text:
This is a blog to discuss philosophy, chess, politics, C. S. Lewis, or whatever it is that I'm in the mood to discuss.
Monday, July 09, 2012
A Defense of Objective Moral Values
47 comments:
- Papalinton said...
Bit of a crock really, 'objective moral values'. The wheels of his argument fall off almost from the beginning with his holocaust analogy.
"If objective moral values exist, then statements like, "the Holocaust was evil," can be objectively true. If objective moral values exist, then this statement would be true even if the Nazis had won World War II and had convinced every human being in the entire world that the Holocaust was good. In contrast, the position of moral relativism commits one to the proposition that moral statements like, "the Holocaust was evil," are subjective. If some person or some society, like Nazi Germany, believes that the Holocaust was good, then the Holocaust would indeed be good "for them". "
For the Germans the holocaust was deemed good, otherwise why would they have embarked upon it? The German people, the overwhelming majority of them practicing faithful christians, catholic and protestant, [the other 5% being Jews] that the final solution was an answer for cleaning out their community. One need only be reminded of Jugoslavia where the vast majority Serbian christians sought to 'ethnically cleanse' their Bosnia and Sarajevo of Muslims. And that was only a few years ago.
You might wish to read this investigation:
"In the aftermath of this horrific bloodbath, Rwanda's Christian churches have faced extensive criticism. Many journalists, scholars, human rights activists, politicians, and even some church personnel have accused the churches not simply of failing effectively to oppose the genocide but of active complicity in the violence.(2) According to a report by a World Council of Churches team that visited Rwanda in August 1994, "In every conversation we had with the government and church people alike, the point was brought home to us that the church itself stands tainted, not by passive indifference, but by errors of commission as well."(3) My own research in Rwanda in 1992-93 and 1995-96 confirms these conclusions. According to my findings, church personnel and institutions were actively involved in the program of resistance to popular pressures for political reform that culminated in the 1994 genocide, and numerous priests, pastors, nuns, brothers, catechists, and Catholic and Protestant lay leaders supported, participated in, or helped to organize the killings.(4)"
"Post-genocide conversions
Main article: Islam in Rwanda
Reports indicate the percentage of Muslims in Rwanda has doubled[9] or tripled[10] since the genocide, due to Muslim protection of Tutsis and to Hutus' wanting distance from the people who murdered. Although the growth of Islam stabilized after a few years, it is still attracting some converts. Conversions to Evangelical Christianity also increased after the genocide, while attendance in Catholic churches has decreased. Observers believe this is due to the participation of some Catholic priests in the genocide.[11]" [Wiki]
- July 09, 2012 7:29 PM
- Papalinton said...
"The most detailed discussion of the role of religion in the Rwandan genocide is Timothy Longman's Christianity and Genocide in Rwanda.[5] He argues that both Catholic and Protestant churches helped to make the genocide possible by giving moral sanction to the killing. Churches had longed played ethnic politics themselves, favoring the Tutsi during the colonial period then switching allegiance to the Hutu after 1959, sending a message that ethnic discrimination was consistent with church teaching. The church leaders had also long had close ties with the political leaders, and after the genocide began, the church leaders called on the population to support the new interim government, the very government that was supporting the genocide."
The only reason the holocaust was considered evil is because a group of other people thought it was evil. Fortunately that was our side and we were lucky enough to have won WW2. Other have not been so lucky.
- July 09, 2012 7:30 PM
- Papalinton said...
Shenvi, in his concluding remarks says, "If the biblical God exists, then He is the standard of objective moral values. "
Tell that to the 1 million Rwandans that died at the hands of god-believing christians.
- July 09, 2012 7:37 PM
- Papalinton said...
Shades of the Albigensian [a catholic massacre] and Anabaptist [a protestant massacre] 'objective moral values', methinks.
A god sat on his hands and watched it happen.
- July 09, 2012 8:01 PM
- SteveK said...
So what exactly are you saying, Paps, that morality is not objective?
- July 09, 2012 8:22 PM
- Papalinton said...
Steve K
I'm asking, what is the practical relevance of 'objective moral values'?
Philosophising over objective moral values seems a rather unprofitable exercise. And Shenvi's notion about 'objective moral values' says nothing about how we can actualize practical outcomes of these 'objective moral values, a way we can best enshrine them. There is no mechanism other than through secular law and jurisprudence, paying little heed rather other than being mindful of religious proclivity, that we can fully operationalize morality. No religion has been able to do it in modern times, unless you agree that Sharia law in the best of functional religious examples.
Shenvi's article is little more than a graceless and maladroit attempt to rationalise and 'prove' [use this word at your own risk] that 'objective moral values' come straight from an indeterminate, formless and amorphous spectral numen. Of course, how he does that is simply by personal attribution. Indeed he declares it such,
"There is a far more important question that needs to be answered, and it is not a philosophical question. It is a personal one."
So much for evidence of 'objective moral values'. To me the unknowable and the non-existent are indistinguishable.
- July 09, 2012 9:17 PM
- Papalinton said...
There is a mountain of evidence and research and investigation, building as we speak, that is informing us how we can best realise commonality on morality. Dr Sam Harris, neuroscientist, for one [I quote],
".. brings a fresh perspective to age-old questions of right and wrong and good and evil. Harris demonstrates that we already know enough about the human brain and its relationship to events in the world to say that there are right and wrong answers to the most pressing questions of human life. Because such answers exist, moral relativism is simply false- and comes at an increasing cost to humanity. And the intrusions of religion into the sphere of human values can be finally repelled: for just as there is no such thing as Christian physics or Muslim algebra, there can be no Christian or Muslim morality."
- July 09, 2012 9:17 PM
- Neil Shenvi said...
You wrote:
"For the Germans the holocaust was deemed good, otherwise why would they have embarked upon it?"
I think you're missing the point, which is what Steve K. alluded to. My illustration demonstrated what it means for moral values to be objective. Moral values are objective if they exist independent of human belief. They are not objective if they are dependent on human belief.
You are quite right that the Nazis deemed the Holocaust to be good. But the question we need to ask is: was the Holocaust _actually_ good? If morality is not objective, then the Holocaust was indeed good 'for them' merely because they deemed it good. But if morality is objective, then the Holocaust was evil regardless of whether the Nazis or all human beings deemed it good.
So the question for you is: were the Holocaust and the Rwandan genocide and the ethnic cleansing in Serbia actually good or not?
If you answer that these events were evil, then you agree with my thesis (objective moral values exist).
If you answer that these events were good because they were deemed good by the people that committed them, then you need to provide a better explanation for the five pieces of evidence I mentioned.
I also find it interesting that you quote Sam Harris approvingly. In The End of Faith, Harris utterly rejects what he calls 'the demon of moral relativism' and has written extensively in support of the thesis that objective moral values exist. Harris and I obviously disagree over the metaphysical grounding of objective moral values. But we both affirm that objective moral values exist, which was the subject of this essay.
- July 09, 2012 9:34 PM
Neil Shenvi / SteveK,
You are certainly free to do what you wish, and I don't want to discourage you from engaging "Paps" if you think fruit may result, but there's a reason many of us have agreed to take the "Paps Challenge," meaning that we were going to ignore him until his arguments became worthy of address. Not sure how familiar either of you are with Paps, but in my experience his "arguments" almost always:
1) ramble on forever;
2) favor cheesy rhetoric and evasion;
3) fail to grasp the objections mounted against him;
4) reduce to non-sequiturs (cf. July 09, 2012 7:37 PM and July 09, 2012 8:01 PM in this thread alone)...
I could go on, but 1-3 were enough for me. What y'all do with this knowledge is your call. Quite frankly, I think you're both wasting your time, but who am I to judge...
- July 10, 2012 1:43 AM
Neil Shenvi / SteveK,
Perfect case in point... Paps shows up and denies objective moral values, but then, a few comments later, implies that scientists like Sam Harris is discovering them.
As an aside, it spooks me that so many ostensibly "rational" atheists believe this hokum. Here's Paps:
Dr Sam Harris, neuroscientist, for one [I quote],
Besides the fact that Harris is a total non-sequitur WRT to Neil's paper, two can play Paps game. Dr Sam Harris, neuroscientist, I quote,
Some propositions are so dangerous that it may even be ethical to kill people for believing them.-The End of Faith, 52-53
Harris suggests it "may" be "ethical" to kill people, not on the basis of crimes they commit, but on the basis of what they believe. This is the "enlightened morality" from the "rational" secular world.
God help us all.
- July 10, 2012 1:55 AM
Nice post, by the way.
- July 10, 2012 1:57 AM
- Papalinton said...
What you say in your follow-up comment is fine. I have no fundamental objection to objective morality. Rather it is your definition of the source of 'objective moral values' that is problematic and insubstantial and is supported largely by the convention of tradition rather than evidence. And equally, I would clearly articulate that of both Muslim and Rosicrucian moral perspectives.
It seems increasingly to me that we as a species are generally mindful of moral parameters that guide behaviour. But we also know that the strength or otherwise of that intuited belief has been compromised many times by more pressing social and cultural imperatives that were less than admirable. And religion, in its various forms and expression, has demonstrated little consistency in resisting these less than admirable influences. The Rwandan example characterizes much that demonstrates little correlative evidence between being a christian and moral values.
Science tells us, as a highly social species of animal, what we understand as objective moral behaviour or values is in large measure a product of our evolutionary predisposition towards altruism and sharing well-being. It seems that we are more predisposed to living in a community environment that generally favours letting one live a peaceful and supportive life rather than one of enduring perpetual existential anxiety. And I think religion per se has been less than successful in actualizing morality; and always as a function of group-think in one's own clearly defined membership or in-crowd, be it catholic, or Calvinist, Nth Korean, or Papua-New Guinean highlander, or however you might define yourself. If you describe yourself and your family as just human beings with feelings, and wants and needs, as every other human family with wants, desires and wishes, religions do not offer those objective moral values as a universal panacea. There is always a catch, a condition constrained and defined by one's particular stripe of god; and there are thousands of them. And I do not think this religious approach is a useful tool in global humanity.
Indeed, you and Harris do disagree over the metaphysical grounding of objective moral values. And it is that disagreement that is the focal issue of contention and the substantive reason why I consider religion as not as useful a vehicle in propagating universal moral worth as one would want to imagine it be, mainly because that worth has been narrowly prescribed through particular and limiting theological terms.
We have to think and act wider, deeper about the universality of objective moral values.
- July 10, 2012 4:07 AM
- Neil Shenvi said...
Good, I'm glad you agree with the proposition that objective moral values and duties exist. That was the sole thesis of the essay and forms the second premise of the Moral Argument. However, you are now asserting that objective moral values and duties can be derived from "our evolutionary predisposition towards altruism." I'll leave aside the is-ought problem for a moment and go directly to the essential issue: can naturalism indeed furnish a metaphysical ground for objective moral values? If you think this question can be answered in the affirmative, I suggest reading the following essay, which I completed recently (forgive the typos; I am a bad proofreader).
Could you answer the two objections I raise in this essay?
- July 10, 2012 4:48 AM
- Papalinton said...
I can't begin to respond to your paper as your conclusion is largely inconsequential to me. I am not an apologist. I do not subscribe to superstitious supernaturalism of [putatively] live entities that inhabit a netherworld. From my perspective such a premise is misconceived, misinformed and erroneous.
However, it was an interesting paper from the perspective of the role of mythology, as a surrogate placemarker for knowledge, in our very early understanding of the world we inhabit. Many of the examples you use capture the zeitgeist of personal revelation. But there is little to inform us going forward on how to actualize morality, apart from abject supplication and misguided allegiance to an obviously contrived mythical reflective expression of ourselves, a product of a time that was without the benefit of 21st century education.
The religious perspective is not a universally accepted one; with some tens of thousands of 'revealed' religions available to us that offer mutually incompatible doctrines. For me to counter-argue the christian position would be to accord it an unwarranted and undeserved status and credibility. If I were a Buddhist or a Muslim, then perhaps it would be appropriate; pitching one mythos competitively with another. As Bob Geldoff responded when asked, "Are you a Saint or a Sinner?" His reply, "As an atheist, I cannot be either."
Sam Harris, eloquently posed the probelmatic nature of religion:
"The reasons for believing that any of the world's religions were 'revealed' to our ancestors are either risible or nonexistent - and the idea that each of these mutually contradictory doctrines [example: Islam and christianity] is inerrant remains a logical impossibility. Here we can take comfort in Bertrand Russell's famous remark that even if we could be certain that one of the world's religions was perfectly true, given the sheer number of conflicting faiths on offer, every believer should expect damnation purely as a matter of probability."
- July 10, 2012 8:36 AM
- Papalinton said...
In respect of your, "... [and] go directly to the essential issue: can naturalism indeed furnish a metaphysical ground for objective moral values?"
The question is a theological/philosophical question of sorts. There are two streams of philosophy: one that is scientifically informed, the other that is not scientifically informed. Religious philosophy, that which is not scientifically informed, can be construed as ... theology. We tend to forget that, "[p]rior to the modern history of science, scientific questions were addressed as a part of metaphysics known as natural philosophy. The term science itself meant "knowledge" of, originating from epistemology. The scientific method, however, transformed natural philosophy into an empirical activity deriving from experiment unlike the rest of philosophy. By the end of the 18th century, it had begun to be called "science" to distinguish it from philosophy. Thereafter, metaphysics denoted philosophical enquiry of a non-empirical character into the nature of existence." Wiki
Naturalism, which is grounded in empiricism, is not a presuppositional stance. One arrives at naturalism as an outcome from doing science. Naturalism has no need to furnish a metaphysical ground for objective moral values. Naturalism goes right to the heart of the issue, and it uses all the investigative and research means available to it. Theology and religion are antithetical to the guiding principles of naturalism.
"The neuroscience of morality and social emotions is only just beginning, but there seems no question that it will ... deliver morally relevant insights regarding the material causes of our happiness and suffering. While there may be some surprises in store for us down this path, there is every reason to expect that kindness, compassion, fairness, and other classically 'good' traits will be vindicated neuroscientifically - which is to say that we will only discover further reasons to believe that they are good for us, in that they generally enhance our lives." The Moral Landscape p 80.
The placement of the study of morality, and moral values, on the much surer footing of empirical investigation and research, will obviate the need for a philosophical talkfest. We are increasingly becoming to understand good and evil, right and wrong, in scientific terms, because moral concerns translate into facts about how our thoughts and behaviours affect the well-being of conscious creatures like ourselves.
- July 10, 2012 8:38 AM
- Neil Shenvi said...
You write: "I can't begin to respond to your paper as your conclusion is largely inconsequential to me"
I'm not sure I understand this. You already stated that objective moral values do exist. But my thesis in the essay is that if naturalism is true, objective moral values cannot exist. So if you want to consistently and rationally affirm naturalism and the existence of objective moral values, you need to answer my objections. Saying 'I don't care about your objections' doesn't do much to answer them.
"Naturalism has no need to furnish a metaphysical ground for objective moral values."
This is a particularly interesting stance because it is rejected by Sam Harris, whom you continue to cite. Harris insists that objective moral values can indeed be metaphysically grounded in the flourishing of sentient creatures. You assume exactly this grounding when you write "moral concerns translate into facts about how our thoughts and behaviours affect the well-being of conscious creatures like ourselves." You can only make this statement if you accept Harris' contention that objective moral values are grounded in human flourishing. If so, then you certainly need to answer my objections to rationally maintain your position.
- July 10, 2012 10:26 AM
- Crude said...
While I'd second what the others have said here, I just wanted to say "nice to see you", and glad to see you're still writing. I'll check your site to see if there are papers I missed - you're kind of refreshing to read due to the topics you write on.
- July 10, 2012 6:48 PM
- Neil Shenvi said...
Hi Crude,
Thanks for the encouragement. I saw Steve K is here too. I guess it stands to reason that 'dangerous idea' is part of the Christian philosophers' blog circuit!
- July 10, 2012 7:34 PM
- Papalinton said...
. "But we both affirm that objective moral values exist, which was the subject of this essay."
. "Good, I'm glad you agree with the proposition that objective moral values and duties exist. That was the sole thesis of the essay and forms the second premise of the Moral Argument."
. "But my thesis in the essay is that if naturalism is true, objective moral values cannot exist."
I am as confused as you about the direction of your paper. And you have yet to respond to the findings I earlier drew to your attention, findings based on observable, empirical data drawn from a wide range of verifiable sources, anthropology, sociology, the neurosciences, psychology, etc, and from which a common collective, integrated and melding knowledge-base is emerging that simply contests the conventional wisdom of the philosophical and theological narrative. Philosophy and theology are not drivers of discovery into new knowledge, only the sciences has a demonstrable track record for enlarging humanity's commonwealth of knowledge of the world, the universe and our relationship in it. Theology and philosophy are second order functions, and if they are not scientifically informed, and remain self-separated from the sciences, they are little more than manipulative exercises hazarding to rationalise the very natural, but unlearned and deeply intuitive strata of our emotions and feelings.
The question you must satisfy in asking yourself, how can I justifiably continue to prescribe 'objective moral values' without recourse to the mounting research and increasing body of knowledge that is demonstrating how science can determine human values? Just as thunder and lightning have been shown not to be the result of an angry god as the innately intuitive response of our ancestors rationalised, so too will the moral landscape be shaped and influenced by the far greater explanatory power of empirical understanding, supplementing and enhancing our capacity to override our archaic reliance on intuition and emotion, when the evidence is counter-intuitive and shows our intuitions to be unreliable. Theology and philosophy cannot do this without being scientifically informed.
Sam Harris' work is seminal in the rethinking required to shift moral foundations from the supernatural domain to the natural domain. This work is gaining significant momentum, and insights into the scientific understanding of the instructive parameters of objective moral values and the context in which they operate, are becoming ever so clearer.
Of interest, as a scientist, how many papers have you submitted for peer review that have clearly identified the supernatural signature of creation in the field of chemistry? Indeed how many other papers are you aware of, produced from among your fellow christian scientists, that substantiate the connection between the Creator and the created? Where are the testable correlative data that establish the causative connections between the ineffable creator and the chemical constructs you peer at through the microscope?
"Can Christians believe in a young earth today? Certainly. But we should remember that it is a faith statement, and we must not consider Christians who think otherwise to be spiritually inferior. Can Christians believe in an old earth? Sure. But this is also a faith statement, and we must not consider Christians who think otherwise to be intellectually inferior."
Steve Badger: http://steve-badger.net/cfns/origins.htm
So which is it with you, Neil? As Badger rightly notes, how do you substantiate the assertion of a creator other than through the appendage of faith or intuitive attribution?
- July 10, 2012 9:06 PM
- Neil Shenvi said...
You wrote: "I am as confused as you about the direction of your paper"
Perhaps you missed the second paper to which I linked. My first essay "Do Objective Moral Values Exist?" argues that objective moral values do exist. We agree on this premise. But I then linked to a second essay "If naturalism is true, can objective moral values exist?" Here it is again:
It is about this second essay that I wrote: "my thesis in the essay is that if naturalism is true, objective moral values cannot exist. So if you want to consistently and rationally affirm naturalism and the existence of objective moral values, you need to answer my objections."
I hope this cleared up the confusion and would be interested to hear your response.
- July 10, 2012 9:12 PM
You're changing my mind, slowly but surely. Maybe we *should* engage Paps more? It's something about the way you hold your ground and don't lose focus of the point at hand... it really exposes the vacuity of Paps' ramblings. It's like watching somebody easily put someone in a headlock. I'm really enjoying watching as Paps wriggles and squirms and tries to deflect but doesn't even come close to loosening your grip.
Great work.
- July 10, 2012 9:23 PM
Then again, when I read Paps' replies, it's abundantly clear that you're not getting through to him.
So, Paps Challenge stands in my book.
- July 10, 2012 9:24 PM
Neil, so much to say, so little space.
You make the point that objective morality can't exist if naturalism is true. I don't disagree with that, but I would state further that objective morality doesn't exist at all. You make your case with examples, such as the Jewish holocaust, that virtually everyone agrees are evil. But what about the many things that are not so clear cut? There are broad grey areas where people disagree upon exactly where to draw the line between right and wrong. Even many Christians who believe that morality is objective and absolute can't agree among themselves in many cases about exactly where this line should be drawn. That being the case, I think it is absurd to maintain that morality is objective. It flies in the face of reality.
Morality is in fact circumstantial. We are all faced with situations that would challenge the notion of absolute moral objectivity. I can contrive cases where stealing or lying or even killing might be the right thing to do. Some people would agree with me, and others wouldn't. That's the point. In defense of the argument from evil, Christians assert that a perfectly moral God allows things that appear to be evil in order to bring about a greater good. Isn't that moral relativism? If not, could you please explain? After all, I'm no philosopher.
Finally, I think you have conflated moral relativism with an absence of morality. I felt rather insulted at your insistence that I, as a moral relativist, can't distinguish between good and evil, but must rely strictly on my emotions and feelings. I assure you that my morality is no less valid than yours. By the way, how would you respond if offered the hypothetical immorality pill? Would it be any different from the way I do? Aren't you really just claiming to be holier-than-thou?
- July 10, 2012 10:31 PM
- Neil Shenvi said...
Would you mind asking just one question at a time? That way, I can be sure I answer it to your satisfaction before moving on.
- July 10, 2012 10:45 PM
- Papalinton said...
Equally, I would be keen to read your response on the scientific underpinning of the understanding and growth of the empirical knowledge base of morality and moral values.
It is really the one way forward that has opened up recently following millennia of hiatus in christian thinking.
- July 10, 2012 10:56 PM
I'm not demanding anything. I just felt the need to respond to your paper. I hope it provides some food for thought. If you choose to continue a discussion, my first question was about the apparent relative morality of God.
Unfortunately, I need to sign off for the night now, but I appreciate your thoughtful reply.
- July 10, 2012 11:00 PM
- Neil Shenvi said...
"Equally, I would be keen to read your response on the scientific underpinning of the understanding and growth of the empirical knowledge base of morality and moral values."
The idea that empirical observation can lead to growth in our knowledge about morality is completely dependent on the premise that moral facts are metaphysically grounded in the flourishing of sentient creatures. This premise is false and the essay I provided explains why.
- July 10, 2012 11:15 PM
- Neil Shenvi said...
No problem. Is this the right question? You wrote: "In defense of the argument from evil, Christians assert that a perfectly moral God allows things that appear to be evil in order to bring about a greater good. Isn't that moral relativism?"
No. Moral relativism states that moral values are wholly dependent on the beliefs of human beings. As a result, nothing is objectively 'good' or 'evil'. The phrases 'good' or 'evil' are relative to individuals, communities, or cultures. I might call rape 'evil'. But some other person might call rape 'good'. Since there is no objective standard of good and evil, neither of us can claim to be right.
In contrast, Christians assert that moral values are grounded in the character of God. So actions like rape which are contrary to God's moral nature are objectively evil and actions like kindness which are consistent with his moral nature are objectively good. So the Christian view of God certainly doesn't allow for moral relativism.
With regard to your question about whether God permitting evil entails moral relativism, the answer is also no. Just because God permits evil doesn't make evil relative to the individual or culture which is the essence of moral relativism. Perhaps you're thinking along these lines: "Christians believe that God allows evil to happen. Therefore they must believe that evil is suddenly 'good' because God allows it."
But that is not what Christians believe. The Bible never calls evil 'good' even while it affirms that God brings good out of evil. A classic example is Gen. 50:20. Joseph has been sold into slavery by his brothers, languishes in prison for years, but eventually emerges, saves Egypt from a massive famine and encounters his brothers again. He says this: "you meant evil against me, but God meant it for good in order to bring about this present result, to preserve many people alive." Here we clearly see that while God uses evil for his purposes, it remains evil and contrary to his character.
If that's helpful, we can move on to your next question. If not, just let me know and I'll try to clarify.
- July 10, 2012 11:29 PM
- Papalinton said...
"The idea that empirical observation can lead to growth in our knowledge about morality is completely dependent on the premise that moral facts are metaphysically grounded in the flourishing of sentient creatures. This premise is false and the essay I provided explains why."
Yes, you indeed provide an essay. However, you seem to be under the impression your explanation is a bona fide claim. That claim is false. Your explanation, with its origins deeply rooted in supernaturalism, is a conspicuously unfounded premise with little academic merit beyond the confines of theology. And that is clearly the message I am putting before you. An apologetical explanation is not a bona fide explanation because it has no advanced standing in any investigative stream of human research and study, not in anthropology, not in psychology, not in the neuro-sciences, indeed not in any of the sciences, sociology etc etc. Even historical accounting of supernatural claims seems to indicate a singularly one-way trend that once supernatural claims have been subjected to rational and natural explanation, they cease to be supernatural. There are endless examples of this trend.
There is a fundamental disconnect and a misapprehension in your premise that theology remains the single senior service in providing an interpretive model for describing and explaining the world, the universe and our relationship in it, including and especially, morality, and this is also false. This is no less reflected in the trends of Western countries, in Western and progressively throughout Eastern Europe, Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and others, where theological explanation has been largely set aside for a better, a more consistent, a more evidential and reliable explanatory tool than religion.
Your statement quoted above, is symptomatic of the deep confusion believers struggle under, in articulating their philosophical musings. Basing their philosophy on the innate and intuitive nature of theology [a neural condition now clearly identified as 'teleological intentionality', imagining agency where no agency exists] as they do, either at the expense of or in petulant reaction against, scientific empiricism, is a loose and misguided methodology for explanation.
To be bogged in the miasma of theological discourse is an unhelpful exercise.
- July 11, 2012 4:29 AM
- Papalinton said...
Neil says, "No. Moral relativism states that moral values are wholly dependent on the beliefs of human beings. As a result, nothing is objectively 'good' or 'evil'. The phrases 'good' or 'evil' are relative to individuals, communities, or cultures. I might call rape 'evil'. But some other person might call rape 'good'. Since there is no objective standard of good and evil, neither of us can claim to be right."
So are you saying that rape is a universally acknowledged evil act under the rubric of 'objective moral values' that stand outside and independent of the beliefs of human beings?
- July 11, 2012 4:36 AM
- Neil Shenvi said...
You write: "Your explanation, with its origins deeply rooted in supernaturalism, is a conspicuously unfounded premise with little academic merit beyond the confines of theology."
No, the main argument of my second essay does not advance a supernaturalistic theory of ethics. The thesis of my essay was that if naturalism is true, then objective moral values cannot exist. My contention is that you are holding two beliefs which are incompatible:
1. Naturalism is true
2. Objective moral values exist
There is no need for you to accept the view that moral values are grounded supernaturally, since you can reject claim 2 rather than claim 1.
However, you do only have four choices:
1. Reject your belief in naturalism
2. Reject your belief in the existence of objective moral values
3. Show why the two objections, I raise in my essay are false
4. Ignore the irrationality of your position
"So are you saying that rape is a universally acknowledged evil act under the rubric of 'objective moral values' that stand outside and independent of the beliefs of human beings?"
No, of course not because rape is not universally recognized as evil, even though it is evil. You seem to be confusing moral ontology with ethics. The question we are asking is 'What does it mean for something to be good?' not 'Which particular actions are good?'
- July 11, 2012 4:49 AM
- Papalinton said...
"However, you do only have four choices:
1. Reject your belief in naturalism
2. Reject your belief in the existence of objective moral values
3. Show why the two objections, I raise in my essay are false
4. Ignore the irrationality of your position"
These are contrived choices that are couched in theological mandate. Naturalism is not a belief akin to a theological analogy. It is an outcome, a consequence of understanding the world and our relationship in it from an empirical perspective as exemplified through the sciences. Under the fresh and expansive view permeated by evidence-based maturity, and the virtue of skepticism, our highest duty, contrasted with blind faith, the one unpardonable sin, there is little in your perspective that can be construed as a reasoned argument in the four rather jejune options offered.
1. Rejection of naturalism is a return to superstitious supernaturalism, an excessively credulous belief in and reverence for supernatural beings, a thoroughly discredited primitive perspective of great inconsequence. To suggest 'the source of 'objective moral values' emanate from an ineffable spectral numen is indeed an unsophisticated and unlearned superstitious proposition.
2. 'Objective moral values' sits comfortably within the ambit of naturalism.
3. The basis on which your premises have been refuted is contained in my replies. You acknowledgement of them or otherwise is not of any concern to me.
4. One could not fail to appreciate the irony of your demand. Philosophy informed by theology is but Apologetics. One could hardly dabble in greater levels of irrationality and cognitive dissonance than Apologetics. Apologetics is the immersion into interpretation, of earlier interpretations, of previous interpretations, interpreting the meta-interpretations of the judeo-christian mythos. While believers have been submerged in their interpretative apologetics, every change in social governance since the Renaissance has been in spite of christian thinking or in reactive response to christian theism. Today, the resultant trend in the transfer of social issues such as women's health and reproductive responsibilities, homosexuality and equal marriage rights , corporate medical care etc etc, and now morality and moral values, will continue unabated, transferring from the theological to the secular humanist domain and subsequently enshrined in secular law.
It is the sensible thing to do.
- July 11, 2012 6:40 AM
- Neil Shenvi said...
I wrote that you had four choices:
1. Reject the proposition P (naturalism is true)
2. Reject the proposition Q (OMVs exist)
3. Show why it is false that P entails not-Q (which was the thesis of my essay)
4. Ignore the inconsistency of your position
In response you write: "These are contrived choices that are couched in theological mandate."
Not at all. When someone claims that P entails not-Q, then you cannot hold both P and Q and claim to be rational unless you at least engage with their argument. This hold for any belief P, Q and 'P-entails-not-Q'. It has nothing to do with theology. It is just a matter of logic and reason.
- July 11, 2012 8:50 AM
However, you do only have four choices:
4. Ignore the irrationality of your position
LOL! Sorry to double up, but LOL! I've literally never seen Paps take any other choice! Now you see why we agreed to the Paps Challenge!
- July 11, 2012 12:57 PM
- Matt DeStefano said...
Hey Neil,
I enjoyed your essay and found myself responding in the combox, but I found myself spilling over the wordcount allowances by quite a bit. I ended up writing a blog post about it: In Defense of Moral Non-Cognitivism, a Response to Neil Shenvi.
In the piece, I argue that your evidence (and considered related matters) actually better fit the non-cognitivism narrative of moral values. I think there's an unnecessary dichotomy drawn in your essay between moral realism and relativism, and I illuminate other positions that aren't as self-defeating (ontologically speaking) as relativism.
I'd be interested to hear your thoughts on the matter.
- July 11, 2012 2:23 PM
- Crude said...
It seems Neil's entirely allowing for such a reply by way of 2.
- July 11, 2012 4:44 PM
- Neil Shenvi said...
Hi Matt,
Thanks so much for your post. I thought it was a very gracious and fair treatment of my essay. I will definitely prepare a lengthy response and post it soon.
To respond briefly here, it seems to me that non-cognitivism, even if it is more philosophically tenable than moral relativism, would still have to address the points of empirical evidence I presented. Any moral anti-realist position has to provide a better explanation for the five pieces of evidence I provided than the explanation I offered: OMVs exist and we have an immediate, though fallible, perception of their existence. In that sense, non-cognitivism is in precisely the same position as any antirealist moral theory.
Alternatively, you could call into question the strength of each piece of evidence, which is primarily the approach you take in your post. But even if we were to grant the weakness of each piece of evidence independently, the cumulative strength of all the evidence could still be substantial. And even if we were to entirely dismiss all five pieces of evidence completely irrelevant (which you do not claim to do), you would still have to present a positive case for moral anti-realism.
Anyway, I will address some of your more specific claims on your blog and hopefully will be able to improve the essay based on our interaction. Thanks again!
- July 11, 2012 5:13 PM
- Victor Reppert said...
Neil: I see you're at Duke. Do you know Eric Thomson (Blue Devil Knight)?
- July 11, 2012 6:00 PM
- Neil Shenvi said...
No, I don't know him. Is this him?
If so, there's a good chance he knows my friend John Pearson, who is a neuroscientist and a deacon at my church. But I haven't run across him myself? I mainly work from home.
- July 11, 2012 6:05 PM
- Matt DeStefano said...
I'm glad you responded, and I am looking forward to a more thorough run-down. I understand your essay wasn't geared towards philosophers, but I figured I would offer some food for thought.
I'll respond briefly here to this:
Any moral anti-realist position has to provide a better explanation for the five pieces of evidence I provided than the explanation I offered: OMVs exist and we have an immediate, though fallible, perception of their existence
Evolutionary psychology supplies us with many reasons for arguing why pro-social behavior and the requisite psychology (both "beliefs" and actions) might have been selected for without supposing OMVs exist. As cultures developed and created their own social norms, it's easy to expect widespread disagreement about an array moral values while still holding on to most of the pro-social behavior that developed over the course of our evolution.
The thrust of my objection is that your essay vastly overestimated the case for "universal consensus" and that in reality this doesn't exist either in behavior or belief.
Additionally, if you are arguing that consensus serves as evidence for OMVs, then a lack of consensus ought to cast doubt upon their existence. Given a global scope, it's plain to see more instances of moral disagreement than moral agreement. So, if an anti-realist owes an explanation for moral consensus, then a realist needs to offer an explanation for the wide-ranging disagreement.
- July 11, 2012 7:14 PM
Thank you for your reply. You are most kind to address a layman like me.
I didn't understand that God gets a pass on moral accountability. I don't buy it, but I know I'm not qualified to argue the point, so I won't waste your time. I'll just leave it at that. Thanks for listening.
- July 11, 2012 7:50 PM
- Neil Shenvi said...
I responded extensively on secularoutpost. But briefly
"Evolutionary psychology supplies us with many reasons for arguing why pro-social behavior and the requisite psychology (both "beliefs" and actions) might have been selected for without supposing OMVs exist"
This is an appeal to 'group evolution' which falls prey to the free-rider problem. This is why Jerry Coyne derides 'evolutionary psychology' in the essay you cited in your post. Coyne, Dawkins, Pinker and others all reject group selection as scientifically implausible, so if you posit it as an explanation, you will need to also offer a solution to the free-rider problem.
"The thrust of my objection is that your essay vastly overestimated the case for "universal consensus" and that in reality this doesn't exist either in behavior or belief...Given a global scope, it's plain to see more instances of moral disagreement than moral agreement."
I agree that lack of moral consensus needs to be explained on moral realism just as moral consensus needs to be explained on moral anti-realism. The question is where the balance falls when it comes to moral behavior. See my response on your blog, but we may have to agree to disagree here.
Nonetheless, the existence of true altruism even in a tiny minority across all cultures (let alone as a nearly ubiquitous behavior which is demonstrated by the Science study you cited) is a major problem for moral anti-realism and for evolutionary accounts of morality.
- July 11, 2012 7:50 PM
- Neil Shenvi said...
I am a layman myself! If you'd like to continue the conversation, you're welcome to email me. Just Google my name and you'll find my contact information.
- July 11, 2012 7:55 PM
- Papalinton said...
I wrote that you had four choices:
1. Reject the proposition P (naturalism is true)
2. Reject the proposition Q (OMVs exist)
3. Show why it is false that P entails not-Q (which was the thesis of my essay)
4. Ignore the inconsistency of your position
In response you write: "These are contrived choices that are couched in theological mandate."
Not at all. When someone claims that P entails not-Q, then you cannot hold both P and Q and claim to be rational unless you at least engage with their argument. This hold for any belief P, Q and 'P-entails-not-Q'. It has nothing to do with theology. It is just a matter of logic and reason."
A couple of things:
Points 1 and 2 presuppose the validity of Point 3. Point 3 is by no means a done deal. One need not subscribe to the mutual exclusion of objective moral values and naturalism. It is perfectly reasonable to accept naturalism as true and concurrently acknowledge the possibility of 'objective moral values' as a working proposition. And as you agree, Harris makes just that proposition, albeit both of you disagreeing from where this objectivity originates. This instance alone renders your Point 3 moot. On the matter of logic and reason, these are tools of thought. They do not and cannot distinguish between false or true premises. One can still use logic and reason regardless of the truth or falsity of the initial premise. Indeed one can use logic and reason to argue a false premise and arrive at an equally false conclusion, without compromising the logic or the reasoning process.
In respect of your Point 3, that naturalism and objective moral values are mutually exclusive, it is based on very tenuous information, let alone that both your supporting arguments are based on hypothetical propositions [untested]. To append your thesis to the Rawl's 'Justice as Fairnes' experiment is a very thin and highly questionable connection by any stretch. There are critics, [I cite though I have not read] Susan Moller Okin, Allan Bloom, Kenneth Arrow, Gerald Cohen, Amartya Sen, etc showing that Rawl's contribution is not without its faults. It is understood that in light of the numerous philosophical criticisms, Rawls has made significant and substantial modifications to his theory, brought out in 'Justice of Fairness: A Restatement''. What I cannot find is the specific claim in the Rawlsian justice experiment that objective moral values are anathema to naturalism.
Searle's Chinese Room experiment equally contributes little to supporting your Point 3 claim apart from personal proclivity and interpretation. And ironically, " Searle holds a philosophical position he calls "biological naturalism": that consciousness and understanding require specific biological machinery that is found in brains. He writes "brains cause minds" and that "actual human mental phenomena [are] dependent on actual physical-chemical properties of actual human brains". [Wiki]
Again I cannot locate reference to naturalism and objective moral values as mutually exclusive concepts.
- July 11, 2012 9:17 PM
- Neil Shenvi said...
I wrote: "3. Show why it is false that P entails not-Q (which was the thesis of my essay)"
You responded:
"Harris makes just that proposition [that OMVs and naturalism are compatible]... This instance alone renders your Point 3 moot"
No, unless you are making a bare appeal to authority. The fact that Harris thinks that OMVs and naturalism are compatible does not prove that they are actually compatible. He also might think that Eastern Monism and Caterian dualism are compatible; that doesn't mean that they are.
I asked you to read my essay and show why my arguments are false. If you would like to do so, I would still be interested to hear your response.
- July 11, 2012 9:26 PM
- Papalinton said...
- This comment has been removed by the author.
- July 11, 2012 11:19 PM
- Papalinton said...
Your premise is false. Where do your Rawls and Searle propositions make the connection of naturalism and OMV as mistaken?
If, as you claim, Searle is right in support of your argument, then you would need to respond to Dennett's proposition, in defense of your Point 3, "Suppose that, by some mutation, a human being is born that does not have Searle's "causal properties" but nevertheless acts exactly like a human being. (This sort of animal is called a "zombie" in thought experiments in the philosophy of mind). This new animal would reproduce just as any other human and eventually there would be more of these zombies. Natural selection would favor the zombies, since their design is (we could suppose) a bit simpler. Eventually the humans would die out. So therefore, if Searle is right, it's most likely that human beings (as we see them today) are actually "zombies," who nevertheless insist they are conscious. This suggests it's unlikely that Searle's "causal properties" would have ever evolved in the first place."
Pinker also notes in the paper, " ... that Searle relies on untutored intuitions."
"Hans Moravec, director of the Robotics laboratory at Carnegie Mellon University, and author of Robot: Mere Machine to Transcendent Mind, argues that Searle's position merely reflects intuitions from traditional philosophy of mind that are out of step with the new cognitive science."
Neil, you might wish to read this paper as it contextualises the Searle experiment in its proper setting at: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2004/entries/chinese-room/
Your co-option of Searle in support of your Point 3 contention simply does not add up.
Notwithstanding the issues that I have outlaid, your illustration of the Searle robot as an unthinking example akin to naturalism, is a somewhat egregious and spurious instance of sequestering one small segment, of the full explanatory treatise, in support of your Point 3. Your idiosyncratic reasons for this acontextual use of Searle is neither acceptable nor justified.
You say, "The fact that Harris thinks that OMVs and naturalism are compatible does not prove that they are actually compatible."
You have yet to read Harris's 'The Moral Landscape', then.
It is interesting to note what Sir Harold (Harry) Walter Kroto, FRS, the Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry at Florida State University, and a shared winner of the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, has to say about the role of science in society:
"The methods of science are manifestly effective, having made massive humanitarian contributions to society. It is this very effectiveness which the purveyors of mystical philosophies attack, because they recognise in it the chief threat to the belief-based source of their power and financial reward."
As a fellow chemist but a believing christian, am I correct in saying that you would disagree with this statement?
- July 12, 2012 1:12 AM


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3D Disco in NewcastleMar 17
The Novak Collective are rolling out 3D Disco for a rare showing in their home town of Newcastle- a night of audio/visual/dance fun wearing those retro red and blue 3D specs!
I learnt of their events at the SuperTelly tech-meet (a SuperMondays / Telly.net joint event), and finally get to experience it; their promo video blew me away- the 3D effect was brilliantly strong and they certainly know what they're doing with the tunes.
Here's what it's all about:
See also: Novak Collective's YouTube channel and their MySpace page. Check out the past event photos too!… how much fun?!
The night marks the closing of Newcastle Science Fest. Tickets are £10. More details here.
I'll also give me great op to wear my 3D T-Shirt!

subset: commoncrawl


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The Library System is proud to work with over 900 teen volunteers every year who provide programs and assist with book sales, clerical tasks and shelving. Our youth service librarians offer teen programs on college applications and scholarships across the System and through eCampus. Aerionna Stephenson is a Palmetto Library teen volunteer and a recent graduate from Our Lady of Mercy Catholic High School. In January, she received a full tuition academic merit scholarship from The Posse Foundation, Inc., a national scholarship program that started in New York in 1989 and has now branched into 23 states, including Georgia. According to www.possefoundation.org, "Posse identifies public high school students with extraordinary academic and leadership potential who may be overlooked by traditional college selection processes. Posse extends to these students the opportunity to pursue personal and academic excellence by placing them in supportive, multicultural teams-Posses-of 10 students." The program's approach has proven successful with a 90% graduation rate. The scholarship has a three round interview process and while 1,500 students were nominated in Atlanta, only 60 students were chosen, including Aerionna, to receive the full tuition, four year scholarship. In a few weeks, she will join 900+ other first year students attending Brandeis University which is a private research university nine miles west of Boston located in Waltham, Massachusetts. We are truly grateful to Aerionna for serving over 50 hours this past year at the Friends of the Palmetto Library Book Store and wish her all the best in college.
If you or a teen you know is interested in donating time and talent at the library, please go to our website to print, complete and return a teen volunteer application to firstname.lastname@example.com or call 404-730-1963.


text:
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for all your drinks needs!
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25 year old single malt Scotch whisky from the Allt-á-Bhainne distillery, independently bottled by the wonderful Douglas Laing. It was matured in a refill hogshead from February 1993 to February 2018, then bottled with an outturn of 252 bottles.
Nose: Heavy vanilla, banana fritters, honey and barley.
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Finish: Baking spices develop with a touch of citrus.
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Flowers are beautiful. They are colourful and have a pleasant aroma that most people love, they can provide a touch of green in an otherwise bland office setting,but flowers, surprisingly, can do more than that. It may seem unbelievable but having a vase of freshly-cut flowers in your workplace can actually increase your productivity!
Banish the Early-Morning Blahs
The benefits of fresh flowers on your workplace productivity begin before you even leave the house. Studies show that emotions like happiness and satisfaction do not usually arrive till later in the day. But if you look at fresh flowers first thing in the morning, it kickstarts your endorphins, the brain's feel-good chemicals, and before you know it, you are feeling more happy and positive.
Erase the Anxiety
Flowers in the workplace can also have a calming effect. They have been shown to decrease anxiety, negativity and depression and to promote calmness, happiness and goodwill toward others. As a bonus, they also may improve memory. This way, you will not be as likely to forget your passwords, what report you were supposed to hand in, and when the next office meeting is, thereby decreasing stress.
Promote Creativity
The productivity-boosting effects of flowers do not just stop there! They are also wonderful at promoting creativity. Those who worked with flowers in their office showed an increase in innovative thinking and new ideas. They also were much better at coming up with original solutions for thorny problems.
Feeling Comfortable
Finally, study participants said that flowers made their offices feel more comfortable. This is very important, because as everyone knows, when your workplace is more comfortable, your productivity tends to increase.
Flowers can help you be much more productive. They can improve your mood, lower your anxiety levels, help you think more creatively and swat away your morning blahs, and the benefits are long-lasting for a relatively low cost. They make most people happy. You cannot go wrong. If you need a place to find great flowers, I recommend Flowers for Everyone. They offer flower delivery in Sydney. They also have an excellent range of fresh flowers to choose from. So the next time you have a bad case of the blahs, or if your stress is climbing steadily through the roof, think of setting aside a few minutes to order a vase of flowers, either for yourself or a co-worker.


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October 24, 2012
Fairfax sophomore Charlotte Duke (4) scored the only goal in a 1-0 victory against Lake Braddock in the first round of regionals on Oct. 23 at Fairfax High School.
Stories this photo appears in:
Fairfax Field Hockey Beats Lake Braddock in Regionals
Sophomore Duke scores lone goal for Rebels.
The Fairfax field hockey team defeated Lake Braddock, 1-0, in the opening round of the Northern Region Tournament on Oct. 23.
Use the comment form below to begin a discussion about this content.


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Great Beer
Over the last few years Scotland has seen a renaissance in the number of small breweries producing cask conditioned or 'real' ales. A good number of these breweries can be found in the Scottish Highlands and Islands. Since opening in 1994, The Grog & Gruel has aimed to bring you the biggest and best range of these beers possible.
The range of ales on sale varies with availability and the level of trade, but we always hope to have the best selection of ales in Fort William, if not the Highlands, for you to try.
Beer festivals are held on a number of occasions throughout the year. We try to keep a range of 8 or so beers and will also introduce a few new beers during our festivals.
Award Winning
Our efforts over the years have not gone unnoticed. We're regular winners of CAMRA's Best Pub in the region, and in 2005 were awarded Les Routiers' Best Real Pub in Scotland. We are members of Cask Marque, and regularly enjoy high marks for the quality of our cask ales.
Persistence & Consistency
When we opened in 1994, all those years ago, we 'd be struggling to bring you ten Scottish beers worthy of recognition. However, despite claims that the beer market has been in decline for the last few years, there's now dozens of Scottish breweries on the scene, all producing some excellent beers.
Our policy is based on trying to bring a wide selection of beers whilst maintaining quality and value for money.
Whilst occasional appearances may be made by different breweries, one-off purchases can be expensive for both the supplier and retailer. We therefore prefer to deal with a reasonable number of predominantly Scottish breweries and thereby still bring variety, quality and consistency.
The range will vary, as will the number on sale at any one time. Don't complain if there's not as many as you'd like. When it's quiet, quality is more important than quantity.
If unfamiliar with our ales on offer, ask for a sample before you buy. Unlike some establishments, we'll gladly let you try before you buy.
Featured Ales
Over the years we've featured literally hundreds of ales – you'll see many of the badges adorning the gantry in the alehouse. We can't list them all, but on we've added some of favourites and our regulars on the web pages to whet your appetite.
Featured Items
General Assistants
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Grog Gifts
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Eat at The Grog & Gruel Whatever you are looking for, The Grog & Gruel is a great place to…


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Chiropractor Lakewood Healthcare for All Ages
Welcome to Sound Body Chiropractic and Wellness!
"I believe in a sound mind, a sound body and a spirit that is not afraid." Our practice philosophy is centered around restoring the movement to your body so that you can get more out of life and enjoy the things you love.
When the joints of the body are functioning improperly, it can result in degeneration and pain. The goal at Sound Body Chiropractic and Wellness is to give you back the mobility you were intended to enjoy so that you can play with your grandchildren, run a 5K or simply wake up in the morning without discomfort.
Relieving Pain and Staying Well
Everyone in our community, from children to seniors, can benefit from our natural form of health care. Dr. Halvorson works with babies, moms, athletes and even challenging cases such as chronic pain that has been present for years.
Chiropractic care is a hands-on form of natural healing that is designed to help your body be in proper alignment so that your joints can move properly and you can be as active as you'd like to be. With each visit, we hope that when you leave, you feel better than when you came in.
Addressing Your Head-to-Toe Health
Dr. Halvorson is well-versed in several different chiropractic techniques, ensuring that we have an approach that will suit your individual needs. He is certified in Functional and Kinetic Treatment with Rehab (FAKTR) and Webster Technique for your entire pregnancy, pre- and postpartum.
By incorporating personalized nutritional recommendations into your life, you can find relief from complex conditions such as autoimmune diseases and cardiovascular disease. Your chiropractor in Lakewood, Dr. Halvorson welcomes the opportunity to discover what he can do for you. Contact Sound Body Chiropractic and Wellness today!


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According to HOPEFORNIGERIA, The
leader of All Progressive Congress (APC),
Senator Bola Ahmed Tinubu has denied
the reports especially the pictures being
circulated by the APC media and the
presidency claiming that he and Bisi
Akande the chairman APC Board of
Trustees paid a courtesy visit to the
Nigerian ailing President, Muhammadu
Buhari in London.
Alhaji Tinubu according to Hope For
Nigeria was shocked by the visibly
photoshopped pictures clarified at his
Bourdillon residence in Ikoyi Lagos that
he did not travel to the United Kingdom
and there was no way he should have
seen President Buhari.
The APC leader added that he was
surprised and aghast to see his pictures
alongside Bisis Akande and Buhari
stating that he was at Ibadan on the said
day to attend to some personal matters
and came back to Lagos the following
day only to be surprised with the news
all over the media.
"I did not travel to
London or anywhere outside the
country" quoted Tinubu.
Tinubu continued by saying that, "What
surprised me most was the pictures
published and spreading all over the
social media showing myself and Akande
with Buhari in London. I didn't travel
out of the country so the question is
where did these pictures emanate from?
"The presidential aides are not living up
to their expectations in handling
information relating to the president's
health, Tinubu said. I see nothing wrong
in someone falling sick after all we are
all humans and not machines, even
machines do breakdown"
The presidential aides have left room for
rumours and grapevines to thrive
regarding the president vacation with
conflicting statements and
Recently some state governors called for
prayers for the president. Also the wife
of the president Mrs Aisha Buhari thank
all Nigerians for their support and
goodwill as reported by Thisday.
You will recalled that pictures of Tinubu
and Akande visiting Buhari in London
was all over the social media. this was to
prove to Nigerians that president Buhari
is hail and hearty. But Lagos Herald had
earlier published the truth about the
president health and situation report
which non of the presidential aides has
come out to deny
It was reported that President Buhari is
currently at the Intensive Care Unit
( ITU) of Kings College Hospital Denmark
Hill, London.
According to Hope For Nigeria, the mafia
holding President Buhari hostage has
ensure that Nigerians including high
ranking government officials are not
allowed to see the sick Nigerian leader
and resorts to sending fake pictures and
letters purported to have been written
by President Buhari.
source: weeklypostng


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text:
Summary of Week 6
This week we've looked at legal reasoning, focussing on three important aspects of such reasoning which connect to broader themes in logical and critical thinking.
We've described reasoning by analogy, a non-deductive argument form which allows us to draw conclusions about some new case or situation - will my new car (probably) be reliable, was Double Falsehood (probably) written by William Shakespeare - on the basis of relevant similarities between the new case and other cases with which we are already familiar. We reason this way all the time, but such reasoning is essential to the law, where it lies at the heart of the process by which judges decide whether principles established in some cases apply to other, new, cases.
We also saw that appeals to authority, which we might properly treat with suspicion in most contexts - since they suggest that an arguer is not using their own critical thinking skills - might be justified in the law, because the consideration such as certainty gives even good critical thinkers reason to treat some decisions as authoritative. Law's particular attitude to authority can help us see why and when appeals to authority might be legitimate outside the law too.
Many of us will be most familiar with the idea of the burden of proof because of its role in legal reasoning. Examining the nature of the role of the burden of proof in law is useful for understating its role - and its limitations - outside the law as well.
And our important tendency to understand fairness either 'historically' or 'substantively' is also usefully examined in the law, where it features particularly clearly.
Understanding legal reasoning is important in its own right, but it also enriches our understanding of logical and critical thinking more generally.
© Tim Dare, University of Auckland


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Sarang Plus Hospital is one of the well-known specializing joint and spine hospitals in Korea.
CEO and Orthopedic Surgeon
The Samsung Medical Center plans to achieve medical innovation in the future to promote the happiness of patients and develop into a global hub of biohealth care study and link the industry by connecting to hospital-R&D Center-school and enterprises.
Yonsei University Health System (YUHS) was founded in 1885 as the first modern medical institution in Korea by the American medical missionary, Dr. Horace N. Allen.
This information is intended for general information only and should not be considered as medical advice on the part of Health-Tourism.com. Any decision on medical treatments, after-care or recovery should be done solely upon proper consultation and advice of a qualified physician.
What is Hand Surgery?
Hand surgery is a medical procedure that treats disorders of the hand, wrist and forearm. The hand is an important part of the body, without it, most functions would become impossible for a person. A hand surgeon is trained to correct any disorder that prevents normal function. This can be achieved through both surgical and non-surgical means.
The diagnosis of the hand will involve taking patients medical history. In addition, the diagnosing physician may require the patient to perform some light exercises. This is important in assessing the range of motion. It allows the doctor to determine which tendons and muscles are injured.
In the case of injury, the doctor may order a wound culture. This is necessary especially if the injury was due to a bite. It helps eliminate other illnesses such as rabbis. The doctor also gently palpates the hand. This is in order to determine the extent of the injury; a broken bone is usually tender to touch.
He or she may also perform a needle prick test. The doctor will prick the hand at various points with a sterile needle to determine sensation. This test is conducted in order to determine if there have been any nerve damage.
Other tests that are performed are an x-ray scan. In addition, a Doppler flowmeter test can be conducted. This test determines if there is any blood flow in the hand. It helps to determine if the tissues have too badly affected and have started dying off.
In some cases, surgery is not performed. He doctor may give the patient corticosteroid injections to ease swellings. In the case of physical injury, the patient will also be given antibacterial medication to ward off infections. The hand is usually tied in bandages to restrict movement.
This is done in order to allow the bone fractures time to heal. In addition, the tendons and ligaments need time to heal without being exposed to vigorous movement. In most cases, the hand is placed in a suspended state, to prevent use.
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Are YOU spectatoring during sex? The consequences of spectatoring can be a problem for your sex life — making sexual arousal and orgasm difficult. Take this short test (5 min) and find out whether you are spectatoring. And get tips and suggestions on what to do about it if you are.
[formcraft id='9′]
What is the definition of spectatoring? This term refers to how we split our erotic focus and worry or think about our body or our performance during sex. It is as if you are "watching" yourself have sex, instead of being in your own body enjoying the sensations and erotic thoughts needed for arousal and orgasm.


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From: $320.00
Our Multi Pitch Climbing trip is a great way for you to learn to climb with Zions' only comprehensive guide service and instructional school. Our local climbing guides are passionate about climbing in the Zion area. All our guides are passionate, safety conscious rock climbers who are excited to share their knowledge with you.
Our passion is climbing and we look forward to passing on our expertise to help you become a safer and more efficient climber. This trip is all about you, so you have to ability to customize the multi pitch climb how you see fit and according to your specific skill and ability level.
The actual Multi Pitch Climbing Course runs from 6-7 hours.
You should be ready for some light hiking to get to the crag (less than 1 hour). We recommend you wear comfortable hiking shoes to wear to get to the climbing area. Then it's time to crush some rocks! Your guide will provide you with any needed gear prior to your trip. You should remember to bring plenty of water and some snacks or a lunch for the day.
We want to accommodate you, so all our trips are private. As a result, start times can be adjusted around your travel plans and you will never be grouped with others unless requested.
Price Per Person
8.05% sales tax added at checkout
If you are booking online, please call the shop first to make sure the date is available: 435-319-0313
Meet your guide at your specified time, stated in your confirmation email, at our Store Location in the center of Springdale, UT. If you do not have any personal equipment, your guide will outfit you with the necessary technical equipment.
A short 1/2 Mile hike will get you to the base. Your guide will provide a thorough ground school to equip you with the appropriate knowledge needed to safely and efficiently climb in the multi-pitch realm.
After safely reaching the summit, your guide will lead you through a short-roping descent or zip down the ropes and rappel the route. Hike back to car and drive back to the shop.
Gear ZMS can Provide
Gear You Provide
A good instructional video from one of our partners.
Springdale, UT is located in the heart of Zion Canyon. ZMS is located in the heart of Springdale, UT.
Best option is to fly into Vegas, NV, and either drive or hire a shuttle to drop you off in Springdale, UT.
Both the town of Springdale and Zion National Park offer free propane powered shuttle systems that can drop you off in town or at any spot in the main canyon. This enables you to travel to the area without need of renting a car.
Cost Includes
Not Included
Registration & Cancellation
Advanced registration is required to secure your private guide. We have a limited amount of guides and book up regularly. Feel free to call our store during business hours to book, or simply book online if you're ready to secure your date.
All participants must read and fill out our Online Medical Waiver & Liability Waiver HERE
Please review our Cancellation Policy HERE
© 2020 Zion Mountaineering School.


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Pandemonium In Ikorodu: As Residents Anticipate Cultists Attack Today
There is tension across settlements in Odogunyan town of Ikorodu North Council Area of Lagos State, over anticipated bloody clash between rival cult groups tomorrow.
Investigation revealed that the anticipated terror is in connection with planned commemoration of
a day tagged "Eight – Eight".
"Eight – Eight", the eight day of the eight month of the year according to some residents of
Odogunyan town, is day noted for reprisal attacks among cultists.
Inhabitants of communities along the boundary of Lagos and Ogun state via Ikorodu such as
Odo-kekere, Ogijo, Ita-Oliwo and others have therefore appealed to Governor Akinwunmi Ambode and his Ogun State counterpart to ensure heavy presence of security operatives in the area to forestall possible breach of public peace.
You will recall that some innocent residents of Fakale and Ogijo which were neighbouring towns of Odogunyan lost their lives a month ago when cultists marked the "Seven – Seven" day.
Naijanewsrave Correspondent reports that town criers went round some settlements urging residents to stay indoor while some holiday coaching centres in Odogunyan town announced closure on Monday
and Tuesday for safety.


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Once again, after 01:09:14 hours, the radiant victor was Fraol Lencho Holjira. He is a native of Ethiopia and working in our production. This victory represents a successful comeback to his previous glory after a long recovery from an injury. Together with his team mates Stephan Gersching (01:23:22 hours) and Christian Pickel (01:24:00 hours) from the triathlon team, the team victory also went to Memmert.
The secret star of the event however, was Engles Shenkutie Mekonnen (production), who only started doing sports when he joined the weekly company run last summer, because in his home country Ethiopia, people only run professionally to survive or not at all. Here in Germany however, he discovered the fun in running as a hobby. Nevertheless, his genes from the East African highlands could not be overseen as he effortlessly finished his first half-marathon in 01:24:57 hours.
Wolfgang Wenny (R&D), together with his team and work colleague Hannes Rupprecht (customisation) also ran the long distance of 21.095 km for the first time.
The only runner in the hobby race was the newest member of the Memmert family Ralph Wild (logistics), who ran 9.5 km in 42:32 min.
Other triathletes from our company came in among the best third of the total of 600 participants: Benjamin Koehler (01:27:54 hours) was followed by Gregor Stützinger (head of customisation, testing and service) who completed the race in 01:35:49 hours, followed by Benedikt Spangenberg (R&D) in 01:40:57 hours and Gabi Weiß with 01:43:27 hours.
Ralf Achtnicht (R&D), who completed the race in 01:53:16 hours had eagerly helped the host "LA CARRERA TRITEAM" with the preparations in the morning, and we would like to take this opportunity to express our praise and gratitude for this event, which was, once again, a full success!


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As measles cases rise, anti-vaccine activists are becoming defensive (The New York Times). We spoke to vaccine expert Walter Orenstein, MD, about how to talk to parents about shots.
The ACA could mean tax headaches for millions this year, and the Obama administration is trying to minimize those, the Times reports.
Citing the large drop in the number of new Ebola cases in Liberia, Chimerix will stop participating in trials of its drug brincidofovir for the virus. Meanwhile, a British military healthcare worker is being tested for Ebola after a needle stick, and companies are looking at other vaccine options.
A group of authors including Yale's Harlan Krumholz, MD, had a paper retracted from The Lancet for a statistical error. Krumholz describes what happened.
"When I signed up for that clinical trial, I was putting my health at risk and exposing my life to examination only for the benefit of one pharmaceutical company's sales or one professor's publication record." With a satirical quote, Stuart Buck argues that more clinical trial data should be shared.
Snowbirds beware: doctors in Florida order far more tests on retirees than do doctors in other states, according to the Times.
There's good news from about MRSA, this time from the VA, says Eli Perencevich, MD.
Carl Djerassi, whose work was key to developing the birth control pill, has died at 91.
When caregivers need to pay for medical costs, some of them turn to crowdfunding sites, the New York Times reports.
Christian Healthcare Ministries isn't an insurance company, and won't cover pregnancies outside of wedlock, but with membership starting at just $45 per month, it's gaining popularity (New York Times).
Happy ending for former Navy physician who wrote prescriptions to himself and did time in solitary confinement.
What should a family do if Dad wants to die when pain from his pancreatic cancer becomes too much?
Advocates are pushing UK authorities to approve "three parent" IVF.
Morning Break is a daily guide to what's new and interesting on the Web for healthcare professionals, powered by the MedPage Today community. Got a tip? Send it to us: email@example.com.


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Every year, the Rétromobile in Paris is the prelude to the international vintage car fairs. Although it is not the largest trade fair in the world, it stands out because of the very special flair of the exhibitors. Here, the creme de la creme of international traders is presented together with the French Savoir Vivre. Of course, the French brands attended the special exhibitions, but the visitors, interested in the sales, were able to enjoy a very exclusive selection of vehicles. After only a few hours, the first sales signs were found on many of the vehicles.
Just in time for the 70th anniversary of Ferrari, some real Ferrari rarities were to be found at the fair. Early Ferrari racing genes are owned by the 1931 Alfa Romeo 8C Zagato Spider from the Scuderia Ferrari, which was driven by Novulari in some races. On the stand of J.D Classics, the Ferrari 250 MM Vignale Spyder shone, next to the Fiskens Formula 1 Ferrari 312 T3, which was once piloted by Reutemann and Villeneuve.
Lovers of rare Formula 1 vehicles came to the booth of Tradex and Methusalem this year. Among the displayed cars was the Ferrari 312 B2, which the factory drivers Andretti, Ickxs and Regazzoni contested the 1971 season, next to two copies of the Ferrari 312 B3. A highlight was also the 1964 Ferrari 1512, the first F1 Ferrari equipped with a V8 engine. Richard Mille also showed some real rarities from Formula 1 racing history. Including the three-axle Tyrell P34, which won the Grand Prix of Sweden in 1976. Directly opposite was the three-axle March 2-4-0 of 1977. All-wheel drive was presented by the 969 Crosworth F1 4WD, which was once driven by Jackie Stewart and Trevor Taylor. The McLaren M9A also proved very successful with its four-wheel drive technology. The 1969 Lotus 63 was once driven by Colin Chapman.
Racing genes also appeared at Ascott Collection. Including the BMW 3.0 CSL Group 2, a McLaren Can-Am racing car from the 1960s and a replica of the Kremer Porsche 917, which took place in Le Mans in 1981. At William I'Anson LTD, there was a Lotus Eleven next to the Chevron B16.
Once, six Delage 15 S8 Grand Prix vehicles were built for racing. At this year's Retromobile alone, five of these vehicles were on display.
The Rétromobile is also the hub for lovers of historical supercars and sports cars. At the booth of Kienle Automobiltechnik, the visitors of the Rétromobile could admire the Mercedes-Benz CLK GTR. A Bugatti EB110was exhibited at Movendi. Both are upcoming classics, which are already a real investment. The Italian sports cars from the 1960s and 1970s are led by the Italian brands. Ferrari, Maserati and Lamborghini formed the spearhead of the offers. Sport cars like the Lamborghini Jalpa or Urraco, which have not yet been noticed, now stand at the exclusive dealerships and are experiencing a significant increase in value. The Countach is particularly popular. The yellow Countach, shown at Fiskens stand, was always surrounded by visitors. Also Alfa Romeo rarities were to be found. The Alfa Romeo G1 is one of the most important vehicles in the history Enzo Ferrari, he had contributed significantly to this project. Today only one of these vehicles is left and was to be seen this year on the Rétromobile. Next to it was the unique Alfa Romeo Superflow Pininfarina built in 1960.
Of course the exclusive French brands were not to be missed at the show. And here, too, there were some very unique specimens to admire, such as the Talbot Lago Teardrop Coupé with Figoni and Falaschi bodywork or the Peugeot 402 DS with its equally aerodynamic appearance. The shape of the Voisin C28 Aerosport from 1935 is very impressive. The Bugatti shown with the Figoni and Falaschi Teardrop bodywork was also very attractive. Also this year, the Bugattis were the leading French brand. Lukas Hüni put the Bugattis in the comparison to Walter Owens Bentleys. Including the Blower Bentley "Old No. 2". The sporty and elegant Bugattis were in an absolute contrast.
Sporty elegance was also evident in the Packard 645 DeLuxe Sport Phaeton from 1929, which was shown at the booth of Axel Schuette. Also some German dealers were present. For the first time Arthur Bechtel had a booth at the Retromobile in Paris and was very satisfied. HK Engineering, Mechatronics and also Brabus were represent. The German dealers mainly showed Mercedes Benz vehicles. Although several Porsche 911 models could be seen on the Retromobile this year, their number was very limited.
PHOTOS: ©Kay MacKenneth /Classic-Car.TV


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Letter to the English Churchman on Hooker Sir: Allan Clifford's 'objections' to Dr Beckwith's evaluation of Hooker are invalid. Beckwith defended Hooker against the London Temple attacks of Travers and Cartwright. Dr. Clifford ignores the entire debate, exchanging Beckwith's real-life Hooker/Travers/Cartwright history for a Church of England/Calvin fairy-story. Cartwright zigzagged on the Church of England-Separatist border but maintained his Church of England status and ordination. Unlike Hooker, he viewed church reform as material for the courts and Parliament rather than church-centred discussion and Convocation. Cartwright imagined that bishops should merely preach, pray and ordain those chosen… Full Article
Posts Tagged Separatist
Nov 12
Clifford on Schism
Oct 24
This letter was sent to the English Churchman after reading an ill-informed letter of Dr. Alan Clifford defending certain sixteenth and seventeenth century schisms from the English Reformed Church. Sir: Dr Clifford's habit of ridiculing sound arguments (see Issue 7710) as 'vendettas' and 'pompous' and contradicting them with fiction, half-truths and wishful-thinking merely fosters division. His astonishment at Robert Law's views concerning Seceders arises from his insufficient knowledge of our Reformers and pre-Commonwealth Puritans who were strictly against Secession. The Dutch, Swiss, German, Italian, French, Hungarian and Polish Reformed churches viewed the English Church as exemplary as witnessed… Full Article


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Fayetteville, Ark. Despite a first-set loss and big deficit in the second, Kansas University rallied for a 3-2 volleyball victory over Arkansas on Thursday inside Barnhill Arena.
Fifth-year senior Catherine Carmichael had a career-high 19 kills in the Jayhawks' 27-29, 25-22, 19-25, 25-17, 15-10 victory.
"We felt like we were in control in the first set and the third set, and those are the two we ended up losing," KU coach Ray Bechard said. "Down 2-1 against a good team on the road, everyone contributed. I'm pretty proud of that effort. Hopefully, we can learn a lot. I think you need to be in a five-set situation on the road to really know what that feels like. It was good for us not only to experience it, but also to get a good result."
The Jayhawks (4-1) lost the first set and trailed, 11-3, in the second before rallying with a 11-3 run of their own.
Junior outside hitter Sara McClinton had 14 kills, while fifth-year senior middle blocker Caroline Jarmoc contributed eight blocks against Arkansas (3-2).
Sophomore outside hitter Tiana Dockery finished the night a kill shy of a double-double with nine kills and 10 digs, while adding a season-high seven blocks.
Erin McNorton had a season-high 51 assists and eight digs.
Seniors Brianne Riley and Jaime Mathieu held it down in the back row.
Riley came up with a season-high 24 digs, and Mathieu had 11.
The Jayhawks will play host to Arkansas at 1 p.m. Saturday at Horejsi Center.
take that SEC! great win on the road Jayhawks! let's sweep 'em this Saturday. :)
Sweeeet Caroliiiine! Bah... bah... baaaaaaah!
I'm really happy for these ladies. I see some bigger successes for them soon. Also, a shout to women's track, who are defending National Champions.
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- Description
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Midland Arts Association uses Texas as theme for spring juried exhibition
Area artists came together for Midland Arts Association's annual showcase and focused their talents on the Lone Star State. "Texas Artists Today" features an impressive collection of works displaying participating artists' views on Texas. Landscapes, portraits and modern pieces all tell different tales.
The show at the Museum of the Southwest was juried by Houston-based fine arts writer Catherine Anspon of Papercity magazine. She discovered a marked passion for art here in West Texas.
"The resulting exhibition takes the temperature of art-making in West Texas, and also discovers certain themes, affinities so to speak, among the works selected. These are intriguing, and often unexpected, and consequently the show is organized and installed around these motifs: the Myth of the West, Surrealism, American Dreams, Land and Food, and The Power of the Portrait," Anspon wrote on the museum's website.
The exhibition featured close to 200 submissions by 68 artists. As she juried the show, Anspon mentioned looking for works that reflected a unique vision and the sense of authenticity mixed with elements of wonder. Anspon also searched for a sense of dialogue between the artist and the theme.
Chairing the show were Diane Newland and artist Sara Drescher Braswell. Drawing from the host venue itself for the show's theme, Braswell said the entries lend themselves perfectly to the museum's mission. And Braswell remarked how the show brought artists together inherently speaking the same voice.
"The works that were submitted were from all over the state and from artists of all walks of life," she said in a phone interview. "The work was diverse and of high quality. Of course, we expected no less from Texas artists."
Anspon also commented on the importance of the museum to this show.
"I really appreciate the vision here and the work they are doing to bring different voices of art to Midland," she added. "And the staff here works together so nicely. I love how they came together for their other exhibit."
Anspon refers to "Favoritism," which is a collection of staff favorites that recently opened. From the security team to staff members of the other museums on campus, the exhibit is an additional show that features museum acquisitions that speak to the staff.
Both Anspon and Braswell note how important art is to Midland, but as a local artist, Braswell offered some added appreciation.
"This exhibit is important for artists and Midland because it is a way to be exposed to different viewpoints from places and people that would normally be far away and unattainable. It is a great way to stretch our viewpoints on art and the human condition," she said.
Texas Artists Today on display at Museum of the Southwest, 1705 W. Missouri Ave. through June 1. Museumsw.org.


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An essential component to promoting the Turks & Caicos National Trust and keeping visitors and residents informed about the opportunities to learn and support the culture and heritage of the islands are the different marketing outlets. The National Trust is happy to be working with and very grateful to be receiving support from the following:
(click the logos for website links)
Receive this definitive guide to the Turks & Caicos on most inbound flights to Providenciales or pick it up at the IGA Supermarket locations on island. Read 'Exploring the Islands with the Turks & Caicos National Trust' here:
Discover Magazine 2016.pdf
Copyright: Turks and Caicos National Trust (1992-2016)


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Hi-Tech Pharm
About Hi-tech Pharm
Hi-tech Pharm, Inc. Is A Georgia Corporation Based Just North Of Atlanta, In The City Of Norcross. Hi-tech Pharm Was Founded In 1994 And Has Grown To Be An Industry Leader. hi-tech Pharm Is An Enormously Successful Company That Creates, Manufactures And Sells High-quality Herbal Products Sold By The Large, Major Retailers Across The United States. These Retailers Include: Gnc, Rite Aid, Kroger, Albertson's, Cvs, Duane Reade, Hannaford, Cardinal Health, Harmon Stores, Fred Meyer, Osco Drugs, Supervalu, Roundy's, Walgreens, Sav-on Drugs, Meijer, Fruth Pharmacy, Kinney Drug, Kinray, Usa Drugs, A&p, Kmart, Walgreens.com, Target.com, Amazon.com, Drugstore.com, Over 5,000 Health Food Retailers And Adult Novelty Stores, As Well As In More Than 80,000 Convenience Stores Throughout The United States.
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Jim Carrey has found himself at the centre of backlash from fans after remarking to a female journalist during an interview that she's the only thing left on his "bucket list."
The 58-year-old actor was chatting to Heat magazine's Charlotte Long about his new movie Sonic the Hedgehog when she asked him: "In the film, Sonic has a bucket list, I was wondering, after all you've done in your career and in your life, is there anything still left on your bucket list?"
tap here to see other videos from our team.
"Just you," Carrey replied. "That's it, it's all done now."
When Long laughed and commented that she didn't "know what to say to that," Carrey responded: "Just own it."
After Long shared a full video of the interview on her Twitter page, she was inundated with messages from her followers slamming "sleazy" Carrey for the remark. (She has since made her account private.
"Look up 'sleazeball' in the dictionary and there's a photo of @jimcarrey," one person replied.
"Such a huge (fan) of @jimcarrey but lost respect for him today," another person wrote. "This is really unacceptable, I wish and hope he apologizes to you. But you handled it really well, more power to you!"
"Whyyy is this kind of thing still going on? Well handled, you're a legend," a third wrote.
Others defended Carrey as they insisted the comment was made as a joke.
In the interview, Long went on to ask the actor: "What's been your best bucket list moment in your life, when you look back as something you always wanted to achieve and you did it, and you think, 'Wow. I can't believe I did it.'"
"There's so many things. Honest to God they just keep coming," Carrey replied. "I asked early on for a lot. I made myself a $10-million cheque for services that would one day be rendered. That came true. I asked to do the kind of roles that keep reintroducing themselves to new generations of people and that came true. I'm just constantly pinching myself, I'm black and blue."
Carrey has yet to respond to the criticism over his comment during the interview.


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Meet BL1Y
BL1Y is a graduate of New York University School of Law. He practiced law for a short time in the corporate department of a big(gish) Manhattan law firm and then The Economy Happened. The legal industry gave him the ol' "It's not you, it's me" and he agreed. Now he spends his time watching YouTube videos, blogging, and (just to be moderately productive) working on a congressional campaign.
BL1Y's posts have been featured on ABA Blawg 100 winners AbovetheLaw.com (your one-stop-shop for legal news and gossip) and BitterLawyer.com (the premier website for legal humor).
If you care more about the details of this transition, and I can't imagine that you do (it's not particularly interesting), you can read about it here:
Interview With BL1Y, Part 1, Part 2, and Part 3.
Interested in advertising? Contact email@example.com for more info on how you can help me pay off my law school loans.