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Some Questions about Evidence-based Practice in Education
Martyn Hammersley
Faculty of Education and Language Studies, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK6 7AA
email: email@example.com
Paper presented at the symposium on "Evidence-based practice in education" at the Annual Conference of the British Educational Research Association, University of Leeds, England, September 13-15, 2001
The movement for evidence-based practice, for enhanced use of research evidence in the work of the professions, started in medicine in the early 1990s. It has grown in influence there, and spread across a number of other fields, including education (see Trinder 2000a and Davies et al 2000). Not surprisingly, it has taken a somewhat different form in each area; and has generated diverse reactions. So, while much can be learned from what has happened in medicine, we must also attend to the particular way evidence-based practice has recently been promoted and responded to in education, if we are to make a reasonable appraisal of it.
There is an initial, and generic, problem with the notion of evidence-based practice which needs to be dealt with. This is that its name is a slogan whose rhetorical effect is to discredit opposition. After all, who would argue that practice should not be based on evidence (Shahar 1997:110)? So there is an implication built into the phrase 'evidence-based practice' that opposition to it can only be irrational. Interestingly, critics managed to counter this by denying that practice can be based on evidence; in the sense that research evidence can provide its exclusive foundation. The response to this on the part of advocates has been to change "evidence-based" to "evidence-informed" practice(1). At face value, this suggests a more reasonable view of the relationship between research and practice. However, it is at odds with the radical role that is ascribed to research by the evidence-based practice movement. As a result, even more than before, we have a label that systematically obscures the grounds on which there might be reasonable disagreement with what is proposed.
In political terms, as a way of mobilising support, the use of such opposition-excluding labels is no doubt a highly effective rhetorical strategy. However, it is a poor basis for rational discussion about the issues that the notion of evidence-based practice raises. Against this background, it is very important to emphasise that one can believe that research evidence is of value for practice without accepting much of what travels under the heading of 'evidence-based' or 'evidence-informed' practice; indeed, while rejecting substantial parts of it. So, let me say to start with that I do think that, on the whole and in the long run, practice would be improved if practitioners were more familiar with the results of research. I also accept that there is scope for more directly policy- and practice-relevant educational research. Furthermore, I applaud the emphasis within some accounts of evidence-based practice on the need for professional reflection and judgement about the validity and value of various kinds of evidence in making decisions(2). At the same time, there are problems and dangers with the evidence-based practice movement. These result from tendencies built into it, tendencies that have an affinity with other pressures in the current political environment. One of these dangers is the privileging of research evidence over evidence from other sources, especially professional experience.
The privileging of research evidence
The central claim of the evidence-based policy movement is that research can make a very important contribution to improving the current state of policymaking and practice. Thus, 'evidence' is interpreted in a rather narrow way. In their introduction to What Works? Evidence-based policy and practice in the public services, Davies et al comment: 'the presumption in this book is that evidence takes the form of "research", broadly defined. That is, evidence comprises the results of "systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of knowledge"' (Davies et al 2000:3). In some fields, notably medicine, the movement has been primarily (though even here not exclusively) concerned with encouraging practitioners to make more use of the research evidence that is already available. Initiatives like the Cochrane Collaboration, concerned with producing and disseminating systematic research reviews, are seen as facilitating this; and the training of medical practitioners has, in many institutions, come to place more emphasis than previously on the skills involved in accessing and making use of research findings. By contrast, in other fields, but most notably education, greater emphasis has been placed on the absence of good quality research which could feed evidence-based practice (see, for example, Hargreaves 1996).
The idea that research can make a major contribution to improving practice stems from the assumption that it is systematic and rigorous, and provides explicit evidence which can be assessed objectively. This is held to contrast with evidence from professional experience, which is portrayed as unsystematic - reflecting the particular cases with which a practitioner has happened to come into contact - and as lacking in rigour - in that it is not built up in an explicit, methodical way but rather through an at least partially unreflective process of sedimentation. Indeed, sometimes the contrast is presented in a form that can only be described as caricature, as with Cox's reference to teachers often relying on 'tradition, prejudice, dogma, and ideology' (quoted in Hargreaves 1996:7-8)(3). Such caricature complements the already mentioned rhetorical sleight of hand built into the very name of the evidence-based practice movement.
Moreover, this view of the role of research fits with a progressivist philosophy in which evidence-based practice is seen as opposing the "forces of conservatism" in the public sector, forces which are taken to represent entrenched interests. For example, Oakley claims that the medical profession, along with the pharmaceutical industry, have 'a vested interest in women's ill-health - in defining women as sick when they may not be, and in prescribing medical remedies when they may not be needed' (Oakley 2000:51). These interests are seen as protected by the claim of professionals to a kind of expertise which cannot be communicated or shared with lay people but which instead demands professional autonomy and public trust(4). In this paper I will argue that we need to look much more soberly both at the features of research-based knowledge compared to those of knowledge deriving from practical experience; and at how research findings relate to professional practice.
The nature of research-based knowledge
Let me begin with what can be currently said about the character of research-based knowledge and its relationship to practice(5). It is important to remember that research knowledge is always fallible, even if it is more likely to be valid than knowledge from other sources. Thus, we are not faced with a contrast between Knowledge with a capital K, whose epistemic status is certain, and mere opinion, whose validity is zero(6). Furthermore, research knowledge usually takes the form of generalisations, of one sort or another, and interpreting the implications of these for dealing with particular situations is rarely straightforward. A final point is that knowledge is not a sufficient determinant of good practice, in education or in any other field. One reason for this is that it cannot determine what the ends of good practice should be; or even, on its own, what are and are not appropriate means. Furthermore, the effectiveness of any practical action usually depends not just on what is done but also on how it is done and when. Skill and timing can be important. In other words, there are substantial limitations on what research can offer to policymaking and practice. This is not to suggest that it can offer nothing, but rather to caution against excessive claims about its contribution(7).
The nature of professional practice
It seems to me that built into some advocacy of evidence-based practice is not just an exaggerated estimate of the practical contribution that research can provide but also a misleading conception of the nature of professional practice. Very often, it is assumed that the latter should take the form of specifying goals explicitly, selecting strategies for achieving them on the basis of objective evidence about their effectiveness, and then measuring outcomes in order to assess their degree of success (thereby providing the knowledge required for improving future performance).
This model is not wholly inaccurate, but it is defective in important respects. Forms of practice will vary in the degree to which they can usefully be made to approximate this linear, rational model(8). And it probably does not fit any sort of professional activity closely. Reasons for this include: that such activity usually involves multiple goals; that these goals cannot be operationalised properly in a way that avoids calling on professional judgement; that the same action has multiple consequences, some desirable and others less so, these being differentially distributed across clients; and that there is frequently uncertainty surrounding the likely consequences of many strategies, even in a field like medicine where a great deal of clinical research is carried out. As result of these features, there can often be reasonable disagreement about what would be an improvement and about what sorts of improvement are to be preferred, as well as about how these can best be achieved. Moreover, sometimes it will simply not be sensible to engage in elaborate explication of goals, to consider all possible alternatives, to engage in a search for information about the relative effectiveness of various strategies as against relying on judgements about this, or to try to measure outcomes. The linear rational model tends to underplay the extent to which in many circumstances the only option is trial and error, or even 'muddling through' (Lindblom 1979).
In this context, we should note that the very phrase 'what works', which the evidence-based practice movement sees as the proper focus for research, implies a view of practice as technical: as open to "objective" assessment in terms of what is and is not effective, or what is more and what is less effective. I would not want to deny that effectiveness, and even efficiency, are relevant considerations in professional practice. But the information necessary to judge them in the "objective" way proposed will often not be available. And any such judgement cannot be separated from value judgements about desirable ends and appropriate means; not without missing a great deal that is important.
Furthermore, there is a significant difference between medicine and education in terms of the nature of professional practice, it seems to me. For whatever reason, much medicine is closer to the technical end of the spectrum, in the sense that there is less diversity in the goals and other considerations treated as relevant; and thereby in evaluative criteria. Furthermore, there seems to be more scope for identifying relatively simple causal relationships between treatment and outcome. Of course, it is possible to exaggerate these differences. In response to my presentation of this argument on a previous occasion, Davies has claimed that 'medicine and health care [...] face very similar, if not identical, problems of complexity, context-specificity, measurement, and causation' to education (Davies 1999:112). I do not deny that there are such problems in medicine; and that in some areas, for example mental health, they are very similar in scale and character to those faced in much education. What we are dealing with here is only a difference of degree; but it is still a substantial and significant difference.
In short, in my view research usually cannot supply what the notion of evidence-based practice demands of it - specific and highly reliable answers to questions about what 'works' and what does not - and professional practice often cannot be governed by research findings - because it necessarily relies on multiple values, tacit judgement, local knowledge, and skill. Moreover, this is especially true in the field of education. When pressed, advocates of evidence-based practice often concede one or other, or both, of these points. Yet those points undermine the claim that improved research, or a reformed version of professional practice which gives more attention to research findings, will lead to a sharp improvement in educational performance and outcomes.
The usability of research findings
It is also important to address the question of how research findings are to be used by policymakers and practitioners. Let me mention two problems here. First, there is the issue of the transmission of research findings to these audiences. Some accounts of evidence-based practice imply that policymakers and practitioners are expected to read all relevant research studies, and to engage in methodological assessment of them, before deciding what to do in each case they face. Thus, we have various books produced to aid medical practitioners in assessing research (see, for example, Crombie 1996 and Greenhalgh 1997). However, as a general model for accessing research information, this is simply unrealistic: medical practitioners are unlikely to have the necessary time and, often, the appropriate skills; and the same is true of teachers.
The alternative suggested by many advocates of evidence-based practice is the production of systematic reviews of research relevant to decisions faced by policymakers and practitioners (see Davies 2000a). And this proposal certainly has the advantage that reliance is not placed on single studies, which often produce erroneous conclusions. However, reviewing multiple studies and condensing these into a set of practical conclusions is by no means a straightforward matter; nor is using such summaries.
The concept of systematic review shares some common elements with the notion of evidence-based practice. It portrays the task of reviewing the literature as reducible to explicit procedures that can be replicated; just as advocates of evidence-based practice see professional work as properly governed by explicit rules based on research evidence. Moreover, here too questionable assumptions are made about the nature of research, and about the task involved; ones which have long been subjected to criticism as 'positivist'. It is not necessary to doubt the value of quantitative research, or even to believe that positivism was wholly mistaken, to recognise that these criticisms have some force and cannot be simply ignored. Yet the concept of systematic review does not take account of them. For example, it approaches the task of assessing the validity of research findings as if this could be done properly simply by applying explicit and standard criteria relating to research design. Yet, validity assessment cannot rely entirely on information about research design. Much depends on the nature of the knowledge claims made, and assessment of them always relies on substantive knowledge as well as on specifically methodological considerations (see Hammersley 1998). The result of this mistaken approach to validity assessment is that systematic reviews are likely to exclude or downplay some kinds of study that may be illuminating, notably qualitative work, while giving weight to other studies whose findings are open to serious question (see Hammersley 2001).
An illustration of the attitude underlying the notion of systematic review, and the evidence-based practice movement generally, is Oakley's recent adoption of what can only be described as a form of naive positivism(9). This is surprising because she has been identified in the past as advocating qualitative methods, largely on feminist grounds. However, she is now a strong advocate of randomised controlled trials. She insists that she has never advocated qualitative method exclusively, and that she does not advocate quantitative method exclusively now. Nevertheless, in some parts of her recent book, Experiments in Knowing, she evidences a dismissal of qualitative work that is the obverse of her over-enthusiastic support for quasi-experimental research design. For example, she claims that the debate over Derek Freeman's critique of Margaret Mead's anthropological study of Samoa is best read as an example of the 'untrustworthiness' of 'uncontrolled findings' (Oakley 2000:57). The implication of this seems to be that all "uncontrolled" findings are untrustworthy. Later she comments: 'Recent attitudes to evaluation in some quarters have been marked by a retreat into more "naturalistic" and theory-driven approaches to public policy evaluation, but these serve the interests of academic careers more than they promote the goals of either an emancipatory social science or an informed evidence base for social and policy interventions' (Oakley 2000:323). Here we have dismissal of the views of those who disagree with her via the attribution of ulterior motives, and in the form of assertion rather than appeal to evidence. At one point she claims that anything else but randomised, controlled trials 'is a "disservice to vulnerable people" [...]' (Oakley 2000:318; quoting Macdonald 1996:21)(10). A more general problem about how research can be used by practitioners concerns the funnelling process through which research findings need to be refined into summary statements that policymakers and practitioners will have time to read and digest. This almost always involves the paring away of most qualifications and methodological information. While such summaries may be a very useful representational device for those who have already read the whole review, or the whole study, they may be obscure or misleading for those who have not done this. In some cases, the summary may be difficult to understand without background information. This is true of all kinds of research review. For example one of the key points of Gillborn and Gipps' review of the educational achievements of ethnic minority children was that '"colour-blind" policies have failed', but it seems clear that some audiences found this conclusion difficult to interpret (Gillborn and Gipps 1996:80)(11). Alternatively, summaries of research findings in reviews may seem easily interpretable, but the interpretation given may be some distance from that intended; and/or the validity of the findings may be dismissed at face value. For example, a study which suggests that there is no positive, linear correlation between amount of homework done and level of pupil achievement may be interpreted as saying that homework should be abolished or is not important(12). This stems from the fact that the interpretative framework within which policymakers and practitioners approach research findings is often rather different from that of researchers; in particular these audiences are likely to be much more directly concerned with practical implications. It is also possible that summary findings will be seen by policymakers or practitioners as trivial, in the sense of repeating what is already known, the actual contribution to current knowledge only being clear against the background of the study or review as a whole.
Another problem concerns how research findings are to be related to what policymakers and practitioners think they already know. This problem can again be illustrated by David Blunkett's response to research findings about homework. He dismissed these on the grounds that they ran counter to his beliefs. He was wrong to dismiss them, and to believe that research which produces such findings must be unsound. However, he would not have been wrong to have approached those findings (like any others, especially from a single study) with caution. And there is a genuine problem for practitioners about how to weigh contradictory evidence, especially when it has been produced in different ways. In his argument for evidence-based practice, Davies comments: 'There is no question of evidence replacing clinical judgement or experience, but of uniting these two dimensions of knowledge to provide a sound basis for action' (Davies 1999:111). Yet conflicting evidence from different sources cannot be 'united' in any simple sense(13). And evidence from professional experience cannot be assessed in the same way as research evidence; since the process by which it was produced is not documented. It is difficult to see what one can do, when faced with contradictory evidence from research and practical experience, other than either trust one's instincts, which is the Blunkett strategy, or assume that research evidence is always sounder than that from experience, which is what advocates of evidence-based practice sometimes seem to imply. Neither approach is satisfactory. What is perhaps required is that each source of evidence be subjected to internal scrutiny in its own terms: reflection on the sources, relations, and functions of particular beliefs, in the case of professional experience; and methodological assessment, in the case of research. However, this is a time-consuming process; and it by no means guarantees that the result will be a satisfactory resolution of any contradiction between the two. Moreover, any resolution will necessarily rely on judgement that cannot be fully explicated(14). Up to now, I have looked at the role of research in relation to policymaking and practice in rather abstract terms. However, it is important to locate the evidence-based practice movement, and reactions to it, in the current political context.
Evidence-based practice and 'transparency'
The evidence-based practice movement is closely related to influential demands for 'transparent' accountability that are characteristic of what has come to be called managerialism, or the 'new public management' (Ferlie, E., et al. 1996; Pollitt, 1990; Mayne and Zapico-Goni. 1997; Power, 1997). As Davies et al note: 'In contrast to the preceding culture of largely judgement-based professional practice, there has arisen the important notion of evidence-based practice as a means of ensuring that what is being done is worthwhile and that it is being done in the best possible way' (Davies et al 2000:2). Thus, it is assumed that research can "ensure" that the best is being done; both by providing information about "what works", and by documenting whether practitioners are actually following "best practice"(15). Moreover, research is believed to be capable of doing this because it is objective and explicit; what it provides is open to public scrutiny, in a way that professional experience and judgement are not.
The demand for 'transparent' accountability seems to have arisen from two sources, though my account here is rather speculative. The first source lies in the field of commerce and industry, and concerns the emergence of 'generic management'(16). Where, in the first half of the twentieth century, managers had often worked all of their careers in a single sector, frequently moving up to managerial positions within an individual firm, in the second half of the century there was increasing mobility of managers across sectors, and a growing tendency to define management in terms of generic rather than sector-specific knowledge and skills(17). Along with growth in the average size of firms (see Devine et al 1985:85-90), often as a result of mergers and take-overs, this led to the problem of how senior managers were to assess the performance of different parts of their organisations. The solution proposed was to find objective indicators of performance, in other words indicators that did not rely on direct observation of the work being done and whose interpretation did not demand detailed knowledge of what that work entailed. Over the course of the 1960s, 70s and 80s this reliance on performance indicators spread to the public sector (initially to the publicly owned utilities, for example in the energy field, later to health and education), on the back of arguments that this sector was inefficient by comparison with private enterprise(18). An equally important stimulus to the 'new public management', however, was recognition by the political Left of the force, and electoral appeal, of the argument that taxpayers had a right to know that their money was being well-spent. Public accountability of this kind now came to be seen as central to democracy, on the Left as well as on the Right. But, of course, most citizens were in exactly the same position as the generic manager, in that they did not have direct knowledge of what was involved in the work of public sector agencies. What they did have was some, differentiated, experience as clients of those organisations; and access to others' anecdotes about failures in service, which were elaborated by media campaigns against the 'inefficiency' of the public sector. Here, too, the solution proposed was objective performance indicators; indicators that would allow politicians and the general public to judge what was happening and how it could be improved. Indeed, the new public management portrayed government ministers as managers of the public sector, and therefore as responsible for monitoring performance and intervening to improve it. Furthermore, in the context of the New Labour government, politicians began to suggest that their own performance should be judged by whether promised improvements in the work of public sector organisations took place, as measured by performance indicators; an extension of transparent accountability encouraged by the media, for whom the results of such indicators constituted a useful source of news(19). More generally, criticism of the public sector for failing to 'deliver' a satisfactory level of service, and portrayal of it as inferior to the private sector, arose out of widespread attacks, in the second half of the twentieth century, on professionalism and on the role of the state. Once again, these came from both sides of the political spectrum, and from social scientists(20). The claim of professional occupations to be governed by a service ethic, which justified their having autonomy in performing their work, was challenged on the grounds that they had misused this autonomy to serve their own interests. There was some evidence of this; but the charge also reflected a change in the prevalent vocabulary of motives, whereby any claim to motives other than self-interest was subjected not just to suspicion but to disbelief. From the Right, in particular, it was insisted that people would only do what was in the general interest if circumstances were arranged in such a way that it was in their self-interest to do it. The market was seen as the model in this respect; a fact which fuelled not just privatisation but also the application of 'market discipline' within the public sector.
The assumption was that markets provide consumers with all the knowledge they need in order to assess the relative value of the goods on offer. As a result, their purchasing decisions reward efficiency and punish inefficiency. However, to a large extent, this is simply a myth. It does not even hold true where conditions of perfect competition are approximated, a situation which is very rare. This is because consumers do not usually have easy access to all of the information they would need to judge effectively the relative value of what is on offer. Reliable and comparable information about the relative quality of different products, even different products from the same supplier, is often not available(21). Moreover, most consumers would probably not have the background knowledge or the time necessary to make use of that information were it available. In fact, the tendency is for consumers to rely heavily on one kind of information: that which is most easily available and open to assessment - price. And this tendency distorts the production process, since lowering costs is given priority over ensuring quality(22).
Of course, the attempt to introduce transparent accountability in the public sector is not in any simple sense a process of marketisation. Instead, efforts are made directly to measure the quality of services; and not so much as a basis for consumer decision making (though this is sometimes the case, as with school league tables) but so as to allow the public to judge whether the public services are meeting satisfactory standards of performance and providing 'value for money'. However, for the reasons explained in the previous section, these performance indicators do not usually measure what is important effectively; and, indeed, advocates of transparent accountability will often acknowledge this, while insisting that they provide the best evidence available. Yet, ironically, the severe problems associated with such performance indicators were demonstrated long ago in the attempts of Eastern European governments to control centrally the production of goods and the provision of services. Here, even attempts to specify industrial production targets and measure performance for relatively simple goods failed (Nove 1980:ch4)(23).
Moreover, this parallel shows that efforts to render people accountable in terms of performance indicators distort the production process at least as much as does the emphasis on lowering cost and price which is characteristic of the private sector. This is because it encourages, indeed to a large extent forces, individual practitioners to adopt an instrumental orientation in which scoring highly on the indicators becomes more important than doing a good job in terms of their own judgement. Indeed, they may even lose the confidence to exercise such judgement.
Where the focus is professional services the problems are especially severe because of the level of specialised expertise and knowledge on which these services rely. Furthermore, what they involve is not a determinate process. For example, even the best surgeons do not succeed in all cases; and, to the degree that they deal with more difficult cases than their colleagues, their failure rates may be relatively high. In this context, it is not just a matter of judging a product or service in terms of whether it meets requirements, or meets requirements better than others - which is hard enough - but judging whether the best that could have been done has been done. In the field of education this task is further complicated by the fact that teachers deal with children in batches, not on a one-by-one basis. So, here, judgement has to be according to whether what was done was the best for all concerned, which may involve trading benefits for some against costs for others.
The application of transparent accountability to medicine, education, and other areas has been premissed on the assumption that explicit information can be provided about all the factors relevant to judging the quality of professional performance in these fields. And research is seen as playing a key role in this: the belief is that it can show what works and what does not work, thereby providing a standard against which the practice of professionals can be judged. Moreover, it is assumed that research is itself transparent, that it simply documents how things are in an objective fashion. However, for reasons already explained, research is unable to play this role. Furthermore, efforts to make it play this role seem likely to have undesirable consequences. In relation to practice, the appeal to research findings on all significant issues may undermine the value of practical experience and commonsense, and thus erode practitioners' confidence in their own judgements. While it is sometimes claimed that evidence-based practice represents an enhanced professionalism, its devaluing of professional experience and judgement relative to accountability in terms of externally produced research findings seems likely to lead to a weakening of professionalism, in most senses of that term. Equally important, the attempt to make research serve this function has the effects of privileging practical against academic or scientific research, and of eroding the distinction between research and the work of management consultancy, audit, and inspection agencies(24). There is no doubt that evaluations of professional practice can be valuable; or that some professional practice, in all fields, is poorer than it could be, for all manner of reasons. However, not only is the notion of transparent accountability a myth, but it relies on a version of perfectionism which implies that failures and risks can be avoided, or at least can be progressively reduced in number and seriousness. So, it is assumed that performance can and should always be further improved; and that measures can be taken to ensure that any failures that have occurred in the past do not recur in the future. In promising this, transparent accountability encourages a climate in which clients demand that their needs and wants be fully met, while practitioners are increasingly concerned simply with protecting themselves from possible criticism (not to mention possible legal action). And, given that the indicators do not measure performance effectively, especially not across the whole range of each profession"s activities, this is likely to worsen not to improve the quality of performance.
Advocates of evidence-based practice often deny that there is any link between it and attempts to introduce 'transparent accountability' in the public sector. However, this is naive at best. The Government sees each as serving the other, and is acting on that basis in seeking to bring about "reform". It views research as playing a major role in this. Hence the current attempt to bring educational research under increased central control, coordinating and concentrating funding on issues directly relevant to policy and practice (see NERF 2000; Hodkinson 2001).
In this paper I have argued that while few would disagree that professional practice could be improved if practitioners had better access to the products of a large body of relevant research, the evidence-based practice movement is not likely to lead to a dramatic improvement in educational performance. In fact, my argument suggests that it could even lead to a worsening in the quality of service. The reasons for this lie in misconceptions about the nature of both research and practice which are built into the assumptions on which it operates. Its advocates have too much confidence in the validity of research findings, both in abstract terms and in comparison with knowledge coming from professional experience. And they assume that research can play a much more direct role in relation to practice than it usually can. They tend to treat practice as the application of research-based knowledge; neglecting the extent to which it necessarily involves uncertain judgement. Moreover, there are some serious difficulties involved in the use of research evidence by practitioners. One relates to problems in interpreting this evidence without background knowledge about the studies from which it arose. Another concerns the question of how contradictions between research evidence and professional experience are to be resolved.
Finally, I pointed to the close contemporary association between the evidence-based practice movement and the new public management, with its efforts to make the public sector transparently accountable and thereby to improve its performance substantially. I argued that this notion of accountability is built on a mythology of the market that does not accurately capture how markets work, and that is peculiarly inappropriate to the case of providing services that necessarily rely on a good deal of specialised expertise. I suggested that the search for transparent accountability is a futile enterprise, and one which is likely to have negative consequences for both professional practice and research. It offers a false hope of dramatic improvement in quality, while at the same time undermining the conditions necessary for professionalism to flourish. The entanglement of the movement for evidence-based practice with these developments means that it should be treated with the greatest caution.
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Power, M. (1997) The Audit Society: rituals of verification, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Pring, R. (2000) Philosophy of Educational Research, London, Continuum.
Sackett, D. L., Richardson, , W. S., Rosenberg, W., and Haynes, R. B. (1997) Evidence-Based Medicine: How to practice and teach EBM, New York, Churchill Livingstone.
Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W., Gray, J. A. M., Haynes, R. B., and Richardson, W. (1996) "Evidence-based medicine: what it is and what it isn"t", British Medical Journal, 312, pp71-2.
Sargant, N. (1995) "Consumer power as a pillar of democracy", in G. Dench, T. Flower, and K. Gavron (eds) Young at Eighty: the prolific public life of Michael Young, Manchester, Carcanet Press.
Shahar, E. (1997) "A Popperian view of �evidence-based medicine�", Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 3, 2, pp109-16.
Trinder, L. (ed) (2000a) Evidence-Based Practice: a critical appraisal, Oxford, Blackwell Science.
Trinder, L. (2000b) 'Introduction: the context of evidence-based practice', in Trinder 2000a.
Vietor, R. H. K. (1994) Contrived Competition: regulation and deregulation in America, Cambridge MS, Harvard University Press.
1. Davies et al have added two even weaker formulations: 'evidence-influenced' and 'evidence-aware' practice (Davies et al 2000:11).
2. An example of such an account is Sackett et al 1997.
3. Other examples include Oakley's claim that the generalisations of 'well-intentioned and skilful doctors [...] may be fanciful rather than factual [...]'. Indeed, she goes so far as to refer to 'the largely unscientific character of modern medicine', appealing to Illich's notion of 'medical nemesis' (Oakley 2000: 17). Another caricature is Greehalgh's contrast between evidence-based decision-making and 'decision-making by anecdote' (Greenhalgh 1997:4). And Evans, advocating systematic reviews in the field of education, suggests that previously even when health practitioners used research evidence they relied on 'idiosyncratic interpretations of idiosyncratic selections of the available evidence (rather than objective interpretation of all the evidence) [...]' (Evans 2001).
4. Interestingly, Oakley extends this argument to researchers, claiming that 'most research proceeds from the interests of researchers because researchers generally have more to gain from the research process: publications, external research grant income, points in academic research exercises'. She excepts experimental research from this charge, on the grounds that it is 'in a somewhat special category, in that its purpose is to arbitrate between competing interventions, and thus to work towards a solution which is as much (if not more) in the interests of the researched as of the researchers' (Oakley 2000:285). Here, aside from special pleading, there are signs of the anti-academic attitude that underlies much recent promotion of the role of research in relation to policymaking and practice. An even more influential exponent of this was the previous Secretary of State for Education, David Blunkett: see Blunkett 2000; and, for a discussion, Hammersley 2000a.
5. For more extended discussion, see Hammersley 2002.
6. Cochrane often seemed to come close to this view in his advocacy of evidence-based practice in medicine: see Cochrane 1972:30. For a useful discussion of problems that have arisen even where randomised controlled trial methodology has been extensively applied, from a viewpoint that is sympathetic to the movement, see Hampton 1997.
7. It is also important to caution against too narrow an interpretation of that contribution, see Hammersley 1997.
8. In many respects, this model amounts to taking a positivist conception of research as the pattern for all forms of rational action. This perhaps explains why evidence-based practice is sometimes closely related to the idea that professionals should themselves engage in research (see, for example, Hargreaves 1996). This amounts to another version of what I have referred to elsewhere as researcher imperialism, see Hammersley 1993.
9. Oakley is director of the of the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information Co-ordinating Centre (EPPI-Centre), which has been given responsibility for developing systematic reviews in education. See its web-site : http://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/
10. Some recent accounts of the role of research in relation to evidence-based education are more sympathetic to qualitative research: see Davies 1999 and Fitzgibbon 2000. However, it is striking that Fitzgibbon devotes only two paragraphs of her article to discussing it, giving by far the greatest attention to quantitative research. And while Davies 2000b seeks "to redress any such demeaning of qualitative research and evidence" (p292), he fails to recognise the sharp conflict between the orientation of some kinds of qualitative work and quantitative method; and the difficult questions that even more moderate versions of a qualitative approach raise for some of the fundamental assumptions of evidence-based practice; on which see Hammersley 2002:ch4. For an account which takes more account of the distinctiveness of a qualitative approach, see Popay et al 1998.
11. For a discussion of how this review was represented in the mass media in diverse ways, see Hammersley 2000b.
12. I am referring here to the response of the previous Secretary of State for Education, David Blunkett, to the findings of one study of the relationship between homework and achievement; in which he accused the researchers of double standards, of being unwilling to extend to other children the benefits their own children have had. . See S. Farrow "Insulted by Blunkett", The Guardian Wednesday July 21, 1999. In his speech to the CBI Blunkettt also included the following comment: "Some researchers are so obsessed with "critique", so out of touch with reality that they churn out findings which no one with the slightest common sense could take seriously" (Blunkett 1999, quoted in Pring 2000). Mr Blunkett"s response was similar to research which suggested that eviction laws were being applied over-zealously by some local authorities. His comment was: "If this is what our money is going on, it is time for a review of the funding of social research", BBC News web page for 20.11.2000. His criticism of these two studies was repeated in his speech to the ESRC: Blunkett 2000.
13. In the context of evidence-based medicine, Sackett et al talk of "integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external evidence from systematic research" (Sackett et al 1996). But "integrating" is no better than "uniting": it is a fudge which covers up a serious problem.
14. For the argument that even natural scientific research cannot be reduced to explicit procedures, see Polanyi 1959 and 1966.
15. This is an example of what Oakeshott referred to as "the politics of perfection" Oakeshott 1962:5-6.
16. For the background to this development, see Burnham 1941, Chandler 1977 and 1990.
17. This was closely associated with the rise of management education, and of the accounting profession. The whole process was, of course, simply a further stage in the development of what Marris calls 'managerial' capitalism initiated by the invention of the public, joint-stock, limited liability company in the late nineteenth century (see Marris 1971).
18. As far as I can tell, the arguments for the superiority of the private sector rested on economic theory and anecdotes about 'over-manning', 'bureaucracy' etc. in the public sector; rather than on objective empirical evidence.
19. Performance indicator results have many of the key characteristics of newsworthiness: they are about the Government, they offer apparently clear-cut and authoritative findings, and they often suggest serious failings. For a rather different, but not incompatible, account of the develpments I have sketched here, see Aucoin 1990. Aucoin stresses the role of public choice theory and managerialism, portraying them both as anti-bureaucratic, and argues that there are tensions between the two, especially in relation to centralisation/decentralisation and control/delegation.
20. One aspect of this was criticism of state regulation of industry. For an account of this in the United States, and of the pendulum swings towards and then away from regulation over the course of the twentieth century, see Vietor 1994:312 and passim.
21. This was why the Consumers' Association began to publish Which? magazine: see Sargant 1995:190-2. However, even that publication cannot provide everything one would need to know in order to make the best choice of many kinds of product. The sheer number and diversity of products is simply too large, and subject to too frequent change.
22. It is not clear that quality is given emphasis even where fashion, technical hype, or snobbery will support relatively high prices.
23. Nove writes that in the Soviet Union 'many of the functions of government ministers and senior party officials can be regarded as a form of senior management, in some respects analogous to those of the senior directors of a big Western corporation' (Nove 1980:88). He continues: 'how can the centre issue instructions in a form which does not give rise to ambiguities and contradictions? How can it encourage initiative, new techniques, the flow of desired and undistorted information? By what standards and in what way can we evaluate performance? Around these issues one finds grouped many of the most serious weaknesses of Soviet micro-economics. This is where many things go wrong' (Nove 1980:89). Indeed it is, and not just in the old Soviet Union!
24. In What Works? Davies et al comment that: '[...] the majority of research evidence considered in this text is the output from more formal and systematic enquiries, generated by government departments, research institutes, universities, charitable foundations, consultancy organisations, and a variety of agencies and intermediaries such as the Audit Commission, or Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted)' (Davies et al 2000:3). For a useful discussion of the relationship between research and OFSTED inspection, see Smith 2000.


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Franco shows off a fake neck tattoo that pays homage to Emma Watson, with her name written in cursive underneath it. Randall is known for faking tattoos in Photoshop.
James Franco
The Interview
In this political comedy, Franco and director Seth Rogen c0-star as journalists on a mission to assassinate North Korean leader Kin Jong-un, under the guise of conducting an interview with him. Directed by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg. Co-starring Diana Bang. Their reactions to threats made by North Korea regarding the movie's impending release:
They don't have freedom of speech there, so they don't get that people make stuff.
They went after Obama as much as us. Because [they think] Obama actually produced the movie.
Rogen, Franco get bodyguards
Rogen and Franco are given round-the-clock bodyguards amidst the Sony hackers threat. Insider:
They're usually not at all the type to have security. James is the kind of guy who takes the subway all the time.
Good People
In this movie directed by Henrik Ruben, Franco plays Tom, who with his partner, Anna (Kate Hudson), discover $400,000 in the apartment of the murdered tenant in the apartment below them. They take the money and use only what is necessary to take them out of debt, but become the the target of the thief who stole it. Co-starring Anna Friel, Tom Wilkinson and Omar Sy.
Ice Bucket Challenge: James Franco
Franco accepts the ALS challenge from Selena Gomez and nominates Zack Braff, Joey King and Keegan Allen.
Bukowski lawsuit filed
The actor is being sued by Cyril Humphris for stealing his idea for the upcoming movie, Bukowski. Franco claims the movie is from his own mind and he wrote it from inspiration given by Cyril's earlier works. Cyril states that the film
borrows the novel's themes of childhood loneliness; adolescent self-consciousness; the failures, hypocrisy, and cruelty of adults; and, in an unflinching depiction, the crude interest teenage boys take in sex.
James has asked for the lawsuit thrown out of court.
North Korea condemns
Kim Jong Un condemns Rogen and Franco for making the movie, Interview, in which they attempt to assassinate the Dear Leader. A North Korean spokesperson says:
[this] shows the desperation of the US government and American society. A film about the assassination of a foreign leader mirrors what the US has done in Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria and Ukraine. And let us not forget who killed [President John F.] Kennedy – Americans.
James Franco interview
Elle magazine interviews Franco about his cats and if he could love a woman who didn't like his cats.
One time, one of my cats was going for a girl's earring, and he scratched her. He wasn't a vicious cat or anything. He just wanted the dangling earring, and he cut her face. It was pretty bad.
Not on sex list
Franco denies being on Lohans's sex list. In an interview about his book of poems, a couple of which are about Lohan, he says:
I didn't write anything bad about them (celebrities). And Lindsay herself has told lies about me with her people-she's-slept-with list! So I feel like what I said is much less than what she's said.
Franco had earlier made comments during a March 2013 chat with Howard Stern on SiriusXM radio, confirming he turned down sex with Lohan.
I don't want to brag about it. I don't know how that got out. She was having issues even then, so you feel weird. Honestly, she was a friend. I've met a lot of people that are troubled and sometimes you don't want to do that.
Franco defends LaBeouf
Franco writes an article for the New York Times titled Why Actors Act Out, in which he takes an empathetic view on LaBeouf's recent behavior. In the article, Franco compares LaBeouf to other actors (including himself) who feel the need to distance themselves from the persona they have created. He goes on to say that an actor's rebellion against this persona sets in motion a feedback loop where the actor acts out, receives negative publicity, acts out in response to the publicity, and so on.
Mr. LaBeouf has been acting since he was a child, and often an actor's need to tear down the public creation that constrains him occurs during the transition from young man to adult. I think Mr. LaBeouf's project, if it is a project, is a worthy one. I just hope that he is careful not to use up all the good will he has gained as an actor in order to show us that he is an artist.
Hollywood Walk of Fame
Franco is honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame under the category of Motion Pictures. Actor Seth Rogen helps present the star to his good friend.
When I got to L.A., I'd come here and see the stars and it just seemed like it was something that was part of the city and you would never crack that, it was part of Hollywood history. It' still baffling that my name will be there.
The Talks interview
Franco gives an interview to The Talks. He discusses when he went to university and feeling misjudged.
I want to be looked at as an artist and a writer. Really that is all I can ask for and in fact what they have done is they have actually helped usher me into this world so that the next time I will do it will be more accepted. As anybody that talks about criticism knows on a lot of levels it is just people talking. So I don't mind it.
Oscar nomination
Franco is nominated for Best Actor at the 83rd Academy Awards for portraying Aron Ralston in 127 Hours.
It feels great to be nominated and it is such an honor to be in the company of my fellow nominees. I'm especially proud of Danny Boyle and the whole team behind 127 Hours for their recognition by the Academy.
Oscar nomination
Franco is nominated for Best Actor at the 83rd Academy Awards for portraying Aron Ralston in 127 Hours.
It feels great to be nominated and it is such an honor to be in the company of my fellow nominees. I'm especially proud of Danny Boyle and the whole team behind 127 Hours for their recognition by the Academy.
Elle Magazine interview
Franco gives interview to Elle about his book series Palo Alto.
I'd been working on them for a while. I was aware that there's a lot of material out there that deals with this age group. A lot of it is depicted in a way that the writer makes appealing enough but doesn't own in a certain way doesn't own certain kinds of acting-out behaviors. I was given a lot just by being born where I was, but adolescence is a hard period in anyone's life. It took time to figure out how to group the Palo Alto stories in a way that gives an overall impression that's focused and intense.
Elle Magazine interview
Franco gives interview to Elle about how he prepared to play a gay man in Milk.
You mean, how did I prepare to kiss Sean Penn? As far as the kissing and intimacy, no, Sean and I did not make out during rehearsals or anything like that. I just knew I had to be relaxed and natural or it was going to be ridiculous. So I guess, when you're actually kissing, you try not to think about it too much. There was one shot where, I don't know how long it actually turned out to be in the movie, but the shot took about a minute to film. We had to kiss for a minute, which is a very long time on-screen.

subset: commoncrawl


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Casting in Sprite Kit
This is one of the most important concepts to understand when working with Sprite Kit and in particular with Xcode's Scene Editor to layout your game. Below is one of the most common things you'll do in any game: add a Color Sprite (SKSpriteNode) to the scene, give a texture and name it something like Player.
What we need to do now is associate that Color Sprite named Player with an SKSpriteNode variable in our code. In your GameScene.swift file, declare a variable named thePlayer like so…
class GameScene: SKScene {
//MARK: Declare your variables
var thePlayer:SKSpriteNode = SKSpriteNode()
Next in the GameScene's didMoveTo statement (which is already written in the GameScene.swift if you've started your project with the Sprite Kit template), we want to tie together thePlayer with the "Player" named sprite. So locate this function…
override func didMove(to view: SKView) {
//write within here...
And add…
if let somePlayer:SKSpriteNode = self.childNode(withName: "Player") as? SKSpriteNode {
thePlayer = somePlayer //make thePlayer the same thing as somePlayer
So you've just done a little casting here. There's a few ways we could have gone about this, but I like this as its nice and safe. What we're doing in lay-man's terms is saying, "hey IF you can find somePlayer named Player that is an SKSpriteNode, then make thePlayer be somePlayer"
What happens to somePlayer after we say thePlayer = somePlayer. For a short amount of time, they are the same thing. So if we set somePlayer.alpha to 0, it would be the same as setting thePlayer.alpha to 0. And now thePlayer is also the same instance as the Color Sprite in our SKS file named "Player". After this if statement in the didMove function has finished executing somePlayer can no longer be referenced. That doesn't mean somePlayer is destroyed, it just means there's no longer any record of it essentially.
What's important here is…
- (1) If by some accident a child in the scene was named "Player" but was NOT an SKSpriteNode, we've prevented a crash by doing our casting in an if statement.
- (2) We now have a declared variable named thePlayer which we can use in ANY function in our GameScene class which will always refer back to the Color Sprite named "Player". So as long as this scene is active, we don't ever have to do this casting again.
As you work more with Sprite Kit you'll learn that crashes can come at you pretty quick if you make assumptions about one thing being something it's not. For example, when physics bodies are bouncing around and you test collisions between them, all Sprite Kit tells you by defaults is one body hit another. We have to check to see if the body was a SKSpriteNode (or some other custom class we were looking for).
Danger Zone
If you want to play with fire you could also have written this…
thePlayer = self.childNode(withName: "Player") as! SKSpriteNode
The ! mark means you are going to force the child in the scene named "Player" to be an SKSpriteNode. Notice in our previous example, we had a similar as but it had a question mark afterwards. This is the optional version, and it's kind of like saying, "well if you can't do it, don't worry about it".
Forcing it will work, but it could lead to a crash (again, if "Player" wasn't really an SKSpriteNode).
How to test if something is a particular class in Sprite Kit
The previous line would actually be just fine if it was inside of an if statement like so…
if ( self.childNode(withName: "Player") is SKSpriteNode){
thePlayer = self.childNode(withName: "Player") as! SKSpriteNode
So the if statement is simply say "Hey if Player is an SKSpriteNode, lets do this thing"
So wait, why do I need to do casting?
If you've been typing out this in Xcode, you might have noticed that writing…
self.childNode(withName: "Player")
…actually allows you to add some properties after it.
For example, you could set the alpha like so…
self.childNode(withName: "Player")?.alpha = 0.5
Swift will add that ? even if you leave it off. It has the good sense to think "well, if that child can't be found, lets make this optional". But it has no problem with you setting the alpha property. So why's that?
Every child node that could possibly be in the scene shares that property. All children are derived from SKNode, and alpha is a property of SKNode. Other common properties are position, zPosition, isHidden, and so on.
It's when you want to set a property that only an SKSpriteNode has, that you need to do some casting. And as most nodes in a scene are Color Sprites (SKSpriteNodes), you'll find you do a lot of casting. Even more so once you write your own classes in Sprite Kit.


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Obituary: Nancy Lee Christian DiMauro of Shelton, family owned DiMauro's Dairy Bar
Nancy Lee Christian DiMauro passed peacefully Monday morning December 22, 2014 surrounded by family in her long-time Shelton home.
Nancy was born on November 8th 1941 to Ann and Edward Christian of Ansonia, Connecticut, where she grew up with her five siblings, Audrey, Barbara, Tom, Jim, and Lynn. Nancy attended Ansonia High School, where she was captain of the majorettes and graduate of the class of 1959.
Nancy married her High School sweetheart and the love of her life, Nicholas Michael DiMauro, in 1961. The couple lived in Shelton for the rest of their lives and raised their two children, Lori and Michael in this this wonderful community.
Nancy and Nicholas owned DiMauro's Dairy Bar, which was a Shelton strong hold for nearly 50 years, where locals would enjoy daily chat, great home cooked food and marvelous hospitality. Nancy was active in the community, as a business leader and President of the Sunnyside School PTA for many years.
Nancy loved her community, customers, friends, entertaining, cooking and especially baking, which always included an extensive assortment of Christmas cookies. Most of all, Nancy loved her family. She had the pleasure of living adjacent to her daughter's Shelton home, where her grandchildren Mark, Alex and Casey ran freely between Mimi's and Mommy's.
Nancy's joy also sourced from the loving active energy of her grandchildren Sebastian, Benjamin, Madison, Brennan of Woodbridge. Nancy taught her grandchildren how to cook Mimi's sauce, pasta fagiolo soup, home-made pizza, cookies and cakes, but most importantly, they learned how to respect and care for others.
Nancy is survived by her son Michael DiMauro, daughter-in-law Jodi, daughter Lori Carotenuto, son-in-law Mark, seven grandchildren Mark, Alex, Casey, Sebastian, Benjamin, Madison and Brennan, two sisters Barbara Casagrande and Audrey Dreyer, many in-laws, nieces and nephews.
Nancy was a caring and loving individual who positively impacted thousands of lives over the course of her own.
Friends are invited to celebrate Nancy's life on Monday, December 29, 2014 at 11 AM at Saint Margaret Mary Church, 50 Donovan Lane, Shelton, CT 06484.
The Riverview Funeral Home 390 River Road Shelton has been entrusted with her arrangements.
In lieu of flowers, memorial contributions can be made to the Smilow Cancer Hospital at Yale-New Haven P.O. Box 7611 New Haven, CT 06519-0611.
Offer condolences online at www.riverviewfh.com.


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We are part of all UK frameworks and provide the NHS Trusts and private sector organisations with locum and permanent; registered general nurses (RGNs), registered mental health nurses (RMNs), healthcare assistants (HCAs), theatre nurses and practitioners (ODPs), Midwives, Doctors, Allied health professionals, Health scientists, Educational staff and Social workers.
Our reputation has been built on a solid foundation of providing highly skilled, compliant professionals encompassing the following core values:
Locum Placement Group is committed to providing a first class transparent staffing service that operates with sensitivity, professionalism and integrity at all times. Our success rests on strong relationships with satisfied clients and candidates, and we continuously strive to improve the services we offer.
As a NHS framework and local authority approved supplier, our numerous well established client relationships allow us to enjoy access to many of the UK's leading job opportunities across all regions of the country.


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first Yoga Sutra:
NOW, together we begin, just as we are. NOW we are ready. No need to wait until we are more centered, or stronger or happier. We are supported right NOW to move together into a deeper understanding of our Center, our Strength, our Joy.
Jon's Story
Life is a journey. Whether we cultivate deep roots to stand firm, strategically maneuver in orchestrated campaigns, or carelessly cavort on the whim of impulse, forces greater than our paltry schemes compel us to drift with the current. We can try to hold on, or at least steer, or float along fully aware of not only the futility of other options, but steadily anticipating the multitude of blessings which will infuse us if we welcome them along with the hardships we cannot control.
When you live life in this way you develop a sense of where you are being taken before you arrive. I have had that feeling many times in my life. I knew I'd take thousands upon thousands of photos the first time a camera was literally dropped into my lap at eighteen at a wedding, even though I didn't take another picture or buy a camera for another seven years. I knew I'd be an engineer in the seventh grade, the first time I heard there was such a thing, even though I didn't know what it was. I knew I'd take years and years of jump shots the first time a basketball was placed in my hands as a toddler, even though I was too small to conceive of how strong I'd need to be to throw it that high. I knew from so far back I can't recall I'd eventually practice yoga.
I was delivered to RB Yoga in late 2014. After seeing the marquee for the umpteenth time, it spoke to me. I had recently retired from full time employment, partially because my job for the last twenty years involved torturously long plane rides and sitting for hours in meetings, which had left me with poor circulation in my calves and pre-arthritic hips. A trip to help one of my daughters move into an apartment revealed how stiff my shoulders were. After two days of Ikea furniture assembling, I couldn't lift my arms above them! Add my feet, which are completely flat and were never flexible even when I was young, and three bicycle rides a week to help knot every muscle from the waist down, and I saw someone in supreme need of yoga.
So, when I started taking a beginner's class with Lori Cota, the purpose was to increase my flexibility. I thought so little of yoga as a workout, I would ride my bike before class, to make sure I wasn't losing fitness substituting one for the other. That lasted a couple of months, until I realized yoga was the perfect companion to biking, both were moving meditations which synergized each other. And what led to that conclusion was Lori was not as concerned about the quality of the stretching I was doing as the quality of the breathing I was doing.
Yoga, after the first few sessions, was revealed to be the attainment of controlled, relaxed breathing more than flexibility, and the greatest gains in flexibility would come only after the breathing was deepened, mastered, glorified. Poses were learned, balance was explored, muscles were toned, but all was meaningless without the breath. The awareness of the breath, where it goes on the inhale, what it does as it dissolves into the lungs, what it releases from the body and mind on the exhale. It is the breath that cleanses, the breath that strengthens, the breath that informs.
After practicing more than a year in her class, Lori suggested I take Jeanne Stone's Wednesday morning All Levels class. My body still felt like a beginner's, but at least I had reached the point where I knew what I was trying to do, even if I still couldn't do it. As with the beginner's class, I felt the atmosphere was welcoming and my class mates were helpful, and after a few sessions yoga began to mean something else to me entirely. It was no longer about better breathing or greater flexibility, those were just the side effects.
The purpose of yoga is to help foster compassion. Compassion for myself and the fragile shell in which I am housed; compassion for my fellow travelers, as all of us are suffering from the same limitations that comprise being human; compassion for all things in the universe, living or dead or yet to live. The compassion to share. Compassion as defined by sympathy, empathy, concern, kindness, consideration, care, and benevolence. Compassion is the antidote to suffering and lights the way to true joyfulness.
A compassionate person is more flexible. A compassionate person remembers to breathe. A compassionate person can rejoice in their successes and laugh at their failures equally, aware both are blessings to be experienced and not obstacles to be avoided. It does not matter if I can stand on my head, or on one leg with my arms stretched out, or do the splits like a cheerleader. I can try and fail, try and succeed, or not try at all; with compassion. I can be strong when I fall and accept my rewards with humility. I can use the gift of yoga to help keep me buoyant as the current churns.
I do not plan to stop attending a beginner's class, no matter how skilled I become in yoga. I will always consider myself an initiate, needing the instruction given to a novice, and needing the humility only a novice can harness, to propel me along the path I have not set for myself, but the one which will lead me to my best future self. It is not a competition. No one who has ever been born or will ever be born can be on this course and fare better or worse. It is my journey and mine alone, and I am grateful for any compassion I acquire along the way.
Thank you, RB Yoga, all the teachers and students, for helping to provide it.
J.W. Wheeler
Isabel's Story
On the occasion of RB Yoga's 10th anniversary, I just want to thank you for all that the studio means to me. I have been active all my life, but, when I turned 45, tired of the loud music in the gym and of getting sweaty and out of breath, I started looking for a different kind of physical activity. That is why I decided to give yoga a try. From the very first day that I set foot in your studio, I felt at home. I have never been very flexible, and, very soon, I started to notice the physical benefits of the practice. But what really surprised me was how yoga was also affecting all the other aspects of my life. When I practice regularly, I become more focused and mindful in all my endeavors. Yoga centers me in the present. Like so many of us, I have a very hectic and busy life, but the moment I cross the door of the studio, I can feel that I have arrived to a safe haven, where I can reconnect with myself. All the teachers are wonderful, and, under their guidance, I have learned so much about my body and my mind, and also to feel more connected to those around me. I have developed more confidence, but also more humility. I have been coming to RB Yoga for over three years now, and I know I will continue to practice for the rest of my life. Thank you from the bottom of my heart, and my best wishes for many more years of happiness and success.
Ravi's Story
My yoga journey began three years ago when a colleague invited me to attend an introductory class taught at our office gym. I agreed perfunctorily, expecting that I'd feel silly doing it, then make my excuses, and never go back again. My first class was a revelation. A decade of sitting at a computer every day had left me overweight and out of shape. Yet, the practice struck some latent chord and I woke up the next morning with a sensation of bliss. From that moment, I was "hooked" and I began practicing with the ferocious zeal typical of a new convert.
In that first brush, I treated yoga solely as a set of physical challenges and as I pushed myself to master one pose after another, my creaking body struck back. Within the first two months, shooting and debilitating pain engulfed my back. Recognizing the need for adult supervision, I found my way to RBYoga. For the last three years, guided by the skill, experience, and compassion of my teachers at this studio, I have found a nurturing environment that supports a safe, healthy, vigorous, sustainable asana practice.
The benefits of a regular practice have been amazing. Not only have I felt increasingly healthier and stronger, I lost 40 lbs within the first six months of embarking on this journey. Thanks to the patience and knowledge of my teachers, I now have a more sophisticated sense of the subtleties of breath, mind, and body. They have provided me with the strength, balance, discipline, and courage to explore the boundaries of physical practice. They have taught me that the four corners of my yoga mat serve not just to release physical energy but also for contemplation, meditation, reflection, introspection, and as a relief valve for emotional stress.
My teachers are but one pillar of the RBYoga community; my fellow students on this path are the other. Their support and friendship helps sustain my practice and makes it so much fun to come to the studio each day and I am proud and happy that they choose to share their journey with me.
Mary Beth's Story
My Yoga practice began when I was in junior high in 1973 and over the past 37 years I have practiced a variety of Yoga styles. My life has been filled with happiness. Through 27 years of a fulfilling marriage, to teaching my students as an Elementary school teacher, to believing I can make my dogs laugh (ha!), I know what healing power lifting your spirits has. I have been blessed my entire life: surrounded with love and laughter. Practicing yoga with the dear people at RB Yoga is a wonderful experience with each class I attend. Whether it's learning a new pose, overcoming a challenge, applying what we learn on the mat to every day life, or encouraging one another to reach a new peak, I leave there happy and rejuvenated.
I continue to be amazed that after 37 years of practice, that nearly every class I attend I continue to learn something new. I appreciate the different levels offered and the expertise and love we as students receive from the instructors.
Christina's Story
In my early thirties I had a pretty regular Ashtanga practice. About a year and a half into my practice I began to experience numbness in my hands, feet and arms immediately following class so I reluctantly gave it up. About five years later I was diagnosed with Multiple Sclerosis.
Early into my diagnosis I decided to take a positive and proactive approach to slowing the progression of the disease. Virtually every book and article I read recommended yoga so I decided to give it another try. I was nervous about causing a relapse so I chose Hatha Level 1 with Jeanne at RB Yoga. About halfway through my first class I started to cry – not because I was feeling sad or sorry for myself, but because I realized how much I missed yoga and how happy I was to be practicing again. In addition, here was a beautiful studio with an obviously compassionate and highly skilled teacher about two minutes from my house!
That was nine months ago, and now I take 4-5 classes a week at all different levels.
My intention for yoga is very different now than when I was first practicing. Before MS, yoga was all about getting the best workout I could and so I pushed myself into poses I probably wasn't ready for.
When I wasn't able to master a pose I often felt frustrated with myself.
When sitting on curled toes, I used to fidget and count the seconds until it was over. These days on curled toes I catch myself with a smile on my face because I'm so happy to feel my feet. And tree pose? Forget it! Every time I do it my heart overflows with gratitude for balance, even though my tree can be pretty wobbly at times. Because I have no way of knowing the course my MS will take, I view every class and every pose as a gift.
I am grateful that MS led me to my practice at RB Yoga, where every teacher is talented and knowledgeable, and in any given class you can see long time practitioners who inspire with their grace and strength, as well as people brand new to yoga.
Rebecca's Story
I first came to the practice of yoga a few years ago looking for physical exercise. I had been a dedicated runner and a long-time gymnast until my knee worsened to the point where I was unable to continue doing high-impact sports. However, within the first few classes I became increasingly aware of the mental and spiritual benefits this practice had to offer, in addition to the physical benefits. Soon I found myself coming twice a week, then three times and some weeks even five or six. I found that my body literally yearned for yoga, which compelled me to practice more and more often, both at home and in the studio.
The practice of yoga continues to support me in my daily life, both on and off the mat. As a dedicated activist for animals, the environment and peace, I am bound to come in contact with some difficult people. This practice has helped me to better understand how to deal with my frustrations and how to let go of things that are no longer serving me. As the San Diego Organizer for the Student Peace Alliance (a non-profit organization campaigning to establish a cabinet-level U.S. Department of Peace) I dedicate a large amount of my time to the campaign. While I am fortunate enough to meet many wonderful people through my work, I am also constantly dealing with skepticism, cynicism, intolerance, and ignorance. It is unlikely I would be able to continue my work without a dedicated practice. The principles of yoga have given me a sense of spiritual guidance and an outlet for life's difficulties.
While I have so much gratitude for the practice of yoga as a whole, the additions of a teacher like Jeanne and the atmosphere of the RB Yoga Studio have made a world of difference. All of the teachers I have had the honor to practice with have had something new and inspiring to offer. Additionally, the warmth of such a tight-knit community adds so much to my practice. It is a blessing to be able to practice with so many wonderful people every week.
This practice has brought so much to my life in so many different ways. It constantly reminds me of all that is good in the world and truly makes me want to be a better person. It is a gift that I will be able to keep with me all my life.
Jan and Joe
Making the decision to become a Yoga teacher and share this sacred practice with others is never so heart fulfilling as watching students like Jan & Joe in their practice. For the past 15 months, Jan & Joe have been committed to their Yoga practice and watching them grow and deepen is truly an honor. They come together to the same class, same time, week after week, month after month, rarely missing a session. Watching these two amazing souls interacting with each other, helping and supporting one another is an opportunity for us all to move deeper into our hearts. Here is Jan & Joe's personal story….
Joe and I have been married for over 31 years. We have been coming to RB Yoga for over a year. The idea of practicing yoga really appealed to us because it was something we could do together – yet work at our own pace in class. We were first introduced to yoga at a local high school adult education class. We liked the stretching and enjoyed learning the various poses, but the school room atmosphere was not all that pleasant.
As the year went by, Joe was diagnosed with the onset of Parkinson's disease and yoga was highly recommended to help him stay limber. We decided to give yoga a try again. We chose RB Yoga because we drive by every day going to and from work and wondered how a professional studio would be for our practice. It's now been over a year since the two of us started attending RB Yoga each week and we are "Sunday regulars." In the beginning, the awareness of our breathing and the concentration involved in holding the poses was such a break from our normal daily routine. We both look forward to our practice and how it makes us feel. Our adult children and friends have come to learn not to expect us to be available during "yoga time".
Joe can now hold poses that he could never obtain a year ago. I like how the concentration of the various positions has gotten me to slow down and focus on the present. We had no idea at that time how practicing yoga would enhance our lives but it surely has. I find myself practicing the slow breathing techniques when in heavy traffic or waiting in a long line. We both listen to more soft relaxing music now, especially just before class to get into the "zone". The concentration and emphasis on the various poses keeps us both limber.
We even participated in Jeanne's "Couples Class" a fun and challenging experience in practicing yoga poses as a couple. Hope she offers that class again!
On a personal note, I like that no special equipment is needed to practice yoga – we simply carry in our personal yoga mats- RB Yoga supplies the straps, the blocks and the blankets. We like how the atmosphere is non-threatening and the community at RB Yoga is friendly. Jeanne or her "supersub", Sarah, always assures that we align our body correctly when in a pose. This was the best investment that we've made in ourselves. RB Yoga time is "our" time.
Meg's Story
Patanjali's authoritative Yoga Sutras begins with an invitation: "Atha Yoga-Anusanam – Now we begin the study of Yoga." This auspicious invitation is a call to come together in the heart of our community (kula) for us to begin our practice. While we all endeavor to cultivate a practice at home, we have all experienced the joy and the power of practicing within a group of like-minded individuals. It is my honor to introduce Meg – an amazing bright light shining in our Yoga community. Meg started her Yoga practice over two years ago and she instinctively heard the call to practice from her heart and with her heart. So much in fact that she came to the studio with her very own kula – Meg and seven of her coworkers all came to class every week to move and breathe and celebrate their hearts together. Meg's kula is shining brightly and has grown to include every person she meets in class. Meg continues to be committed to her practice -always willing to dive deeper into the many aspects this vast practice has to offer. It is a pleasure to introduce Meg to you and have her share her Yogic journey.
Several of my colleagues were looking for a lunch hour activity where all of us could participate and get a work out. We are a varied group of women in our 20's, 30's, and 40's and for a couple of us, 50's. Our fitness levels and interests were just as diverse. One of my co-workers suggested that we try yoga since it would give all of us an opportunity to participate as well as provide a great physical workout that could help us reduce workday stress. In the beginning, we participated in a series of classes at another location, and when Rancho Bernardo Yoga opened, we moved our practice.
After we began practicing at RB Yoga, we found that yoga was much more than a lunchtime workout. The group accountability really helped us to make the commitment to leave work even in mid-project to attend class. Although many of us had never participated in yoga, we found ourselves looking forward to the weekly sessions and when we returned to the office we would talk about the class and the difference it was making in our lives. We began to leave the pressures of work behind us during the sessions, and when we returned to work we had a calmness and focus that wasn't present before going.
During my first few months as a yoga novice, much of what occurred in class was a complete mystery. The names of poses, understanding the translation of some of the Sanskrit words, sun salutations, and balance poses were all very different from any exercise class or activity I had attended. Since I'm not flexible, it was also very challenging not to feel intimidated in class when others seemed to effortlessly move into poses that I could only hope to achieve.
After a few months at RB Yoga, I found that yoga was increasing my flexibility as well as my strength. I also began to realize that yoga was much more than a physical workout and I wanted to increase my knowledge and understanding of my practice with a mix of group and private sessions.
The private sessions increased my understanding of the subtle nuances and structure of many poses and also helped me to realize that yoga extended beyond the physical. Combining the experiences of the group classes with the private sessions gave me the opportunity to integrate the mental, emotional and spiritual planes to the physical aspects of the practice. I began to realize that I have a long way to go to understand all the benefits that a regular yoga practice can provide.
During class, I found myself working to not compare my abilities to others. I wished for a "Gumby" body and experienced some frustration when I couldn't achieve certain poses. Accepting and applying Jeanne's advice to honor our bodies and be grateful that we can participate in yoga was one of the first steps in my journey. I've found that yoga challenges me on many levels and it has not been unusual to find that a class could open a door to a new series of questions.
Rancho Bernardo Yoga has been a wonderful experience for my co-workers and myself. Jeanne and all of the instructors have been more than willing to offer suggestions to adapt the yoga practice to our various levels of fitness, flexibility, injuries and body types, regardless of our age. Jeanne and her instructors never compromise our bodies for the sake of "practice". Injuries, past or present, are treated with gentleness and honor. The instructors always teach modifications to every pose to help prevent re-injury.
Lastly, an unexpected benefit of practicing at RB Yoga has been meeting fellow yoga practitioners. We've found a wonderfully accepting community of individuals who participate regularly and offer encouragement and friendship. We're a very diverse group and all of us have benefited from our practice and look forward to attending class regularly. We look forward to broadening our understanding and practice of yoga in the months ahead.
Vanessa's Story
Each of you brings your unique gifts and talents to class which continues to manifest within the studio space long after you have gone back into the rest of your lives. With that in mind, I would like to introduce you to a member of our community. Vanessa has been practicing Yoga regularly at RB Yoga for over a year and a half. It's always a privilege to watch her as she listens to her body and practices with honor and integrity. In her own words, here is Vanessa's Yogic journey:
I started practicing Yoga regularly in 2003. I had been teaching cardio-kickboxing classes for a few years and loved it, but knew I needed to round out my fitness routine with something that promoted flexibility. Not being very disciplined about stretching, I thought a yoga class would be helpful. It turned out that yoga was more than I expected, deceptively challenging and I got really hooked on it.
It was surprising to find out how unlimber I had become over the years, yet in just a few months, I noticed my range of motion had increased and my muscles felt longer. The result was most noticeable when I was hiking, something I do a couple times a week or more. I had less tightness in my lower back and felt more agile and stronger while climbing. I also think that yoga has helped me maintain good posture. While I haven't nearly achieved complete peace of mind, the practice of deep and rhythmic breathing and moving with breath is something that I recall more often in daily life. I tend to hold my breath when I get anxious or really focused, and so I sometimes even do 'breath of fire' to calm myself, or just more quickly remind myself to breathe.
I came to RB Yoga to find an expanded schedule of classes, taught by authentic yoga practitioners in an environment that was dedicated to yoga (rather than going to the gym where all the machines are rumbling outside the yoga class…). I like the range of practice levels offered, and the teachers are wonderful, and the schedule provides lots of options for a busy life. The location really ideal for me, and I'm always glad to find what I need in my own community of Rancho Bernardo.
Mary's Story
For two and a half years, I have had the pleasure to have Mary in my Yoga class and watch her Yoga practice deepen in many ways. Mary is a wife and a mother of two amazing children and while she is devoted to her family, she is also the successful business owner of RB Family Dentistry. For Mary, the transition from taking her Yoga and meditation practice into her professional and personal life is seamless. It is with inspiration that I watch her walk through life with complete mindfulness and presence. I have witnessed Mary face difficult things that life can bring with utmost grace and equanimity. As a patient in her dental practice, I can honestly say she is a dentist with heart. Here is Mary's journey with Yoga in her own words:
After my father's death I had a great deal of difficulty accepting his loss. The deep sorrow I experienced manifested in my physical body as different illnesses and multiple doctor visits. The underlying cause of all my physical symptoms was ultimately emotional distress and because I wasn't interested in taking medications I instead decided to keep looking for other ways to heal.
One day at the gym I tried a Yoga class and that was the beginning of my Yogic Journey. After each class I felt much better physically and emotionally. I started connecting with my father in a non-physical way which opened another chapter in my life, one of learning about Spirit. Yoga has become an essential part of my life and I wanted to deepen my practice and take it to the next level. So I kept trying different yoga classes in search of a teacher who offered a spiritual component to the practice verses just a physical workout, which I found with Jeanne. Jeanne gives personal attention to everyone creating a nurturing environment while offering a spiritual practice within the physical.
Lori's Story
I'd like to introduce you to Lori…If you are a regular student at RB Yoga, chances are you have met Lori Cota. Lori's commitment to her practice is unwavering. Lori's desire to connect with the highest and best part of herself shines through in every aspect of her practice. Lori comes to her mat each day with an open heart and a sensitivity that inspires everyone around her. As the owner of Peaceful Glow in Poway it's no surprise that Lori brings this same awareness, kindness and compassion to her work as a skin care professional. Below is Lori's Yogic journey in her own words:
Six years ago I was invited to a yoga class taught by my cousin, he was so wonderfully peaceful and gentle and encouraging. I was really looking for that in my life at the time and so my yoga practice began!
I have had the privilege of practicing with some incredible teachers along the way. Like so many, I quickly started to notice my physical strength and flexibility increasing and thought "Wow! How did I do that?" Pretty soon I was on to the next headstand or handstand with no fear. I felt confident in my teacher to guide me to a place I never imagined I could go.
I was invited to RB Yoga for the 1st Equinox Sun Salute Celebration by my friend I have admired for years, Darcy. I loved being around her and wanted to find out more about the source of her light. I had no idea what I was in for! The Sun Salute practice with Jeanne was absolutely life changing. Jeanne's encouragement, support and love for her students really resonated with me. Since that day over a year ago, I am devoted to my yoga practice 6 days a week and it is truly an essential part of my life. I have been blessed with many wonderful people in my life and I am so grateful to all of them. My practice has been my sacred time to learn about myself and grow in understanding, knowledge and awareness. I truly feel connected to everyone in the amazing RB Yoga community. I feel blessed to be part of it. All the teachers are unique and bring their own passion of Yoga to their classes.
People often ask me, "Lori, how do you do it? You get through things that are difficult and challenging in life with such apparent ease." I respond by simply saying "breathe."
Jeff and Laura's Story
Jeff and I started our Yogic journey at RB Yoga together. We love doing outdoor activities like hiking and camping, so I was hoping yoga would give us another way to spend time together while doing something healthy for our bodies.
I'd gone to various yoga classes over the years, but never found a class I wanted to attend consistently. After spending a couple weeks in bed with a back injury in late 2007, I knew I needed to do something to take care of my body and mind. After our first class at RB Yoga, Jeff and I knew we'd be coming back. On a physical level, it was very challenging, but not unattainable. For me, getting through class with such a sense of confidence was a small win…and that good feeling kept me coming back. For over a year now, Jeff and I have been going to class together at least once every week.
Jeff had never tried yoga before and confesses being one of the few men in class made him a little uncomfortable at first. He used to be shy to talk about his practice, but we are both amazed at how far he's come. Jeff came to class to "become more flexible," but admits that it's "fun, relaxing, challenging" and most sweetly, "a nice way to spend time together."
We have received so many gifts through yoga. Physically, mentally and spiritually I feel stronger and more full of love, life…light. And I feel so lucky to be able to share this journey with Jeff.


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Product Description
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