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One physiological adaptation for prolonged dive duration in marine mammals is an elevated myoglobin (Mb) concentration in skeletal muscle. To determine the influence of Mb concentration on the aerobic dive limit (ADL), we modified a previously published model that simulated aerobic dives in a Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) and ran it for four Mb concentrations: 5, 27, 54 and 108 g Mb kg–1 muscle representing 7%, 50%, 100% and 200%, respectively, of the normal Mb concentration in Weddell seal skeletal muscle. The model was run at increasing levels of muscular exertion and under postabsorptive and postprandial conditions to determine their effect on ADL. For each set of conditions, the model was also run at different levels of cardiac output (i.e. the dive response was varied) to determine the level of convective oxygen transport that optimized the ADL. In a postabsorptive state at a routine level of muscular exertion for a diving Weddell seal, a decrease in Mb concentration to 7% of normal caused a 39% decrease in the ADL (18 min to 11 min), while doubling the Mb concentration increased the ADL by 30% (18 min to 24 min). Under postprandial conditions at a routine level of muscular exertion, doubling the Mb concentration did not increase the ADL (12 min). The convective oxygen transport needed to meet the metabolic demands (Heat Increment of Feeding, HIF) of the splanchnic organs during digestion and assimilation required a cardiac output that was not optimal for the efficient use of muscle oxygen stores. This resulted in an over perfusion of the muscles and incomplete use of myoglobin-bound oxygen. As a result, the postprandial ADL was limited by the amount of oxygen stored in the blood, and increasing the Mb concentration had no effect on the ADL. We hypothesize that myoglobin concentration is optimized for the type and duration of dives routinely made by Weddell seals, and that a further increase may not increase the ADL for most free-ranging dives.
Weddell seals and other marine mammals exhibit physiological adaptations and behavioral strategies that increase dive duration. These include an elevation in total body oxygen stores through increases in blood volume, hematocrit (Hct; the percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells) and muscle myoglobin (Mb) concentration. In addition, marine mammals use efficient modes of locomotion (e.g. gliding during descent, stroke-and-glide swimming) that keep oxygen consumption low during diving (Williams et al., 2000; Williams, 2001). For Weddell seals, these physiological adaptations and behavioral strategies result in an aerobic dive limit (ADL) of about 20 min (Davis and Kanatous, 1999; Ponganis et al., 1993a; Kooyman et al., 1980).
If body oxygen stores are the primary physiological limit to dive duration, why are they not larger? During the evolution of marine mammals, what physiological factors may have set the upper limit to blood volume, Hct and muscle Mb concentration? Weddell seals have a blood volume as high as 21% of their body mass (Ponganis et al., 1993), almost three times larger than predicted for a terrestrial mammal of the same size (Stahl, 1967). The upper limit to blood volume may be a compromise between increasing oxygen stores and the resultant increase in body mass or abdominal volume.
The Hct of Weddell seals (ca. 60%), which is 1.5-times higher than in most terrestrial mammals, increases blood oxygen stores and maintains convective oxygen transport to organs and tissues as the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood decreases during diving. However, the increased Hct also increases blood viscosity, circulatory resistance and heart work (Elsner and Meiselman, 1995). As a result, the large spleen of Weddell seals sequesters red blood cells, lowers the hematocrit, and decreases blood viscosity when they are at the surface. Only when they begin diving does the spleen contract and release the red blood cells into the circulation, which increases the hematocrit while heart rate is reduced due to the dive response (Hurford et al., 1996). A hematocrit greater than 60% would further increase blood viscosity, increase heart work, and could decrease rather than increase convective oxygen transport. (Hedrick and Duffield, 1986). Consequently, the elevated Hct of Weddell seals and other marine mammals may be at its physiological maximum for optimizing blood oxygen storage and convective oxygen transport.
The concentration of Mb in the skeletal muscles of Weddell seals is about 10-times greater than in most terrestrial mammals (Snyder, 1983). Oxygen bound to Mb represents one-third of the total oxygen store in Weddell seals, so it is a major factor in setting the ADL (Davis and Kanatous, 1999; Kooyman and Ponganis, 1998). However, it is not clear what physical or physiological factors may have set the maximum concentration of muscle Mb. The objective of this study was to model the effects of different muscle Mb concentrations on the ADL of Weddell seals. Specifically, we wanted to know how increasing or decreasing Mb concentration beyond normal levels would affect the ADL. Although lowering the Mb concentration would obviously decrease the ADL, would increasing the concentration automatically increase it? To answer this question, we used a previously published model of convective oxygen transport and tissue oxygen consumption (Davis and Kanatous, 1999). We ran the model at different myoglobin concentrations for various levels of muscular exertion under postabsorptive and postprandial conditions to determine their effect on ADL.
Materials and methods
Theoretical basis for the model: Fick's Principle
A numerical integration technique was used to model the relationship between regional convective oxygen transport (Q̇O2) and the rate of oxygen consumption (V̇O2) in a hypothetical Weddell seal during aerobic dives at different levels of muscle oxygen consumption (V̇MO2) (see List of symbols and abbreviations). A detailed description of the model and an explanation of the assumptions and equations under postabsorptive conditions has been published (Davis and Kanatous, 1999). This study differed from that of Davis and Kanatous in that we ran the model with four different muscle Mb concentrations during aerobic dives under both postabsorptive and postprandial conditions. The numerical process iteratively determined arterial blood oxygen concentration (CaO2) and venous blood oxygen concentration (CvO2) for various tissues and organs based on the circulatory diagram shown in Fig. 1 and Eqn 1 (Fick's principle): (1) where Q̇ is blood flow rate (l min–1). Cerebral, coronary and skeletal muscle regional circulations were incorporated into the model individually, while splanchnic, renal and cutaneous circulations were grouped together with all other organs and tissues (e.g. bone and fat). The average temporal resolution (i.e. the period between consecutive computations) was 0.22 min.
This model considers only dives that are within the seal's ADL (Kooyman et al., 1980; Ponganis et al., 1993a). The term ADL was used in this model to describe the maximum duration of an aerobic dive under specific conditions. The basal contribution of anaerobic metabolism in harbor seals has been shown to constitute approximately 2% of ATP production in a resting state and 1% during active swimming (Davis et al., 1991). For this model, this small basal contribution of anaerobic metabolism is ignored, and tissues are considered aerobic as long as there is no increased reliance on anaerobic metabolism resulting in an increase in blood lactate over resting levels. While terms such as diving lactate threshold (DLT) and calculated aerobic dive limit (cADL) are useful for certain applications (Butler and Jones, 1997), they were not applicable to all conditions used to terminate a dive in this model. DLT was not used because increased blood lactate resulting from anaerobic metabolism was not necessary to terminate a dive in this model. The term cADL is historically used to denote a calculation of aerobic dive limit based on total useable oxygen stores divided by whole body metabolism. While this model does calculate an ADL, it does so through modeling of blood flow and metabolism in individual tissues, which can produce vastly different results than whole body calculations in some metabolic states. The rate of oxygen consumption in the tissues is maintained until convective oxygen delivery falls below a critical level and endogenous oxygen stores (skeletal muscle only) are depleted, resulting from a combination of ischemic and hypoxic hypoxia. When any organ (e.g. splanchnic organs) or tissue (e.g. skeletal muscle) no longer has sufficient oxygen to support aerobic metabolism (i.e. the point at which anaerobic energy metabolism commences), then the ADL has been reached and the dive is terminated.
Assumptions and equations
Organ and tissue masses were based on published values for a 450 kg adult Weddell seal (Fujise et al., 1985; Zapol et al., 1979) as described by Davis and Kanatous in their table 1 (Davis and Kanatous, 1999). The resting V̇O2 values for Weddell seal organs and tissues were estimated from the metabolic mass-adjusted V̇O2 for the equivalent organs of a human or rat (Diem and Lentner, 1970; Field et al., 1939; Kety, 1957). The basal, whole body V̇O2 (897 ml O2 min–1 or 2.0 ml O2 min–1 kg–1) was calculated by combining individual organ and tissue metabolic rates. The calculated basal metabolic rate was similar to the minimum metabolic rates measured for adult Weddell seals during rest or sleep (Castellini et al., 1992b; Ponganis et al., 1993a; Williams et al., 2004).
Resting heart rate (fH) (51.5 beats min–1), cardiac output (V̇b) (42.7 l min–1) and stroke volume (VS) (0.83 l) were based on measured values for Weddell seals (Zapol et al., 1979). During a simulated dive, V̇b was varied from 19–131% of resting levels [(see Davis and Kanatous, 1999), table 2]. For brevity, we hereafter refer to these percentages of resting, predive V̇b as percent V̇b (e.g. 19%V̇b). When V̇b was below resting levels, most of the reduction resulted from a decrease in fH (i.e. bradycardia). However, based on studies of seals during forced submergence and voluntary dives (Blix and Folkow, 1983; Kjekshus et al., 1982; Ponganis et al., 1990; Sinnet et al., 1978; Zapol et al., 1979), VS was also reduced as fH declined. The maximum reduction in VS in the model was 25% of the resting value and was proportionate to the reduction in fH. The reduction in cardiac output (i.e. the severity of the dive response) was immediate and remained constant throughout a dive. An `anticipatory' increase in V̇b toward the end of a dive was not included in the model. Except for the brain, where circulation was always maintained at resting levels, we assumed that blood flow to the rest of the body decreased proportionately with V̇b during a dive due to reduced V̇b and peripheral vasoconstriction (Blix et al., 1976; Elsner et al., 1964). Peripheral vasoconstriction was assumed to occur in the large arteries (e.g. the renal artery), making it independent of tissue level metabolic dilators that affect arterioles (White et al., 1973). Because vasoconstriction was assumed to occur high in the vascular tree, blood flow was not adjusted independently to individual tissue beds.
Body oxygen stores were confined to the blood and skeletal muscle in this model, since no oxygen storage capability exists in the splanchnic organs (Dodd et al., 1987) and the heart represents less than 2% of the total muscle mass. We assumed that lung oxygen was not available during a dive due to the complete functional pulmonary shunt that occurs in Weddell seals at pressures greater than 3–5 atmospheres (2280–3800 mmHg; 1 mmHg=0.133 kPa; approximately 30–50 m deep) (Falke et al., 1985; Reed et al., 1994). Even if lung oxygen were available during a dive, it represents only 5% of the total body oxygen store in Weddell seals (Kooyman and Ponganis, 1998).
To calculate total oxygen stores in the blood, we assumed that the blood volume for a 450 kg Weddell seal was 96 liters (Ponganis et al., 1993a) and that 33% of this volume was arterial blood and 67% was venous blood (i.e. venules, small and large veins, hepatic sinus and spleen) (Hurford et al., 1996; Rowell, 1986). The blood hemoglobin (Hb) concentration (assuming complete splenic contraction) was 260 g l–1, and the oxygen binding capacity of Hb was 1.34 ml O2 g–1 Hb (Kooyman et al., 1980; Ponganis et al., 1993a; Qvist et al., 1986). This gave a capacitance coefficient of oxygen in blood (βBO2) of 348 ml O2 l–1 (260 g Hb l–1 blood × 1.34 ml O2 g–1 Hb). At the beginning of a dive, we assumed that the arterial blood was 100% saturated with oxygen as a result of predive hyperventilation (Kooyman et al., 1980; Qvist et al., 1986; Ponganis et al., 1993a). Mixed venous blood was calculated from Eqn 2 to be 86% saturated at the beginning of a dive assuming an oxygen content that was 5% by volume less (Ponganis et al., 1993a) than an initial CaO2 of 348 ml O2 l–1 blood. (2) where Sv̄O2 is the oxygen saturation of mixed venous blood. Arterial and venous blood oxygen stores were calculated as: (3) (4) We assumed that 35% of the seal's body mass was skeletal muscle. For this study, we ran the model with four Mb concentrations: 5, 27, 54 and 108 g Mb kg–1 muscle, representing 7%, 50%, 100% and 200%, respectively, of the normal Mb concentration in Weddell seal skeletal muscle (Ponganis et al., 1993a). The Mb concentration of 5 g kg–1 muscle is typical of terrestrial mammals such as a dog, human or rat (Snyder, 1983). We assumed an oxygen binding capacity of 1.34 ml O2 g–1 Mb, and complete saturation at the beginning of a dive (Gayeski et al., 1987; Schenkman et al., 1997).
Muscle oxygen stores were calculated as: (5) The total oxygen store (sum of arterial, venous and muscle oxygen) was therefore 31 330 ml O2 (69.6 ml O2 kg–1), 35 973 ml O2 (79.9 ml O2 kg–1), 41 672 ml O2 (92.6 ml O2 kg–1) or 53 068 ml O2 (117.9 ml O2 kg–1), based on the four Mb concentrations, respectively. However, not all of this oxygen is available for metabolism during a dive (Davis and Kanatous, 1999).
As blood circulates through the four vascular beds (Fig. 1), the organs and tissues extract oxygen from the blood to meet their respective V̇O2 requirements. CvO2 was calculated for each circulatory bed according to Fick's Principle: (6) (7) (8) (9) where Q̇ is blood flow rate, V̇ is the rate of oxygen consumption, the letters B, H, M indicate brain, heart and skeletal muscle respectively, and SRC indicates splanchnic, renal and cutaneous organs and other peripheral tissues. However, the extraction coefficient of oxygen from the blood (EBO2), where EBO2=(CaO2–CvO2)/CaO2, could never exceed 0.8 (i.e. maximum EBO2 at critical oxygen delivery) during a single pass of the blood through an organ or tissue (Samsel and Schumacker, 1994; Torrance and Wittnich, 1994; Nelson et al., 1988). The mixed venous blood oxygen concentration (Cv̄O2) was calculated for the four vascular beds as the difference between the CaO2 and the total oxygen extracted per ml of blood: (10)
The arterial blood oxygen saturation (SaO2) and venous blood oxygen saturation (SvO2) were calculated for the blood of each vascular bed as the quotient of their respective oxygen concentrations (Eqn 6–9) and aβ BO2 of 348 ml O2 l–1 blood. The arterial (PaO2) and venous (PvO2) blood oxygen partial pressures were calculated from their respective SaO2 and SvO2 using two polynomial equations fitted to the oxy-hemoglobin dissociation curve (P50=26.9 mmHg=0.133 kPa) for adult Weddell seals (Qvist et al., 1981).
Evidence obtained during the forced submergence of harbor seals and Weddell seals indicates that Q̇B is generally maintained and V̇BO2 does not decline (Blix and Folkow, 1983; Kerem and Elsner, 1973; Zapol et al., 1979). In this model, we assumed that Q̇B and V̇BO2 remained at resting levels during a dive and were independent of V̇b. We also assumed that the minimum PaO2 and Pv̄O2 for normal cerebral metabolism and function were 22 mmHg (SaO2=38%) and 18 mmHg (Sv̄O2=27%), respectively. This is comparable to the average PaO2 (24.5±2.86 mmHg; mean ± s.d., N=7) in Weddell seals 2 min before surfacing and to the end tidal PO2 (24 mmHg) of the first exhalation (assuming that this approximates arterial PO2) after 17 min aerobic dives (Ponganis et al., 1993a; Qvist et al., 1986). As a result, the model terminated a dive if PaO2 decreased below 22 mmHg in the model. However, the PaO2 of blood perfusing the brain was generally not a consideration in determining ADL.
We assumed that Q̇H and V̇HO2 changed proportionately with V̇b (Blix and Folkow, 1983; Blix et al., 1976; Kjekshus et al., 1982). When convective oxygen transport to the myocardium changed during a dive, it was proportional to the change in heart work, and the myocardium always received sufficient blood oxygen to maintain aerobic metabolism.
Q̇M was also assumed to change proportionately with V̇b. Oxygen transported to the muscles in the blood was always used (up to a maximum EBO2 of 0.8) before oxygen bound to Mb because of the lower affinity of Hb for oxygen (Schenkman et al., 1997). Oxygen not provided by the blood was obtained from oxymyoglobin stores to meet V̇MO2 requirements. V̇MO2 was assumed to be independent of Q̇M as long as the combination of convective oxygen transport and oxymyoglobin stores was sufficient to meet metabolic demand. If at any time the combination of these two were no longer sufficient to maintain aerobic muscle metabolism, the dive was terminated.
Postabsorptive V̇O2 (3.73±0.88 ml O2 min–1 kg–1) and postprandial V̇O2 (5.24±0.88 ml O2 min–1 kg–1) during aerobic dives were based on indirect calorimetry measurements by Williams et al. for foraging and non-foraging Weddell seals (Williams et al., 2004). We assumed that the average difference in V̇O2 (1.51 ml O2 min–1 kg–1 or 680 ml O2 min–1 for a 450 kg seal) between postabsorptive and postprandial dives of 7–23 min in duration resulted from the metabolic cost of prey warming, digestion, absorption and assimilation, which we refer to as the Heat Increment of Feeding (HIF). This increase in V̇O2 was added to the postabsorptive V̇SRCO2 to give a postprandial V̇SRCO2 of 1234 ml O2 min–1 (a 2.2-fold increase). We assumed that the V̇SRCO2 was maintained as long as: (1) convective oxygen transport was sufficient to support oxygen demand, (2) EBO2 did not exceed 0.8 and (3) PaO2 was greater than 22 mmHg (Kvietys and Granger, 1982; Schlichtig et al., 1992).
The model was run on a standard spreadsheet program (Quattro Pro for Windows Version 6.0, Novell Applications Group, Orem, UT, USA) for eight levels of V̇b, sixteen levels of V̇MO2 up to a maximum whole-body V̇O2 of 10.7 ml O2 min–1 kg–1 and four different Mb concentrations under postabsorptive conditions, which produced 512 combinations. These were then compared to postprandial conditions for the normal and elevated Mb concentration adding an additional 256 combinations. The general procedure was to select a Mb concentration, set the V̇b at a particular level (e.g. 37% of the resting level) and then vary the V̇MO2 from 1 to 16 times the resting level. This process was then repeated for each Mb concentration and V̇b. V̇O2 for the four vascular beds and the entire body were calculated for each combination. The ADL was reached and the dive terminated when: (1) any non-muscle organ or tissue did not receive sufficient oxygen through convective oxygen transport to maintain aerobic metabolism, (2) convective oxygen transport and oxymyoglobin stores were no longer sufficient to maintain aerobic muscle metabolism, or (3) when the PaO2 fell below 22 mmHg.
The role of V̇b in optimizing the ADL at different levels of muscle metabolism
The role of V̇b in optimizing the ADL at different levels of muscle metabolism has been described (Davis and Kanatous, 1999). Briefly, the ADL decreases in a non-linear fashion with increasing V̇MO2 for different levels of V̇b (range=19–131% of resting levels) (Davis and Kanatous, 1999; Davis et al., 2004) (Figs 2, 3). For each level of V̇MO2, there is an optimal V̇b that gives a maximum ADL, and this optimal V̇b increases (i.e. the dive response is less pronounced) as V̇MO2 increases [(see Davis and Kanatous, 1999), fig. 4 and table 4]. Since the ADL is inversely proportional to V̇MO2 (assuming a constant level of blood and muscle oxygen depletion), the optimal V̇b decreases as the ADL increases [(see Davis and Kanatous, 1999), fig. 5].
The effect of Mb concentration on the postabsorptive ADL
In the postabsorptive state, the resting ADL (28 min) was independent of Mb concentration (Fig. 2). At a resting level of V̇MO2, the lowest level of convective oxygen transport (V̇b=19%) was still sufficient to supply 97% of the oxygen needed by the skeletal muscle. As a result, very little Mb oxygen (ranging from 21% to 1% of endogenous oxymyoglobin for concentrations from 5 to 108 mg g–1, respectively) was used while resting submerged, and it was not a factor that limited the ADL (Tables 1, 2, 3, 4). The only way to increase the use of Mb oxygen at rest was to decrease convective oxygen transport even further (i.e. V̇b<19%). However, when we ran the model at a V̇b of 9%, the ADL decreased because convective oxygen transport to the splanchnic organs and kidneys was insufficient. Hence, at rest there was no optimal V̇b that provided sufficient oxygen delivery for the kidneys and splanchnic organs while utilizing more Mb-bound oxygen, regardless of the Mb concentration. As a result, there was no difference in ADL for Mb concentrations of 54 and 108 mg g–1 until V̇MO2 exceeded 3-times resting.
At muscle Mb concentrations of 5 and 27 mg g–1, the postabsorptive ADL decreased in a curvilinear fashion with increasing V̇MO2 and whole body V̇O2. At normal and elevated Mb concentrations, the ADL decreased in a curvilinear fashion with the exception of a common plateau at 24 min for V̇MO2 of 2- to 3-times resting and 2- to 5-times resting for these two Mb concentrations, respectively (Fig. 2). At these low levels of V̇MO2, the ADL was limited by blood oxygen stores, and Mb oxygen was not a limiting factor (Tables 3 and 4). These two curves diverge at higher levels of exertion as muscle oxygen stores are consumed and contribute significantly to setting the ADL. Only when V̇MO2 exceeded 3-times resting did an increase in the Mb concentration above 54 mg g–1 increase the ADL.
Based on the findings of Williams et al. (Williams et al., 2004), we assumed an average postabsorptive diving V̇O2 of 3.8 ml O2 min–1 kg–1, which was equivalent to a V̇MO2 of 5-times resting in our model. At this routine level of diving metabolism, a reduction of Mb concentration from 54 mg g–1 to 27 mg g–1 and 5 mg g–1 reduced the ADL from 18 min to 12.7 min (29% reduction) and 11.0 min (39% reduction), respectively. Doubling the normal Mb concentration increased the ADL 33% from 18 to 24 min (Fig. 2).
For all four Mb concentrations, the optimal V̇b (i.e. the V̇b that gave the maximum ADL) increased as muscular exertion increased (Fig. 3). The optimal V̇b increased more quickly with increasing levels of exertion (i.e. the slope of the trend line was greater) for low muscle Mb concentrations compared to normal and elevated Mb concentrations. As Mb increased, the optimum V̇b for each level of V̇MO2 decreased. For example, at the average diving V̇MO2 of 5-times resting, the optimal V̇b at Mb concentrations of 5, 27, 54 and 108 g Mb kg–1 were 75%, 56%, 37% and 19% of resting levels, respectively. As Mb increases, V̇b and muscle blood flow must decrease (i.e. more pronounced dive response) for the muscle to fully use this Mb bound oxygen.
At a V̇MO2 of 5-times resting for normal and elevated Mb concentrations, convective oxygen transport at the optimal V̇b was insufficient to support the aerobic metabolic needs of the muscle. As a result, muscle Mb oxygen stores were used from the beginning and throughout the dive (Fig. 4). In contrast, the optimal V̇b for reduced Mb concentrations was greater (i.e. less pronounced dive response), resulting in increased convective oxygen transport to the muscles and a delay in the use of Mb oxygen until well into the dive (7 min and 1.33 min for Mb concentrations of 5 and 27 mg g–1, respectively). With optimal matching of V̇b to V̇MO2, almost all myoglobin oxygen was consumed at this routine level of exertion regardless of myoglobin concentration.
The effect of Mb concentration on the postprandial ADL
Under postprandial conditions, the ADL decreased at all levels of exertion because of the increased oxygen consumption of the splanchnic organs associated with prey warming, digestion and assimilation. At a routine V̇MO2 of 5-times resting and normal Mb concentration, the postprandial ADL (12 min) was 33% less than under postabsorptive conditions (Fig. 5). The convective oxygen transport needed by the splanchnic organs required a V̇b that was not optimal for the complete use of muscle oxygen at a routine diving V̇MO2 of 5-times resting. Not until V̇MO2 exceeded 7-times resting did this level of perfusion allow for complete utilization of muscle oxygen stores, and Mb oxygen became limiting to the ADL (Fig. 5 and Table 5). As a result, doubling the Mb concentration did not increase the ADL until the level of muscular exertion exceeded 7-times resting. Diving at routine levels of muscular exertion in a postprandial state resulted in convective oxygen transport and not oxy-myoglobin limiting the ADL. Based on the results from our model, digesting and assimilating food while diving decreased the ADL for two reasons: (1) increased splanchnic consumption of blood oxygen and (2) the increased convective oxygen transport needed by the splanchnic organs resulted in a V̇b that was not optimal for the complete use of muscle oxygen. As a result, the model indicated that there was no advantage in having a higher than normal myoglobin concentration during postprandial dives at routine levels of V̇MO2.
The role of myoglobin in diving marine mammals
Due to myoglobin's high affinity for oxygen (p50=2–3 mmHg) (Schenkman et al., 1997) compared to Hb (p50=27 mmHg) (Qvist et al., 1981), it is an endogenous oxygen store for muscle only. To use this source of oxygen, the muscle must become hypoxic by reducing convective oxygen transport. This not only decreases the muscle PO2 so that the oxygen dissociates from myoglobin, but also reserves more blood oxygen for other tissues. The first publication using this model (Davis and Kanatous, 1999) showed the importance of adjusting cardiac output and convective oxygen transport to muscle according to the level of exertion, so that the total oxygen available in the muscle and blood was used by the end of a dive. As the level of muscular exertion increased, the dive response was less pronounced and convective oxygen transport to skeletal muscle (and other peripheral organs and tissues) increased. To maximize the ADL, both oxygen stores had to be depleted simultaneously so that neither was singly responsible for limiting aerobic dive duration.
In a postabsorptive resting state, the ADL was independent of Mb concentration from 5–108 mg myoglobin g–1 muscle (Fig. 2). The model showed that the V̇b needed to maintain resting metabolism in the splanchnic organs (19%) resulted in an over-perfusion of the skeletal muscle so that almost all (97%) of the oxygen used by the muscles at rest was supplied by convective oxygen transport in the blood. Greater utilization of Mb oxygen would require less convective oxygen transport to skeletal muscle. However, further reduction in V̇b (9%) resulted in insufficient convective oxygen transport to the splanchnic organs and reduced the ADL.
At a routine diving V̇MO2 of 5-times resting, the postabsorptive ADL increased with higher Mb concentrations (Fig. 2). In addition, Mb concentration was negatively correlated with optimal V̇b for a dive (Fig. 3). Higher Mb concentrations (54 and 108 mg g–1) required a greater reduction in cardiac output (more profound dive response). The resultant reduction in convective oxygen transport to muscles decreased the muscle PO2 (i.e. made the muscle hypoxic) so that myoglobin oxygen was used throughout the dive (Fig. 4).
At a V̇MO2 of 1 to 7-times resting in a postprandial state, the V̇b required to maintain the elevated aerobic metabolism in the splanchnic organs resulted in an over-perfusion of the skeletal muscle, which caused the incomplete use of Mb oxygen stores (Table 5). Inefficient use of muscle oxygen stores as well as increased use of blood oxygen for digestion and assimilation resulted in blood oxygen limiting the ADL in the postprandial state until V̇MO2 exceeded 7-times resting (Fig. 5 and Table 5). As a result, the doubling of Mb concentration did not increase the ADL under postprandial conditions until the level of V̇MO2 exceeded 7-times resting, which is 40% higher than the routine level of exertion.
Behavioral considerations
The results of this model showed that an increase in the Mb concentration increased the ADL at a routine diving V̇MO2 under postabsorptive conditions (Fig. 2). However, for the same V̇MO2 under postprandial conditions, the convective oxygen transport needed for digestion and assimilation required a V̇b which resulted in an over-perfusion of the muscle and incomplete use of muscle oxygen stores at routine levels of exertion (i.e. <7 times resting V̇MO2) (Fig. 5 and Tables 5, 6). Castellini et al. stressed the importance of integrating physiology and behavior in considering the biology of diving (Castellini et al., 1992a). To determine what selective pressures might affect myoglobin concentration, it is important to consider the way Weddell seals routinely dive.
Davis et al. classified Weddell seal dives into four types (Davis et al., 2003). Type 1 were feeding dives with a mean duration of 15.0 min, and these accounted for 14% of all dives made and 29% of total time submerged. Given the assumptions regarding HIF, the postprandial ADL (12 min) at a routine level of exertion calculated by our model agrees well with average duration of feeding dives reported (Davis et al., 2003). Types 2 and 3 dives were relatively short in duration (mean=3.6 min and 7.9 min, respectively) and were rarely associated with feeding. Together these dives accounted for 72% of dives being made. The average duration of these dive types are well below our estimated postabsorptive ADL of 18 min and are not limited by the physiological constraints of the oxygen stores, but by behavior.
Type 4 dives were long in duration (average=24.7 min), appeared to be exploratory (non-feeding) dives, and accounted for 14% of all dives. This dive type exceeds our estimated postabsorptive ADL of 18 min and relies significantly on anaerobic metabolism. Our model indicates that an increased myoglobin concentration would prolong aerobic metabolism for this type of dive. However, these long duration dives rarely occur in free-diving Weddell seals (Kooyman, 1980).
Factors determining myoglobin concentration
It appears that dives of the type and duration in which an increase in myoglobin concentration would increase the ADL are rare under normal diving behavior. While an increase in myoglobin would prolong aerobic metabolism during some long duration, postabsorptive dives, it does not appear to limit the ADL in the majority of natural dives (i.e. Types 1, 2 and 3). Weddell seals make the majority of their feeding dives in bouts of many dives with short recovery periods on the surface (Castellini et al., 1992a; Kooyman et al., 1980). As a result, many of these feeding dives probably occur in the postprandial condition. Davis et al. observed (Davis et al., 1983) that the plasma of Weddell seals became very lipemic during deep foraging dives, indicating that the digestion and intestinal absorption of fat was occurring during the 5–6 h foraging session. Increased energy expenditure for digestion during diving is added to the metabolic costs for locomotion and basal metabolism (Williams et al., 2004). This increased metabolism for digestion and assimilation is also thought to reduce the ADL of southern elephant seals during foraging bouts (McConnell et al., 1992). Digestion not only increases oxygen consumption, but also influences the optimal management of the muscle and blood oxygen stores. Our model indicated that diving with the additional metabolic cost of HIF causes blood oxygen to limit the ADL rather than myoglobin oxygen (i.e. myoglobin stores may not be completely used). We hypothesize that myoglobin concentration is optimized for the type and duration of dives routinely made by Weddell seals, and that a further increase may not increase the ADL of most free-ranging dives. Whether physiological constraints associated with the dive response and convective oxygen transport have limited the concentration of myoglobin in muscles remains uncertain, but our model does suggest a possible influence during the evolution of Weddell seals and other long duration divers. In addition, the model indicates that the calculated ADL is more complex than simply the quotient of the available oxygen stores and estimated metabolic rate.
List of symbols and abbreviations
- aerobic dive limit
- cADL
- calculated aerobic dive limit
- CaO2
- arterial blood oxygen concentration (ml O2–1 blood)
- CbvO2
- cerebral venous blood oxygen concentration (ml O2 l–1 blood)
- ChvO2
- coronary venous blood oxygen concentration (ml O2 l–1 blood)
- CmvO2
- skeletal muscle venous blood oxygen concentration (ml O2 l–1 blood)
- CsrcvO2
- splanchnic, renal, cutaneous and other peripheral tissue venous blood oxygen concentration (ml O2 l–1 blood)
- Cv̄O2
- mixed venous blood oxygen concentration (ml O2 l–1 blood)
- CvO2
- venous blood oxygen concentration (ml O2 l–1 blood)
- diving lactate threshold
- extraction coefficient of oxygen from blood [(CaO2–CvO2)/CaO2]
- fH
- heart frequency (beats min–1)
- Hb
- hemoglobin
- Hct
- hematocrit
- heat increment of feeding
- Mb
- myoglobin
- PaO2
- arterial blood oxygen partial pressure (mmHg)
- oxygen partial pressure (mmHg)
- PvO2
- venous blood oxygen partial pressure (mmHg)
- blood flow rate (l min–1)
- brain blood flow (l min–1)
- heart blood flow (l min–1)
- skeletal muscle blood flow (l min–1)
- convective oxygen transport in the blood (ml O2 min–1)
- splanchnic, renal, cutaneous and other peripheral tissue blood flow (l min–1)
- SaO2
- arterial blood oxygen saturation (%)
- Sv̄O2
- mixed venous blood oxygen saturation (%)
- SvO2
- venous blood oxygen saturation (%)
- V̇b
- cardiac output (l min–1)
- brain oxygen consumption rate (ml O2 min–1)
- splanchnic, renal, cutaneous and other peripheral tissue oxygen consumption rate (ml O2 min–1)
- heart oxygen consumption rate (ml O2 min–1)
- skeletal muscle oxygen consumption rate (ml O2 min–1)
- rate of oxygen consumption (ml O2 min–1)
- stroke volume (l)
- βBO2
- capacitance coefficient of oxygen in blood (ml O2 l–1 blood)
We thank T. M. Williams for supplying data used in the completion of this model. We also thank T. M. Williams and S. B. Kanatous for helpful comments during drafting of this manuscript.
- © The Company of Biologists Limited 2006


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May 31, 2013 — Magrunner Dark Pulse, the action/physics game for PC, Xbox LIVE® and PlayStation®Network, today unveils more of its challenges in a new series of screenshots!
In the near future, in 2048, a handful of young and brilliant citizens have been chosen by Gruckezber Corporation to join the Magtech training program for space exploration. Equipped with a special glove using Gruckezber's technology, the candidates have to solve their way through a huge maze of challenge rooms, by magnetically charging objects that will attract or repel each other. But when an earthquake disrupts the training program, what seemed to be the chance of a lifetime for the candidates will soon become a descent into folly and cosmic horror!
Today's screenshots show some of the dangerous challenges that await Dax. The hi-tech training center in which Dax is testing his Magtech glove is being warped little by little, plunging irreparably into a strange and nightmarish world: that of Cthulhu and the frightening paranormal creatures it hosts.
Magrunner Dark Pulse will be released on PC, Xbox LIVE® and PlayStation®Network.

subset: commoncrawl


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A FREAK ACCIDENT: Charlie Murphy, United Airlines, and bizarre Easter traditions
Mankind has a history of making costly mistakes – A Freak Accident is just the latest. Behold, a podcast that runs on pure nuclear absurdity with just enough addictive, fanatic energy to keep you wanting more.
Hosted by four current and former radio personalities, A Freak Accident boldly ventures into the topical realms of current events, pop culture, rock and metal music, sports, stupidity, and pointlessness. So join Crisco, Lazy E, and Mikki as they tear the world asunder in pursuit of entertainment and a few good laughs. What's the worst that could happen?
A Freak Accident – the best mistake ever made.
Episode 65 highlights include:
- Mikki is starting her own business
- Charlie Murphy died at age 57
- United Airlines is having some problems
- Finish the Lyric – '80s Music Edition
- Bizarre Easter traditions from around the world
- Music You Can Use: Mastodon new album review; new music from Incubus, Motionless In White, Seether, and Papa Roach
Listen below:
Listen on iTunes.


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Whitehorse isn't a one-trick pony.
The cool Toronto-based duo actually named after a remote town waaay north of the U.S. border and embodied by powerhouse couple Luke Doucet and Melissa McClelland are no longer satisfied with just writing and playing tunes that sound good Living with Slaves. Full of sturm and twang, they capture the emotional essence of a song and make sure to deliver those feelings by any means necessary.
Three months after releasing Panther In The Dollhouse, Whitehorse's latest album for Six Shooter Records, Doucet and McClelland refuse to play if safe in terms of the musical or topical ground that Whitehorse cover Download Curious Scab Season 4.
To prove it, the husband and wife of 11 years continue their adventurous climb today (Oct. 12) at HuffPost with the music video premiere of "Pink Kimono," one of 10 cuts they wrote for the intoxicating album 옥탑방 왕세자 다운로드.
Watch the official Pink Kimono and read the full story at Huffington Post 더나은번역기 다운로드.
Panther In The Dollhouse Tour
SASKATOON, SK: Broadway Theatre, Oct 12 – tickets
REGINA, SK: WaWa Shrine Centre, Oct 13 – tickets
EDMONTON, AB: Winspear Theatre, Oct 14 – tickets
CALGARY, AB: The Palace Theatre, Oct 15 – tickets
LETHBRIDGE, AB: Southminster United Church, Oct 17 – tickets
NELSON, BC: Hume Hotel, Oct 18 – tickets
VANCOUVER, BC: Vogue Theatre, Oct 19 – tickets
PORTLAND, OR: Doug Fir, Oct 22 – tickets
SEATTLE, WA: Tractor Tavern, Oct 23 – tickets
SAN FRANCISCO, CA: Café du Nord, Oct 25 – tickets
LOS ANGELES, CA: The Mint, Oct 27
VIENNA, VA: Jammin Java, Nov 1 – tickets
PHILADELPHIA, PA: MilkBoy, Nov 2 – tickets
LONDON, ON: London Music Hall, Nov 17 – tickets
KITCHENER, ON: Centre In The Square, Nov 18 – tickets
OTTAWA, ON: The National Arts Centre, Nov 21 – tickets
MONTREAL, QC: Cafe Campus, Nov 22 – tickets
KINGSTON, ON: The Grand Theatre, Nov 23 – tickets
TORONTO, ON: Massey Hall, Dec 8 – tickets


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The Lab of Jan-Ake Gustafsson, University of Houston's world renowned expert on all things estrogen, recently published a journal article in the prestigious Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences describing a very interesting link between gallbladder cancer (GBC) and estrogens.
Estrogens (estradiaol, estriol, estrone) are steroid hormones found in both men and women. In women, estrogens are produced mostly by the ovaries and are responsible for female secondary sex characteristics and menstruation. In men they are produced in the testes and regulate sperm growth and in a possible interplay with androgens may drive libido. In both sexes they also found to coordinate the regulation of fat levels, lung health, and fluid balance.
The Estrogens' link to malicious cell growth is not new for they are long associated with breast, ovary, liver and pancreas cancers. A good example of how estrogen can cause things to go awry is with breast cancer: In healthy female breast tissue high estrogen levels during menstruation cause the propagation of cells that line the milk glands. When estrogen levels fall following the end of menstruation, the cells die and are absorbed by the body. The mechanism by which this happens is this: estrogen molecules in the blood enter a cell and bind to a protein called the Estrogen Receptor (ER) (see, we scientist do sometimes give them obvious names!) and like a switch, ER turns on the genes in charge of cell growth of the milk gland lining.
Since cancer is a disease in which a mutation in cell growth genes causes uncontrolled growth, as shown in the figure above, it is easy to see how in the ~500 times a woman menstruates in her lifetime that one propagated mutation can eventually wreak havoc on those cells.
The gallbladder is a small pear shaped sack located under the liver. The liver creates a digestion aid called bile that is stored and concentrated in the gallbladder. When digesting food, the gallbladder contracts and releases the bile into the intestine to break down fats from your diet. Since fat (think of oil or butter) is not soluble in water, the bile contains special salts and cholesterol derived acids that surround the fat and increases its ability to be absorbed by your body.
GBC is uncommon and has been found to be difficult to diagnose early on due to its overlapping symptoms with other diseases. If GBC is discovered early, drug treatment is pretty much nonexistent and the usual remedy consists of surgery to remove the cancerous gallbladder. In the average 10-15 years it takes to become fully diseased and therefore discovered, the cancer has usually become aggressive and spread to other organs, leaving a rather grim prognosis.
Until now what may be causing GBC was the usual vague cancer causing suspects: could be genetic, could be environmental (pollutants, etc), could be the stars were aligned incorrectly, etc. A review of the literature shows several journal articles reporting a correlation with gallstones and GBC in post-menopausal woman using hormone (i.e. estrogen) replacement therapy as well as women using birth control. It was Gustafsson and his group that finally connected the dots and noticed a critical common ingredient: GBC occurs more frequently in women and therefore estrogen may be playing an important role in the development of GBC.
What The UH Team Did
One of the main proteins responsible for the activation of bile creation is a not too distant relative of the ER called the Liver-X-Receptor (LXR). There are two forms of LXR, named LXR alpha (LXRa) and LXR beta (LXRb). LXRa is found exclusively in the digestive organs (liver, spleen, kidneys, intestines), fat cells, and lungs. In the liver, LXRa is activated by metabolized cholesterol and turns on the genes needed to synthesize bile salts/acids. LXRb is found in all tissues and is involved in regulating fat, sugar and cholesterol levels. A possible association between ER's and LXR's is that they both have roles in regulating cholesterol.
When the researchers tested male and female mice lacking LXRa, LXRb or both proteins, they found that the gallbladders of only the female mice missing the LXRb protein were infected, swollen, and pre-cancerous. With this clue Gustaffson's team figured that since cancer is a metabolic disease where the cells grow uncontrollably, the next logical stones to look under should be the proteins involved with regulation of cell growth. Indeed upon checking, the team found that the pathway involved in cell growth and adhesion to be severely defective in the mice missing LXRb. Finally, they made the LXRb/estrogen/gallbladder cancer connection by testing female mice lacking LXRb and had their ovaries (the main production organ of estrogens in females) removed and sure enough found no evidence of gallbladder precancerous growth.
This is the first time a biochemical association between estrogens and GBC has ever been demonstrated. This is very promising news for those diagnosed with GBC because a new option is to now target LXRb for drug treatment. It will be exciting to see Gustafsson's team as they determine how estrogens interplay with LXRb and the cell growth proteins.


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Residence Card As Family Member Of An EEA National. A citizen of the European Economic Area (EEA) or Switzerland may be living in the UK in accordance with the Immigration (European Economic Area) Regulations 2016. Then, their family members who are not EEA or Swiss citizens also have the right to come to the UK. Moreover, they can live and work here and apply for a residence card.
You may be a non-European family member of an EEA or Swiss national. Also, you might have decided to come to the UK to join the family. Then, you can apply for a residence card. It is your document which proves your right to stay in the UK under EU law. The residence card is typically issued for five years. It may take the form of an endorsement in your passport ("sticker") or a separate document confirming your immigration status.
To apply for a residence card, the applicants must provide valid passports. Also, they must prove that their EEA family members are exercising treaty rights in the UK.
According to EEA Regulations 2016, the processing time for a residence card is no longer than six months from the date of receipt of the application.
The immigration lawyers at LawPark are experts in dealing with applications for a Residence Card. You may need legal help from immigration lawyers in London to prepare and submit your request for a Residence Card As Family Member Of An EEA National. So we are here to provide you with friendly, reliable, fast and professional immigration service.
Submit your application for a Residence Card As Family Member Of An EEA National
Our team of professionals would work with you and your application for Residence Card. So, you can expect to enjoy the following services:
- Our immigration specialists will provide you with detailed instructions in regards to immigration regulations as well as the specific procedures required by the Home Office and the UKBA that are relevant to your case.
- A member of our team will answer any questions about your case while identifying its benefits and drawbacks.
- Our immigration lawyers will explain all documentation that you need to submit alongside your application as Family Member Of An EEA National.
- We will examine these documents and discuss how they are relevant to your case.
- Our team of immigration lawyers will complete the application forms and answer any questions that you may have.
- If needed, our immigration lawyers will prepare a sponsorship declaration and explain the process in detail.
- Our lawyers will draft a cover letter that will support and submit the application for the Card As Family Member of An EEA National.
- Our team of immigration lawyers will communicate with the UKBA and the Home Office. We usually do that to ensure a quick decision in regards to your Residence Card.
- Also, we will protect your interests during the entire process. We will keep you informed while the application is pending with the Home Office.


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Cosmetic Contouring is a simple procedure in which the teeth are reshaped with finely ground diamonds. Contouring is used to quickly enhance the appearance of your teeth by giving the sense of uniformity and alignment.
How is Cosmetic Contouring Done?
With cosmetic contouring, the rough or uneven tooth edges are simply buffed and polished away with finely ground diamonds.
It is a fast and economic way to augment your smile, and an excellent finishing touch to improve the shape of your teeth following other treatments including porcelain veneers and bonding.
Candidates for cosmetic contouring are those with small chips or fractures in your teeth, minor crowding, and sharp or uneven tooth lengths.
Maintaining Your Contoured Teeth
Because the teeth are simply reshaped, there is virtually no special aftercare once cosmetic contouring is completed.
Avoid chewing ice and biting your fingernails. A nightguard might be made to help protect your crowns from fracture, especially if you clench or grind your teeth.


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Mozambicans pay dearly for a president's financial mistake
Diagnosed HIV-positive two years ago, Kayana Kandagona* suffers regular episodes of dizziness. However, this is not the cause of the 34-year-old's anxiety as she waits for a routine appointment at a faith-based organisation's outpatient clinic in the Mozambican capital, Maputo.
Cradling her three-month-old HIV-negative daughter she explains that her 12-year-old daughter and 10-year-old son are always saying: Mama, we are hungry. The collapse of the single mother's cross-border trading business and her sudden relegation to the ranks of the urban poor was as swift as the sharp slump in Mozambique's macro-economic fortunes.
Kandagona, like many Mozambicans, blames former president Armando Guebuza for the financial scandal at the end of his final term in office that has wrecked one of Africa's most hopeful economies.
The scandal involved loans amounting to $2 billion � roughly equivalent to one third of the national budget � to build a tuna fishing fleet and buy maritime security vessels in 2013 and 2014. The problem was those loans were taken out when the local currency was falling, Mozambique's gas exports were down, and export prices on its coal and aluminium were also taking a knock.
Compounding the problem, the loans breached commitments to the International Monetary Fund and were hidden from both the Fund and parliament. When they were discovered, in 2016, the IMF and other international partners suspended financial assistance, amounting to $300 million, or nearly 40 percent of the government's social spending budget.
On these revelations, the once-stable local currency, the meticais, crashed. Steep price rises quickly followed, while interest rates tripled in order to brace the currency as it threatened to go into freefall, further squeezing economic growth. In March 2017, the inflation rate was 21.57 percent.
Kandagona used to import beds and bedding from neighbouring South Africa and turned a monthly profit of about $700. Owed money by customers, she set monthly repayment schedules of $15, but found, people can't afford to pay that, so maybe they pay me back 50 ($0.80) or 100 meticais ($1.60) each month. Her income has now dropped to as little as $25 a month.
The family eats two meals a day of rice, occasionally supplemented by seasonal vegetables from her mother's rural plot 50 kilometres from Maputo. The school does not provide lunch or snacks for her older children. The father pays no child support.
Cacilda Massango, coordinator for the Catholic church-funded Association for the Right to Health and Treatment for AIDS, tells IRIN: Everyone is complaining about food prices and asking for food because they are hungry. But we cannot just hand out food. It's difficult for all of us.
The provision of free, efficient diagnosis and assessment, coupled with the widespread availability of antiretroviral drugs, has been a game-changer in blunting the country's HIV/AIDS pandemic. UNAIDS estimated an HIV prevalence in 2015 of between 8.3 percent and 13.3 percent out of a population of 28 million, with infection rates falling.
But, Massango says, good nutrition remains an essential part of the equation for the efficacy of retroviral therapy, and in its absence the patients will not respond to treatment.
In 2015, Mozambique achieved the Millennium Development Goal of halving hunger. Even so, the World Food Programme's current country briefing notes: The vast majority � 80 percent � of the population cannot afford the minimum costs for an adequate diet, and the situation is made worse by inflation and a rise in food prices, which in October 2016 recorded a five-year high.
The financial scandal was unearthed by investigative journalists in April 2016. The loans were negotiated with European private bank Credit Suisse and Russian bank VBT. Among the deals struck was the purchase of naval patrol boats from France � current President Filipe Nyusi was defence minister at the time.
The $2 billion loans were not hedged and the currency's devaluation has sharply increased the repayment burden on all Mozambique's other external debt, including $2.6 billion owed to the World Bank, $3.5 billion owed to other governments, and $1 billion owed to other multilateral institutions, explains Tim Jones of Jubilee Debt International, which campaigns for the cancellation of unsustainable international debt.
Blame Guebuza
This year, Mozambique, which had a GDP of $15 billion in 2015, began to default on debt repayments. Public opinion has heaped the blame squarely on Guebuza, a two-term president with a checkered history of corruption scandals and human rights concerns.
Guebuza took the money. I hate him, says Antonio Simba, an independent taxi driver by day and diploma accountant student by night.
Everything is expensive. Bread [rolls] used to be seven mets [$0.11] and now it's 10 [$0.16]. Rice (5Kg) cost 200 mets [$3.15] and now it's 500 [$7.90], he said. Electricity used to be 300 mets [$4.70] a month. Now it's more than 500 mets [$7.90] I only eat breakfast and dinner.
After fuel and monthly mechanical costs, Simba, 30, earns about $90 from his taxi work, just shy of his policewoman partner's wage.
They live with Simba's brother, 33-year-old Serge, and his partner in a four-room concrete block house in the Santa Maria area, a few kilometres north of Maputo. The house does have sanitation and a standpipe, although the water has to be boiled to be potable.
Serge describes himself as part of the urban lower middle-class and earns about $400 a month in commissions as a rental accommodation agent, servicing mainly foreign nationals from Portugal, Brazil, China, South Korea, and Turkey.
Before, the rents were all paid in dollars. Now it's in meticais and there are too many empty properties in the city, Serge explains. Most people don't understand what is happening [to the economy]. They just say: 'It's Guebuza'.
Belt tightening
Nercia Pedro, 29, suffered a difficult first pregnancy in early 2016. She gave up her $191-a-month restaurant chef job with a tacit agreement to resume work after the birth of her child. In the intervening months the debt crisis struck and when she returned to the workplace her employer reneged on the deal.
She has established a home-based catering business for family celebrations and other functions and makes about $63 a month, half of which she gives to her parents. The family's bank repayments on a home improvement loan have increased from $78 to about $110.
Her husband's $283 monthly wage at the city's international airport is the last strand keeping the family afloat, and his job is far from secure.
LAM [the national airline] is falling apart, says Kim Harnack, senior adviser at the Center for Public Integrity, an anti-corruption NGO. Mozambique's flag carrier has reportedly grounded half of its eight passenger jets, unable to pay maintenance costs. The schedule of domestic flights between the main cities along the country's 2,500-kilometre coastline is becoming increasingly haphazard.
Harnack says the IMF, as a good faith broker, will assist once the ruling Frelimo party government has adopted a credible macro-economic programme, which includes a schedule to settle all external debt.
But that will come at a price. General subsidies, which include bread, fuel, and transport � accounting for about 2-3 percent of GDP � are seen as an inefficient and costly expenditure by the IMF, as they indiscriminately benefit the rich.
And the subsidies are unlikely to survive expected government cuts aimed at hauling Mozambique out of its self-imposed financial quagmire � inflicting yet more pain, especially on the poor.
Source: IRIN


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When it comes to entertainment, online casino is one of the most look for websites in the internet at present. The online gaming industry is a very Challenging job and online casino invest times and money trying to attract new customers and hold on to those they already have. More and more people are knowing what the online casino gaming is all about but yet don't know how to start.
Mas888 can help you to start your journey by simply visit our 24hours live chat or contact our customer services to obtain your very own account. You will experience a new kind of joy, explore the region that you never step foot before.
We provide one-stop online gaming including: - sports betting, online casino (baccarat, blackjack, roulette) Nagafish, Cockfight, slot games, lottery and horse racing.


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Many people have a smartphone nowadays. So the following idea is obvious: ''Make the smartphone of the bank customer the TAN-generator!''. This Online Banking method has many variants and many names, some call it App-TAN, we called it Smartphone-TAN here. Nearly all banks in Europe are offering such a Smartphone-TAN method or have it in their pipeline, examples are German Sparkassen Push-TAN or Deutsche Bank photoTAN (App version). Common to all Smartphone-TAN variants is that the secret key for the TAN generation is stored on the smartphone, usually it gets there via a 2D-code sent by paper letter from the bank.
The Smartphone-TAN method is very tempting for the banks, for two reasons:
The two main problems with Smartphone-TAN are:
Display-TAN does not have these two problems. Actually, Display-TAN was developed as a solution of the first problem of Smartphone-TAN (and as a by-product, also solves the second): Storage and processing of the secret key is moved out from the insecure smartphone to the secure bank card.
A Secure Element within the smartphone, like a SIM card or a hardware keychain, does not help much for the security of Smartphone-TAN (though it sounds like that): The secret key cannot be stolen/copied anymore by the trojan, that much is true. But the trojan can still execute - at any time - a secret abuse attack on the secret key: The trojan sends a malicious money transfer to the bank, and when the bank asks for the TAN for it the trojan contacts the Secure Element and asks for a TAN for the malicious money transfer. The Secure Element cannot distinguish this malicious request from a regular one and will generate the TAN, which is then forwarded by the trojan to the bank.
A security/usability comparison of Mobile Banking methods: pdf
With Smartphone-TAN there are no hardware costs for the bank. The current costs occur when the customer has a new smartphone and needs a re-initialisation. Postage etc. should be on average much less expensive than Display-TAN.


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New listings of 'Cars for sale & sold'
Trying to keel us all informed to requested & settled values of our C3 venue.
This category is listed under the file section & I try to keep it up to date>
Where's spring??:cool:
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Regular price
We are finally making some of our Captive Bred Baby Dwarf Caiman from our 2019 season! These are well established babies from our long term group of adults that we have had at NERD for nearly 30 years! If you keep up with a regular handling routine, our captive bred offspring have proven to become very tractable adults. It's like having an ancient piece of history right in your home or store. These would make incredible display animals or pets. This listing is for females and we are only making 2 available. They all look identical, so we do not offer individual pictures on these. Photos are representative of what you will receive.*KNOW YOUR LOCAL REGULATIONS!*
We ship all months of the year. We have been shipping and selling for over 20 years and have an amazing track record getting our customers their animals in a timely and SAFE manner. We will not ship until we confirm the order with you and confirm that you will have someone home to receive your new pet.
If you have any questions regarding specific animals or you feel more comfortable dealing with us directly you can contact us via email at firstname.lastname@example.com


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Last week, we discussed the best practices when it comes to relocating your software from the internal memory to a (often) much bigger storage card.
This week, we will look at how you can utilize Pocket Mechanic Professional to relocate some (or all) of the data that is stored in your device.
Before we begin, let me explain what kind of caches we are talking about:
- Email / Text Messages
- Pocket Internet Explorer
The longer you keep using your device, the bigger those caches will grow. Me, for example, I am an avid user of text messages and email and I have some 1400 text messages alone on my device. Then there is the cookies and temporary data you acquire while surfing on your device.
Mobile connections are often times sluggish and / or expensive and so it makes sense to keep as much data in a cache as possible. The only problem with that is that, eventually, you will run out of space.
The first step towards a device with more available internal memory is to select the correct option in the relocate menu:
The default settings are tried and tested so you do not need to change anything unless you absolutely know what you are doing. Once again, you should note that this process could, possibly, render your device unusable and may require you to carry out a hard-reset. While we have done our level-best to ensure that this process is non-destructive, we can not guarantee that it will work all the time. However, it is safe to say that, if you stick to this guide, you will not experience any problems. Do make sure to back up your data before you start and verify that your backups work either way.
The second screen will present you with a number of options to select from. Pocket Mechanic Professional is not just limited to moving pre-installed application caches, but can also work with such useful applications as NetFront, Opera and Journal Bar.
For this guide, I will select the Outlook cache, however, the steps are similar, no matter which option you choose.
After selecting the cache you want to move, you will be asked to pick a folder where Pocket Mechanic Professional should store the relocated data. A good place for this is either \Storage (if available) or \Storage Card.
As soon as you entered your choice, you will be presented with a quick overview of what is about to happen. If you spot anything that looks out of the ordinary, press the Cancel button, otherwise continue by pressing Next.
During the next minute (or minutes, depending on the size of your cache), Pocket Mechanic Professional will move all the data that belongs to your cache to the location you specified. You should at no point power off or reset your device during this step.
In order to successfully move your messages, Pocket Mechanic Professional will have to disable your Messaging plugin for the Today screen. The reason for that is the way that Pocket Outlook and Windows Mobile are set up:
Many users store their attachments on a storage card and that, in itself is no problem. However, due to the fact that the Messaging Today Screen plugin gets initialized before Storage Cards are loaded, you will end up with not one, but two folders with the name Storage Card. The first folder is initialized by Pocket Outlook and is defined as the location where attachments will be stored.
Then, later in the startup process, the Storage Cards are loaded and a second folder with the same name will be made available to the file system. Due to the way that file systems are set up however, no two folders in the same location can have a matching name and so the second folder is called Storage Card2. Pocket Outlook, however, expects both the attachment storage and the data cache to be available under Storage Card and as such will throw an error.
The easiest way to work around this is to either not store attachments on a storage card, or to store the attachments in the file system as opposed to the Outlook data cache.
If you do not store attachments on a storage card, you can just re-enable the plugin after the first reboot and it will stay enabled (and working) indefinitely.
This is necessary because Windows Mobile puts a lock on important files that are about to be updated and as long as the plugin is in use, these files cannot be updated.
Once the process has completed, you will be presented with a confirmation dialogue. By clicking on Close, followed by Next you will be transferred to a table that lists the various activities that Pocket Mechanic Professional has carried out:
Once you have checked the listing, click on Ok and Pocket Mechanic Professional will alert you that you need to reboot your device. Confirm the selection by tapping Yes once and you will be presented with another prompt. If you really want to soft-reset your device, press Yes now and as soon as the reboot process of your device is completed, the relocation process, too, will be finished.
As with our previous guide, you can see that relocating data is not all that difficult (or dangerous) as it may appear to be at first. Make sure to follow every step as described and if you have any questions, do not hesitate to ask them here.
See also: Relocate your software with Pocket Mechanic Professional


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Indonesia is an emerging market with the largest economy in Southeast Asia. It has the advantages of a large labour force, abundance of natural resources and continued interest from foreign investors. During the global 2009 financial crisis, Indonesia outperformed its regional neighbours and joined some of the few countries to post growth. It has extracted a multitude of foreign investors, ranging from the USA, India, Japan, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Qatar. Its main export products include oil and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, textiles, and rubber.
Since 1990, ING Wholesale Banking (WB) has been established in Indonesia. Operating primarily through ING WB and PT. ING Sekuritas Indonesia, ING has consistently shown strong performance and was recognised in major rating surveys as the Best Foreign Investment Bank by The Asset. Our representative office in Jakarta offers the full range of loan products, corporate finance and financial market expertise, and has strong credentials in a large range of products and services, including merger and acquisitions advisory, structured finance, loan syndications, debt capital markets, and fixed income research.
With its worldwide office capabilities, ING WB Indonesia is ready to assist you in all of your international banking and financial requirements when and where you need it. As a proactive banking partner, we understand the challenges our clients face around the world, and will provide you our full resources in order to help you achieve your goals. Contact us and let us show you how we can help.
- Largest economy in South East Asia
- Strong commitment to local clients
- Strong sector knowledge in natural resources and utilities
- Leveraging award-winning expertise


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Reiki Level I
• This safe, non-invasive, and empowering energy technique can be "learned by anyone. In this enjoyable "hands-on" class you receive the ability to transmit Reiki energy to help heal yourself, your family, friends, pets, and plants.
• Reiki assists the body-mind in realigning and allows healing to take place at the deepest source.
• Feel relaxed, empowered, and a sense of inner peace in this awesome class.
Reiki Level II
• At this advanced level, Reiki works faster and at deeper levels. You learn how to transmit this healing energy over any distance and time, penetrating the space-time barrier.
• You will know how Reiki can be applied to ideas and situations, send Reiki into the future, help heal the past, eliminate unwanted habits and enhance talents. A highly empowered class!
Prerequisite: Reiki Level 1
Workshop Cancellation Policy
All deposits are non-refundable and must be paid at least 2 weeks in advance of workshop date. Tuition minus a $35 administrative fee is refundable only with written notice at least 2 weeks before workshop date. Tuition will be refunded within 30 days in the manner it was paid.
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Get a strong start to 2019 by putting experienced Closing Coordinators on your team. By now most agents have an idea of what their goals are for 2019, and most of the time that includes either a set number of transactions or a dollar amount of closings for the year. To reach your goals you will probably need to build a strong closing team to help you. No agent is an island and you can't hit those goals alone. Even if that means you are only working with inspectors and the cooperating agent and lender, Continue Reading
Leverage Real Estate Virtual Assistants to Sell More Homes
Real Estate agents tend to be stuck in the ministerial tasks. When you do it becomes a frustrating challenge to break free and take your business to the next level. If you feel like you are on a never ending hamster wheel, even though you have a virtual assistant, maybe it is time to review your business plan and revamp your processes. Here are 5 Ways to Leverage Real Estate Virtual Assistant and free up your time to focus on business growth, lead generation and selling more houses. 5 Ways to Continue Reading
What Can You Assign to Your Real Estate Virtual Assistant?
As a real estate virtual assistant I am continually asked about what a real estate agent can easily send over for the team to work on. I'm hearing from agents that are falling asleep at their desk while trying to do it all, from brokers that want to be there with their family for all those important events, and from real estate professionals that know that neither of those is an option and they are just ready to start building a powerful team which allows them to have a strong business while still Continue Reading
Delegating to Your Real Estate Virtual Assistant for the Control Freak
Delegating to a real estate virtual assistant can seem like something impossible to do when you tend to let the control freak inside you take over, but it's also something you need to learn to do in order to get your life back! I mean, the busy season for real estate agents is here and if you intend to enjoy any of your summer it's time to put your furry little freak on a leash, right? (He's kinda cute, but is also wearing you out!) So here are some of the ways you can reign the little monster in and Continue Reading


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If you're planning a Haj trip and don't have money to burn, the Saudi Ministry of Haj and Umrah has you covered. The Ministry estimates that 239,000 domestic pilgrims will perform Haj this year. According to Saad Al-Qurashi, the chairman of the local Haj committee, the highest price for one person to perform the haj is SR 14,000 ($3733), and the lowest is SR 3,500 ($933).
The basic package that can be availed at a fixed price offers pilgrims accommodation in buildings at the Mina area that are approved by the Ministry of Haj and Umrah. The package also offers train services to various pilgrim sites.
The second package, ranging from SR 3447 ($919) to SR 4797 ($1279), offers pilgrims accommodation in the Mina camps and includes transportation on train and cars. The third service, which is the most expensive, ranges from SR 6508 ($1,735) to SR 11,905 ($3,174) and includes, among other services, more food options as well as air transport for pilgrims.
Source Credit: My Salaam
Read full story: http://bit.ly/2tJve6s


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Aaqib Raza Khan
New Delhi
After studying science in school and literature in under-grad, I am now pursuing my Masters in Journalism from AJK MCRC, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi.
Writing interests me, and so does photography and so does designing. I wish to keep my grey cells working, with creative juices flowing all around.


text: Ashton Kutcher and Danny Masterson Play "Pie Face" Game on 'Ellen' 11:53 AM PST 3/2/2016 by THR staff FACEBOOK TWITTER EMAIL ME Courtesy of Michael Rozman / Warner Bros. The 'That '70s Show' co-stars reunited to see who was more knowledgeable about Hollywood trivia. Ashton Kutcher and fellow That '70s Show alum Danny Masterson went on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on Wednesday to play "Pie Face." Kutcher was raising money for his charity Thorn, which builds software tools for law enforcement officials to help fight the sexual exploitation of children on the Internet. DeGeneres brought out his The Ranch co-star, Masterson, to compete against him in the game. "Ellen said, 'Would you like to come on my show tomorrow and throw a pie in Ashton's face?,' but I see there are two holes," said Masterson about the game. "I feel like I'm getting Punk'd again," he added later on. Kutcher joked his head didn't fit as they got settled into their respective places. Masterson seemed like he was in trouble when he didn't remember that DeGeneres hosted the Oscars in 2014, but it was really Kutcher that ended up with pie on his face after he couldn't guess the name of the O.J. Simpson prosecutor played by Sarah Paulson on The People v. O.J. Simpson. FACEBOOK TWITTER EMAIL ME THR staff email@example.com @thr


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Fred Rubble Goes Surfing
Today I took out my new (and I mean new) Channel Island 6'0″ Fred Rubble board. It was awesome! It was right in my volume at 28.6 liters and felt great to paddle, sit on, and ride. Yes, I got a nice short ride on my first day. Emily even saw me pop through the wave and head down the face. I still have a stoke smile. Emily was ripping her HP1 and caught more waves than I could count. Double stoke! What an awesome day.
Oh yes, it was also sunny, and only maybe a dozen surfers in the water. And they were all friendly.
#218 / #18 for 2013 1:20 pm – 6'0″ Channel Island Fred Rubble


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Animal Attraction
February 18th, 2009
I don't know about you, but I often wonder where some indie bands these days get their names. While some bands go for the ordinary, "Spoon", others go for obtuse, "The Sea and Cake", or scholarly sounding "Architechture in Helsinki." Now this isn't to say I don't like these bands or their names, because I do, but it does make you think about what led them to the name they selected and whether or not it's hurt or helped their careers. A new article by Beat Crave takes a look at the latest name obsession – animal names – and dares to point out which ones are overused.
When picking a name for your fake band, make sure you pick one that stands out from the crowd but still matches and sums up the sound you envision for the band. Since there is no sound involved with a fake band it's important that you connote as much of a feel for the band as you can with every detail you provide. After all, if you pick the wrong name or one that's doesn't catch someone's attention you're likely to get lost in the shuffle. So spend some time thinking about your name, because on Figment sometimes it is ALL in the name.


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Day 230: Prancer, the "Service Dog"
Prannie gave new meaning to the word devoted. She fell five days short of her 15th birthday and in our eyes she will be forever 15.
Prannie was an exceptional dog right from the start. We adopted her from the Golden Retriever Rescue of South Florida. We were not even supposed to have her. We had gotten a call to adopt the red female we were looking for after we had already adopted a blonde male golden. Prannie would prove to help her big Brother Ellis through his issues and coach him into a short 3 year life of love and trust for men.
Prancer had her own issues. She was a Jekyll and Hyde and played Jekyll when she agreed to jump in our backseat and ride home with us March 18, 2001. The next morning I awoke to a note left from my husband saying, "This dog is crazy!!! Take her back." Come to find out, he had quarantined her to the kitchen and because she had been crated for the first whole year of her life, she had confinement issues. But we didn't figure all of that out til later. Nor did that help the three hours that my husband and Prannie had a backyard standoff in the pouring South Florida rain while she refused to use the bathroom. She finally got loose and the wild buck took off (as she always did even years later) and he went chasing after her. He tripped over a sprinkler head in the dark and broke his big toe. I have always been convicted that when you commit to a pet, you keep that pet till the day they die. I told him if he wanted to get rid of her, HE had to take her back! That never happened, and it was the best decision we ever made.
Prannie had neurotic tendencies and I'm convinced she had a smidgen of border collie in her because she herded the children all the time and was not content until everyone was home. She defied Golden Retriever laws in that she didn't care more about food than people. Once the last of the family chicks were home, mother hen would go to her bowl and eat. She never broke her own rule!
Prancer was so in tune with her family that few people can believe that she alerted us to Jonathan, Julia and Ma D's cancers! Dogs are being trained to detect cancer, but she was a natural- never trained to do that. She would sit down (in 2006) in front of Jonathan and stare intently as if she was trying to tell him something. We had her checked out and she was fine, so he had himself checked out and he in fact was not fine. His cancer was detected early thanks to researching the symptoms that my mom had two months earlier. In researching her symptoms, and Prannie acting funny, he was led to the doctor where he would be diagnosed with the same rare duodenal cancer as my mom had! She would repeat this behavior over and over again for both Julia and Ma D who would both be diagnosed with Ewing's sarcoma bone cancer and Grade 4 Glioblastoma brain cancer respectively. In addition, she alerted Jonathan the night before I was to go into labor with all four of our children. Thanks to Prannie, our bags were packed and the camcorder was charged.
We felt safe, we felt protected, and anyone who met Prannie knows she was a heaven sent furry angel who guided us through the worst of times. She never left Julia's side all throughout treatment- faithfully splitting her time between MaD and Ju's bedrooms. She slept during the day and deputized herself, pacing back and forth all night from room to room so as to be able to alert us if anything was wrong. She sat with Jonathan day after day during his cancer recovery as he sat slumped over with nausea. She would sit up with him and keep him company all night in Memphis while he was worried about and separated from Ju who was inpatient at the hospital.
Prannie's health was failing, but her spirit was always strong. Though her central nervous system gave out and she seemingly had a [rare] stroke Saturday, she ate better than ever and continued to encourage us to keep on. It was heartbreaking to see her in such despair and we decided the best gift to give her was a release to go be with Ju and Ma D. The hole in our heart(s) just grew a little larger.
This life is HARD!!!! It is not for the faint of heart. Even God warned that we would have troubles….. We told the kids that part of living is dying. Although they "never want another dog because no one would be as great as Prannie", we know that every CANine is the BEST PUP EVER and the joy that Prannie brought to us has far outweighed the heavy tears we are crying right now. Although we are sad, distraught, lonely, and forlorn, we know that Prannie has completed her mission here- the best "service dog" ever- and she has already made it to the Magic Kingdom! She has crossed over the rainbow bridge, found her pot of gold, and just like in my dream last night, she is walking again!
We received many signs on our #WalkAcrossAmerica today dedicated to her. The most impressive sign of all was the red heart Jenna and I found stuck to the gas station pavement. As I was bending down to take a picture, my alarm sounded at 4:13! My angel Ju was letting me know that she has Prannie. What greater comfort is there? -Jennifer Cobb – Forever #PrancerCan #StreetsOfSynoviTreats
#JuCan #JuDid #PrancerDid #GODCAN #Disney2Disney #PrancerInTheMagicKingdom Golden Rescue South Florida


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Amanda Craig
In a Perpetual State of Amorous Engagement
By Jonathan Keates
Sinclair-Stevenson 384pp order from our bookshop
Readers wishing to improve their sex lives should immediately try the following from Stendhal's journals: Take one tarantula, and reduce to ashes. Mix with olive oil, and rub the resulting paste on the big toe of the right foot. A permanent erection follows.


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Linda has just returned home from work. Earlier that day she had stripped in front of her brother Bobby, 16, and his friend Jimmy, 15. At 15 herself, she was a real babe and loved showing off her shapely, tanned body.
"Jimmy has an idea that we think you will love." Bobby said. "Are you interested?" "Well, it depends on what the idea is." "Can't tell you but if you are willing, we'll show you and if you don't like it, you can leave?
I think you'll love it and should really do this." "I guess if you think I'll like it. What do I need to do?" "Tonight about 8:30 we are going to be at the mall. You have to make sure you wear a bra and panties. Don't leave home without them." "That's no fun but I guess so, just this once." At 8:30 the arrived at the mall and walked into the Food Court. Jimmy sees her enter the door and everything else disappears.
She is wearing a white blouse that is pulled tight and it tied up so her flat, tan stomach is showing. Her wrap-around skirt is short and really shows off her long, fantastic looking legs. She has on a little makeup but she never needs it. She is gorgeous without it. She seems to Jimmy to be moving in slow motion.
He is lost in her beauty as she glides across the floor to his table. She sits in the chair next to him and slightly faces him. Her skirt has ridden up a little, and he swears he can see white panties there.
She breaks his trance when she asks sweetly, "So Jimmy, what is this surprise you have for me? Bobby has built up my expectations and I can hardly wait." "I have a cousin who works . uh . here at . uh . the mall…" Bobby sees how nervous Jimmy is and says, "Jimmy, would you like me to tell her what is going on?" "Um .
uh … OK." "Jimmy has a cousin that works at Outdoor Equipment and he is going to set up a window display tonight. We thought you would like to be his mannequin. You'd be the center of attention and he could put you into positions that allowed you to flash people through the window. Since you are a mannequin, you cannot get into any trouble and no one can touch you except Frank who will probably have his hands all over you.
If anything goes wrong, I'll be right there and you can walk away." Linda is smiling.
"Before I let someone get his hands all over me, let's go meet this Frank and I'll decide then." Off they go and Linda is restraining herself from flashing the men and boys in the mall.
They entered Outdoor Equipment and the only person working there was a guy who looked to be 20 and was used to being in the outdoors. He was tall, strong, tan, and looked like he belonged up on a mountain. Linda said to Bobby and Jimmy before she was even introduced to Frank, "He can put his hands anywhere he wants." Jimmy said to Frank," Hey Frank, this is Linda the girl I told you about.
She said she would like to be your mannequin tonight if that is OK with you." "Hi Linda. Jimmy had this idea that you'd like to be the dummy tonight and would like to flash people by the way I position you. You're really OK with that?" "Yeah. I like flashing people once in a while.
My worry is that I don't want to get in trouble but if I'm you dummy, that wouldn't be a problem. When do we start?" "Well, I want to set up a window for hiking and you aren't in the right clothes. When I have a dummy in the wrong clothes, I usually change them. What if I put you in the window the way you are then changed your clothes?
That could really show you off to the few people that were walking by." Linda thought about it for a nanosecond and said, "Let's go!" They moved nearer the window where no one could see them. Bobby and Jimmy were off to the side and could see what was going on. Frank picked up Linda like she really was a mannequin.
He was so very strong. "When I put you into a position, don't move. We don't want people to know you are real. If you need to move, just grunt and I'll move you." Frank stood her next to the window and "accidentally" bumped the window with his elbow. The two men who were walking by turned and looked.
They slowed down, admiring the sheer beauty of the mannequin. Frank started untying the knot in her blouse then unbuttoned the rest.
It was hanging open as he turned to say something to someone in the back. Returning to his work, he removed her top to reveal her lacy, small bra. She was bulging over the top and looked great. Frank reached around her and expertly unhooked her bra and removed it. The guys on the other side of the window were staring at her tits. "Mannequins don't have nipples with color, do they?" "I've never seen it but maybe this guy just likes to color them up a little.
Did you see she also has a belly button? With the color of her nipples and having a belly button, I wonder what else is going to look that real. Isn't she fantastic?" They moved to the bench just across the walk area where they could enjoy the view of the window as it changed.
Linda was just standing there with her arms to her side, topless and in that short, short skirt. Frank was moving other items around on in the window ignoring Linda but the two guys weren't ignoring her. Frank casually walked to Linda and moved her right hand to her hip, giving her a little attitude. He then picked up a pair of shorts and a halter top and walked back to Linda. He held them up to her to see how they would look. They were going to look very good but he had another idea. He looked at the two guys on the bench and held the shorts up to Linda to see what they thought.
They weren't excited about him covering up those great tits but oh well. Then he mouthed to them, "Nude hiking?" and they really brightened up.
Frank smiled and put the shorts and top on the big rock next to Linda. Part of the display was to sell the clothes. He stepped behind Linda an unbuttoned her skirt.
It unwrapped and now she was in panties. Frank moved her other hand to her hip. Linda's heart was running at a hundred miles an hour. She was going to be completely, totally nude in front of these two men and they would see everything. WOW!! Frank hooked is fingers into the waistband of her panties and pulled them down to her ankles. Then he bent over and picked her up over his shoulder and removed them. When he put her down, he spread her feet about 18" apart. She was clearly visible. The guys on the bench were no longer on the bench.
They had moved back to the window. "Look at that patch of hair. It looks so real." "Hair looks real? Look at that pussy! It looks like you could eat it right here. I can't believe how real it looks.
I wonder what it feels like." Frank finished with the rest of the window while Linda stood perfectly still with her guys on the other side of the window. Frank would walk by Linda as he worked and move her hands around. Once they each covered a tit. Frank walked away and the guys didn't look very happy about that so he moved back and put both hands in front of her pussy.
They liked that even less but Frank left them like that for a few minutes. When he decided to move them again, he had one hand cup her pussy and the other on her cheek.
He bent her knees a little and put them together. It was a cute pose but didn't show much except for the fact that she was totally nude. When Frank was finished with the display, he moved Linda and sat her on a big rock. Her hands were put on the rock behind her as to support her.
It was also to get her arms out of the way of seeing her tits. He put a sock and a boot on one foot.
As he did, he didn't stand between her legs but on the outside. He was also pulling her legs apart so the guys were getting the best view possible of her pussy. When he finished with that foot, he moved to the other side and did that one, still helping the guys to enjoy their evening. Those two legs were pointing the way to heaven and Frank could see from this much closer vantage point, she was leaking. She was so wet her juices were slowly seeping out of her pussy.
He could even smell the fragrance and it was wonderful. Just for the fun of it and to see how well Linda could remain still, he reached down with his hand and stroked her pussy lips. Since she was supposed to be a mannequin and solid, he didn't slip his finger inside at all but his pressure on her lips almost caused her to break her concentration. It was all she could do to keep from cumming right there. She was sooooo horny now she could hardly stand it. How much longer was this going to last?
Frank stood her back up, put a walking stick in each hand, did a little more adjusting of his 'dummy' which included picking her up. The best place to grab hold was right between her legs and since the guys wouldn't be able to see all of his hand, two fingers managed to slip deeply into Linda's very wet pussy.
It's a good thing she had her hand on his shoulder. She grunted a couple of times. That is all that was seen when she had an explosion throughout her body. That orgasm was fantastic but still not nearly enough to satisfy her for the night. Frank did hesitate before setting her down and let her catch her composure. He stepped back and took a look at the window and was pleased with the way it looked. Time to go home.
He turned off the lights and moved away. He stood where he couldn't be seen and waited for the guys to leave. When they were gone, he said to Linda, "You can come out now." She came out and went straight to Bobby. "I can't wait! I need it right now! I'm so fucking horny I'm going to explode!" While she was talking she was ripping Bobby's pants off. She pushed him back onto the ground and dropped onto his waiting cock. She was an animal!
She bounced up and down on him, grabbed his hands and put them to her tits, and didn't slow down. Bobby pulled her down on him so he could suck on her nipples. While sucking on one, he was tweaking the other. He was pulling and twisting one nipple while biting the other harder and harder until she finally said "Ouch". He backed off but just a little. Jimmy and Frank had no idea this was going to happen and were standing there just watching the show. It took Jimmy a minute then realized he could pull out his cock and beat off to this hot, hot show.
He had beaten off earlier that day in front of them so why not now? Frank saw Jimmy start and he too pulled out his fully grown, thick manhood.
Bobby was flat on his back with his hands squeezing Linda's tits and ass, Linda was bouncing with all she was worth, and the guys were pumping their dicks. Everyone was really enjoying the results of having Linda pose nude in the window.
The two guys who had been watching would probably be beating off tonight too. Jimmy was the first to shoot his load then Frank. Both of them drained their cocks onto the carpet. This is all it took to finish off Linda. Her body was wracked with another very long, very hard explosion throughout her. She was tingling all over. She started to slow down then realized, Bobby hadn't cum yet. "What's wrong Bro? You haven't cum." "I thought about it but I'd really like you to suck me dry." Linda smiled and slid back off Bobby's rock hard, covered with her cum, cock.
She reached down between her legs and firmly took hold of him as she slid slowly down his body. She paused at his nipples and licked and sucked them while watching him squirm. It didn't take her long to find the swollen purple head of his cock. She then proceeded to lick all of her juices from his cock and balls. Though she had licked his cock clean and sucked his balls clean, she had yet to let his manhood slide across her tongue. She was however, still stroking him. "Ready?" she asked.
"Been ready for quite some time Sis. Are you going to let me shoot this load down your throat or is it going to come on your face and tits?" "Don't you think the guys here would love to watch you shoot me with your load?" He was smiling while his cock slid between her lips and across her tongue.
His sister was a great cocksucker. She knew how to get him off quickly or hold him back until he begged for mercy. She was working to take her time today.
She would suck then lick, then play with his balls, then back to sucking some more. While she was sucking his cock, Frank watched her ass pointed up into the air. She was on her knees and from the back, he had a great view of that pussy and ass hole. He needed to slide in there. Linda had her eyes closed and she would never know what was happening until he slid into that dripping wet love tunnel. As he moved behind her ready to mount her, Jimmy realized what he was going to do and reached out a hand to Frank's arm.
They have a rule they won't break. They don't fuck anyone but each other. If you slip into her, we'll never see them again and I have plans to see this babe nude again.
Don't blow it for both of us." Frank was disappointed to say the least and he mentally fought with himself. Do I get to fuck her now or do I get to fondle her again in the future and maybe fuck her. It was a tough decision but finally he backed off.
Without realizing what had been going on behind her, Linda said, "I can tell you are about ready. You should be standing if you want them to see you shoot your hot, thick, white streams of cum all over my face and tits." She pulled gently on his cock and he stood up. She was right below him and started stroking and sucking again. This time she was going for a quick release.
When he began to tense up, she stopped sucking and backed off. She stroked his cock, controlling where his seed was going to hit. The first shot was on her face with some of it getting into her open and waiting mouth.
The other three shots hit her on her throat and tits. She milked him dry and let it drip onto her waiting tongue. When he appeared to be finished, she pulled his entire cock into her mouth and really sucked the very last of his cum from him.
When he was finished, she began wiping all of the cum from her face with her finger. She scooped it into her mouth. When her face was clean, she moved to her throat and tits and wiped them clean, eating all of that cum also. Everyone was spent so it was time for Bobby and Linda to leave.
She had plans for the evening that included more rolling around together. Linda slipped her skirt and blouse on, leaving the panties and bra as souvenirs for Frank and Jimmy. "What are you going to do with the window display without your model?" Bobby asked. "No problem. I have a real mannequin that I'll put the shorts and halter on. It will only take a couple of minutes.
I have another window to change in a couple of nights. Would you be interested in helping me again?" "Sounds like we are going to have fun again. I'm looking forward to it. Just let me know when." As Bobby and Linda walked out of the mall, they saw the two men standing on the curb and talking. "Night guys" Linda said sweetly. The two guys just stood there wondering if the mannequin had been this girl or was it just their imagination.