text:
- © 2010 American Society of Plant Biologists
Lignin is the generic term for a large group of aromatic polymers resulting from the oxidative combinatorial coupling of 4-hydroxyphenylpropanoids (Boerjan et al., 2003; Ralph et al., 2004). These polymers are deposited predominantly in the walls of secondarily thickened cells, making them rigid and impervious. In addition to developmentally programmed deposition of lignin, its biosynthesis can also be induced upon various biotic and abiotic stress conditions, such as wounding, pathogen infection, metabolic stress, and perturbations in cell wall structure (Caño-Delgado et al., 2003; Tronchet et al., 2010). Because lignin protects cell wall polysaccharides from microbial degradation, thus imparting decay resistance, it is also one of the most important limiting factors in the conversion of plant biomass to pulp or biofuels. The removal of lignin from plant biomass is a costly process; hence, research efforts are now aimed at designing plants that either deposit less lignin or produce lignins that are more amenable to chemical degradation (Sticklen, 2008; Weng et al., 2008a; Mansfield, 2009).
The main building blocks of lignin are the hydroxycinnamyl alcohols (or monolignols) coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol, with typically minor amounts of p-coumaryl alcohol (Fig. 1). The monolignols are synthesized from Phe through the general phenylpropanoid and monolignol-specific pathways. Phe is derived from the shikimate biosynthetic pathway in the plastid (Rippert et al., 2009). Certain enzymes of the lignin biosynthetic pathway, namely the cytochrome P450 enzymes CINNAMATE 4-HYDROXYLASE (C4H), p-COUMARATE 3-HYDROXYLASE (C3H), and FERULATE 5-HYDROXYLASE (F5H), are membrane proteins thought to be active at the cytosolic side of the endoplasmic reticulum (Chapple, 1998; Ro et al., 2001). Although metabolic channeling has been shown between PHENYLALANINE AMMONIA-LYASE (PAL) and C4H (Rasmussen and Dixon, 1999; Achnine et al., 2004), it remains unknown whether the other pathway enzymes are also part of metabolic complexes at the endoplasmic reticulum.
The units resulting from the monolignols, when incorporated into the lignin polymer, are called guaiacyl (G), syringyl (S), and p-hydroxyphenyl (H) units (Figs. 1 and 2). With some notable exceptions (Novo Uzal et al., 2009), lignins from gymnosperms are composed of G-units only (with minor amounts of H-units), whereas angiosperm dicot lignins are composed of G- and S-units. H-units are elevated in softwood compression wood and may be slightly higher in grasses (Boerjan et al., 2003). A variety of less abundant units have been identified from diverse species, and these may be incorporated into the polymer at varying levels (Ralph et al., 2004). Some units, such as those derived from the monomer sinapyl acetate, can make up to 85% of all S-units in the polymer (Lu and Ralph, 2008; Martínez et al., 2008). In addition to differences in lignin composition among taxa and species, lignin composition can also differ among cell types, as readily visualized by the histochemical Mäule staining, which is indicative of S-units, or when chemically analyzed by laser capture microdissection followed by microanalysis of lignin (Nakashima et al., 2008; Ruel et al., 2009). Lignins can even be dissimilar at the level of individual cell wall layers, as revealed by Raman, IR, and UV microspectroscopy, or by immunolabeling of the secondary wall with antibodies cross-reacting with specific lignin substructures (Shi et al., 2006; Gierlinger and Schwanninger, 2007; Gou et al., 2008; Ruel et al., 2009).
It is commonly accepted that lignin evolved together with the adaptation of plants to a terrestrial life to provide them with the structural support needed for an erect growth habit (Fig. 3). Comparative genomics studies based on available plant genomes indicate that the complete biosynthetic pathway, except for F5H, first appeared in moss (based on the Physcomitrella genome sequence; Xu et al., 2009) but was absent from green algae. However, recent studies have also detected secondary walls and apparent lignin in the marine red alga Calliarthron, which diverged from vascular plants more than 1 billion years ago (Martone et al., 2009), indicating either a very strongly conserved evolutionary history of the relevant pathways or convergent evolution. In support of the latter hypothesis, parallels between Calliarthron and angiosperms are obvious; lignin in the secondary cell walls of Calliarthron may have evolved to resist the bending stresses imposed by breaking waves, similar to lignin in the walls of vascular plants that provides biomechanical support (Martone et al., 2009). In the lycophyte species Selaginella, convergent evolution has been demonstrated with the identification of a new F5H that is capable of functioning in S-lignin biosynthesis but that is structurally unrelated to F5H characterized in angiosperms (Weng et al., 2008b, 2010). It is also noteworthy that cell cultures, but not woody cell walls of Ginkgo biloba, are able to synthesize S lignin; the S-lignin pathway in gymnosperms is generally thought to be absent (Novo Uzal et al., 2009). Clearly, the complex evolutionary puzzle regarding S lignin has yet to be resolved.
Genes have been cloned for each of the steps of the lignin biosynthetic pathway and the impact on lignin amount and composition has been studied through mutants or reverse genetics in various species, mostly Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), maize (Zea mays), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), poplar (Populus spp.), and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) but more recently also in flax (Linum usitatissimum; CCoAOMT; Day et al., 2009), the gymnosperms Pinus radiata (HCT and 4CL; Wagner et al., 2007, 2009) and Picea abies (CCR; Wadenbäck et al., 2008), and in rice (Oryza sativa; CAD; Zhang et al., 2006; Li et al., 2009). (For full gene/protein names not provided in the text, see legend of Fig. 1.) From these studies, it can be concluded that reducing the expression of each gene, except F5H, lowers lignin amount in the cell wall to varying extents, depending on the gene, the species, and the level of gene redundancy (Li et al., 2008; Nakashima et al., 2008; Vanholme et al., 2008). Secondary walls with decreased lignin amounts are often characterized by collapsed vessels. This "irregular xylem" phenotype, indicative of reduced mechanical cell wall strength, is not unique to reductions in lignin, as it is also noted in mutants with defects in the biosynthesis of other cell wall polymers (Brown et al., 2005). Strongly reduced lignin amounts result in altered plant development, but more importantly, modest reductions can lead to normal development, as nicely demonstrated by the allelic series of c4h (ref3) mutants in Arabidopsis; the strongest allele causes small and sterile plants, and the weaker alleles result in relatively normal plants with still less lignin (Ruegger and Chapple, 2001; Schilmiller et al., 2009). This implies that, for applications in crops, fine-tuning of the lignin level or targeting the transgene expression to only specific cell types will be an important endeavor.
In addition to lignin content, lignin H/G/S composition also appears to be rather flexible. Silencing of HCT or C3H leads to lignin with H-unit levels as high as 100% of the total thioacidolysis lignin monomers (Franke et al., 2002; Abdulrazzak et al., 2006; Ralph et al., 2006; Besseau et al., 2007; Coleman et al., 2008). Down-regulation of F5H or COMT strongly reduces S-unit content; in contrast, up-regulation of F5H increases the S-unit content (Franke et al., 2000; Stewart et al., 2009). Furthermore, down-regulation of CAD increases the incorporation of cinnamaldehydes into the polymer (Baucher et al., 1998; Lapierre et al., 1999, 2004; Kim et al., 2003). The most remarkable shifts in lignin composition are seen when COMT is down-regulated; in these lignins, 5-hydroxyconiferyl alcohol, derived from the COMT substrate, is incorporated, although it is below the detection limit in wild-type lignin (Van Doorsselaere et al., 1995; Lapierre et al., 1999; Fig. 5). It is interesting that shifts in G and S levels, as well as shifts toward more aldehydes, generally have only minor effects on plant development. Obviously, because the relative ratio of the different monomers determines the frequency of the different bonds in the polymer, all these compositional shifts have repercussions on the structure of the polymer and may thus alter the cell wall properties.
The effects of lignin pathway perturbations often go beyond alterations in lignin amount, composition, and cell wall structure. Indeed, several studies have now demonstrated that perturbing individual steps of the lignin biosynthetic pathway affects the expression level of other lignin pathway genes and also the expression of genes involved in a multitude of other, seemingly unrelated biological processes. These wider effects are also reflected at the metabolite level (Rohde et al., 2004; Sibout et al., 2005; Shi et al., 2006; Dauwe et al., 2007; Leplé et al., 2007). Uncovering their molecular basis might help mitigate the adverse effects on plant growth and development that often accompany lignin modifications.
In the past few years, significant progress has been made in understanding the regulation of lignification. New data indicate a regulatory cascade of upstream transcription factors that control the formation of secondary walls by activating a range of other transcription factors. Some of these downstream transcription factors are then able to induce the expression of genes of the lignin biosynthetic pathway (Zhong and Ye, 2007). The regulatory cascade explains why several of the currently described transcription factors lead to enhanced or reduced lignification when misexpressed in plants while they do not directly regulate the lignin biosynthetic genes by binding to their promoters (Zhong et al., 2006, 2008). Therefore, yeast one-hybrid assays, protoplast transient expression assays, and electrophoretic mobility shift assays have been essential to prove the direct binding of a given transcription factor to the promoters of lignin genes (Table I).
Microarray experiments on Arabidopsis cell suspension cultures that are induced to form tracheary elements have identified a set of transcription factors involved in this cell differentiation process (Kubo et al., 2005). Whereas VASCULAR-RELATED NAC-DOMAIN6 (VND6) and VND7 were shown to be key upstream regulators of the protoxylem and metaxylem formation, respectively (Kubo et al., 2005; Yamaguchi et al., 2008), SECONDARY WALL-ASSOCIATED NAC DOMAIN PROTEIN1 (SND1) was described as an upstream regulator of interfascicular fiber development, and overexpression of SND1 led to ectopic formation of secondary cell walls (Zhong et al., 2006). Moreover, SND1 was able to regulate at least 10 other transcription factors (Zhong et al., 2007, 2008; Zhou et al., 2009), some of which activated the phenylpropanoid pathway (e.g. Myb46, Myb63, and Myb58; Table I).
Engineering the expression of transcription factors has the potential to alter lignification with fewer adverse effects on plant development for two reasons. First, these transcription factors bind the promoters of multiple genes, thereby affecting the flux through the pathway in an orchestrated manner. Second, some might be specifically involved in the developmental lignification process and not in other processes, such as stress lignin formation, leaving the plant able to respond to environmental factors.
After their biosynthesis, the monolignols are translocated to the cell wall by a mechanism that remains a mystery. In one model, the monolignols are translocated over the plasma membrane through their 4-O-glucosylated forms, coniferin and syringin, that are deglucosylated upon their arrival by glucosidases located in the cell wall. However, Arabidopsis mutants defective in the corresponding glucosyltransferases have normal lignin levels (Lanot et al., 2006; A. Chapelle, C. Lapierre, and L. Jouanin, unpublished data; A. Lanot, R. Dixon, and D. Bowles, personal communication). In another model, monolignols are transported to the plasma membrane by Golgi-derived vesicles. However, Kaneda et al. (2008), using [3H]Phe feeding experiments, did not find evidence for Golgi-derived vesicles in monolignol transport, nor did they find any significant label in the monolignol glucosides. Thus, at present, there is no convincing support for a role for monolignol glucosides or Golgi-derived vesicles in the transport of monolignols to the cell wall. Current working models assume that monolignols are translocated across the plasma membrane by transporters, but tests on several prime candidate transporters by reverse genetics have not yet revealed any effect on monolignol transport (Ehlting et al., 2005; L. Samuels, personal communication). Nevertheless, additional studies are needed. Alternatively, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohols might have the capability of unaided diffusion through the plasma membrane (Boija and Johansson, 2006).
Lignin polymerization occurs via oxidative radicalization of phenols, followed by combinatorial radical coupling. In the first step, the monolignol phenol is oxidized (i.e. dehydrogenated). The resulting phenolic radical is relatively stable due to delocalization of the unpaired electron in the conjugated system (Fig. 4). Subsequently, two monomer radicals may couple to form a (dehydro)dimer, thereby establishing a covalent bond between both subunits. Monolignol radicals favor coupling at their β positions, resulting essentially in only the β-β, β-O-4, and β-5 dimers (Fig. 4). This radical-radical coupling occurs in a chemical-combinatorial fashion; thus, the ratio of each of the possible coupling products depends largely on the chemical nature of each of the monomers and the conditions in the cell wall (Ralph et al., 2004). Then, the dimer needs to be dehydrogenated, again to a phenolic radical, before it can couple with another monomer radical. This mode of action, in which a monomer (radical) adds to the growing polymer, is termed endwise coupling: the polymer grows one unit at a time. Coupling of two lignin oligomers is rare in S/G-lignins but relatively common in G-lignins, where 5-5 coupling accounts for approximately 4% of the linkages (Argyropoulos et al., 2002; Wagner et al., 2009). During each coupling reaction, two radicals are "consumed" (in a so-called "termination reaction") as each single electron contributes to the newly formed bond, making this type of radical polymerization intrinsically different from the radical chain reactions that occur in the polymerization of several industrial polymers, such as polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene. The average length of a linear lignin chain in poplar is estimated to be between 13 and 20 units (Reale et al., 2004; Stewart et al., 2009).
Monolignol dehydrogenation involves peroxidases and/or laccases. Whereas peroxidases use hydrogen peroxide as a substrate, laccases use oxygen to oxidize their metal centers to enable catalytical phenol oxidation. Both types of enzymes belong to large gene families of which the individual members have overlapping activities, making the process difficult to study in planta; a knockout may have little to no effect on lignification due to gene redundancy (McCaig et al., 2005; Sato and Whetten, 2006). Peroxidases may differ in their substrate specificities; whereas some almost exclusively accept coniferyl alcohol, others are highly specific toward sinapyl alcohol (Marjamaa et al., 2006; Gómez Ros et al., 2007). Because the structure of lignin depends on the availability of monolignol radicals, peroxidase specificity may determine in part the structure of the final lignin polymers, opening possibilities for altering lignin structure by modified expression of specific peroxidase isoforms. Although monolignols might be dehydrogenated via direct interaction with an electron-removing (oxidizing) enzyme, the radicals might alternatively be generated by radical transfer. Indeed, direct interaction of the growing lignin polymer with enzymes may be unlikely given the limited freedom of movement of both in the cell wall. The p-coumarate moiety in sinapyl p-coumarate has been proposed as a radical shuttle for lignification in grasses; p-coumarate, unlike sinapyl alcohol, is an excellent substrate for peroxidases found in grasses, but the p-coumarate radical efficiently transfers its unpaired electron to sinapyl alcohol and, presumably, also to lignin polymers (Hatfield et al., 2008).
In conclusion, the current model of lignification involves peroxidases and/or laccases to provide the oxidative capacity in the cell wall. All phenolic compounds that enter this region will eventually have the potential to radicalize and incorporate into the lignin polymer, subject to simple chemical oxidation and (cross-)coupling propensities. This lignification model also nicely explains why many other phenolic molecules can be integrated into the growing lignin polymer and opens up the possibility of tailoring lignins for industrial applications by regulating the influx and types of monolignols into the cell wall (Ralph, 2006; Grabber et al., 2008).
Various methods exist to reveal the molecular details of lignin structure. As lignin is a complex and heterogeneous mixture of polymers, the methods generally aim at estimating the average frequency of the main units and the main bond types in the polymer, from a conglomerate simply of the whole plant or in crudely fractionated major tissues. Nitrobenzene oxidation, pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and thioacidolysis and derivatization followed by reductive cleavage are degradative methods that reveal the H/G/S composition of the lignin polymer. All these methods liberate only a fraction of the polymer for analysis. Thioacidolysis and derivatization followed by reductive cleavage liberate monomers only from the so-called noncondensed fraction of the polymer (i.e. only those H-, G-, and S-units that are β-O-4-[ether] linked with other units are released from the polymer and quantified by GC-MS; Lapierre et al., 1985; Lu and Ralph, 1997). A streamlined thioacidolysis method now allows running some 50 samples per day (Robinson and Mansfield, 2009).
NMR, particularly two-dimensional (2D) 13C-1H-correlated (HSQC, HMQC) spectroscopy, which combines the sensitivity of 1H NMR with the higher resolution of 13C NMR, continues to be the best method to reveal the frequencies of the different lignin units and the interunit bonding patterns (Fig. 5; Ralph et al., 1999; Ralph and Landucci, 2010). Although the best quality spectra are obtained from purified isolated lignins, the entire lignin fraction can be analyzed when using cruder isolates, such as so-called "cellulolytic enzyme lignin," in which most of the polysaccharides are removed by treatment with crude cellulases, or when using unfractionated whole cell wall material, either fully dissolved or simply swollen in the gel state (Yelle et al., 2008; Kim and Ralph, 2010). Analysis of the lignins in these preparations allows most of the details of the overall lignin structure to be determined. The 2D NMR "profile" of unfractionated walls now becomes a fingerprint of all of the components (the various polysaccharides and lignins) in the cell wall. A new development in 2D 13C-1H-correlated spectral data analysis is the use of multivariate analysis that provides even better peak assignment and, hence, a better characterization of the cell wall, as demonstrated by comparing the differences between tension wood and normal wood in poplar (Hedenström et al., 2009).
Although a fair number of the spectral data (contours) have been resolved (essentially those colored in Fig. 5), the molecular origins of many remain unknown. The comparative analysis of lignin from wild-type and transgenic or mutant plants by wet chemistry methods along with NMR analyses has helped significantly in revealing their origin. A striking example is that of COMT-down-regulated plants. Thioacidolysis and phenolic profiling of xylem extracts revealed the increased abundance of units derived from 5-hydroxyconiferyl alcohol; the resulting benzodioxane units, formed when this new monomer incorporates into the polymer, were revealed as new contours in the NMR spectra (Ralph et al., 2001; Marita et al., 2003; Morreel et al., 2004b). More recently, NMR of CCR-deficient plants (poplar, tobacco, and Arabidopsis) showed a low-level incorporation of ferulic acid into lignin. In addition to the previously anticipated β-O-4-ferulate structures, NMR and thioacidolysis evidence was presented for a novel bis-(β-O-4)-ether product arising from coupling of ferulic acid into lignin (Leplé et al., 2007; Ralph et al., 2008). These novel acetal units are now indicative of (free) hydroxycinnamic acid incorporation into lignins. These new units should not be confused with radical coupling products from lignification reactions of ferulate-polysaccharide esters, which are abundant in grasses.
NMR data also provide insight into other aspects of the lignin polymer, such as polymer length, as nicely demonstrated by the analysis of lignin from F5H-overexpressing poplar (Stewart et al., 2009). Lignins from these trees have the "world-record" S content, with an S/G ratio of greater than 35 versus approximately 2 for wild-type poplar lignin. As readily seen by NMR, the lignin is quite homogeneous, composed essentially only of syringaresinol and β-ether units (with small amounts of spirodienones; for bond types, see Fig. 5). Importantly, if the quantification is correct and the syringaresinol level is of the order of 10%, the average lignin chain can only be about 10 units, as it is a simple fact that a linear (S) lignin chain can only have a single resinol unit in that chain. Both factors (the high β-ether level and the short chain length) and the consequently high content of units with a free phenolic end probably contribute to this transgenic plant's remarkable pulping and biomass conversion performance (Huntley et al., 2003; Stewart et al., 2009).
As lignins have moderately high molecular weights and are highly heterogeneous polymers, deducing their primary structures (i.e. the sequence of H-, G-, and S-units in individual polymers and the bonds between them) is not possible using NMR methods that are typically based on lignin extracted from multiple cell types. In fact, because lignin is combinatorial, sequencing of lignin is meaningless, except for individual molecules. Nevertheless, understanding how monolignols couple (i.e. the propensity to couple a given way) provides insight into the factors that determine lignin structure. In an attempt to start determining the primary structures of low-Mr oligolignols, mixtures have been extracted from poplar xylem and analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS; Morreel et al., 2004a). Forty of these structures were identified, and all were in agreement with combinatorial oxidative polymerization. When the relative abundances of these oligolignols were analyzed from transgenic plants with modified lignin, they nicely corresponded with the lignin structural data as obtained by NMR of the total lignin, advocating the value of oligolignol profiling as a high-throughput, easy-to-use, and more sensitive method than traditional NMR- or GC-based methods to reveal changes in incipient lignin structure. In addition, LC-MS-based oligolignol profiling has the potential to discover new lignin monomers. For example, sinapyl p-hydroxybenzoate was authenticated as a new monomer (or monomer conjugate) by identifying its cross-coupling product with sinapyl alcohol (Lu et al., 2004; Morreel et al., 2004a). Nonetheless, the identification of such oligolignols by LC-MS necessitates a profound knowledge of their fragmentation behavior in the gas phase. This laboriously gained knowledge has now allowed the development of an MS-based algorithm that allows sequencing of individual lignin oligomers (Morreel et al., 2010).
Finally, the MS analysis of xylem extracts reveals that many phenylpropanoid-derived molecules still have an unknown identity. Therefore, the structural elucidation and quantification of the full suite of these molecules by LC-MS, which we refer to in our laboratory as "lignomics," may identify additional candidate lignin monomers and their possible biosynthetic routes.
One new trend in lignin research is to steer biosynthetic pathways toward the biosynthesis of molecules that, upon incorporation into the lignin polymer, will improve lignin degradation. This idea stems from the growing list of newly discovered lignin monomers, from the observation that lignin is able to readily copolymerize alternative units that derive from incomplete monolignol biosynthesis in plants with pathway perturbations, and from examples in which plants with altered lignin structures are shown to be viable and more easily processed (Pilate et al., 2002; Huntley et al., 2003; Ralph et al., 2006; Leplé et al., 2007). This concept of copolymerizing alternative lignin monomers into the polymer has already been demonstrated in a biomimetic system by polymerizing coniferyl ferulate together with normal monolignols into maize primary cell walls (Grabber et al., 2008). The resulting lignin, now strongly enriched in easily breakable ester bonds in the lignin backbone, degrades at lower temperature and alkaline charges. If such dramatic improvement can also be achieved by genetic engineering, it may result in less energy-demanding biomass pretreatments to liberate the cellulose.
Additional insight into the factors that determine lignin structure and degradability can be obtained by mathematical modeling. According to Freudenberg's concept, coupling of monolignols is dependent on their speed of delivery to the cell wall, their chemical characteristics, and the oxidative environment in the wall, among other factors (Vanholme et al., 2008). A mathematical model has now been developed that predicts the frequency of the different bond types, the number of different polymers, their lengths, and the relative abundance of the different length polymers under varying parameters. This in silico tool can be used to define the parameters that influence lignin degradation in processes such as alkaline pulping or biomass pretreatment methods used in biofuel production (van Parijs et al., 2010). The model is such that it can accommodate the incorporation of alternative lignin monomers to evaluate the effect on lignin degradability.
Regarding more fundamental research, systems biology has revealed that lignin perturbations have wide-ranging consequences on the regulation of the pathway itself and on other metabolic pathways and biological processes (Vanholme et al., 2008). Understanding how this network functions, how it responds to lignin perturbations, and how it can be mathematically modeled to predict the effects of lignin perturbations while taking into account feedback loops, enzyme kinetics, and fluxes still has a long way to go.
Finally, although many studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of lignin engineering on end-use applications, such as pulping and saccharification in the laboratory, only a few studies have evaluated modified plants in the field (Boerjan, 2005; Kawaoka et al., 2006; Hopkins et al., 2007; Leplé et al., 2007; Wadenbäck et al., 2008; Wei et al., 2008; Walter et al., 2010). However, in the field, plants are exposed to various conditions and stresses caused by weather and pests that are difficult or even impossible to mimic in a greenhouse. Field trials are thus an essential translation toward end-use application. Field trials to examine the effects of reduced lignin on the conversion of biomass to bioethanol have recently been initiated (Custers, 2009; Strauss et al., 2009). In addition to biotech plants, clear benefits have been shown years ago for a number of natural mutants, both in grasses (Vermerris et al., 2007) and pine (Pinus taeda; Dimmel et al., 2001; Yu et al., 2006). With the advent of the biobased economy, the easy release of sugars from the plant cell wall and their use as a carbon source for bacteria that have been engineered to biosynthesize a wide range of biobased products is becoming ever more important.
We thank Martine De Cock for help in preparing the manuscript.
↵1 This work was supported by the Research Foundation-Flanders (grant no. G.0352.05N), by the Stanford University Global Climate and Energy Project (grants "Towards New Degradable Lignin Types" to W.B. and "Efficient Biomass Conversion: Delineating the Best Lignin Monomer-Substitutes" to J.R.), by the European Commission Framework VII projects RENEWALL (grant no. KBBE–2007–3–1–01), ENERGYPOPLAR (grant no. KBBE–2007–3–1–02), and NOVELTREE (grant no. KBBE–2007–1–2–05), by the Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology (predoctoral fellowships to R.V. and B.D.), by grants from the Bijzonder Onderzoeksfonds-Zware Apparatuur of the Ghent University for the FT-ICR-MS (grant no. 174PZA05) and from the Hercules program of Ghent University for the Synapt Q-Tof (grant no. AUGE/014), and by the Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center (Department of Energy Office of Science grant no. BER DE–FC02–07ER64494).
The author responsible for distribution of materials integral to the findings presented in this article in accordance with the policy described in the Instructions for Authors (www.plantphysiol.org) is: Wout Boerjan (wout.boerjan{at}psb.vib-ugent.be).
- Received February 19, 2010.
- Accepted May 12, 2010.
- Published May 14, 2010.


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Pete Townshend charms fans at Toronto's Indigo bookstore
Jeff Cottrill
Nov 22, 2012 in
- "Toronto's been a fantastically important city for me in my life," rock legend Pete Townshend told a crowd of dozens of fans earlier tonight at the Indigo bookstore at Bay and Bloor. "For the Who, it's always been an incredibly important venue."
The iconic songwriter, guitarist and singer is in the Canadian city (along with surviving bandmate Roger Daltrey) as part of the Who's
Quadrophenia And More
tour, which hits the
Air Canada Centre
tomorrow. Townshend stopped by Indigo for an exclusive public appearance, which included a live interview with broadcaster and music writer
Alan Cross
, followed by a signing for Townshend's recently published memoir,
Who I Am
The band is playing its famed 1973 rock opera
in its entirety, plus an encore of classic tunes like "Won't Get Fooled Again", "Baba O'Riley" and "Pinball Wizard".
"We play in ice-hockey rinks most of the time when we come to play in this neck of the woods," Townshend said, "and ice hockey is a place where young men tend to go RAAAAAAAAH! RAAAAAAAAH! That's a sound that I'm quite used to.
"But what's funny is that that's not what the Who's music is about," he added, referring to the sort of jock machismo typically found in hockey. "The Who's music is about vulnerability – about trying to find ways to be a man in a time when it's quite difficult to be a man."
Townshend, 67, seemed to be enjoying the event, if not quite as much as the audience. Unlike his temperamental, guitar-smashing, rock-star image, he was constantly animated, chipper and funny as he talked with Cross about his career, his take on digital media and iTunes, his passion for sailing and how his book came together.
"I wanted to write a book to help people to understand why rock 'n' roll happened, why it has lasted. And pop music as we have it today will last, until there's another major war," Townshend explained. "I certainly had the idea that I could write an interesting book about the fact that in the '60s, the function of music changed... when I was fourteen or fifteen, it became much more serious. That's why I've always been so serious about what I do."
Cross mentioned the impressive detail in
Who I Am
, which Townshend credited to documentation and memory. "Because I write lyrics, I've always kept notebooks. Those notebooks, you can imagine, tell you more than just lyrics. For example, I wrote a few sketches for 'Behind Blue Eyes', and at the bottom, there's a little note that says, 'Call bank manager. You have an overdraft.' And below that is a question: 'What are piles?' I was too young to know.
"The other thing is that my memory is incredibly good. I haven't touched alcohol in a serious way since 1982. I've never used hard drugs, except to try to stop drinking, and of course, that didn't work out very well. My mind is pretty sharp, and my memory's good."
Townshend also addressed the book's highly self-critical content, jokingly noting that "the whole book is a castigation!" He quoted somebody who'd described
Who I Am
to him as "'the first autobiography that's a hatchet job'".
"One of the things I don't buy about modern living is that we have to
," he said. "It's that ethic: you don't talk about your failures, you talk only about your successes. We're all a mix of self-certainty. What's the point of writing the book if it's not the truth? I don't castigate myself – I tell the truth.
"I did an interview with a German guy from
Der Spiegel
the other day, and he said: [mock German accent] 'I have just read Rod Stewart's book. This is a good book. He is happy. He is handsome. He still has his hair. He is married to a very beautiful blonde. He has had sex with many many many blondes... And then there was
book. [disappointed face]
At another point, Townshend discussed why he tries not to pontificate too much on political issues. About the Iraq war, he admitted: "I said things I regret. I didn't have the full picture. Who ever has the full picture?"
On "Won't Get Fooled Again": "That song was written against the idea that rock was an art to be used as part of a revolution... I don't mind if my music is used for political reasons, but not that song."
One might have hoped that Townshend would close the interview by smashing a copy of
Who I Am
to bits, but everybody seemed satisfied without it.
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text:
Track pupils using the 3D tracking system. When in full auto mode, it's a one touch operation for IOP measurement for both eyes. For added flexibility, it includes Auto and Manual measurement modes.
The TX-20P's delicate air puff offers maximum patient comfort while eliminating typical patient anxiety. Set the Safety Alert to prevent the optical head from making physical contact with your patient.
In the event a reading cannot be made, the user will be alerted via the display with detail on whether it was an eyelid, eyelash or the eye being out of position that caused the error.
The external fixation is effective for patients with central vision defects and can be activated using the menus on the LCD screen.
Built for comfort and weighing approx. 15 kg, the compact TX-20P maximises small spaces and comfortably fits on your instrument table along with a Canon Non-Mydriatic Retinal Camera (sold separately).
Tilt the 5.7 inch colour LCD monitor up to a 40 degree angle so you can view your patient from almost any position comfortably.
Align patients with one hand and easily use the other if needed. The top of the joystick button includes the start button, which can immediately be pressed once the patient is properly positioned.
The TX-20P Tonometer provides data output using RS-232C and LAN connections, and data input using USB connections.
Canon Locations and Authorised Resellers
The TX-20P offers exam versatility through multiple alignment modes which includes a fully automatic mode. It's both compact and lightweight so it doesn't intrude on your work space and provides visual indicators to alert you when readings cannot be made so you spend less time guessing.
From within Australia


text:
This is big rock that isn't too small for a bar room blitz. Ohio's Doctor Smoke is riff-heavy to the max — even the verses have the throaty chug of licks slithering throughout the vocal sneer and drive. I would be remiss if I didn't mention Sabbath, but this quartet leaves room for a bit of grungy, stoner fun, in spite of how seriously heavy it comes off.
Doctor Smoke, Orodruin, Fox 45, and The Highest Leviathan plays Thursday, September 3, at Flour City Station, 170 East Avenue. 9 p.m. $6. flourcitystation.com; facebook.com/drsmokedoom.


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Electrical repair services in the UAE.
Did your electricity just shut off? Or power keeps going out in your apartment or a villa? Then or 24 hours Emergency electrical repair services team is available at your fingertips. A well-experienced electrician, for your Home electrical wiring.
Why the Electricity just shut off?
Sometimes, it may be possible, that you skipped making the Electricity Bill and the power got disrupted, due to that. However, please check with the Power Distribution Company; such DEWA/ SEWA / FEWA, for any disruption of services from their end.
Do not hesitate to call us, if you get in a situation, where there is no electricity in your home, apartment or a villa and there is no power disruption. We have 24 hours emergency electrical repair team, to handle such situation.
Does your power keep going out?
If you are continually facing power disruption, within your premises and your power keeps going out. Then it might be the case of a loose connection, either in electrical witch and sockets or the breaker, ELCB, MCB in the SMDB ( small distribution box).
Sometimes, finding out these problems are very easy. However, if there is no load schedule, then it becomes little challenging to find the fault.
Electrical maintenance and repair
Our advice to the tenant and the landlords or the apartment and villa owners to have qualified electrical maintenance company to perform electrical maintenance and repair work in the UAE. Never go for a copied product or a counterfeit product for electrical items.
While comparing the contractor quotes, make sure you compare apple to apple. The quote can vary drastically on electrical material selection.
For example, a 1.5 mm, three core cable of DU Cab brand will cost you AED 350/ roll. However, a similar looking same gauge cable can cost you as low as AED 75/ roll. The difference is the wire used, the expensive one will be 99 % copper and the cheaper one will either less copper or aluminum. The difference is hard to find, but once in operation, the dirty cable will have more heat than the expensive cable.
To know more about on, you can click the link for an Electrical outlet and power switches in the UAE
Our Service Charges for Electrical Repairs in Dubai.
It will be a chargeable service call. Our electrician will visit the site, inspect and fix the problem if it is a minor issue.
In case the client does not agree with the quote, or he plans to look for an option. Our Electrician will then provide them, with a service report and the quotation. The customer will only be liable to pay the service call charges. Emirates repairs will let the client know the costs, before scheduling our Electrical repair specialist.


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If you want to start your profitable credit repair business in [STATE], you need to understand [STATE] state credit repair laws, bond requirements, licensing, and statute of limitations. Read this book to understand the basics of credit repair and then scroll down below for important details on [STATE] state credit repair laws and regulations.
Roughly $200
Roughly $100 - $1000
There are federal and state laws for Missouri. You should be aware of both.
Federal Laws
The Credit Repair Organizations Act (CROA) is a federal law passed in September 1996 that regulates organizations whose purpose is increasing consumer's credit score through credit repair. One of the most important things the CROA did is make it illegal for credit repair organizations to make false claims. Don't worry though, staying compliant is pretty easy after you get familiar with the law! This law is moderated and enforced by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), so the FTC has the authority to close down any credit repair organizations that are operating outside the parameters of these laws (like fraudulent or illegal activities).
The main sections include mandates that:
Simply put, these laws were put in place to protect people from credit repair companies using scammy business practices. As long as you're not trying to be sketchy and scam people, you should be able to stay compliant easily!
To read the Credit Repair Organizations Act in full, visit the United States House of Representatives' record of the act here.
State Laws
Missouri has laws that govern how to start (and run!) a credit repair business in Missouri. Here are the relevant regulations and Missouri laws governing credit repair businesses that you need to be aware of:
Missouri State Laws
Chapter 407. Merchandising Practices
As used in sections 407.635 to 407.644, the following words and phrases shall mean:
(1) "Buyer", an individual who is solicited to purchase or who purchases the services of a credit services organization;
(2) "Consumer reporting agency" has the meaning assigned by section 603(f) of the federal Fair Credit Reporting Act, 15 U.S.C. Section 1681a(f);
(3) "Extension of credit", the right to defer payment of debt or to incur debt and defer its payment offered or granted primarily for personal family or household purposes.
407.637. Credit service organizations--exemptions
1. A credit services organization is a person who, with respect to the extension of credit by others and in return for the payment of money or other valuable consideration, provides or represents that the person can or will provide any of the following services:
(1) Improving the buyer's credit record, history or rating;
(2) Obtaining an extension of credit for a buyer; or
(3) Providing advice or assistance to a buyer with regard to subdivision (1) or (2) of this subsection.
2. The following are exempt from the provisions of sections 407.635 to 407.644:
(1) A person authorized to make loans or extensions of credit under the laws of this state or the United States who is subject to regulation and supervision by this state or the United States, or a lender approved by the United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development for participation in a mortgage insurance program under the federal National Housing Act, 12 U.S.C. Section 1701, et seq.;
(2) A bank or savings and loan association whose deposits or accounts are eligible for insurance by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, or a subsidiary of such a bank or savings and loan association;
(3) A credit union doing business in this state;
(4) A nonprofit organization exempt from taxation under section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code; [FN1]
(5) A person licensed as a real estate broker or salesperson pursuant to chapter 339, RSMo, acting within the course and scope of that license;
(6) A person licensed to practice law in this state acting within the course and scope of the person's practice as an attorney;
(7) A broker-dealer registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission or the Commodity Futures Trading Commission acting within the course and scope of that regulation;
(8) A consumer reporting agency;
(9) A person whose primary business is making loans secured by liens on real property;
(10) A person who is licensed as a certified public accountant pursuant to chapter 326, RSMo, acting within the course and scope of that license; or an individual who is enrolled to practice before the Internal Revenue Service; or an accountant, who is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Accountancy.
[FN1] 26 U.S.C.A. § 501(c)(3).
407.638. Prohibited activities
A credit services organization, a salesperson, agent or representative of a credit services organization, or an independent contractor who sells or attempts to sell the services of a credit services organization may not:
(1) Charge a buyer or receive from a buyer money or other valuable consideration before completing performance of all services the credit services organization has agreed to perform for the buyer, unless the credit services organization has obtained in accordance with section 407.639 a surety bond in the amount required by subsection 4 of section 407.639, issued by a surety company authorized to do business in this state, or has established and maintained a surety account at a federally insured bank or savings and loan association located in this state in which the amount required by subsection 5 of section 407.639 is held in trust as required by section 407.639;
(2) Charge a buyer or receive from a buyer money or other valuable consideration solely for referral of the buyer to a retail seller who will or may extend credit to the buyer if the credit that is or will be extended to the buyer is substantially the same as that available to the general public;
(3) Make or use a false or misleading representation in the offer or sale of the services of a credit services organization, including:
(a) Guaranteeing to "erase bad credit" or words to that effect unless the representation clearly discloses that this can be done only if the credit history is inaccurate or obsolete; and
(b) Guaranteeing an extension of credit regardless of the person's previous credit problem or credit history unless the representation clearly discloses the eligibility requirements for obtaining an extension of credit;
(4) Engage, directly or indirectly, in a fraudulent or deceptive act, practice or course of business in connection with the offer or sale of the services of a credit services organization;
(5) Make, or advise a buyer to make, a statement with respect to a buyer's credit worthiness, credit standing, or credit capacity that is false or misleading or that should be known by the exercise of reasonable care to be false or misleading, to a consumer reporting agency or to a person who has extended credit to a buyer or to whom a buyer is applying for an extension of credit;
(6) Advertise or cause to be advertised, in any manner whatsoever, the services of a credit services organization without filing a registration statement with the director of finance, unless otherwise provided by this chapter.
407.639. Copy of bond to be filed with director of finance--purpose of bond--amount of bond--statement by director of finance
1. This section applies to a credit services organization required by subdivision (1) of section 407.638 to obtain a surety bond or establish a surety account.
2. If a bond is obtained, a copy of it shall be filed with the director of finance. If a surety account is established, notification of the depository, the trustee and the account number shall be filed with the director of finance.
3. The bond or surety account required shall be in favor of the state for the benefit of any person who is damaged by any violation of sections 407.635 to 407.644. The bond or surety account shall also be in favor of any person damaged by such a violation.
4. Any person claiming against the bond or surety account for a violation of sections 407.635 to 407.644 may maintain an action at law against the credit services organization and against the surety or trustee. The surety or trustee shall be liable only for damages awarded under subdivision (1) of subsection 1 of section 407.644 and not the punitive damages permitted under that section. The aggregate liability of the surety or trustee to all persons damaged by a credit services organization's violation of this chapter may not exceed the amount of the surety account or bond.
5. The bond or the surety account shall be in the amount of ten thousand dollars.
6. A depository holding money in a surety account under sections 407.635 to 407.644 shall not convey money in the account to the credit services organization that established the account or a representative of the credit services organization unless the credit services organization or representative presents a statement issued by the director of finance indicating that section 407.640 [FN1] has been satisfied in relation to the credit services organization. The director of finance may conduct investigations and require submission of information as is necessary to enforce this section.
7. The bond or surety account shall be maintained until two years after the date that the credit services organization ceases operations.
[FN1] Revisor's note--1991: Original rolls contain reference to "subsection 6 of section 5" (407.640), an apparent typographical error since section 407.640 does not contain a subsection 6. All of section 407.640 seems germane to the original reference.
407.640. Registration statements, filing, contents
1. A credit services organization shall file a registration statement with the director of finance before conducting business in this state. The registration statement must contain:
(1) The name and address of the credit services organization; and
(2) The name and address of any person who directly or indirectly owns or controls ten percent or more of the outstanding shares of stock in the credit services organization.
2. The registration statement must also contain either:
(1) A full and complete disclosure of any litigation or unresolved complaint filed by or with a governmental authority of this state relating to the operation of the credit services organization; or
(2) A notarized statement that states that there has been no litigation or unresolved complaint filed by or with a governmental authority of this state relating to the operation of the credit services organization.
3. The credit services organization shall update the statement not later than the ninetieth day after the date on which a change in the information required in the statement occurs.
4. Each credit services organization registering under this section shall maintain a copy of the registration statement in the office of the credit services organization. The credit services organization shall allow a buyer to inspect the registration statement on request.
5. The director of finance may charge each credit services organization that files a registration statement with the director of finance a reasonable fee not to exceed one hundred dollars to cover the cost of filing. The director of finance may not require a credit services organization to provide information other than that provided in the registration statement as part of the registration process.
407.641. Contract, writing, contents
1. Before executing a contract or agreement with a buyer or receiving money or other valuable consideration, a credit services organization shall provide the buyer with a statement in writing, containing:
(1) A complete and detailed description of the services to be performed by the credit services organization for the buyer and the total cost of the services;
(2) A statement explaining the buyer's right to proceed against the bond or surety account required by subdivision (1) of section 407.638;
(3) The name and address of the surety company that issued the bond, or the name and address of the depository and the trustee, and the account number of the surety account;
(4) A complete and accurate statement of the buyer's right to review any file on the buyer maintained by a consumer reporting agency, as provided by the federal Fair Credit Reporting Act, 15 U.S.C. Section 1681, et seq.;
(5) A statement that the buyer's file is available for review at no charge on request made to the consumer reporting agency within thirty days after the date of receipt of notice that credit has been denied, and that the buyer's file is available for a minimal charge at any other time;
(6) A complete and accurate statement of the buyer's right to dispute directly with the consumer reporting agency the completeness or accuracy of any item contained in a file on the buyer maintained by that consumer reporting agency;
(7) A statement that accurate information cannot be permanently removed from the files of a consumer reporting agency;
(8) A complete and accurate statement of when consumer information becomes obsolete and of when consumer reporting agencies are prevented from issuing reports containing obsolete information; and
(9) A complete and accurate statement of the availability of nonprofit credit counseling services.
2. The credit services organization shall maintain on file, for a period of two years after the date the statement is provided, an exact copy of the statement, signed by the buyer, acknowledging receipt of the statement.
407.642. Contract requirements, cancellation clause
1. Each contract between the buyer and a credit services organization for the purchase of the services of the credit services organization must be in writing, dated, signed by the buyer and must include:
(1) A statement in type that is boldfaced, capitalized, underlined, or otherwise set out from surrounding written material so as to be conspicuous, in immediate proximity to the space reserved for the signature of the buyer, as follows:
(2) The terms and conditions of payment, including the total of all payments to be made by the buyer, whether to the credit services organization or to another person;
(3) A full and detailed description of the services to be performed by the credit services organization for the buyer, including all guarantees and all promises of full or partial refunds, and the estimated length of time, not to exceed one hundred eighty days, for performing the services; and
(4) The address of the credit services organization's principal place of business and the name and address of its registered agent in the state authorized to receive service of process.
2. The contract must have attached two easily detachable copies of a notice of cancellation. The notice must be in boldfaced type and in the following form:
3. The credit services organization shall give to the buyer a copy of the completed contract and all other documents the credit services organization requires the buyer to sign at the time they are signed.
4. The breach by a credit services organization of a contract under this section, or of any obligation arising from a contract under this section, is a violation of sections 407.635 to 407.644.
407.643. Waiver of buyer's rights void
1. A credit services organization may not attempt to cause a buyer to waive a right under sections 407.635 to 407.644.
2. A waiver by a buyer of any part of sections 407.635 to 407.644 is void.
407.644. Actions--damages--penalties
1. (1) A buyer injured by a violation of sections 407.635 to 407.644 may bring an action for recovery of damages. The damages awarded may not be less than the amount paid by the buyer to the credit services organization, plus reasonable attorney's fees and court costs.
(2) The buyer may also be awarded punitive damages.
2. The attorney general or a buyer may bring an action in a court of competent jurisdiction to enjoin a violation of sections 407.635 to 407.644.
3. A violation of sections 407.635 to 407.644 is an unlawful practice pursuant to sections 407.010 to 407.130, and the violator shall be subject to all penalties, remedies and procedures provided in sections 407.010 to 407.130.
4. An action may not be brought under subsection 1 or 3 of this section after four years after the date of the execution of the contract for services to which the action relates.
5. A person who violates any provision of sections 407.635 to 407.644 is guilty of a class B misdemeanor.
6. In an action under this section the burden of proving an exemption under section 407.637 is on the person claiming the exemption.
7. The remedies provided by sections 407.635 to 407.644 are in addition to other remedies provided by law.
ernon's Annotated Missouri Statutes Currentness
Telemarketing Practices
407.1070. Definitions
As used in sections 407.1070 to 407.1085, the following terms shall mean:
(1) "Advertisement", as defined in section 407.010;
(2) "Caller identification service", a type of telephone service which permits telephone subscribers to see the telephone number of incoming telephone calls;
(3) "Consumer", a natural person who purchases, may purchase or is solicited for purchase of merchandise or an investment opportunity by a telemarketer through telemarketing;
(4) "Established business relationship", a prior or existing relationship formed by a voluntary two-way communication between a seller or telemarketer and a consumer with or without an exchange of consideration, on the basis of an inquiry, application, purchase or transaction by the consumer regarding products or services offered by such seller or telemarketer, which relationship has not been previously terminated by either party;
(5) "Fictitious name", any name, other than the legal name, used by a seller or telemarketer;
(6) "Investment opportunity", anything tangible or intangible that is offered for sale, sold or traded based wholly or in part on representations, either express or implied, about past, present or future income, profit or appreciation;
(7) "Material aspect or element", any factor likely to significantly influence the consumer's choice of, or conduct regarding, merchandise;
(8) "Merchandise", any objects, wares, goods, commodities, intangibles, real estate or services; except that merchandise shall not include any services, goods or memberships given to a contributor by an entity, organized pursuant to Chapter 501(c)(3) of the United States Internal Revenue Code, while such entity is engaged in fund-raising to support the charitable purpose for which the entity was established provided that a bona fide member of such exempt organization makes the voice communication;
(9) "Prize", anything offered or purportedly offered or given or purportedly given to a consumer by chance. For purposes of this definition, chance exists if a consumer is guaranteed to receive anything of value and, at the time of the offer or purported offer, the telemarketer does not identify the specific item that the consumer will receive;
(10) "Promptly", at the beginning of any call initiated by a telemarketer to a consumer;
(11) "Seller", any person who, in connection with a telemarketing transaction, provides, offers to provide, or arranges for others to provide merchandise to the consumer in exchange for consideration;
(12) "Telemarketer", any person, or any recorded, computer-generated, electronically generated or other voice communication of any kind, who, in connection with telemarketing, initiates or receives telephone calls to or from a consumer. A telemarketer includes, but is not limited to, any such person that is an owner, operator, officer, director or partner to the management activities of a business;
(13) "Telemarketing", a plan, program or campaign which is conducted to induce the purchase or lease of merchandise by use of one or more telephones and which involves more than one telephone call.
407.1073. Telemarketers, disclosures to consumers, misrepresentations
1. A telemarketer shall disclose, promptly and in a clear and conspicuous manner, to the consumer receiving the telephone call the following:
(1) That the purpose of the telephone call is to make a sale;
(2) The telemarketer's identifiable name and the seller on whose behalf the solicitation is being made;
(3) The nature of the merchandise or investment opportunity being sold;
(4) That no purchase or payment is necessary to be able to win a prize or participate in a prize promotion if a prize promotion is offered. This disclosure shall be made before or in conjunction with the description of the prize to the consumer called; and
(5) If the telephone call is made by any recorded, computer-generated, electronically generated or other voice communication of any kind. When engaged in telemarketing, such voice communication shall, promptly at the beginning of the telephone call, inform the consumer that the call is being made by a recorded, computer-generated, electronically generated or other type of voice communication, as the case may be.
2. Before a consumer pays for merchandise offered for sale through telemarketing, the telemarketer shall disclose, in a clear and conspicuous manner, the following:
(1) The seller or telemarketer's identifiable name and the address or telephone number where the seller or telemarketer can be reached;
(2) The total cost and quantity of the merchandise that is the subject of the telemarketing sales call;
(3) Any material restriction, limitation or condition to purchase, receive or use the merchandise that is the subject of a telemarketing sales call;
(4) Any material aspect of the nature or terms of the refund, cancellation, exchange or repurchase policies, including the absence of such policies;
(5) Any material aspect of an investment opportunity being offered, including benefits, the price of the land or other investment, and the location of the investment;
(6) Material elements of a prize promotion, including:
(a) The odds of being able to receive the prize and, if the odds are not calculable in advance, the factors and methods used in calculating the odds;
(b) That no purchase or payment of any kind is required to win a prize or to participate in a prize promotion;
(c) The no-purchase or no-payment method of participating in the prize promotion, with either instructions on how to participate or an address or local or toll-free telephone number to which consumers may write or call for information on how to participate; and
(d) All material conditions to receive or redeem the prize.
3. A telemarketer shall not misrepresent, directly or by implication, any of the following:
(1) A description of the prize;
(2) Its market value;
(3) The actual number of each prize to be awarded;
(4) The date by which the prize will be awarded.
4. A telemarketer shall not misrepresent any material aspect of the performance, quality, efficacy, nature or basic characteristics of merchandise that is the subject of a telemarketing sales call.
407.1076. Telemarketers or sellers, prohibited conduct
It is an unlawful telemarketing act or practice for any seller or telemarketer to engage in the following conduct:
(1) Misrepresent any material fact required pursuant to section 407.1073. It is a defense to this subdivision if a seller or telemarketer shows, by a preponderance of the evidence, that the misrepresentation resulted from a bona fide error notwithstanding the maintenance of procedures reasonably adopted to avoid the error, and no civil penalties shall be imposed if this defense is met;
(2) Threaten, intimidate or use profane or obscene language;
(3) Cause the telephone to ring or engage any consumer in telephone conversation repeatedly or continuously in a manner a reasonable consumer would deem to be annoying, abusive or harassing;
(4) Knowingly and willfully initiate a telemarketing call to a consumer, or transfer or make available to others for telemarketing purposes a consumer's telephone number when that consumer has stated previously that he or she does not wish to receive solicitation calls by or on behalf of the seller unless such request has been rescinded;
(5) Engage in telemarketing to a consumer's residence at any time other than between 8:00 a.m. and 9:00 p.m. local time at the called consumer's location;
(6) Request or receive payment in advance to remove derogatory information from or improve a consumer's credit history, credit record or credit rating;
(7) Request or receive payment in advance from a consumer to recover or otherwise aid in the return of money or any other item lost by the consumer in a prior telemarketing transaction, except that this provision shall not apply to services provided by a licensed attorney;
(8) Obtain or submit for payment a check, draft or other form of negotiable paper drawn on a consumer's checking, savings, share or similar account without the consumer's express written or oral authorization. Such authorization shall be deemed verifiable if any of the following means are employed:
(a) Express written authorization by the consumer, which may include the consumer's signature on the negotiable instrument;
(b) Express oral authorization which is tape-recorded and made available upon request to the consumer's bank and which evidences clearly both the consumer's authorization of payment for the merchandise that is the subject of the sales offer and the consumer's receipt of all of the following information:
a. The date of the draft or drafts;
b. The amount of the draft or drafts;
c. The payor's name;
d. The number of draft payments;
e. A telephone number for consumer inquiry that is answered during normal business hours; and
f. The date of the consumer's oral authorization; or
(c) Written confirmation of the transaction, sent to the consumer prior to submission for payment of the consumer's check, draft or other form of negotiable paper, which shall include:
a. All of the information contained in paragraph (b) of this subdivision; and
b. The procedures by which the consumer can obtain a refund from the seller or telemarketer in the event that the confirmation is inaccurate;
(9) Procure the services of any professional delivery, courier or other pick-up service to obtain immediate receipt or possession of a consumer's payment, unless the merchandise or investment opportunity is delivered with the opportunity to inspect before any payment is collected;
(10) Knowingly provide assistance or support to any telemarketer when that person knows or consciously avoids knowing that the telemarketer is engaged in any act in violation of sections 407.1070 to 407.1085; or
(11) Knowingly utilize any method to block or otherwise circumvent a consumer's use of a caller identification service.
407.1079. Telemarketers or sellers, recordkeeping
1. A seller or telemarketer shall keep for a period of twenty-four months from the date the record is produced all verifiable authorizations and records as required in sections 407.1070 to 407.1085, in the form, manner, format or place as they keep such records in the ordinary course of business, including but not limited to:
(1) All substantially different advertising, brochures, telemarketing scripts and promotional materials;
(2) For any prize with a value of twenty-five dollars or greater, the name and last known address of each prize recipient and the prize awarded;
(3) The name and last known address of each consumer, the merchandise purchased, the date such merchandise was shipped or provided and the amount paid by the consumer for the merchandise;
(4) The name, any fictitious name used, the last known home address and telephone number, and the job title for all current and former employees directly involved in telephone sales, provided, that if the seller permits fictitious names to be used by employees, each fictitious name must be traceable to only one specific employee; and
(5) All written authorizations required to be provided or received pursuant to sections 407.1070 to 407.1085.
2. For offers of consumer credit products subject to The Truth in Lending Act, 15 U.S.C. et seq., and Regulation Z, 12 CFR 226, compliance with the record-keeping requirements pursuant to The Truth in Lending Act and Regulation Z shall constitute compliance with subdivision (3) of subsection 1 of this section.
3. The seller and the telemarketer calling on behalf of the seller may, by written agreement, allocate responsibility between themselves for the record keeping required by this section. When a seller and telemarketer have entered into such an agreement, the terms of the agreement shall govern, and the seller or telemarketer, as the case may be, need not keep records that duplicate those of the other. If the agreement is unclear as to who must maintain any required record, or if no such agreement exists, the seller shall be responsible for complying with subdivisions (1), (2), (3) and (5) of subsection 1 of this section and the telemarketer shall be responsible for complying with subdivision (4) of subsection 1 of this section.
4. In the event of any dissolution or termination of the telemarketer's business, the telemarketer shall maintain all records as required pursuant to this section. In the event of any sale, assignment or other change in ownership of the seller's business, the successor shall maintain all records required pursuant to this section.
407.1082. Violations, remedies
1. It is unlawful pursuant to section 407.020 to violate any provision of sections 407.1070 to 407.1085 or to misrepresent or omit the required disclosures of section 407.1073 or 407.1076, and pursuant to sections 407.010 to 407.130, the violator shall be subject to all penalties, remedies and procedures provided in sections 407.010 to 407.130. The remedies available in this section are cumulative and in addition to any other remedies available by law.
2. Any person who willfully and knowingly engages in any act or practice declared to be unlawful by any provision of subdivisions (2) to (5) of section 407.1076 shall be guilty of a class A misdemeanor. Any person who willfully and knowingly engages in any act or practice declared to be unlawful by any provision of subdivision (1) of section 407.1076, or of subdivisions (6) to (11) of section 407.1076, shall be guilty of a class D felony. Any person previously convicted of a class D felony pursuant to this subsection shall, for each subsequent conviction, be guilty of a class D felony punishable by the term of years set out for a class D felony, but with a fine of not more than five thousand dollars or a fine equal to triple the gain, with no limit on the amount recoverable pursuant to any triple-the-gain penalty. Any person who willfully and knowingly fails to keep the records required in section 407.1079 shall be guilty of a class A misdemeanor.
3. In addition to the remedies already provided in sections 407.1070 to 407.1085, any consumer that suffers a loss or harm as a result of any unlawful telemarketing act or practice pursuant to section 407.1076 may recover actual and punitive damages, reasonable attorney's fees, court costs and any other remedies provided by law.
407.1085. Exempt acts or practices--complaints
1. The following acts or practices are exempt from the provisions of sections 407.1070 to 407.1082:
(1) Telephone calls in which the sale of merchandise is not completed, and payment or authorization of payment is not required, until after a face-to-face sales presentation by the telemarketer or seller; or
(2) Telephone calls in which the sale of merchandise is completed and a written contract is forwarded to the consumer so long as the consumer may return the merchandise within fourteen days of receipt of the merchandise and receive a refund of any moneys paid except for any coverage, fees or services earned; provided that the telemarketer shall inform the consumer at the time of the call that:
(a) A written contract regarding the sale of the merchandise will be forwarded to the consumer;
(b) The approximate date of the delivery of the merchandise; and
(c) The consumer will have a right to terminate the contract within fourteen days of receipt of the merchandise, and upon returning the merchandise, shall have a right to a refund as provided in this subdivision.
The term "merchandise" as used in this subdivision shall mean merchandise sold by a person, institution or company that is under the direction and supervision of the director of the department of insurance, director of the division of credit unions or director of the division of finance or federally chartered banks, savings and loans and credit unions;
(3) Telephone calls initiated by a consumer that:
(a) Are not the result of any advertisement by a seller or telemarketer;
(b) Are in response to an advertisement through any media, other than direct mail or telemarketing, which discloses the name of the seller and the identity of the merchandise; provided that, this exemption shall not apply to calls initiated by the consumer in response to an advertisement that offers a prize or investment opportunity, or is used to engage in telemarketing activities prohibited by subdivision (6) or (7) of section 407.1076; or
(c) Are in response to direct mail solicitations that clearly and conspicuously disclose and do not misrepresent the material information required by subsection 2 of section 407.1073; provided that, this exemption does not apply to calls initiated by the consumer in response to an advertisement that offers a prize or investment opportunity, or is to engage in telemarketing activities prohibited by subdivision (6) or (7) of section 407.1076; or
(d) Are in response to the mailing of a catalog which contains a written description or illustration of the goods or services offered for sale; includes the business address of the seller, includes multiple pages of written materials or illustrations; and has been issued not less frequently than once a year, when the seller or telemarketer does not contact consumers by telephone but only receives calls initiated by consumers in response to the catalog, and stops further solicitation of items not in a catalog when the consumer states that he or she is not interested in any further solicitations; or
(4) Telephone calls or messages:
(a) To any consumer with such consumer's prior express invitation or permission;
(b) To any consumer with whom the seller has an established business relationship; or
(c) By or on behalf of any entity over which either a state or federal agency has regulatory authority to the extent that:
a. Subject to such authority, the entity is required to maintain a license, registration, certificate or permit to sell or provide the merchandise being offered through telemarketing; and
b. As of August 28, 2000, the state or federal agency has, directly or through a delegation of authority which is enforceable pursuant to state or federal law, promulgated rules that regulate the telemarketing sales practices of the entity for the merchandise that entity offers through telemarketing and are reasonably consistent with the requirements of section 407.1070 through section 407.1079 and which allow consumer redress pursuant to that agency's rules or applicable federal law;
(d) Between a telemarketer and any business except calls involving the retail sale of nondurable office and cleaning supplies.
2. The office of the attorney general shall receive telemarketing complaints by means of a toll-free telephone number, by a notice in writing or by electronic means. Complaints against entities who are licensed, certificated or permitted and whose telemarketing practices are regulated by the same state or federal agency and which agency has rules regulating telemarketing practices shall be forwarded for investigation by the office of the attorney general to such agency. All other complaints shall be handled by the office of the attorney general.
407.1090. Payment for contribution solicitation, amount based on contributions, organizations net percentage of contributions, disclosure
When any entity is paid for soliciting contributions via telephone calls, and the pay is based on contributions received as a result of the phone call, the entity making the calls must disclose immediately to all called parties the net percentage of contributions that go to the organization for which the contribution is solicited.
Case Law
I identified no significant cases construing this statutes.
For additional information about starting a credit repair company in [STATE] contact your state or an attorney.
A few states do require a surety bond. (At the time of this writing most states do not require a bond.) If your state does require a bond, you are not required to secure your bond from your same state.
Bonds are a minimal expense (usually under a few hundred dollars) because you order them from a bond service and pay only a small fraction of the bond yourself. A Credit Repair Services Organization Bond protects you. For more information about Credit Repair Services Organization Bonds, contact BondsExpress.
If you get your bond through a bonds service, the amount you pay will generally be 2-3% of the total bond amount (this cost varies depending upon your credit).
Missouri credit repair businesses must be knowledgeable about the statute of limitation governing debt in Missouri because this will guide your business decisions and enable you to best help your clients. The statue of limitations essentially limits the time that a creditor can legally
Learn more about the statute of limitation laws for your state
We're not aware of a state requirement for a "credit repair license" to operate a credit repair business in Missouri. However, many find getting training and a certification useful because it:
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The big ottoman is one of the models increasingly used. With exaggerated dimensions, it allows a person to lie down in it with comfort and space to spare. There are no rules or any restrictions on the use of the large ottoman in the décor of the house. However, like any piece, it is crucial to be alert to some information and features that make all the difference. The large pouf can be made with a wide variety of fabrics. Leather, whether genuine or synthetic, suede, vinyl or even jeans. When choosing the large pouf for your home, consider how many people in the house.
And also how tough the piece needs to be, to make the right choice. Format; round, rectangular or square. What are not lacking are different options for the large pouf. Bet on a model that matches the style of the room where it will placed. Color; Plain or printed, colored or neutral. The large ottoman can have the color you want. If the proposal is to incorporate, practically camouflaging the environment, invest in a tone that harmonizes with the other elements. Now, if the idea is to give every possible highlight to the big ottoman, do not be afraid to bet on different prints and colors with a lot of personality.
15 Photos Gallery of: Decorative Large Pouf Ideas
Theme; the rooms young or children ask for fun pieces. The large themed ottoman is perfect for bringing friends together to play video games, watch a movie or for joking moments. They can be in unusual shapes. Like that of a donut, soccer ball, hot dog or even a pepper. Undoubtedly, the environment gets a special touch of good humor. The large pouf is a simple piece, but perfect for gathering friends and creating those unforgettable moments. It is a simple choice that can make all the difference in the decoration of your home. So, the end.


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Argentina and Chile, separated only the majestic Andes, make up one of the fiercest rivalries in South American football. That said, over the years a very small number of gifted individuals - Marcelo Salas, Marcelo Espina and Claudio Borghi to name a few - have managed to bridge the divide and achieve iconic status among fans of both countries.
Now, it is the turn of Marcelo Bielsa to try and make the transition. The coach who held the reins of the Albiceleste between 1998 and 2004 took charge of the Chilean national team this month as the squad gear up for the start of the South American qualifiers for South Africa 2010. Read on as FIFA.com brings you the story of this football fanatic who has never been afraid to follow his convictions in dealing with players or the press.
A man of character
Born in the Argentinian province of Santa Fe in 1955, Marcelo Bielsa has demonstrated strength of character throughout his life. Even as a youngster, he showed a willingness to go against the tide, opting to support Newell's Old Boys instead of neighbours and eternal rivals Rosario Central, the team his father passionately followed.
His second and even more decisive break with tradition came at the moment of choosing a career. Born into a family steeped in politics and law, El Loco (the Crazy One), as he came to be known, upset the apple cart by dedicating himself to the beautiful game, a sport that still enthrals him to this day. His vocation was in stark contrast to that of his older brother, Rafael, who would go on to become chancellor and then governor of Buenos Aires province. "I come from a family of professionals, but they never objected to my choice of vocation," says the coach. "I wanted to become a footballer, and so I did - albeit a not very successful one, although I did play for Newell's first team," adds Bielsa, who, after hanging up his boots at the age of 25, went on to qualify as a Physical Education teacher.
Perhaps it was this move that cemented the Argentinian's preference for wearing sports clothing - even today he can rarely be seen in a suit. With his distinctive gait and impenetrable gaze, this married father of two teenage girls still keeps a close eye on his waistline, jogging regularly, opting always for mineral water and treating himself to just the occasional few sweets.
As for the coach's other interests, he remains an avid reader and collector of football videos, and is kept busy by his passion for countryside living. In fact, since stepping down as Argentina coach in September 2004, he has managed to combine these pursuits almost completely out of the public eye. Until now that is.
Dealing with the press
Just as he did during his time at the helm of Argentina, Bielsa still refuses to grant exclusive interviews, explaining: "Every section of the media should get the same attention from me, from the capital's most prominent TV channel to the smallest newspaper in the provinces." Understandably then, the press conference has become his preferred method of communication.
Such is the coach's passion for his chosen sport, that he has been known to field every last question from the assembled media during these gatherings. And if the talk turns to the intricacies of the beautiful game, a three- or even four-hour press conference is not out of the question. That said, as Bielsa has confessed on more that one occasion, it is only those journalists whose work he respects that he really connects with.
Mad about the game
A fanatic of football videos, Bielsa leaves nothing to chance when it comes to match preparation and is clear about his preferred footballing style. "I feel good when my teams spend more time attacking than defending," says the coach, whose working methods can be anything but conventional. More that once, the 52-year-old has checked pitch measurements by pacing them out before deciding on a particular formation.
The Rosario-born tactician has even surprised some of his former charges with his unusual methods, such as allocating separate training times for different parts of his squad. "Sometimes we wouldn't see any of the strikers, because he'd have them training at a different time, and it was the same with the midfielders. He's an innovator, and one of the people who I've learned most from during my career," says former international Roberto Ayala.
Three years ago, saying he had "insufficient energy" to carry on, the extroverted tactician stood down as national team coach after leading Argentina to their first Olympic Football title. Now, after a complete break from football, the Argentinian is back, this time at the helm of La Roja, whose fortunes he hopes to revive with his inimitable brand of hard work, honesty and passion.
As fate would have it, his first official assignment (friendlies aside) pits him against his native Argentina in Buenos Aires for Chile's opening qualifier for South Africa 2010. It is a thrilling prospect and one that could go a long way towards winning over the fans on the Chilean side of the Andes.


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I can't believe 2016 is almost over. I was traveling for this entire year. That's insane! Let's look back on the sixteen top travel moments of 2016.
Before we get into the blog, let's talk about you. Have you always wanted to travel? Is your dream trip on your list of to-do's for 2017? I've just released my newest ebook soon – titled "How To Travel The World: Your Guide to Experiencing the World on A Budget", just in time to help you plan your goals for 2017! This ebook comes complete with tips on solo travel, saving money to travel, booking flights, packing light, and even includes checklists for packing, accommodation, and my budgets for South America, Europe, Thailand and Australia! Click here to snag your copy – it's 30% off for the first week only!
I must admit, it was hard to choose only 16 top moments of travel after spending the last 365 days on the road, visiting seventeen countries and living in two countries. I started the New Year of 2016 in Paris, worked my way around Europe, then flew to Nicaragua and made my way South to Peru. I then moved to Thailand for three months for some r&r (and a few cheeky visa runs to neighboring countries ;)) and then moved to the land down under – Australia! I can't believe how many travel goals I've accomplished this year. Let the countdown begin!
16. Seeing Machu Picchu in real life. I told myself I would see Machu Picchu when I first learned about it. I was maybe 12 years old. Seeing it in real life was surreal, though the weather was not the greatest. It was so foggy that you couldn't even tell where I was. I did get to see loads of llamas though, and went on a nice long hike to get to this iconic wonder.
a nice clear day at Machu Picchu. What a view, eh?
15. Working at a coffee shop in Western Australia. If you know me in real life, you'll know that doing the working holiday visa in Australia has been a major goal of mine for years. Moving to Perth, after working at an insanely stressful Italian restaurant in Melbourne, was just the breath of fresh air that I needed. Things are working out so well for me here, it's almost scary. I am so happy to have the opportunity to work somewhere I love, and get to learn about Australian coffee culture as well (heads up: it's completely different than America). It's also nice to be able to bring money in again – after an entire year of living off my savings.
stunning sunsets in Western Australia
14. Visiting Pai in Northern Thailand with my soul sister. I met Maddie in Thailand and we hit it off super fast. We visited Pai together and stayed in this super cool bungalow. It was hot, it was humid, it was so fun. We went out one night and spent an insane amount of money on American beers and learned our names in Thai. Pai is a beautiful place, and I would highly recommend visiting if you ever make it to Chiang Mai – it's just a three hour bus ride from CM.
the lounge area at our bungalow resort in Pai, Thailand
13. Being in Venice for the Carnival. Venice wasn't even on my super-ADD itinerary. I ended up there because it was the cheapest bus from Turin. I planned to stay there for a few days, which turned into a week, ending with a bang at the Carnival. I ate so much pasta, so much pizza, saw snow from inside a cute little italian bistro, stayed with one of my favorite couchsurfing hosts yet, and made amazing friends and incredible memories. Cheers to the travel life!
beautiful Venice, Italy
12. Driving across Costa Rica alone in a rented 4×4. I left my family at the airport on the Pacific side of Costa Rica, and took our rental car to the Southeast corner of Costa Rica, landing in Puerto Viejo. I had no idea where I would go until the day before. I drove through the rainforest, over rivers, and through remote villages. I listened to Adele and old school American music. It was a 6 hour drive, and my first solo road trip. I have to admit, it was pretty fun.
11. Spending a week with my sister in Nicaragua. I'm so happy we added this amazing country to the itinerary.
the best sunsets I've ever seen were in San Juan Del Sur, Nicaragua
10. Playing with elephants in Chiang Mai, Thailand. I was blessed to have the opportunity to visit an elephant sanctuary for a second time in two years. I visited the elephants for the first time in 2015, and couldn't stay away. I love playing with elephants – they are such sweet, caring creatures.
Jungle Elephant Sanctuary in Chiang Mai, Thailand
9. Taking a coffee course in Colombia. My brother and I took a trip to a coffee plantation one day in Santa Rosa de Cabal, Colombia. We got picked up in a Jeep, and drove out to the plantation. We picked coffee beans, roasted coffee beans, and made the best and freshest coffee I've ever had in my life. Of course, we took the afternoon tour and I didn't sleep at all that night, but it was completely worth it. Another fun fact about this tour: it was all in Spanish, and I got to translate for my brother. #fluent
just call me a coffee master
8. Seeing the Mona Lisa at the Louvre. It's smaller than you'd think it would be. 😉
7. Almost running over a wild monkey in Dominical, Costa Rica. It was the first wild monkey I'd ever seen, and I didn't hit it. I could be the world's best driver (just don't ask my mom to be the judge of that).
beautiful Costa Rica
6. Laying on a beach in Western Australia for the first time. The water truly is cerulean here, and the beaches are just insane.
Australian beaches don't mess around
5. Spending a week in Puerto Viejo, Costa Rica, at a secluded beach. I found a secret beach and would go there every morning by bike. I listened to music, completely alone and happy as a clam. I spent my afternoons eating at a healthy vegan restaurant (highly recommend Como en mi Casa if you are ever in Puerto Viejo) and editing photos.
Is this heaven?!
4. Learning to salsa dance in Cali, Colombia. Seriously, so much fun. Too bad I didn't take any pictures of my epic moves. 😉
3. Spending a week in a rainforest villa with my mom and two sisters in Dominical, Costa Rica. I've talked about this a few times, but seriously, we stayed in a RAINFOREST. VILLA. (via airbnb) in Costa Rica.
the backyard of our Costa Rican villa
2. Making new friends I'll never forget. I met so many absolutely amazing, positive people this year. The kind of people who just radiate light and happiness. I am so grateful to have met people who will forever inspire me and always make me laugh.
my first gluwein in Germany with my new BFF, Svenja
Maddy and I at Catmosphere in Chiang Mai, Thailand
I met Aly (and her not pictured but also cool boyfriend Scott) in Chiang Mai, Thailand
[NOTE: I met so many cool people this year that I will be friends with forever, but I can't add pictures of all of them because then this page would be entirely full of said pictures. To all of my amazing incredible friends: I love you and thank you for hanging out with me even though I'm insane. And Kirk, I miss you and I look terrible in all of our pictures together but otherwise I would have put one up of us. Christian and Scott, same to you two. Noga and John, we obvs need more pics together. Meet up soon. And to all of my friends I met in Europe in 2015: I have not forgotten about you. Come visit me down under! ]
- Making my dream as a travel writer come true. I got the opportunity to write for a travel adventure company this year. I will be a staff writer for this company, creating itineraries and eventually blog posts (when the company launches). I've made so much progress in terms of my own blog, youtube channel, and branding, and cannot wait to contribute to another company. I will of course keep my website, and continue my brand, but it is always exciting when someone offers to pay you to do something you've always wanted to do. 🙂 (Plus you know I'm all about that multiple streams of income life!)
It's been a great year of travel. Let me know in the comments below – what were your top moments of 2016? Any travel plans for 2017?


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TOEIC Preparation
Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC)
Minimum level of English: B1 (Intermediate). This course is taken in conjunction with the standard course.
Businesses, government agencies and other public and private organizations accept TOEIC scores.
ACET is an authorised TOEIC Listening & Reading test centre.
Hours per week
Minimum level of English: B1 (Intermediate)
Group size
average 8 -10 (maximum 14)
Starting dates
every Monday
Course length
Any number of weeks
€300 per week


text: I tried this place after reading some good reviews. The coffee is good - tasty and served at a good temperature. No option for skimmed milk, which is a little strange, but still tastes good. Lovely courtyard out the back. Have been here a few times and coffee is always good.


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Hey there. You've found yourself a satellite blog for Todd Thorne, author of dark, strange, and somewhat bent speculative fiction.
Readers, writers, fans of good stories, the mildly curious... I love hearing from you. Feel free to friend or contact me.
For now, I'll be blogging at my LJ account. I haven't decided yet to arrange a crossposting plan, so you'll need to check there for the milestones, stumbles and observations taking place on my ever-fascinating writer's journey. I know. It's a pain. If I get enough feedback, I'll consider changing the situation.
Meantime, thanks for your interest. Don't be a stranger.


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GVEA Explains the Challenges of Adding Wind
For those that missed the Northern Alaska Environmental Center's Renewable Energy Form, which was held at the Noel Wien Library the evening of April 20, here are several items that may be of interest to you:
- GVEA's Renewable Energy Forum Presentation 042017)
- This was presented by Paul Morgan, GVEA's Gas Turbine Plant Manager.
- CIRI's Statement – Renewable Energy Forum (042017)
- This letter was submitted with the intent to be read at the forum, but that didn't happen; therefore, we're passing it along here.
- FDNM's Community Perspective Article
- This was submitted on behalf of Rick Schikora, GVEA's Board Chairman.
- The article ran on April 19, 2017.
Additionally, the FDNM ran a recap of the Renewable Energy Forum in the April 21 edition. To read that, click here.