traditional Ayurvedic use of Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) for anxiety. Research using a rat model of clinical anxiety demonstrated a Bacopa extract of 25-percent bacoside A exerted anxiolytic activity comparable to lorazepam, a common benzodiazepine anxiolytic drug. Importantly, Page 121 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress the Bacopa extract did not induce amnesia, a side effect associated with lorazepam, but instead had a memoryenhancing effect.104 A one-month, limited clinical trial of 35 patients with diagnosed anxiety neurosis demonstrated that administration of Brahmi syrup (30 mL daily in two divided doses, equivalent to 12 g dry crude extract of Bacopa) resulted in a significant decrease in anxiety symptoms, level of anxiety, level of disability, and mental fatigue, and an increase in immediate memory span. Other changes noted were increased body weight and decreased respiration rate and systolic blood pressure.105 An RCT examining Bacopa's effect on cognitive function found significant improvement in anxiety (p<0.001). Subjects were randomized to receive 300 mg Bacopa or placebo for 12 weeks; improvements were most pronounced after 12 weeks compared to assessment at five weeks.106 In an RCT conducted on the mental and emotional effects of Bacopa in the elderly, with a sixweek placebo run-in period, 54 subjects (age 65 or older; mean age 73.5) were randomized to receive 300 mg/day Bacopa or placebo for 12 weeks. Subjects taking Bacopa experienced significant improvement in anxiety (measured by combined state plus trait anxiety scores) compared to placebo, in addition to improvements in cognitive performance and depression scores.107 Valeriana officinalis Valeriana officinalis (valerian) is well known for its anxiolytic and sedative effects. The essential oils in valerian appear to provide its sedative activity, while its valepotriates exert a regulatory effect on the autonomic nervous system.108 Although more than 150 constituents have been identified, none appear to be solely responsible for valerian's effects, suggesting its compounds act synergistically.109,110 Valerian interacts with neurotransmitters such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA),111,112 producing a dose-dependent release of GABA.113 Valerian also inhibits the enzyme-induced breakdown of GABA in the brain, with concomitant sedation.114 Valerian's inherent GABA content could directly cause sedation, although reservations exist regarding bioavailability.112,115,116 The valerian lignan hydroxypinoresinol has been found to bind to benzodiazepine receptors.117 Valerian's sedative effect acts more as a nervous system depressant than as a muscle relaxant.118 In a double-blind trial of 48 adults placed in an experimental situation of social stress, valerian reduced subjective sensations of anxiety and did not cause measurable sedation.119 In comparison to diazepam (2.5 mg three times daily), a valerian preparation (50 mg three times daily, standardized to 80% dihydrovaltrate) showed a similar significant reduction in symptoms of anxiety measured on HAM-A after four weeks.120 Valerian and Piper methysticum were compared to each other and placebo in a standardized mental stress test in 54 healthy individuals. Unlike placebo, both preparations decreased systolic blood pressure responsiveness and self-reported feelings of stress, and inhibited a stress-induced rise in heart rate.121 Valerian is also beneficial for sleep disorders, often associated with stress and anxiety. Four placebocontrolled studies present the best evidence of the effectiveness of valerian in the treatment of insomnia. In a crossover RCT valerian improved sleep latency (time to fall asleep) and quality compared to placebo. The effects of 400 mg aqueous valerian were noteworthy, with only mild improvement at a higher dose of 900 mg.122 In a study of 128 participants given 400 mg aqueous valerian extract or placebo, improvement was noted in sleep latency and sleep quality in four groups – young, elderly, women, and men.123 In another study 121 patients were given 600 mg/day valerian extract or placebo for four weeks and assessed for clinical effectiveness using four validated rating scales. After 14 days valerian was rated better than placebo on the Clinical Global Impression Scale (CGIS); at study conclusion (day 28), 66 percent of patients rated valerian effective for sleep compared to 26 percent taking placebo.124 Using polysomnographic recordings and questionnaires, Donath et al found sleep latency was significantly reduced in 16 insomnia patients treated with valerian compared to placebo (p<0.05). The percentage of slow-wave sleep also increased compared to placebo (p<0.05).125 Other studies support valerian in insomnia. Valerian (600 mg daily) was compared to the benzodiazepine oxazepam (10 mg daily) in 202 patients for six weeks with positive effects on sleep quality, measured by the Sleep Questionnaire, CGIS, and Global Assessment Page 122 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article of Efficacy. Mild-to-moderate adverse effects were reported in 36 percent of patients taking oxazepam compared with 28 percent in the valerian group.126 A trial of valerian use after benzodiazepine withdrawal produced subjective improvement in sleep quality after two weeks at 100 mg three times daily.127 In a study of patients complaining of insufficient sleep, significant improvement was noted after two weeks using 470-1,410 mg of valerian at bedtime.128 An animal study comparing valerian with a combination of valerian, Rhodiola, and L-theanine found significant and comparable shortening of sleep latency in both groups.129 Matricaria chamomilla Passiflora incarnata When administered intraperitoneally to rats, Passiflora incarnata (passionflower) extract significantly prolonged sleep time.130 Other animal models demonstrate Passiflora exerts anxiolytic effects via opioid132 and GABA/benzodiazepine receptors.131,132 The anxiolytic effects of Passiflora are thought to be attributed to a specific benzoflavone compound.133 In a four-week RCT, 36 patients (18 in each group) with general anxiety disorder were assigned to 45 drops/day Passiflora plus a placebo tablet or 30 mg/ day oxazepam plus placebo drops. Both were effective at decreasing anxiety, with no significant differences between the groups; the oxazepam group experienced significant impairment of job performance.134 Humulus lupulus polysomnographic standard examination, and a positive treatment effect was based on two weeks of treatment with re-examination.136 Additionally, a similar hop-valerian preparation demonstrated efficacy and tolerability equivalent to a benzodiazepine for the treatment of non-chronic and non-psychiatric sleep disorders.137 Combinations of hops with valerian and Passiflora or Melissa officinalis are also approved by the German Commission E as sedative and sleep-promoting formulas. Further studies are needed to determine whether hops acts as a mild sedative independently, as a synergist, or is absent of sedative action. Humulus lupulus (hops) is often used as a mild sedative for anxiety, nervousness, and insomnia. Much of this use stems from the observation of sleepiness in European hops-pickers. The Complete German Commission E Monographs lists hops as an approved herb for "mood disturbances such as restlessness and anxiety, sleep disturbances."135 Although there have been no meaningful clinical studies to support hops alone as a sedative, several European studies have demonstrated formulas combining hops with other sedative herbs are effective for insomnia. A pilot study using a preparation containing 500 mg valerian extract combined with 120 mg hops extract at bedtime for 30 patients with mildto-moderate insomnia resulted in a decline in sleep latency and wake time. Insomnia was diagnosed using a To examine the sedative effects of Matricaria chamomilla (German chamomile), a study using intraperitoneal administration of chamomile extract in mice concluded apigenin functions as a ligand for benzodiazepine receptors, resulting in anxiolytic and mild sedative effects, but no muscle relaxant or anticonvulsant effects.138 In contrast to diazepam, apigenin does not cause memory impairment. A lyophilized infusion of chamomile, also administered intraperitoneally in mice, elicited a depressive effect on the CNS.139 In an open case study to examine the effects of two cups of chamomile tea on patients undergoing cardiac catheterization, 10 of 12 patients in the study achieved deep sleep within 10 minutes of drinking the tea.140 In an animal study chamomile extract, but not Passiflora extract, significantly reduced sleep latency.141 Galphimia glauca Galphimia glauca (thryallis; rain-of-gold) is a botanical used as a nervine and sedative in traditional Latin American medicine. This herb has demonstrated anxiolytic effects in a mouse model.142 Galphimia has been the subject of significant scrutiny to determine its active, anxiolytic constituents. The constituent originally thought to provide an anxiolytic effect is galphimine B.143 In a mouse model galphimine A and B and a galphiminerich fraction exhibited similar anxiolytic effects. The presence of a hydroxyl group at C-4, C-6, and C-7 and a double-bond in the A ring seem to be primary determining factors for the anxiolytic effects of the constituents.144 In an RCT the effectiveness of a standardized extract of Galphimia glauca was compared to the Page 123 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress b enzodiazepine lorazepam in patients with GAD; inclusion criteria included a score of ≥19 on HAM-A. Subjects (n=152; 114 completers) were randomized to receive 310 mg Galphimia (containing 0.348 mg galphimine B) (n=72; 55 completers) or 1 mg lorazepam, each twice daily for four weeks. Galphimia was comparable to lorazepam in regard to lowering HAM-A scores – reduced by 17.65 points in each group (61.2% and 60.3% in the Galphimia and lorazepam groups, respectively). Anxiolytic effects of the herb were noted within the first week. The side effect of excessive sedation was reported in 6.8 percent of subjects in the Galphimia group and 21.3 percent in the lorazepam group.145 Centella asiatica Centella asiatica (gotu kola) has a long history of use in Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine for treatment of anxiety and depression. In an RCT 40 subjects (20 in each group) were assigned to one large dose (12 g) Centella or placebo prior to testing for acoustic startle response (ASR), an accepted measure of anxiety. The herb significantly decreased the ASR amplitude 30 and 60 minutes after treatment compared to placebo.146 Significantly lower doses (750 mg daily) were used long-term to improve mood and cognition in an elderly population.147 Anxiolytic effects of Centella have also been demonstrated in an animal model148 and in vitro. In vitro studies have helped elucidate Centella's anxiolytic mechanisms, one of which is stimulation of glutamic acid decarboxylase, the enzyme responsible for conversion of the excitatory amino acid glutamic acid to the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA.149 Melissa officinalis In an in vitro study, Melissa officinalis (lemon balm), compared to other herbs tested, demonstrated the greatest inhibition of GABA-transaminase, the enzyme responsible for degradation of GABA.149 Further research identified rosmarinic acid as the primary constituent responsible for this inhibition (40% inhibition at 100 mcg/mL).150 Clinical studies have examined the effects of Melissa in combination with valerian, but not alone. A crossover RCT of 24 healthy volunteers examined the effect of a single dose (600 mg, 1200 mg, or 1800 mg) of a Melissa/valerian combination (80 mg Melissa/120 mg valerian per tablet) or placebo on separate days separated by seven-day washout periods. Effects on mood and anxiety were assessed pre-dosing and one, three, and six hours post-dosing via completion of the Defined Intensity Stressor Stimulation questionnaire. While the 600-mg dose ameliorated stress induced by the questionnaire, the 1800-mg dose appeared to enhance anxiety.151 Another study examined the combination of valerian and Melissa for restlessness and sleep problems in children. A specific formulation, Euvegal® forte (80 mg lemon balm and 160 mg valerian per tablet) was evaluated in an open-label, multi-center trial of 918 children (average age 8.3 years). Dosage was up to four tablets daily (74.6% took the maximum dose). At baseline, 61.7 percent of children reported symptoms compared to 12.5 percent after four weeks. While restlessness and sleep problems were moderate-tosevere at baseline in the majority of subjects, after four weeks these symptoms were absent or rated mild in the majority of children.152 Piper methysticum Extracts of Piper methysticum (kava kava) have been found to be effective anxiolytic agents. In a double-blind RCT, 29 subjects were treated for four weeks with 100 mg kava extract three times daily, standardized to contain 70-percent kava lactones. Compared to placebo, the kava group experienced significant decreases in anxiety symptoms measured by HAMA.153 In another double-blind RCT of two groups of 20 women using the same dosage as the previous trial, kava was found effective for decreasing anxiety associated with menopause.154 In a number of studies, kava extracts compare favorably to prescription medications such as benzodiazepines and tricyclic antidepressants (often used to treat anxiety disorders), and without the side effects commonly seen with these drugs.155,156 Not only does kava not impair reaction time, it appears to improve concentration. In two separate studies, oxazepam slowed reaction time while kava actually enhanced performance.157,158 In a five-week RCT, kava (increasing doses of 50-300 mg daily during the first week) or placebo was prescribed to 40 patients tapering off benzodiazepines Page 124 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article Table 3. Anxiolytic Botanicals and Mechanisms of Action Botanical/Extract Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) Centella asiatica (gotu kola) Galphimia glauca (thryallis; rain-of-gold) Humulus lupulus (hops) L-Theanine (from Camellia sinensis) Matricaria chamomilla (German chamomile) Melissa officinalis (lemon balm) Passiflora incarnata (passionflower) Piper methysticum (kava kava) Scutellaria lateriflora (blue skullcap) Valeriana officinalis (valerian) Ziziphus jujuba (jujabe) Proposed Mechanisms of Action Mediates calcium-ion influx; anxiolytic effects not completely understood Stimulates conversion of glutamic acid to GABA Modifies synaptic transmission at dopaminergic neurons Sedative mechanisms still under investigation Increases alpha-brain wave activity; increases dopamine, serotonin, and glycine (an inhibitory neurotransmitter) Interacts with benzodiazepine receptors Inhibits GABA degradation Interacts with opioid and GABA-benzodiazepine receptors Binds to GABA receptors; inhibits norepinephrine uptake Binds to GABA-benzodiazepine receptors; contains GABA Increases GABA release and inhibits GABA breakdown; binds to benzodiazepine receptors Induces sleep via serotonergic pathways over the first two weeks of the study. Kava was statistically superior to placebo as determined by the HAMA.159 In an eight-week, multi-center RTC, 129 patients with generalized anxiety disorder received 400 mg kava, 10 mg buspirone, or 100 mg opipramol (a tricyclic antidepressant). No significant differences on HAM-A were noted among the three groups, with 75 percent in each group responding (defined as at least 50-percent improvement in symptom scores); 60 percent achieved complete remission.160 In a dose-effectiveness RCT with 50 subjects, lower kava doses of 50 mg three times daily for four weeks were shown effective based on HAMA-A, without side effects or other signs of toxicity.161 Scutellaria lateriflora Scutellaria lateriflora (blue skullcap) was used traditionally by the eclectic physicians for anxiety, restlessness, irritability, and insomnia. In a controlled trial, 19 healthy subjects were given four treatment protocols in random order with at least a two-day washout period between protocols: (1) 1 capsule 350 mg organic, freeze-dried skullcap; (2) 1 capsule 100 mg organic, freeze-dried skullcap (different manufacturer; authors associated with this company); (3) 2 capsules of the same 100-mg organic freeze-dried skullcap as in protocol number 2; and (4) two placebo capsules. The effect of each protocol on symptoms of anxiety, cognition, and energy was evaluated using a 10-point scale at baseline and 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes after administration. While an anxiolytic effect was noted for each skullcap preparation, with the greatest effect reported with the 200-mg dose, statistical significance was apparently not determined.162 Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa Ziziphus jujuba (jujabe) has a long history of use in traditional Chinese medicine for anxiety and insomnia. Several animal studies support the use of Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa as a sedative botanical. Ziziphus saponins have been shown to possess major sedative and hypnotic properties.163 The flavonoids from this plant possess sedative properties that are not as potent as the saponins.164 In a mouse model the constituent spinosin enhanced pentobarbital-induced sleep time and latency; an effect further augmented by the addition Page 125 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress Figure 2. GABA's Effect on Brain Alpha Waves 200 b Alpha-waves (%) 180 160 b 140 120 a 100 80 Water L-Theanine GABA Values are means ± SEM of waves ratios of three measurements (at 0, 30, and 60 minutes after each administration). Values with different letters are significantly different at p<0.05. of 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP).165 Another mouse study found ethanolic extracts of Ziziphus possessed anxiolytic effects at lower doses and sedative effects at higher doses.166 Table 3 summarizes anxiolytic herbs and their mechanisms of action. Neurotransmitters and Their Precursors gamma-Aminobutyric Acid gamma-Aminobutyric acid is a major neurotransmitter widely distributed throughout the CNS. Because too much excitation can lead to irritability, restlessness, insomnia, seizures, and movement disorders, it must be balanced with inhibition. GABA – the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain provides this inhibition, acting like a "brake" during times of runaway stress. Medications for anxiety, such as benzodiazepines, stimulate GABA receptors and induce relaxation. Either low GABA levels or decreased GABA function in the brain is associated with several psychiatric and neurological disorders, including anxiety, depression, insomnia, and epilepsy. Studies indicate GABA can improve relaxation and enhance sleep. GABA mediates pre-synaptic inhibition of primary afferent fibers in the motor system. It regulates brain excitability via GABAA receptors, which are classified into three major groups (alpha, beta, and gamma) with subunits that determine its pharmacological activity. For instance, certain benzodiazepines have a strong binding affinity for the alpha1 subunit, while others bind to other alpha subunits.167 Low GABA levels are associated with several psychiatric and neurological disorders, including anxiety, depression, and insomnia.168-172 Because of the association between low GABA levels and these conditions, many anti-anxiety and sleep-enhancing drugs have been developed that interact primarily with GABA receptors. These include the benzodiazepine drugs – alprazolam (Xanax), diazepam (Valium), flurazepam (Dalmane), quazepam (Doral), temazepam (Restoril), and triazolam (Halcion) – and zolpidem tartrate (Ambien) and baclofen (Kemstro and Lioresal). Because inadequate GABA brain activity or low levels of GABA have been associated with anxiety, many anti-anxiety drugs, some in use for more than 40 years, target the GABAA receptor.173 A small preliminary study of six subjects found gabapentin (structurally similar to GABA; increases brain GABA levels) to be effective for panic disorder.174 Natural therapies that produce relaxation also act, at least in part, by enhancing GABA levels. A controlled pilot study found brain GABA levels were significantly increased after a single 60-minute yoga session compared to a 60-minute reading session.175 Another study found valerenic acid, an active component of valerian, modulates GABAA receptors.176 In a study comparing veterans with (n=9) and without (n=7) post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), veterans with PTSD showed reduced GABAA-benzodiazepine receptor binding, demonstrated by positron emission tomography (PET) scan.177 In an unpublished, double-blind comparison trial, a natural-source GABA (PharmaGABA), but not synthetic GABA, was shown to produce relaxation as evidenced by changes in brain wave patterns, diameter of the pupil, and heart rate, as well as reduction of the stress markers salivary cortisol and chromogranin A (markers of adrenal stress).178 Page 126 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article IgA level in saliva (mcg/mL) administrations were separated by seven-day intervals. Figure 3. Salivary Immunoglobulin A Levels of Acrophobic Volunteers EEG recordings were obCrossing a Suspension Foot Bridge tained with the subject resting quietly with closed eyes 350 c before administration, then a at 0, 30, and 60 minutes after 300 each administration for fivea minute recording sessions. 250 Alpha and beta waves were calculated as a percentage and 200 a pre- and post-administration values were compared. Al150 pha-to-beta ratios were calb culated as a ratio between b 100 alpha and beta percentage values. GABA produced sig50 nificant effects on both increasing alpha waves (Figure 0 2) and decreasing beta waves, Beginning Middle End resulting in a highly significant increase in the alpha-tobeta wave ratio.179 GABA Another study Placebo yielded further evidence of natural GABA's antiValues are means ± SEM of IgA levels in eight volunteers at beginning, middle, and end of the bridge. stress activity. In blinded Values with different letters are significantly different at p<0.05. fashion, eight subjects (ages 25-30) with acrophobia (fear of heights) were given 200 On EEG, alpha waves are generated in a remg natural-source GABA (PharmaGABA) or placebo laxed state, whereas beta waves are seen in stressful before traversing a suspension bridge that spanned a situations that make mental concentration difficult. 150-foot canyon.179 Salivary sIgA was determined from Therefore, the ratio of alpha-to-beta waves is used as an samples taken before crossing, halfway across, and afindication of relaxation and better concentration. In ter crossing the bridge. Relaxation results in significant general, the greater the alpha-to-beta ratio, the more (p<0.001) increases in sIgA levels,180 while stress results relaxed and alert the person is. in decreased salivary sIgA. In this study, sIgA levels deA small pilot study conducted at the creased by approximately 35 percent in subjects in the University of Shizuoka in Japan enrolled 13 healthy volcontrol group; however, individuals in the GABA group unteers, seven males and six females, ages 21-35. Two maintained salivary sIgA levels at the halfway point on hours prior to commencement of the study, subjects the bridge and actually demonstrated increased levels were not allowed to eat, drink, or use any form of tobacupon completion of the crossing (Figure 3). In order to co. EEG tracings were recorded before and after each offset the potential confounding effect of saliva quantity of three administrations of 200 mL distilled water: (1) (stress can cause "dry mouth"), the absolute concentraonly distilled water; (2) distilled water containing 100 tions of sIgA were determined in mcg/mL.179 mg natural GABA (PharmaGABA); and (3) distilled water containing 200 mg L-theanine. Tests of the three Page 127 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress A second unpublished study, using the same suspension bridge and different subjects (n=13), produced additional support for GABA's ability to reduce markers of stress. Subjects given 200 mg natural-source GABA experienced a 20-percent decrease in salivary levels of the adrenal stress marker chromogranin A at the halfway point across the bridge compared to starting values; the control group demonstrated a 20-percent increase in chromogranin A.178 Due to its relaxation effects, GABA may be considered to be a sleep aid. GABAA receptors are highly expressed in the thalamus, a region of the brain involved with sleep processes.181 GABA-agonist drugs, such as Ambien and Restoril, are sedatives used to treat insomnia.182,183 The synthetic GABA-like drug gabapentin that increases brain GABA levels has been found to improve sleep disturbances associated with alcohol consumption.184 In a small, unpublished study, 100 mg natural-source GABA reduced sleep latency by 20 percent, while increasing the time spent in deep sleep by 20 percent.178 L-Tryptophan/5-Hydroxytryptophan L-tryptophan, a large neutral amino acid essential to human metabolism, is the metabolic precursor of serotonin (a neurotransmitter), melatonin (a neurohormone), and niacin (vitamin B3). Tryptophan has been researched for sleep disorders for 30 years. Improvement of sleep latency has been noted,185,186 even at doses as low as 1 g;187 increased stage IV sleep has been noted at even lower doses – 250 mg tryptophan.187 Significant improvement in obstructive sleep apnea, but not central sleep apnea, has been noted at doses of 2.5 g at bedtime, with those experiencing the most severe apnea demonstrating the best response.188 While many sedative medications have opioid-like effects, L-tryptophan administration does not limit cognitive performance or inhibit arousal from sleep.189 Tryptophan hydroxylase is the rate-limiting enzyme for serotonin production and involves the conversion of tryptophan to 5-HTP. This enzyme can be inhibited by stress, insulin resistance, magnesium or vitamin B6 deficiency, or increasing age.190 The decarboxylation of 5-HTP to serotonin is dependent on the presence of the active form of vitamin B6, pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (P5P), while the further conversion to melatonin necessitates S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe). 5-Hydroxytryptophan acts primarily by increasing CNS levels of serotonin. Other neurotransmitters and CNS chemicals, such as melatonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and beta-endorphin, have also been shown to increase following oral administration of 5-HTP.191-193 The effect of 5-HTP has been examined for panic disorders. In one RCT, panic was experimentally induced by cholecystokinin-tetrapeptide (CCK4) in 32 healthy volunteers. Subjects received 200 mg 5-HTP or placebo 90 minutes prior to CCK-4 administration. Panic was experienced by 19 percent of the 5-HTP group and 44 percent of the placebo group (p=0.13). While this seems clinically relevant, it was not statistically significant, most likely due to the small sample size.194 Another study examined the effect of 200 mg 5-HTP or placebo in 24 individuals with panic disorder and 24 healthy volunteers. In CO2-induced panic, 5-HTP resulted in significant decrease in subjective assessment of panic, panic symptom scores, and number of panic attacks compared to placebo in the individuals who suffered from panic attacks; no differences were noted between 5-HTP and placebo in healthy individuals.195 Because of its enhancement of serotonin and then melatonin, 5-HTP benefits sleep disorders. 5-HTP has been shown to benefit children with sleep terrors (sudden waking from sleep with persistent fear). In a sleep terror study of 45 children (ages 3-10 years), 31 were randomly selected to receive 2 mg/kg 5-HTP at bedtime for 20 days. Assessment after one month demonstrated 29/31 (93.5%) responded positively, compared to 4/10 in the untreated group; at the sixmonth assessment 26/31 in the 5-HTP group were terror-free compared to 4/14 in the untreated group.196 Melatonin Melatonin, the primary hormone of the pineal gland, acts as a powerful "chronobiotic," maintaining normal circadian rhythms. In patients with sleep disorders and altered circadian rhythms, such as occur in jet lag, night shift work, and various neuropsychiatric disorders, oral administration of melatonin can provide the necessary resynchronization of those cycles. The Page 128 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article Figure 4. Tryptophan Metabolism L-Tryptophan Tryptophan 5-monooxygenase N-Formylkynurenine Kynurenine 5-Hydroxytryptophan B6 Serotonin 3-Hydroxykynurenine SAMe Melatonin B6 Xanthurenic acid B6 3- Hydroxyanthranilic acid other metabolites carboxymuconic aldehyde intermediate Picolinic acid Quinolinic acid Nicotinic acid (Niacin) following is a sampling of melatonin-sleep studies; an exhaustive exploration of this topic is beyond the scope of this article. The primary physiological role identified for melatonin is its ability to influence circadian rhythms. When administered in pharmacological doses melatonin maintains synchronicity.197 Because the hours of highest melatonin secretion correlate to normal hours of sleep, it has been investigated for use in sleep disorders. Attenburrow et al demonstrated that patients with insomnia have decreased nocturnal melatonin secretion.198 In a placebo-controlled trial of eight subjects with delayed sleep-phase insomnia, Dahlitz et al found melatonin acts as a "phase-setter" for sleep-wake cycles. Subjects were given placebo or melatonin (5 mg nightly at 10 pm) for four weeks with a one-week washout period before crossing over to the other treatment and were allowed to awaken naturally. In all subjects, the onset of sleep occurred earlier during melatonin treatment (mean change of 82 minutes; p<0.01); there was also a slight decrease in the total amount of time asleep.199 Similar results were obtained by another Page 129 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress group of researchers who administered 5 mg melatonin nightly to six subjects with delayed sleep-phase insomnia. The onset of sleep was an average of 115 minutes earlier when taking melatonin compared to pre-melatonin findings.200 In the past 10 years, numerous other randomized, controlled trials support melatonin's effectiveness for improving various aspects of normal sleep. L-Tyrosine Findings from several studies suggest supplementation with tyrosine might, under circumstances characterized by psychosocial and physical stress, reduce the acute effects of stress and fatigue on task performance. Stress depletes the brain reserves of the catecholamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine in animals; and it appears depletion, especially of norepinephrine, is closely related to stress-induced performance decline in animals. Administration of tyrosine, an amino acid precursor of catecholamines, alleviates depletion of brain catecholamines and stressinduced decline in performance in these animals.201 In humans, tyrosine supplementation appears to work in the same manner, alleviating stress-induced decline in nervous system norepinephrine and subsequently enhancing performance under a variety of circumstances, including sleep deprivation, combat training, cold exposure, and unpleasant background noise.202 In humans, sustained and continuous work periods exceeding 12 hours and often involving sleep loss and fatigue can result in increased stress and anxiety, mood deterioration, and performance decrement.201 To test the effect of tyrosine under these circumstances, Neri et al implemented a battery of performance tasks and mood scales during a night of sleep deprivation beginning at 7:30 pm and ending at 8:20 am the following day. All subjects had been awake throughout the day on which the experiment began. Given six hours after the experiment began, tyrosine (150 mg/kg) but not placebo was able to offset declines in performance and vigilance for three hours.203 Deijen et al investigated the effects of tyrosine on 21 cadets during a demanding military combat training course. Ten subjects received five daily doses of a protein-rich drink containing 2 g tyrosine and 11 subjects received a carbohydrate-rich drink with the same amount of calories. The group supplied with the tyrosine-rich drink performed better on tasks involving memory and tracking. Tyrosine supplementation also decreased systolic blood pressure.204 Acute exposure to cold is a physiological stressor and can negatively influence aspects of performance such as memory. Consistent with previous research, Shurtleff et al demonstrated a decline in matching accuracy performance (a test of short-term memory) when temperature was reduced to 4° C during sessions. However, supplementation with tyrosine (150 mg/kg) two hours prior to the cold exposure returned performance to the level found when ambient temperature was 22° C.205 Bandaret et al showed tyrosine (100 mg/ kg) supplementation improved mood and memory in individuals subjected to a 4.5-hour exposure to cold and hypoxia.206 A more recent study found similar results. In a within-subject RCT, individuals taking 300 mg/ kg tyrosine or placebo prior to cold emersion better resisted stress after ingestion of tyrosine than placebo.207 Deijen et al investigated the effect of tyrosine (100 mg/kg) administration to subjects performing a number of stress-sensitive tasks while concurrently exposed to stress-inducing 90 dB background noise. Tyrosine improved performance on two cognitive tasks and transiently decreased diastolic blood pressure.208 Tyrosine (100 mg/kg) also enhanced measured aspects of cardiovascular and cognitive performance in subjects exposed to stress-inducing low negative-pressure sessions (-50 mm Hg) for a maximum of 30 minutes.209 Vitamins: As Neurotransmitter Cofactors and other Supportive Mechanisms Thiamin (Vitamin B1) Experimental and clinical results have shown thiamin to be an effective nutrient in protecting the adrenal gland from functional exhaustion secondary to surgery. Intramuscular injections of thiamin in a dose of 120 mg per day, starting several days prior to surgery and 1.5-2.0 hours immediately prior to surgery, reduced the cortisol reaction, both prior to and at the height of the surgery. Continued administration of thiamin postsurgery prevented the usual post-surgery reduction in blood cortisol levels.8 Page 130 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article Figure 5. Neurotransmitter Pathways Serotonin/Melatonin Catecholamines GABA Tryptophan Phenylalanine Glutamic Acid BH4* BH4* ⇩ 5-Hydroxytryptophan ⇩ Tyrosine ⇩ ⇩ Serotonin DOPA P5P ⇩ N-Acetylserotonin ⇩ Melatonin ⇩ SAMe** BH4* ⇩ P5P Dopamine ⇩ Vitamin C Copper Norepinephrine ⇩ SAMe** Epinephrine Niacinamide (Vitamin B3) Niacinamide might be helpful for sleep enhancement. A small, three-week study of six subjects with normal sleep patterns and two with insomnia used electroencephalograms, electromyograms, and electrooculograms to evaluate sleep patterns at baseline and after niacinamide treatment (500 mg twice daily during one week, 1,000 mg twice daily during the second week, and 1,000 mg three times daily during the third week). There was a significant increase in REM sleep in all normal-sleeping subjects (p=0.0002). The two subjects with moderate-to-severe insomnia experienced significant increases in REM sleep by the third week (p=0.001); awake time was also significantly decreased. Sleep efficiency in the two with insomnia was 58.5 percent at baseline, dropped to 55.7 percent ⇩ P5P GABA after two weeks, but was at 79.5 percent after three weeks. After withdrawing niacinamide, sleep efficiency dropped to 41.5 percent. Because tryptophan can either be converted to protein, niacin, or serotonin, niacinamide may signal via feedback inhibition to decrease the activity of tryptophan pyrrolase (the enzyme that converts tryptophan to niacin). This would allow more tryptophan to be converted to 5-HTP and then to serotonin.210 Figure 4 illustrates the pathways L-tryptophan can take in the synthesis of niacin or 5-HTP/serotonin/ melatonin. Note vitamin B6 is an important cofactor for several enzymes, in both the serotonin and niacin pathways. Pantethine/Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5) Evidence indicates adrenal cortex function is compromised in the event of a deficiency of vitamin B5 derivatives and metabolites. On the other hand, administration of pantethine (active vitamin B5) in several experimental animal models appeared to enhance adrenal cortex function.211-213 Administration of pantethine to humans with a variety of clinical conditions buffered the rise in urinary cortisol metabolites expected to occur secondary to a loading dose of ACTH,214 suggesting pantethine can down-regulate hypersecretion of cortisol secondary to high stress conditions. Men receiving 10 g pantothenic acid daily for six weeks had a less pronounced drop in white blood cell counts and vitamin C levels subsequent to cold-water immersion stress, compared to pre-supplementation values.215 Pyridoxal 5'-Phosphate (Active Vitamin B6) Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (the active form of vitamin B6) is a necessary cofactor for the formation of several important neurotransmitters associated with stress. Within the brain, glutamic acid is converted to GABA via the enzyme glutamate decarboxylase and its cofactor pyridoxal 5'-phosphate. GABA is metabolized Page 131 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress by gamma-aminobutyrate transaminase, also a P5PTable 4. Summary of B Vitamins and Their Relationship to Stress dependent enzyme, forming an intermediate metabolite B Vitamin Function Regarding Stress succinate semialdehyde. Thiamin (Vitamin B1) Protective nutrient for the adrenals; P5P is a cofactor decreases stress-induced cortisol response in the conversion of 5-HTP to serotonin. Furthermore, Niacinamide (Vitamin B3) Improves sleep quantity and quality; conversion of L-tryptophan shunts tryptophan to serotonin to 5-HTP, the rate-limiting Pantethine/Pantothenic Acid Protective nutrient for the adrenals; step in serotonin synthedecreases stress-induced cortisol response (Vitamin B5) sis, can be inhibited by stress, insulin resistance, Pyridoxal 5'phosphate Cofactor for synthesis of GABA, serotonin, and dopamine magnesium or vitamin B6 (P5P; Vitamin B6) deficiency, or increasing Methylcobalamin Reset circadian rhythms for improved sleep and age.191 The decarboxylation (Vitamin B12) normalizing cortisol peak of 5-HTP to serotonin is 5-Methyltetrahydrofolate Regenerates BH4* essential for neurotransmitter dependent on the presence formation (serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate. (5-MTHF; Folate) epinephrine) P5P is also a cofactor in the synthesis of dopa to dopamine in the path5-Methyltetrahydrofolate (5-MTHF; way converting tyrosine to epinephrine and norepinephrine. Figure 5 ilactive folate) lustrates the role P5P and other nutrient Folate appears to be important in regeneratcofactors play in neurotransmitter synthesis. ing tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), which is highly susceptible to oxidation. BH4 is a nutrient cofactor essential * BH4 = Tetrahydrobiopterin (requires folate for synthesis) to the formation of the monoamine neurotransmitters Methylcobalamin (Vitamin B12) **SAMe = S-Adenosylmethionine serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephStress disrupts the circadian rhythmic secrerine. BH4 acts as a rate-limiting enzyme cofactor to tion of cortisol. An effective method to phase-shift cirthe hydroxylase enzymes that metabolize tryptophan cadian rhythm is a combination of bright-light exposure to 5-hydroxytryptophan, phenylalanine to tyrosine, and methylcobalamin. Methylcobalamin is thought to and tyrosine to dopa. Other research suggests folate is assist bright light in resetting the circadian rhythm necessary as a starting material for pterin synthesis, by enhancing the light sensitivity of the circadian which may be the focus of the folate/BH4 relationclock.216,217 Methylcobalamin also appears to generate ship.222 the right quality of sleep activity by both reducing sleep Table 4 summarizes B vitamins and their time and improving sleep quality, resulting in feeling 218-220 association with the stress response. refreshed upon waking. Perhaps the greatest advantage of methylcobalamin's effect on resetting circadian rhythms secAscorbic Acid (Vitamin C) ondary to stress is its impact on cortisol. Although Ascorbic acid is another cofactor in the methylcobalamin does not impact total levels of rate-limiting hydroxylase enzymes involved in cortisol, evidence suggests it helps shift the cortisol monoamine neurotransmitter synthesis. This secretion peak, helping place the cortisol clock back essential antioxidant is both a cofactor at the enzyme level on schedule.221 and a stabilizer of BH4, which prevents oxidation of BH4 and increases BH4 levels. It appears intracellular BH4 Page 132 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article levels are critically dependent on cellular levels of ascorbate.223,224 Ascorbic acid in levels significantly greater than the RDA can support adrenal function and decrease high cortisol levels.Administration of ascorbic acid improved the capacity of the adrenals to adapt to surgical stress by normalizing cortisol and ACTH in patients with lung cancer.225 Ascorbic acid given orally (1 g three times daily) also buffered exogenous ACTH-induced increases in cortisol, although it had no significant effect on fasting cortisol levels.226 Vitamins in Combination A combination of ascorbic acid (300 mg three times daily) and vitamins B1 and B6 administered intravenously improved glucocorticoid function of the adrenal glands and simultaneously normalized the rhythmic activity of the gland.22 Conclusion Stress is an unavoidable fact of everyday life and is associated with significant morbidity and even mortality. In addition to generalized anxiety and sleep disorders, it can result in significant physiological problems, including cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and immunological. In addition to lifestyle considerations – good diet, exercise, meditation, etc. – a number of nutrients and botanicals can provide support for stress-related conditions. Such support requires a five-pronged approach: (1) support for the adrenals with adaptogenic botanicals, (2) use of nutrients to normalize cortisol levels, (3) prescription of anxiolytic herbs to handle sleep disorders and the symptoms of acute anxiety, (4) balance neurotransmitters with amino acid precursors, and (5) provide necessary nutrient cofactors. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. http://www.stress.org/americas.htm [Accessed March 13,2009] http://www.apa.org/topics/topicstress.html [Accessed March 13, 2009] Opstad K. Circadian rhythm of hormones is extinguished during prolonged physical stress, sleep and energy deficiency in young men. Eur J Endocrinol 1994;131:56-66. 17. 18. almblad J, Levi L, Burger A, et al. Effects of P total energy withdrawal (fasting) on the levels of growth hormone, thyrotropin, cortisol, adrenaline, noradrenaline, T4, T3, and rT3 in healthy males. Acta Med Scand 1977;201:15-22. Shimizu H, Miyazaki M, Shimomura Y, Kobayashi I. Altered hormonal status in a female deprived of food for 18 days. J Med 1991;22:201-210. Tegelman R, Lindeskog P, Carlstrom K, et al. Peripheral hormone levels in healthy subjects during controlled fasting. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1986;113:457-462. Beer SF, Bircham PM, Bloom SR, et al. The effect of a 72-h fast on plasma levels of pituitary, adrenal, thyroid, pancreatic and gastrointestinal hormones in healthy men and women. J Endocrinol 1989; 120:337-350. Vinogradov VV, Tarasov IuA, Tishin VS, et al. Thiamine prevention of the corticosteroid reaction after surgery. Probl Endokrinol (Mosk) 1981;27:11-16. [Article in Russian] von Treuer K, Norman TR, Armstrong SM. Overnight human plasma melatonin, cortisol, prolactin, TSH, under conditions of normal sleep, sleep deprivation, and sleep recovery. J Pineal Res 1996;20:7-14. Leproult R, Van Reeth O, Byrne MM, et al. Sleepiness, performance, and neuroendocrine function during sleep deprivation: effects of exposure to bright light or exercise. J Biol Rhythms 1997;12:245-258. Bosco C, Tihanyl J, Rivalta L, et al. Hormonal responses in strenuous jumping effort. Jpn J Physiol 1996;46:93-98. Semple CG, Thomson JA, Beastall GH. Endocrine responses to marathon running. Br J Sports Med 1985;19:148-151. Dessypris A, Wagar G, Fyhrquist F, et al. Marathon run: effects on blood cortisol – ACTH, iodothyronines – TSH and vasopressin. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1980;95:151-157. Irwin M, Daniels M, Risch SC, et al. Plasma cortisol and natural killer cell activity during bereavement. Biol Psychiatry 1988;24:173-178. Rein G, Atkinson M, McCraty R. The physiological and psychological effects of compassion and anger. J Adv Med 1995;8:87-105. Esterling BA, Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Bodnar JC, Glaser R. Chronic stress, social support, and persistent alterations in the natural killer cell response to cytokines in older adults. Health Psychol 1994;13:291-298. Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Glaser R, Cacioppo JT, Malarkey WB. Marital stress: immunologic, neuroendocrine, and autonomic correlates. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1998;840:656-663. Allison TG, Williams DE, Miller TD, et al. Medical and economic costs of psychologic distress in patients with coronary artery disease. Mayo Clin Proc 1995;70:734-742. Page 133 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. Mittleman MA, Maclure M, Sherwood JB, et al. Triggering of acute myocardial infarction onset by episodes of anger. Determinants of Myocardial Infarction Onset Study Investigators. Circulation 1995;92:1720-1725. Kawachi I, Sparrow D, Spiro A 3rd, et al. A prospective study of anger and coronary heart disease. The Normative Aging Study. Circulation 1996;94:2090-2095. Kawachi I, Sparrow D, Vokonas PS, Weiss ST. Symptoms of anxiety and risk of coronary heart disease. The Normative Aging Study. Circulation 1994;90:2225-2229. Kubzansky LD, Kawachi I, Spiro A 3rd, et al. Is worrying bad for your heart? A prospective study of worry and coronary heart disease in the Normative Aging Study. Circulation 1997;95:818-824. Kusaka Y, Morimoto K. Does lifestyle modulate natural killer cell activities? Nippon Eiseigaku Zasshi 1992;46:1035-1042. [Article in Japanese] Strauman TJ, Lemieux AM, Coe CL. Self-discrepancy and natural killer cell activity: immunological consequences of negative self-evaluation. J Pers Soc Psychol 1993;64:1042-1052. Sieber WJ, Rodin J, Larson L, et al. Modulation of human natural killer cell activity by exposure to uncontrollable stress. Brain Behav Immun 1992;6:141156. Irwin M, Patterson T, Smith TL, et al. Reduction of immune function in life stress and depression. Biol Psychiatry 1990;27:22-30. Andersen BL, Farrar WB, Golden-Kreutz D, et al. Stress and immune responses after surgical treatment for regional breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998;90:30-36. Pike JL, Smith TL, Hauger RL, et al. Chronic life stress alters sympathetic, neuroendocrine, and immune responsivity to an acute psychological stressor in humans. Psychosom Med 1997;59:447-457. Jemmott JB 3d, Magloire K. Academic stress, social support, and secretory immunoglobulin A. J Pers Soc Psychol 1988;55:803-810. McClelland DC, Ross G, Patel V. The effect of an academic examination on salivary norepinephrine and immunoglobulin levels. J Human Stress 1985;11:52-59. Jemmott JB 3d, Borysenko JZ, Borysenko M, et al. Academic stress, power motivation, and decrease in secretion rate of salivary secretory immunoglobulin A. Lancet 1983;1:1400-1402. Jemmott JB 3d, McClelland DC. Secretory IgA as a measure of resistance to infectious disease: comments on Stone, Cox, Valdimarsdottir, and Neale. Behav Med 1989;15:63-71. McClelland DC, Floor E, Davidson RJ, Saron C. Stressed power motivation, sympathetic activation, immune function, and illness. J Human Stress 1980;6:11-19. Martin RA, Dobbin JP. Sense of humor, hassles, and immunoglobulin A: evidence for a stress-moderating effect of humor. Int J Psychiatry Med 1988;18:93-105. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. Huis in 't Veld JH. Gastrointestinal flora and health in man and animal. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd 1991;116:232239. [Article in Dutch] Moore WE, Cato EP, Holdeman LV. Some current concepts in intestinal bacteriology. Am J Clin Nutr 1978;31:S33-S42. Lizko NN, Silov VM, Syrych GD. Events in the development of dysbacteriosis of the intestines in man under extreme conditions. Nahrung 1984;28:599-605. [Article in German] Davydov M, Krikorian AD. Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim. (Araliaceae) as an adaptogen: a closer look. J Ethnopharmacol 2000;72:345-393. Banerjee U, Izquierdo JA. Antistress and antifatigue properties of Panax ginseng; comparison with piracetam. Acta Physiol Lat Am 1982;32:277-285. Saito H, Yoshida Y, Takagi K. Effect of Panax ginseng root on exhaustive exercise in mice. Jpn J Pharmacol 1974;24:119-127. Takahashi M, Tokuyama S, Kaneto H. Anti-stress effect of ginseng on the inhibition of the development of morphine tolerance in stressed mice. Jpn J Pharmacol 1992;59:399-404. Grandhi A, Mujumdar AM, Patwardhan B. A comparative pharmacological investigation of ashwagandha and ginseng. J Ethnopharmacol 1994;44:131-135. Huong NT, Matsumoto K, Watanabe H. The antistress effect of majonoside-R2, a major saponin component of Vietnamese ginseng: neuronal mechanisms of action. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 1998;20:65-76. Kumar R, Grover SK, Divekar HM, et al. Enhanced thermogenesis in rats by Panax ginseng, multivitamins and minerals. Int J Biometeorol 1996;39:187-191. Buffi O, Ciaroni S, Guidi L, et al. Morphological analysis on the adrenal zona fasciculata of ginseng, ginsenoside Rb1 and ginsenoside Rg1 treated mice. Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper 1993;69:791-797. Luo YM, Cheng XJ, Yuan WX. Effects of ginseng root saponins and ginsenoside Rb1 on immunity in cold water swim stress mice and rats. Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao 1993;14:401-404. Ng TB, Li WW, Yeung HW. Effects of ginsenosides, lectins and Momordica charantia insulin-like peptide on corticosterone production by isolated rat adrenal cells. J Ethnopharmacol 1987;21:21-29. Hiai S, Yokoyama H, Oura H, Yano S. Stimulation of pituitary-adrenocortical system by ginseng saponin. Endocrinol Jpn 1979;26:661-665. Fulder SJ. Ginseng and the hypothalamic-pituitary control of stress. Am J Chin Med 1981;9:112-118. Caso Marasco A, Vargas Ruiz R, Salas Villagomez A, Begona Infante C. Double-blind study of a multivitamin complex supplemented with ginseng extract. Drugs Exp Clin Res 1996;22:323-329. Page 134 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. Gaffney BT, Hugel HM, Rich PA. The effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus and Panax ginseng on steroidal hormone indices of stress and lymphocyte subset numbers in endurance athletes. Life Sci 2001;70:431-442. Nishibe S, Kinoshita H, Takeda H, Okano G. Phenolic compounds from stem bark of Acanthopanax senticosus and their pharmacological effect in chronic swimming stressed rats. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 1990;38:1763-1765. Golotin VG, Gonenko VA, Zimina VV, et al. Effect of ionol and eleutherococcus on changes of the hypophysea-adrenal system in rats under extreme conditions. Vopr Med Khim 1989;35:35-37. Filaretov AA, Bogdanova TS, Mitiushov MI, et al. Effect of adaptogens on the activity of the pituitaryadrenocortical system in rats. Biull Eksp Biol Med 1986;101:573-574. [Article in Russian] Farnsworth NR, Kinghorn AD, Soejarto D, Waller DP. Siberian ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus): current status as an adaptogen. Econ Med Plant Res 1985;1:156-215. Facchinetti F, Neri I, Tarabusi M. Eleutherococcus senticosus reduces cardiovascular response in healthy subjects: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Stress Health 2002;18:11-17. Armanini D, Karbowiak I, Funder JW. Affinity of licorice derivatives for mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1983;19:609-612. Kuroyanagi T, Saito M. Effect of prednisolone and glycyrrhizin on passive transfer in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Arerugi 1966;15:67-74. [Article in Japanese] Kumagai A, Nanaboshi M, Asanuma Y, et al. Effects of glycyrrhizin on thymolytic and immunosuppressive action of cortisone. Endocrinol Jpn 1967;14:39-42. Adamyan TI, Gevorkyan ES, Minasyan SM, et al. Effect of licorice root on peripheral blood indexes upon vibration exposure. Bull Exp Biol Med 2005;140:197-200. Belanger CA. The Chinese Herb Selection Guide: A Traditional and Modern Clinical Repertory with a Summary Materia Medica for the Health Care Practitioner. Richmond, CA: Phytotech Databased Publishing Co.; 1997:763-764. Forslund T, Fyhrquist F, Froseth B, Tikkanen I. Effects of licorice on plasma atrial natriuretic peptide in healthy volunteers. J Intern Med 1989;225:95-99. Archana R, Namasivayam A. Antistressor effect of Withania somnifera. J Ethnopharmacol 1999;64:91-93. Dhuley JN. Effect of ashwagandha on lipid peroxidation in stress-induced animals. J Ethnopharmacol 1998;60:173-178. Elsakka M, Pavelescu M, Grigorescu E. Withania somnifera, a plant with a great therapeutical future. Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi 1989;93:349-350. Gupta GL, Rana AC. Protective effect of Withania somnifera Dunal root extract against protracted social isolation induced behavior in rats. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 2007;51:345-353. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. Bhattacharya SK, Muruganandam AV. Adaptogenic activity of Withania somnifera: an experimental study using a rat model of chronic stress. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2003;75:547-555. Kuttan G. Use of Withania somnifera Dunal as an adjuvant during radiation therapy. Indian J Exp Biol 1996;34:854-856. Ziauddin M, Phansalkar N, Patki P, et al. Studies on the immunomodulatory effects of ashwagandha. J Ethnopharmacol 1996;50:69-76. Stancheva SL, Mosharrof A. Effect of the extract of Rhodiola rosea L. on the content of the brain biogenic monamines. Med Physiol 1987;40:85-87. Maslova LV, Kondrat'ev BIu, Maslov LN, Lishmanov IuB. The cardioprotective and antiadrenergic activity of an extract of Rhodiola rosea in stress. Eksp Klin Farmakol 1994;57:61-63. [Article in Russian] Lishmanov IuB, Trifonova ZhV, Tsibin AN, et al. Plasma beta-endorphin and stress hormones in stress and adaptation. Biull Eksp Biol Med 1987;103:422424. [Article in Russian] Lishmanov IB, Maslova LV, Maslov LN, Dan'shina EN. The anti-arrhythmia effect of Rhodiola rosea and its possible mechanism. Biull Eksp Biol Med 1993;116:175-176. [Article in Russian] Maimeskulova LA, Maslov LN, Lishmanov IuB, Krasnov EA. The participation of the mu-, delta- and kappa-opioid receptors in the realization of the antiarrhythmia effect of Rhodiola rosea. Eksp Klin Farmakol 1997;60:38-39. [Article in Russian] Lishmanov IB, Naumova AV, Afanas'ev SA, Maslov LN. Contribution of the opioid system to realization of inotropic effects of Rhodiola rosea extracts in ischemic and reperfusion heart damage in vitro. Eksp Klin Farmakol 1997;60:34-36. [Article in Russian] Maimeskulova LA, Maslov LN. The anti-arrhythmia action of an extract of Rhodiola rosea and of n-tyrosol in models of experimental arrhythmias. Eksp Klin Farmakol 1998;61:37-40. [Article in Russian] Afanas'ev SA, Alekseeva ED, Bardamova IB, et al. Cardiac contractile function following acute cooling of the body and the adaptogenic correction of its disorders. Biull Eksp Biol Med 1993;116:480-483. [Article in Russian] Maslova LV, Lishmanov IuB, Maslov LN. Cardioprotective effects of adaptogens of plant origin. Biull Eksp Biol Med 1993;115:269-271. [Article in Russian] Mattioli L, Funari C, Perfumi M. Effects of Rhodiola rosea L. extract on behavioural and physiological alterations induced by chronic mild stress in female rats. J Psychopharmacol 2009;23:130-142. Germano C, Ramazanov Z, Bernal Suarez M. Arctic Root (Rhodiola rosea): The Powerful New Ginseng Alternative. New York, NY: Kensington Publishing Corp; 1999. Page 135 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. Bystritsky A, Kerwin L, Feusner JD. A pilot study of Rhodiola rosea (Rhodax) for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). J Altern Complement Med 2008;14:175-180. Olsson EM, von Scheele B, Panossian AG. A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallelgroup study of the standardised extract SHR-5 of the roots of Rhodiola rosea in the treatment of subjects with stress-related fatigue. Planta Med 2009; 75:105-112. Darbinyan V, Kteyan A, Panossian A, et al. Rhodiola rosea in stress induced fatigue – a double blind crossover study of a standardized extract SHR-5 with a repeated low-dose regimen on the mental performance of healthy physicians during night duty. Phytomedicine 2000;7:365-371. Spasov AA, Wikman GK, Mandrikov VB, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study of the stimulating and adaptogenic effect of Rhodiola rosea SHR-5 extract on the fatigue of students caused by stress during an examination period with a repeated low-dose regimen. Phytomedicine 2000;7:85-89. Panossian A, Wikman G, Kaur P, Asea A. Adaptogens exert a stress-protective effect by modulation of expression of molecular chaperones. Phytomedicine 2009 Jan 31. [Epub ahead of print] Schutgens FW, Neogi P, van Wijk EP, et al. The influence of adaptogens on ultraweak biophoton emission: a pilot-experiment. Phytother Res 2009 Jan 23. [Epub ahead of print] Fahey TD, Pearl MS. The hormonal and perceptive effects of phosphatidylserine administration during two weeks of resistive exercise-induced overtraining. Biol Sport 1998;15:135-144. Monteleone P, Beinat L, Tanzillo C, et al. Effects of phosphatidylserine on the neuroendocrine response to physical stress in humans. Neuroendocrinology 1990;52:243-248. Monteleone P, Maj M, Beinat L, et al. Blunting by chronic phosphatidylserine administration of the stress-induced activation of the hypothalamopituitary-adrenal axis in healthy men. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1992;42:385-388. Starks MA, Starks SL, Kingsley M, et al. The effects of phosphatidylserine on endocrine response to moderate intensity exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2008;5:11. Hellhammer J, Fries E. Buss C, et al. Effects of soy lecithin phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylserine complex (PAS) on the endocrine and psychological responses to mental stress. Stress 2004;7:119-126. Delarue,J, Matzinger O, Binnert C, et al. Fish oil prevents the adrenal activation elicited by mental stress in healthy men. Diabetes Metab 2003;29:289-295. Hamazaki K, Itomura M, Huan M, et al. Effect of omega-3 fatty acid-containing phospholipids on blood catecholamine concentrations in healthy volunteers: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Nutrition 2005;21:705-710. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. Hamazaki T, Itomura M, Sawazaki S, Nagao Y. Antistress effects of DHA. Biofactors 2000;13:41-45. Bouic PJ, Clark A, Lamprecht J, et al. The effects of ß-sitosterol (BSS) and ß-sitosterol glucoside (BSSG) mixture on selected immune parameters of marathon runners: inhibition of post marathon immune suppression and inflammation. Int J Sports Med 1999;20:258-262. Ohmori H, Yamauchi T, Yamamoto I. Augmentation of the antibody response by lipoic acid in mice. II. Restoration of the antibody response in immunosuppressed mice. Jpn J Pharmacol 1986;42:275-280. Fomichev VI, Pchelintsev VP. The neurohumoral systems of patients with ischemic heart disease and under emotional-pain stress: the means for their pharmacological regulation. Kardiologiia 1993;33:1518. [Article in Russian] Yokogoshi H, Kobayashi M, Mochizuki M, Terashima T. Effect of theanine, R-glutamylethylamide, on brain monoamines and striatal dopamine release in conscious rats. Neurochem Res 1998;23:667-673. Yamada T, Terashima T, Kawano S, et al. Theanine, gamma-glutamylethylamide, a unique amino acid in tea leaves, modulates neurotransmitter concentrations in the brain striatum interstitium in conscious rats. Amino Acids 2009;36:21-27. Kakuda T, Nozawa A, Unno T, et al. Inhibiting effects of theanine on caffeine stimulation evaluated by EEG in the rat. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2000;64:287-293. Ito K, Nagato Y, Aoi N, et al. Effects of L-theanine on the release of alpha-brain waves in human volunteers. Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi 1998;72:153-157. Nobre AC, Rao A, Owen GN. L-theanine, a natural constituent in tea, and its effect on mental state. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2008;17:167-168. Kimura K, Ozeki M, Juneja LR, Ohira H. L-theanine reduces psychological and physiological stress responses. Biol Psychol 2007;74:39-45. Bhattacharya SK, Ghosal S. Anxiolytic activity of a standardized extract of Bacopa monniera in an experimental study. Phytomedicine 1998;5:77-82. Singh RH, Singh L. Studies on the anti-anxiety effect of the Medyha Rasayana drug, Brahmi (Bacopa monniera Wettst.) – Part 1. J Res Ayur Siddha 1980;1:133-148. Stough C, Lloyd J, Clarke J, et al. The chronic effects of an extract of Bacopa monniera (Brahmi) on cognitive function in healthy human subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2001;156:481-484. Calabrese C, Gregory WL, Leo M, et al. Effects of a standardized Bacopa monnieri extract on cognitive performance, anxiety, and depression in the elderly: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Altern Complement Med 2008;14:707-713. Weiss RF, Fintelmann V. Herbal Medicine. 2nd ed. Stuttgart, Germany: Thieme; 2000:262-263. Houghton PJ. The scientific basis for the reputed activity of valerian. J Pharm Pharmacol 1999;51:505-512. Page 136 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article 110. Hendriks H, Bos R, Allersma DP, et al. Pharmacological screening of valerenal and some other components of essential oil of Valeriana officinalis. Planta Med 1981;42:62-68. 111. Neuhaus W, Trauner G, Gruber D, et al. Transport of a GABAA receptor modulator and its derivatives from Valeriana officinalis L. s. I. across an in vitro cell culture model of the blood-brain barrier. Planta Med 2008;74:1338-1344. 112. Cavadas C, Araujo I, Cotrim MD, et al. In vitro study on the interaction of Valeriana officinalis L. extracts and their amino acids on GABAA receptor in rat brain. Arzneimittelforschung 1995;45:753-755. 113. Ortiz JG, Nieves-Natal J, Chavez P. Effects of Valeriana officinalis extracts on [3H]flunitrazepam binding, synaptosomal [3H]GABA uptake, and hippocampal [3H]GABA release. Neurochem Res 1999;24:1373-1378. 114. Riedel E, Hansel R, Ehrke G. Inhibition of gammaaminobutyric acid catabolism by valerenic acid derivatives. Planta Med 1982;46:219-220. [Article in German] 115. Santos MS, Ferreira F, Faro C, et al. The amount of GABA present in aqueous extracts of valerian is sufficient to account for [3H]GABA release in synaptosomes. Planta Med 1994;60:475-476. 116. Santos MS, Ferreira F, Cunha AP, et al. An aqueous extract of valerian influences the transport of GABA in synaptosomes. Planta Med 1994;60:278-279. 117. Bodesheim U, Holzl J. Isolation and receptor binding properties of alkaloids and lignans from Valeriana officialis L. Pharmazie 1997;52:386-391. [Article in German] 118. Hattesohl M, Feistel B, Sievers H, et al. Extracts of Valeriana officinalis L. s.I show anxiolytic and antidepressant effects but neither sedative nor myorelaxant properties. Phytomedicine 2008;15:2-15. 119. Kohnen R, Oswald WD. The effects of valerian, propranolol, and their combination on activation, performance, and mood of healthy volunteers under social stress conditions. Pharmacopsychiatry 1988;21:447-448. 120. Andreatini R, Sartori VA, Seabra ML, Leite JR. Effect of valepotriates (valerian extract) in generalized anxiety disorder: a randomized placebo-controlled pilot study. Phytother Res 2002;16:650-654. 121. Cropley M, Cave Z, Ellis J, Middleton RW. Effect of kava and valerian on human physiological and psychological responses to mental stress assessed under laboratory conditions. Phytother Res 2002;16:23-27. 122. Leathwood PD, Chauffard F. Aqueous extract of valerian reduces latency to fall asleep in man. Planta Med 1985;51:144-148. 123. Leathwood PD, Chauffard F, Heck E, Munoz-Box R. Aqueous extract of valerian root (Valeriana officinalis L.) improves sleep quality in man. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1982;17:65-71. 124. Trevena L. Sleepless in Sydney – is valerian an effective alternative to benzodiazepines in the treatment of insomnia? ACP J Club 2004;141:A14-A16. 125. Donath F, Quispe S, Diefenbach K, et al. Critical evaluation of the effect of valerian extract on sleep structure and sleep quality. Pharmacopsychiatry 2000;33:47-53. 126. Ziegler G, Ploch M, Miettinen-Baumann A, Collet W. Efficacy and tolerability of valerian extract LI 156 compared with oxazepam in the treatment of non-organic insomnia – a randomized, double-blind, comparative clinical study. Eur J Med Res 2002;7:480-486. 127. Poyares DR, Guilleminault C, Ohayon MM, Tufik S. Can valerian improve the sleep of insomniacs after benzodiazepine withdrawal? Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2002;26:539-545. 128. Dominguez RA, Bravo-Valverde RL, Kaplowitz BR, Cott JM. Valerian as a hypnotic for Hispanic patients. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol 2000;6:84-92. 129. Tokunaga S, Takeda Y, Niimoto T, et al. Effect of valerian extract preparation (BIM) on the sleep-wake cycle in rats. Biol Pharm Bull 2007;30:363-366. 130. Speroni E, Minghetti A. Neuropharmacological activity of extracts from Passiflora incarnata. Planta Med 1988;54:488-491. 131. Nassiri-Asl M, Shariati-Rad S, Zamansoltani F. Anticonvulsant effects of aerial parts of Passiflora incarnata extract in mice: involvement of benzodiazepine and opioid receptors. BMC Complement Altern Med 2007;7:26. 132. Grundmann O, Wang J, McGregor GP, Butterweck V. Anxiolytic activity of a phytochemically characterized Passiflora incarnata extract is mediated via the GABAergic system. Planta Med 2008;74:1769-1773. 133. Dhawan K, Kumar S, Sharma A. Comparative anxiolytic activity profile of various preparations of Passiflora incarnata Linneaus: a comment on medicinal plants' standardization. J Altern Complement Med 2002;8:283-291. 134. Akhondzadeh S, Naghavi HR, Vazirian M, et al. Passionflower in the treatment of generalized anxiety: a pilot double-blind randomized controlled trial with oxazepam. J Clin Pharm Ther 2001;26:363-367. 135. Blumenthal M. The Complete German Commission E Monograph: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin, TX: American Botanical Council; 1998:147. 136. Fussel A, Wolf A, Brattstrom A. Effect of a fixed valerian-hop extract combination (Ze 91019) on sleep polygraphy in patients with non-organic insomnia: a pilot study. Eur J Med Res 2000;5:385-390. 137. Schmitz M, Jackel M. Comparative study for assessing quality of life of patients with exogenous sleep disorders (temporary sleep onset and sleep interruption disorders) treated with a hops-valarian preparation and a benzodiazepine drug. Wien Med Wochenschr 1998;148:291-298. [Article in German] 138. Viola H, Wasowski C, Levi de Stein M, et al. Apigenin, a component of Matricaria recutita flowers, is a central benzodiazepine receptors-ligand with anxiolytic effects. Planta Med 1995;61:213-216. Page 137 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress 139. Loggia RD, Traversa U, Scarcia V, Tubaro A. Depressive effects of Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rausch, tubular flowers, on central nervous system in mice. Pharmacol Res Commun 1982;14:153-162. 140. Gould L, Reddy CV, Gomprecht RF. Cardiac effects of chamomile tea. J Clin Pharmacol 1973;13:475-479. 141. Shinomiya K, Inoue T, Utsu Y, et al. Hypnotic activities of chamomile and Passiflora extracts in sleepdisturbed rats. Biol Pharm Bull 2005;28:808-810. 142. Herrera-Ruiz M, Jimenez-Ferrer JE, De Lima TC, et al. Anxiolytic and antidepressant-like activity of a standardized extract from Galphimia glauca. Phytomedicine 2006;13:23-28. 143. Tortoriello J, Ortega A. Sedative effect of galphimine B, a nor-seco-triterpenoid from Galphimia glauca. Planta Med 1993;59:398-400. 144. Herrera-Ruiz M, Gonzalez-Cortazar M, JimenezFerrer E, et al. Anxiolytic effect of natural galphimines from Galphimia glauca and their chemical derivatives. J Natl Prod 2006;69:59-61. 145. Herrera-Arellano A, Jimenez-Ferrer E, Zamilpa A, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of a standardized herbal product from Galphimia glauca on generalized anxiety disorder. A randomized, double-blind clinical trial controlled with lorazepam. Planta Med 2007;73:713717. 146. Bradwejn J, Zhou Y, Koszycki D, Shlik J. A doubleblind, placebo-controlled study on the effects of gotu kola (Centella asiatica) on acoustic startle response in healthy subjects. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000;20:680684. 147. Wattanathorn J, Mator L, Muchimapura S, et al. Positive modulation of cognition and mood in the healthy elderly volunteer following the administration of Centella asiatica. J Ethopharmacol 2008;116:325332. 148. Wijeweera P, Arnason JT, Koszycki D, Merali Z. Evaluation of anxiolytic properties of gotukola – (Centella asiatica) extracts and asiaticoside in rat behavioral models. Phytomedicine 2006;13:668-676. 149. Awad R, Levac D, Cybulska P, et al. Effects of traditionally used anxiolytic botanicals on enzymes of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2007;85:933-942. 150. Awad R, Muhammad A, Durst T, et al. Bioassayguided fractionation of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) using an in vitro measure of GABA transaminase activity. Phytother Res 2009 Jan 22. [Epub ahead of print] 151. Kennedy DO, Little W, Haskell CF, Scholey AB. Anxiolytic effects of a combination of Melissa officinalis and Valeriana officinalis during laboratory induced stress. Phytother Res 2006;20:96-102. 152. Muller SF, Klement S. A combination of valerian and lemon balm is effective in the treatment of restlessness and dyssomnia in children. Phytomedicine 2006;13:383-387. 153. Kinzler E, Kromer J, Lehmann E. Effect of a special kava extract in patients with anxiety-, tension-, and excitation states of non-psychotic genesis. Double blind study with placebos over 4 weeks. Arzneimittelforschung 1991;41:584-588. [Article in German] 154. Warnecke G. Psychosomatic dysfunctions in the female climacteric. Clinical effectiveness and tolerance of Kava Extract WS 1490. Fortschr Med 1991;109:119-122. [Article in German] 155. Woelk H, Kapoula S, Lehrl S, et al. Treatment of patients suffering from anxiety – double-blind study: kava special extract versus benzodiazepines. Ztschr Allegemeinmed 1993;69:271-277. 156. Volz HP, Kieser M. Kava-kava extract WS 1490 versus placebo in anxiety disorders – a randomized placebo-controlled 25-week outpatient trial. Pharmacopsychiatry 1997;30:1-5. 157. Heinze HJ, Munthe TF, Steitz J, Matzke M. Pharmacopsychological effects of oxazepam and kavaextract in a visual search paradigm assessed with eventrelated potentials. Pharmacopsychiatry 1994;27:224230. 158. Munte TF, Heinze HJ, Matzke M, Steitz J. Effects of oxazepam and an extract of kava roots (Piper methysticum) on event-related potentials in a word recognition task. Neuropsychobiology 1993;27:46-53. 159. Malsch U, Kieser M. Efficacy of kava-kava in the treatment of non-psychotic anxiety, following pretreatment with benzodiazepines. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2001;157:277-283. 160. Boerner RJ, Sommer H, Berger W, et al. Kavakava extract LI 150 is as effective as opipramol and buspirone in generalised anxiety disorder – an 8-week randomized, double-blind multi-centre clinical trial in 129 out-patients. Phytomedicine 2003;10:38-49. 161. Geier FP, Konstantinowicz T. Kava treatment in patients with anxiety. Phytother Res 2004;18:297-300. 162. Wolfson P, Hoffmann DL. An investigation into the efficacy of Scutellaria lateriflora in healthy volunteers. Altern Ther Health Med 2003;9:74-78. 163. Jiang JG, Huang XJ, Chen J. Separation and purification of saponins from semen Ziziphus jujuba and their sedative and hypnotic effects. J Pharm Pharmacol 2007;59:1175-1180. 164. Jiang JG, Huang XJ, Chen J, Lin QS. Comparison of the sedative and hypnotic effects of flavonoids, saponins, and polysaccharides extracted from semen Ziziphus jujube. Nat Prod Res 2007;21:310-320. 165. Wang LE, Bai YJ, Shi XR, et al. Spinosin, a C-glycoside flavonoid from semen Zizhiphi spinozae, potentiated pentobarbital-induced sleep via the serotonergic system. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2008;90:399-403. 166. Peng WH, Hsieh MT, Lee YS, et al. Anxiolytic effect of seed of Ziziphus jujuba in mouse models of anxiety. J Ethnopharmacol 2000;72:435-441. 167. Smith TA. Type A gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABAA) receptor subunits and benzodiazepine binding: significance to clinical syndromes and their treatment. Br J Biomed Sci 2001;58:111-121. Page 138 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Review Article 168. Nemeroff CB. The role of GABA in the pathophysiology and treatment of anxiety disorders. Psychopharmacol Bull 2003;37:133-146. 169. Kendell SF, Krystal JH, Sanacora G. GABA and glutamate systems as therapeutic targets in depression and mood disorders. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2005;9:153-168. 170. Kugaya A, Sanacora G. Beyond monoamines: glutamatergic function in mood disorders. CNS Spectr 2005;10:808-819. 171. Krystal JH, Sanacora G, Blumberg H, et al. Glutamate and GABA systems as targets for novel antidepressant and mood-stabilizing treatments. Mol Psychiatry 2002;7:S71-S80. 172. Gottesmann C. GABA mechanisms and sleep. Neuroscience 2002;111:231-239. 173. Nutt D. GABAA receptors: subtypes, regional distribution, and function. J Clin Sleep Med 2006;2:S7S11. 174. Spila B, Szumillo A. Gabapentin (GBP) in panic disorders – case report. Psychiatr Pol 2006;40:10611068. [Article in Polish] 175. Streeter CC, Jensen JE, Perlmutter RM, et al. Yoga asana sessions increase brain GABA levels: a pilot study. J Altern Complement Med 2007;13:419-426. 176. Khom S, Baburin I, Timin E, et al. Valerenic acid potentiates and inhibits GABA(A) receptors: molecular mechanism and subunit specificity. Neuropharmacology 2007;53:178-187. 177. Geuze E, van Berckel BN, Lammertsma AA, et al. Reduced GABAA benzodiazepine receptor binding in veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Mol Psychiatry 2008;13:74-83. 178. Unpublished data provided by Pharma Foods International LTD., Kyoto, Japan. 179. Abdou AM, Higashiguchi S, Horie K, et al. Relaxation and immunity enhancement effects of gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) administration in humans. Biofactors 2006;26:201-208. 180. Green ML, Green RG, Santoro W. Daily relaxation modifies serum and salivary immunoglobulins and psychophysiologic symptom severity. Biofeedback Self Regul 1988;13:187-199. 181. Orser BA. Extrasynaptic GABAA receptors are critical targets for sedative-hypnotic drugs. J Clin Sleep Med 2006;2:S12-S18. 182. Palagini L, Campbell IG, Tan X, et al. Independence of sleep EEG responses to GABAergic hypnotics: biological implications. J Psychiatr Res 2000;34:293-300. 183. Roth T, Soubrane C, Titeux L, et al. Efficacy and safety of zolpidem-MR: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study in adults with primary insomnia. Sleep Med 2006;7:397-406. 184. Bazil CW, Battista J, Basner RC. Gabapentin improves sleep in the presence of alcohol. J Clin Sleep Med 2005;1:284-287. 185. Schneider-Helmert D, Spinweber CL. Evaluation of L-tryptophan for treatment of insomnia: a review. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1986;89:1-7. 186. Korner E, Bertha G, Flooh E, et al. Sleep-inducing effect of L-tryptophane. Eur Neurol 1986;25:75-81. 187. Hartmann E, Spinweber CL. Sleep induced by L-tryptophan. Effect of dosages within the normal dietary intake. J Nerv Ment Dis 1979;167:497-499. 188. Schmidt HS. L-tryptophan in the treatment of impaired respiration in sleep. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir 1983;19:625-629. 189. Lieberman HR, Corkin S, Spring BJ, et al. The effects of dietary neurotransmitter precursors on human behavior. Am J Clin Nutr 1985;42:366-370. 190. Hussain AM, Mitra AK. Effect of aging on tryptophan hydroxylase in rat brain: implications on serotonin level. Drug Metab Dispos 2000;28:1038-1042. 191. van Praag HM, Lemus C. Monoamine precursors in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. In: Wurtman RJ, Wurtman JJ, eds. Nutrition and the Brain. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1986:89-139. 192. den Boer JA, Westenberg HG. Behavioral, neuroendocrine, and biochemical effects of 5-hydroxytryptophan administration in panic disorder. Psychiatry Res 1990;31:267-278. 193. Chadwick D, Jenner P, Harris R, et al. Manipulation of brain serotonin in the treatment of myoclonus. Lancet 1975;2:434-435. 194. Maron E, Toru I Vasar V, Shlik J. The effect of 5-hydroxytryptophan on cholecystokinin-4-induced panic attacks in healthy volunteers. J Psychopharmacol 2004;18:194-199. 195. Schruers K, van Diest R, Overbeek T, Griez E. Acute L-5-hydroxytryptophan administration inhibits carbon dioxide-induced panic in panic disorder patients. Psychiatry Res 2002;113:237-243. 196. Bruni O, Ferri R, Miano S, Verrillo E. L-5hydroxytryptophan treatment of sleep terrors in children. Eur J Pediatr 2004;163:402-407. 197. Armstrong SM. Melatonin. The internal zeitgeber of mammals? Pineal Res Rev 1989;7:157-202. 198. Attenburrow ME, Dowling BA, Sharpley AL, Cowen PJ. Case-control study of evening melatonin concentration in primary insomnia. BMJ 1996;312:1263-1264. 199. Dahlitz M, Alvarez B, Vignau J, et al. Delayed sleep phase syndrome response to melatonin. Lancet 1991;337:1121-1124. 200. Oldani A, Ferini-Strambi L, Zucconi M, et al. Melatonin and delayed sleep phase syndrome: ambulatory polygraphic evaluation. Neuroreport 1994;6:132-134. 201. Owasoyo JO, Neri DF, Lamberth JG. Tyrosine and its potential use as a countermeasure to performance decrement in military sustained operations. Aviat Space Environ Med 1992;63:364-369. 202. Salter CA. Dietary tyrosine as an aid to stress resistance among troops. Mil Med 1989;154:144-146. 203. Neri DF, Wiegmann D, Stanny RR, et al. The effects of tyrosine on cognitive performance during extended wakefulness. Aviat Space Environ Med 1995;66:313319. Page 139 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission. Alternative Medicine Review Volume 14, Number 2 2009 Stress 204. Deijen JB, Wientjes CJ, Vullinghs HF, et al. Tyrosine improves cognitive performance and reduces blood pressure in cadets after one week of a combat training course. Brain Res Bull 1999;48:203-209. 205. Shurtleff D, Thomas JR, Schrot J, et al. Tyrosine reverses a cold-induced working memory deficit in humans. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1994;47:935-941. 206. Banderet LE, Lieberman HR. Treatment with tyrosine, a neurotransmitter precursor, reduces environmental stress in humans. Brain Res Bull 1989;22:759-762. 207. Mahoney CR, Castellani J, Kramer FM, et al. Tyrosine supplementation mitigates working memory decrements during cold exposure. Physiol Behav 2007;92:575-582. 208. Deijen JB, Orlebeke JF. Effect of tyrosine on cognitive function and blood pressure under stress. Brain Res Bull 1994;33:319-323. 209. Dollins AB, Krock LP, Storm WF, et al. L-tyrosine ameliorates some effects of lower body negative pressure stress. Physiol Behav 1995;57:223-230. 210. Robinson CR, Pegram GV, Hyde PR, et al. The effects of nicotinamide upon sleep in humans. Biol Psychiatry 1977;12:139-143. 211. Kosaka C, Okida M, Kaneyuki T, et al. Action of pantethine on the adrenal cortex of hypophysectomized rats. Horumon To Rinsho 1973;21:517-525. [Article in Japanese] 212. Onuki M, Hoshino H. Effect of pantethine on the adrenocortical function. 1. Experimental results using rabbits. Horumon To Rinsho 1970;18:601-605. [Article in Japanese] 213. Kosaka M, Kikui S, Fujiwara T, Kimoto T. Action of pantethine on the adrenal cortex. Horumon To Rinsho 1966;14:843-847. [Article in Japanese] 214. Onuki M, Suzawa A. Effect of pantethine on the function of the adrenal cortex. 2. Clinical experience using pantethine in cases under steroid hormone treatment. Horumon To Rinsho 1970;18:937-940. [Article in Japanese] 215. Ralli D. NYU Bellevue Med Center, 1952. [Abstract] 216. Honma K, Kohsaka M, Fukuda N, et al. Effects of vitamin B12 on plasma melatonin rhythm in humans: increased light sensitivity phase-advances the circadian clock? Experientia 1992;48:716-720. 217. Hashimoto S, Kohsaka M, Morita N, et al. Vitamin B12 enhances the phase-response of circadian melatonin rhythm to a single bright light exposure in humans. Neurosci Lett 1996;220:129-132. 218. Uchiyama M, Mayer G, Okawa M, Meier-Ewert K. Effects of vitamin B12 on human circadian body temperature rhythm. Neurosci Lett 1995;192:1-4. 219. Ohta T, Iwata T, Kayukawa Y, Okada T. Daily activity and persistent sleep-wake schedule disorders. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1992;16:529-537. 220. Ohta T, Ando K, Iwata T, et al. Treatment of persistent sleep-wake schedule disorders in adolescents with methylcobalamin (vitamin B12). Sleep 1991;14:414-418. 221. Tomoda A, Miike T, Matsukura M. Circadian rhythm abnormalities in adrenoleukodystrophy and methyl B12 treatment. Brain Dev 1995;17:428-431. 222. Anderson DN, Abou-Saleh MT, Collins J, et al. Pterin metabolism in depression: an extension of the amine hypothesis and possible marker of response to ECT. Psychol Med 1992;22:863-869. 223. Heller R, Unbehaun A, Schellenberg B, et al. L-ascorbic acid potentiates endothelial nitric oxide synthesis via a chemical stabilization of tetrahydrobiopterin. J Biol Chem 2001;276:40-47. 224. Nakai K, Urushihara M, Kubota Y, Kosaka H. Ascorbate enhances iNOS activity by increasing tetrahydrobiopterin in RAW 264.7 cells. Free Radic Biol Med 2003;35:929-937. 225. Gromova EG, Sviridova SP, Kushlinskii NE, et al. Regulation of the indices of neuroendocrine status in surgical patients with lung cancer using optimal doses of ascorbic acid. Anesteziol Reanimatol 1990;5:71-74. [Article in Russian] 226. Liakakos D, Doulas NL, Ikkos D, et al. Inhibitory effect of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) on cortisol secretion following adrenal stimulation in children. Clin Chim Acta 1975;65:251-255. 227. Shelygina NM, Spivak RIa, Zaretskii MM, et al. Influence of vitamins C, B1, and B6 on the diurnal periodicity of the glucocorticoid function of the adrenal cortex in patients with atherosclerotic cardiosclerosis. Vopr Pitan 1975;2:25-29. [Article in Russian] Page 140 Copyright © 2009 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission.
© Copyright 2020

subset: commoncrawl