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Durban Climate & Weather
Durban enjoys a humid subtropical climate, with very hot, humid summers and mild to warm winters. Rain is frequent during the summer months, but comes in the form of thunderstorms in the afternoons, so the sunny holiday weather is not badly affected. In fact, the storms come as a relief from the humidity and the chain lightening over the ocean is a special sight. Winter temperatures are more comfortable but still warm enough for the beach, as the sea remains pleasantly warm all year.
The average high temperature in summer, between December and February, peaks around 82°F (28°C), while in winter, between June and August, temperatures rarely drop below 50°F (10°C) and frost is almost unheard of. Spring and autumn blend gradually into summer and winter and are both pleasant seasons to travel in. The Easter holidays, over April, are a lovely time to visit. The beaches become extremely crowded in the peak summer months and accommodation must be booked far in advance for this period. Durban is essentially a year-round destination and many people prefer to visit in the off-season to avoid the crowds.
Become our Durban Travel Expert
We are looking for contributors for our Durban travel guide. If you are a local, a regular traveller to Durban or a travel professional with time to contribute and answer occasional forum questions, please contact us.


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At the end of September, I attended the opening of the National Opera Center (NOC) in New York City. The NOC is one of the most important projects for Opera America, and provides a much-needed audition, rehearsal and performance space in the heart of New York, as well as a library, multi-media support and other services. To commemorate the opening, 70 composers were invited to write a song honoring the occasion; 47 composers submitted songs which have now been released as printed music, as well as on CD. (As a side note, this idea of creating a collection of songs to celebrate an important event or person goes back more than 400 years. The famous collection of English madrigals from 1601 entitled "The Triumph of Oriana" consists of 25 short works by 23 different composers). Back at Opera America, all 70 of the participating composers had received grants from the opera organization over the past 25 years, and they represent a wide range of compositional and dramatic styles.
Seventy composers is a remarkably high number; now add to that the many more young and emerging composers also interested in writing for this great art form. With so much opera being written by so many different individuals, in so many different styles, I gradually have come to believe that the term "contemporary" opera is no longer sufficient; general directors and programmers need a richer vocabulary to classify new works, stylistically, when they are making artistic choices about what to present, and—just as importantly—when they are communicating those plans to their audiences.
To illustrate the challenge, consider two musical masterpieces which had their premiere almost exactly 100 years ago. The first is Igor Stravinsky's breakthrough ballet the The Rite of Spring for large orchestra, which premiered on May 29, 1913. The second is Arnold Schoenberg's song cycle Pierrot Lunaire for soprano and chamber ensemble, which premiered on Oct. 16, 1912. At both of their premieres, these works sparked near riots among audience members! Over time, however, their reputations have diverged sharply. The Rite of Spring has become much more accepted; it's not quite a staple of the core repertoire for the casual Sunday afternoon listener, but certainly a well-accepted and highly respected work. In fact, an extended excerpt was included as a segment in the 1940 version of Disney's Fantasia. One section of the Rite is "The Dance of the Adolescents," which has influenced scores of later works, not to mention film scores.
Pierrot Lunaire, by contrast, remains an enigmatic masterpiece a century after its birth. Based on poetry by Albert Giraud, it relies on sprechstimme, or "spoken singing" which produces an unnerving, unsettled effect. The overall impression to the listener is perplexing, possibly even musically indigestible—yet the work is also unmistakably brilliant.
When making programming choices incorporating contemporary music and opera, I like to use three general categories to ensure that we are fulfilling our mission to present a wide range of compositional styles, while maintaining season and compositional balance. Classifying a particular work requires a lot of thought and discussion, but I rely on the following basic criteria:
- Accessible – These works are more conventionally melodic, and may be tonal in stretches, or even throughout. They rely heavily on conventional singing techniques, and literal uses of text. Most importantly, they can be absorbed by a casual listener, at least to some degree, on the first (or perhaps second) hearing.
- Approachable – These works typically require time for the audience to gain comfort. They may be in more radical compositional style, but may also include tonal interludes. The use of language may be more exotic, and they may include more complex singing styles (e.g. blends of spoken and sung text, harmonics, pitches at the extreme ends of the artist's vocal range) and nontraditional orchestral techniques.
- Avant-garde - These works are much more challenging, requiring more study, and perhaps repetitions, for the audience to achieve a level of comfort; their style may be harder to process, and therefore may be more "cloying" to the ear. They may also include even more nontraditional approaches to orchestral playing and extreme vocal techniques. A true avant-garde work challenges us nearly as deeply on the tenth hearing as it does on the first.
As I noted in an earlier "Off the Cuff," I am delighted that there is greater public acceptance of a range of compositional styles in contemporary classical music composition, but I cannot avoid noticing that there is still some residual bias against "accessible" styles. In my mind, accessible in no way implies superficiality; in fact, an accessible musical style can enable the composer to make a greater impact dramatically because the audience more readily accepts and internalizes the music. It is also important to note that this classification system has no connection to when a piece was composed, nor should it: both The Rite of Spring and Pierrot Lunaire made their public debuts less than a year apart. And I admit that there is some judgment involved, as well as room for debate in classifying works and assembling the season puzzle—which is all part of the fun of programming opera in an age of expanding musical experiences and tastes.
Some examples will illustrate this approach. One recent work that is clearly in the "accessible category" is André Previn's opera Brief Encounter, inspired by the 1945 David Lean/Noël Coward film. The work was commissioned by Houston Grand Opera, and premiered in 2009, starring Elizabeth Futral and Nathan Gunn; I found it a moving, theatrical experience with some beautiful music.
Another is Daniel Catán's Il Postino, which premiered in Los Angeles in 2010 with Plácido Domingo as the poet Pablo Neruda and Charles Castronovo as a young postman. The compositional idiom was highly melodic and deeply influenced by Puccini's compositional style, which led to a certain degree of criticism, but did nothing to diminish the opera's popularity with L.A. audiences.
The "approachable category" is a very full one. I would include John Adams' Nixon in China as an important example. While the opera relies heavily on less familiar minimalist musical textures, the work is strongly theatrical and pulls the listener along with both excellent music and drama. Daniel Catan's 1996 opera Florencia en el Amazonas pushed musical boundaries further than Il Postino, and therefore belongs to the "approachable category." Erich Korngold's 1920 opera Die Tote Stadt contains surrealist and dream imagery, while blurring of the lines of reality and fantasy. A work in the tradition of Richard Strauss, its greatest barrier to regular performances is its unfamiliarity on American shores. Nevertheless, it is an outstanding work by a 23-year-old composer—and a personal favorite of mine.
TDO's chamber opera last season, Peter Maxell-Davies' The Lighthouse, which premiered in 1980, might have been classified as avant-garde based on the vocal writing and dissonant tonality, but the tonal interludes provided a kind of "acoustical sorbet" to cleanse the musical palette. I therefore include it in the "accessible category." John Harbison's opera The Great Gatsby, which premiered at the Metropolitan Opera in 1999, employs a similar technique, interspersing songs in 1920s dance style within the compositional flow.
Intriguingly, operatic entrants in the "avant-garde category" span a full century, with regular examples sprinkled along the way. Alban Berg's Wozzeck, composed between 1914 and 1922, stretched boundaries of harmony, vocal technique, orchestration and musical form. A slightly later example, the opera Four Saints in Three Acts was written by Virgil Thomson in 1927-1928 with text by Gertrude Stein. The music is approachable, even bland, but the text and its extensive use of repetition make for a perplexing whole (see a recent production from the Brooklyn Academy of Music—worth watching to the end!). Schonberg's Moses and Aaron, written between 1930 and 1932 still challenges audiences deeply, and this work is unmistakably innovative. Hans Werner Henze, who passed away quite recently, composed the Elegy for Young Lovers, which premiered in 1961 with an English libretto by W.H. Auden and Chester Kallman. I admire the work for its orchestration and tonal color, yet it is a work that requires some study to fully appreciate. And in 2010, The Santa Fe Opera presented Lewis Spratlan's Life is a Dream. Composed in 1978 and based (incredibly) on a 1635 play by Calderón, the work's spiky and dissonant compositional idiom and disjointed vocal lines requires more than one hearing to process. This, despite a fairy tale setting that is easily understood (and an interesting contrast to Four Saints in Three Acts, which has accessible music and an unquestionably avant-garde libretto).
Benjamin Britten's Turn of the Screw, which premiered in 1954, sits on the boundary between the approachable and the avant-garde. While not particularly dissonant, its dramatic themes include child abuse and the death of a possessed young boy, which create unease in the audience that multiple hearings cannot dispel. It produces the same queasiness that a strong performance of Verdi's Otello can inspire, but the inclusion of children as victims makes it even more powerfully disturbing.
If I may be permitted some nonoperatic examples, I would like to add two more for consideration in the "avant-garde category." The first is John Cage's work for amplified cactus. Cage produced a steady stream of works that challenged audiences about the nature of music itself—lessons that seem fresh to every new generation of listeners; this piece was recreated for the 2012 proms in London, by the way. The second is Edgard Varèse's 1933 work Ionization for 13 percussion players, another personal favorite. The combination of a huge range of pitched, semi-pitched and un-pitched percussion instruments, and the evident degree of musical complexity and innovation in this piece will continue to influence composers and challenge audiences for many years to come.
Faced with such a rich variety of choices, one risk for any classical music programmer is "programming paralysis." What works should we feature, from what eras, and in what styles? And I won't even start on the three-dimensional chess game that casting an opera requires. In my role as General Director and CEO of The Dallas Opera, I believe that it is an essential part of our mission to present a wide range of new works, showcase the gamut of compositional styles, and develop, over time, audience awareness and love for the most remarkable musical achievements of the last 100 years. Deciding which operas to present, and when, is one of the most rewarding parts of this job! And one critically important element is making sure that we strike an exciting balance between the accessible, the approachable, and the avant-garde, while convincing you to willingly accompany us on that journey.
◊ Here are some videos from the works referenced above:
The music for Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire:
LA Opera's Il Postino, from PBS's Great Performances:
Part of The Rite of Spring section in Disney's Fantasia:
John Cage playing amplified cacti and plant materials with a feather:
The Dallas Opera's 2012 production of The Lighthouse:
Four Saints in Three Acts at Brookly Academy of Music:
◊ Keith Cerny is the General Director and CEO of The Dallas Opera. His column "Off the Cuff" appears every month in TheaterJones.com. His first column can be seen here, the second is here, third here, fourth here, fifth here, sixth here, seventh here, eighth here, ninth here and tenth here.
Thursday, February 28 at 8:27AM
Is there some kind of presentation or lecture this week in Fort Worth? I heard about it on the radio.

subset: commoncrawl


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Info Agency Main Banner Content
About Us
The Office of Environmental Adjudication (OEA) was created in 1995 to review the decisions of the Indiana Department of Environmental Management (IDEM). The petitions fall into one of two categories: the appeal of enforcement actions brought by IDEM or the appeal of an IDEM decision to issue or deny a permit.
Appeals of enforcement actions concern violations of the following environmental laws of the State of Indiana:
- Air pollution control laws (as defined in IC 13-11-2-6)
- Water pollution control laws (as defined in IC 13-11-2-261)
- Environmental management laws (as defined in 13-11-2-71)
- Solid waste management laws (under IC 13-19)
Appeals of permitting actions involve the following three primary areas: water quality, air quality, and land quality. IC 13-15-6.
The OEA receives approximately 300 petitions for administrative review each year. These are heard by one of the two environmental law judges employed by the agency. Some cases may involve multiple parties and a number of complex legal and technical issues that affect the entire state or regional environment and may take several years to resolve.
The OEA director, who also serves as the agency's chief environmental law judge, is selected by the Governor from a list of candidates recommended by a five-member panel appointed pursuant to criteria described in IC 4-21.5-7-4.


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Supreme Court Punts on Affirmative Action, and More
What's News: The Supreme Court sends affirmative action case back to a lower court. Former Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi found guilty in a sex-for-hire trial. Twinkies to return to store shelves. Joanne Po reports. Photo: AP
This transcript has been automatically generated and may not be 100% accurate.
... the Supreme Court ... the action this is what's news at this hour I'm WS J live I'm Joann Co ... in a surprise verdict the Supreme Court to rest a lower court to re examine whether ... employees purchase admissions program at the University of Texas at Austin ... to survive constitutional scrutiny ... the high court's ruling on Fisher versus University of Texas was seventy one ... the majority opinion was written by Justice Anthony Kennedy ... Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg dissented ... Justice Elena Kagan recuse herself from that decision ... justice Kennedy saying that the fifth Circuit U S Court of Appeals made ... me the errors when it up of the University program and should have scrutinized the universe the program more strictly ... the Bottom Line affirmative action at public universities survives but Now Italy's former Prime Minister is found guilty in a sex for hire trial ... in its nine court sentencing ... Silvio Berlusconi to seven years in jail and given a lifetime ban on public office for having paid for sex ... with an underage woman and then accusing his power ... in trying to cover up the relationship the court's ruling threatens to de stabilize Italy's fragile governing coalition Mr. Berlusconi ... denies all the charges and has the right to appeal the sentence twice ... which could take years to decide ... he's unlikely to actually go to jail because it's had a law allows ... house arrest for those ... over age seventy ... and three T pants are inside the snack cakes and returned to store sells thirty on to my fifteen ... assists Branson back up and running under ... new owners and a leader stocks are falling vacancy after a nasty fight with its unionized workers last year ... the company says Twinkies will taste the same but the boxes one out there that I find ... this three disc comeback in the history of ever ... bookie keep us anomaly this is about instructed and what's his I'm WS J last ...


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Article content
Officials at a Connecticut casino are demanding Lindsay Lohan return part of the $50,000 she was paid to host a Halloween party because she showed up late, according to a U.S. report.
Lohan appeared at the Foxwoods casino along with champion boxer Floyd Mayweather, Jr. on Thursday to judge a costume contest together.
The Mean Girls star was expected to arrive at the event by 10 p.m. local time, but she allegedly failed to show until almost two hours later and chose to skip the red carpet, according to TMZ.com.
As a result of her tardy behaviour, bosses at the casino are now reportedly looking to renegotiate their contract with the actress, who has been working on rebuilding her career since completing a court-ordered rehab stint in August.
#halloween2013#Carriepic.twitter.com/Q81pxFaccl— Lindsay Lohan (@lindsaylohan) November 1, 2013
tap here to see other videos from our team.


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Angiosperm Origins: A Monocots-First Scenario
For over a century, theories of Angiosperm origin have been framed within the assumption of seed plant monophyly. In addition, woody growth from a tubular cambium has been assumed to be the shared primitive state among seed plants. It followed that primitive woody dicots were seen as the living descendants of early angiosperms. However, if we imagine polyphyly of both the seed and woody growth among seed plants, it becomes possible to hypothesize early angiosperms as having arisen directly from pteridophytes--with monocots the living descendants of early flowering plants. We argue that a Monocots-First scenario has greater explanatory power than does the conventional Dicots-First scenario. Because the two scenarios are so different, genomic data should be able to determine which is more likely to be correct.
Experimental analysis rarely offers resolution to questions in historical evolutionary biology. Instead, we create historical scenarios that attempt to explain contemporary diversity. We test these scenarios with fossil, developmental and comparative data. Over the last one-hundred years, a single uncontested scenario has informed flowering plant origins. Unfortunately, in such an instance we find only two classes of data: data that are meaningful within the accepted paradigm, and data that are meaningless. Contradictory data require a contradicting framework in which such data find their meaning. Currently, acceptable scenarios for angiosperm origin are all situated within the single paradigm of seed plant (Spermatophyta) monophyly (Crane 1985, Doyle & Donoghue 1986, Loconte & Stevenson 1990, Nixon et al. 1994, Rothwell & Serbert 1994, Loconte 1996, Niklas 1997, P. Soltis & Soltis 2004, Hilton & Bateman 2006, Cantino et al. 2007, Frohlich & Chase 2007, APG III 2009, Stuessy 2010).
Nevertheless, and despite more than a century of research, we still have not identified a generally accepted sister group for angiosperms, either in the fossil record or in molecular analyses of the living flora. Frohlich and Chase (2007) have commented on this enigma in a short discussion titled: "After a dozen years of progress the origin of angiosperms is still a great mystery." These authors opine that "Some extinct 'gymnosperm' groups must be closely related to angiosperms." What they fail to make explicit is that this view is embedded within the assumption that all living seed plants are members of the same monophyletic assemblage. Seed plant monophyly accords with William of Occam's teaching: simple explanations are to be preferred over more intricate explanations. The seed-syndrome, with its small but complex female gametophyte, enclosed within an ovule, fertilized by a highly reduced male gametophyte--the pollen grain--seems unlikely to have evolved more than once. Reproduction by seeds, together with woody growth and elaborate branching, characterize gymnosperms and many dicotlyedonous flowering plants. Bound together by such complex character traits, woody seed plants have been accepted as a perfectly natural assemblage for more than a century (Eames 1911, Sinnott & Bailey 1914a, Jeffries 1917, Metcalf & Chalk 1950, Stebbins 1965, Crane 1985, Doyle & Donoghue 1986, Rothwell & Serbet 1994, Cantino et al., 2007).
Sharing seeds, pollen, and woody growth, flowering plants were easily incorporated within the conceptual framework of a monophyletic Spermatophyta. With their seeds neatly enclosed within a nurturing and protective ovary, using double fertilization to initiate the formation of endosperm, and stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs, angiosperms are easily distinguished from all other seed plants (Crane 1985, P. Soltis & Soltis 2004). Because of their many woody growth forms, the dicotyledonous angiosperms (dicots) were considered to be linked with other seed plants, while morphologically simpler monocotlyedons (monocots) were seen as a clade arising from within early dicots (Sinnott & Bailey 1914b, Cronquist 1968, p. 128, Takhtajan 1969 p. 108, Stebbins 1974, p. 323, Dahlgren & Clifford 1982), Dahlgren & Rasmussen 1983, Loconte 1996, Chase 2004, Kim et al. 2004a, P. Soltis & Soltis 2004).
Campbell (1911, pp. 146, 162) concluded that seed plants were polyphyletic, and he commented on the near-identity of embryo structure and early development between Isoetes, Ophioglossum and many monocotyledons. Later, Campbell (1930) discussed a variety of possible origins for angiosperms but reached no conclusion. In more recent time, and with seed plants generally accepted as monophyletic, the possible origin of angiosperms from non-seed plants has received only scant attention (Burger 1981, Jacques-Felix 1988, Kato 1990, Raju & Nambudiri 1995).
Materials and Methods
We downloaded DNA sequence data from GenBank for five gene regions: 18S, atp1, atbB, matK, and rbcL. The total data set comprised 6307 characters and 110 OTUs. The 110 species of vascular plants included 6 pteridophytes, 10 gymnosperms and 94 non-Eudicot angiosperms. Core alignments were obtained and additional sequences were added to the alignments using ClustalX (Thompson et al. 1994). Improvements for variable regions were performed using Saté (Liu et al. 2009). The concatenated alignment was visualized in BioEdit v. 7.0.1 (Hall 1999) where ambiguous regions were excluded. Topological incongruencies were checked in single gene data sets by comparing reciprocal 70% neighbor-joining bootstrap support. These conflicts were considered significant when a clade was supported as being monophyletic in one tree but supported as non-monophyletic in the other tree. Gene trees for the test of incongruencies were obtained by using neighbor-joining with maximum-likelihood distances in PAUP v4b10 (Swofford 1993) and 500 bootstrap replications following Miadlikowska et al. (2006).
SplitsTree V.4 (Huson & Bryant 2006) was used to calculate phylogenetic networks and to visualize the conflict of phylogenetic signal in the combined data set. We used the neighborhood algorithm (Bryant & Moulton 2004) to infer the phylogenetic network. Conflicts in the phylogenetic signal are shown as net-like relationships, while the graph has a tree-like structure when the phylogenetic signal is stronger than contradicting evidence.
Five different analyses of the 110 taxa data set were also performed. ME-GTR-G is a minimum evolution tree employing a general-time-reversible substitution model. ME-LogDet is a minimum evolution tree employing LogDet transformation. RAX-ML is a maximum likelihood program with a gamma shape and estimation of invariable sites. Garli-ML is a maximum likelihood analysis using Garli which employs a general-time-reversible substitution mode with a gamma shape and estimation of invariable sites. The nhPhyML analysis used the nhPhyML program with a starting tree obtained from the ME-LogDet analysis, allowing for biases in GC content and long branches.
Results and Discussion
The concatenated five-gene analysis (figure 1 [see PDF below]) shows long branches separating angiosperms from gymnosperms and ferns. Long branches are well-known to cause problems in elucidating phylogenetic relationships and this may be a cause for the uncertainty in identifying the basal lineage of angiosperms in our analyses and may explain conflicting results in previous studies. Further, the relationships among all major groups show strong evidence for conflicting phylogenetic signals with virtually all relationships showing box-like relationships. Among the five other analyses incorporating the same five gene regions, two (RaxML and Garli-ML) placed Amborella as basal among angiosperms, one (nhPhyML) placed Ceratophyllum as basal, and two (ME-GTR-G and ME-LogDet) designated monocotyledons as basal. The different topologies yielding from different methods used suggest that the molecular data analyzed are not sufficient to reject any of the obtained topologies. On this account, we conclude that a basal placement of monocotyledons cannot be rejected, and propose an evolutionary scenario based on this possibility. In doing so, we set aside the assumption that woody seed plants are monophyletic, and argue that the earliest angiosperms were, in fact, herbaceous monocot-like plants.
A Monocots-First scenario: an alternative perspective
A Dicots-First scenario for angiosperm origins has been widely accepted for more than a hundred years. It is concordant with the assumption that the seed, the pollen grain and wood (produced from a tubular bifacial cambium) are shared synapomorphies. Dicots and some gymnosperms also share similarities in embryo structure, forming two or more cotyledons in early embryogeny, and the embryonic root can grow into a taproot. Overall, living gymnosperms and angiosperms appeared to be a natural, monophyletic, assemblage. It followed logically that the largely herbaceous monocots had arisen from woody dicot-like ancestors (Coulter & Chamberlain 1903, Sargant 1903, Henslow 1911, Sinnott & Bailey 1914b, Cronquist 1968, pp. 315-320, Takhtajan 1969, pp. 108-121, Stebbins 1965, Stebbins 1974, pp. 317-324, Guignard 1983). This Dicots-First scenario continues to serve as the sole theoretical framework in discussions of angiosperm evolution. But is it possible to construct an alternate scenario, also capable of bringing diverse facts together within a coherent historical narrative? We believe, a Monocots-First scenario can achieve this goal in a convincing manner. However, a Monocots-First hypothesis abandons the assumption of seed-plant monophyly, and denies a close sister-group relationship between angiosperms and other living seed plants. By viewing angiosperms as having arisen independently from a pteridophytic source, the Monocots-First perspective can explain many aspects of angiosperm diversification, beginning with the early embryo itself.
Early Embryogeny. Both the form of the early embryo and early plant development are very similar in monocots and in living pteridophytes (Campbell 1930, Jacques-Felix 1988, Vallade, Bugnon & Ibannain 1993, Raju & Nambudiri 1995). Having a terminal first leaf at the apex of the embryo, the shoot apex lateral to the axis of the embryo, and a short-lived primary root that is replaced by secondary roots are an unusual array of characteristics shared by living pteridophytes and monocots. In monocots the base of the cotyledon "often remains in contact with the endosperm as a digestive and absorbing organ very suggestive of the 'foot' of Pteridophytes" (Coulter & Chamberlain 1903, p.6; Vallade, Bugnon & Ibannian 1993). In both Ophioglossum and monocots root inception and development take place well before the development of the shoot apex, and the early leaves are clasping at their base (Campbell 1911). These similarities involving both form and development suggest evolutionary homology; they seem unlikely to have arisen independently through convergence. It follows that monocots do not possess a true cotyledon or seed-leaf (Jacques-Felix 1988). Their cotyledon is simply the first leaf of the plantlet, just as it is in living pteridophytes.
The cotyledon of monocots is usually of the same form and in the same phyllotactic spiral as are the succeeding leaves. This is characteristic of a reiterating series of homologous structures, and very different from the early growth of dicots. Chemical treatments do not alter monocot development as is the case in some dicots (Haccius & Lakshmanan 1967). Aberrant embryos are more common in dicots than in monocots (Eames 1961, p. 360, Palser 1975). Reports of dicotyledonous monocots supported the interpretation that monocotyledony within angiosperms was derived (Solms-Laubach 1878, Coulter & Land 1914, Eames 1961, pp. 328, 343, 345, & 360). However, these citations of unusual embryos have not been reinforced by subsequent studies. Excepting for these few reports, the monocot embryo appears to be conservative in form, resistant to chemical alteration, and remarkably consistent over a wide range of genera (Tillich 1992).
The similarity of embryo form and early embryogeny between monocots and pteridophytes has not been a subject of serious discussion for almost a century. Viewed from the perspective of having flowering plants deeply imbedded within a monophyletic Spermatophyta, embryonic similarities between monocots and pteridophytes can be said to "have no phylogenetic meaning." Textbooks separate discussions of seed plants and non-seed plants by many pages, allowing for little detailed comparison. From the Monocots-First perspective, similarity in early growth provides salient evidence for the likelihood that flowering plants arose directly from a pteridophytic base, and are a lineage separate and distinct from other living seed plants.
The recent transfer of Trithuria (Hydatellaceae) to Nymphaeales and close to Amborella is noteworthy (Rudall et al. 2007, Saarela et al. 2007, APG III 2009, Rudall et al. 2009b). These small aquatic sedge-like plants had been placed within Centrolepidaceae (Hutchinson 1959, p. 700, Melchior 1964, vol. 2: 559), as a distinctive order near the Cyperales (Cronquist 1981, p. 1148) or Restionales (Dahlgren & Clifford 1982, p. 36), near Xyridaceae (Davis et al. 2004) and as a member of Poales (Chase et al. 2006). Seed-provisioning prior to fertilization in these plants, and seed-nutrition largely supplied by perisperm (Hamann 1976, Friedman 2008), appear to confirm their primitive nature. More importantly, Trithuria possesses a typical monocot embryo (Tillich, Tuckett & Facher 2007), thus placing monocotyledony near the base of current phylogenies.
Viewed from a Monocots-First perspective, the dicotyledonous embryo marked a major advance in angiosperm morphology. Cotyledons of dicots are usually of different form and in a different phyllotaxy than are the succeeding leaves of the same plantlet; most have petioles. Differences in placement, form and arrangement indicate that the cotyledons of monocots and dicots are not homologous structures (Burger 1998). This is a deep and profound morphological distinction, used for over two centuries as the primary dichotomy among flowering plants. Similarity of the dicotyledonous embryo with the embryos of certain other seed plants have been used to support seed-plant monophyly (Eames 1961), but such similarities are convergent from a Monocots-First perspective.
Early Plant Form. The Monocots-First scenario implies that all early angiosperms, including the earliest dicotyledons, were herbaceous or weak-stemmed plants (Burger 1981). This view is similar to that of Taylor and Hickey (1990, 1992, 1996) who contended that the earliest angiosperm was a "rhizomatous to scrambling herb." The Monocots-First scenario differs in viewing early angiosperms as lacking secondary growth entirely. This is consistent with Tomlinson's claim (1995) that the earliest monocots lacked a cambium. Rather than a "loss" of stelar organization in monocots, our scenario posits a major advance in dicots. And because soft-stemmed and herbaceous plants are unlikely to be fossilized, an herbaceous ancestry helps explain the paucity of early angiosperm fossils (Taylor & Hickey 1992, 1996).
In basal ferns, such as Ophioglossales, the persistent shoot of the young sporophyte arises as an adventitious bud on the ephemeral primary root and the vasculature of the stem is largely, if not entirely foliar in origin (Campbell 1911, 1930, Mesler, Thomas & Bruce 1975). Such a growth pattern might have characterized early angiosperms. Carlquist (1975, p. 75) noted that in ferns all mechanical supporting structures arise from the primary plant body and that monocots, characterized by a similar growth pattern, are limited to a similar range of growth forms. In addition, vessel occurrence in ferns, though quite rare, resembles the roots-first pattern found in monocots (Fahn 1954). Similarly, Sarcandra (Chloranthaceae) has vessels in the secondary xylem of its roots but not in the secondary xylem of its stems, as is characteristic of monocots (Carlquist 1974, 1996, p. 79). To find this monocot-like pattern in a basal dicot lineage accords well with a Monocots-First scenario.
Double fertilization is a unique angiosperm trait, allowing both rapid and efficient seed production. Gymnosperms often produce their seeds in advance of fertilization and, when pollination fails, bear seeds that cannot sprout. Unfertilized energy-laden seeds are a cost small short-lived plants cannot sustain (Doyle & Hickey 1976). Double fertilization eliminates the possibility of producing unfertilized seeds, as well as reducing the time between germination and reproduction (Taylor & Hickey 1992, 1996). Double fertilization allowed small herbaceous angiosperms to succeed as seed plants, and this trait is fundamental to a Monocots-First scenario. As Stebbins (1965) remarked: "... selective pressures which brought about the angiospermous reproductive condition would have acted more strongly on smaller, short lived plants ..." Contrary to Friedman (1992) and in agreement with Niklas (1997, p. 208) and Stuessy (2004), we view intra-archegonial double fertilization in Ephedra as an unrelated convergence.
Early Leaf Form. The Monocots-First scenario implies that simple undifferentiated leaves with clasping leaf-base were the primitive condition in early angiosperms. Clasping or sheathing leaf-bases are the widely shared condition within monocots, and common within herbaceous dicots as well. Early ontogeny supports the primitive nature of this character state: all angiosperm leaf-primordia begin with a flanking base (Hagemann 1970, Ihlenfeld 1971). Carpels are recognized as leaves because they share this same initial form (Eames 1961, p. 227, van Heel 1983). In addition, the petiole is usually the last part of the leaf to differentiate during leaf development in angiosperms (Majumdar 1956, Richards 1983). These ontogenetic patterns support the claim that clasping leaf bases, poorly differentiated petioles, and linear to simply expanded blades with parallel or subparallel venation are primitive states. Reviewing gene expression patterns, Floyd and Bowman (2010) conclude: "While the ancestral seed plant leaf was very likely to be complex, the ancestral angiosperm leaf is predicted to be simple, implying that complex angiosperm leaves are derived."
The claim that the lamina is formed from the upper primordial area in dicots and from the lower area in monocots (Keating 2002, p. 11, Kidner et al. 2002) appears to be an oversimplification. Laterally expanded and petiolate leaves in Saururaceae (Piperales) and Alismatales are very similar in both development and mature form (Rudall & Buzgo 2002). It is very likely that leaves with broad laminae and reticulate venation evolved along parallel tracks but independently in several lineages of monocots and early dicots (Bharathan 1996, Chase 2004). More telling, linear leaves precede highly differentiated petiolate leaves with broad lamina in the early development of species of Potamogeton (Esenbeck 1914), Sagittaria (Bloedel & Hirsch 1979), Eichornia (Richards 1983), and Victoria (Valla & Martin 1976); the latter is a dicot. In some species of Piper (Piperaceae) the early basal leaves have broadly sheathing monocot-like petioles, while distal leaves have more narrowly terete dicot-like petioles on the same plant. Each of these heteroblastic series is concordant with the Monocots-First scenario; they are not what we would expect if early angiosperms resembled Amborella.
Ontogenetic evidence also supports the notion that simple leaves with multiple parallel vascular bundles preceded petiolate laminae with a single midrib. Ontogeny of Populus leaves indicate that the midrib "is a composite structure consisting of several independent vascular bundles, each of which eventually diverges into the lamina to become a secondary vein" (Isebrands & Larson 1980). From a Monocots-First perspective, differentiated petioles and broad thin laminae were later evolutionary innovations. A slender and flexible petiole allows the blade to twist under the stresses of high winds, and permits the blade to be oriented to maximize surface illumination. An abscision layer at the base of the deciduous dicot leaf was another significant advance; possible only after modification of the clasping leaf-base. Small, thin, readily deciduous leaves became especially important after dicots evolved a woody and highly branched architecture. This helps explain "...the apparent rapidity with which modern-looking angiosperm leaves entered the fossil record..." (Friis, Pederson & Crane 2010). Later, high vein-densities in angiosperm leaves have allowed for higher transpiration rates, increasing both photosynthesis and precipitation in tropical rain forests (Boyce et al. 2009, Boyce & Lee 2010).
Stem structure. A Monocots-First scenario implies that the earliest angiosperms either lacked stems, or possessed herbaceous stems formed by the union of leaf bases. In this scenario stems with scattered vascular bundles are the direct result of having been formed from the fusion of leaf bases. In many monocots leaf traces arise from near the periphery of the stem, bend inward and upward to occupy the center of the stem, then abruptly bend outward to enter the leaf-base (Zimmerman & Tomlinson 1965, Tomlinson 1995). This pattern supports the inference of stems having evolved from united leaf bases in monocots. The absence of a bifacial cambium, and the paucity of complex branching are further consequences of their simple origins. This is consistent with Charles Bessey's view (1897 p. 163) that in monocots "... leaf and stem are not yet as fully differentiated as they are in dicotyledons." Also, with usually only a single leaf at each node, leaves are alternate in the vast majority of monocots and growth is monopodial; further evidence for a very simple Bauplan (Arber 1925, p. 179, Tomlinson 1970, 1995).
Because monophyly of woody seed plants appeared to be so parsimonious, a consensus developed viewing archaic angiosperms as woody trees or shrubs, with all herbaceous forms later derivations from woody ancestors (Hallier 1905, 1912, Eames 1911, Sinnott & Bailey 1914b, Bessey 1915, Jeffrey 1917, Stebbins 1965, Cronquist 1968, p. 128, Takhtajan 1969 p. 108, Stebbins 1974, p. 323, Dahlgren & Rasmussen 1983, P. Soltis & Soltis 2004). This consensus required a subsidiary hypothesis to explain how herbaceous lineages 'lost' both the ability to form a wood-building cambium and the genetic programs needed to construct a more complex, many-branched, architecture. It was generally thought that monocots had gone through an evolutionary bottleneck, probably as aquatics (Hallier 1903, Henslow 1911, Sinnott & Bailey 1914b, Cronquist 1968, p. 317, Les & Schneider 1995, Chase 2004, Qui et al. 2006). Moreover, to explain the mechanism of loss, Takhtajan (1959, 1976) suggested a neotenic process. In neoteny early stages of development are carried forward into the reproductive stages of the plant, as later stages are lost. In this way the ability to build a cambium and woody structures were lost in some lineages, producing short-lived herbs. "The herb may be considered a fixed juvenile phase of the tree" Takhtajan concluded (1991, p. 23). In contrast, a Monocots-First scenario requires neither an aquatic bottleneck nor neotenic reduction to explain herbaceous growth in angiosperms.
Tomlinson (1995) has argued that "...the absence of bidirectional (bifacial) cambium is ancestral in monocotyledons, and there is no homology of organization between the primary vascular systems of monocotyledons and dicotyledons." A monocots-first perspective accommodates this view by postulating the later development of radically new vascular organization in early dicots; a vasculature so different that it is now seen as non-homologous. The instantiation of dicotyledony may have been the critical precursor allowing anatomical restructuring in early dicot stems. This restructuring allowed for the development of a bifacial cambium, wood, and more varied branching. Enhanced axillary budding allowed early dicots to recover more quickly from browsing and trampling (Feild et al. 2004, Avens 2010).
In dicots multilacunar nodes are always associated with sheathing leaf bases (Sinnott & Bailey 1914a, Majumdar and Pal 1961). Howard (1974) suggested that "the multilacunar node of modern [flowering] plants with a sheathing stipule may well be the residual expression of the primitive nodal plexus." A transition from herbaceous ancestry with scattered vascular bundles to multilacunar nodes and, finally, tubular woody growth, conforms well with the Monocots-First scenario, and is consistent with interpreting the vascular system of angiopsperms as having a foliar rather than axial origin (Nast 1944, Philipson & Balfour 1963, Esau 1965). Also, the question of why vascular bundles should have become scattered has no simple answer in a Dicots-First scenario beginning with a woody ancestor having a tubular siphonostele (Eames 1911, Slade 1971, Beck, Schmid & Rothwell 1982). Hypotheses of 'medullation' were developed to explain the origin of multilacuar nodes and scattered vascular bundles in which central medullary (parenchyma) tissues invade and expand, forming gaps or lacunae in the vascular cylinder (Sinnott & Bailey 1914b, Metcalf & Chalk 1950, p. xxxv). Medulation is an unnecessary hypothesis within a Monocots-First scenario.
Secondary Growth and Wood. The Monocots-First perspective implies that secondary growth is a later development in angiosperm evolution. Likewise, more versatile axillary growth, and new modes of branching allowed dicots to produce a grand variety of forms. For angiosperms, the bifacial cambium was a new innovation, but the difficulty of having a tubular vasculature traverse the node was a problem for early dicots. This is seen today in woody Chloranthaceae and Piperaceae where the nodes are conspicuously swollen. More advanced dicot lineages solved the problem of bringing the tubular vasculature through the nodal plexus, with the result that their nodes are not noticeably distended. From the Monocots-First perspective, dicot paleoherbs, such as Nymphaeales and most Piperales, never "lost" their ability to make wood; they are simply the living descendants of early pre-woody dicots. Evidence for polyphylly of vessel-formation in early angiosperms (Bailey 1944, Cheadle 1953, Carlquist 1987, 1996, Schneider & Carlquist 1996) is concordant with a more recent elaboration of woody tissues. In contrast to the uniformity of conifer woods, innovations in tracheary elements and xylem parenchyma interlinkages were key drivers in dicot diversification (Carlquist 2009).
More fundamentally, Wilson and Knoll (2010) claim that a vascular cambium able to initialize both strong structural fibers and efficient water-conducting vessels was the key innovation allowing angiosperms to produce so great a variety of woody forms. A Monocots-First scenario places this innovation within early dicots. Fossil angiosperm wood has not been found in strata earlier than about 112 million-years-ago (Philippe et al. 2008). Even if angiosperms had a highland origin (Sinnott 1916, Stebbins 1974), their wood should have been fossilized in riverine deposits. From the Monocots-First perspective, the lack of angiosperm wood in the early Cretaceous is the simple consequence of their herbaceous origin. Perhaps the radiation of herbivorous low-browsing dinosaurs during the late Jurassic (Bakker 1978) was a consequence of monocot expansion at that earlier time. Later, by the upper Cretaceous, the expansion of angiosperm-dominated forests coincides with rosid diversification (Wang et al. 2009, D. Soltis et al. 2010).
The Monocots-First scenario also helps explain the unusual diversity of wood anatomy in early dicotyledonous lineages. The variety of stem structures and wood anatomy within basal dicots ranges far beyond that found in living gymnosperms (Benzing 1967). Six distinctive structural types of secondary xylem have been identified in early-diverging dicots (Gottwald 1977). Carlquist (1987) observed that "... vessel specialization has happened in a highly polyphyletic manner in dicotyledons." Such anatomical variety is not something one would expect in a lineage having had a woody ancestry. This grand diversity in dicot wood anatomy and growth habit is more likely the consequence of new anatomical innovations within related lineages that were radiating on the basis of these same new capabilities. From a Monocots-First perspective, similarities in the wood of Amborella, Winteraceae, and conifers (Evert 2006, p. 302) are superficial and convergent.
More significantly, the Monocots-First scenario addresses the issue of "Darwin's abominable mystery." Though this mystery is generally characterized as the inability to identify angiosperm ancestors, Friedman (2009) argues that, for Darwin himself, the abominable mystery was the "astonishingly sudden appearance" of angiosperms in the mid-Cretaceous. Because woody plants fossilize much more readily than weak-stemmed herbs (Herendeen & Crane 1995), this sudden appearance is documented largely by woody lineages. In our scenario several dicot lineages probably developed the woody habit independently not long after dicot origins, giving rise to the sudden appearance of new and distinct woody lineages. This is in agreement with an interpretation of the chloroplast genome that woody Laurales "emerged after the split of angiosperms into monocots and dicots" (Goremykin et al. 2003a). The Dicots-First scenario provides no insight into why so many different woody lineages should have radiated at this point in time.
Flowers. Our Monocots-First scenario does not address floral evolution directly. Angiosperms are distinguished by two very unusual synapomorphies. First: leaf-like carpels, enclosing the ovule or ovules, form the ovary in which seeds develop. Second: double-fertilization initiates endosperm formation and seed development. These distinctive traits are sufficient to distinguish angiosperms from all other lineages. The most complete early Cretaceous fossil, Archaefructus, bears simple terminal axes with paired stamens proximally and solitary or clustered carpels distally, without subtending bracts or perianth (Sun et al. 2002). Despite its early date of 124 million-years-ago, this simple arrangement has been interpreted as an example of "evolutionary reduction" from a more conventional flower (Friis et al. 2003, Friis, Pedersen & Crane, 2006, Friis & Crane 2007, Doyle 2008, Endress & Doyle 2009). A more likely scenario is that carpels, stamens and their subtending bracts or enclosing perianth have come together to form flower-like configurations independently in different lineages, and that the earliest angiosperms did not posses well-organized flowers, exactly as is the case in Archaefructus (Stuessy 2004). In fact, the stamen-pairs of Archaefructus may be homologous to the paired stamens seen in the early ontogeny of many monocots and Piperales (Burger 1977, Kaul 1993).
Likewise, simple reproductive units in Zannichelia, Lilaea, Peperomia and Chloranthus may not have been "reduced from earlier flowers," as is generally thought (Endress & Doyle 2009). The reproductive units of Trithuria can be interpreted as prefloral (Rudall et al. 2009a). Similarly, transitions between flowers and inflorescence in the distal spikes of Triglochin (Lieu 1979, Charlton 1981) and in Cyperaceae subfamily Mapanioideae (Richards, Bruhl & Wilson 2006.) may reflect the ambiguity of early floral construction. More fundamentally, flowers are formed by differing gene regulatory networks in monocots, basal dicots, and core eudicots (Johansen, Frederiksen & Skipper 2006, Liu et al. 2010). Pentamerous flowers also appear to have evolved independently several times in Eudicots (Gonzalez & Bello 2009). In all likelihood, what we call flowers are later evolutionary contrivances, evolved to protect and display the reproductive organs. This view echoes Stuessy's (2004) argument that the evolution of flowers came late in angiosperm history, and contradicts the claim of P. Soltis et al. (2009) that "The unifying feature of angiosperms is the flower..." More importantly, if angiosperms evolved apart from other living seed plants, similarities of reproductive structures in other seed plants are likely to be independently convergent.
Age and Diversification. A few molecular studies indicate that within-angiosperm splitting may date back well over 200 million years (Martin, Gieri & Saedler 1989, Troitsky et al. 1991, Martin et al. 1993, Savard et al. 1994, Kim et al. 2004b). Other studies give evidence for deep phylogenetic branching within monocots (Goremykin et al. 2004). However, Chaw et al. (2004) claim that constant-rate methods for estimating monocot-dicot divergence from chloroplast genomes overestimate the time when "fast-evolving monocots are included." Accordingly, these authors excluded monocot lineages to give "...estimates consistent with the known evolutionary sequence of seed plant lineages..."
Because of their limited morphological diversity, deep divisions within the monocots are little appreciated. Not only are there deep divisions, monocots lack any central phylogenetic core as is found in dicots. The hugely diverse Eudicots are clearly linked to the Ranunculales and a few related clades (Soltis et al. 2000, Hilu et al. 2003, Anderson, Bremer & Friis 2005, Qiu et al. 2006, Hansen et al., 2007, APG III 2009, D. Soltis et al., 2010). This is very different from the situation among monocots. Takhtajan (1969, p. 121) pointed out that "...there is no monocot order that could occupy the place in their family tree that is occupied by the Magnoliales among dicots." Similarly, Cronquist (1981, p. 1032) noted that within monocots "No one of the subclasses can be considered basal to the others." Along the same lines, Cronquist enumerated six subclasses within the dicots and five subclasses within monocots, despite dicots having four times as many species as monocots. More recently and using DNA sequences, Chase et al. (1995) arranged monocots into six major clades, while Davis et al. (2004) identified 15 mutually exclusive groups within monocots. Relationships among many of these clades remain weakly supported (Givnish et al. 2006). Petrosaviaceae, comprising two small genera, one achlorophyllous, are now seen as a very isolated order, not closely related to other monocots (Cameron, Chase & Rudall 2003, Graham et al. 2006, Tobe & Takahashi 2009). A long history may be a plausible explanation why monocots are so deeply divided, and why they lack the core-clustering seen in dicots.
There is additional support for a long monocot history. Evidence for sea grass communities is found in the Late Cretaceous (Brasier 1975). The only land plants to have reverted to a submerged marine environment, one can imagine that such an unusual adaptation required a long period of time. Phytoliths characteristic of differing lineages of grasses (Poacae) have been found in late Cretaceous dinosaur coprolites (Prasad et al, 2005), while bambusoid fragments have been reported in 100 million-year-old Burmese amber (Poinar 2004). Fossil flowers of the highly derived Triuridaceae have been found in 90 million-year-old strata (Gandolfo, Nixon & Crepet 2002). Paleoherb-like angiosperm pollen from the middle Triassic (Hochuli & Burkhardt 2004, Zavada 2007), and the poorly preserved but monocot-like Sanmiguelia (Cornet 1989) are also noteworthy. Biogeography also implies great age within monocots. The Strelitziacae (Zingiberales), with highly derived flowers and large distichous leaves, include three genera of restricted range: Phenakospermum in Amazonia, Strelitzia in South Africa, and Ravenala in Madagascar. Such Gondwanan disjunctions suggest an early origin for so highly derived a family (cf. Bremer & Janssen 2006).
Other data lend support to a basal position for monocots. Apocarpy--where more than one unicarpellate pistil is found within the same flower--appears to be an ancient trait within angiosperms. Apocarpy is restricted to magnolids, ranunculids and rosids among dicots, but apocarpy occurs in Arecaceae (palms), Alismatales (aquatics), Petrosaviaceae and Triuridaceae among monocots; a far more widely scattered distribution. (These apocarpous gynoecia are interpreted as independently derived by Remizowa, Sokoloff & Rudall, 2010.) Similarly, pteridophyte-type starch grains were found in 14 monocot families but only in Gunneraceae among dicots (Czaja 1978). This study revealed a progression in which the monocots generally had the widely shared states, the dicots generally had the most derived states, while Piperales and Nymphaeales were intermediate.
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. Rooting angiosperms outside living gymnosperms implies a long and separate history. Some DNA studies have suggested a division as early as 300 million-years-ago (Martin et al. 1993, Goremykin, Hansmann & Martin 1997, Wang et al. 2007, Wu et al. 2007). So early a separation makes an independent acquisition of the seed habit in angiosperms more likely. In addition, many attributes of living gymnosperms contradict any close relationship with angiosperms. In gymnosperms pollination places pollen in contact with the ovule; in angiosperms pollination places pollen on the receptive surface of the carpel. The chemical nature of the pollen tube wall is very different in gymnosperms and angiosperms (Williams 2008). These differences are not what we would expect if pollination were a shared synapomorphy.
Gymnosperm lignins are derived primarily from guaiacyl monomers, whereas angiosperm lignins are guaiacyl/syringyl copolymers (Weng et al. 2008). The discrete shoot and root promoting WUS/WOX5 gene functions are unique to angiosperms and unlike development in gymnosperms (Nardmann, Reisewitz & Werr 2009). Angiosperms build their reproductive parts with only one copy of the Floricaula/LEAFY homeotic gene, while gymnosperms use two (Frohlich & Parker 2000). Similarly, angiosperms lack one of the three class III HD-Zip patterning genes found in gymnosperms (Floyd, Zalewski & Bowman 2006). Likewise, synonymous substitution ratios between chloroplast and mitochondrial genes are very different in gymnosperms and angiosperms (Drouin, Daoud & Xia 2008). In addition, gymnosperms do not display similar levels of polyploidy, or so grand a variety of chromosome rearrangements as do angiosperms (Ehrendorfer 1976, Leitch & Leitch 2008). In contrast, angiosperms and pteridophytes share a grand variety of ploidy levels (Hill & Crane 1982, Kejnovsky et al. 2009), while heterosporous ferns and angiosperms exhibit similar average chromosome numbers (Barker & Wolf 2010).
Wood anatomy and stem development are only superficially similar in gymnosperms and angiosperms; xylem pitting is fundamentally different (Carlquist 1996). In angiosperm seedlings the early epicotylar protoxylem originates in the base of the leaf primordia and progresses basipetally (downward) to form the central protoxylem of the stem (Benzing 1967, Larson 1976). Early xylem differentiation is very different in conifer seedlings where the first epicotylar xylem elements are located just above the hypocotyl and mature acropetally toward the expanding primary leaves and basipetally into the hypocotyl (Tilton & Palser 1976). In addition, angiosperm leaf-traces usually originate from one to many nodes below the leaf they will innervate, whereas gymnosperm leaf-traces usually originate directly below the leaf (Devadas & Beck 1972). In conifers tension wood (reaction wood) forms under the area of stress, but in angiosperms it forms over the area of stress, resulting in differing tree architectures (cf. Heinrich & Gärtner 2008). Resin chemistry is distinctly different in conifers and angiosperms (Bray & Anderson 2009). Taken together, these observations support the contention that wood has evolved independently in angiosperms.
A Monocots-First scenario helps us understand why so many attempts to relate angiosperms to extinct fossil forms such as the seed ferns have failed to be convincing (Taylor & Taylor 2009). These lineages are found as fossils because all were woody plants with tough foliage. Comparative studies seeking homologies between angiosperm reproductive structures and those of gnetopsids (Hickey & Taylor 1996) or other seed plants (Frohlich & Parker 2000, Doyle 2008, Specht & Bartlett 2009) are appropriate within a monophyletic Spermatophyta and a Dicots-First paradigm; but they are inappropriate from the Monocots-First perspective which roots the angiosperms outside other seed plants. An ancient and separate origin may explain why Hilton and Bateman (2006) found angiosperms as the basalmost lineage among living seed plants when using the fossil progymnosperm Cercropsis as the sole outgroup in a cladistic analysis, and why some nucleotide data place angiosperms at the base of seed plants (Burleigh & Mathews 2004). Phylogenetic analyses that place monocots before dicots--or angiosperms near the base of seed plants--need not be artifacts of "fast evolving monocots" or "long-branch attraction;" they may be correct.
In his introduction to a collection of papers on angiosperm origins, Beck (1976, p.4) remarked: "... it is only logical to expect that the pro-angiosperms should exhibit a range of characteristics intermediate between those of their precursors and typical angiosperms." A Monocots-First scenario satisfies this expectation: in both embryology and general growth habit the monocots do exhibit characteristics intermediate between simple pteridophytes, such as the Ophioglossales, and early dicots, such as the Piperales. This is consistent with the opinion that "In their reliance on vegetative growth, early angiosperms may have been more like ferns than other seed plants" (Feild et al. 2004). In addition, viewing monocots as the earliest of living angiosperms has an impressive precedent. In their encyclopedic series Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien, Engler and Prantl (1897-1915) placed monocots before dicots. They undoubtedly saw monocots as having simpler overall structure, as well as an embryology reminiscent of ferns and lycopods. In contrast, currently accepted thinking interprets the simplicity of monocot growth as the result of evolutionary loss and neoteny. But such explanations can also be seen as subsidiary hypotheses, bringing monocots into conformity with a Dicots-First scenario, itself embedded within a monophyletic Spermatophyta.
The Dicots-First scenario has identified major angiosperm lineages in a satisfying way and explained dicotyledonous diversification concordant with fossil evidence and DNA similarities. Thus, with dicots comprising about 80% of living angiosperm species, the Dicots-First scenario has helped us understand the phylogeny of a majority of flowering plants very well. Despite a few ambiguities in basal lineages, DNA data has identified a primitive assemblage of dicots, from which the vastly more numerous eudicots have emerged. Tricolpate pollen, first appearing in the fossil record 125 million-years-ago, marked a major advance in angiosperm evolution and correlates well with early eudicot diversification. Overall, these results have led to a satisfying consensus (P. Soltis & Soltis 2004, APG III 2009, D. Soltis et al. 2010). Accordingly, monocots are seen as one of several early-diverging angiosperm lineages, and the importance of the monocot-dicot division within angiosperms has been discarded.
Nevertheless, DNA phylogenies have recognized monocots as a firmly supported monophyletic assemblage within flowering plants (Duvall & Ervin 2004, Chase 2004, P. Soltis & Soltis 2004, Chang et al. 2005, Mardanov 2008, D. Soltis et al. 2010). While some studies have identified the genus Acorus as a basal monocot lineage rooted to early dicots (Duvall et al. 1993, Buzgo & Endress 2000, Chase 2004, APG III 2009, Givnish et al., 2010), specific monocot-dicot connections remain unresolved (Qui et al. 2006). Despite using an expanded multigene data set, Graham et al. (2006) concluded that "the issue of monocot placement in broader angiosperm phylogeny remains problematic."
Our DNA analyses were strongly affected by the inclusion of aquatic monocot lineages. We found that when these taxa are removed from some analyses, Amborella slips into the basal position among angiosperms. Likewise, D. Soltis & Soltis (2004) found monocots basal in an analysis that included the aquatic monocot Zostera. The importance of aquatic monocots in phylogeny reconstruction should not come as a surprise. Ancient forms are more likely to survive as specialists in increasingly competitive environments over time (Vermeij 1987). Among mammals, Echidna, like Platypus, is now thought to have had a semi-aquatic history (Phillips et al. 2009). Alternatively, the earliest angiosperms may have been semi-aquatic, not unlike early insects.
Overall, we believe DNA phylogenies that place monocots basally must be taken seriously. This view is concordant with a study by Donoghue and Mathews (1998) using phytochrome sequences which found that their monocot-rooted tree entailed fewer duplications and sorting events than did trees rooted among Magnoliales. A number of other genomic analyses have also placed monocots basally (Troitsky et al. 1991, Martin et al. 1993, Bezannilla et al. 2003, Goremykin et al. 2003a, 2003b, 2004, 2005, Chung 2006). These results have been dismissed because they do not conform to current thinking (D. Soltis & Soltis 2004, APG III 2009). In contrast, we argue for a basal position for monocots and claim that the structural simplicity of monocots is both ancient and primitive. This view is consistent with the rice (Oryza) genome lacking the paleo-hexaploidy found in grape, poplar and Arabidopsis genomes (FIPCGGC 2007). A much longer history for monocot lineages may also explain why the rice genome has 328 predicted host-sensors with non-RD Kinase domains while the Arabidopsis genome has only 35 (Ronald & Beutler 2010). More generally, the Monocots-First scenario outlines increasing morphological complexity within angiosperms over evolutionary time, with little need for hypotheses of morphological reduction and loss. We believe the diagram produced by our concatenated five-gene analysis (fig. 1) reflects a long history of phylogenetic isolation for angiosperms; sufficient time for angiosperms to have accrued their distinguishing synapomorphies (Stuessy 2004).
Moreover, a direct derivation of angiosperms from pteridophytic stock through monocot-like intermediates does not discount the many positive attributes of the traditional Dicots-First scenario. Thomas Kuhn (1970, p. 169) pointed out that "... the new paradigm must promise to preserve a relatively large part of the concrete problem-solving ability that has accrued to science through its predecessors." All that a Monocots-First scenario does is to remove monocots from within the 'basal angiosperms' and place them beneath the living descendants of the earliest dicots. The Dicots-First paradigm can continue to serve its explanatory role, with modification only at its base. Many studies, such as the recent review of Early Cretaceous fossils by Doyle & Endress (2010) remain unaffected. The Archaeoangiospermae in the sense of Stuessy (2010) are simply the living descendants of early dicot diversification. The essential distinction is that dicot-origin will no longer be conflated with angiosperm-origin, and sister group relationships will no longer be sought among living or fossil gymnosperms. From a Monocots-First viewpoint, the basal position of Amborella in so many DNA phylogenies results from chance convergences among inappropriate out-groups (cf. Graham & Iles 2009). In fact, the earliest dicots should have retained many ancestral monocot features, exactly as is the case in contemporary Nymphaeales and Piperales.
The Monocots-First scenario predicts similarity in genomic control of early embryogeny in monocots and pteridophytes. In contrast, the Dicots-First scenario implies closer similarity between dicots and other seed plants. Comparative genomics in early development should provide crucial data in deciding between the two scenarios. Unfortunately, by postulating a herbaceous origin, the Monocots-First scenario does little to clarify angiosperm origin. Because weak-stemmed herbs rarely fossilize, Paleozoic or Mesozoic fossils of Ophioglossales have not been found--nor any trace of the earliest angiosperms.
More importantly, the Monocots-First scenario reaffirms the monocot-dicot division as the primary dichotomy among living angiosperms, and recognizes dicot-origin as a major and later advance in flowering plant evolution. This is consistent with two studies indicating that increase in diversification rates occurred well after key angiosperm innovations were already in place (Sanderson & Donoghue 1994, Qiu et al. 2006). Newly equipped with woody stems, diverse branching, and deciduous leaves, dicots gave rise to an explosive radiation. Innovations in dicot anatomy fostered more complex architecture among angiosperms and more richly structured environments. Growing rapidly, spending less energy on defense and more on reproduction, and enticing sentient vectors to carry pollen between isolated plants, both monocots and dicots have fostered a terrestrial world far richer in species than any that has ever come before (Burger 2006, Novacek 2007, Benton 2010, Leigh 2010).
[Acknowledgements: All the molecular analyses mentioned at the beginning of the paper and the basis for Figure 1 were made by Thorsten Lumbsch, Chairman of the Botany Department here at Field Museum. Thorsten, a Lichenologist, declined to be a coauthor. His Figure makes clear the distinction of flowering plants. The National Science Foundation funded floristic studies on the Piperales of Costa Rica (1966-1972) which were basic to the ideas presented here.]


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SUNNYVALE, CA. and YOKNEAM, ISRAEL – December 10, 2012 – Mellanox® Technologies, Ltd. (NASDAQ: MLNX; TASE: MLNX), a leading supplier of high-performance, end-to-end interconnect solutions for data center servers and storage systems, today announced that Teradata has chosen its InfiniBand interconnect solution to accelerate the Teradata Aster Big Analytics Appliance. The Teradata Aster Big Analytics Appliance is designed for demanding analytics which require high computational power and the fastest data movement. Assisted by Mellanox InfiniBand, the Teradata appliance offers up to 19 times better data throughput and performs analytics up to 35 times faster than typical off-the-shelf commodity bundles.
"Teradata Aster Big Analytics Appliance is part of a truly unified, high-performance big data analytics architecture for the enterprise and will help customers achieve business value," said Carson Schmidt, vice president of platform engineering at Teradata. "The Mellanox InfiniBand interconnect is the best choice to enable the performance that is needed to analyze big data at a speed that no other analytic platform can deliver. This performance maximizes the return on investment and accelerates time to value."
Mellanox's InfiniBand interconnect technology provides greater performance and reduced CPU overhead utilizing Remote Direct Memory Access (RDMA) technology. Mellanox's interconnect technologies deployed in the Teradata Aster Big Analytics Appliance include ConnectX®-2 InfiniBand adapters and Mellanox InfiniBand switches, running at 40Gb/s InfiniBand speeds.
"Big data analytics has become a critical task for enterprises to achieve their financial goals - from a better understanding of consumer behavior to quick and timely fraud detection," said Gilad Shainer, vice president of market development at Mellanox Technologies. "We are delighted to see that our InfiniBand interconnect solution, integrated with Teradata Aster Big Analytics Appliance, provides the highest performance, scalability and reliability to enable the processing of large amounts of data and the delivery of results in a record time."
Supporting Resources:
- Learn more about Mellanox's complete InfiniBand solution
- Learn more about Mellanox's Big Data Acceleration solutions
- Learn more about Teradata Aster Big Analytics Appliance
- Follow Mellanox on Twitterand Facebook
About Mellanox
Mellanox Technologies is a leading supplier of end-to-end InfiniBand and Ethernet interconnect solutions and services for servers and storage. Mellanox interconnect solutions increase data center efficiency by providing the highest throughput and lowest latency, delivering data faster to applications and unlocking system performance capability. Mellanox offers a choice of fast interconnect products: adapters, switches, software and silicon that accelerate application runtime and maximize business results for a wide range of markets including high performance computing, enterprise data centers, Web 2.0, cloud, storage and financial services. More information is available at www.mellanox.com.
Mellanox, BridgeX, ConnectX, CORE-Direct, InfiniBridge, InfiniHost, InfiniScale, PhyX, SwitchX, Virtual Protocol Interconnect and Voltaire are registered trademarks of Mellanox Technologies, Ltd. Connect-IB, FabricIT, MetroX, MLNX-OS, ScalableHPC, Unbreakable-Link, UFM and Unified Fabric Manager are trademarks of Mellanox Technologies, Ltd. All other trademarks are property of their respective owners.


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Welcome to Anutiama
We invite you to explore the Magnificent and Miraculous Runes of the Infinite Mother through a most wonderful and supportive Dashboard environment that let's you do all manner of spreads for guidance, manifestation, clearing and activation, with greatest ease!
Received by the mystic seer Almine, the Runes are powers that will support you to greater clarity, fuller expression, and potency in life. They work to merge inner and outer realities until both become a seamless whole, and life fluidly reshapes to your evolving awareness. The Runes help to stimulate new capacities in you, so that your life refines to ever greater levels of self-sovereignty, beauty and grace. Read more about their power on the Rune page.
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The Rune Mastery app as we called it at the beginning, began with a casual, "I'd love to have a software program that would support all the spreads, so that I could print them out, create power stacks, meditate with them, sleep on them, and so on, without having them missing from my decks for days." Dave replied, "That would be too hard to do", to which I responded, "Too late Dave, I put it in my 'Field of Hope!'"
About two weeks later, I get an email from Dave with a link to the first prototype! It felt like pure magic! I then sent him a long wish list, and Dave told me why certain things were not possible… then a few weeks later he sent me a new version where he'd managed to implement everything. And it always was better than I had envisioned. So my wish lists just got more and more demanding. Later he said he'll never say it's not possible, as every time he was proven wrong!
So many iterations later – of development, major rewrites, redesigns and upgrades, and ever-present magic—we were thrilled to be offering our first product release in May 2016! The extensive use of this initial public release has resulted in a completely new version with a lot of added functionality! It has truly grown into a very extensive and complete Rune Mastery environment to support your personal accelerated awakening, and to support a Rune practice with clients. Find out how you can create a practice with the Runes, or enhance your current healing practice (visit the Training page for Mastery and Grand Mastery training).
Find out What the Runes Can Do For You–Personally or as a Rune Practitioner
The Anutiama Dashboard environment makes the Runes easily accessible so that they likely become a central part of daily guidance and manifesting a life of grace. The Runes are the most potent and versatile tool of leveraged evolution on the planet – a precious gift from the Infinite that we have Almine to thank for.
Through the Anutiama Dashboard environment and one of the available Rune subscriptions, these powers become accessible to you on your desktop computer, laptop or mobile device. With full search, spread and integration capabilities, you can consult with them and take in their powers easily throughout the day. And if sharing this modality with clients interests you, the environment provides great support for this too. You can do spreads with clients through screen-sharing and then give clients access to their spreads and support material to integrate the power of the Runes deeply.
For a discovery session to learn more about the Runes, and understand what they can do for you, email email@example.com
The time of the Rune Masters and of the Runes of power for the liberation of all is at hand.
Read the story of the Runes as told by Almine, by following the link on the Runes Page.
It is recommended that you have the Book of Runes not only in order to better navigate and understand the power of the spreads in the Rune Mastery Environment, but also for its function as power object and the The Bridge of No Time, for becoming a Master of the Runes.
Visit the products page to see which version best suits you.
If you have any questions on the product, please contact us through the contact form, or direct email to: or
"I absolutely LOVE the Rune App. The possibilities are endless! It's beyond a database…it's ALIVE. I can do spreads any time…even on my phone…anywhere! The different spreads are beyond brilliant! I especially love the "Yes & No" spread and how it reveals so much. One time I kept asking questions I knew the answers to and didn't understand the answers I was getting. I realized that I knew the answer and asked "should I stop asking these questions?" and the answer was "Yes". The "Daily Rune" is so personal. I've received praise from clients because I'm able to send the spread to them. They love having something in their hands from the session that has power which is really already in them!
Thanks so much for this!"
The Rune app is a truly invaluable tool for practitioners and students of the Runes, whether it is for personal use or client work, or a bit of both. The multiple spreads and more complex search functions leave so much room for working with the Runes in more layered and nuanced ways, to gain deeper insight and understanding, and leverage deeper embodiment of the power of the Runes for evolution of consciousness, and therefore beneficial contribution to life. What I particularly like about this digital format is that it makes the power of the Runes almost impossible to manipulate, whereas I have observed in paper format the tool can be misused like any other. This format feels very secure to me. Also, the addition of the many additional spreads and the incorporation of the wheels is truly wonderful. I would highly recommend this platform to any Rune enthusiasts!
Way back in December I sent you an email describing my overwhelming response to the first iterations of the rune app.
I wrote: "Today Anita shared a screen shot of a 7 field rune reading and I just had to write to you to let you know how moved I was by simply observing it.
The fanning out of the colors, the comprehensive description of each card broken down the way it is…is simply magnificent and beyond anything I had imagined.
Just witnessing the spread I sense the aliveness. The magic of the Runes is fully expressed this way.
After doing so many readings flipping pages in the the book to find the angel names and writing down the cards and meanings to ponder over time, I am simply overjoyed at the prospect of immersing myself in the possibilities offered by your software."
Fast forward to today when I have completed scores of readings for myself and dozens for clients. A sense of profound awe remains and is now coupled with a deep devotion to the sacredness that is imbued within each element of the rune reading processes.
In the past week I have used a host of the special features – from keyword exploration of individual cards to yes-and-no readings to special pre-set themes. Each iteration of the program is more astonishing than the last.
I can't wait to see what you and Anita do next.
With deep appreciation
I am impressed with the depth of thought and elegant work you have put together to make this incredible Rune Mastery App. I didn't know how you could bring such a rich and complex process into an app, but I am very very happy and exited to see what has all come to be! It is a truly a Living Work of Art and I am very exited to delve in. Not only do I see this as a tool to use for myself and clients but something I would like to encourage every one to engage and learn from, this is a Living Academy of Communication of the One and the Many in a common language, through the exponential power of App Technology. My deepest Love, Praise, Gratitude and Surrendered Trust in the privilege we have to engage and participate in such joyful work, and appreciate the true glory of the Infinite-One Life. Many Blessings and Infinite Prosperity your way. Much Love, Erlisa


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From Tron to The Girl With The Dragon Tattoo, forward-thinking jewelry brand TomTom is all over the major blockbusters. They've been chalking up plenty of time at the theaters since their former Tron-inspired collection, and have created their spring '12 Punk Fleur collection in what we think is a beautiful homage to Lizbeth Salander. Photographed by famed celebrity and fashion photographer, Justin Coit, the line mixes gold, oxidized silver, and antique bronze with beautiful stones and pyramid studs, that'll make you look badass even if you don't have blunt bangs and a giant back piece.
Photo: Courtesy of TomTom


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Gas Geyser Installers
Queensburgh Gas Installers. Get a Professional Today. All Our Work Is Safe Neat and Is Offered to You at an Affordable Price. Contact Us Today.
Our Services
Gas Geysers Installations
Gas Hob Installations
Gas Stove installations
Leak Detection And Repair
Get a Quote For Your Project
Safe Reliable and Affordable. Call Now
Lifestyle Gas DBN has been operating in the gas industry for over 15 years. We have completed over 2000 in that time frame and have extensive experience in our field.
What Do You Get?
We supply the Full Gas installation which includes gas piping, gas hose, the regulator, shut off valves, fittings, Gas COC etc. Anything we do not do or that is not included will be clearly relayed to you ensuring that we are both happy.
Years Established
Completed installations Plus
Current Promotion
We sell the top of the range Bosch gas geysers with nationwide support from the Bosch service team. As installers, we only want to sell the best in order to give our customers the best quality available and to have as few comebacks as possible. That is why we recommend the bosch optiflow range. Get yours while stocks last.
Why Choose Us?
We see many installations (not ours) that do not meet regulations and in some cases are dangerous. This means that the customer must pay to fix the other installers mistakes. We do our job properly the first time round and as safe as possible. Saving you time and money
Call For a Quote:
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Frequently Asked Questions
Can I run a Gas Geyser off a 9kg bottle
No, the liquid inside the gas bottle will not vaporize fast enough to supply the gas geyser.
Can my gas geyser go in the roof?
No, In case of a geyser malfunction, it would be far safer to install the geyser outside.
What gas geyser should I buy?
We recommend fan force gas geysers for their far superior lifespan and efficiency.
Please refer to our other website where we go in detail on how gas geysers work and the types of gas geysers: https://eco-sol.co.za/how-does-a-gas-geyser-work/
Where can I buy a gas geyser?
You can get a gas geyser from us along with the gas installation on one quote. Or you can buy from our online store: https://eco-sol.co.za
Client Testimonials
I could smell gas and I dId not know where it's coming from, I got the professionals in. They detected the leak and did the repairs. Can Recommend any time.They also do gas fitting and gas installation
Great service and very neat installation!!!
I phoned on Monday morning with a gas leak on my gas installation. They managed to arrange an engineer to arrive on the same day to fix the boiler. They stated on the phone that prices started from R450 call out for up to 30 minutes work and if it would be over 30 minutes the engineer would advise before commencing any work. leak detected and repaired. Excellent professional service.


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07 June, 2010 | (01 hr)
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Since its launch in 1999, the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) has grown to become the global standard for sustainability reporting that covers the environmental, social, governance and economic performance of companies. In 2009 over 1360 companies issued a report based upon the third version - G3 – of GRI's Sustainability Reporting Guidelines, which have been translated into 23 languages. Bloomberg and Thomson Reuters are gathering sustainability information gleaned from public company reports, the majority of which are based upon GRI framework and making it available to investors worldwide. NASDAQ, which together with CRD Analytics created the NASDAQ Global Sustainability Index (QCRD), removed Microsoft, Cisco and Oracle from the QCRD because they did not disclose the minimum 40% of core GRI metrics needed to qualify.
Similarly, we see a growing movement toward integrated reporting that covers both financial and non-financial (sustainability) performance. The economic value of a company's sustainability strategy will increasingly be disclosed in corporate reports and companies will be held accountable for performance on all sustainability dimensions (environment, social, governance and economic).
This webcast will discuss:
- Why GRI is gaining ground, especially among mainstream financial institutions
- How GRI helps companies manage and measure their sustainability strategies
- The opportunities and risks of greater transparency and growing stakeholder demands
- The future of integrated reporting and how this will impact corporate management and investor behavior
Suzanne Fallender
Suzanne Fallender manages the production of Intel's annual corporate responsibility report and works with a number of groups across the company to integrate corporate responsibility information into both internal and external communications. She has more than 14 years of experience in the f...Full Bio
Doug Kangos
Doug Kangos is responsible for helping to develop his firm's perspectives and positions on a range of business issues and advising PwC's US clients on the business impact. Doug has focused on everything from the complexities of fair value accounting to the monetization of carbon, and ...Full Bio
Rina Levy
Rina Levy works with both clients and corporations to improve transparency and disclosure of environmental, social and governance (ESG) data. Prior to joining the ESG team, Rina worked as a Fundamental Analyst covering North American Oil & Gas companies. She is currently a member of the Susta...Full Bio
Mike Wallace
Mike Wallace is the Director of the Global Reporting Initiative's (GRI) Focal Point USA. Officially launched in January 2011 at the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), GRI's Focal Point USA is responsible for supporting the growth and quality of sustainability reporting in the US.Full Bio
Dinah A. Koehler, Sc.D.
Dinah Koehler, Sc.D. is research leader for sustainability and climate change at Deloitte Research – the research division of the Deloitte US firm. She earned her Doctor of Science degree in Environmental Science and Risk Management from Harvard's School of Public Health, did coursework at ...Full Bio


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After Barack Obama's stunning, revelatory speech on race, many feminists wondered if Hillary Clinton could give a similarly rousing speech on gender. We already figured that Clinton wouldn't be the one to give such a speech, which is why we were so heartened to see that the Huffington Post is taking matters into its own hands. Blogger Marie Wilson thinks we need to "open up the conversation on gender in America," and invites HuffPo commenters to make contributions to a speech on gender. We thought that was a phenomenal idea, and so we are asking you, our fearless Jezebel peanut gallery, to do the same.
We're asking you to add a 15-word or less phrase to a gender speech that we will create in this post. Please number your comments. Our beginning will be part 1. The first comment, therefore, should be numbered 2. The comment after that should be 3. Each comment should build on what the previous comment expressed. Make sense? We realize the comments can often be wonky, so if there are several number 2s and 3s and 4s, that's totally fine. It will be a wild west feminist free-for-all!
We said we'd start, so here goes nothing.
On August 26, 1920, women were given the right to vote in the United States. We've come along way since then, but the current campaign for president has unearthed just how much misogyny is acceptable in public discourse. We live in a country where women still make less money for doing the same jobs; where sexual abuse and harassment continue to run rampant through every city and state; where only 14% of the senate is female. We need to keep fighting to make these inequalities dissipate and to do so means never giving up the struggle.
Now you go!
Help Us Write "The Gender Speech" [Huffington Post]
Obama Race Speech: Read The Full Text [Huffington Post]


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Alumni Engagement Event
Attendees at an Alumni Engagement Event at the National Postal Museum in Washington DC. Photo by Alexis Glenn/Creative Services/George Mason University
Alumni Engagement EventNational Postal Museumadvancementalumni relations
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