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Post-Maoism: Badiou and Politics
Bruno Bosteels
The Red Years
In "So Near! So Far!" the first section in his polemical Deleuze: The Clamor of Being, Alain Badiou briefly recalls the tense ideological situation in the late sixties and early seventies in which he once went so far as to boycott his older colleague's course at the recently created University of Paris VIII at Vincennes:
Then came the red years, 1968, the University of Vincennes. For the Maoist that I was, Deleuze, as the philosophical inspiration for what we called the "anarcho-desirers," was an enemy all the more formidable for being internal to the "movement" and for the fact that his course was one of the focal points of the university. 1
In the original French version, published in 1997, this passage—like the remainder of the brief introduction in which it appears—is actually written
positions 13:3 © 2005 by Duke University Press.
positions 13:3
Winter 2005
in the present tense. Pour le maoïste que je suis, Badiou thus writes, literally, "For the Maoist that I am." 2 Of course, the French usage merely represents
a sudden shift to the narrative present; technically speaking, we are still in
the past, and, in this sense, the English translation is by no means incorrect. Nevertheless, something of the heightened ambiguity attached to the use of the narrative present is lost in the passage from one language to the other, as the overall image of a potentially discomforting past replaces the suggestion of an ongoing loyalty, or at the very least a lingering debt, to Maoism. By way of framing my translation of Badiou's talk "The Cultural Revolu- tion: The Last Revolution?" I want to argue that Badiou's relation to Mao- ism, which amounts to a form of post-Maoism, can in fact be summarized in the ambiguous use of the narrative present. If we were to spell out this ambiguity, we could say that Badiou was and still is a Maoist, even though he no longer is the same Maoist that he once was. Badiou himself says at the beginning of his talk, quoting Rimbaud to refer to his red years: "J'y suis, j'y suis toujours" ("I am there, I am still there," sometimes translated as "I am here, I am still here"). And yet we also sense that an impression of past- ness undeniably overshadows the past's continuing presence in the present. What seems so near is also exceedingly far; and what is there is perhaps not quite here. By the same token, we should not overlook the possibility that
a certain inner distancing may already define the original rapport to Mao-
ism itself. In fact, Mao's own role for Badiou will largely have consisted in
introducing an interior divide into the legacy of Marxism-Leninism. "From the Jinggang Mountains to the Cultural Revolution, Mao Zedong's thought is formulated against the current, as the work of division," Badiou sum- marizes in his Théorie de la contradiction (1975), before identifying Mao's
logic of scission as a prime example of dialectical thinking: "Rebel thinking
if there ever was one, revolted thinking of the revolt: dialectical thinking." 3
Maoism, then, in more strictly philosophical terms will come to mark an understanding of the dialectic as precisely such a thinking through inner splits and divided recompositions. As Badiou would write several years later in an article for Le Perroquet, one of the periodicals of his Maoist group: "At stake are the criteria of dialectical thinking—general thinking of scission, of rupture, of the event and of recomposition." 4
Bosteels ❘❘ Post-Maoism
Working Hypothesis
We could begin by pondering some of the more unfortunate consequences of the fact that Badiou's vast body of work, standing nearly as tall as its author, has only recently begun to attract serious critical attention. This is true not only in English-speaking parts of the world, where several books have now been translated or are being translated, but even in his home country of France. In fact, to find a long-standing tradition of critical com- mentary and concrete analysis informed by this thinker's work, I often insist that we should turn to Latin America, especially to Argentina, where the journal Acontecimiento: Revista para pensar la política for over a decade has made specific interventions inspired by Badiou about such situations as the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo in Argentina or the Zapatistas in Mexico. Most of Badiou's publications, together with a considerable number of docu- ments still unedited even in French, have also long been available in Spanish and Portuguese. By contrast, not even the two major texts, Théorie du sujet (1982) and L'Etre et l'événement (1988), are published as of today in English. Many Anglo-American readers thus almost by default limit themselves to the later and shorter books, starting with the 1999 edition of Manifesto for Philosophy (1989) all the way to the deceptively simple 2002 edition of Eth- ics: An Essay on the Understanding of Evil (1993), while others have come to Badiou's philosophy only from neighboring traditions, by focusing on his Deleuze or on the "event" of Christianity as addressed in Saint Paul: The Foundation of Universalism (1997). What is often lost along the way in these readings are precisely Badiou's long-standing debts to Maoism and to the political sequence officially known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Badiou explains in his Ethics that this Maoist period actually involved a double allegiance, a fidelity not to one but to two events, referring to "the politics of the French Maoists between 1966 and 1976, which tried to think and practise a fidelity to two entangled events: the Cultural Revolution in China, and May '68 in France." 5 Many readers are of course aware that during those tumultuous years, while never being strictly speaking "pro-China," the author was a staunch defender of the ideas of Chairman Mao. Badiou himself makes suf- ficient references throughout his work to suggest how formative this expe-
rience was, and still continues to be, for his thinking. But knowledge of this fact rarely leads to a sustained inquiry into the substance of Badiou's Maoism. Furthermore, the commonly accepted wisdom among Badiou's readers now holds that, by the mid- to late eighties, we are witness to a clean break away from all dialectical forms of thinking—including a break away, there- fore, from the thought of Mao Zedong. At least Peter Hallward has the virtue of outlining the possibility of a much more painstaking investigation into the continuing legacy of Badiou's Maoism. This legacy involves not just an unflinching fidelity to forms of political commitment but also a whole series of theoretical and philosophical invariants. 6 If this is indeed the case, though, should we not at the very least be wary of drawing too quick a line in the sand between the "early" and the "later" Badiou?
The Maoist Investigation
Even today Badiou's concept of politics as a procedure of truth remains to a large extent inseparable, despite the apparent self-criticisms, from the theory and practice of his vision of Maoism. To give but one symptomatic indica- tion of this continuity, all procedures of truth, and not just the political one, involve a sustained "inquiry" or "investigation" into the possible con- nection or disconnection between the various aspects of a given situation and that which will have taken place in this situation under the sign of an event. As Badiou writes in L'Etre et l'événement: "In the end, therefore, we can legitimately treat the inquiry, finite series of minimal observations [constats], as the truly basic unity of the procedure of fidelity" and, thus, through "the subtle dialectic between knowledges and postevental fidelity" that is at stake in such procedures, as part of "the very kernel of the dialectic between knowledge and truth." 7 Badiou certainly must not have forgotten that the task of undertaking such "inquiries" or "investigations" (enquêtes) in many parts of the world was one of the most important lessons drawn from Maoism. A whole chapter in The Little Red Book is dedicated to this very ques- tion under the title "Investigation and Study." 8 And one of the earliest con- crete examples of this method of study can be found in Mao's own 1927
Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan, the main topic of which—the revolutionary role of the peasantry that already sounded a strong note of dissonance in comparison with orthodox Marxism and Lenin- ism—he would later revisit among other places in his 1941 Rural Surveys (again, in the French editions, the same term, enquête, is used to translate the concepts that appear as "investigation" and "survey" in English). In the preface to this last text, Mao reiterates the principle of the investigation as a form of concrete analysis of a concrete situation, so to speak, going against the abstraction of pure and unconditioned theory:
Everyone engaged in practical work must investigate conditions at the lower levels. Such investigation is especially necessary for those who know theory but do not know the actual conditions, for otherwise they will not be able to link theory with practice. Although my assertion, "No investi- gation, no right to speak," has been ridiculed as "narrow empiricism," to this day I do not regret having made it; far from regretting it, I still insist that without investigation there cannot be any right to speak. 9
Serge July, a leading member of the soon-to-become ex–Gauche Prolé- tarienne, by far the most famous French Maoist group, and a subsequent cofounder of the daily Libération, would later go on to observe that "the investigation is the theoretical key to French Maoism." 10 In fact, the prin- ciple of the investigation, or enquête, together with the so-called assessment of experience, or bilan d'expérience, was a fundamental feature of Badiou's own Maoist organization, the UCFML, or Union of Communists of France Marxist-Leninist. The investigation is precisely that which enables any given militant pro- cess to continue moving along in the spiral between the various political experiences and their effective theoretical concentration. Thus, in a collec- tion of texts summarizing the achievements of the UCFML's first year of existence, we read: "The Maoist investigation is not a simple observation of facts [un simple constat], not even the enthusiastic observation of the conse- quences of our interventions. It solves a problem. Which problem? That of the takeover of the effects of the intervention by the workers," and later on, in another document: "The investigation must not only bear on the search for a new objective in the struggle, it must propose the putting into place of
lasting practices, set off the ideological struggle. Before and after the strug- gle, something has changed, we must know how to make this live on." 11 Following Mao, moreover, the UCFML sees an urgent task in carrying out investigations not just in the urban working class but also among the poor peasants: "In particular, it is of prime importance to lead militant investiga- tions on the great revolts of poor peasants, especially in West and Central France." 12 To a large extent, this last task is taken up in the UCFML's Le livre des paysans pauvres, a collective and local equivalent to Mao's Rural Sur- veys, that sums up the organization's militant activity in the countryside in the seventies in France. Finally, we may also mention the even more recent survey performed in China, in March and April 1989, by Badiou's close friend and collaborator Sylvain Lazarus together with his Italian comrades Sandro Russo, Valerio Romitelli, and Claudia Pozzana, part of whose joint follow-up discussion was subsequently published in the UCFML's newsletter Le Perroquet. 13 If I have gone into this much detail on the question of the investigation, raised anew in the context of L'Etre et l'événement, my reason for doing so is merely to showcase the pivotal role of certain Maoist concepts and principles including in the so-called later works by Badiou. However, the point is not just to underscore the mere fact that these concepts and principles persist but also and above all to grasp how, where, and to what purpose they are put to work. In L'Etre et l'événement, I would argue that they tend to come into the picture precisely where truth and knowledge are articulated in what is still called a dialectic—even though the book's introduction seems to suppose that we are to leave behind the "stillborn" tradition of dialectical material- ism with the decisive turn to mathematics. As Badiou explains:
This is to say that everything revolves around thinking the couple truth/ knowledge. This means to think the rapport—which is rather a disrap- port—between a postevental fidelity, on the one hand, and, on the other, a fixed state of knowledge, or what I will call the encyclopedia of a situ- ation. The key of the problem lies in the way in which a procedure of fidelity traverses the existing knowledge, starting from the supernumerary point that is the name of the event. 14
We can see at which point in the overall theory concepts such as the investigation are operative: there where a truth "traverses" knowledge and subsequently opens the way to "force" the available encyclopedia of a given situation, so as to change the old into the new. Without any explicit mention of its Chinese sources, even for Badiou's later work the investigation is that which ensures the possible connection of certain elements in the existing situation to the break introduced by a rare event. Thus the dialectical rapport between truth and knowledge is precisely the place of inscription of most of Badiou's debts to Maoism. At the same time, the process of fidelity and the sequence of investigations in which such fidelity finds its most basic organized expression also keep the dialec- tic of truth and knowledge from turning into an inoperative, quasi-mysti- cal or miraculous duality of the kind that so many critics seem to want to stick on Badiou's own work. This would seem to confirm the fundamental hypothesis that I wish to lay out in the following pages, namely, that only an understanding of Badiou's ongoing debts to Maoism can give us insight into his proposed renewal of the materialist dialectic while, conversely, a miraculous and antidialectical understanding of the relation between truth and knowledge is often the result of a failure to come to terms with the Mao in his work. Rather than having become a self-confessed post-Marxist, following a career path parallel to that of authors such as Ernesto Laclau, Badiou is indeed better described as a post-Maoist. This can be said to be the case, however, only if we are able, despite so much backlash in the wake of the postmodernism debate, to retain the active, almost psychoanalytic meaning of the prefix so as to signal a critical attempt to work through the lasting truths as well as the no less undeniable blind spots of Maoism. "Post-Mao- ism," in other words, not as that which comes simply after the end of Mao- ism, or even more simplistically after the death of Mao Zedong, the trial of the Gang of Four, and the coming into power of Deng Xiaoping, but as the name for a peculiar historical configuration in which critical thought returns, even if subreptitiously so, to the half-forgotten and half-repressed lessons of Maoism. Needless to say, this configuration is largely international, with contemporary varieties of post-Maoism existing not only in France but
also in Argentina, Chile, the Basque country, or even the United States—to name but a few cases beyond the more obvious instances of Peru, Nepal, or the Philippines. Finally, in some ways the current conjuncture in political philosophy can be said to suffer the consequences of a failed or incomplete passage through Maoism. Indeed, some of the best-known political thinkers of our time, including those who otherwise consider themselves loyal to a certain Marx, become caught in the trappings of a conceptual framework that might have benefited from a more sustained confrontation with some of the Maoist les- sons taken up by Badiou. I am thinking, for instance, of the pivotal role attributed to "antagonism" in the writings on radical democracy by Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, or even in the collaborative work by Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt—with the latter duo swearing off any pretense to a dialectical interpretation of the concept, which they otherwise wield with surprising ease, and the former more generally showing little or no theoreti- cal appreciation at all for the author of "On Contradiction." 15 As a result, these political philosophers seem to call for a recognition of the structural or even ontological fact of antagonism in general as being constitutive of the social field, rather than working through the peculiar nature of antagonistic contradictions, or their blurring, in the global situation today. The painful irony, however, is that in so doing, these political thinkers may very well give themselves an irrefutable air of radicalism while foreclosing the pos- sibility of actually changing a particular situation—of changing the old into the new, which is precisely what always was to have been thought according to Badiou. "The true dialectical question is never in the first place: what happens that is important?" he writes in Théorie de la contradiction: "The true question is always: what happens that is new?" 16 Or, in a more recent version: "My unique philosophical question, I would say, is the following:
Can we think that there is something new in the situation, not the new outside the situation nor the new somewhere else, but can we really think through novelty and treat it in the situation?" Badiou says in an interview:
"But, of course, to think the new in the situation, we also have to think the situation, and thus we have to think what is repetition, what is the old, what is not new, and after that we have to think the new." 17 This struggle between the old and the new, as the effect of lasting contradictions among
the people, was precisely one of the more famous universal lessons of the Cultural Revolution.
Serving Truths
Even a quick survey of Badiou's work supports the thesis of an ongoing and sustained debt to Maoism. Not only do his first publications, the short books Théorie de la contradiction (1975) and De l'idéologie (1976), together with his running commentary on Zhang Shiying's interpretation of Hegel in Le noyau rationnel de la dialectique hégélienne (1978), offer a systematic account of Mao's thought inflected by French theory and philosophy, but his recently published lecture series, Le Siècle (2005), also includes a long lecture, "One Divides into Two," in which Badiou returns to some of the most violent events and debates of the late sixties, at the height of the Cul- tural Revolution, especially over the formal distinction between antagonistic and nonantagonistic contradictions, in an attempt to think through their possible relevance today. Between these two moments, Badiou's relation to Maoism may seem to have been mostly critical, as can be gleaned from his brief remarks, both in conferences from Conditions (1994) and in his Ethics (1993), about the "disaster" provoked by the Red Guards. Finally, in his lec- ture on the Cultural Revolution, Badiou once more confronts Mao's legacy, this time by linking the sequence of events in China between 1966 and 1976 (or, in its most reduced version, between May 1966 and September 1967) to his own concept of "politics without a party" as practiced by an offshoot of the UCFML, the Organisation Politique (OP). 18 The different steps in this evaluation of Maoism immediately raise a series of questions. A first question obviously concerns the precise extent to which Badiou would have abandoned the principles of his youthful Mao- ism. After his seminar on Théorie du sujet, which was still strongly over- determined by his Maoist experience, has he perhaps fallen in line with the contemporary trend that, whether euphoric or melancholy, declares the historical end, if not also the utter doctrinal demise, of Marxism and cer- tainly of Marxism-Leninism-Maoism? A second question regards the extent to which Badiou's logical and ontological inquiries, principally in L'Etre et l'événement and in the new book Logiques des mondes, would obliterate the
role of dialectical materialism. Has he all but abandoned this last tradition, which was the starting point of his work with, and soon afterward against, Louis Althusser? Third, we might want to ask ourselves how innovative and far-reaching Badiou's recent criticisms of the Cultural Revolution and of the disastrous role of the Red Guards really are. In particular, do these criticisms actually amount to an attempt at self-criticism of the excesses in his earlier works? Finally, the question also remains to what extent the idea of a politics without a party, which Badiou now finds to be already partially at work in the Cultural Revolution, would really undermine his earlier, strongly party-oriented, accounts of Maoism. In other words, how much change has really taken place in his concept—not to mention his actual practice—of the organization of politics? "Learn from the masses" and "investigate conditions at the lower levels," Mao had said, and more famously: "Serve the people." 19 For Badiou, once he seems to abandon the Maoist vocabulary, the aim is to learn from truths produced outside philosophy, in the actual conditions of art or politics or sci- ence, so as to investigate what would be needed, in terms of conceptual tools, to register and concentrate the effects of certain events within philosophy. Painful though it may be to admit that philosophy itself does not produce any truth, the philosopher's task thus consists in serving the truths that are occasionally produced elsewhere. Badiou concludes:
A philosophy worthy of this name—that which begins with Parmen-
ides—is nonetheless antinomical to the service of goods, insofar as it
strives to be at the service of truths, because it is always possible to strive
to be at the service of that which one does not constitute oneself. Philoso-
phy is thus at the service of art, of science, and of politics. Whether it is also capable of being at the service of love is more doubtful (art, on the other hand, as a mixed procedure, upholds the truths of love). 20
From "serving the people" to "serving the truths" thus could sum up the trajectory behind Badiou's post-Maoism. In both cases, a materialist philoso- pher is one who begins by listening to, and in thinking ultimately serves, that which conditions thought from the outside.
Maoism as Post-Leninism
As I mentioned before, Badiou's openly Maoist years are specifically tied up with a group of militants gathered under the banner of the UCFML, sometimes referred to simply as the UCF, or (Group for the Foundation of) the Union of Communists of France Marxist-Leninist. The futurity of this small organization, oriented toward a unification of communists yet to come, as well as their loyalty to a Mallarméan principle of restricted action, is perhaps not foreign to the ambiguity that surrounds the main political objective of its participants, namely, to found a "party of a new type." 21 The ambiguity lies in the fact that the party of a new type is also already a type of organization that no longer seems to be much of a formal party at all: for example, there are no strict rules of affiliation, no membership cards, and no party secretaries. Maoism, in this sense, is foremost an effort to come to terms with the party-form, that is, with the form of the party as the van- guard of class-consciousness in the strict Leninist sense: "What is called Maoism has developed for our time a deepening of the Leninist concep- tion of the party." 22 Badiou's Maoism, despite its apparent synonymy with Marxism-Leninism, is thus already a post-Leninism: both a step away from and a renewed inquiry into the party-form of emancipatory politics. This is summed up in a retrospective statement of the UCFML, published in 1981: "Our conviction that Maoism is a stage of Marxism—its post-Leninist stage—dates back to our foundation. It is rooted in the experience, the uni- versal bearing and the assessment of the Cultural Revolution." 23 In 1969 Badiou had attempted an innovation from within as a dissident founding member of the Unified Socialist Party (PSU), by coauthoring the pamphlet Contribution au problème de la construction d'un parti marxiste- léniniste de type nouveau together with Emmanuel Terray, Harry Jancovici, and D. Ménétrey. This proposal eventually would be rejected by the end of the same year, at the PSU's national convention held in Dijon. In the mean- time, however, Badiou joined with his fellow militants Natacha Michel and Sylvain Lazarus, among a few others, to give birth to the UCFML. Despite sharing many ideological interests, not to mention an almost identical name, this group should not be confused with the UJCML, or UJC(ML), the Union of the Communist Youths (Marxist-Leninist), which likewise drew many
members from the student body of the École Normale Supérieure at rue d'Ulm—including many fellow Althusserians such as Jacques Rancière and Jacques-Alain Miller, the latter of whom would soon move over to Lacan's camp. Formed in February 1966 and led most famously by Robert Lin- hart until the latter's total personal breakdown two years later, at the exact time when barricades were everywhere going up in the streets of Paris, the UJC(ML) was officially dissolved in the wake of the May 1968 uprising and as a result of the perceived failure to establish any lasting alliance between the student movement and the struggles of the working class. The UCFML, by contrast, reaches the peak of its activism in the early to mid-seventies precisely as a result of the self-imposed task to continue interrogating the events of May–June 1968, in terms of both their unintended backlash and their belated consequences for the political situation in France. As Badiou and Lazarus indicate in the editorial comment included in almost each volume of their Yénan series, published in the seventies by the same editing house owned by François Maspero that also supported Althusser's famous Théories series, there is only one vital question: "What is, here and now, the road to follow so that Marxism and the real workers' movement fuse?" 24 Even several years later, while openly acknowledging the crisis of Marxism, Badiou continues to view Maoism as an unfinished task, rather than as a lost cause or a past accomplishment to be savored with historiographical nostalgia. "To defend Marxism today means to defend a weakness. We have to do Marxism," Badiou proposes in his Théorie du sujet, and on the same page he continues: "That which we name 'Maoism' is less a final result than a task, a historical guideline. It is a question of thinking and practicing post-Leninism. To measure the old, to clarify the destruc- tion, to recompose politics from the scarcity of its independent anchorings, and all this while history continues to run its course under the darkest of banners." 25 If there is a shift in this regard in Badiou's ongoing work, it is the slight but significant displacement from the idea of politicizing history, which still assumes a relatively external anchoring of politics in history understood at the level of social and economical being, to that of historicizing politics, which remits a purely sequential understanding of politics to its own intrin- sic history. For Badiou, it is precisely the Maoist experience that runs up
against the impossibility of fully accomplishing the first idea, whereas his recent talk on the Cultural Revolution, together with the talk on the Paris Commune from the same cycle, offers a good example of the second: "This cycle of talks, proposed by the Organisation Politique, is meant to clarify the links between history and politics at the start of the new century. Here, in light of this question, we will examine various fundamental episodes in the historicity of politics. For example, the Russian Revolution, the Resistance, the Cultural Revolution, May '68, and so on." 26 In other words, it is not just by chance that this debate, over the historicity of politics, happens to serve as a backdrop against which we can hear or read Badiou's talk on the Cultural Revolution. But Maoism and the Cultural Revolution, to which the UCFML pledges half of its allegiance in the aftermath of May 1968 in France, also constitute key events themselves in the shifting articulation between politics and history that calls for such readings or investigations in the first place.
Politics, Culture, Ideology
Accounts of French Maoism, caught up as they are in an effort to explain the contradictory alignment, or lack thereof, with the events of May 1968 and their aftermath, typically draw a clear distinction between ideology and politics, or between culture and politics, whereby the perceived inef- fectiveness of the overall movement as a political phenomenon paradoxically receives a positive twist insofar as it would open up a much wider space for cultural and ideological freedom. Christophe Bourseiller, in Les maoïstes: La folle histoire des gardes rouges français (1996), completely limits the impact of his subjects to the realm of culture, where they indeed played the role of an important trigger for femi- nist and gay rights struggles in France. Politically, however, the many French Maoist groups would have entailed little more than a poorly thought-out combination of left-wing populism and kneejerk third worldism, forever oscillating between authoritarianism and anarchy in terms of their own internal organization, and bound to disappear for good with the death of Chairman Mao. In Bourseiller's eyes, finally, the UCFML appears as little more than a "sect" caught somewhere in between the spaces of culture, which would be a fantasy screen worthy of further projections, and that of
politics, which according to him ends up having been completely misguided. Thus the group continues to rely on random and seemingly absurd acts of violence, such as the raiding of supermarkets or the interruption of movie screenings perceived to be reactionary or fascist, aside from suffering from the cult of personality surrounding a small number of university intellectu- als, foremost among them Badiou himself. For A. Belden Fields, in his much more scholarly analysis in Trotsky- ism and Maoism: Theory and Practice in France and the United States (1988), French Maoism likewise can be divided into two tendencies, which he calls not so much "political" and "cultural" but rather "hierarchical" and "anti- hierarchical": "At least from 1968 to the mid-1970s the major characteristic of French Maoism was indeed a clear-cut dualistic cleavage, with the groups on each side of the cleavage having virtually nothing to do with one another." 27 At one extreme of the divide we thus find the strict discipline and austerity of the PCMLF, the Marxist-Leninist Communist Party of France, while at the other extreme a much more favorable light is shed on the spontaneous and slightly anarchistic acts undertaken by the GP, or Gauche Prolétari- enne, which arose sphinxlike out of the ashes of the UJC(ML) in October 1968, only to become the most renowned and media oriented of all groups of French Maoism. In Fields's account, too, the UCFML appears as a group that somehow sits astride the opposition between "hierarchical" and "anti- hierarchical" Maoism—two adjectives that in the end are little more than code words to describe two opposing attitudes toward the Leninist party. Like the PCMLF, Badiou's organization thus continues to stress the need for an organized form of politics, albeit a future one, while intervening in the situation of illegal immigrants, for example, with flexible tactics and ini- tiatives comparable to those much more publicized ones used by GP mem- bers and sympathizers. Fields in part derives the split in his account of French Maoism from a comparable, this time tripartite, division proposed by Rémi Hess in his much earlier work, Les maoïstes français: Une dérive institutionnelle (1974). Hess, who in an explicit attempt at sociological self-reflexivity explains how he first became interested in Maoism in 1966–67 thanks to Badiou's philosophy course "Marx, Nietzsche, Freud" in Reims, would later become active in the same city in a Maoist splinter group inspired by Badiou's thought. Eventually,
however, he comes to favor a kind of Maoist cultural politics, closely related to the critique of everyday life that was being formulated around the same time by Henri Lefebvre and by the Situationist International. Thus, when he draws a line of demarcation between three moments in French Maoism that he calls "organizational," "ideological," and "libinidal," it should come as no surprise that to the blind discipline and bureaucratic dogmatism of the first, epitomized by the PCMLF, Hess clearly prefers the libertarian spirit of the third, embodied by groups such as those gathered around the journals Tout and Vive la Révolution, groups that effectively were among the driving forces behind the MLF, or Movement for the Liberation of Women, and the FHAR, or Homosexual Front of Revolutionary Action. In this over- view, the UCFML appears, together with the UJC(ML) and its successor the (ex-)GP of La Cause du Peuple, as an intermediate group between the organizational and the libidinal, on the level of ideological struggles outside the framework of strict party bureaucracy. 28 For Hess, what is particularly interesting and even uncanny about this development of French Maoism, from hard-line party discipline through open ideological struggle to libidi- nal drift, is that it occurs in a chronological order that seems to be the exact opposite of the intuitive ABC of Leninist party-organization.
The Party and Political Autonomy
Even from this quick survey of some of the existing literature on French Maoism, two recurrent issues stand out that are directly relevant for our understanding of the role of Maoism in Badiou's work. I am referring to the autonomy of politics and to the status of the party. As for the first issue, few commentators fail to recognize the astonishing expansion to which the political playing field is subject in the late sixties and early seventies, with the result that "cultural revolution" becomes a generic term to a large extent cut loose from its concrete moorings in the sequence of events in China. "Now it is a question of investing culture as much as politics," Bourseiller observes:
"Maoism, then, becomes more and more fluid, less and less ideological, more and more 'everyday-ist': it is a question of struggling on a day-by-day basis and of opening up new fronts everywhere, even in everyday life." 29 Badiou,
however, has always been unwavering in his insistence on the autonomy of politics as a practice that would be irreducible to purely cultural questions. Thus, in his lecture "Politics and Philosophy" from Conditions, he concludes:
"The thing itself, in politics, is a-cultural, as are all thinking and all truth. Comical, purely comical, is the idea of a cultural politics, as much as that of a political culture." 30 Nothing could of course seem more contradictory, coming from someone with such openly declared loyalty to the events of the Cultural Revolution! In fact, the UCFML insists in the final pages of its founding document:
"One of the great lessons of the revolutionary storm of May is that the class struggle is not limited to the factory. Capitalist oppression touches on all domains of social life," and the same text goes on to conclude: "The front of culture and art is also very important. The historical experience of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution teaches us that, in certain circumstances, it can even become a decisive front of the class struggle." 31 The UCFML even formed a special section, the Groupe Foudre starting in 1974 and led primarily by Natacha Michel, to intervene precisely in art and culture at the level of what were to be specific contradictions in propaganda—that is, contradictions in forms of consciousness between the old and the new. Ultimately, then, Badiou and his comrades were not so far removed from the idea of a "revolution of everyday life," as the UCFML's founding docu- ment had already suggested: "The revolution is in life and transforms life." 32 In fact, in a retrospective assessment, the organization's central journal, Le Marxiste-Léniniste, openly rejects the opposition between politics and every- day life that constitutes such a common assumption in most readings of the post-1968 period: "Our politics is new because it refers to the everyday. After 1968, the will to change everyday life is seen in opposition to spectacular and politicist politics. But what the noyaux express through everyday politics in the factory is the affirmation that there is no outcome other than political." 33 Understood in this way, no culture is ever truly apolitical, just as there can be no political truth that somehow would not touch on culture as well. Even at the start of the Cultural Revolution, as Badiou is quick to point out in his talk, the "Sixteen Points" were exceedingly vague, even waxing metaphysical, when it came to explaining the significance of the concept translated as "cultural." 34 On the other hand, following Mao's notion that
"there can be no art above the class struggle," the UCFML's Groupe Foudre also by no means accepted "art" or "culture" as sociologically defined spheres or domains that would somehow be separate from politics, even while upholding its confidence in the specificity of art. 35 Badiou himself, finally, in recent years has come to admit that a full understanding of the sequence of events from the late sixties and early seventies of course cannot leave the conditions of politics, art, science, and love utterly and completely disjoined according to a typically modernist bias of their self-declared autonomy. Thus, after seeing how the four conditions of truth are to be separated as clear and distinct ideas, most notably in Manifesto for Philosophy, he invites us to reconsider how historically they are most often intertwined, forming mixed combinations such as "proletarian art" or "courtly love." When pressured on this topic in the interview already quoted above, Badiou even went so far as to accept the notion that "culture," rather than merely being a version of "art" emptied out of all truth, as he claims in the introduction to his Saint Paul, might actually be an appropriate name for the "networking" (réseau) or "knotting" (nouage) among the various truth conditions that could be newly theorized as "culture," if "we can consider culture to be the network of various forcings, that is, at a given moment in time, the manner in which the encyclopedic knowledge of the situation is modified under the constraints of various operations of forcing which depend on procedures that are different from one another." 36 In my eyes, what matters in this proposal is the suggestion that once again, with the different operations that "force" the available knowledge of a given situation after its "investigation" from the point of view of the event, we are sent back to a dialectic between knowledge and truth—now including a "network" among multiple truths that eventually might serve to formalize the con- cept of "culture" itself—through a notion taken from the Maoist legacy and inspired by the Cultural Revolution. The second issue, on the role of the party, is potentially even more polem- ical. We know that for the openly Maoist Badiou, as late as in his Théorie du sujet, "subject" means political subject and that the party is the only mate- rial embodiment of such a subject. "Every subject is political. Which is why there are few subjects, and little politics," Badiou writes, and further on:
"The party is the body of politics, in the strict sense." 37 From this point
of view, very little seems to have changed since the concept of the party was first reformulated by the UCFML's founding document to adapt to our times. And yet, we would be wrong to ignore the distance that separates the UCFML itself from the party of the new type. The opening text is quick to remark:
The UCFML is not, in turn, the party. It does not pretend to know in advance and to propagate what will be the living reality of the party. It is the noyau that promotes and carries the question of the party into the midst of the masses, it centralizes experiences in light of this project, it formulates directives, it verifies them, and it rectifies them, in the practice of the masses. 38
Badiou's organization considers it unilateral and premature to pretend that there could be an authentic communist party of a new type at this time in France and, in fact, rejected the claims of the ex-PCMLF to be this party even after it was forced to become clandestine: the UCFML insists that "at the present moment, it is groupuscular and un-proletarian to want to cre- ate, purely and simply, the party." 39 These statements should not be brushed aside as being superficial cautionary tales that would hide an unshakeable confidence in the vanguard party. Rather, what is at stake is already to some extent the form of the party itself. Clearly, the momentary postponement of the party's actual foundation, as well as the repeated insistence on merely being the harbinger, or noyau promoteur, of a future organization that is yet to come, highlights a crisis in the traditional party-form. They are the signs of an unsolved problem—of a question that becomes a problem and an open task precisely as a result of the Cultural Revolution: "An open problem, therefore, in the two senses of the expression: first, as something that is not solved, and second, as some- thing of which the masses must take hold." 40 Badiou's Théorie du sujet, sup- posedly dominated by a classical Marxist-Leninist type of politics, could not be clearer in this regard. Marx, Lenin, and Mao appear in the periodization of this book as three stages—three episodes according to the intrinsic his- toricity of politics—in the progressive putting into question of the party as an open task. "The subjective question (how did the Cultural Revolution, mass uprising against the new bourgeoisie of the state bureaucracy, come up
against the rebuilding of the party?) remains in suspense as the key question for all Marxist politics today." 41 I would argue that this kind of critical sus- pension of the party-form of political organization introduces an irreducible inner distance, or a dialectical scission, into the latter, making it at the same time a form of post-Maoism. Whereas Marx would have subordinated politics to the course of history as class struggle, and Lenin would propose the party to absorb the widen- ing gap between history and politics, Badiou and Lazarus claim that with Mao the concept of history (or History) as an external referent is absented altogether, in favor of a strictly conjunctural grasp of the laws of politics and their changing situations. "Thinking no longer takes the form of thinking the adequation between politics and History. No hope of fusion is ever pres- ent," we read, and further on: "The dialectical mode dehistoricizes." 42 After Mao, politics can no longer be transitive to an overarching sense of history, and not even the party can overcome this gap. In other words, the break with the transitivity of politics is not a break away from the tradition of Marxism-Leninism that would include Maoism as well but a break internal to the Maoist mode of politics itself. To use Badiou's words from Théorie du sujet that apply to the third stage of his periodization of Marx, Lenin, and Mao: "The working class is not able ever to resorb the scission, which gives it its being, between its social immediacy and its political project. Of such a political subject—finally restricted to the action of its placeholder, the party, a body made up of an opaque and multiple soul—we will never say that it constitutes history, not even that it makes history." 43 Clearly, we are several steps removed from an orthodox understanding of the dialectic between history and politics, between social being and consciousness, or between masses and classes, with the party as vanishing mediator or third term. The opposite almost seems to be true: only when the rapport between history and politics is definitively broken, or gives way to the rapport of a nonrapport, only then do Badiou and Lazarus in these texts speak of a "dialectical" mode of politics. If dialectical thinking still involves a third term, it is only the process of the scission of the first two that constitutes the tenuous unity of the third. We should not be totally surprised, then, to be confronted with a similar definition of the dialectic in the preface to Badiou's Logiques des mondes:
"Let us agree that by 'dialectic,' following Hegel, we should understand that the essence of all difference is the third term that marks the gap between the two others." 44 Badiou's vacillations in this regard—now calling for a renewal of the dialectic and then arguing that the age of the dialectic is over—are no doubt symptomatic of precisely the type of problems left unsolved by the Cultural Revolution. Finally, on a more empirical note, if we compare the two political orga- nizations in which Badiou has been active, the UCFML and the OP, one calling for a "party of a new type" and the other for a "politics without a party," should we not conclude by saying that they propose forms of militan- tism that on the whole and in actual practice are nearly identical? Whether this is then seen as a practical shortcoming of the earlier organization or as
a theoretical inconsistency of the later one, the fact of the matter is that the organizational form of politics remains fairly constant for Badiou. This may very well be a key lesson to be drawn from the suspension of the party-form accomplished during the Cultural Revolution: not the anarchist or adventur-
ist response of jettisoning all forms of organization, but the need for politics to be organized at all—in noyaux, committees, communes, or a generically called "political organization." 45 It is also in this regard that we should consider Badiou's commentary, in his talk on the Cultural Revolution, about point 9 from the Sixteen Points decision. Indeed, if politics is to be more than a short-lived mass uprising or manifestation, what the idea of the party is meant to add, even if its name disappears, is precisely the question of material consistency and durability, that is, the question of organization. "Without organized application, there
is no testing ground, no verification, no truth," as we already read in Théorie
de la contradiction: " 'Theory' can then engender only idealist absurdities." 46 Or, as Badiou concludes in Peut-on penser la politique? (1985), a book written after the supposed break away from his earlier Maoism: "Political organiza- tion is necessary in order for the intervention's wager to make a process out of the distance that reaches from an interruption to a fidelity," even if no organized practice will ever be able completely to close the gap torn open by the event in the first place: "In its propagating fidelity, as a stacked-up series of interventions by way of wagers, the organization leaves open the point where the suture of the One fails to seal the Two." 47
Maoism and the Logic of Deviations
If now, before interrogating the consequences of Badiou's Maoism for his overall philosophy, we take a closer look at how the UCFML positions itself in the particular context of French Maoism, what should immediately strike the reader is the overwhelming abundance of materials available, even though they are rarely ever taken into account. Nine books, close to two dozen pam- phlets totaling over six hundred pages, two periodicals running for over a decade, and countless flyers, tracts, and circulars: many of them signed col- lectively, under a pseudonym, or not signed at all, these materials in terms of quantity of course far exceed the individual production of Badiou's entire oeuvre as a philosopher. Broadly speaking, these publications cover four major areas: the group's own history and assessment of its militant activity; the theory and philosophy of Marxism-Leninism-Maoism; the concept and crisis of so-called monopoly state capitalism, criticized as a revisionist notion in light of the Marxian critique of political economy; and international pro- letarianism. In addition, the group's two periodicals: Le Marxiste-Léniniste (1974–82) and Le Perroquet (1981–89), are comparable in function and style to La Distance Politique (1991–today), which constitutes the newsletter of the UCFML's successor, the Organisation Politique. Far more important than the sheer quantity of Badiou's contributions to this mass of information is the question of conceptual rigor in relation to actual experience. By this I mean to draw attention to an often-calumniated principle of the dialectical method, that is, the identity or at the very least the cobelonging between concept and experience, between the logical (or onto-logical) and the historical (or phenomenological). Against common textbook variations on the theme of the real and the rational, Lenin was after all fond of underscoring the importance of this principle for his own reading of Hegel's Science of Logic, writing in shorthand notation in his Philosophical Notebooks: "Hegel as a genius guessed the dialectics of things, phenomena, the world (nature), in the dialectic of notions." 48 Theodor W. Adorno, many years later, would reiterate this basic principle in his own Hegel: Three Studies by arguing painstakingly for the need to recapture the concrete experiential content, particularly in terms of human labor, behind Hegel's most abstract logical formalism: "Hegel has to be read against the
grain, and in such a way that every logical operation, however formal it seems to be, is reduced to its experiential core." 49 This is also how we should strain to read Badiou. Every logical and ontological operation, however for- mal it may well seem to be, must thus be related against the grain to the experiential core that conditions it, and vice versa. One particularly useful way of doing so involves an analysis of the exact content behind the notion of "leftist" and "rightist" ideological deviations, as they are typically being redefined under the influence of Chairman Mao. In keeping with some of Mao's own assertions, most notably in "On Prac- tice" and "On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People," about the alternating risks of left-wing adventurism and right-wing dogma- tism, the UCFML's argument about twin ideological deviations begins to function as a means to formalize a certain logic of revolt at a distance from the specific cases of both the (ex-)GP's antirevisionist violence and the ex- PCMLF's blind defense of established doctrines. 50 Ultimately, the measure of success for avoiding these two extremes depends on the specific links that in any situation tie a given political organization not just to the masses in general but to their most advanced sectors: "Without a mass alliance, there is no mass line. Without a mass line, the only alternative is between practices that are either dogmatic and opportunistic on the right, or else putschist and adventurist." 51 Time and again, this is how the argument over deviations from the just line will be reiterated. Beyond strictly organizational matters, however, the important point not to be missed in this context is how this argument at the same time can help us better understand the place and force of Maoism in Badiou's philosophy as a whole. In the following pages, I cannot recount in detail every twist and turn to which the logic of "leftist" and "rightist" ideological deviations becomes subject both in the many publications of the UCFML and in Badiou's own work. Suffice it to track a few representative steps in the forceful conceptual elaboration that turns this logic from a primarily tactical and political ques- tion into an issue with profound philosophical consequences. In his short didactic books on Maoism, Théorie de la contradiction and De l'idéologie, books to which a third volume, planned under the title Antagonisme et non- antagonisme: Les différents types de contradiction, unfortunately would never come to be added, Badiou concentrates his critique of ideological deviations
on the alternative between Deleuzian anarchism and Althusserian structur- alism—with the (ex-)GP enthusiast André Glucksmann, now turned New Philosopher and anti-Marxist critic of the gulag, undialectically combining both extremes in living proof of their deep-seated complicity. Badiou first of all reproaches his former teacher for reducing the logic of Marx's Capital to a combinatory of places and instances in the mode of production. Althusser's later theory of ideology likewise defines an invariant mechanism by which individuals come to be interpellated and function in any given social system, whether class based or not. Even if the dominant role is allowed to shift from one structural instance to another, there is no place in this overall picture for a contradictory transformation of the struc- ture itself: "The displacement of the terms from one place to another leaves intact the underlying structure of exchange. The mobility of appearances refers to a closed system. The essential conservatism of all structural think- ing risks on this point to change dialectics into its opposite: metaphysics." 52 This risk of a metaphysical outlook is especially poignant in the use made out of the concept of the mode of production, the radical scientificity of which lies at the core of the original Althusserian project: "The concept of 'mode of production' is an inexhaustible goldmine for deviations of the structuralist type. Taken in isolation, it is only all too easy to give a purely combinatory version of it and to expulse from it the dialectic of forces in favor of the articulation of places." 53 Althusser's scientificist deviation would thus have consisted in limiting the dialectic, which was famously said to be critical and revolutionary in principle, to a conservative and even metaphysi- cal articulation of instances and hierarchies. Whether this is a fair assessment of Althusser's writings in For Marx and Reading Capital should not concern us here. There are certainly elements in the concepts of over- and underdetermination, if not in structural causality itself, that would bring Althusser much closer to Badiou than the latter in general, except for a few occasions, seems willing to admit. But what should be clear is the fact that this former student seeks to take the work of his old teacher still one step further in the direction of articulating structure and history, as well as being and existence, from the point of view of loss and destruction that unhinges the structure from within: "The structure has its being in a hierarchical combination, but its existence, that is to say its his-
tory, fuses with that of its destruction. The structure has no other existence besides the movement of its own loss, and each term of the contradiction reflects this transitory mode of existence by its division in its being-for-the- structure and its being-for-the-dissolution-of-the-structure." 54 In Badiou's later work, this tendency toward loss, impasse, and dissolution inherent in the structure—this dialectic of lack and excess between a structure and its impossible metastructure—will come to mark the site of the immanent break within the structure that is then called an event. If an overemphasis on the structural logic of places marks a "right-wing" deviation, then conversely an exclusive emphasis on the logic of forces will quickly push us into the wide-open arms of "left-wing" anarchists. Or at least this is how Badiou in his Maoist years responds to the "anarcho-desirers" who flock to Deleuze's courses in Vincennes. What becomes evident in this harsh response, however, is the fact that anarchism and structuralism make for surprisingly good bedfellows. "In truth, anarchism is merely the flipside of conservative structuralism. The drift is the shadow of the combinatory," Badiou asserts: "Structuralism and the ideologies of desire are profoundly coupled to one another. Far from being opposed, they are confused, in their common contradiction of the dialectic." 55 The difficult task of a properly materialist dialectical mode of thinking would thus consist in thinking a split correlation of structure and history, of states and tendencies, of combi- natories and differentials—without allowing either side of the articulation to deviate and lapse back into a unilateral hypostasis. "The dialectic brings to life the contradiction of the structural and the qualitative, of the combi- natory and the differential evaluation of forces," Badiou proposes in a series of variations on the same theme: "The complete dialectical intelligibility of what is principal must thus apprehend not only the state of things but their tendency." 56 Most important, as Marx already hinted when he spoke of the essentially revolutionary nature of dialectical reason, it is a ques- tion of grasping the tendency, whether toward blockage and loss or toward transformation and change, within the present state of affairs: "In order to envisage things from the point of view of the future within the present itself, we must seize hold of this present as tendency, as increase or decrease, as accumulation of forces, as rupture, and not only as state, or as figure." 57 This combination cannot take rest in a quiet complementarity between two
symmetrical poles. Instead, the resulting articulation should give way to the divided unity of a process of scission, which is to be applied to every term in the analysis: "Each term, precisely because it has no existence except as part of a process of scission, is itself torn apart between its qualitative subordina- tion to the scission taken as process, that is, as unity, and the movement of transformation of this very quality itself, the source of which is the uninter- rupted struggle between the two terms and the incessant modification of their rapport." 58 Such is, finally, the logic of scission that would define the complete trajectory behind the proposal for a renewed understanding of the materialist dialectic as the torn articulation between structure and history, between being and existence, or between figure and tendency. Using the terms put forth in Théorie de la contradiction and De l'idéologie, we can now resummarize how Badiou's Maoist recasting of the material- ist dialectic also allows us to define the problem of ideological deviations. All such deviations ultimately slip into a form of idealism insofar as they disavow what Badiou describes as the dialecticity of the dialectic: "The dia- lectic, if I can say so, is itself dialectical, insofar as its conceptual operators, which reflect reality, are all equally split." 59 In their mirroring relationship, the two types of ideological deviation, in other words, neglect the extent to which structure and tendency, or place and force, must be articulated through the scission of each one of the two terms. In the case of "leftism," it is the structural element inherent in every ten- dency that is neglected in favor of a viewpoint of pure, unlimited, and affir- mative becoming. Here, as a typical example, Badiou mentions the adventur- ist tendencies fostered by May 1968: "If, indeed, one neglects the structural element, one takes the tendency for an accomplished state of affairs." 60 Every- thing then fuses into the being of pure becoming. In the case of "rightism," it is the possibility of radical change that is foreclosed in the name of a purely objective analysis of the structure. Here, Badiou unsurprisingly mentions the economism of the Second Interna- tional: "If one neglects the tendential element, one inevitably represses the new in the name of the old, one supports the established order. One becomes installed in an opportunistic attitude of waiting." 61 Everything then is made to depend on the pure state of the existing situation. In each case, whether by precipitously jumping over one's own shadow or
by pusillanimously staying put until the crisis has matured, the unilateral hypostasis of one side of the divided articulation to the exclusion of the other is what prevents the unfolding of a properly dialectical investigation. It is of course true that every instance or contradiction in society must be seen as part of a structure in dominance, complete with its finally determin- ing instance. In this regard, Badiou argues that reason is certainly on the side of Althusser. "In fact, everything comes down to the following: seized in a given state of things, or all along a particular sequence in its develop- ment, every contradiction assigns a determinate place to its terms, a place which is itself defined by its relation to the place of the other term," Badiou sums up in Théorie de la contradiction: "In this sense the dialectic is a logic of places." 62 On the other hand, it is no less true that every structure of assigned places is constantly being transformed as a result of inner splits, breaks, and changes. In this regard, he holds, reason is also on the side of Deleuze. "Seized in its uninterrupted movement in stages, by contrast, every contradiction confronts forces whose nature is differential: what matters in the evaluation of force from the viewpoint of the movement of the contra- diction is no longer its transitory state of subordination or domination but its increase or decrease," Badiou continues: "In its tendential or properly historical aspect, the dialectic is a logic of forces." 63 Even if both these views have reason partially on their side, however, each one taken in isolation is clearly insufficient. For Badiou, the real difficulty lies rather in finding a way to overcome the apparent complementarity between the two, without having recourse to the mediation of a synthesis: "The central dialectical prob- lem is thus the following: how can the logic of places and the logic of forces be articulated—without fusion?" 64 In Badiou's reading, the case of Deleuze furthermore may give us an idea of how place and force can even become combined—as in fact they usually are—within a "leftist" deviation. In moral terms, this traditionally comes down to the presupposition of a stark dualism of necessity and free- dom. In "The Party and the Flux," a contribution to La situation actuelle sur le front philosophique (1977) published by the Yénan-Philosophy Group of the UCFML, Badiou thus cites an extensive passage from Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari's Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia in which all the book's well-known dualisms, from the molar versus the molecular
all the way to subjugated-groups versus subject-groups, against all expec- tations seem to find their driving principle in a thinly disguised version of Kant's autonomy versus determinism argument. "Deleuze and Guattari do not hide this much: return to Kant, here is what they came up with to exorcise the Hegelian ghost," Badiou charges: "It is pure, unbound, generic energy, energy as such. That which is law unto itself, or absence of law. The old freedom of autonomy, hastily repainted in the colors of what the youth in revolt legitimately demands: some spit on the bourgeois family." 65 Over and against the sheer energy of this unconditional freedom, there is only the blind necessity of a paranoid order that like a vampire feeds on the sheer energy and creativity of freedom, which is then but another name for life itself. Of this radical dualism of pure force and pure place within "leftism" we can also formulate a political variant, in addition to the moral one. This typically comes in the guise of a direct and unmediated opposition between the masses and the state, or between the plebes and the state—dualities to which today I would add the explicitly undialectical or even antidialecti- cal antagonism between the multitude and Empire. Power and resistance then perennially seem to oppose the same vitally creative masses to the same deadly repressive system. "In this regard, the 'massist' ideology that came out of 1968 excels in flattening out the dialectical analysis," Badiou remarks:
"Always the same exalted masses against the identical power, the invariable system." 66 Not only does this view of politics fail to take into account how concretely no movement proceeds as a whole except by the inner splits that dislocate and revoke the totality: "It is never 'the masses,' nor the 'movement' that as a whole carry the principle of engenderment of the new, but that which in them divides itself from the old." 67 But, what is more, far from signaling a radically new and untimely discovery, all this fascination with "massism" or "movementism"—and again today I would add "multitudi- nism"—was already a prime target of urgent attacks, more than a century ago, in the eyes of Marx and Engels:
That the "movement" would be a desiring push, a flowing flux; that every institution would be paranoid and in principle heterogeneous to the "movement"; that nothing is done against the existing order but only
according to the affirmative schizze that withdraws from this order; that therefore it is necessary to replace all organization, all hideous militantism, with self-management—or with association, there are quarrels going on about this in certain cottages—of pure movement: All these daring revi- sions, which are supposed to raise the striking novelty of the marginal and dissident masses up against "totalitarian" Marxism-Leninism— are word for word that which Marx and Engels, in The German Ideology, had to tear to pieces—around 1845!—in order to clear the terrain for
a finally coherent systematization of the revolutionary practices of their time. 68
Cutting diagonally across the inoperative dualisms of masses and power, movement and organization, or dissidence and totalitarianism, one should thus think politics through the complete arsenal of concepts implied in the logic of scission, which is still most succinctly encapsulated in the Maoist formula: "One divides into two." Badiou explains:
We are in favor of "one divides into two." We are in favor of the increase by scission of the new. We want neither the sanctified and obscure, inop-
erative and repetitive, ultraleftist masses nor the revisionist union, which
is but the facade of a sinister dictatorship. What is proletarian, especially
today, divides and combats the smallest fractures that are internal to the "movement" and makes them grow to the point where they become what
is principal. 69
The collectively signed introduction to La situation actuelle sur le front philosophique actually charges that all revisionist tendencies in French thought of the seventies, not only in the trend of New Philosophers such as Glucksmann but also among Deleuzians, Althusserians, and Lacanians, can be seen, politically speaking, as presupposing categorical oppositions that seek to stamp out any possible diagonal term—whether class, party, or organization—between the masses and the state. "Everywhere to sub- stitute the couple masses/state for the class struggle: that's all there is to it," the introduction reads: "The political essence of these 'philosophies' is cap- tured in the following principle, a principle of bitter resentment against the entire history of the twentieth century: 'In order for the revolt of the masses
against the state to be good, it is necessary to reject the class direction of the proletariat, to stamp out Marxism, to hate the very idea of the class party.' " 70 The result of such arguments is then either the complete denial of antago- nistic contradictions altogether or else the jubilatory recognition of a mere semblance of antagonism. "They dream of a formal antagonism, of a world broken in two, with no sword other than ideology," whereas a complete understanding of emancipatory politics would involve not just the joy and passion of short-lived revolt but the disciplined labor of a lasting transfor- mation of the particular situation at hand: "They love revolt, proclaimed in its universality, but they are secondary in terms of politics, which is the real transformation of the world in its historical particularity." 71 One urgent task for the authors of this polemic therefore involves precisely the need to strug- gle against such revisionist tendencies on the philosophical front. "Everyone, including the Maoists, is after all called upon today, after the Cultural Revo- lution and May '68, to take a stance, to discern the new with regard to the meaning of politics in its complex articulation, its constitutive trilogy: mass movement, class perspective, and state," the introduction continues: "Such is clearly the question of any possible philosophy today, wherein we can read the primacy of politics (of antagonism) in its actuality." 72 In the compact series of footnotes to Le noyau rationnel de la dialectique hégélienne Badiou makes explicit the need to develop a full-blown philo- sophical concept of deviation. Significantly, such a concept cannot be found in Hegel's idealist dialectical system: "Hegel's idealism also manifests itself by the absence of all positive theory of deviation." 73 Hegel's Science of Logic in fact remains caught in the false problematic of an absolute beginning, or to be more precise—but this is already symptomatic of a disavowed split that hints at a rational core within the idealist dialectic—in the searching alternative between two absolute beginnings: Being and Nothing. Badiou, by contrast, may seem to be in tacit agreement with Adorno when the latter argues that a truly materialist dialectic must always start from something rather than from either Being or Nothing. " 'Something'—as a cogitatively indispensable substrate of any concept, including the concept of Being—is the utmost abstraction of the subject-matter that is not identical with think- ing, an abstraction not to be abolished by any further thought process," Adorno tells us, and in a footnote of his own he adds: "Yet even the minimal
trace of nonidentity in the approach to logic, of which the word 'something' reminds us, is unbearable to Hegel." 74 For the Maoist in Badiou, however, every something must always be split—split between itself and something else, namely, the system in which something stands as this something rather than as an other. While the logic of scission borrows heavily from other early segments in the Science of Logic, especially from "Something and Other" and "Deter- mination, Constitution, and Limit," Badiou systematically reformulates the basic principles of this logic in his own, now familiar, vocabulary; insisting that every entity be split between that part of it that can be understood according to the logic of places and that part that cannot be accounted for without resorting to a logic of forces. The whole aim of this detailed and sometimes hermetic discussion is not to put forces and places in an orderly rapport of complementarity that would leave each pole unaffected in its purity, but to push forward in the search for a divided correlation between the two as split—each one being determined and exceeded from within by the other. Every force, then, is necessarily determined by a space of assigned places, but conversely no system of places is complete without some force being excluded out at the limit. Determination, by which a force is placed, and limit, by which a place is exceeded by a force capable of acting back on its own determination, are the fundamental operators that in their absence or disavowal allow us to grasp the logic of deviations as well. "The deviations, the backlashes, and so on, are fully thinkable only in dialectical correlation with the determina- tion and the limit of a movement," insofar as both "right-wing opportun- ism" and "left-wing opportunism" merely reconvoke one of the terms of the original contradiction in its isolated purity, that is to say, "the first one only repeats the dominant term," whereas "the second, by arguing from a state of original purity prior to all determination, will assign to itself the task of finding the other." 75 Already during his Maoist years, however, Badiou is acutely aware of the fact that the most advanced theoretical and philosophical developments in the late sixties and seventies, for instance in Lacanian psychoanalysis, if not already in Althusser and Deleuze as well, cannot be reduced to the slight caricatures of "structuralist" and "leftist" deviations. Thus we must
trace the line of demarcation elsewhere, or in the same place but with greater precision. One way to do so is by recognizing the extent to which an accomplished form of structuralism not only posits the divided nature of both structure and subject but also reconceives of their relationship in the uncanny terms of an internal exclusion. As we have come to expect in more recent years thanks to the work of Laclau or Slavoj ŽiŽek, this doctrine also entails a complete reworking of the topology of inside and outside—with every idealist or humanist inside being defined in the paradoxical terms of its constitutive outside. In Le noyau rationnel de la dialectique hégélienne, Badiou still seems to reproach structuralism as much as "leftism" precisely for ignoring the topol- ogy of the constitutive outside:
The root of the failure of all Marxist structuralism, as well as of the "left- ist" current, lies in claiming to organize thought and action from an abso- lute understanding of oppressive society as System, and then to launch the guideline of dissidence, of exteriority. However, there is no exterior, which by no means implies an insurmountable constraint of the interior ("recuperation"), because there is no interior either. 76
Badiou knows of course that Lacan, especially in his later seminars, was to become a veritable master of these inside/outside topologies. And, I might add, a comparable logic of internal exclusion, based on the notion of an absent cause, can be found not only in Althusser's canonical writings but also in Deleuze's Logic of Sense, no doubt his most structuralist book. Would this not satisfy the requirements for a materialist dialectic according to Badiou's own strongly Maoist version? One answer to this last question, which will not be fully developed until Théorie du sujet, is anticipated in Le noyau rationnel de la dialectique hégéli- enne. Lacan, like Mallarmé before him, Badiou argues, ultimately reduces the topology of the constitutive outside to the mere recognition of a struc- tural given. Mallarmé and Lacan, in this sense, certainly can be considered dialecticians. But insofar as all their virtuosity in displaying the vanishing cause of the real, of the drive, or of a sunken ship, and so on, nevertheless remains bound by the constraint of an overarching order of places, such as an ocean or a field, Mallarmé and Lacan's work would nonetheless give us
the clues only for a structural, as opposed to a properly materialist, dialectic. This is why the topology of the constitutive outside, which is the culminat- ing point of the articulation between place and force as well as between structure and subject, must in turn be divided into a structural and a ten- dential understanding:
The historical fate of this topology is its inevitable division. We can indeed conceive of this topology in a purely structural fashion: exterior
and interior then are discernible on every point, but indiscernible in the Whole, which is supposed as given. This is the path followed by Lacan (but already by Mallarmé) in the way he uses nonorientable surfaces, such
But, in fact, we can and we must conceive of the
split exterior/interior correlation as a process, whereby the fact that the real is simultaneously at its place and in excess over this place, both inside and outside, is due to its unfolding as a qualitative force. 77
In the end, then, what is proposed is a symptomatic torsion that cannot remain merely on the structural level of recognizing an outside within, as in a traumatic kernel of the real, but that must pass over into the destruction or disqualification of the old inside the new. Based on this more precise demarcation from structuralism, Badiou's Théorie du sujet can then once again lay out the logic of twin ideological deviations. He thus confirms how the dialectical process in a typical back- lash risks to provoke two extreme types of fallout, or Rück fall in Hegel's own terms: the first, drawn to the "right" of the political spectrum, remits us to the established order and thus obscures the torsion in which something new actually takes place, while the second, pulling to the "left" instead, vin- dicates the untouched purity of the original force and thus denies the per- sistence of the old in the new. What is thus blocked or denied is either the power of determination or the process of its torsion in which there occurs a conjunctural change: "But the true terms of all historicity are rather the determination and the limit, terms by which the whole affirms itself with- out closure, and the element is included without abolishing itself." 78 The complete deployment of this dialectic also provides us with a key to understand the perceptions of failure and success that put such a heavy stamp on the aftermath of May '68. In fact, both the provocative accusations
as the Möbius
by outside observers such as Lacan and the contrite turnabouts by ex-Mao- ists such as Glucksmann remain caught as if spellbound in the inert duel between the established order of places and the radical force of untainted adventurism. The world-famous picture of Daniel Cohn-Bendit during one of the protests of May '68, with the student leader smiling defiantly in the face of an anonymous member of the French riot police who remains hid- den behind his helmet—a picture that Miller eventually will pick for the cover of Lacan's seminar L'envers de la psychanalyse given during the follow- ing year—might serve to illustrate this point. Indeed, the contagious appeal of this image depends entirely on a limited structural scheme in which there appears no scission in the camp of the ironic and free-spirited students or any torsion of the existing order of things beyond a necessary yet one-sided protest against the repressive state. Althusser's much-discussed example of the police officer hailing a passerby in the street remains bound to this dual structure, as might likewise be the case of the definition of politics in oppo- sition to the police in the later work of Rancière. For Badiou, however, this view hardly captures any specific political sequence in its actual process. "There is not only the law of Capital, or only the cops. To miss this point means not to see the unity of the order of assigned places, its consistency. It means falling back into objectivism, the inverted ransom of which consists by the way in making the state into the only subject, whence the antirepres- sive logorrhea," Badiou warns in Théorie du sujet: "It is the idea that the world knows only the necessary rightist backlash and the powerless suicidal leftism." 79 Lacan's accusation that the students in revolt are but a hysteric bunch in search of a master thus merely reproduces a face-off between the extreme outcomes of the dialectical process, without acknowledging the true torsion of that which possibly takes place in between the two. Finally, in L'Etre et l'événement, long after the author is supposed to have outgrown his Maoist fury, Badiou almost seems to preempt those criticisms that will find in his work only a rigid, if not miraculous, opposition between being and event, knowledge and truth, the human animal and the immortal subject. Badiou's most systematic work to date in fact includes a staunch critique of "leftism" and "statism," equivalent to what in his youthful days he would have called "left-wing" adventurism and "right-wing" dogmatism. Thus, in a pivotal meditation from L'Etre et l'événement on "The Interven-
tion," Badiou warns against the temptation to put the event in a set all by itself, as a singleton utterly disjoined from the situation at hand. Such would be the temptation of what he now proposes to call "speculative leftism," which is still nothing but a mirror image of "statism," that is, the way in which the state systematically tries to reduce the erratic novelty of a political event, for instance, to the rabble-rousing discontent of the mob, of foreign agitators, and so on. "The terms that are registered by the state, guarantee of the count-for-one of the parts, are finally the site and the putting-into-one of the name of the event," Badiou claims: "This is certainly a Two (the site as such counted as one, and a multiple put into one), but the problem is that between these two terms there is no relation whatsoever." 80 The connections between an event and its site remain an enigma from the point of view of the state, with the result that both are merely juxtaposed as being essentially unrelated in their duality. However, we do not fare much better at the other end of the ideological spectrum when the event, rather than being foreclosed by the state, is hypostasized into a radical beginning. "Speculative leftism imagines that the intervention is authorized only by itself, and breaks with the situation with no other support than its own negative will," Badiou con- cludes: "Speculative leftism is fascinated by the ultra-one of the event, and thinks it is possible in its name to deny all immanence to the structured regime of the count-for-one. And since the ultra-one has the structure of the Two, the imaginary of a radical beginning inevitably leads, in every range of thought, to a Manichaean hypostasis." 81 If Badiou's philosophy indeed falls prey to either or both of these two positions, then the least his critics should recognize is the fact that his entire work seems to have included a prolonged struggle against such deviations.
Mao as Vanishing Mediator
The role of Maoism for Badiou's overall philosophy, as I have tried to show through the logic of twin ideological deviations, ultimately consists in allow- ing him without separation or fusion to articulate place and force, state and tendency, structure and subject, or being and event. Of course, the diagonal crossing of dualisms that operate in a metaphysical system can be seen as a constant throughout the history of philosophy. As Badiou writes in one
of his most recent texts: "The notion that thought should always establish itself beyond categorical oppositions, thereby delineating an unprecedented diagonal, is constitutive of philosophy itself," so that, to capture the singu- larity of this or that philosophy, we have to see what specifies the concep- tual recourse to one diagonal as opposed to another: "The whole question consists in knowing what value to ascribe to the operators of this diagonal trajectory, and in identifying the unknown resource to which they sum- mon thought." 82 Maoism is certainly one such resource, which even today is still fairly unknown or underappreciated, in Badiou's own trajectory as a philosopher. Badiou's Théorie de la contradiction could not be clearer about the philo- sophical implications of the materialist dialectic as a traversing of oppo- sites—above all, in this case, the opposites of subject and object. "The prob- lem is to reflect both and at the same time the scission and the reciprocal action of the two categories (subject and object) in the general movement of a process, without excluding that the subjective factor may be the key to this movement," Badiou sums up with a reference to Hegel by way of Lenin's Philosophical Notebooks: "For Lenin, it is a question of finding support in Hegel so as to put an end to the unilateralism of the categories of subject and object, whether one separates them (metaphysical operation) or one annuls one of them (absolute idealism or mechanicist materialism)." 83 What Badiou adds to Lenin's argument then in a way consists in suggesting that Mao is the spitting image of this materialist Hegel whose praise is so loudly sung on every page of the notebooks by Lenin. But then this suggestion also has profound consequences for Badiou's personal genealogy in relation to the principal philosophical schools or trends in existence at the time in France. In Peut-on penser la politique? Badiou remembers how fiercely the French philosophical scene was divided in the sixties and seventies by the last battle of the giants, the polemic between Sartre and Althusser: "When the media- tions of politics are clear, it is the philosopher's imperative to subsume them in the direction of a foundation. The last debate in this matter opposed the defenders of liberty, as founding reflective transparency, to the defend- ers of the structure, as prescription of a regime of causality. Sartre against Althusser: this meant, at bottom, the Cause against the cause." 84 Hegel, whose shadow hangs over this debate at least as much as Marx's,
is often little more than a code name in this context to denounce the per- sistence of humanist and idealist elements in the early Marx, even if the antihumanist trend is not wholly incompatible with a return to Hegel of its own, provided that we abandon the Phenomenology of the Spirit in favor of the Science of Logic. Sartre, on one hand, found inspiration for his critique of Stalinist dogma by turning to the arch-Hegelian topics of alienation and the struggle for self-consciousness whose influence can be felt so strongly in the Marx of the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844. For Badiou, however, Sartre's effort, though heroic in many regards, in the end betrays both Hegel and Marx:
In the Critique of Dialectical Reason (but after the young Lukács, after Korsch), Sartre in a single movement greeted Marxism as the insurmount- able horizon of our culture and undertook to dismantle this Marxism by
forcing it to realign itself with the original idea that is most foreign to
Both this Marx and this Hegel are
it: the transparency of the
equally false, the first for being reduced to the second, and the second for being separated from that part of himself that precisely cleared the path for the first: the Great Logic. 85
Althusser, on the other hand, wanted to reclaim Marx's radical discovery of an unheard-of type of structural causality, as the basis for a new dialectic already implied in the analysis of Capital, by stripping it of all Hegelian elements: "Althusser restituted a kind of brutal cutting edge to Marxism, isolating it from the subjectivist tradition and putting it back in the saddle as positive knowledge. At the same time, Marx and Hegel, even though in opposite terms, found themselves as much foreclosed as in the previ- ous moment: the materialist Hegel of the Great Logic is equally mute for Althusser and for Sartre." 86 It is this grandiose but also debilitating alternative between Sartre and Althusser that Badiou seeks to cross by way of a divided recomposition, all the while remaining loyal to the two major referents of his Maoism: "What the Cultural Revolution and May 1968 made clear on a massive scale was the need for something entirely different from an oscillation of national intel- lectual traditions (between the Descartes of the cogito, Sartre, and the Des-
cartes of the machines, Althusser), in order to reinvest Marxism in the real
nation, with this avoidance." 87 But Maoism, as the primary resource to trace a diagonal across the Sartre/Althusser debate, also means a return to the conflict of interpretations surrounding Hegel. Hegel's division seems to Badiou to be the only remedy against the temp- tation to submit his work to either a positivist or an idealist reductionism:
"Hegel remains the stake of an endless conflict, because the belabored understanding of his division alone is what prohibits, in thinking the rela- tionship Marx/Hegel, both the idealist-romantic deviation and the scien- tist-academic deviation, as well as, finally, the hatred pure and simple of Marxism." 88 Perhaps, though, we are not bound solely by the need to return to the rational kernel in Hegel's Logic, understood as a logic of scission, determination, and limit. In all fairness to Sartre and Althusser, perhaps we should add that their works also unmistakably contain many of the ele- ments necessary for their division, which for Badiou seems possible only on the prior condition of passing through the matrix of Maoism. 89 One never ceases to divide itself into two. But then, I would insist, the logic of scission and divided recomposition must likewise be applied to the notions of being and event in Badiou's later work. Otherwise we miss the singularity of the diagonal operators (site, fidelity, investigation, forcing, and so on) that link a purely mathematical ontology to the theory of an intervening subject. This diagonal is the one that Maoism makes effectively possible, both on a philosophical level and on a political level, according to Badiou:
The Maoist aim was to break with this alter-
Thus, Maoism, in the end, has been the proof for me that in the actual space of effective politics, and not just in political philosophy, a close knot could be tied between the most uncompromising formalism and the most radical subjectivism. That was the whole point. In Maoism, I found something that made it possible for there to be no antinomy between whatever mathematics is capable of transmitting in terms of formal and structural transparency, on the one hand, and on the other, the protocols by which a subject is constituted. These two questions were no longer incompatible. 90
The unity of opposites at this point reaches the climax of complexity. Mao- ism, genealogically speaking, allows Badiou to be an Althusserian without ceasing to be a Sartrean, but also without forgetting to what extent his read- ing of Hegel via Mao is profoundly Lacanian. Sartre, Althusser, Lacan: these are, in sum, the three master thinkers behind Badiou's philosophical apprenticeship. But the Borromean knot between all three, to use a category that was dear to the last, would not have been possible without the unifying thread of the experience of Maoism.
The Beautiful Soul
In many ways, the Maoist-inspired critique of ideological deviations, par- ticularly of the "ultraleftist" variety, can also be read as a critique of the melodramatic scenarios enacted by the "beautiful soul" in the famous analy- sis passed on from Hegel to Lacan. Maoism, it would then seem, ought in principle to put an end to the notion of a good moral conscience whose inner beauty is merely inversely proportionate to the sordidness that it projects onto the outside world. In the aftermath of the official Sino-Soviet split, was not the whole aim in formalizing the logic of so-called contradictions among the people precisely to avoid opposing the "good" communist subject to the "bad" totalitarian system, so as to displace the split, through self-criticism and reeducation and so on, onto the inner subject itself—whether this sub- ject is called the people, the masses, the proletariat, the party bureaucracy, or the intelligentsia? What if Mao and Lin Biao, though, wittingly or unwittingly allowed the widespread flourishing of so many "beautiful souls"? What if the Cultural Revolution contained the scenario for a melodrama of gigantic proportions? Such is, roughly put, one of the guiding questions with which two former militants of the Gauche Prolétarienne in France, Guy Lardreau and Chris- tian Jambet, seek to address and come to terms with their Maoist past. Of course, this would be only modestly relevant for our purpose, if it were not for the fact that it is a similar question that many readers raise anew in the conclusions to their critical analysis of Badiou's philosophy. In L'ange, the first volume of a projected Ontologie de la révolution that would never be completed, Lardreau and Jambet explicitly compare the
generic notion of a cultural revolution, which they contrast with an ideologi- cal revolution, to the figure of the beautiful soul: "The soul of the cultural revolution is the 'beautiful soul' in the way in which Lacan describes it after Hegel; insofar as, by assuming what it knows to be its madness in the eyes of this world, it also knows that this is the wisdom of the other world, and that it is this one, in truth, that is mad." 91 Lardreau and Jambet openly seem to want to embrace this melodramatic figure. Any true cultural revolution in its purity thus would mark a radical break with the entire corrupt system of work, family, sexuality, and egoism, whereas its ideological perversion always consists in recuperating and subordinating the revolutionary spirit in the name of those very same corrupt values. Like Nietzsche, Lardreau and Jambet too want to be dynamite: they want to break the history of the world in two. Or rather, and this literally makes all the difference, they dream of a revolution that would produce two worlds, by making a clear break with the existing one. But then, of course, from the perspective of the existing world, the purity of this break cannot fail to disappoint, as no slate can ever prove to be clean enough and no grand exit can sufficiently leave behind the world from which it seeks to escape—whence the openly angelic appearance of a true cultural revolution, which can never be a kingdom of this world but must rather open the gates to a radically other one. Disappointment and corruption once more seem to be not merely accidental but structural com- ponents in the constitution of a cultural revolution's beautiful soul. Particularly in the chapter "Lin Biao as Will and as Representation," Lardreau reveals how he has become painfully aware of the law of history by which every rebellion seems to revert to the search for a new master. "Should we admit then that the indisputable maxim: where there is oppres- sion, there is resistance, should be doubled with this one so as to say, is it not?, the truth of the first: where there is revolt, there is submission?" 92 Every cultural revolution thus is bound, as if by an unforgiving inner neces- sity, to be co-opted by an ideological one. For Lardreau and Jambet, how- ever, the way out of this blight conundrum paradoxically lies in aggravating the underlying opposition with an even fuller embrace of the latter's Man- ichaeanism. What they posit is thus not a weaker messianic force but an ever stronger will for absolute purity in the struggle between the Master and the Rebel, so as to prepare the return of the latter in the form of the Angel.
It is fascinating to observe how Daniel Bensaïd, in "Alain Badiou and the Miracle of the Event," seems to replay the scenario staged by Lardreau and Jambet in order this time to attribute its angelic and near-mystical fea- tures to Badiou's philosophy. This proximity is all the more telling in that Bensaïd's criticisms sum up a viewpoint that over the last few years seems to have become a commonplace among a growing number of critics, and even a few admirers, of Badiou's work—with the latter including among other less prominent readers, Slavoj Žižek and Peter Hallward. Bensaïd opens with a fairly typical summary of the entire trajectory fol- lowed by Badiou's thinking:
Initially, Badiou's thought remained subordinated to the movement of history. But truth has become more fragmentary and discontinuous under the brunt of historical disasters, as though history no longer con- stituted its basic framework but merely its occasional condition. Truth is no longer a subterranean path manifesting itself in the irruption of the event. Instead, it becomes a post-evental consequence. As "wholly sub- jective" and a matter of "pure conviction," truth henceforth pertains to the realm of declarations that have neither precedents nor consequences. Although similar to revelation, it still remains a process but one which is entirely contained in the absolute beginning of the event which it faith- fully continues. 93
Leftism is now a charge leveled against the form of politics that can be thought in the terms of Badiou's philosophy. Because of our constant tempta- tion as mere mortals to give in to the status quo, this philosophy is constantly upset by the guilt of its own sinful impurity. Not unlike in the case of the beautiful soul, any instance of free decision would be threatened by this cor- ruption: "Holy purification is never more than a short step away from volup- tuous sin," Bensaïd declares and, again, with reference to some of the more pedestrian proposals of the Organisation Politique: "This sudden conversion to realism is the profane converse of the heroic thirst for purity." 94 Now what is particularly striking in Bensaïd's reading, though perhaps not surprising, is the place attributed to Badiou's Maoism—to be more precise, to Badiou's failure to come to terms with his Maoist past, which is quickly equated with Stalinism. 95 What I have argued in the previous
pages, however, leads to a quite different conclusion, perhaps even one that is the radical opposite of Bensaïd's. Maoism, for Badiou, precisely involves an ongoing settling of accounts with the kinds of leftist, mystical, or oth- erwise miraculous definition of the event as an absolute beginning—espe- cially, I might add, when such leftism is used to pretend that one has thereby avoided the wide-open traps of Stalinism. That this settling of accounts in turns involves "the still unresolved difficulty of holding together event and history, act and process, instant and duration" is true enough, but then this is also very much the difficulty tackled by all of Badiou's work. Plainly put, what happens in Bensaïd's as in many other critical readings of Badiou consists in setting up a dogmatic divide between being and event, or between history and event, only then to plead in favor of a more dialecti- cal articulation between the two—one that would be capable of taking into account where and when an event takes place in a specific situation, to what effect, and so on. On closer consideration, Badiou nowadays actually seems to stand accused of being not so much a Maoist but rather a Linbiaoist. Lardreau, from this point of view, still had the virtue of admitting his undying loyalty, which he confessed was without concern for historicity, to Lin Biao. But our contemporary critics can no longer ignore the fact that Badiou wrote a stun- ning critique of precisely the kind of mystical politics that, before being attrib- uted to him, was openly embraced in Lardreau and Jambet's L'ange. Indeed, in "Un ange est passé," published under the pseudonym of Georges Peyrol, Badiou had in fact taken issue with the whole idea of the cultural revolution as the invariant form of an absolute beginning, or an inviolable break. This criticism at the same time offers us another percep- tion of the complete debacle not only of the Red Guards but also of the Gauche Prolétarienne in the aftermath of the Chinese Cultural Revolution, particularly because of the encounter of many of its French ex-enthusiasts with Lacan: "The turning trick with the Angel consists in the following: to interrogate the Cultural Revolution from the point of its (Lacanian) impos- sibility, and thus as that which, by raising the question of its existence, leads one to establish this existence in inexistence: another world, a beyond, the kingdom of Angels." 96 The notion of a radical two, despite the appearance of fidelity to the principle of antagonistic scission, is actually the exact oppo- site of Mao's lesson—at least according to Badiou.
L'ange, by presenting a hyperbolic, properly metaphysical version of two worlds, merely reproduces, according to Badiou's critique, Lin Biao's "ultra- leftist" will of absolute purity and genius. "What Lardreau and Jambet, as decided Linbiaoists, call 'cultural revolution' is the absolute and imaginary irruption of the outside-world, the definitive eradication of egoism," Badiou charges: "It means 'breaking the history of the world in two.' It is the ideolo- gism of the remaking of oneself, fascist in its sectarian ambition of absolute purity, of absolute simplicity, of starting anew from scratch." 97 Even when the desire for purification is applied with much rhetorical pomp and violence to the spectacle of the intellectual's imaginary self-annihilation, the whole picture remains metaphysical—yet another example of speculative leftism in which the scission of the one is replaced by an eternally Manichaean Two. As Badiou concludes: "What to say, except that nothing, especially not the revolt, authorizes the pure Two of metaphysics? The revolt in an exemplary way is that which splits—so not the Two, but the One dividing into Two and thus revealing what the One has always been, the becoming of its own scission." 98 Lardreau and Jambet, on postulating the inevitable nature of the One, are obliged to affirm, outside and beyond the first, another One. In sum, Badiou writes: "Their maxim, against 'one divides into two,' is 'two times one.' " 99 From his earliest accounts of the logic of scission, Badiou has always warned against the perils of seeking a complete break, a total reeducation, or an absolute beginning. "This is because the idea of the simple begin- ning is a typically metaphysical, that is to say, a conservative presupposi- tion," he writes in Théorie de la contradiction, and further on he continues:
"The speculative concept of the Beginning—of which Hegel himself gave an unfinished and divided criticism—serves to suture the dialectic to ideal- ism." 100 Critics who claim that Badiou in recent years has become increas- ingly vulnerable to the charge of speculative leftism might also want to con- sider those numerous passages in the recent work in which an exceedingly bivalent logic is rejected in the name of a certain Mao! In the end, we are sent back to a diagonal crossing of "leftism" and "right- ism" alike:
Mao himself—and God knows there was a great deal of violence in the Chinese Revolution—developed a fairly complicated doctrine regarding
the difference between contradictions among the people and antagonis- tic contradictions, and the existence in any process of left, centre, and right wings. He never stopped insisting that in the movement of a process there is always a considerable plurality of nuances, and that if we don't grant some space to this plurality, we are finally driven back to the break- up of the process, more than anything else. It is true that some politi- cal sequences did adopt as the internal rule of their development a very severe bivalent logic, but we need to ask in each case how this bivalence was linked to the singularity of the sequence. It is not a general problem of truth-processes. 101
Since it is not a general problem of truth-processes but in each case a local and specific one, the strictly ontological framework of L'Etre et l'événement by definition is insufficient to account for this plurality of nuances by which the process of an event is linked to the situation. Perhaps even the logical framework of Logiques des mondes will be unable to give a complete answer to this question. But the least we can say is that Badiou's work, from the logic of scission all the way to the still-unfinished logic of the site, has tried to open up a contradictory space for the articulation—the scission and the reciprocal action without fusion or deviation—between a given situation and its truthful transformation.
From Destruction to Subtraction?
At this point some readers may wonder whether there is any hyphen or break at all left in Badiou's work. By resisting the stark opposition between an "early" and a "late" stage, marked by the supposed abandonment of the dialectic, have I not forced my interpretation of this philosophy beyond rec- ognition, this time in the direction of a blind continuism? Is there then no need at all to add the slight distance of a prefix to Badiou's Maoism? Or else, how should we interpret the gap that warrants the invocation of a post- Maoism? Badiou, after all, organizes his talk on the Cultural Revolution around the hypothesis that its series of events marks the end of an era— precisely, the end of the revolutionary era. What are we to make of this hypothesis in light of Badiou's lasting debts to Maoism and, more generally speaking, to Marxism?
In "Communism as Separation," Alberto Toscano provides us with what is no doubt one of the most lucid and sophisticated readings of the imma- nent break with Marxism-Leninism that would seem to occur in Badiou's work. For Toscano, this break becomes definitive around 1985, particularly in Peut-on penser la politique? through a peremptory deconstruction of the metaphysical and classist understanding of politics. Prior to this point, the idea of communism would have involved a politics of transitivity, driven by the motor of antagonism between the dominant structure of representation and the unrepresentable subject who, while being foreclosed, nevertheless can be expected to be an antecedent to itself. As Toscano writes:
What is deserving of the epithet "metaphysical" in these doctrines is the idea that politics is somehow inscribed in representation, that what is foreclosed by domination is nevertheless endowed with a latent political force; which is to say, that the political subject which emerges out of the labor of the positive, whether this be the appropriation of production or the limitation and destruction of place, is its own obscure precursor. 102
After Peut-on penser la politique? which in militant terms means after the recomposition of UCFML in the guise of the OP, Badiou's understanding of politics would have shifted from a class-based logic of antagonism, includ- ing in its most vehement and terminal version as destruction and terroriz- ing self-purification, to a logic of subtraction wholly intransitive to any prior social, economical, or otherwise obscurely consistent substance: "What is certain, above all, is that the abandonment of class antagonism as the dialec- tical support of communist subjectivity affects it with a radical intransitivity to representation as well as with a discontinuity in its manifestations." 103 By abandoning the transitivity of political subjectivity to the structure of antagonism, no matter how tenuous and aleatory the latter is made out to be, Badiou would have definitely abdicated the basic underlying principle of all Marxism-Leninism. Toscano's careful analysis nonetheless seems to waver somewhat in the attempt to draw a neat conceptual boundary between the operations typi- cal of the transitive mode of politics (reappropriation, destruction, purifica- tion), and those that presuppose a certain deconstruction of the metaphysics of transitivity (subtraction, avoidance, distance). On several points of the
description, these operations from before and after the break come to resem- ble one another much more so than the notion of a definitive linear break would seem to justify. At the same time, I should add, such resonances do not necessarily signal an inaccuracy in Toscano's account of Badiou's overall philosophy. In fact, many of the operations that were pivotal actually do continue to be important today, albeit in a different way or with a different emphasis. Thus, in his more recent statements, Badiou's supposedly linear shift from destruction to subtraction, or from purification to the play of minimal difference, gives way to the complex reordering of a simultaneity. An event, thus, would at the same time bring about a subtraction of being and a destruction of a regime of appearing. Toscano's hesitation would bear witness to the possibility of such a combination, which only recently has become a reality for Badiou. On the other hand, the supposition that something—an unrepresent- able force, the energy of the masses, or the antagonistic system of produc- tion—always already constitutes the dark precursor of the subject who will subsequently come to overdetermine its own structure of representation:
this supposition, which is supposedly unique to Badiou's early works, in fact could be rephrased in terms that are consistent with the later ontological meditations as well. In fact, the idea of a wild being of pure presentation that would precede its capture in the order and deadlock of representation
is one of the reproaches by means of which Žižek accuses Badiou of being
more profoundly Deleuzian than Badiou himself would like to admit. 104 Conversely, the notion that only a completely mathematized ontology takes away the ground from under the temptation of transitivity, by arguing for
a strictly immanent localization of the event in terms of the excess of rep-
resentation over presentation, of inclusion over belonging: this notion too strikes me as an odd reduplication, in mathematical form, of the antinomies of representation that are central to the early theory of ideology in Badiou. Badiou's Maoism, once again, seems to have a symptomatic function in this context. In fact, what the notion of a deconstruction of the "fiction" of
transitivity between the political and the social in Marxism-Leninism seems to forget is the extent to which such a deconstruction was already a lesson learned from Maoism. Badiou's readers, in other words, all too often seem to want to infer that what he says of "classical" or "orthodox" Marxism, or of
Marxism-Leninism, for instance in Peut-on penser la politique? and in L'Etre et l'événement, automatically applies, by way of an immanent self-critique, to his own Maoism as well. But this means to downplay the significance not only of Mao's own critical notes between 1958 and 1960 on Stalin's Eco- nomic Problems of Socialism in the USSR and on the official Soviet Manual of Political Economy, but also of the critique of so-called workerism, as a prime example of the politics of transitivity, on the part of Badiou and his Maoist comrades in the UCFML. "Workerism" (ouvriérisme), which the UCFML sees as a constitutive ideological defect of the Gauche Prolétarienne, lies in conflating the social being of the working class with its political capacity. In practice, the result of this conflation often entails a limitation of the militant struggle to purely economical demands and their possible convergence, occasionally intensified in a violent upping of the ante as a way to provoke the existing authorities. But for the UCFML, politics cannot be reduced to a series of economical demands or revindications, not even if they are eventually inserted into a chain of equivalences. Nor can the workers be seen, in a falsely populist but otherwise typically moralizing and paternalistic fashion, as being endowed with an innate or automatic political capacity. "It is completely false to think that any social practice of any worker, no matter which one, is revolution- ary, proletarian," the UCFML insists in an early circular letter: "We must firmly combat these orientations which, despite the "left-wing" air that they may try to put on, are in reality from the right. They indeed reject the mass alliance and the materialist analysis." 105 This also means that the moment of politics cannot be subordinated to purely economical demands along the lines of typical trade unionist revindications. In fact, only a clear distinction between the socioeconomical substance of the category of the workers and its organized subjective capacity is capable of preserving the autonomy of politics. "Workerism, the cult of the worker, which did so much damage and which was, much more so than leftism, our infantile disorder, from the point of view of politics this means the inability really to handle the ques- tion of the party as the leading noyau of the people as a whole," another spe- cial issue of Le Marxiste-Léniniste also reads: "Workerism and unionism, as ideologies, the first among certain militants and the second among certain workers, that means the refusal of proletarian political independence." 106
From a Maoist perspective, ultimately, there exist no classes prior to their demarcation in the struggle. Or, to use Badiou's more concentrated phil- osophical expression of the same principle, in Théorie de la contradiction:
"A class does not preexist before the class struggle. To exist means to be opposed. The existence of a term is entirely given in its contradictory cor- relation with the other term of the scission." 107 For Badiou the real break, in terms of the transitivity of politics, happens within Marxism-Leninism as a result of Maoism. Another way to describe the break in Badiou's work revolves around the notion of the effective and intrinsic historicity of politics itself. "To be a Marxist means to be schooled by history," the UCFML posits in a brochure distributed after Mao's death, but then this principle must also be applied to the study of Marxism-Leninism-Maoism: "We have to study contemporary history and practice historical materialism with regard to Marxism itself." 108 Marxism is not a doctrine or a theory, whether economical or philosophi- cal, but it is also not an ideology, and even less a worldview; instead, it is a politics, the politics of communism, the different stages of which, according to a history that is internal to them, can at most be said to be concentrated in the theories of Marx and Engels, Lenin, and Mao. Marxism, in other words, is indissociable from a series of referents that give it the power of its effectivity and without which it would be a dead body of academic knowledge and dust-gathering dissertations. We know that in Peut-on penser la politique? Badiou enumerates three such historical referents: the workers' movement, the successful formation of socialist state regimes, and the anticolonialist national liberation movements. All three of these overarching referents, by the early eighties, would have exhausted their effective power to sustain the political historicity of Marxism. Indeed, to describe the long historical sequence that goes from the Cultural Revolu- tion in China all the way to Solidarity in Poland, a sequence to which we might add later moments such as the Zapatista uprising from the nineties in Chiapas, Badiou borrows an untranslatable expression from Lazarus and speaks of "événementialités obscures" to suggest that these are only possible events the nature of which as events is still relatively obscure, because of a general lack of conceptual tools to think through their political historicity. Thus he concludes: "All the political referents endowed with a real work-
ing and popular life are today atypical, delocalized, and erratic with regard to Marxism," but this does not bespeak the sense of an ending so much as the need for a renewed beginning: "If Marxism today is indefensible, it is because we must give it a beginning." 109 Similarly, when UCFML militants write up a balance sheet of their group's trajectory in a 1981 special issue of Le Marxiste-Léniniste titled 10 ans de maoïsme, they too begin by acknowledging the ultimate failure, or the complete depletion of historical power, of what from the start were their two main points of reference, the Cultural Revolution and May 1968: "These referents are today without power of their own. We carry their questions rather than their outcomes." 110 The failure of referentiality does not mean that we are done with the double legacy of Maoism. On the contrary, the questions that are left unresolved in its wake now constitute the stakes for a bold rebeginning of Marxism:
Against May '68, we know that what is needed is politics, the party, the break; and that the working class as political reality is a task rather than a given. With regard to the Cultural Revolution, we know that it has failed, and that the center of Maoism is this failure rather than that which took place. We who began at the crossover between May '68 and the GPCR, we are conscious that we lasted for other reasons: the political tenacity, and the certitude that communism is a process rather than a result. A process whose material and stakes are the party of the new type, the party of the post-Leninist era, which barely begins, and which is itself caught in the general beginning of this enormous civilization that bears the name of Marxism. Our fidelity to our origin enjoins us to hold a second beginning. Those who know the period and the risk of their history have the consistency of that which can win and last. 111
In other brochures from the same period, the anonymous authors of the UCFML even go so far as to posit that to be a Marxist one must in a sense become a post-Maoist. Armed with the historical knowledge that the failure
of a revolutionary project such as the Paris Commune was perhaps no less instructive for Marx or Lenin than a victory would have been, they call for a sustained inquiry into the obstacles and contradictions that ultimately would explain the failure of the Cultural Revolution—a failure symptomatically exposed in the trial against the Gang of Four. "The failure of a revolution universally sets the task of specifying what it has stumbled up against; what internal political question kept it, in positive mass conditions, from reaching its principal conscious goals," we read in Questions du maoïsme: De la Chine de la Révolution Culturelle à la Chine des Procès de Pékin: "Today a Marxist is someone who, within the framework of an organized politics, makes an effort to resolve for him or herself the PROBLEMS left hanging by the ini- tial Maoism, the Maoism of Mao Zedong, the Maoism that is contemporary to the Cultural Revolution. There is no other Marxism except this one." 112 But, since the fundamental problem left unsolved by the Cultural Revolu- tion is the one of the party, to resolve this problem at the same time means to devise the means to constitute a party of a new type, the party of post- Leninism. It is this problem that represents the stumbling block hit upon early on during the Cultural Revolution. Badiou's central hypothesis in his talk on the Cultural Revolution thus reiterates several of the arguments adopted by the UCFML during the late seventies and early eighties, when the group was producing a renewed assessment of its militancy in terms of the concept and practice of post- Leninism. The Cultural Revolution would have been unable to resolve the tension between the framework of a single party-state and the massive mobilizations called on to unhinge this whole framework from within. As we read in a brochure of the UCFML published after Mao's death:
The Cultural Revolution did not radically transform the political thought of the leaders of the Maoist Left on questions of organization. It is largely within the context of the party that, from 1969 until today [1976], political battles have raged over the fundamental orientations in the construction of socialism. Indeed, it seems that a contradiction has subsisted between an overall political orientation that was widely renovated by the Cultural Revolution and an organizational frame the reality and theory of which remained essentially unchanged. 113
Or, to use the excellent summary by Paul Sandevince (pseudonym for Syl- vain Lazarus), in his Notes de travail sur le post-léninisme:
Maoism marks a break with regard to Leninism. Rather, it opens the necessity of a break, without constituting the conceptual arrangement for this break. There is a relative silence in the Cultural Revolution and from Mao himself on the question of what would be the profile of the party of the new stage. Mao and the GPCR open the era of post-Leninism by clearing new paths on questions of the masses, on the proletariat, but not on proletarian politics, or on the politics of the party. Mao opens post- Leninism in terms of mass politics, but for the moment we cannot say that the principle of unity between mass politics and class (party) politics has been found. 114
In other words, if the Maoism of the Cultural Revolution was a heroic but failed effort to give new organizational shape to a post-Leninist mode of politics, then the task after the failure of the Cultural Revolution is with the aid of a series of militant investigations to prepare a new Maoism, or post-Maoism. We can thus begin to see why Badiou, even while acknowledging the closing of an era, would feel neither remorse nor embarrassment before using a narrative present to talk of "the Maoist that I am," or why he admits to feeling an "incoercible nostalgia" for those years marked by the Cultural Revolution, even including the "cult of Mao" in which he also participated:
"I buy neither the posthumous revenge of Camus over Sartre, nor even the immoderate praise for Raymond Aron, on the grounds that he would have been 'less mistaken,' which indeed is something that is easily achieved when one takes no risks other than to follow the pedagogy of the world as it goes." 115 For Badiou, by contrast, Maoism and the Cultural Revolution con- tinue to pose problems for which only a bold and painstaking investigation can begin to formulate possible answers.
1 Alain Badiou, Deleuze: The Clamor of Being, trans. Louise Burchill (Minneapolis: Univer- sity of Minnesota Press, 2000), 2.
2 Alain Badiou, Deleuze: "La clameur de l'Etre" (Paris: Hachette, 1997), 8. Unless otherwise indicated, all translations in the following pages are my own.
3 Alain Badiou, Théorie de la contradiction (Theory of Contradiction) (Paris: Maspero, 1975),
4 Alain Badiou, "Les 4 dialecticiens français: Pascal, Rousseau, Mallarmé, Lacan," Le Perro- quet: Quinzomadaire d'opinion 22 (March–April 1983): 11. Much of this text, but not the pas- sage quoted here, is integrated in Alain Badiou, "Généalogie de la dialectique," in Peut-on penser la politique? (Can Politics Be Thought?) (Paris: Seuil, 1985), 84–91. It seems to me that "il y a des critères" should read "il y va des critères," which is how I have translated the French original, but the first option of course would only confirm my thesis further.
5 Alain Badiou, Ethics: An Essay on the Understanding of Evil, trans. Peter Hallward (London:
Verso, 2001), 42. See also "Les deux sources du maoïsme en France," in Le maoïsme, marx- isme de notre temps (Maoism, Marxism of Our Time) (Marseille: Potemkine, 1976), 7–8. An English translation of this pamphlet published originally by the Groupe pour la Fondation de l'Union des Communistes de France Marxiste-Léniniste is included in this special issue. Incidentally, this double allegiance brings up the problem of how two events can become entangled in the first place, when Badiou does not even entertain this as a possibility in L'Etre et l'événement (Being and the Event). Mao's legacy thus time and again will bring us face to face with problems of articulation as entanglement or mixture, in stark contrast with the more miraculous and absolutist interpretations of Badiou's major concepts.
6 Peter Hallward, Badiou: A Subject to Truth (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003). "What should be stressed is that Badiou's properly decisive concepts—concepts of the pure, the singular, and the generic—are themselves at least relatively constant," Hallward writes, and he continues: "Certainly, for every disclaimer of 'early excesses' there have been many suggestive symptoms of a global continuity, at least from May '68 to the present" (30). Jason Barker, even while recognizing the persistence of Maoist themes in Badiou's more recent ontological inquiries, seems to reduce the lasting impact of Maoism to little more than a form of "militant vitality." See his Alain Badiou: A Critical Introduction (London:
Pluto, 2002), 25. "Today the legacy of Maoism has all but disappeared," Barker writes, but later on he adds: "Badiou's avowed aim in Being and the Event is to leave behind the 'still- born' legacy of dialectical materialism. However, the traces of Marxism—and Maoism— arguably persist, here and there, despite the introduction of this radical, 'post-Cantorian' variety of what Badiou names 'subtractive ontology' " (84).
7 Alain Badiou, L'Etre et l'événement (Paris: Seuil, 1988), 365.
Quotations from Chairman Mao Tsetung (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1972), 230–36.
9 Ibid., 230. In French, the word used for "investigation" is precisely enquête. Jason Barker translates the term as "inquest" and Peter Hallward as "investigation." For Badiou's own definition of the concept, see L'Etre et l'événement, 363–72. Among French Maoists, interest in the investigation was to become both systematic and widespread. In April 1967 Garde Rouge, the central journal of the Maoist UJC(ML), or Union of Communist Youths (Marxist- Leninist), publishes its fifth issue with a cover that reproduces the original assertion, "No investigation, no right to speak," first made in a 1930 text by Mao, "Against the Cult of the Book": Qui n'a pas fait d'enquête n'a pas droit à la parole. Christophe Bourseiller, in his anecdotal history of French Maoists, explains: "The investigation is another idea from the Chinese. Its concept is luminous: in order to know the working class and peasantry well, one must proceed with a systematic and objective investigation by going on location. It is a matter of leaving behind the universities in order to go there where exploitation is most ravaging. Of practicing concrete analysis. This foregrounding of the investigation will be one of the principal features of the Maoist movement" (Christophe Bourseiller, Les maoïstes:
La folle histoire des gardes rouges français [The Maoists: The Mad History of the French Red Guards] [Paris: Plon, 1996], 80). See also François Marmor, "Les livres et les enquêtes: Pour un 'marxisme concret,' " in Le maoïsme: Philosophie et politique (Maoism: Philosophy and Politics) (Paris: PUF, 1976), 47–51.
10 Quoted in Bourseiller, Les Maoïstes, 161.
11 Groupe pour la Fondation de l'Union des Communistes Français (marxiste-léniniste), Pre- mière année d'existence d'une organisation maoïste, printemps 1970/printemps 1971 (First Year of Existence of a Maoist Organization, Spring 1970/Spring 1971) (Paris: Maspero, 1972), 100,
12 Groupe pour la Fondation de l'Union des Communistes Français (marxiste-léniniste), La révolution prolétarienne en France et comment construire le Parti de l'époque de la pensée de Mao Tsé-toung (The Proletarian Revolution in France and How to Build the Party of the Era of Mao Zedong) (Paris: Maspero, 1970), 46.
13 See Dialogue autour de Tien An Men (Dialogue on Tienanmen), a special issue of Le Perro- quet: Quinzomadaire d'opinion 86–87 (March 1990). Parts of the survey in Guanzhou have also been published in Sylvain Lazarus, L'anthropologie du nom (Anthropology of the Name) (Paris: Seuil, 1996), 233–49, and in Lazarus, Chercher ailleurs et autrement: Sur la doctrine des lieux, l'économie, l'effondrement du socialisme (Looking Elsewhere and Differently: On the Doctrine of Places, the Economy, the Collapse of Socialism) (Paris: Les Conférences du Per- roquet, 1992).
14 Badiou, L'Etre et l'événement, 361. On the "still-born" legacy of dialectical materialism, see the introduction (10). For a more detailed commentary, see my contribution "On the Subject of the Dialectic," in Think Again: Alain Badiou and the Future of Philosophy, ed. Peter Hall- ward (London: Continuum, 2004), 150–64.
15 See, for example, Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy:
Towards a Radical Democratic Politics (London: Verso, 1985), 95; Michael Hardt and Anto- nio Negri, Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 63–64.
16 Badiou, Théorie de la contradiction, 109–10.
17 See Bruno Bosteels, "Can Change Be Thought? A Dialogue with Alain Badiou," in Alain Badiou: Philosophy and Its Conditions, ed. Gabriel Riera (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005), 252–53.
18 Because of my focus on Badiou's Maoist years, I will not deal in detail with the later activi- ties of the Organisation Politique. The interested reader can find an excellent discussion of these activities in Hallward's Badiou, chap. 10.
19 Quotations from Chairman Mao Tsetung, 170–74.
20 Badiou, L'Etre et l'événement, 375–76.
21 La révolution prolétarienne en France, 107–28.
22 "Maoïsme et question du Parti," in Le Maoïsme, special issue of Le Marxiste-Léniniste: Jour- nal Central du Groupe pour la Fondation de l'Union des Communistes de France Marxistes Léninistes 12 (fall 1976): 20.
23 "Le maoïsme: Une étape du marxisme" ("Maoism: A Stage of Marxism"), in 10 ans de maoïsme: Une histoire, un bilan, une politique (Ten Years of Maoism: A History, A Balance Sheet, A Politics), special double issue of Le Marxiste-Léniniste: Journal Central du Groupe pour la Fondation de l'Union des Communistes de France Marxistes Léninistes 50–51 (spring 1981): 7. The complete text of this article is translated in this special issue. See also Paul Sandevince [Sylvain Lazarus], Notes de travail sur le post-léninisme (Working Notes on Post- Leninism) (Paris: Potemkine, 1980).
24 See also the introduction to La révolution prolétarienne en France: "If we commit ourselves to fusing the universal truth of Marxism-Leninism, the highest and entirely new stage of which is Mao Zedong's thought, into the concrete practice of the revolution in France, the latter will for sure be victorious. This fusion requires that Mao Zedong's thought really be considered a guide for action" (9–10).
25 Alain Badiou, Théorie du sujet (Paris: Seuil, 1982), 198.
26 Alain Badiou, La Révolution Culturelle: La dernière révolution? (Paris: Les Conférences du Rouge-Gorge, 2002), 31.
27 A. Belden Fields, Trotskyism and Maoism: Theory and Practice in France and the United States (New York: Praeger, 1988), available online at www.maoism.org.
28 Rémi Hess, Les maoïstes français: Une dérive institutionnelle (The French Maoists: An Institu- tional Drift) (Paris: Anthropos, 1974), 207–12.
29 Bourseiller, Les Maoïstes, 130, 150.
30 Alain Badiou, Conditions (Paris: Seuil, 1992), 250.
La révolution prolétarienne en France, 126. As in the case of Mao on determination by the
infrastructure, practice, or politics over the superstructure, theory, or ideology, here too this question is a conjunctural one: "There is no absolute priority of the struggle in the factories over the struggle in the housing projects, but the inverse is not true either" (126). Though without absolute priority, nevertheless in modern historical circumstances the fac- tory retains a symptomatic function with regard to other sites. Those comrades who would consider this argument too a leftover of Badiou's bygone dialectical period would do well to consider an extraordinary text, "L'usine comme site événementiel" ("The Factory as Event- Site"), which was originally meant for inclusion in L'Etre et l'événement but appeared only in Le Perroquet 62–63 (April 22–May 10, 1986): 1, 4–6.
32 La révolution prolétarienne en France, 119.
33 Le Marxiste-Léniniste 50–51 (spring 1981): 17. The noyaux, or noyaux communistes ouvriers, were "kernels" or "cells" of communist workers and militants that for some time constituted the model of the "party of the new type" according to the UCFML. For a discussion, see Les noyaux communistes ouvriers: Forme actuelle de l'avant-garde, piliers de l'édification du Parti de type nouveau (The Communist Workers' Cells: Current Form of the Vanguard, Pillars of the Construction of a New Type of Party) (Marseille: Potemkine, 1978).
34 Badiou, Révolution Culturelle, 11. For an excellent philological interpretation of the four Chinese characters that are translated as "Cultural Revolution" in most Western languages, including French and English, see Guy Brossollet, "Ce que veut dire 'Révolution cul- turelle,' " in "Mao: Culture et révolution," special issue, Magazine Littéraire 30 (1969): 7–13.
35 "L'art et la culture: Un groupe maoïste, le groupe FOUDRE," Le Marxiste-Léniniste 50–51 (1981): 20–21.
36 Bosteels, "Can Change Be Thought?" 259–60.
37 Badiou, Théorie du sujet, 46, 306.
38 Ibid., 5.
39 Ibid., 65. A. Belden Fields observes, in his Trotskyism and Maoism (chap. 3): "The UCFML has made no claim to be a party, as have the other two organizations [Parti Communiste Marxiste-Léniniste de France (PCMLF) and Parti Communiste Révolutionnaire (marxiste- léniniste) (PCR[m-l])]. In fact, it has not even claimed to be a 'union' yet, but a 'group' for the formation of a 'union.' It has readily admitted that it does not yet have a mass base which would entitle it legitimately to refer to itself as a party. It also questions the legitimacy of the PCMLF and the PCR(m-l) for so doing."
40 UCFML, "Commentaire préliminaire," in Sandevince, Notes de travail sur le post-léninisme, 4.
41 Badiou, Théorie du sujet, 65. For the full periodization, see the fragments from Théorie du sujet translated in this special issue.
42 "Le mode dialectique," La Distance Politique 3 (1992): 5. A complete English translation of this text is also included in this special issue.
43 Badiou, Théorie du sujet, 205.
Alain Badiou, "Democratic Materialism and the Materialist Dialectic," trans. Alberto
Toscano, Radical Philosophy 130 (2005): 21. This text reproduces the first half of the preface to Badiou's Logiques des mondes. I am thankful to Peter Hallward for reminding me of this definition.
45 For an overview of the different forms of organization associated with the UCFML, see Le Marxiste-Léniniste 50–51 (1981).
46 Badiou, Théorie de la contradiction, 20.
47 Alain Badiou, Peut-on penser la politique? (Paris: Seuil, 1985), 112.
48 Lenin, Philosophical Notebooks, vol. 38 of Collected Works, trans. Clemence Dutt (Moscow:
Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1961), 180, 196. To the theory of reflection or of the mirroring relationship between notions and things, however, we should add the notion of an asymptotic approach, which is precisely why Hegel's genius can never be more than a guess: "Cognition is the eternal, endless approximation of thought to the object. The reflec- tion of nature in man's thought must be understood not 'lifelessly,' not 'abstractly,' not devoid of movement, not without contradictions, but in the eternal process of movement, the arising of contradictions and their solution" (195). See also Badiou, Théorie de la contradiction, 40; and Badiou, Théorie du sujet, 206–16.
49 Theodor W. Adorno, "Skoteinos, or How to Read Hegel," in Hegel: Three Studies, trans. Shierry Weber Nicholson (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993), 139.
50 From the moment of its foundation onward, the UCFML situates itself polemically in opposition to the two major Maoist organizations still in existence in the early seventies in France: the ex-PCMLF, forced into semi-clandestine existence around the journal L'Humanité Rouge; and the GP, or Gauche Prolétarienne, led by Benny Lévy (pseudonym Pierre Victor) and most famously organized around La Cause du Peuple. It is worth consid- ering the tactics used in this polemical self-positioning because they consistently follow a logic of twin deviations, overcome by the just middle, which will serve us further to under- stand the persistent role of the Maoist dialectic in the overall philosophy of Badiou. In the UCFML's founding document, we see the logic of twin ideological deviations appear from the start: "The national organizations that vindicate Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong's thought are irreparably engaged either in a rightist-opportunistic and neo- revisionist political line or in a leftist-opportunistic and putschist line" (La révolution pro- létarienne en France, 4). The militants and sympathizers of La Cause du Peuple, on the one hand, are said to fall prey to a "leftist" deviation, insofar as they combine an overly narrow concept of politics, limited to mere "agit-prop," with an almost terrorist appeal to spectacu- lar violence. The noisy vindication of anti-authoritarianism as sheer cop bashing ("casser du flic"), the physical confrontation with the factory "bosses," or the mediatic kidnapping of famous CEOs, together with the journal's purely descriptive retelling of isolated and short- lived episodes in the history of the workers' movement, thus become poor substitutes for the patient work of actual political organization. Without concrete directives, without the assessment of experience, and without a systematic practice of investigations, the undeniable
air of radicalism exuded by La Cause du Peuple is often little more than an abstract call to revolt, quickly tilting over into a militarized plea for violence as an end in itself: "Putschism comes in the place of the investigation, of the systematization, and of the directive" (ibid., 56). An adventurist call to pure activism for its own sake would thus form the "leftist" extreme of the ideological spectrum, represented by the GP. In a later study published in 1977, finally, the UCFML would take advantage of the lessons learned from the criticisms against Lin Biao during the latter days of the Cultural Revolution, to redefine its own stance in opposition to the GP after the latter's autodissolution in November 1973: "When the emphasis was put on the masses, the ex-GP's thinking was purely democratic, and pretended to dissolve itself in spontaneous movement. Just as Lin Biao unilaterally exalted the self-liberation of the masses. But when the ex-GP put the emphasis on organization, it was the complete opposite: the armed, clandestine, and purely putschist nucleus, subtracted from all political control by the people. Just as Lin Biao had wanted to an excess to militarize the Revolutionary Committees, and finally attempted a coup." See Groupe pour la Fondation de l'Union des Communistes de France Marxistes-Léninistes, Une étude maoïste: La situation en Chine et le mouvement dit de "critique de la bande des Quatre" (A Maoist Study: The Situation in China and the Movement of the "Critique of the Gang of Four") (Marseille: Potemkine, 1977), 9. The ex-PCMLF and the various circles around L'Humanité Rouge, on the other hand, appear as a "rightist" ideological deviation, insofar as they proclaim to be already the authen- tic communist party in France, all the while referring the events of the Cultural Revolution to a distant historical "stage" in the edification of socialism, that is, the internal ideological struggle that can only follow the takeover of power. Once again, this leads to a general absence of positive guidelines and directives—all matters of organization that in this case are replaced by an unconfessed and purely nostalgic yearning for a return to the long-lost grandeur of the 1920s and 1930s PCF. At the same time, consistent with their denial of the novelty of the Cultural Revolution, the circles that emerge from the ex-PCMLF end up becoming paralyzed by a fearful overestimation of the new repressive apparatuses of the state: "This spirit is particularly evident in their analysis of the alleged ' fascization' of the power of the state after May. This analysis has led the militants of L'Humanité Rouge to their semi-clandestine existence, their lack of initiative, and their semi-paralysis" (La révo- lution prolétarienne en France, 68). I should add that, insofar as the GP, too, will increasingly become obsessed with the "fascist" turn of the state apparatus in France, the militants of this organization are also sometimes described in the writings of the UCFML in terms of a "rightist" deviation, similar to that of the ex-PCMLF.
51 UCFML, La révolution prolétarienne en France, 108.
52 Badiou, Théorie de la contradiction, 71.
53 Alain Badiou and François Balmès, De l'idéologie (Of Ideology) (Paris: Maspero, 1976), 29 n. 20.
54 Badiou, Théorie de la contradiction, 80.
55 Ibid., 75.
56 Ibid., 76, 78–79.
57 Ibid., 79.
58 Ibid., 80.
59 Ibid., 81.
60 Ibid.
61 Ibid., 81–82.
62 Ibid., 82.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
65 Alain Badiou, "Le flux et le parti (dans les marges de l'Anti-Oedipe)," in La situation actuelle
sur le front philosophique (The Current Situation on the Philosophical Front) (Paris: Maspero, 1977), 31–32. For an English translation of this text, see "The Flux and the Party: In the Margins of Anti-Oedipus," trans. Laura Balladur and Simon Krysl, Polygraph: An Interna- tional Journal of Culture and Politics 15/16 (2004): 75–92. I have tried to extend this argument to include the work of Hardt, Negri, and Žižek in my contribution "Logics of Antagonism:
In the Margins of Alain Badiou's 'The Flux and the Party,' " included in the same special issue of Polygraph (93–107).
66 Badiou, Théorie de la contradiction, 69.
67 Ibid.
68 Ibid., 72.
69 Ibid., 69. Now, if all this were to come down to recovering the notion there can be no power without the constituent force of resistance, as we can hear from Mao to Negri today, then someone like André Glucksmann might well seem to lead the way. At the outset of La cui- sinière et le mangeur d'hommes (The Cook and the Man Eater), one of the books, together with Les maîtres penseurs (The Master Thinkers), with which he first achieved nationwide fame as
a former editor of La Cause du Peuple turned New Philosopher, Glucksmann indeed posits
a principle worthy of his youthful Maoist years: "In the beginning there was resistance." See
André Glucksmann, La cuisinière et le mangeur d'hommes (Paris: Le Seuil, 1975), 21. From this radical, almost ontological priority of resistance, however, all the attention quickly turns in awe to the overwhelming power of repression displayed by the state. In fact, the antirepressive obsession ultimately contradicts the initial pledge of allegiance to the wildly creative force of popular resistance. Only a short step is then needed, based on the false opposition between masses and the state, to go on to applaud the intrinsically democratic tendencies of the former, even if only by default, this being the only remedy to avoid the totalitarian excesses of the latter, made infamous by the gulag. And this step, we know, was swiftly taken by most of the New Philosophers.
70 Groupe Yénan-Philosophie, "Etat de front," in La situation actuelle sur le front philosophique, 12. In addition to Deleuze, Lacan, and Althusser, a fourth interlocutor—Michel Foucault—
is mentioned in a footnote as the subject of a future discussion, but this polemic never actu- ally was to take place. Incidentally, this lacuna can still be felt in Badiou's current work, in which certain readers might want to see a more sustained confrontation, particularly with Foucault's final seminars at the Collège de France.
71 Ibid., 10. The mention of Nietzsche's archpolitical attempt "to break the history of the world in two" anticipates a future version of this same polemic, in which Badiou will once again reject the radical-anarchic figure of antagonism, or the two as such, as part of Nietzsche's problematic legacy. See Alain Badiou, Casser en deux l'histoire du monde? (Paris: Les Con- férences du Perroquet, 1992). Compare also with Alenka Zupancˇicˇ's recent book, deeply inspired by Badiou's views, The Shortest Shadow: Nietzsche's Philosophy of the Two (Cam- bridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003).
72 Groupe Yénan-Philosophie, "Etat de front," 12–13.
73 Alain Badiou, Joël Bellassen, and Louis Mossot, Le noyau rationnel de la dialectique hégé- lienne: Traductions, introductions et commentaires autour d'un texte de Zhang Shiying, Pékin, 1972 (The Rational Kernel of the Hegelian Dialectic: Translations, Introduction, and Commen- taries on a Text by Zhang Shiying, Beijing, 1972) (Paris: Maspero, 1978), 73, see note "(k) Le concept philosophique de déviation."
74 Theodor W. Adorno, Negative Dialectics, trans. E. B. Ashton (New York: Continuum, 1990), 135. Paradoxically, then, nonidentity, or the presupposition that something must precede the process of pure thought, is not an obstacle but a precondition for the identity between being and thinking, between logic and history.
75 Le noyau rationnel de la dialectique hégélienne, 73–74.
76 Ibid., 40.
77 Ibid., 39.
78 Badiou, Théorie du sujet, 30.
79 Ibid., 60, 30.
80 Badiou, L'Etre et l'événement, 230.
81 Ibid., 232–33.
82 Badiou, Theoretical Writings, ed. and trans. Alberto Toscano and Ray Brassier (London:
Continuum, 2004), 69.
83 Badiou, Théorie de la contradiction, 56.
84 Badiou, Peut-on penser la politique? 10. Insofar as Lacan's psychoanalysis now prospers officially in the Ecole de la Cause, just as Sartre's Cause echoes La Cause du Peuple, we might also add Lacan to the polemic between Sartre and Althusser. The question being, of course: on which side? Or perhaps we should ask ourselves whether a Lacanian logic of the Cause (as Chose) does not interrupt the possibility of being loyal to a political Cause, just as Althusser's structural causality may have kept him from joining Sartre's Cause on the side of the Maoists.
85 Le noyau rationnel de la dialectique hégélienne, 13–14.
Ibid., 15.
Ibid., 17.
Thus we could show how in some of Althusser's formulations, the systematic study of over- determination under certain formal conditions, which he himself also calls events, pin- points a symptomatic blindness, or incompleteness, the presence of which already seems to presuppose the inscription of a subject in a nonideological sense, while conversely we can always expect to find remnants of the opacity and counterfinality of the structure, or what Sartre calls elements of the practico-inert, in the midst of the subject's ongoing efforts at reaching the transparency of self-consciousness.
See Bosteels, "Can Change Be Thought?" 243.
Guy Lardreau and Christian Jambet, L'ange (The Angel), vol. 1 of Ontologie de la revolution:
Pour une cynégétique du semblant (Ontology of Revolution: For a Cynegetics of Semblance) (Paris: Grasset, 1976), 96.
Ibid., 167.
Daniel Bensaïd, "Alain Badiou and the Miracle of the Event," in Hallward, Think Again, 95. In Bensaïd's eyes, the price to pay for this radical distancing from history would be exorbitant. The result in fact is "a philosophy of majestic sovereignty, whose decision seems to be founded upon a nothing that commands a whole," a philosophy haunted by the episte- mological cut between event and history, the effect of which would be politically deadening:
"The absolute incompatibility between truth and opinion, between philosopher and soph- ist, between event and history, leads to a practical impasse. The refusal to work within the equivocal contradiction and tension which bind them together ultimately leads to a pure voluntarism, which oscillates between a broadly leftist form of politics and its philosophical circumvention" (101, 105).
Ibid., 103.
Ibid., 103–4.
Georges Peyrol [Alain Badiou], "Un ange est passé," in La situation actuelle sur le front phi- losophique, 69.
Ibid., 72.
Ibid., 73.
Badiou, Théorie de la contradiction, 53, 55.
Badiou, Ethics, 118–19.
Alberto Toscano, "Communism as Separation," in Hallward, Think Again, 143.
Ibid., 145.
For a more detailed discussion, see Bosteels, "Badiou without Žižek," in "The Philosophy of Alain Badiou," ed. Matthew Wilkens, special issue, Polygraph: An International Journal of Culture and Politics 17 (2005): 221–44.
105 "Circulaire sur quelques problèmes idéologiques" (September 1970), republished in Première année d'existence, 20.
106 Le Marxiste-Léniniste 12 (fall 1976): 21.
107 Badiou, Théorie de la contradiction, 70.
108 UCFML, Sur le maoïsme et la situation en Chine après la mort de Mao Tsé-Toung, 1–2.
109 Badiou, Peut-on penser la politique? 56.
110 "Introduction," Le Marxiste-Léniniste 50–51 (spring 1981): 1.
111 Ibid.
112 UCFML, Questions du maoïsme: De la Chine de la Révolution Culturelle à la Chine des Procès de Pékin, 10.
113 UCFML, Sur le maoisme et la situation en Chine, 16–17.
114 Sandevince, Notes de travail sur le post-léninisme, 9.
115 Badiou, Théorie du sujet, 318.