text:
Algae Enterprises (AE) has developed the Algae Power Station (APS).
The APS supplies renewable energy by integrating an advanced algae biomass cultivation system with an anaerobic digester for methane generation as a biofuel. GHG emissions are drastically reduced by providing a wastewater treatment method that produces several times more energy than it consumes. In addition, AE's APS is more advanced and suited towards algae biomass production in wastewater environments than other algae systems.
Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), are stripped from wastewater during algae growth and are exported as biosolids with the potential to be used as a valuable fertiliser while remaining energy positive. This is in stark contrast to conventional N and P removal that requires energy intensive Activated Sludge Processes (ASP), emitting nitrous oxide (N2O) and chemical phosphorus removal that renders nutrients unsuitable for further use.
AE's algae technology has been developed to cultivate algae biomass in a wastewater environments taking into account the low-light penetration in untreated waste streams and the need to increase algae yields to achieve commercial viability. Other algae systems, such as open ponds or raceway-type designs, perform poorly when wastewater is applied rather than clear, synthetic nutrient media.
Using our patented PAS technology we produce more algae with less energy. AE has developed an algae cultivation technology to directly address issues of scalability and the commercial viability of generating algae biomass as an energy crop.
We have demonstrated the use of anaerobic digesters to convert the algae biomass into biogas, with methane as the primary component. The biogas can be used to generate electricity using a biogas generator. What remains after biogas generation is a nutrient rich fertiliser product that can be used directly on crops, pastures or to generate even more algae. There is enough renewable energy creation potential in such a system to support the entire farm or Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP) and many times more than that to be sold back to the grid where the algae cultivation and digester components are maximised. In areas that have no power grid, this serves to provide a constant clean energy source using wastewater as the primary input.
Algae, when cultivated and harvested in sufficient quantity on industrial scale, can be used as a feedstock for any of the currently known energy and fuel technologies including:
- bio-diesel by conversion of oils via Esterification
- bio-ethanol by fermentation of cellulose
- bio-crude to then be processed further by standard petroleum refinement producing LPG, petrol, diesel, jet fuel, plastics, chemicals etc.
- bio-gas, i.e. methane
- Hydrogen fuel via direct gasification
Algae Enterprises recently presented in the BioEnergy Australia conference. Professor Borowitzka, one of the leading Algae authorities in Australia, ran the Algae related stream with lively discussion throughout.


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First, let's address the elephant in the room: the show did not always show Slayer abilities in a consistent fashion. The meta-explanation for this is that the writers didn't want to restrict their opportunities for future story-telling; once something has been defined narrowly in black-and-white, you can't easily change it even if you then have a really great idea for a new episode. Joss famously once said that the starship in 'Firefly' travels "at the speed of plot". Of course, sometimes the inconsistencies are less about a deliberate artistic choice and more about continuity errors and simple mistakes.
However, this still works even if we look at it purely within the context of the Buffyverse. If Slayer powers aren't always shown consistently on the screen, that can simply reflect the fact that they don't always work consistently in-world either. They are, after all, magical in origin; and it's implicit in the definition of magic that it doesn't obey the normal rules of physics or cause & effect.
Buffy tells Kendra that her emotions make her stronger, give her power. We know that when she's feeling uncertain, depressed, bewildered or insecure, her fighting ability suffers ('Seeing Red' is the classic example, along with 'The Freshman'.) More interestingly, when she suffers a near-death experience (or, being Buffy, an actual-death experience), she often comes back stronger than ever ('Prophecy Girl', 'Bad Girls').
My hypothesis is therefore that the Slayer Power lies within every Slayer, and she can draw on it to perform superhuman feats of strength and skill. However, she can't necessarily do so automatically and completely; many Slayers can only access a proportion of their total potential. Doubt, confusion and uncertainty limit a Slayer's ability to use the power; a Slayer who is at one with herself, focussed and attuned to her feelings can do so much more easily because her subconscious mind is not limiting her access to it.
It's often suggested that there is a darkness within Slayers: it's what Dracula tells Buffy in 5.01. Of course, we later learn that their power is demonic in origin. This could be why near-death experiences help Buffy to become stronger, and why anger feeds her power; the greater connection to death and slaughter brings her closer into tune with the Slayer power inside her. However, it doesn't necessarily follow that a Slayer who is overwhelmed by hatred and rage is going to be better at tapping her power than one who isn't. The idea that the Slayer essence is dark, demonic and evil is one that's expressed by various people in the show but never established authoritatively: and indeed, it's contradicted by the First Slayer herself when Buffy seeks to understand the true nature of her power:
"You are full of love. You love with all of your soul. It's brighter than the fire ... blinding. That's why you pull away from it. Love is pain, and the Slayer forges strength from pain. Love, give, forgive. Risk the pain. It is your nature."
I would suggest, then, that the Slayer essence is something primal, and frightening in its intensity, and certainly dangerous and predatory; but it's not a force of hatred, and such emotions don't help you get closer to it. Faith in S3 isn't a stronger Slayer than Buffy. A Slayer motivated by righteous anger and a desire to protect her loved ones is more in tune with the Slayer power than one driven by merely the urge to hurt and destroy.
There's also the matter of training. At first, one might question why Slayers need to train at all, if their power is supernatural in origin. Certainly Buffy's superstrength doesn't rest in the size of her muscles; it's not physical in origin. I doubt that examining a Slayer's body by conventional medical means - or even dissecting one, or running it through a gene sequencer - would show it to be the slightest bit different to that of a normal human. Slayer abilities come from magic, not from working out regularly.
So why train? I suggest that a big part of it is to help a Slayer learn to trust her powers, and draw on them instinctively and without thinking. She has to become one with herself. I think it's very significant that when Buffy asks Giles for 'advanced training' in S5, he has her doing things like yoga - focussing on her inner spiritual development as much as conditioning her body. Even in the real world, regular training helps build self-confidence and discipline; given the nature of a Slayer's power, I suggest that for them such qualities have supernatural as well as psychological value.
On a more practical level, however, there's value in being physically fit and in good condition even if you have superstrength. I've proposed that a Slayer's abilities are inconsistent and not universally reliable. If Buffy's having an off day or is too upset to tap into her mystical powers to the full extent, it can help a lot that she's also a fully proficient martial artist and gymnast in her own right, who's been training on an intensive basis almost every day since she was 15. Not to mention, of course, that fighting techniques are an entirely different matter to physical abilities: it doesn't matter how strong Buffy is if she telegraphs her punches or leaves her guard down.
(On a related note, as I've mentioned before: someone like Kennedy in S7 who was brought up by a Watcher would have been training constantly in combat skills ever since she was a small child. Even without supernatural powers, that would be enough for her to qualify as some sort of superhero or ninja in many non-Buffyverse mythologies.)
So that's what I think about the fundamental nature of a Slayer's powers. Now let's look in more detail at some of their specific abilities and how they work in practice. We all know the basic list: superstrength, fast reflexes, Slayer healing ability and prophetic dreams. Some others are only mentioned in passing, or hinted at rather than described explicitly, or might be Buffy Summers powers rather than Slayer powers as such: intuition into a enemy's weaknesses, aptitude with all kinds of weapons, memories of past Slayers, and so forth.
This is the best-known Slayer power, the one most often referred to on the show. Its precise limits have never been laid down in text - something I gather is quite deliberate on the writers' part, but we can make some guesses. A Slayer's main use for her strength is, of course, in punching and kicking man-sized opponents across the room. We've seen Buffy bending apart iron bars or the barrel of a rifle. In 'Life Serial' she easily picks up a steel girder - which, I gather, normally weigh around 100 - 120 kg, or coincidentally about the weight of a large man. In 'Anne' she struggles to lift a large iron gate, which I'm guessing would probably weigh around 200 - 250 kg (based on looking up websites of companies selling metal gates for driveways and the like.) She's never been seen picking up motor cars and tossing them at opponents. She and Spike together did manage to demolish a house, but it took them quite some time - not like Glory who could achieve similar results with a single stamp of her foot.
In short, under normal circumstances a Slayer's strength is more on a par with the very strongest non-supernatural humans than with Marvel or DC costumed superheroes. (The Olympic weightlifting record is currently 263 kg, which I've suggested is roughly in line with what Buffy struggles to lift in 'Anne'). That's not to say that a Slayer might not be capable of bursts of greater strength if the story required it for some dramatic scene - it can be justified as the power inside her temporarily being unleashed fully - but a normal Slayer still isn't going to be tossing steam locomotives around.
Something of note is that we rarely see Slayers using superstrength for extended periods of time. It's always in short bursts, to hit someone or bend something or maybe pick up something heavy. Anya actually calls this out in 'The Replacement' when she asks why they can't load Buffy up "like one of those little horses" to help move all their furniture into their new apartment at once. It's possible that Buffy could, in fact, do this if she wanted to, but doesn't because it would be undignified. Alternatively, it may be in the nature of the Slayer power that it's designed for fighting, not extended feats of strength, and acts more like an adrenaline rush that gives a temporary boost.
In fact, there's some evidence that Slayer strength is not "always on" at all. In 'A New Man' when Giles become a supernaturally strong Fyarl demon, he goes around accidentally smashing things and demolishing walls. Buffy never does that, despite the fact that she's often shown as being quite clumsy. It might be that she's just got used to her strength and knows how to limit it; or alternatively it could be that her superstrength only manifests when she's in danger or when she consciously draws on it.
A popular theme in some fanfic is a new Slayer acquiring superstrength and accidentally breaking someone's back or crushing them because she doesn't know what she's doing - however, we've never seen anything like that happen on the TV show. In the movie, Buffy was surprised by the fact that she was suddenly much stronger, but she didn't accidentally kill anyone or even cause any non-deliberate property damage with her new powers. Counter-evidence is that in Season 8, Andrew's 'recruitment video' does show a Slayer accidentally breaking a vase and complaining that she "can't control her strength", and in S6 there's a scene where Giles complains that Buffy's hug is too tight because she's "still remarkably strong".
However, the second example needn't refer to Slayer strength at all; given all the martial arts training Buffy does, she's going to be "remarkably strong" for a woman her size regardless of any powers she might have. The first is more difficult to explain, although the fact that this is Andrew's idea of what becoming a Slayer is like might be enough in itself. Of course, even if a new Slayer doesn't automatically use her superstrength in everyday life, she might draw on her powers to do something she would have struggled with as a normal human without realising exactly how much stronger she now is.
There's also the issue of sex, which for some reason is perennially popular among fic writers. *g* If a Slayer's superstrength is always working rather than being drawn on as needed, then if she's thrashing around in the grip of an uncontrollable and instinctive climax she's likely to do some serious damage to her partner. Not to mention that orgasmic vaginal contractions from someone capable of bending a steel bar in half are likely to be rather dramatic in their effects on anything that's inside her at that moment... But since Riley and Parker, not to mention Faith's many normal-human casual boyfriends, don't appear to be maimed for life after sleeping with a Slayer, we can presume that Slayers don't necessarily use their superstrength even when they've lost conscious control of their actions. Which isn't to say that a Slayer couldn't deliberately choose to use her superstrength during sex, or that if she felt suddenly endangered it might kick in anyway. (Ouch.)
Because a Slayer's strength is supernatural and not dependent on the actual strength of her body, it's likely to manifest in unexpected ways when she uses it. If a 50 kg girl does a jump-kick on a 100 kg man powerful enough to send him flying across the room, the laws of physics should demand that she go flying backwards herself at twice the speed. It doesn't seem to work that way with Slayers: their strength seems to appear from nowhere, and affect the world without affecting them in return. Newton's Third Law need not apply. What this means in a fight is that a Slayer can deliver punches and kicks with her full strength without having to bother about things like angles or leverage or bracing herself against the ground. Fighting her will be a bewildering experience for someone more used to fighting natural opponents, or even demons who are superstrong due to their muscles rather than magic. (Note: credit goes to, um, someone? Maybe eowyn_315? for originally suggesting this particular aspect of a Slayer's powers. I didn't think of it myself.)
Running and Jumping
I mention this separately although it's really a subset of superstrength. We saw in 'The Harvest' that Buffy can do a standing jump over a perimeter fence which is probably just over two metres high. Given that the world record for high jump is 2.45 m, this is again in line with her strength, making a Slayer's powers roughly equivalent to the maximum possible normal human abilities.
As for running, the shooting script of 'Two To Go' mentions her running at "40 miles per hour", which is about the speed of a racehorse at full gallop. That's much faster than the world record for a human runner (45 kph or 28 mph), which seems inconsistent with the level of her other powers. On the other hand, the 40 mph figure has never been corroborated on screen or in a canonical comic, so we could ignore it: or alternatively, use this as an example of a Slayer in dire extremis and emotional trauma being able to tap into her powers more fully and exceed her normal limits. Given my suggestion above that Slayer strength is more useful in short adrenaline bursts than sustained long-term use, it's also likely that Slayers would be better at sprinting than long distance running - though their stamina also comes into play there.
Buffy also shows excellent gymnastic abilities - think of the training montage in 'Once More With Feeling' for example, or her ice skating talents in 'What's My Line' - but it's unclear if that's Slayer abilities or Buffy's own natural talent. She does tell Angel that she was heavily into skating even before being Chosen. (Of course in the real world, this talent of Buffy's reflects Sarah Michelle Gellar's own proficiency at skating, which she wanted to use on the show.) Plus, she was also a cheerleader before becoming a Slayer. Buffy is naturally athletic.
Super Reflexes
Most of the time, Slayers appear to move not much faster than a normal human; they don't go all blurry with superspeed or do the thing where they move faster than the eye can follow and suddenly appear in front of someone. On the show, Glory did have that power and Buffy couldn't counter it; I seem to remember Angel doing it once too, but I can't place the reference - and besides, if vampires in the Buffyverse could do that it would seem a fatal shortcoming if the Slayer couldn't match and exceed that power.
On the other hand, Buffy does sometimes perform superhuman feats of reflex and reaction. She catches a crossbow bolt in mid-flight in 'Help', for example (something we've also seen vampires do, of course). It doesn't seem that she can dodge bullets, but she can move faster than a person shooting at her can move the barrel of their gun to aim it - see 'Angel' and 'Primeval'. That does imply that Slayers can move at supernaturally fast speeds, but only in short bursts at moments of supreme danger, just as I suggested for their strength.
However, there's an alternative explanation, which is that Slayers' reflexes aren't due to superspeed but rather to danger sense or a kind of intuitive, instinctive precognition. (I discuss this more below.) By that reading, a Slayer is able to catch a crossbow bolt because her hand starts moving before the bolt has even been fired. She doesn't dodge at supernatural speed, she's already moved away from where her opponent was going to hit her before his brain has finished telling his fist to move. However, because this ability relies on intuition and the Slayer's unreliable precognitive powers, it doesn't always work, which is why Buffy often ends up getting hit anyway. Or even if she subconsciously knows in advance her opponent is going to throw a particular punch, she might be moving in that direction already and simply be unable to dodge in time.
This isn't an ability that's referred to all that often, and might simply be a reflection of Buffy's purely human level of physical fitness; but while we do see her out of breath or exhausted after a difficult fight sometimes ('Faith, Hope and Trick' against Kakistos, for example), she does seem to have more stamina than a normal person. Parker makes a joke about it in a sexual context, in fact, but that might be just him being crude. In 'Wolves At The Gate' Buffy and Xander both start running across a field at the same time; not only is Buffy about twice as fast as him, but when they reach their destination he's bent double, sweating and panting for breath, and she's maybe breathing a little more heavily than normal (the artist has drawn her with her mouth open, that's the only way to tell.)
Slayer metabolism seems to work much more efficiently than a normal human's. Buffy eats like a pig (according to Dawn) after slaying, but there's not a gram of spare fat on her body by S7. That suggests that overweight Slayers may be a rarity even if they don't train regularly like Buffy (or her Slayer Army in S8) are shown to do. Whether it works the other way, and Slayers actually need to eat more food than a normal person to sustain themselves, is unclear. Doug Petrie does mention in his commentary to 'The Initiative' that he wanted to show a scene with Buffy eating about three times the usual amount of food for her normal lunch, but that idea was vetoed. And given that Buffy's idea of binge eating is "craving a low fat yoghurt", it could be that when Dawn describes her sister as "such a pig" she's using Hollywood actress terms of reference rather than anything connected to the real world.
Slayer Healing
"Slayers heal fast. Real fast" as the bartender tells Warren in 'Villains'. Exactly how fast seems to be rather inconsistent, however. In 'Fool For Love', Buffy suffers a major stab wound to the abdomen then gets thrown hard against a crypt. The next morning, the wound is still so painful that she passes out when Riley bandages it; by the following evening, it hurts if Spike punches her right on the wound; by the next episode, it's completely healed. When Faith suffered remarkably similar injuries in 'Graduation Day' she ended up in a coma for eight months. Broken bones seem to heal within 24 hours ('Killed By Death'); Buffy also recovered completely from a serious fever in the same space of time. Healing is not, however, instantaneous; Slayers can of course be killed easily enough.
Whether Slayers can be scarred by their injuries is an open question. Fanfic often suggests that scars heal completely, leaving no mark at all. Certainly Buffy doesn't seem to be particularly scarred up from her many fights - although there's inconsistency here because Wishverse!Buffy did have a big facial scar. It's possible, of course, that it was recent and if you saw her in a week's time the scar would have gone. Buffy's bite mark from 'Graduation Day' is also treated inconsistently; it's not always visible, but characters in S4 and even S5 notice it and comment on it. Maybe it doesn't fade because it was supernatural in origin? (The same fanwank is often suggested for why Spike never healed his eyebrow scar from Xin Rong's sword.)
Slayers still feel pain, but it seems that either it's much less than normal humans, or (like vampires) they don't let it slow them down.
Slayer healing doesn't render a Slayer immune to disease, though as we saw in 'Killed By Death' it does allow them to recover incredibly quickly, and maybe lessens the intensity of the symptoms. I think it would be a reasonable supposition, though there's nothing in canon to confirm or deny it, that Slayers tend to be very healthy in general. An interesting supposition would be that vaccination doesn't work on a Slayer because her body's supernatural defences are too efficient in dealing with the small amount of pathogens present - but exposure to the full-scale disease would have an effect on her similar to vaccination of a normal human. Infect a Slayer with smallpox or TB, and she'll suffer a slight rash and fever for a day, then be immune to the disease...
Can Slayers be poisoned? Giles drugs Buffy in 'Helpless', but that's a specially-tailored and possibly mystic cocktail of drugs specifically developed by the Watchers' Council to affect Slayers. Buffy gets out of her head drunk in 'Beer Bad', but again that's not normal alcohol but supernaturally-potent beer. My suggestion would be, again, that Slayers can be poisoned but they're much more resistant than normal people. If a Slayer has strength equal to an Olympic weightlifter and speed equal to an Olympic sprinter, then she has toughness equal to Grigori Rasputin.
A final interesting question; what about long-term injuries and physical impairments? Are there any disabled Slayers, or do their supernatural healing abilities allow them to recover even from things that would permanently cripple a normal person? Can they regrow nerve tissue, or even entire organs? Canon sources are silent, except through omission - we've never seen a Slayer with a permanent disability that I can remember. Given the general principles I've established above, I suggest that a Slayer's long-term healing powers are roughly equal to the maximum possible that's been observed in humans. There are rare cases of spontaneous remission of supposedly 'incurable' conditions, and maybe in Slayers such things are routine; but the spontaneous regrowth of major organs is never possible.
Supernatural Senses
Many fanfic stories assume that Slayers have extremely acute senses, especially sight and hearing. It's a reasonable assumption to make: a predator needs to be able to spot their prey instantly, and it's confirmed in canon many times that vampires have supernaturally good hearing and sense of smell. If her natural opponents can spot the Slayer coming long before she knows they're there, her effectiveness will be greatly reduced. Unfortunately, I'm not aware of anything in canon which confirms that Slayers can see or hear better than normal people.
Buffy does sometimes show remarkable situational awareness - hitting Giles on the head with a dodgeball even when blindfolded, for instance, or reacting to danger as someone sneaks up behind her. However, that could be due to mystic danger sense or simlar powers rather than anything so mundane as being able to hear Giles's breathing or whatever. That said, I do prefer the idea that Slayers have very acute senses for my own fic - but that's acute for a human, not supernaturally potent.
Aptitude with Weapons
This is something that's suggested rather than being explicitly spelled out; that Slayers have a natural affinity for weapons. It's best illustrated in 1.07 'Angel' where Giles assumes Buffy will need "countless hours of vigorous training" to learn how to fight with a quarterstaff, but she masters it in seconds. Buffy also shows herself to be something of a weapons geek, whether it's critiquing the fight scenes in a kung fu movie, discussing the combat uses of a bastinado with Principal Wood, or decorating her bedroom in Scotland with a display of antique weaponry. However, that does suggest that this may at least in part be a specifically Buffy thing rather than a general Slayer power.
Danger Sense and Tactical Ability
As mentioned above, Slayers are proficient at fighting even when blindfolded. They can react to danger almost before it happens (or actually before it happens, possibly). Sneak up behind a Slayer and swing an axe at her head, and there's a good chance you'll find she's grabbed your arm to prevent you finishing the blow without having given any prior sign she even knew you were there. This might be due to very good hearing or whatever, but my preferred hypothesis is that it's a mystical ability. Slayers often have prophetic dreams, so there's already something in their abilities that allows them to see into the future, if not always clearly or reliably. Being able to predict danger a moment or two before it happens seems like a logical extension of that talent that would be invaluable to a supernatural demon-fighter.
I don't think it's a conscious ability, nor is it always reliable. Buffy didn't dodge Warren's bullet, after all, even though she did stop the crossbow bolt aimed at Cassie's head. A reasonable conjecture is that even if a Slayer feels a premonition of danger, she might ignore it if she has other things on her mind, or hasn't learned to trust her instincts. The source of peril might also make a difference, with Slayers being more attuned to supernatural opponents than to a normal man with a gun.
A related talent is Buffy's apparent ability to sense when a normal-seeming person is actually evil, even when her friends dismiss her as being paranoid: for example Ted, or Kathy in 'Living Conditions'. This doesn't appear to be a specific demon-detection (or robot-detection) ability - she doesn't realise Angel is a vampire until he vamps out on her, for example; but it could be explained as part of her danger sense. Or it could simply be that Buffy is a very intuitive person who trusts her instincts, and not supernatural at all.
One thing that needs to be mentioned in this context is the supposed Slayer ability to detect vampires by getting cramps in the lower abdomen whenever one comes near. That was in the film, but never mentioned once in the TV show; I get the impression Joss was rather embarrassed by it all by then. In 'Welcome To The Hellmouth' Giles does tell Buffy that she should be able to sense the presence of vampires mystically, but by 'reaching out with her mind and letting the energy wash over her' rather than anything involving period pain. And anyway, Buffy prefers to detect vampires through their bad fashion sense than by anything mystical; as we've seen, she doesn't sense that Angel is a vampire at first. It's possible though, that other Slayers - and maybe Buffy herself even if she doesn't like using it - do have this mystical talent.
Because a Slayer can sense danger before it happens, that gives her an advantage in combat beyond the basic physical level of punching and dodging. Buffy often shows remarkable situational awareness, being able to use her environment to the maximum advantage in a fight, be it by swinging around a pole for extra speed or making an improvised weapon out of whatever happens to be around. Melaka Fray describes the experience of fighting as a Slayer like this: "I'm slick with power and I feel the fight as it changes... as it flows... everything into place, perfect, and I finally do what I was born to do. I slay." That hyper-awareness of what's happening, of how the fight is developing, of what her opponents are about to do, seems to be key to a Slayer's combat prowess. It's not "bullet time", to use the computer gaming term - Slayers don't have superspeed - but I do suggest that fighting will often feel to a Slayer as if time's slowed down, and everyone around her except herself is moving in slow motion, because she's already sensing what they're about to do and can react to it much faster than they can.
What this means is that a Slayer might not necessarily be good at formal tactical planning - though she's likely to develop a lot of experience in that line over time if she survives - but she'll be brilliant at on-the-spot improvisation. Simply walking into the middle of the bad guys' lair might appear to be bad tactics from a conventional military perspective, but it's actually playing to a Slayer's greatest strength.
Finally, Buffy in particular seems to have a knack of finding an opponent's weak spot. It may take her a couple of tries - in fact, she seems to fall into a standard pattern when fighting tough opponents of losing the first battle, then coming back for the second round and beating them. "I always find a way" - if staking a turok-han doesn't work, she'll twist its head off with a chain instead. If the dragon has a chink in its armour over its breast, Buffy will be the one to spot it. That may, again, be just her particular talent, or it may be linked to the Slayer's supernatural tactical skill.
Leadership Ability
Buffy is a natural leader, charismatic and inspirational. (Most of the time anyway; not always.) Even other Slayers seem to acknowledge this, most obviously in Season 8. However, several of the other characters suggest that she's the leader <i>because</i> she's the Slayer, and not just because she's the best fighter. Motivating people and leading them against the forces of darkness seems to be one of the expected duties of the Slayer, and this at least implies that some of her supernatural gifts are intended to make her a better leader. Indeed, before it came to mean "leadership ability" the word charisma meant "a gift of divine grace" - what you'd expect to find in a Chosen One.
Prophetic Dreams
These were depicted as a key part of the Slayer's abilities in the early seasons, although prophetic dreams - as opposed to dreams showing Buffy's psychological turmoil - were less prominent in later seasons (although they made something of a come-back in Season 7). Sometimes Buffy's dreams gave her extra insight into current situations, such as in 'Innocence' where a dream told her of Jenny's involvement in Angel losing his soul, or in 'Beneath You' where her dream warned her that Potentials were being hunted down and killed. However, in some cases they definitely foretold the future, either directly ("Are you sure you're ready for this, Buffy?" in 'Surprise') or obscurely ("Oh yeah, miles to go. Little Miss Muffit counting down from 7-3-0.")
Of course, the dreams are not controllable in any way - despite Xander's wishes, Buffy can't dream of lottery numbers. It's also not clear if they're an inherent Slayer power, or if they're being sent to her by some outside force - similar to the visions sent by the Powers That Be on 'Angel'. Given that they're generally referred to as 'Slayer Dreams' and no mention is ever made on 'Buffy' of anyone directing the dreams, it seems likely that the first is true. Maybe the original demon used by the Shadowmen to create the First Slayer had powers of prophecy, and some of its abilities stuck.
I've used the idea in a few of my own stories that after 'Chosen', when there are 2,000 or so Slayers in the world, then sometimes every one of them will have the same prophetic dream simultaneously. It seems like a logical development - although it's likely each of them would remember slightly different things from the dream once they wake up.
Slayer Heritage
Slayers can access memories of the lives and histories of past Slayers. These can manifest as vivid dreams or nightmares, but the information also seems to be available to them - at least on an instinctive if not conscious level - while awake. It helps to explain their natural combat talent and ability to spot weaknesses in opponents: they may not have fought them before in person, but they have the combined experience of eight thousand years of past Slayers to draw on.
This power is an unusual one to discuss, because it was very frequently mentioned in many canonical Buffyverse works, but not the actual 'Buffy' TV show! (Which leads some people to reject its existence.) It's in the movie, where newly-called Buffy was having persistent nightmares about the lives of past Slayers. It's in 'Fray', where it's a major plot point that Melaka doesn't have these dreams or memories although she should. It's in 'Angel', where Dana is reliving the lives of past Slayers and in her madness is unable to separate their experiences from her own. It's in Season 8, where the unnamed Slayer of 'The Chain' is seen being hit by a vision of past Slayers, and Melaka refers to it as a reason why Buffy has an unfair advantage in fighting her. But as far as I can remember, it's not in Seasons 1 - 7 of 'Buffy'.
An interesting detail is that in the original shooting script of 'Chosen', Buffy refers to the Scythe as containing "the energy and history of so many Slayers", shortly after the last of the Guardians told her that it was more than just a weapon. I've speculated that the Slayer memories were not part of the original package of powers intended by the Shadowmen; after all, they'd want to keep the Slayers ignorant so they would be a tool in their hands, and letting them have access to the life experiences of all their predecessors seems to be directly counter-productive to that. But what if it were the Scythe - forged by the Guardians, opponents of the Shadowmen - which was recording and storing the Slayer heritage and somehow making it available to new Slayers? Slowly, generation by generation, that would eat away at the total control over their Slayers that the Shadowmen had intended, giving those women knowledge and information and, ultimately, the power to take control of their own lives again. It's a nice metaphor.
And on that note, I'll end this essay. I may have missed some of the Slayer's powers, but I think this is quite long enough already. :-)

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Government-funded health insurance programs that claim to provide comprehensive funding of their clients' demands have commonly adopted a purposive (deductive) approach to the problem of health care funding. This involves determining the extent of covered benefits by seeking an " adequate" definition of health or health care. Payment is then limited to only those procedures medically required or indicated. In this paper we argue that the purposive approach is inadequate, and that attempted adherence to it results in a curious dislocation of service, serious inequities, and an unhealthy contemplation of the definition of health. These problems are the result of structural deficiencies in the approach, and so will not be rectified by tinkering with the definitions adopted. As an alternative, we present an outline of a functional (inductive) approach, which seeks to identify which of the expectations of its clients the government health insurance system may realistically satisfy.
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Research Article| February 01 1987
Purpose and Function in Government-Funded Health Coverage
Benjamin Freedman;
Francoise Baylis
J Health Polit Policy Law (1987) 12 (1): 97–112.
Benjamin Freedman, Francoise Baylis; Purpose and Function in Government-Funded Health Coverage. J Health Polit Policy Law 1 February 1987; 12 (1): 97–112. doi: https://doi.org/10.1215/03616878-12-1-97
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Module fglrx isn't loaded
|Assigned to
|linux-restricted-modules-2.6.17 (Ubuntu)
|Scott James Remnant (Canonical)
Bug Description
1. Update to version 126.96.36.199-8
2. Reboot
lsmod reports fglrx not loaded even though fglrx is used as driver in xorg.conf and needs to be loaded manually.
What do you get when you run "modprobe fglrx" by hand?
Please supply /var/log/udev and the output of "modinfo fglrx"
Assuming you have /usr on a separate partition, this is fixed by linux-restricte
|Changed in linux-restricted-modules-2.6.17:
|nobody → keybuk
|Unconfirmed → Fix Released
|Kenneth Mokkelbost (kmokk) wrote :
I have /usr on a separate partition, but upgrading to .5-9 doesn't solve the issue. I still have to modprobe fglrx by hand.
|Kenneth Mokkelbost (kmokk) wrote :
|Kenneth Mokkelbost (kmokk) wrote :
"modprobe fglrx" run by hand doesn't output any information, but loads the module as expected.
|Kenneth Mokkelbost (kmokk) wrote :
Sorry, but I mixed things up a little in one of my comments.
/usr is not on a separate partition (but /boot is), so the fix in .5-9 doesn't apply for my problem.
Setting status back to unconfirmed.
|Changed in linux-restricted-modules-2.6.17:
|Fix Released → Unconfirmed
|Diane Cochran (dianeofthemoon) wrote :
I'm also having this issue, and from the posts I've seen on ubuntuforums, there are quite a few people running into this problem, as well.
Everything seems to install just fine, but it appears that the kernel module doesn't load when the xorg driver loads...so you have to do a modprobe and restart X to get OpenGL.
Then this has nothing to do with my change
|Changed in linux-restricted-modules-2.6.17:
|keybuk → nobody
|Jim Paris (jim-jtan) wrote :
Yeah, I think it does:
$ X >/tmp/foo 2>&1
$ grep -A1 ^sh /tmp/foo
sh: sed: not found
sh: grep: not found
Not loading fglrx module; not used in /etc/X11/xorg.conf
sh: sed: not found
sh: grep: not found
Not loading fglrx module; not used in /etc/X11/xorg.conf
$ which sed
$ which grep
The modprobe action is running with PATH=/sbin at that point, so you need full paths in /etc/modprobe.
Also, for some reason I don't yet understand, it still says fglrx is not used after adding full paths to grep & sed, probably some quoting issue or something. I just removed /etc/modprobe.
|Jim Paris (jim-jtan) wrote :
BTW that seems like a bogus check anyway; you could easily be running multiple X servers with different config files.
|Kenneth Mokkelbost (kmokk) wrote :
Ok, I think I've found a solution that works. At least it works on my computer.
I removed "install fglrx" from "install fglrx if cat ..." and a ^ inside the regexp of /etc/modprobe.
Please review this fix.
|Sean Taylor (verixx) wrote :
I'm not quite sure how well that works. When I run modprobe fglrx after modifying the modprobe.d fglrx file, I get this:
WARNING: /etc/modprobe.
So doesn't that just skip attempting to load the driver with modprobe altogether? Or am I reading this error message wrong?
|Kenneth Mokkelbost (kmokk) wrote :
I think you're reading the error message right, but are you sure you don't have a typo in there somewhere? I don't get any warnings when I run my uploaded (and now downloaded) file.
|Kenneth Mokkelbost (kmokk) wrote :
OK. I have the warning message, just didn't notice it before since I was rebooting from a remote location earlier. My bad.
When I put "install fglrx" in at the beginning of the line the message disappears but whatever the statement behind if is it jumps to "else", but when I drop "install fglrx" it handles the "if" correctly.
Test case:
Edit /etc/modprobe.
install fglrx if /bin/grep -i driver /etc/X11/xorg.conf; then echo "OK" > /log; else echo "Not OK" > /log; fi
reboot and check /log
What do you get?
Then do "sudo modprobe fglrx". Check /log again. What does it say now?
|Sean Taylor (verixx) wrote :
Rebooting and checking /log yields: /log: No such file or directory
Modprobing fglrx and checking /log yields: OK
How strange.
|Sean Taylor (verixx) wrote :
Oh! It must not have been able to find the /log file when I first rebooted. After rebooting this time, it tells me "Not OK."
|mc44 (mc44) wrote :
I'm also not getting fglrx loading automatically, with the latest update 2.17.5-9
It does work when sudo modprobe fglrx is run manually. Don't have a separate /usr partition
This was working until the last couple of updates. I'm not sure why these changes were made for fglrx anyway, I thought mjg59 said it was only the nvidia drivers which casued suspend/resume problems if they were loaded.
|Changed in linux-restricted-modules-2.6.17:
|Unconfirmed → Confirmed
|mc44 (mc44) wrote :
Removing fglrx in /etc/modprobe.d/ and running update-modules results in the module being loaded fine on boot, but putting this file back causes it to not be loaded again, it can still be modprobed by hand afterwards.
Is there anything else I can do to debug this?
|mc44 (mc44) wrote :
Assigning back to Scott as apparently it might have to do with your change (!). Many apologies if this is the incorrect thing to do.
|Changed in linux-restricted-modules-2.6.17:
|nobody → keybuk
Fixed by Adam
|Changed in linux-restricted-modules-2.6.17:
|Confirmed → Fix Released
|Rouben (rouben) wrote :
This bug seems to still persist... When was the fix released? Which version of restricted-modules is the fix expected?
|nclm (nclm) wrote :
Same here
|Rouben (rouben) wrote :
Proposed fix (not sure if this is the *proper* way to do this): add fglrx on a separate line to /etc/modules. Mine looks like this now, and seems to have solved the issue:
# /etc/modules: kernel modules to load at boot time.
# This file contains the names of kernel modules that should be loaded
# at boot time, one per line. Lines beginning with "#" are ignored.
My guess is this change to /etc/modules needs to be implemented through the linux-restricte
|Txukie (albertodetena) wrote :
Adding fglrx to /etc/modules fixed it for me


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text:
Returning this year is Scots Weekly, a weekly publication that highlights the past week's Covenant athletic events with news, notes and more.
Cross Country
Men 2nd of 7; Women 4 of 12 at USA South Championships
Men's Soccer (0-1)
L, 0-3 at Greensboro (USA South Tournament)
Women's Soccer (0-1)
L, 0-1 vs. Piedmont (USA South Tournament)
Volleyball (3-0)
W, 3-0 vs. Agnes Scott
W, 3-0 vs. Wesleyan
W, 3-1 vs. Sewanee
Six Women's Soccer Players Earn USA South Conference Honors
FAYETTEVILLE, N.C. -- Summer Bader and Rachel Lemay both earned first team All-USA South and first team All-USA South West Division honors, while Anna Porch and Andrea Hunt Roylston were both selected to the first team All-USA South West Division and Roylston was Covenant's representative on the All-Sportsmanship team. Callie Bader and Kaitlyn Winking were named to the All-USA South West Division second team... FULL STORY
Mackey Named to USA South All-Sportsmanship Team
FAYETTEVILLE, N.C. -- Covenant men's soccer junior midfielder Nate Mackey was named to the USA South All-Sportsmanship team, as the conference announced its postseason awards on Friday morning... FULL STORY
- The volleyball team will host USA South Tournament matches on Tuesday at Barnes PE Center. No. 5 seeded Huntingdon will face No. 4 seeded LaGrange at 5 p.m., and the winner will face Covenant at 7:30 p.m. in a quarterfinal match.
- Seven cross country runners earned All-USA South honors with their finishes at the USA South Championships on Saturday. Micah Sneller and Caleb Keitt were first team honorees and Matthew Tueller earned second team on the men's side. Hannah Samuels earned first team, Margaret Fitch second team, and Anna Danek and Caroline Pepper honorable mention on the women's side. Phil Moore was Covenant's representative on the All-Sportsmanship team for the men, while Lilly Smith was the reprsentative on the women's side.
- With a 3-0 win over Agnes Scott last Wednesday, the volleyball team clinched the outright USA South West Division title. It is the second straight regular season championship for the Lady Scots and the third in the last five years for the program.
For a complete list of events and links to live stats and video, if available, click here for the composite calendar
- Men's Golf: Covenant is at the Pinnacle Trust Invitational in Brandon, Miss., on Monday and Tuesday.
- Men's Basketball: The Scots play an exhibition game at Chattanooga on Friday at 7 p.m.
- Volleyball: The Lady Scots will play the winner of Huntingdon-LaGrange in a USA South Tournament quarterfinal on Tuesday at 7:30 p.m. at Barnes PE Center.
Each week, Covenant will honor a female and male student-athlete with the Thrive Covenant Athlete of the Week. This week's honorees are Hannah Samuels and Micah Sneller. Click on the names below for full highlights of the recipients' week.
|Hannah Samuels - So. - Cross Country
|Micah Sneller - So. - Cross Country
See something missing? Have an idea to improve this column? Shoot us an email at firstname.lastname@example.com with suggestions of what you would like to see covered in this weekly section.
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Hey there! Long time no post!
We, Obsessive Compulsive Backpackers (Meetup.com) had our 2nd annual 4th of July trip to Dolly Sods Wilderness, WV. a few weeks ago.
(Link to all photos – http://www.meetup.com/OCBackpackers/photos/23019712/)
We had about 20 signed up, most bailed out at the last minute, 13 showed up, and I heard that 3 folks coming in late couldn't find us. This led me to start thinking once again about map reading skills and the dearth (lack) of map reading training available to the general public.
I was fortunate that I received a healthy dose of map reading classes early on, primarily thanks to some sort of military training. Three years worth at Highland Park High School (Dallas) JR ROTC, some in Basic training, some in Infantry AIT at Ft Jackson, some in MP AIT at Ft Gordon, some more in ROTC at Texas A&M and ROTC summer camp at Ft Sill, still more at Engineer Officer's Basic at Ft Belvoir. Three years of 'practical' use at Ft Bragg, then 3 yrs driving around the woods of the Germany/Czech border with a map on my lap for the entire time!
But other than that, I don't think I've ever seen map skills training available to the general public. I don't even know if you can take a class at a local college.
So I guess I shouldn't be surprised that a lot of adults who want to backpack really don't know how to read a map. Here in Virginia a lot of our hikes are on the A.T. and there are hundreds of generalized topo maps to help keep you on the trail, but you are on a marked trail, not much of a chance of getting 'lost'.
I've also noticed that a great majority of people showing up for the hikes don't carry a map and are putting their trust in the hike organizer, hoping he/or she knows where the hell they're going and will keep them from getting lost.
This really bothers me because most of the people I backpack with are incredibly smart folks out for a good time for a weekend.
Funny, but I'm always volunteering to give ad hoc map training on the trail and very few will opt in; not sure if it's a lack of interest or not wanting to reveal a blind-spot, or my wonderful, humble personality.
I've started to think, hmm, people don't want map training, or at least for free, maybe they perceive that things that are free have little value, so I listed a series of map classes for $25 a pop, and lo and behold, the first class of 4 has maxed out, with a waiting list! Interesting. But, we'll see if anyone shows up.
Anyway, back to the Sods.
Dolly Sods Wilderness sits on a plateau in West Virginia's Monongahela National Forest. There is a portion over 4000′ so it's a little cooler than the lower lands and the weather can change pretty quickly.
Story goes that there was a huge fire that cleared out the upper elevations creating the great 360 degree views everywhere. There is a super stream network so plenty of water and fantastic swimming opportunities where the streams combine. Also, apparently the fire did little to damage the giant trees along the vast stream network, creating these oasis of camping after walking among the vast fields and meadows. The place is a great hiking/camping mecca.
At the Seneca Rocks Visitor Center you can pick up a free map brochure detailing the vast trail network. The trails are marked and well defined which has made it very easy for anyone to wander in and stand a pretty good chance of not getting lost, again, no map skills really necessary.
The area didn't seem to be very crowded when we arrived on Thursday, but by Friday, more and more people were on the trail, especially day hikers. When we got to Friday's camp site area, we found a good spot, but the entire area started filling in with backpackers camping for the night.
We had a great camp fire Friday night, temps dropped into about the 40's. When I left Hampton, the temps had been in the upper 90's all week, what I call 'Africa Hot'. I find it hard to wrap my head around the drastic temperature changes between here in Hampton at sea level and 4000′ in the mountains when backpacking. It's hard to think about which down sleeping bag to bring, or should I bring my down coat, when it's baking hot outside!
I can't remember for sure, but I think Friday night it got down to an incredible 38F, all I can say is WOW! However, it warmed up enough that it was in the 70's by the time we dropped down a 1000 or so feet to our next camp, warm enough to go swimming!
That was about the only thing noteworthy about this trip.
I cooked pancakes and sausages every morning on my pocket rocket and my new skillet, an $8 dollar purchase at the grocery store. I chopped the handle off and the thing weighs in at 8.2oz., not bad.
Also hauled my bake-packer and extra fuel. So between Juice and I we baked, cornbread muffins,biscuits, banana muffins and a delicious chocolate chip muffin. Some butter would have been nice. It was nice, but carrying the extra weight wasn't so nice, but not as bad as I expected. I only haul this crap out once or twice a year.
Trisha carried about a gallon+ of wine/sangria and berries soaked in triple-sec and treated everyone, especially Friday night! Thanks Trish!! That stuff must have weighed more than her pack! What a trooper!
I'm sure not everyone was prepared for the cold night temps, but no one complained. Pretty good group.


text:
Police have apprehended a man in connection with a petrol bomb attack on a Gansu bank, the suspect's former employer, in which several dozen people were injured. From Reuters:
Nineteen people were seriously hurt in the blast at the Tianzhu County Rural Credit United Cooperative, in the city of Wuwei in Tianzhu county, caused by what a witness called a "gasoline bomb", Xinhua said in an English-language report.
The Tianzhu government said that Yang Xianwen, a Han Chinese man fired from his job at the bank last month after being accused of embezzlement, had thrown a bottle filled with petrol into a meeting room, setting it ablaze.
"He harboured a grudge, and committed arson in the name of revenge," the local government said in a statement on its website (here).
Yang fled the scene, but police caught him hours later, a second Xinhua report said.


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When it comes to chamber music, there exists a seemingly infinite number of instrument combinations. There are, of course, the conventional ensembles in quartets, quintets and piano trios but one such musical amalgam owes its name to impressionist icon Claude Debussy. His Sonata for Flute, Viola and Harp from 1915 is a one-of-a-kind piece that blends a unique set of instruments, the collection of which is now colloquially referred to as a Debussy trio. It is appropriate, then, that
Debussy Trio would be as progressive as its namesake in programming some spectacular and unexpected works for this Sunday.
Celebrating its twenty-fifth
year together, the Trio comes to Louisville as the finale to the Chamber Music Society's 2013/2014 season. Known for its musical activism in education and outreach, the Trio's repertoire spans multiple centuries and styles from French Impressionism to American jazz-fusion. From the ensemble's website: "The
Trio's unique repertoire of
Century music offers a refreshing and exciting change of pace for concert-goers of all ages. Audiences are captivated by the dynamic expressive performances and enjoy the relaxed informal commentary from the stage."
The Trio also welcomes this weekend guest mezzo-soprano
who has enjoyed a career in music and television. As an opera singer, she has performed across the world including with the Metropolitan Opera, the
Festival in Italy and the Houston Grand Opera as
Carmen, a role she has performed over 200 times.
This Sunday's concert features works by
, Vaughan Williams as well as Bruce
, David Evan Thomas and Ian
. The performance is set to begin in Comstock Hall at the School of Music at 3 pm. Tickets start at $25 ($5 for students) and can be purchased online here.
(Photo courtesy of www.debussytrio.com.)
Follow Michael on Twitter: @rackoflambert.


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Faith: Muslim
The latest violence in the Middle East highlights the role of religion as fuel for conflict. We talk about the religious dimension of the Israeli-Palestinian hostility with professor Marius Deeb, a Christian of Lebanese descent, and with Rabbi Arthur Herzberg, a writer and professor at New York University. More
"Home from the Hajj," is the last chapter in our story of one man's journal of faith. In April, almost two million Muslims converged on Mecca in Saudi Arabia for the hajj, the Islamic pilgrimage. One of this year's pilgrims is Abdul Alim Mubarak from Maplewood, New Jersey. We first met him as he prepared for this, his first hajj. Now, our correspondent Anisa Mehdi visits the Mubaraks back home. More
Previously, we told the story of Abdul Alim Mubarak, a Muslim, a CNN videotape editor, who lives in New Jersey, as he said good-bye to his family and took off for Saudi Arabia on his first religious pilgrimage, the hajj. Now, we have the story of Mubarak's hajj, reported by our correspondent Anisa Mehdi, who just returned from Saudi Arabia herself. More
On April 5, Muslims around the world will begin observing events associated with the annual hajj, one of the five pillars of the Islamic faith. Millions are converging on Mecca, located near the west coast of Saudi Arabia. Anisa Mehdi accompanies one American pilgrim as he says good-bye to his family and heads off to Mecca for the first time.
The Islamic Saudi Academy in Loudoun County, Virginia, outside Washington, DC, is creating controversy with its plan for a new campus. More


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Restricting use of eagle parts and feathers to members of federally recognized American Indian tribes for religious purposes does not violate the religious freedoms of non-Indians seeking the same right, a federal appeals court ruled Tuesday.
Restricting use of eagle parts and feathers to members of federally recognized American Indian tribes for religious purposes does not violate the religious freedoms of non-Indians seeking the same right, a federal appeals court ruled Tuesday.
The Denver-based U.S. 10th Circuit Court of Appeals found that such a prohibition, under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, does not violate the federal Religious Freedom Restoration Act.
Tuesday's ruling comes after several cases in which non-Indians, and one man from a tribe that is no longer recognized by the federal government, sought the right to use feathers in their religious practices.
Eagle feathers are believed to be sacred among many Native Americans.
Federal law requires that eagle carcasses be sent to the National Eagle Repository in Denver, Colo., and that any tribe member wishing to use eagle feathers or parts in ceremonies apply for a permit to do so. The court noted that the repository "receives significantly more requests than it has available eagle carcasses" so there is already a long waiting period to fulfill permits.
All the cases noted in Tuesday's ruling weighed freedom of religion against the government's ability to protect the eagles and help maintain the centuries-old religious practices of Native Americans.
Federally recognized tribe members agree the law should restrict access to eagle parts to those whose ancestors have been practicing such ceremonies for centuries.
"As native people, we appreciate that others want to understand our philosophies, understand the sacredness of things. And I understand that many non-natives are looking for spirituality and looking for something sacred to hold onto," said Lacee A. Harris, a Northern Ute medicine man and mental health therapist in Salt Lake City.
However, Harris likened non-Indians' wanting to possess indigenous sacred objects to an outsider entering a Christian church and trying to perform that religion's ceremonies.
"To us, this is a very sacred thing," he said.
The cases cited in Tuesday's ruling include that of Samuel Ray Wilgus Jr., who claims to be an adopted member of Utah's Paiute Indian Peak Band.
During a traffic stop in 1998 near the town of Fillmore, about 150 miles south of Salt Lake City, authorities seized more than 100 eagle feathers from him. He was later charged with possessing the feathers without a permit, and pleaded guilty with the provision that he could appeal.
Wilgus was sentenced to 100 hours of community service, but maintained that it was a violation of his religious freedoms.
A district court disagreed, but the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals at the time reversed the decision and ordered a hearing on whether the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act was "the least restrictive means of serving the government's interests."
The district court then found that the act did indeed violate Wilgus's rights to religious freedom.
The appeals court now overturns that ruling.
"We are sensitive to the sincerity of Wilgus' religious beliefs, and we do not question either the authenticity or the weight of his religious experience among Native Americans," the court wrote.
However, it noted, that "in light of the options before the federal government, the regulations at issue are the least restrictive means available."
Wilgus says he is, in essence, now being banned from practicing his religion.
"It's totally discriminatory to say I don't have the right to practice my religion the way I have been taught, and by the rights I have been given by Native American spiritual leaders because I can't prove that I am Indian under the law, because I am white," Wilgus said Tuesday. "I thought we all had the right to religious freedom in this country."
Wilgus' lawyer, Joseph Orifici, said he will appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court.
"It not only discriminates against my client, but it discriminates against any Native American who lives in this country who is not a member of a federally recognized tribe," Orifici said.
The U.S. Justice Department had no immediate comment on the ruling.
However, department lawyers previously argued that demand for eagle feathers far exceeds the federal government's supply, and that exemptions to the law should only be provided if it doesn't undermine the intent of the statute.
Other similar cases in the last decade included a New Mexico man who is a descendant of Chiricahua Apaches, a tribe no longer recognized by the federal government, and another Utah man who claimed he was given an eagle feather by a Hopi religious leader. Both men had their feathers seized and were prosecuted.


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Electronic Device & Circuits -1
• To provide understanding and skill of transistor biasing and characteristics.
• To develop the comprehensive skill on Transistor model and equivalent circuits.
• To provide understanding of the Multistage, power and tuned voltage amplifier.
• To develop the understanding and of FET and FET amplifier.
• To provide understanding and skill on Feedback amplifier and oscillator.
• To develop the clear concept and skill on time base circuit and multivibrator.
Transistor characteristics, Transistor biasing & stabilization, Transistor model, Multistage amplifier, Power & tuned amplifier, FET & FET amplifier, Feedback amplifier, Sinusoidal oscillators, Time base circuit and Multivibrator circuits.
1. Understand the concept of Transistor characteristics.
1.1 State the biasing rule of transistor
1.2 Explain the characteristics of transistor in CB, CC & CE configuration.
1.3 Determine the input and output resistance of transistor in CB, CC, CE configuration.
1.4 Describe the Base width modulation or Early effects.
1.5 Mention transistor cut-off, active and saturation region.
1.6 Discuss transistor ratings.
1.7 Compare CB, CC, CE configuration.
2. Understand Concept of Transistor Biasing and Stabilization
2.1 Define (i) load line (ii) Operating Point (iii) Stability factor.
2.2 Describe the methods of drawing load line.
2.3 Explain the leakage current in CB & CE circuits.
2.4 List the factors affecting stability of Q-points.
2.5 Mention the condition for proper biasing of transistor.
2.6 Describe various methods of transistor biasing.
2.7 Determine the stability factor of various transistor biasing circuits.
2.8 Describe the Thermal Runway and bias compensation methods.
2.9 Solve problem related to components values, Q-Points and stability factor.
3. Understand the Concept of Transistor Model and equivalent circuits.
3.1 Explain the operation of a single stage CE transistor amplifier.
3.2 Mention the notation for currents and voltages of transistor amplifier.
3.3 Describe the transistor as a four terminal device.
3.4 Describe the low frequency small signal (Shockley relationship r'e= ) model of transistor.
3.5 Solve problem related to amplifier parameters using small signal (re) model.
3.6 Explain the transistor model with h-parameters.
3.7 Derive formula for current gain, voltage gain, input impedance, and output impedance of CE, CB and CC transistor amplifier by h-parameters.
3.8 Mention the effects of source and load resistance.
3.9 Solve problem for various transistor amplifier using h-parameters.
4. Understand the Concept of Multistage amplifier.
4.1 Define (i) Multistage amplifier (ii) Cascade amplifier (iii) Cascode amplifier (iv) Decibel gain.
4.2 Mention the advantages of expressing the gain in dB.
4.3 Classify multistage amplifier.
4.4 Describe the need and types of coupling.
4.5 Explain the operation of multistage direct coupled, transformer coupled and R-C coupled amplifier.
4.6 Describe frequency response and its dependence on component values and transistor parameters.
4.7 Describe the term frequency response, half power point, 3dB point, upper and lower cutoff frequencies, bandwidth and gain bandwidth product related to frequency response.
4.8 Derive voltage gain of two stage R-C coupled amplifier for low and high frequency equivalent circuit.
4.9 Describe the advantages, disadvantages & applications for above types of multistage amplifier.
5. Understand the Concept of Power Amplifier.
5.1 Define class A, B, AB and C amplifier.
5.2 State the difference between voltage and power amplifier.
5.3 Explain the circuit operation and efficiency of RC and transformers coupled class-A power amplifier.
5.4 Explain the operation and efficiency of class – A and class-B push pull amplifier.
5.5 Describe the operation of complementary symmetry push pull amplifier.
5.6 Explain the operation, efficiency and distortion of class-C amplifier.
5.7 Explain the operation and frequency response of various tuned amplifier.
5.8 Explain the operation and frequency response of various tuned amplifier.
5.9 Describe the advantages, disadvantages & application of the various types power amplifier.
6. Understand the Concept of Field-Effect Transistor(FET).
6.1 Define field effect transistor(FET).
6.2 Mention the types of FET
6.3 Describe the construction and operation Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET).
6.4 Explain characteristics of JFET .
6.5 Describe the parameters of JFET.
6.6 Establish the relationship among FET parameters.
6.7 Describe the DC biasing of JFET and its load line.
6.8 Explain the operation of CS, CD and CG JFET amplifiers.
6.9 Solve problems based on FET parameters.
7. Understand the concept of Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET).
7.1 Define MOSFET.
7.2 Mention the Types of MOSFET.
7.3 Describe the Construction and operation of DE and E-Only MOSFET.
7.4 Explain the characteristics of DE and E-Only MOSFET.
7.5 Compare BJT and JFET.
7.6 Compare MOSFET and JFET.
7.7 Mention the application of JFET and MOSFET in analog and digital circuits.
8. Understand the Concept of Feedback Amplifier.
8.1 Define feedback
8.2 List the types of feedback.
8.3 Describe different types of feedback with block diagram.
8.4 Calculate the gain of amplifier with feedback (positive and negative).
8.5 Describe the effect of positive and negative feedback in oscillator and amplifier.
8.6 Mention the advantages and disadvantages of negative feedback in amplifier.
9. Understand The concept of Sinusoidal Oscillators.
9.1 Define Oscillator.
9.2 List the types of Oscillator.
9.3 Explain the principle of operation of a oscillatory tank circuit.
9.4 Describe the essentials of feedback LC oscillators.
9.5 State the Barkhausen criterion.
9.6 Explain the principle of operation of tuned collector, tuned base and Tuned Drain oscillators.
9.7 Explain the principle of operation of Hartly, Colpitt and Wein-bridge oscillators.
9.8 Explain the principle of operation phase shift & crystal oscillators.
9.9 Solve problem related to the frequency of various oscillators.
10. Understand the operation of time base circuit.
10.1 Define time base circuit.
10.2 Describe the need for time base wave forms.
10.3 Mention the methods of generating time base waveform.
10.4 Explain the generation of saw-tooth wave using charging and discharging of a capacitor.
10.5 Describe the operation of transistor as a switch.
10.6 Describe the operation of sweep circuit using transistor switch.
10.7 Explain the operation of Miller sweep circuit and Bootstrap sweep circuit.
11. Understand the features of multivibrator circuits (square wave generator).
11.1 State what is meant by multivibrator.
11.2 Identify the types of multivibrator.
11.3 Explain the operation of astable, monostable and bistablemutivibrator circuits with wave shapes.
11.4 Explain triggering techniques for bistablemultivibrator circuit.
11.5 Mention the principle of operation of Schmitt trigger circuit.
11.6 Mention the operating principle of transistorized voltage controlled oscillator.
1. Show skill of determining input and output characteristics of a transistor in common base connection.
1.1. Select a circuit diagram.
1.2. Select proper tools, equipment and materials.
1.3. Prepare the circuit.
1.4. Check the connections.
1.5. Collect the required data.
1.6. Plot input and output characteristic curves.
2. Show skill in measuring operating points (VCE and IC) for Transistor circuit.
2.1. Select a fixed bias transistor circuit.
2.2. Select required equipment.
2.3. Prepare the circuit.
2.4. Check the connections.
2.5. Adjust the circuit.
2.6. Measure the operating points.
3. Demonstrate the frequency response of single stage R-C coupled transistor amplifier.
3.1 Draw the circuit diagram for the experiment.
3.2 List required tools, equipment and materials.
3.3 Make all the connections according to the circuit diagram.
3.4 Check the connections.
3.5 Energize the circuit and record the data.
3.6 Draw the frequency response curve from the data.
4. Study the operation of any transistor class- B power amplifier.
4.1 Select an appropriate circuit diagram.
4.2 Select required tools, equipment and materials.
4.3 Make the circuit connection according to the given diagram.
4.4 Energize the circuit.
4.5 Observe the output wave and calculate the power gain.
5. Investigate the properties of a single tuned voltage amplifier.
5.1 Draw the circuit for the experiment.
5.2 Indent requires materials, tools and equipment.
5.3 Make all the connection.
5.4 Check the circuit.
5.5 Energize the circuit and note the important properties.
6. Study the operation of negative feedback on the gain and band width of an amplifier.
6.1 Select a required circuit diagram for the experiment.
6.2 List required materials, tools and equipment.
6.3 Connect everything according to the diagram.
6.4 Check and energize the circuit.
6.5 Record the data for frequency response with and without negative feedback.
6.6 Plot the frequency response curves and observe the difference.
7. Demonstrate the operation of a Hartly, Colpitt and R-C oscillator.
7.1 Draw the circuit diagram.
7.2 Select tools, equipment and materials.
7.3 Connect the circuit diagram.
7.4 Check and energize the circuit.
7.5 Observe the output for different frequencies.
8. Show the skill in plotting input and output characteristics of JFET in Common source mode.
8.1 Select a circuit diagram.
8.2 Select required tools, equipment and materials.
8.3 Make all the connections according to the circuit diagram.
8.4 Check the circuit.
8.5 Record required data.
8.6 Plot input and output characteristic curves.
9. Show skill in determining characteristics of MOSFET (enhancement and depletion type) Select a circuit diagram.
9.1 Indent required tools, equipment and materials.
9.2 Connect the components and equipment according to the circuit diagram.
9.3 Check the circuit.
9.4 Record required data.
9.5 Plot the characteristic curves.
10. Study the operation of a transistor monostablemultivibrator circuit.
10.1 Select an experiment circuit.
10.1 Select the required tools and materials.
10.1 Build up the circuit as per diagram.
10.1 Switch on the power supply.
10.1 Switch on the trigger signal.
10.1 Observe the wave shapes at each collector & base of the transistor.
11. Study the operation of a transistor bistablemultivibrator circuit.
11.1 Select an experiment circuit.
11.2 Select the required tools and materials.
11.3 Build up the circuit as per diagram.
11.4 Switch on the power supply.
11.5 Observe the wave form at each collector & base of the transistor.
11.6 Observe the effect of changing base resistor and or coupling capacitors on the frequency of the square wave output.
12. Study the operation of anastablemultivibrator circuit.
a. Select an experiment circuit.
b. Select the required tools and materials.
c. Build up the circuit as per diagram.
d. Switch on the power supply.
e. Observe the wave form at each collector & base of the transistor.
f. Observe the effect of changing base resistor and or coupling capacitors on the frequency of the square wave output.
13. Study the operation of a transistor Schmitt trigger circuit.
13.1 Select an experiment circuit.
13.2 Select the required tools and materials.
13.3 Build up the circuit as per diagram.
13.4 Switch on the power supply.
13.5 Switch on the trigger signal.
13.6 Observe the input & output wave shapes.
14. Study the Operation of a time base circuit.
14.1 Indent required tools, equipment and materials.
14.2 Connect the components and equipment according to the circuit diagram.
14.3 Check the circuit.
14.4 Record required data.
14.5 Plot the characteristic curves.
A Text Book of Applied Electronics R.S. Sedha
Principles of Electronics V. K Metha
Electronics and Radio Engineering M. L Gupta
Power Electronics Dr. P.S. Bimbhra
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