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Photorespiration is an energy-intensive process that recycles 2-phosphoglycolate, a toxic product of the Rubisco oxygenation reaction. The photorespiratory pathway is highly compartmentalized, involving the chloroplast, peroxisome, cytosol, and mitochondria. Though the soluble enzymes involved in photorespiration are well characterized, very few membrane transporters involved in photorespiration have been identified to date. In this work, Arabidopsis thaliana plants containing a T-DNA disruption of the bile acid sodium symporter BASS6 show decreased photosynthesis and slower growth under ambient, but not elevated CO2. Exogenous expression of BASS6 complemented this photorespiration mutant phenotype. In addition, metabolite analysis and genetic complementation of glycolate transport in yeast showed that BASS6 was capable of glycolate transport. This is consistent with its involvement in the photorespiratory export of glycolate from Arabidopsis chloroplasts. An Arabidopsis double knockout line of both BASS6 and the glycolate/glycerate transporter PLGG1 (bass6, plgg1) showed an additive growth defect, an increase in glycolate accumulation, and reductions in photosynthetic rates compared with either single mutant. Our data indicate that BASS6 and PLGG1 partner in glycolate export from the chloroplast, whereas PLGG1 alone accounts for the import of glycerate. BASS6 and PLGG1 therefore balance the export of two glycolate molecules with the import of one glycerate molecule during photorespiration.
Rubisco catalyzes the fixation of CO2 onto the five-carbon ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), generating two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA). However, at 25°C and our current atmospheric CO2 level of ∼400 ppm (40 Pa), ∼25% of Rubisco catalytic activity in plants with C3 photosynthetic metabolism results in the fixation of the competing substrate O2 instead of CO2. Oxygen fixation by Rubisco results in the conversion of RuBP to one molecule of 3-PGA and one molecule of 2-phosphoglycolate (2-PG) (Bowes et al., 1971; Ogren and Bowes, 1971; Lorimer, 1981; Ogren, 1984; Sharkey, 1988). 2-PG accumulation in the chloroplast stroma inhibits triose phosphate isomerase and phosphofructokinase, thereby decreasing RuBP regeneration capacity (Anderson, 1971; Kelly and Latzko, 1976). Although 2-PG is rapidly dephosphorylated to glycolate by 2-phosphoglycolate phosphatase, the glycolate can inhibit the rate of photosynthesis in the chloroplast and is considered toxic to the cell (Kelly and Latzko, 1976; Gonzalez-Moro et al., 1997).
The inhibition of photosynthesis by 2-PG/glycolate is prevented and partial recovery of the reduced carbon is accomplished via the photorespiratory pathway, an energy-requiring series of reactions involving the chloroplast, peroxisome, mitochondria, and cytosol (Somerville and Ogren, 1979; Ogren, 1984; Eisenhut et al., 2013a). Photorespiration converts two molecules of 2-PG to one molecule of 3-PGA, while releasing one molecule of CO2.Therefore, 75% of the previously fixed carbon that would have been lost as 2-PG is recovered as 3-PGA, but this is not without an energy cost to the cell. The photorespiratory cycle consumes ATP and, as a byproduct of the conversion of glycine to serine, produces ammonia (NH3) in the mitochondria. Plants must then consume reducing equivalents of NAD(P)H to recycle the NH3 and to reduce downstream photorespiratory intermediates. Also, refixing the CO2 molecule released during photorespiration consumes additional ATP and NADPH. As a result, photorespiration under current atmospheric CO2 concentrations results in a significant drag of ∼15 to 50% on C3 photosynthetic efficiency depending upon the regional growing season temperature (Ogren, 1984; Peterhansel et al., 2010; Walker et al., 2016b). Losses in yield due to photorespiration are estimated to total ∼150 trillion calories per year in midwestern US soybean (Glycine max) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) production alone (Walker et al., 2016b). In addition, photorespiration has similar negative impacts on other major C3 crops such as rice (Oryza sativa) and potato (Solanum tuberosum; Sharkey, 1988; Zhu et al., 2010).
The soluble enzymes involved in photorespiration have been well studied over the past four decades, providing much information on the biochemistry and genetics governing photorespiratory metabolism (Peterhansel et al., 2010; Timm and Bauwe, 2013). By contrast, only a small number of transport proteins have been demonstrated to be involved in photorespiration, even though at least 25 transport steps may be involved in the recycling of carbon in photorespiration (Eisenhut et al., 2013a). Importantly, photorespiration is a high-flux pathway that interacts with multiple other metabolic pathways, including the nitrogen cycle and amino acid biosynthesis (Fernie et al., 2013).
The first transporters identified to be involved in photorespiration were the chloroplastic dicarboxylate transporters DiT1 and DiT2 (Somerville and Somerville, 1985; Woo et al., 1987). A single point mutation in DiT2.1 and subsequent biochemical characterization revealed that DiT2 is the glutamate/malate transporter located in the chloroplast inner envelope membrane (Renné et al., 2003). Antisense repression of DiT1 resulted in the classical photorespiratory mutant phenotype of decreased growth under ambient CO2 with complementation by elevated [CO2]. It also resulted in reduced nitrate reassimilation due to a decrease in 2-oxoglutarate transport in the chloroplast (Schneidereit et al., 2006). Together, DiT1 and DiT2 are necessary for the proper refixation of released ammonia from the glycine decarboxylation reaction in photorespiratory metabolism.
More recently, coexpression analysis was used to identify other potential transporters involved in photorespiration (Bordych et al., 2013). Coexpression analysis identified A BOUT DE SOUFFLE (BOU) as a mitochondrial transporter required for normal glycine decarboxylase activity and meristematic growth. Null bou mutants exhibit the photorespiratory mutant phenotype and are complemented by elevated [CO2] (Eisenhut et al., 2013b). Currently, the only known photorespiratory pathway transporter that transports carbon derived directly from glycolate is the plastidic glycolate/glycerate translocator PLGG1 (Pick et al., 2013). PLGG1 is coexpressed with many enzymes involved in photorespiration (Pick et al., 2013). Studies with a PLGG1 T-DNA knockout line in Arabidopsis thaliana (plgg1-1) revealed the role of PLGG1 in both the first and the final transport steps in the photorespiratory pathway: the simultaneous export of glycolate from and import of glycerate into the chloroplast (Pick et al., 2013). Nearly 30 years prior to the molecular identification of PLGG1, the export of glycolate coincident with the import of glycerate import had been demonstrated in purified spinach (Spinacia oleracea) chloroplasts (Howitz and McCarty, 1985, 1986, 1991; Young and McCarty, 1993). Additionally, PLGG1 was identified as a chloroplast protein in proteomic studies. It was originally thought to be involved in programmed cell death, but current evidence now suggests that this phenotype was linked to the accumulation of photorespiratory intermediates (Yang et al., 2012; Pick et al., 2013). However, the Arabidopsis plgg1-1 line showed neither differences in the quantum efficiency of CO2 assimilation nor changes in the photorespiratory CO2 compensation point compared with wild type under low-light conditions (Walker et al., 2016a). Combined, these data not only show that PLGG1 is involved in photorespiratory metabolism, but also suggest an alternative path for glycolate exit from the chloroplast. In addition, they demonstrate the difficulty in phenotypically identifying transporters in the photorespiration pathway (Hodges et al., 2016).
Although both genetic and coexpression approaches have been successful in identifying genes involved in photorespiratory metabolism, many of the transporters involved in the flux of photorespiratory intermediates remain unknown. An alternative approach to coexpression analysis is first to identify candidate chloroplast inner membrane transporters from chloroplast envelope proteomic studies and then to screen T-DNA insertional mutants of the candidate genes for the photorespiratory mutant phenotype of reduced photosystem II efficiency by chlorophyll fluorescence (Badger et al., 2009; Sun et al., 2009). When illuminated in low [CO2], photorespiration-deficient mutants exhibit reduced Fv/Fm chlorophyll fluorescence due to the impaired function of photosystem II (Kozaki and Takeba, 1996; Wingler et al., 2000; Takahashi et al., 2007). This high-throughput fluorescence-based approach, when combined with forward genetics to target putative transporter-like chloroplast inner envelope membrane proteins, can identify additional genes important for photorespiratory metabolite transport.
We used this approach to identify bile acid sodium symporter 6 (BASS6) as a glycolate transporter involved in photorespiration. Bile acid sodium symporters are a family of transport proteins that were first identified as bile acid transporters in the mammalian liver (Alrefai and Gill, 2007). Further analysis showed that members of the BASS family of transporters are present in a wide variety of organisms, including plants, animals, and fungi, and they exhibit a broad range of substrate specificity, including non-bile acid organic compounds such as pyruvate, steroids, and xenobiotics (Furumoto et al., 2011; Claro da Silva et al., 2013). Although bile acids are not produced in plants, BASS family genes are present in both monocots and dicots (Gigolashvili et al., 2009; Sawada et al., 2009; Furumoto et al., 2011). Our analysis of the bass6 T-DNA line in Arabidopsis (bass6-1) revealed that loss of BASS6 resulted in a photorespiratory mutant phenotype and in accumulation of the photorespiratory metabolic intermediates glycine and glycolate. In addition, BASS6 protein was localized to the chloroplast envelope, and its ability to transport glycolate was conclusively demonstrated through combined yeast genetic complementation and transport analysis.
Arabidopsis bass6-1 Exhibits a Photorespiratory Mutant Phenotype
To identify potential transporter proteins involved in photorespiration, we screened a series of known and putative chloroplast inner membrane localized proteins (Supplemental Data Set 1). As controls, T-DNA lines targeting genes known to be involved in photorespiration, glycerate kinase (glyk), serine hydroxymethyltransferase (shm1), and the glycolate/glycerate transporter PLGG1 (plgg1-1), were included in the analysis. To test for mutants involved in photorespiration, we illuminated 9-d-old T-DNA lines under low [CO2]. Under these conditions, photorespiratory mutants show reduced Fv/Fm chlorophyll fluorescence (Badger et al., 2009). From the initial screen of 50 Arabidopsis T-DNA lines, we identified two independent T-DNA insertions targeting the gene At4g22840 (Figure 1; Supplemental Data Set 1). These T-DNA lines lacked expression of the putative chloroplast inner membrane protein BASS6 (Supplemental Data Set 1). To determine whether BASS6 is involved in photorespiration, these two T-DNA lines were grown under ambient CO2 (40 Pa) conditions. Compared with the wild-type control, both bass6 mutant lines had a smaller rosette size, similar to that of plgg1-1, the glycolate/glycerate transporter mutant involved in photorespiration (Figure 2A). To verify that the changes in Fv/Fm observed in the initial screen were also present in more developed plants, 4-week-old T-DNA lines of both plgg1-1 and bass6-1 were analyzed before and after the low [CO2] treatment. Following 24 h of constant illumination at low [CO2], we found a significant reduction in Fv/Fm for both lines when compared with the wild type, even though no reduction in Fv/Fm was observed prior to the low [CO2] treatment (Figure 2B).
To verify the photorespiratory mutant phenotype, we measured growth of the bass6-1 mutant under low, ambient, and elevated [CO2] (12.5, 40, and 200 Pa). Consistent with a classical photorespiratory mutant phenotype, both the bass6-1 and the plgg1-1 mutants failed to grow at 12.5 Pa CO2 (Supplemental Figure 1). Under ambient CO2 conditions, both the bass6-1 and the plgg1-1 T-DNA lines grew more slowly when compared with the wild-type control (Figure 2C; Supplemental Figure 1). Importantly, the wild type, bass6-1, and plgg1-1 grew at the same rate when grown under high [CO2] (Figure 2C; Supplemental Figure 1). Unfortunately, growth characterization of the bass6-2 line showed inconsistent results and its growth was not rescued by exogenous expression of BASS6. Analysis of the T-DNA insertion of bass6-2 revealed that T-DNA insertion is within a shared promoter region with the gene At4g22850. Analysis of gene expression showed reductions in expression of the adjacent gene as well as BASS6 making characterization of BASS6 function in the bass6-2 not feasible (Supplemental Figure 2).
For wild-type or near-wild-type growth, certain classes of mutants in the photorespiratory pathway require high levels of [CO2], in which the Rubisco oxygenation reaction is suppressed to very low levels (Timm and Bauwe, 2013). Under ambient [CO2], photorespiration mutants have reduced photosynthesis that is characterized by reductions in carbon assimilation (A), the maximum rate of Rubisco carboxylation (Vcmax), and the maximum rate of electron transport (Jmax) parameters. Similar to previous reports (Pick et al., 2013; Walker et al., 2016a), plgg1-1 had reduced A compared with the wild type (Figure 3A). The bass6-1 plants also showed a slight reduction in A under ambient [CO2] compared with the wild type and had no detectable changes in internal CO2 concentration (Ci) or stomatal conductance (gs) (Figure 3A). To evaluate the biochemical limitations to photosynthesis of bass6-1 and plgg1-1 lines, the response of A to the intercellular [CO2] (Ci) was used to determine Vcmax and Jmax. We found that both Vcmax and Jmax were reduced in bass6-1 and plgg1-1 compared with the wild type (Figure 3B, Table 1). A was reduced more in plgg1-1 compared with bass6-1, consistent with comparative rosettes sizes and the growth rates of the bass6-1 versus plgg1-1 mutant plants (compare Figures 2A and 2C with Figure 3 and Table 1).
BASS6 Protein Is Localized in the Chloroplast Envelope
Mass spectrometry proteomic data had previously localized BASS6 protein to the chloroplast inner envelope membrane (Zybailov et al., 2008). To confirm this, we analyzed the transient expression of an Arabidopsis BASS6-GFP fusion protein both in protoplasts and in whole-leaf tissue of Nicotiana benthamiana, using chlorophyll autofluorescence to identify chloroplasts (Figures 4B, 4E, 4H, and 4K). In protoplasts, the BASS6-GFP signal surrounded chloroplast autofluorescence (Figures 4G to 4I), a pattern seen with the Arabidopsis glycolate/glycerate transporter PLGG1 in the chloroplast envelope (Ferro et al., 2003, 2010; Zybailov et al., 2008; Pick et al., 2013; Rolland et al., 2016) (Figures 4D to 4F). This provides evidence that BASS6 is localized in the chloroplast envelope. In these experiments, GFP was not detected outside of the chloroplast compartment, and, notably, no punctate signal suggesting mitochondria or Golgi colocalization was observed. Light-sheet microscopy using whole-leaf tissue further confirmed BASS6-GFP localization to the chloroplast envelope. These whole-tissue experiments further suggested that some of the GFP signal was present outside of chloroplasts in a yet unidentified compartment that did not appear to be cytosolic (Figures 4J to 4L; Supplemental Figure 3A). Whereas this signal may reflect a minor fraction of a BASS6-GFP pool targeted outside the chloroplast, it could also be truncated protein or misfolded protein.
To confirm that BASS6 is targeted to chloroplasts, a rabbit polyclonal antibody was raised against a BASS6 peptide (Agrisera) and was used to determine the localization of BASS6 in Arabidopsis (Supplemental Figure 3B). Subcellular fractionation of Arabidopsis Col-0 wild type followed by immunoblot analysis using the BASS6 antiserum revealed that BASS6 was detectable as a band near the predicted ∼44 kD size only in the chloroplast fraction, using RBCL as a marker protein. It was undetectable in the whole-cell soluble fraction, the whole-cell membrane-enriched fraction, and the mitochondrial (COXII marker protein) fraction (Supplemental Figure 3B). The BASS6 band was not detectable either in the whole-cell fraction or in the chloroplast fraction of bass6-1 mutants. The BASS6 antiserum also detected BASS6 in yeast, detecting one band at ∼44 kD along with a larger band at ∼60 kD. The larger band is too small to be a BASS6 dimer and may represent a nonspecific antiserum interaction, different gel migration due to charge, or a possible translation error. BASS6 was not detected in wild-type yeast extracts not expressing BASS6 (Supplemental Figure 3B).
The bass6-1 Mutant Accumulates Photorespiratory Intermediates
Previous characterization of plgg1-1 mutants demonstrated that they develop chlorotic lesions when grown at high [CO2] and then shifted to ambient air after several days (Pick et al., 2013). The formation of chlorotic lesions is thought to be due to damage from the accumulation of toxic photorespiratory intermediates during the light period. We also observed chlorotic lesions in plgg1-1 mutants 5 d after the shift to ambient air, and these lesions were associated with regions of lowered Fv/Fm as measured using chlorophyll fluorescence imaging (Figure 5A). Whereas the bass6-1 mutant did not develop observable chlorotic lesions on leaves after a shift to ambient [CO2] at 5 d after transfer (Figure 5A), the homozygous F3 generation of the bass6-1 and plgg1-1 cross (bass6 plgg1) developed more expansive chlorotic lesions compared with the plgg1-1 line alone (Figures 5A and 5B). The ∼50% increase in area of chlorotic lesions in the bass6 plgg1 double mutant presaged apparent additive effects of PLGG1 and BASS6 inactivation on growth and photosynthetic rates. The bass6 plgg1 double mutant plants showed a 41% decrease in growth compared plgg1-1 and 31% compared with bass6-1 under ambient [CO2] and also showed lower photosynthetic rates when both PLGG1 and BASS6 functions are missing (Figures 5C and 5D).
When Rubisco oxygenation rates are high, mutant plants with defects in photorespiration will accumulate various photorespiratory metabolites. To characterize the transport step of BASS6 in the photorespiration pathway, metabolite profiles were performed on bass6-1 leaf tissue from plants exposed either to high (200 Pa) or to low (15 Pa) [CO2]. When leaves were exposed to low [CO2] to increase the Rubisco oxygenation rate, the levels of glycine and glycolate in bass6-1 increased significantly compared with the wild type. By contrast, plgg1-1 plants accumulated glycolate and glycerate at high [CO2] and accumulated glycolate, glycine, glyoxylate, serine, and glycerate at low [CO2] (Figure 6). When leaves were exposed to low [CO2], bass6-1 accumulated levels of glycine similar to levels in the plgg1-1 plants (Figure 6C). The bass6 plgg1 double mutant line had significantly more glycolate than the wild type and the single mutant lines. They also showed increases in other intermediates such as glycerate, similar to what was observed in the plgg1-1 single mutant (Figure 6). Interestingly, serine accumulation also increased in the single mutants but reverted to wild-type levels in the bass6 plgg1 double mutant, suggesting that losing the function of both BASS6 and PLGG1 alters overall photorespiratory metabolism (Figure 6). Importantly, without BASS6 and PLGG1, there is a further increase in glycolate accumulation. The accumulation of photorespiratory metabolites when exposed to low [CO2] conditions indicates a direct role of BASS6 in photorespiratory metabolism.
Arabidopsis plgg1-1 shows a light-dependent accumulation of glycolate, glycine, serine, and glycerate (Pick et al., 2013), consistent with impairment of both glycolate export and glycerate import in the chloroplast. Photorespiration is light-dependent, and glycolate and glycine levels in plgg1-1 mutants at night under ambient air returned to wild-type levels accompanied by a significant reduction in glycerate (Pick et al., 2013). To determine changes in glycolate, glycerate, and glycine levels in bass6-1 and the bass6 plgg1 double mutant plants compared with the wild type and plgg1-1, metabolite analysis was performed after a shift from high [CO2] to ambient air and samples were measured at the end of the growth photoperiod and immediately after the light-to-dark transition. Similar to results from Pick et al. (2013), the plgg1-1 mutants showed a reduction in glycolate levels after the end of the light period (Figure 7). At the end of the light period, bass6-1 plants accumulate glycolate and glycine, both of which are significantly reduced within 10 min in the dark (Figure 7). The glycolate level significantly increased in the bass6 plgg1 double mutant compared with wild-type, bass6-1, and plgg1-1 plants, whereas glycine and glycerate levels in the double mutants were similar to those in plgg1-1 mutants.
BASS6 and PLGG1 Rescues Growth on Glycolate as a Carbon Source in Yeast
There is no known glycolate transporter in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, but the plasma membrane-localized acetate transporter ADY2 is homologous to Escherichia coli yjcG, which is known to transport both acetate and glycolate (Gimenez et al., 2003). Expression of chloroplast proteins in yeast often results in localization to the mitochondria (Hurt et al., 1986; Pfaller et al., 1989; Brink et al., 1994). Localization prediction software suggested that BASS6 would localize to the plasma membrane and that PLGG1 would likely localize to the mitochondria membrane. Therefore, we generated yeast vectors expressing both BASS6 and PLGG1 lacking the chloroplast transit peptide (amino acids 1–24) to ensure plasma membrane targeting of both proteins. We then expressed them both in wild-type BY4741 and in the isogenic ady2Δ strain. In spot assays, the ady2Δ strain expressing only empty vector was unable to grow on glycolate as the sole carbon source, demonstrating a loss of glycolate import in the absence of acetate transporter ADY2 function (Figure 8A). The expression of PLGG1 in the ady2Δ yeast strain rescued growth back to the wild-type levels on glycolate as the sole carbon source (Figure 8A). Expression of BASS6 also rescued growth in the ady2Δ strain (Figure 8A). Controls using glucose and lactate as a carbon source showed both that the expression of BASS6 and PLGG1 in yeast does not negatively affect growth and that the ady2Δ strain was able to utilize both sources of carbon (Figure 8A). In addition, the wild type and the ady2Δ strain were both able to utilize glycerate as a carbon source. Unfortunately, this meant we could not determine the role of glycerate-dependent glycolate transport of either transporter because the identity of yeast glycerate transporter(s) is not yet known.
Based on our findings that BASS6 and PLGG1 can complement yeast for growth on glycolate as a carbon source, we tested the transport capabilities of both proteins in uptake experiments in which yeast cells were incubated for 10 min in [14C]-glycolic acid. The expression of PLGG1 increased glycolate uptake both in the wild type and in the ady2Δ strain (Figure 8B), as did the expression of BASS6 (Figure 8B). Our data indicate that both BASS6 and PLGG1 expressed in yeast facilitate transmembrane glycolate transport leading to rescue of the growth in glycolate uptake defective ady2Δ mutant (Figure 8B).
Loss of BASS6 Causes Increased PLGG1 Expression
Although the loss of either BASS6 or PLGG1 resulted in a photorespiratory phenotype, neither T-DNA insertion caused lethality when lines were grown in ambient air, as has been seen with numerous other photorespiratory mutants (Timm and Bauwe, 2013). This leaky photorespiratory phenotype could be due to redundancy in the transport processes and compensation for loss of one gene by the increase in expression of another. To test whether the loss of BASS6 or PLGG1 results in changes in enhanced expression of the other gene, real-time PCR (RT-PCR) experiments were performed. In the plgg1-1 line, there was no detectable difference in BASS6 expression compared with the wild type (Figure 9A). However, the expression of PLGG1 increased 4.8-fold over the wild type in the bass6-1 line, suggesting that PLGG1 expression had markedly increased, possibly to compensate for metabolic changes caused by the loss of BASS6 function (Figure 9A).
This result prompted us to test whether the expression of either BASS6 or PLGG1 could complement the slow growth phenotype of each of the single mutants. Also, to rule out the possibility that either the plgg1-1 or the bass6-1 line phenotypes were due to another mutation, PLGG1 and BASS6 were also transformed into the plgg1-1 and the bass6-1 lines under the control of their native promoters. Expression of BASS6 under the control of either its own promoter or the PLGG1 promoter rescues the growth rate phenotype in the bass6-1 line, confirming that the loss of BASS6 is the cause of the photorespiratory phenotype (Figure 9B). In addition, as previously reported (Pick et al., 2013), expression of PLGG1 under the control of its own promoter rescues its photorespiratory phenotype (Figure 9B). However, transforming the expression plasmid of PLGG1 into the bass6-1 line showed no significant change in growth rate compared with the bass6-1 mutant (Figure 9B). This could be due to the fact that PLGG1 expression is already substantially upregulated in the bass6-1 background compared with the wild-type background (Figure 9B). Intriguingly, expression of BASS6 under the control of its native promoter in the plgg1-1 line increased its growth as did expression of PLGG1, but neither BASS6 nor PLGG1 fully restored wild-type growth (Figure 9B). Taken together, these results suggest that the expression of both BASS6 and PLGG1 are needed for proper growth at ambient [CO2] and that increasing the expression of one gene can in part compensate for the loss of the other.
Our data demonstrate that the bile acid sodium symporter BASS6 is an integral part of photorespiratory metabolism and show that it is required for proper wild-type growth in ambient air. Loss of BASS6 resulted in a slow growth phenotype that was rescued when plants were grown in high [CO2] (Figures 1, 5, and 9; Supplemental Figure 1). Arabidopsis BASS6 protein was localized to the chloroplast in Arabidopsis and shown to be part of the chloroplast envelope membrane by transient expression in N. benthamiana (Figure 4; Supplemental Figure 3). Also, under low [CO2] conditions when photorespiration flux is high, loss of BASS6 caused the accumulation of photorespiratory intermediates including glycine and glycolate (Figures 6 and 7). The combined loss of BASS6 and the glycolate/glycerate translocator PLGG1 resulted in a slower growth phenotype and increased accumulation of glycolate in leaves under low [CO2] compared with either single knockout mutation (Figures 5 to 7). Together with transport complementation in yeast (Figure 8), our study has identified an additional glycolate transporter involved in photorespiratory metabolism, Also, with the observed combined phenotypes, the bass6 mutant shows the class III photorespiratory mutant classification of being still viable in ambient air due to some functional compensation (Timm and Bauwe, 2013). Therefore, BASS6, in addition to PLGG1, contributes to the recycling of glycolate when Rubisco fixes O2 instead of CO2 during photorespiration. Additionally, this study reveals an alternative strategy that is complimentary to coexpression for identifying transport proteins involved in photorespiration.
Genetic screening under high and ambient [CO2], and more recently coexpression analysis, has identified only a few transporters important for photorespiration. Using the same coexpression software used to identify BOU and PLGG1, BASS6 did not show a strong correlation with the expression of other photorespiratory enzymes. Though the Spearman coefficient values were low (≤0.7), BASS6 most strongly associated with the expression of enzymes in the gluconeogenesis and glyoxylate cycles, two pathways that are associated with photorespiration (Supplemental Figure 4). As an alternative approach to discover chloroplast transporters important for photorespiration, we performed targeted fluorescence screening of mutants of known and putative chloroplast inner membrane proteins identified in proteomic studies (Zybailov et al., 2008; Badger et al., 2009). Exposing Arabidopsis T-DNA insertion mutants to 24 h of photorespiratory stress at low [CO2] levels and constant illumination is a very sensitive method for identifying [CO2]-dependent changes in chlorophyll fluorescence (Badger et al., 2009). This study identified bass6 T-DNA insertion mutants in Arabidopsis with reduced chlorophyll fluorescence under photorespiratory stress. Further analysis revealed that bass6-1 mutant plants exhibit a photorespiratory mutant phenotype similar to that of plgg1-1. In addition, our metabolite data and yeast complementation and transport assays demonstrated that BASS6 can transport glycolate (Figures 6 to 8).
Previous biochemical analysis of chloroplasts suggested that a single transporter transports both glycolate and glycerate (Howitz and McCarty, 1985, 1986, 1991). More recent analysis supports this model and identifies the glycolate /glycerate transporter PLGG1 (Pick et al., 2013). However, in each round of the photorespiratory cycle, two molecules of glycolate are transported out of the chloroplast but only one molecule of glycerate is returned (Howitz and McCarty, 1986). Curiously, PLGG1 has been shown to have a 1:1 glycerate:glycolate stoichiometry (Pick et al., 2013). In addition, the plgg1-1 Arabidopsis line under low irradiances exhibits similar photosynthetic rates and quantum efficiencies as the wild type, even under high photorespiratory conditions. This further suggests an alternative transport mechanism for glycolate and glycerate (Walker et al., 2016a).
Alternative transport mechanisms for glycolate and glycerate would also explain why plgg1-1 mutants were not discovered in the initial screens for photorespiratory mutants (Somerville and Ogren, 1981). Our metabolite and transport data support that BASS6, unlike PLGG1, is involved in glycolate but not glycerate transport. BASS6 is a member of the family of sodium-dependent symporters, which are unidirectional in transport, whereas PLGG1 is a glycolate/glycerate antiporter. This is consistent with the metabolite data showing the bass6-1 line does not accumulate glycerate as do plants lacking PLGG1 (Figures 6 and 7). The less severe accumulation of glycolate and the more subtle reduction in photosynthetic and growth rates in the bass6-1 line are also confounded by the increase in expression of PLGG1 (Figures 2, 3, 5, and 9). Together, our data suggest that glycolate flux out of the chloroplast is accomplished by both PLGG1 and BASS6 during normal operation, consistent with the predicted transport stoichiometry of 2:1 glycolate:glycerate of the photorespiratory pathway.
Many transport steps in biological systems have redundancies in which, due to redundant transport proteins, the removal of one transporter does not completely abolish the transport of metabolites across membranes (Vieten et al., 2005; Caffaro et al., 2007; Barberon et al., 2008). In fact, glycolate levels in the plgg1-1 plants reverted to wild-type levels once they were no longer under photorespiratory stress (Figure 7) (Pick et al., 2013). In the bass6 plgg1 double mutant plants, glycolate accumulation was 50 to 200% greater than in the plgg1-1 single mutant (Figures 6 and 7). Even in the bass6 plgg1 double mutant line, when photorespiratory stress was relaxed, there was a reduction in glycolate levels (Figure 7). This may mean that glycolate moved out of the chloroplast or that glycolate was metabolized within the chloroplast (e.g., chloroplastic pyruvate dehydrogenase complex) (Blume et al., 2013).
The bass6-1 mutant also demonstrated an increase in glycine when exposed to low [CO2] (Figures 6 and 7). Increase in glycine accumulation in Arabidopsis T-DNA insertion mutants of serine hydroxymethyltransferase (shm1), hydroxypyruvate reductase (hpr1), and glycerate kinase (glyk1), which are all genes encoding enzymes involved in reactions occurring after the conversion of glyoxylate to glycine (Timm et al., 2012). Other mutants also show an accumulation in glycine that is not directly linked to photorespiration. T-DNA bou-2 mutants in Arabidopsis and those with antisense targeting of TCA cycle enzymes in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) accumulate glycine, showing a close relationship between respiration and photorespiration (Carrari et al., 2003; Sienkiewicz-Porzucek et al., 2008; Eisenhut et al., 2013b). Unexpectedly, 2PG-phosphatase (pglp1) T-DNA lines also demonstrate an increase in glycine levels even though PGLP acts before glycine formation (Timm et al., 2012). Together, disruption of photorespiration and closely related pathways can have unexpected effects on metabolite levels as appears to be the case for bass6-1 mutants (Figure 6).
In Arabidopsis, there are five loci annotated as BASS family proteins, including BASS1, BASS2, BASS4, BASS5, and BASS6, and all are either predicted or have been shown to be localized to the chloroplast envelope based on data from The Arabidopsis Information Resource (TAIR; Sawada et al., 2009). BASS2 was identified as highly expressed in C4 species and was shown to be a sodium-dependent pyruvate transporter located in the chloroplast envelope (Furumoto et al., 2011). In addition, BASS5 was recently shown to be localized to the Arabidopsis chloroplast envelope and to play a role in the sodium dependent transport of 2-keto acids involved in glucosinolate biosynthesis (Gigolashvili et al., 2009; Sawada et al., 2009). In fact, the characterization of BASS5 by Gigolashvili et al. (2009) is the only previously published study on BASS6 function concluding that, despite some similarity of BASS6 to BASS5 (69% identical), neither BASS6 nor BASS4 was involved in aliphatic glucosinolate biosynthesis. Thus, current work on BASS family proteins in plants suggests that they function in the transport of various organic acids involved in diverse metabolic pathways.
In this study, microscopy analysis revealed that Arabidopsis BASS6-GFP fusion proteins localize to the chloroplast envelope of N. benthamiana protoplasts in a similar fashion to that observed for PLGG1. Our light-sheet microscopy images and our immunoblot data also confirmed that Arabidopsis BASS6 proteins localize to the chloroplast in whole N. benthamiana leaf tissue and in Arabidopsis leaf tissue expressing BASS6 from its endogenous locus. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) contains two copies of the BASS6 homolog, which is not surprising given that tobacco has an allotetraploid genome. Interestingly the BASS6 proteins in tobacco show 91% identity to each other but only 63% identity with Arabidopsis BASS6, with major differences occurring primarily in the N terminus (Supplemental Figure 5). One of the BASS6 proteins in tobacco contains an N-terminal extension that predicts localization in the mitochondria (NtBass6M), and the other is predicted to be chloroplastic (NtBass6C) (ARAMEMMNON) (Supplemental Figure 5). BASS6 does not appear to be dual-localized in Arabidopsis. Whether the tobacco proteins are present in different organelles remains to be determined.
In summary, BASS6 has been shown to be localized to the chloroplast envelope where it functions along with PLGG1 to export glycolate from chloroplast during photorespiratory metabolism. Localization of the BASS6 protein to the chloroplast envelope is supported by mass spectrometry proteomic analysis of the chloroplast inner envelope (Zybailov et al., 2008), by Arabidopsis BASS6-GFP localization in N. benthamiana (Figure 4), and by immunoblot analysis of Arabidopsis leaf tissue extracts (Supplemental Figure 3B). BASS6 glycolate transport function was demonstrated by genetic complementation of growth on glycolate (Figure 8A) and uptake of [14C] glycolate (Figure 8B) in yeast. In addition, the overexpression of BASS6 complemented the slow-growth phenotype of plgg1-1 (Figure 9B), and the loss of BASS6 resulted in the accumulation of glycolate, which was even higher in the bass6 plgg1 double mutant. Whereas BASS6 and PLGG1 work together in glycolate export, PLGG1 alone accounts for the import of the glycerate that balances the export of two glycolate molecules during photorespiration. Evidence that BASS6 does not transport glycerate includes the fact that BASS family proteins are unidirectional transporters and metabolite data showing the bass6-1 line does not accumulate glycerate as do plants lacking PLGG1 (Figures 6 and 7). The direct role of BASS6 in photorespiratory metabolism is shown by rescue of the slow growth phenotype of bass6-1 by growth at high [CO2] and by genetic complementation with BASS6 (Figure 2; Supplemental Figure 1). Further evidence is the additive effect of the bass6 plgg1 double mutant on the high [CO2] reversible suppression of growth (Figure 5C) and photosynthesis (Figure 5D) and the accumulation of photorespiratory metabolites when exposed to low [CO2] (Figure 6).
Plant Materials and Growth Conditions
Arabidopsis thaliana Columbia (Col-0) was used as the wild type reference. Salk lines used in this study are listed in Supplemental Data Set 1. Salk T-DNA lines were obtained from the Arabidopsis Biological Resource Center, and homozygous mutations were verified using oligonucleotide primers described in Supplemental Table 1. Plants were grown in elevated (200 Pa), ambient (40 Pa), or low (12.5 Pa) CO2 in an 8-h-light/16-h-dark cycle (22°C/18°C) at 250 µmol m−2 s−1 PAR and 65% relative humidity in growth chambers (Conviron) using LC1 Sunshine Mix (Sun Gro).
Determination of Growth
Growth was monitored by recording images using the CF Imager Technologica (http://www.technologica.co.uk/). The Fluorimager software determined the rosette size in mm2. The leaf area for each individual plant was determined on days 7, 11, 14, 18, and 21. For each individual plant, the growth rate was modeled with an exponential function [A(t) = A0ert] where A = area, A0 = initial size, r = growth rate, and t = time (El-Lithy et al., 2004).
Chlorophyll Fluorescence Measurements
Arabidopsis plants were grown under ambient air or elevated CO2 conditions and moved to a sealed clear plastic container at low CO2 conditions under constant illumination for 24 h before chlorophyll fluorescence measurements. Chlorophyll fluorescence measurements were done as previously described (Oxborough and Baker, 1997; Badger et al., 2009). Briefly, Fv/Fm images were taken after 15 min dark adaptation of either 9-d-old seedlings or 4-week-old plants using the CF Imager Technologica (http://www.technologica.co.uk/). Maximum flash intensity was 6800 µmol m−2 s−1 for 800 ms. Image values were obtained for each individual plant using the fluorimager software to define each position.
Photosynthesis Measurements
The youngest fully expanded leaves of 30- to 40-d-old Arabidopsis plants grown at elevated [CO2] were used for analysis of CO2 assimilation by gas exchange. Gas exchange measurements were performed using a LI-COR 6400XT with a 2-cm2 fluorescence measuring head with gasket leaks corrected for as outlined in the manual (LI-COR Biosciences). A, gs, and Ci measurements were obtained at indicated reference CO2 concentrations at a leaf temperature of 25°C and saturating light (1000 µmol m−2 s−1) from the full A-Ci data set. The A-Ci curves were measured in a range of [CO2] (50–2000 µbar) under the temperature and light conditions stated above after acclimation under ambient CO2. Vcmax, Jmax, Rd, and gs were determined using A-Ci data and the PsFit fitting routine (Bernacchi et al., 2003).
Cloning Procedures
All expression vectors are described in Supplemental Table 2. Promoters and open reading frames were synthesized based on sequences obtained from TAIR.
For the transient expression work on isolated protoplasts, the BASS6-GFP construct was cloned as follows. The coding sequence of Arabidopsis BASS6 (At4g22840) was synthesized by GENEWIZ with a C-terminal tag containing mGFP6 (Haseloff, 1999), 6xHIS, and MYC and was then cloned into a modified Gateway-compatible pUC57 plasmid from which it was recombined in pMDC32. The Arabidopsis PLGG1-GFP and P19 constructs have been described (Rolland et al., 2016).
For the remaining experiments, restriction sites and 4-bp regions of homology were designed according to common syntax in plant synthetic biology (Patron et al., 2015). Constructs were then assembled using the Golden Gate cloning protocol then subcloned into a binary vector (EC50505) (Werner et al., 2012; Engler et al., 2014; Marillonnet and Werner, 2015; Patron et al., 2015). For stable transformation, the binary vectors were transformed into Agrobacterium tumefaciens C58C1 by electroporation and then transformed into the Col-0 wild-type strain, plgg1-1, or bass6-1 T-DNA insertion lines using the floral dip method (Clough and Bent, 1998). Transformed lines were selected based on BASTA resistance, and gene insertion was verified by PCR analysis. For transient expression, constructs were designed as above driven by the CaMV35S promoter with a C-terminal GFP fusion.
Agroinfiltration and Microscopy of Nicotiana benthamiana
For the transient expression work on isolated protoplasts, growth and infiltration experiments were as described by Rolland et al. (2016). Briefly, Agrobacterium GV3101(pMP90) cells were transformed with plasmids of interest and grown in LB media containing rifampicin (50 µg/mL) and kanamycin (30 µg/mL). Cultures were grown for ∼24 h in a 28 to 30°C incubator and used for transformation of N. benthamiana leaves. Agrobacteria containing the P19 plasmid described above (OD600 = 0.3) were mixed with bacteria containing the plasmid of interest and/or the endoplasmic reticulum compartment marker (OD600 = 0.5) (plasmid CD3-959 from the Arabidopsis Biological Resource Center; http://abrc.osu.edu; Nelson et al., 2007). Cells were centrifuged for 8 min at 2150g and resuspended in 10 mM MES, pH 5.6, 10 mM MgCl2, and 150 µM acetosyringone. The cells were incubated for 2 h at room temperature and infiltrated into 3- to 4-week-old N. benthamiana leaves.
Protoplasts were prepared as described by Rolland et al. (2016). Two days after infiltration, a 4-cm2 area of infiltrated leaf was cut with a scalpel and transferred to a 5-mL syringe in which 2 mL of digestion solution (1.5% [w/v] Cellulase R-10, 0.4% [w/v] macerozyme R-10, 0.4 M mannitol, 20 mM KCl, 20 mM MES, pH 5.6, 10 mM CaCl2, and 0.1% [w/v] BSA) was added and a gentle vacuum was manually applied. The digestion solution and the leaf tissue were transferred to a 2-mL Eppendorf tube and incubated for 1 h at room temperature. Leaf debris was removed using a forceps, and protoplasts were allowed to sediment before the solution was replaced with imaging solution (0.4 M mannitol, 20 mM KCl, 20 mM MES, pH 5.6, 10 mM CaCl2, and 0.1% [w/v] BSA).
Protoplasts were observed and imaged using an upright Zeiss LSM780 confocal laser scanning microscope (Carl Zeiss), a 40× water immersion objective (NA = 1.1), and the Zen 2011 software package (Carl Zeiss). GFP and chlorophyll were excited at 488 nm and recorded at 499 to 534 nm and 630 to 735 nm, respectively.
For the transient expression work on whole tissue, sliced whole-leaf tissue was visualized using a Zeiss Lightsheet Z.1 microscope (Carl Zeiss) as described, using a 40× objective (NA = 1.0) and the Zen Lightsheet software package (Carl Zeiss). GFP and chlorophyll were excited at 488 nm, and emission selection was recorded at 505 to 545 nm and 660 to 735 nm, respectively.
Metabolic Profiling
For metabolite analysis, ∼40 mg of fresh leaf tissue was frozen in liquid nitrogen, crushed, and extracted with 500 μL of 100% methanol. Samples were then submitted to the Metabolomics Center, Roy J. Carver Biotechnology Center, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where two additional extractions were performed: isopropanol:acetonitrile:water (3:3:2 v/v) and chloroform:methanol (2:2 v/v). Metabolites were analyzed using a GC-MS system (Agilent) consisting of an Agilent 7890 gas chromatograph, an Agilent 5975 mass selective detector, and a HP 7683B autosampler. Gas chromatography was performed on a ZB-5MS capillary column (60-m × 0.32-mm i.d. and 0.25-µm film thickness; Phenomenex). The inlet and MS interface temperatures were 250°C, and the ion source temperature was adjusted to 230°C. An aliquot of 1 μL was injected with the split ratio of 10:1. The helium carrier gas was kept at a constant flow rate of 2 mL/min. The temperature program was a 5-min isothermal heating at 70°C, followed by an oven temperature increase of 5°C min−1 to 310°C and a final 10 min at 310°C. The mass spectrometer was operated in positive electron impact mode at 69.9 eV ionization energy at m/z 30 to 800 scan range. The spectra of all chromatogram peaks were compared with electron impact mass spectrum libraries NIST08 (NIST), W8N08 (Palisade), and a custom-built database (464 unique metabolites). All known artificial peaks were identified and removed. To allow comparison among samples, all data were normalized to the internal standard in each chromatogram and the sample wet weight. The spectra of all chromatogram peaks were evaluated using the AMDIS 2.71 program (NIST). Metabolite concentrations were reported as concentrations relative to the internal standard (i.e., target compound peak area divided by peak area of hentriacontanoic acid): Ni (relative concentration) = Xi (target compound peak area) * X−1IS (peak area of hentriacontanoic acid) per gram wet weight. The instrument variability was within the standard acceptance limit of 5%.
Yeast Complementation and Glycolate Uptake Assays
All yeast strains are described in Supplemental Table 3. Yeast plasmids are described in Supplemental Table 2 and were assembled as previously described (South et al., 2010). Briefly, RNA was obtained from Col-0 wild-type Arabidopsis and converted to cDNA using an RNeasy extraction kit and a Quantitec reverse transcription kit (Qiagen). The coding sequences of full-length BASS6 and PLGG1 minus the chloroplast localization signal (1−24) were amplified by PCR using primers described in Supplemental Table 1. The PCR product was cloned into the pRS415-ADH1 vector (ATCC) using BamHI and XhoI restriction sites. Yeast transformations were performed as previously described with BY4741 mat a wild-type and ady2Δ strains (GE Dharmacon) (South et al., 2010, 2013).
Complementation of the ady2Δ strain was performed by comparing growth analysis using glycolate as a carbon source. Wild-type and ady2Δ strains transformed with BASS6, PLGG1, or empty vector expression plasmids were grown in 50 mL cultures in synthetic complete media lacking leucine (SC-Leu yeast nitrogen base without amino acids, 20% glucose, and synthetic complete dropout mix lacking leucine; Sunrise Biosciences) until reaching an optical density of OD600 between 0.6 and 0.8. Cells were then washed in water twice and resuspended in water. A spot assay was performed on SC-Leu plates containing 2% glucose, lactate, or glycolate as a carbon source. Five-microliter spots were dropped onto plates with five 10-fold serial dilutions starting with an OD600 of 0.1. Plates were then incubated at 30°C. Photographs of plates were taken at 1 d (glucose), 2 d (lactate), and 7 d (glycolate).
Glycolate uptake measurements were performed similarly to glycerol uptake assays described previously (Oliveira et al., 1996). Yeast strains were grown in 50-mL cultures in SC-Leu at 30°C to an optical density of OD600 between 0.6 and 0.8. Cells were harvested and washed twice with water and resuspended in 100 mM Tris/citrate buffer, pH 5.0, at a concentration of 30 mg/mL dry weight. After a 2-min incubation at 25°C, the reaction was started by adding 150 μL of SC-Leu/glycolate containing 1 μL of an aqueous solution of 50 mCi/ mmol (3.7*103 [Bq] total) [14C]-glycolic acid (American Radiolabeled Chemicals). After 10 min, the reaction was stopped by the addition of 5 mL of ice cold water. The reaction mixtures were then filtered on glass fiber filters (Fisher Scientific) and washed three times with 5 mL of ice-cold water. [14C]-glycolate uptake was measured by scintillation counting using the filters plus 4 mL of scintillation fluid (RPI Bio-safe II) using a Packard Tri-Carb liquid scintillation counter (Perkin-Elmer).
RT-PCR Analysis
cDNA was generated from RNA extracted using the plant RNeasy extraction kit and Quantitec reverse transcription kit (Qiagen) from 4-week-old Arabidopsis plants grown under an 8-h/16-h day/night cycle at 180 µmol m−2 s−1 PAR and 22°C/18°C temperature regime at 65% relative humidity. Three biological replicates including three technical replicates each were used for all samples. Samples were analyzed using a Bio-Rad CFX connect real-time PCR system (Bio-Rad Laboratories), and relative changes in transcript abundance were determined using the ΔΔCt method with primers directed toward violaxanthin deepoxidase, PLGG1, and BASS6 transcripts. cDNA was amplified using a SSO advanced SYBR green master mix (Bio-Rad), and primer sequences are described in Supplemental Table 1.
Immunoblot Analysis
Leaf tissue was collected from wild-type (Col-0) and bass6-1 plants grown at elevated CO2, and organelles were isolated following Lang et al. (2011), making adaptations for Arabidopsis organelle isolation as described by Seigneurin-Berny et al. (2008) and Klein et al. (1998). Unless otherwise noted, all steps were performed on ice or at 4°C. Leaves were briefly homogenized in extraction buffer (50 mM HEPES-NaOH, pH 6.9, 0.33 M sorbitol, 2 mM EDTA, 2 mM MgCl2, 1 mM MnCl2, and 0.1% [w/v] BSA) and filtered through three layers of Miracloth (Calbiochem). A fraction of filtrate from this soluble leaf tissue was centrifuged for 10 min at 16,000g to enrich for total organelle membrane fraction. The filtrate was centrifuged for 10 min at 1500g to pellet chloroplasts, and the remaining supernatant was decanted into a new tube to use for the isolation of mitochondria (see below). Pelleted chloroplasts were resuspended in 3 mL of buffer (50 mM HEPES-NaOH, pH 7.6, 0.33 M sorbitol, 2 mM EDTA, 2 mM MgCl2, 1 mM MnCl2, 10 mM KCl, and 1 mM NaCl) using a fine paintbrush, applied to a 15-mL Percoll density gradient (top to bottom: 10% [v/v], 40% [v/v], and 80% [v/v] Percoll in resuspension buffer), and centrifuged for 20 min at 16,000g. Intact chloroplasts accumulated at the 40 to 80% interface and were removed by aspiration, washed twice in 10 volumes of washing buffer (50 mM HEPES-NaOH, pH 7.6, 0.33 M sorbitol, 2 mM EDTA, and 2 mM MgCl2), and centrifuged for 10 min at 1500g.
Plastid proteins were extracted by lysing the chloroplasts in a hypotonic buffer (10 mM Tricine-NaOH, pH 7.6, and 5 mM DTT) and briefly sonicating the sample on ice. Proteins were precipitated with 4 times the sample volume of ice-cold acetone, and the final protein pellet was dissolved in SDS sample buffer (60 mM Tris-HCl, pH 6.8, 10% glycerol [v/v], and 2% [w/v] SDS). Using the supernatant of the original filtrate, mitochondria were enriched by a three-step centrifugation: two 5-min centrifugations at 3000g and 6000g (organelles in supernatant) and one centrifugation at 18,000g for 20 min (organelles in pellet). The crude mitochondrial fraction was resuspended in 5 mL of wash buffer containing 20%[v/v] Percoll and overlaid on a two-step density gradient (top to bottom: sample in 20% [v/v] Percoll, 5 mL of 33% [v/v], and 5 mL 80% [v/v] Percoll). After centrifugation for 60 min at 18,000g, mitochondria were isolated by aspiration. Percoll was removed by two successive washes with 10 volumes washing buffer followed by centrifugation at 16,000g for 10 min. Mitochondria were suspended in 10 mM Tricine-NaOH (pH 7.6), homogenized in a glass tissue homogenizer (Tenbroeck), and briefly sonicated on ice.
Proteins were precipitated with acetone and the final protein pellet was dissolved in SDS sample buffer. The purity of the isolated organelles and the cellular localization of BASS6 were determined by immunoblotting. Protein from whole-cell lysates (soluble and membrane enriched), chloroplasts, and mitochondria were loaded on a total protein concentration basis, as determined by a Bradford assay (Bio-Rad), and separated via SDS-PAGE. After electrophoresis, proteins were transferred to a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane (PVDF-F Millipore) using the Trans-Blot electrophoresis transfer cell (Bio-Rad). Membranes were incubated in Odyssey blocking buffer (LI-COR) or 5% nonfat milk in TBS-T (20 mM Tris-HCl, 150 mM NaCl, and 0.1% [v/v] Tween 20), prior to incubation with either anti-RBCL antibody (1:5000; Agrisera AS03 037), anti-COXII antibody (1:1000; Agrisera AS04 053A), or custom rabbit polyclonal anti-BASS6 serum raised against a peptide from AtBASS6 (Agrisera). Signals were developed with either an alkaline phosphate-conjugated secondary antibody and colorimetric reagent (1:2500; Bio-Rad) or a fluorescent goat anti-rabbit IgG (H+L) 800 CW secondary antibody and visualized with the LI-COR Odyssey scanner and software (LI-COR Biosciences).
Statistical Analysis
All experiments had at least three biological replicates and data indicate the average values. Relative growth analysis and relative changes in mRNA levels include sd. Relative growth, relative changes in mRNA levels, metabolites, and photosynthetic measurements were analyzed either by a one-way ANOVA (genotype) or two-way ANOVA (genotype by CO2 treatment) with a significance threshold of P < 0.05 (Supplemental File 1). All ANOVA analyses were followed with a Tukey's post-hoc test and determined using statistical software (OriginPro 9.1; OriginLab).
Accession Numbers
Sequence data from this article can be found in the Arabidopsis Genome Initiative under the following accession numbers: BASS6 (At4g22840), GLYK (At1g80380), PLGG1 (At1g32080), and SHM1 (At4g37930). Germplasm included bass6-1 (CS859747), bass6-2 (SALK_052903C), glyk (SALK_036371), plgg1-1 (SALK_053469C), shm1-1 (a gift from Andreas P.M. Weber, originally called stm in Somerville and Ogren, 1981).
Supplemental Data
Supplemental Figure 1. BASS6 Is Necessary for Growth at Low CO2.
Supplemental Figure 2. Characterization of BASS6 T-DNA Insertions.
Supplemental Figure 3. BASS6 Is Chloroplast-Localized.
Supplemental Figure 4. Coexpression Analysis of BASS6 in Arabidopsis.
Supplemental Figure 5. BASS6 Amino Acid Sequence Alignments.
Supplemental Table 1. Oligonucleotides Used in This Study.
Supplemental Table 2. Plasmids Used in This Study.
Supplemental Table 3. Yeast Strains Used in This Study.
Supplemental Data Set 1. T-DNA lines Included in the Chlorophyll Fluorescence Screen.
Supplemental File 1. ANOVA Tables.
We thank Richard D. Field, Caroline Keller, and Helen W. Liu for assistance with experiments. We also thank the Core Facilities at the Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois, and the Center of Advanced Microscopy of the Australian National University for light-sheet and confocal microscope access, respectively. Funding was provided via a subcontract by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1060461) titled 'RIPE-Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency for Sustainable Increases in Crop Yield'. Gene synthesis and assembly were supported by the Crop Engineering Consortium sponsored by the project Engineering Nitrogen Symbiosis for Africa through a grant to the John Innes Centre by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1028264).
P.F.S., A.P.C., and D.R.O. designed the experiments. P.F.S., B.J.W., A.P.C., and V.R. performed experiments. P.F.S., D.R.O., B.J.W., A.P.C., V.R., and M.B. analyzed data. P.F.S. and D.R.O. wrote the article.
The authors responsible for distribution of materials integral to the findings presented in this article in accordance with the policy described in the Instructions for Authors (www.plantcell.org) are: Donald R. Ort (d-ort{at}illinois.edu) and Paul F. South (pfsouth{at}illinois.edu).
↵1 Current address: Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Cluster of Excellence on Plant Science, Heinrieh-Heine-Universität, D-40231 Düsseldorf, Germany.
↵2 Current address: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Agriculture and Food, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia.
↵[OPEN] Articles can be viewed without a subscription.
- 3-phosphoglycerate
- 2-phosphoglycolate
- Received October 7, 2016.
- Revised February 8, 2017.
- Accepted March 28, 2017.
- Published March 28, 2017.


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subset: commoncrawl


text:
Verizon has been blabbing all over the place about the fact that a Storm 2 is on the way, so they don't really need to shroud the whole thing in secrecy at this point.
That's right, folks. No top secret codenames in the inventory system, no shipping crates sealed shut with a declaration of all the ways they'll eat your face if it's opened too early; just an entry in the computer reading "DUM: STORM 2 MOCK UP". While we're hoping this means a Storm 2 launch is impending, a commenter at PhoneArena points out that Verizon sometimes sends the phones far ahead of launch. Jerks.


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H.R.3464 - Background Check Completion Act of 2017115th Congress (2017-2018)
BillHide Overview
|Rep. Clyburn, James E. [D-SC-6] (Introduced 07/27/2017)
|House - Judiciary
|Latest Action:
|House - 02/27/2018 Motion to Discharge Committee filed by Mr. Clyburn. Petition No: 115-7. (Discharge petition text with signatures.) (All Actions)
|On 2/27/2018, a motion was filed to discharge the Committee on the Judiciary from the consideration of H.R. 3464. A discharge petition requires 218 signatures for further action. (Discharge Petition No. 115-7: text with signatures.)
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Summary: H.R.3464 — 115th Congress (2017-2018)All Information (Except Text)
There is one summary for H.R.3464. Bill summaries are authored by CRS.
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Introduced in House (07/27/2017)
Background Check Completion Act of 2017
This bill amends the federal criminal code to prohibit a licensed gun dealer from transferring a firearm to an unlicensed person prior to completion of a background check. (Current law permits a licensed gun dealer to transfer a firearm to an unlicensed person if a submitted background check remains incomplete after three business days.)


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Microsoft OneDrive
The cloud solution provided by Microsoft that provides more than just online storage space. On a smaller scale the Microsoft OneDrive system can be very simple to use, where it can become more complex is when the software is required for a network throughout a company, luckily there are cloud migration specialists available in Birmingham, London and Nottingham to help.
OneDrive is part of Office 365 which is just one of Microsoft's cloud solutions; Microsoft Azure is also a popular solution for businesses as it provides even more solutions including cloud migration, backup software and network transformations.
Apple iCloud
The iCloud is Apples solutions to providing the users of Apple devices with a way to manage their files and sync them with multiple devices e.g. one person can sync their photos on to the iCloud account and then access them from both an iPhone and an iMac.
Here are just a few of the applications that the iCloud syncs with on Apple devices;
The main difference between the iCloud and many other cloud systems is that it is aimed at individuals rather than businesses.
Read more on the latest tech trends


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- This article is about the animal. For the score, click here.
A fish is any member of a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits.
In the Real WorldEdit
In the Happy Feet franchiseEdit
In the franchise, fish are the main food source of penguins. In Happy Feet, the fish population has dwindled greatly, leaving penguins starving. It is eventually revealed that the aliens have been over-fishing, though have ceased to do so after watching Mumble preform his unique talent.
In the GBA version of Happy Feet: The Videogame, many colorful types of fishes appear but seen in water levels and sliding levels.
Community content is available under CC-BY-SA unless otherwise noted.


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I set to work on writing a letter that explained background to Mum's work and what we were looking to do to celebrate it and promote cycling. To get the facts I enlisted help from Sue Powell (one of Mum's closest friends in Wye and a colleague on many of the Wye planning groups), Catherine Hughes (previously a planner at ABC when Mum was on the scene) and Sheila.
Upon reading my letter Cllr Claughton responded promptly and guided me to the Single Grants Gateway and the Council's funding officer Michelle Byrne.
Michelle was very helpful and explained the hoops through which we would have to jump. There were quite a lot of criteria and I thought it was a long shot at the time but considering Michelle's positivity for the project I thought it was worth a punt. So then we embarked on a journey.......
- We weren't going to get anywhere without becoming a bona fide community group with a constitution and a community bank account so Alex Gow, Dad and I agreed the paperwork and rocked into Ashford to set up an account - it took Dad over 10 attempts to get his arty signature in the box!
- An initial expression of interest form got us through the front door with the Grant scheme, which unlocked a more comprehensive application document. I was glad for the practice I had in my professional life completing submissions for public sector tenders!
- You need support from the local Borough Councillor so I finally built up courage to speak with Cllr Doug Marriott. I had been nervous about approaching figures in positions like these - you only have one shot, what if they don't like it? Doug turned out to be a fantastic person, very easy to talk to and already a supporter of Route 18. He also is a mover and shaker in my preferred professional circle of energy efficiency so we had plenty to chat about. He promptly gave his seal of approval to the project and I ploughed on refuelled with confidence.
- Written letters of support are also needed from the local Parish Councils (PCs) - after explaining the project, Chilham and Godmersham PCs kindly gave their backing. I was even able to join Godmersham's meeting to give a short talk.
- After submitting Michelle came back to me very promptly to say that we had been successful in applying for a £1,000 grant towards the costs of Catha's Seat and that the funds would be transferred on receipt of the final invoice. As I wanted to tell the full story when publicising I am ashamed to say that, with starting my new job at the same time, I have sat on this golden news since 1st October - sorry readers!
I feel that this was one of the most valuable processes in the whole campaign. Not only is the money vital but the support and reach we have been able to achieve has taken it to another dimension. All these groups have now invested in Catha's Seat so it is really a community owned and approved project. Even though it has been challenging and took time to get through I couldn't be happier with this outcome.
|The Board of the Catha's Seat Group agree its constitution
I would like to thank Cllr Michael Claughton, Michelle Byrne, Cllr Doug Marriott, Caroline Spencer and the members of Godmersham PC, Geoff Dear and the members of Chilham PC, as well as Sue Powell, Catherine Hughes and Sheila Webb for their support with the content and Alex Gow and Dad for forming the first Board of the Catha's Seat Group.
Thanks also goes out to all of you that are supporting the project - your involvement, donors and readers alike, was recognised in the submission to show what we are made of. This is a community project, made to benefit the community and recognise the work of the members of our community that have facilitated our fantastic cycle routes.
What a team effort. Thank you.


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You've probably heard hair gurus say that products don't grow your hair. We beg to differ, products
Unless you have a medical condition that interferes with hair growth, your follicles are constantly producing new hair. You may be having difficulty growing your hair past a certain point simply because you are not correctly preserving the hair that grows. Simply put, you are not retaining length. And the reason you are not retaining length is because your hair is breaking off faster than it is growing.
You must have good hair care practices in order to retain your length. A good place to start is to developing a simple hair care routine that you repeat consistently. If consistency with your routine is not yielding tangible results, you may need to pay more attention to the products you use to care for your hair and how you handle it.
The 'secret' to growing long afro hair is in keeping it soft and moisturised at all times. When your hair is properly moisturised, the chances of developing dry ends is minimised. If you use protein treatments as often as you need them, your hair will maintain its strength and you will reduce the chances of developing split ends or damaging your hair in general.
The products you use for your hair determine how moisturised and how strong your hair is. As long as your products are doing all of the right things for your hair, primarily, cleaning it without stripping it, and keeping it soft and strong, you will be well on your way to
Afro hair is very fragile and needs gentle handling. Combing it multiple times a day with a fine-tooth comb or constantly tugging at it does it no good. Endeavour to handle your hair only when you have sufficient time to detangle, wash and condition it properly. Refrain from wearing hairstyles that require daily upkeep and consider putting your hair in styles that allow it to rest for at least a few days at a time.
Have we managed to convince you that products grow your hair? Chime in and let us know your thoughts.


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RE/MAX Real Estate Services Blog
Posted in: Fort Langley, Langley Real Estate
Property listed at 22089 TELEGRAPH TRAIL in Langley.
Once in a Lifetime - Prestige Estate Property. 24.5 acres, south slope, in the ALR, farm status for low taxes. View of Sunrise & Moon rise over Mt. Baker, majestic evergreens, security front gate. Approx. 2 acres in blueberries, could be expanded. 10 acres of lush forest at rear of property. Private rural setting, 2 mins from the new 216th St Exit on Hwy 1. All amenities in Walnut Grove, charming Fort Langley & Langley City. 3 golf courses, 10 minutes to Langley airport & hospital. Substantially renovated Legacy Farmhouse with 4 beds, master suite on main, newer doors, windows, roof, kitchen & baths. Full unfinished basement. Infinite Potential within an hour of dwtn Vanc -Call Now.


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The easiest way to join the 3D printing revolution with XVICO !
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Use a microSD card to store sliced GCode files, then plug the card into the microSD card slot to print without the need to connect to a Windows or Mac PC. The printer includes a 2GB microSD card with sample 3D models, which you can slice and store on the card for direct printing.
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Most common problems and updates
Most problems affecting any Macmillan dictionary CD-ROM can be fixed with our update wizard. To run the wizard, please click here and follow the instructions.
The most recent versions of Macmillan's CD-ROM dictionaries have been updated and thoroughly tested on the various different versions of Windows Vista. However, we regret that the Macmillan Essential Dictionary, Macmillan School Dictionary, and the Macmillan English Dictionary 1st Edition are not compatible with 64-bit Vista. It is unlikely that you will experience problems with 32-bit Vista, but if you do, please check that you have Administrator Rights for your computer, or ask your IT department for assistance.
If you have version 2.0.0702 of the Macmillan English Dictionary CD-ROM, you can update it to version 2.1.0706 to ensure compatibility with Windows Vista. Please click here to run the update.
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[30701/30699] Blade Guardian II
Classes: WAR/254
Skill: Alteration
Target: Self
Resist: Beneficial, Blockable: Yes
Focusable: Yes
Casting: 0s, Recast: 18s, Rest: 1.5s
Duration: 3m+ (30 ticks) Song, Dispelable: Yes
1: Cast: Blade Whirl II once if Caster HP Below 40 Percent
Text: A guardian spirit watches over you.
This ability, when activated, places you under the protection of
[30702/30700] Blade Whirl II
Classes: WAR/254
Skill: Defense
Target: Self
Resist: Beneficial, Blockable: Yes
Focusable: Yes
Casting: 0s
Duration: 18s+ (3 ticks), Dispelable: Yes
2: Increase Chance to Parry by 60%
Text: Magical blades whirl around you.
Increases your chance to parry #2% for up to %z.
Spell list updated Oct 20, 2020


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Who would have ever thought that a quarterback, from Bismarck ND, that played his college ball at North Dakota State, could become a star in the NFL?
Carson Wentz is that unlikely character.
He was a good quarterback at NDSU. Following their 2015 season, conversation began about whether he might be drafted. That buzz continued, until some pundit predicted Wentz could potentially, go in the first round.
Having grown up in North Dakota, and gone to NDSU, I was both excited by that prospect, but doubtful that it could happen. Then the conversation upped the ante, and suggested he would go in the top 4. Everyone in the state of North Dakota was paying attention to the sports stations, the sports blogs, and all the print media as the interest accelerated. He then gets drafted No. 2. by Philadelphia.
At the point, I think everyone just hoped he'd make the cut, or at least make the practice squad. He then made the final cut. What a relief!! Shortly after that they traded Sam Bradford, to the Vikings. You've got to be chiding me. That leaves Wentz as the quarterback. He starts and plays well in his first year, and he establishes himself as the franchise quarterback.
Then we go to his second year. The team picks up some key parts in developing a well balanced team. They acquired Alshon Jeffrey, Jay Ajayi, Legarrette Blount, And all their defensive draft pics. All of these strategic moves, along with Wentz, now with a year under his belt, have catapulted the Eagles to the best record in the NFL.
The Eagles are 9-1. Wentz is the number 4 quarterback, based on the NFL QBR, and is leading the NFL in touchdown passes with 25. He is also the leading candidate for the NFL's MVP.
He has also validated all North Dakotans.


text: In this splendid novel, Celeste finds herself engaged to Alex, a wealthy man whose standards are as exacting as her own -- or so she thought. As she begins to question their relationship and herself, Celeste is haunted by painful memories: of her past in well-heeled, blue-blooded Connecticut; of the friends and family who seem to have disappeared from her life; and of Nathan, for whom Celeste still carries a lingering passion. At last coming to terms with the lies and illusions that have propelled her forward for years, Celeste must take responsibility for the choices she has made. She decides to be true to herself -- and so challenges her fiancé, her family, and the very society in which she's steeped.


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Welcome to our family blog about eating (and sometimes playing with) vegetarian food! Amanda Martin is the voice behind the writing. Paul is generally the eye behind the camera. Nora (3) and Peter (1) are the kitchen entertainment, cabinet-emptiers, and kitchen timers who say when the chef needs to be done even if the food isn't ready yet.
Over the years, this blog has transformed from the reviewing of cookbooks to budget friendly meals, and now, to mostly time-saving meals and posts about making healthy eating fun for kids and adults alike. I'm not a recipe writer so much as I am a recipe finder. I find recipes and (sometimes) change them to make them faster to prepare, vegetarian, or allergy-friendly. I also look for tricks to get me out of my beloved kitchen faster so I can spend more time with my family who, of course, eat a lot which often puts me back in the kitchen quickly. They give me plenty of opportunities to experiment, which means you can experiment less!


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A Luxury Photography Retreat in Ullswater
A Luxury Photography Retreat in Ullswater
For those who like getting up high, there are some of the best mountains and fells on your doorstep, the most famous being Helvellyn and the precipitous Striding Edge. A gentler walk is Aira Force, probably the most famous of the Lake District waterfalls. You are in the perfect location to receive exceptional photography tuition from "Landscape Photographer of the Year" Mark Littlejohn and experienced local photographer & mountain guide, Rod Ireland.
Mark Littlejohn is a professional landscape photographer based in the Penrith area on the edge of the English Lake District. Mark is best known for his achievements in the UK Landscape Photographer of the Year competition. Over the course of the last three years he has received 7 Judges Commendations, 2 Highly Commended, runner up in the Classic View in 2015 and overall winner of the title in 2014. His images are regularly featured in a variety of national photographic magazines and he also writes articles that feature in these magazines. He has been running workshops throughout the Lakes for some time and likes nothing better than showing visitors different views from well known places.
Rod Ireland is a professional photographer living and working in the small village of Askham in the Lake District (under five miles from Waternook). His knowledge and understanding of the local area is second to none. As well as being an accomplished landscape photographer, he is a fully qualified mountain leader meaning he's able to take clients off the beaten track so they can experience locations other photographic tutors are unable to explore. Rod runs photographic workshops in the Lake District; regularly exhibits landscape work and serves a list of clients with commercial photography.
Exceptional photography tuition from "Landscape Photographer of the Year" Mark Littlejohn and experienced local photographer and mountain guide, Rod Ireland.
All guests receive:
3 nights luxury stay in The Great Barn (5 Star Gold)
A private chef to prepare your packed lunches and evening meals
Round the lake pass on the Ullswater Steamers
Photography guests receive:
Personal 1-to-1 and group photography tuition
Professional local guiding to hidden locations
Review and feedback sessions on workshop images
Ongoing email support
Non photography guests receive:
£50 voucher towards a luxury concierge services
Opportunity to join guided walks into the fells
... or just relax with a good book, taking in the marvels of Ullswater
Dates for 2017 coming soon


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Fun, frustrating, addictive - this is Flappy Birds. Flap your wings to fly in this awesome skill game! While the developer took his masterpiece down from the app stores you can still enjoy it as a free online game. Carefully avoid the pipes and get further than anyone else while you see the other players fail.
Classic Games, Skill


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GARNER, Iowa (Oct. 2, 2013) — Oshkosh Corp. subsidiary Iowa Mold Tooling Co. Inc. introduced several mid-range articulating cranes at the 2013 International Construction and Utility Equipment Exposition (ICUEE), which took place Oct. 1-3 in Louisville, Ky.
The company's new 9/65, 10/72, 11/78 and 12/86 crane models have been enhanced with new options, features and ratings, IMT said, offering customers increased productivity and payload capacity. The cranes are rated from 65,100 foot-pounds to 86,075 foot-pounds and feature lift capacities ranging from 8,380 pounds to 10,230 pounds.
New features include single link (SL) and dual link (DL) options, 15-degree overbending and weight reduction of 10 to 15 percent from the previous models. The SL option provides users with high lifting capacity when the boom system is full extended and offers strength, regular speed and flexibility in the outer boom, combined with high speed in the main boom's extreme positions at the column. IMT said this options is well-suited for loading and unloading tasks at a low height, far away from the vehicle.
The DL option offers "the best lifting capacities under all conditions" and provides precise and regular movements within the working area, IMT said. It is well-suited for long reaches and lifting in high positions.
Each crane can be fitted with up to five hydraulic extensions to provide application-specific reach, the company said.
"IMT customers need lift and reach capabilities that are tailored to their challenging applications" said John Field, product manager of material handling at IMT. "Our new mid-range articulating crane models offer an elevated level of technology that increases productivity—with lower weight that allows for more payload capacity."
Additional features of the new crane models include: ultra-high tensile steel construction; a radio remote control equipped with an information center for controlling stabilizer functions and feedback of loader operation conditions; rack and pinion rotation; an internal hose routing system; optional stabilizer solutions; a flexible stow bracket design; a strong hexagonal profile; load-holding valves on all load-bearing cylinders; and an extension system equipped with a regeneration valve to increase work speed.
For more information about the product, visit the company's website.


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Xylitol and dogs: The dangers that dog owners must know
Let's talk about a very dangerous and life-threatening toxin for dogs called xylitol. As an integrative veterinarian for nearly 20 years who's seen a lot, I don't say that to sensationalize the topic by any means. This is a substance that is more and more available in our households. It's now widely used as an ingredient in everything from toothpaste to baked goods. And it is very dangerous for dogs.
Xylitol and dogs don't mix. Our dogs are counting on us to keep them safe.
What is xylitol?
While xylitol has been around since 1891, it's a fairly new health concern for dogs. Xylitol is a sugar substitute. Discovered by a German chemist, it was used during World War II because sugar was unavailable. As an alternative, they pulled xylitol out of hardwoods like birch trees and used it as a sweetener. The first xylitol gum (and gum is certainly the thing that pops into my head when I think about xylitol poisoning in dogs) was launched in Finland and the United States in 1975. However, now a myriad of products for human consumption include xylitol as an ingredient.
What products include xylitol?
If you walk down the grocery store aisle and read the labels, I think you'll be stunned at how often you see xylitol on the ingredient list. It's in everything from toothpaste to mouthwash to pudding to peanut butter.CANINE CAUTION: Xylitol is in everything from toothpaste to mouthwash to pudding to peanut butter. Protect your pet!Click To Tweet
Since peanut butter is a go-to choice for many dog owners as a way of disguising a dog's pill when medicating a dog or simply giving a dog a special treat, it's especially important to read the label on your jar of peanut butter. Within the last three years or so, manufacturers have started including xylitol as a sweetener in some peanut butter. The last thing any dog owner wants to do is accidentally hurt their dog when they are trying to keep him or her healthy by unknowingly coating a pill in xylitol-laced peanut butter.
Here is a short list of human consumables that may include xylitol. One of my colleagues, Dr. Jason Nicholas, whom I interviewed on The Buzby Dog Podcast (listen here: Danger Ahead: Preventing Pain, Suffering, and Death in Pets) has one of the most thorough lists of 700+ xylitol-containing products on his website, Preventivevet.com.
Did you know that these products may contain Xylitol?
- Toothpaste
- Mouthwash
- Peanut butter
- Chewing gum, candy, mints
- Jellies and jams
- Cereals
- Baked goods
- Puddings and Jel-lo®
- Cosmetics
- Lip balm
- Shampoo
- Pancake syrup
- Ketchup and condiments
- Drink powders
- Vitamins
- Medications…and the list goes on and on.
Xylitol is toxic for dogs and may be found in peanut butter, gum, cereals, toothpaste, lip balm, candy, jellies, and more. Keep your dog safe from this poison in your pantry! Click To Tweet
Prescription medicines and pharmaceuticals for your dog.
I want to specifically call out prescription medicines prescribed for your dog but purchased from a human pharmacy. While your veterinarian should be proactive in watching for xylitol, I want you to be informed too. Meloxicam human oral suspension is one example. Metacam is the veterinary comparable drug. That's the brand name but meloxicam is the human generic and it can come in a suspension or a syrup. It contains xylitol.
Another very common medication prescribed for pain is called gabapentin. The capsules and the tablets don't contain xylitol, but every liquid solution does except for one brand called Amneal. It does not contain xylitol. It is the only liquid suspension syrup of gabapentin that I know of that does not contain xylitol.
Also, veterinarians may recommend over-the-counter melatonin for your dog for many reasons. Melatonin in the fruit-flavored, rapid-dissolve tablets and the gummy version are likely to contain xylitol. Just a few of these could be toxic. Please be aware.
Why is xylitol toxic to dogs?
Xylitol causes two problems for a dog's system: hypoglycemia and damage to the liver. Let's take a look at each one.
Xylitol, a sugar substitute, "tricks" the dog's body into thinking it has consumed sugar. When the body consumes sugar, the pancreas releases a hormone of plenty called insulin. (For example, after you've had a meal, your carbs are broken down into simple sugars or you have ingested simple sugars in your food.) So the body secretes insulin because it thinks, "Oh, I got all this sugar in my bloodstream and I need to counteract that." It's this delicate body balance that the brain maintains.
But herein lies the problem. The dog really hasn't consumed sugar. There's not a high blood sugar problem that needs to be counteracted. So, because the insulin drives blood sugar into the cells and out of the bloodstream, the dog ends up with hypoglycemia, low blood sugar.
Liver Damage
Damage to the liver, which can be very extensive and even fatal, is the second problem. In some cases, the drop in blood sugar happens fast. It can occur within 10 to 15 minutes after ingestion. In other cases, the symptoms may not appear for up to 12 hours after ingestion. On top of this, some xylitol-containing products act as a slow-release toxin. (Think of the way a slow-release prescription drug works over time. Rather than a spike of medication in your bloodstream, the prescription is slowly released.)
Chewing gum containing xylitol is an example of a slow release product. Sitting in the gastrointestinal tract, the gum is acting as a slow release toxin and continually driving the dog's blood sugar down.
A colleague of mine, who works at an emergency pet hospital, shared with me a story of slow-release xylitol poisoning. She encountered a case at the ER where, unknown to the dog's owners, the dog had ingested xylitol. The veterinary team just could not manage the blood sugar. The dog had persistent hypoglycemia. They took x-rays but could not find anything.
On a lark, they induced vomiting in the dog. The dog vomited up a wad of chewing gum that had been sitting in the dog's stomach acting as a slow-release toxin. That was the ticket. After that, they could stabilize the dog and it recovered.
Signs of xylitol poisoning in dogs
Here are some of the most common signs of xylitol poisoning in dogs:
- Vomiting–a common first sign.
- Weakness. Imbalance. Ataxia (drunken sailor walk). Collapse. Seizures or tremors. These symptoms are caused by the drop in blood sugar that may occur within 15 minutes of ingestion.
- From nine to 12 hours (and as long as three days) after ingestion, signs of liver failure may appear. These signs include yellowing of the gums, yellowing of the whites of the eyes, and even yellowing of the skin if it's extreme. (The medical term for this is "icterus" or commonly called "jaundice.")
- Blood in stool.
- Complications due to the dog's difficulty clotting, which may include bleeding internally or externally.
- Neurologic complications due to the liver no longer cleansing the blood of toxins.
What to do if your dog eats a xylitol-containing product
- Call poison control immediately. Have every ounce of information you can. If possible, have the packaging in hand. Describe the key facts. Here's an example:
- "My dog ingested xylitol. It's the third ingredient on this package of (brand name) gum. I think he got into nine pieces."
- You might not know the full story, but the more you can share, the better. Again, time is of the essence.
The ASPCA poison control hotline is run by brilliant, board-certified veterinarian toxicologists. I think every pet owner should the phone number handy. There is a charge via credit card for the consult with the specialist. (If you happen to have microchipped your dog through Home Again and hold a membership, the call is free of charge.)
- Call your veterinarian or your local veterinary emergency hospital ASAP. Once you've called the poison control toxicologist, they're going to outline a treatment plan and your veterinarian or the veterinarian at the emergency can quickly address the symptoms. This typically means putting the dog on IV fluids and IV dextrose, which is sugar to counteract that insulin. The veterinary team will work to keep the blood sugar levels at a rate that's compatible with life. Not too high. Not too low. They will take frequent blood work. Sadly, treating xylitol poisoning in dogs can cost thousands and thousands of dollars because of the level of treatment that's required to protect the dog's liver and save the dog's life.
Prevention is the best medicine
- Treat products containing xylitol like you would a prescription drug or a harmful substance. Just as you keep prescription drugs locked up in a medicine chest, keep products containing xylitol out of reach of your dog.
- Read the product labels. Educate yourself on what products in your home contain xylitol.
- For more information on xylitol and dogs, please check out my podcast, Xylitol Toxicity in Dogs. Guest speaker Dr. Jessica Taylor recounts the true story of saving Sugar, a goldendoodle, who ingested gum that contained xylitol. You can listen here:
- Also, the FDA warns about the dangers of xylitol and dogs in this article: Paws Off Xylitol: It's Dangerous for Dogs.
Products containing xylitol and dogs don't mix. Arm yourself and protect your dog by finding out if you have this poison in your pantry.