text: Attenuation of High-Frequency (50–200 Hz) Thalamocortical Electroencephalographic Rhythms by Isoflurane in Rats Is More Pronounced for the Thalamus Than for the CortexPlourde, Gilles MD; Reed, Sean J. MSc; Chapman, C. Andrew PhDAnesthesia & Analgesia: June 2016 - Volume 122 - Issue 6 - p 1818–1825 doi: 10.1213/ANE.0000000000001166 Anesthetic Pharmacology: Research Report Free Abstract In Brief Author InformationAuthors Article OutlineOutline Article MetricsMetrics BACKGROUND: Thalamocortical electroencephalographic rhythms in gamma (30–80 Hz) and high-gamma (80–200 Hz) ranges have been linked to arousal and conscious processes. We have recently shown that propofol causes a concentration-dependent attenuation of the power of thalamocortical rhythms in the 50 to 200 Hz range and that this effect is far more pronounced for the thalamus. To determine whether similar attenuation occurs with other anesthetics, we characterized the concentration-effect relationship of the inhaled anesthetic isoflurane on the spectral power of these rhythms. METHODS: Local field potentials were recorded from the barrel cortex and ventroposteromedial thalamic nucleus in 9 chronically instrumented rats to measure spectral power in the gamma/high-gamma range (30–200 Hz). Rats were placed in an airtight chamber and isoflurane was administered at 0.75%, 1.1%, and 1.5% concentrations. Spectral power was assessed during baseline, at the 3 isoflurane concentrations after 30 minutes for equilibration, and during recovery over 4 frequency bands (30–50, 51–75, 76–125, and 126–200 Hz). Unconsciousness was defined as sustained loss of righting reflex. Multiple linear regression was used to model the change in power (after logarithmic transformation) as a function of concentration and recording site. P values were corrected for multiple comparisons. RESULTS: Unconsciousness occurred at the 1.1% concentration in all animals. Isoflurane caused a robust (P ≤ 0.008) linear concentration-dependent attenuation of cortical and thalamic power in the 30 to 200 Hz range. The concentration-effect slope for the thalamus was steeper than for the cortex in the 51 to 75 Hz (P = 0.029) and 76 to 200 Hz (P < 0.001) ranges but not for the 30 to 50 Hz range (P = 0.320). Comparison with our previously published propofol data showed that slope for cortical power was steeper with isoflurane than with propofol for all frequency bands (P = 0.033). For thalamic power, the slope differences between isoflurane and propofol were not statistically significant (0.087 ≤ P ≤ 0.599). CONCLUSIONS: Isoflurane causes a concentration-dependent attenuation of the power of thalamocortical rhythms in the 30 to 200 Hz range, and this effect is more pronounced for the thalamus than for the cortex for frequencies >50 Hz. In comparison with propofol, isoflurane caused a greater attenuation in the cortex, but the effects on the thalamus were similar. Isoflurane and propofol cause common alterations of fast thalamocortical rhythms that may constitute an electrophysiologic signature of the anesthetized state. Published ahead of print February 1, 2016 From the Department of Anesthesia, McGill University, Montréal, Canada. Accepted for publication December 1, 2015. Published ahead of print February 1, 2016 Funding: This work was funded in part by a grant to Dr. Chapman from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada. Drs. Plourde and Chapman are members of the Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology funded by the Fonds de Récherche du Québec-Santé (FRQS). The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Reprints will not be available from the authors. Address correspondence to Gilles Plourde, MD, Department of Anesthesia, McGill University, Montreal Neurological Hospital, Room 548, 3801 University St., Montreal, QC, Canada H3A 2B4. Address e-mail to email@example.com. Abstract METHODS Ethics Statement Surgery Design Electrophysiologic Recording Perfusion and Histology Statistical Analysis RESULTS Behavioral Observations Concentration-Effect Relationships Recovery and Paired Comparisons DISCUSSION DISCLOSURES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES The mechanisms by which general anesthetics suppress consciousness remain elusive.1,2 One of the most important and salient manifestation of the effects of general anesthetics on the brain is an increase in low-frequency (≤4 Hz) electroencephalographic (EEG) power. 3–5 This applies to the vast majority of general anesthetics, including modern agents such as propofol6,7 and isoflurane.8 The increased low-frequency EEG power reflects the emergence of slow oscillations caused by the phasic hyperpolarization of cortical and thalamic neurons.9 Concurrently, anesthetic action also results in a decrease in high-frequency (30–80 Hz) EEG power, often referred to as gamma range.10 The hypothesis that attenuation of thalamocortical EEG rhythms in the gamma range contributes to the hypnotic effect of general anesthetics has been proposed.10–13 Gamma rhythms are an important element of the activity of the waking brain, reflecting the depolarization of thalamic and cortical neurons.14 They occur in all sensory areas and have been associated with a number of high-level neurocognitive processes, including general arousal, sensory function, and attention.15,16 Early observations of high-frequency rhythms were confined to the gamma range, but recent developments have also drawn attention to the broadband high-gamma (80–200 Hz) range.17,18 We have recently shown, with recordings from the somatosensory (barrel) cortex and ventroposteromedial (VPM) thalamus of the rat that IV propofol causes a robust linear concentration-dependent attenuation of cortical EEG power in the 76 to 200 Hz range and of thalamic power in the 30 to 200 Hz range.19 Furthermore, the concentration-effect slopes for the thalamus were markedly steeper than for the cortex. These observations provide strong evidence that general anesthesia is associated with the attenuation of high-frequency thalamocortical EEG rhythms in the gamma (30–80 Hz) and high-gamma (80–200 Hz) ranges17,18 in both cortex and thalamus. If similar, or more extensive, effects could be demonstrated with inhaled anesthetics, the hypothesis that anesthesia is associated with impairment of high-frequency thalamocortical rhythms would be strengthened. Such findings would also inform the debate on the relative role of cortical and thalamic dysfunction in anesthetic-induced unconsciousness.1,20 Furthermore, comparative studies of the electrophysiologic effects of general anesthetics may contribute to translational research efforts in view of the accumulating evidence that the distinct brain states produced by different anesthetics are readily visible in the patient's EEG.21 Our aim was to characterize the effects of the inhaled anesthetic, isoflurane, on high-frequency (30–200 Hz) thalamocortical EEG rhythms. The 30 to 200 Hz range was divided into the following bands chosen on the basis of our recent study and other works22,23: 30 to 50, 51 to 75, 76 to 125, and 126 to 200 Hz. For each frequency band, we evaluated the concentration-effect relationship of isoflurane on the power of the EEG recorded from the somatosensory (barrel) cortex and VPM thalamic nucleus of the rats with chronically implanted electrodes, and we compared the steepness of the cortical and thalamic regression lines. We also compared the potency of isoflurane for attenuating high-frequency power with that of propofol as reported in our recently published work. 19 Back to Top | Article Outline METHODS Ethics Statement All procedures adhered to the guidelines of the Canadian Council on Animal Care and were approved by the Animal Ethics Boards of Concordia University. Male Long-Evans rats (300–350 g) were acquired from Charles River Laboratories (Senneville, Quebec, Canada). They were housed individually, provided food and water ad libitum, and maintained on a 12-hour reversed light cycle. Back to Top | Article Outline Surgery Animals were anesthetized with isoflurane (2.5%) in an induction chamber. Once anesthetized, they were transferred to a stereotaxic apparatus with a heated surgical plate. An ophthalmic ointment was used to protect the corneas. Anesthesia was maintained throughout the entire procedure with isoflurane (1.5%–2.5% via a nose cone) adjusted to prevent movement in response to manual toe pinch. A midline incision was made along the scalp, and the periosteum was retracted with hemostats. Bipolar electrodes made of twisted, Teflon-coated stainless steel wires (125 μm diameter; vertical separation between the wire tips: 0.5 mm; AM Systems, Sequim, WA) were then positioned in the VPM thalamic nucleus (Paxinos atlas24 coordinates: anterior/posterior [A/P]: −3.5, lateral/medial [L/M]: 2.7, ventral/dorsal [V/D]: −6.6, relative to bregma) and sensory (barrel) cortex (A/P: −2.3, L/M: 5.0, V/D: −3.6) for local field potential (LFP) recordings of EEG activity within the target regions.25 The cortical electrode was adjusted vertically to optimize the amplitude of the field excitatory postsynaptic potentials evoked by VPM stimulation. Thicker wires (280 μm diameter; AM Systems) soldered to stainless steel screws were placed in the contralateral parietal bone and the ipsilateral frontal bone to serve as the reference and ground electrodes, respectively. Electrode leads were then fastened to gold-plated Amphenol pins and inserted into a 9-pin ABS connector (Ginder Scientific, Nepean, ON, Canada). This assembly was then secured to the skull by using acrylic dental cement. All animals were administered carprofen (5 mg/kg, subcutaneous at end of surgery and repeated once a day for 2 days) and buprenorphine (0.5 mg/kg, subcutaneous at end of surgery and repeated every 12 hours for up to 3 days if needed). Animals were routinely monitored to minimize any suffering or postoperative complications. One week was allotted for recovery and observation. Back to Top | Article Outline Design The animals were placed in a 40 × 40 × 60 cm airtight Plexiglas chamber, containing separate ports for fresh gas flow, gas sampling and scavenging, and a silicone rubber seal opening allowing manual access to the animal without introduction of ambient air in the testing chamber. There was a continuous oxygen flow at a rate of 1 to 5 L/min. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and anesthetic concentration were measured with a Capnomatic Ultima Analyzer (Datex-Ohmeda, Helsinki, Finland) calibrated before each testing session. The experimental sessions were preceded by 20-minute acclimation sessions, which occurred daily for 3 days, allowing the animals to explore the testing chamber without exposure to anesthetic. Each rat underwent a single testing session with 5 conditions (baseline, isoflurane concentrations of 0.75%, 1.1%, and 1.5%, and recovery defined as return of spontaneous ambulation). These concentrations were based on a pilot study that showed that loss of righting occurred at 0.9% to 1.1% isoflurane. Ten minutes were needed to reach the desired inspired concentrations, and 30 minutes were allowed for equilibration at each concentration. If the animal was not ambulating at the end of equilibration, the righting reflex was tested by placing the animal on its side and by observing attempts to right. The animal was considered unconscious if no movements or righting attempts occurred. We limited the number of anesthetic concentrations to 3 to complete the main part of the experiment in 2 hours 15 minutes, a duration roughly similar to the 2 hours required for the main part of the experiment in our propofol study.19 Back to Top | Article Outline Electrophysiologic Recording Both referential and bipolar recordings were obtained. We report only the results of the bipolar recordings. LFPs from the cortex and thalamus were amplified (0.1–500-Hz pass band; AM Systems, Model 1700), digitized at 1024 Hz, and stored for off-line analysis. For each period, 2 minutes of high-quality data devoid of artifacts was obtained. Spectral power was computed with the Welch method26 by using 4-second segments and a Hanning window with 50% overlap (Matlab Signal Processing Toolbox, version 6; MathWorks Inc., Sherborn, MA). Segments containing >5% outliers (defined as values outside mean ± 3 SDs of the entire recording of approximately 2 minutes) were excluded from analysis. The frequency bands were defined as 30 to 50, 51 to 75, 76 to 125, and 126 to 200 Hz. To minimize the impact of interference from external electrical sources, power at 59 to 61 Hz, 119 to 121 Hz, and 179 to 181 Hz were excluded from analysis. Because baseline power differs between animals, normalization of the spectra is required to avoid an undue influence of animals with high-baseline power. Power spectra were normalized for each animal and recording site by dividing the power values by the average power from 0.1 to 200 Hz during baseline. Thus, for each animal and recording site, the average power during baseline was equal to unity, and the spectra for the other periods were scaled with the same parameter. Back to Top | Article Outline Perfusion and Histology After completing the testing session, animals were killed with a lethal dose of urethane and perfused via the left ventricle with heparinized saline followed by 10% neutral buffered formalin. The isolated brains were postfixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for histologic processing. Accurate electrode placements could be confirmed in 5 animals based on the termination of the electrode tracks. In the other animal, damage to the brain during retrieval or processing prevented identification of the electrode tracks or surrounding structures. Back to Top | Article Outline Statistical Analysis Based on the data of our prior report,19 we aimed for a sample size of ≥8 animals. Animals were instrumented in groups of 2 or 3, and the raw traces and spectra were inspected after testing each rat to confirm that valid data had been obtained. No interim statistical analyses were conducted. When we had obtained valid data from 8 animals, we stopped instrumenting animals but tested animals that had already been instrumented. Ten animals were instrumented, but a problem with the electrode assembly made it impossible to test 1 animal. Valid data were, therefore, obtained from 9 animals. All power values were transformed with log base 10. Multiple regression was used to model the changes of log power as a linear function of concentration, with a common slope used for all animals. A separate analysis was conducted for each frequency band (30–50, 51–75, 76–125, and 126–200 Hz). For each analysis, there were 4 repeated measurements (corresponding to the baseline and 3 isoflurane concentrations: xj, j = 1, 2, 3, and 4, corresponding to 0, 0.75%, 1.1%, and 1.5%) for each recording site (k = 1 for cortex and k = 2 for thalamus). We modeled each outcome yijk as follows: where yijk denotes the spectral power of rat i (i = 1, 2, …, 9) at concentration j for site k αik is the difference between the random intercept of rat i and β0k β0k is the regression constant for site k β1k is the regression coefficient for the linear term (i.e., slope) for site k. εijk is the error term, which accounts for unexplained errors (e.g., measurement error). The model contains both fixed effects (the influence of concentration and recording site) and a random effect (the baseline values of each rat). This mixed model was estimated with PROC MIXED in SAS Statistical Software (version 9.2; SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) by using an autoregressive covariance structure. The choice of a mixed, more complex regression model is required because the experimental design involves serial measurements in the same animals (see Ref. 27 for a detailed account). Inspection of the residuals revealed no anomalies. The P values for the linear term were corrected for multiple comparisons (8 tests) with the Hommel procedure.28 The goodness of fit was assessed with the concordance correlation coefficient (CCC), which was developed for mixed models as an alternative to the traditional R2 in linear regression.29,30 This analysis was done for each site separately. The value of CCC ranges from −1 (perfect discordance) to 1 (perfect concordance). A value of 0 reflects no relationship at all. We compared the cortical and thalamic regression coefficients for the linear term (β1) for each frequency range to assess the significance of differences in the slope of concentration-effect plots by modeling signals from 2 sites simultaneously based on approaches for multivariate longitudinal data.31 We tested the null hypothesis as follows: assuming that, follows a normal distribution, where is the SE of the difference of the coefficients. (The underline denotes the estimate of a parameter: e.g., is the estimate, derived from the data, of β1Cortex.). To obtain the SE, we used the variance of computed with the following standard formula32: where su-v2 is the variance of the difference between the variables u and v, su and sv is their SD, and r is the correlation coefficient between u and v. Paired t tests were used to compare spectral power between 1.5% isoflurane and recovery. To compare the regression coefficients for the linear term (β1) obtained for isoflurane with those recently published for propofol,19 we assumed that a target concentration 9 μg/mL propofol was equivalent to 1.1% isoflurane because they are the lowest concentrations that abolished the righting reflex in all animals. The mean and SE of the linear terms obtained from SAS Proc Mixed for propofol were multiplied by 9 and those for isoflurane were multiplied by 1.1. This is equivalent to computing the regression using 0, 0.33, 0.67, 1, and 1.33 for concentration (instead of 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 μg/mL for propofol) and 0, 0.68, 1, and 1.36 (instead of 0, 0.75%, 1.1%, and 1.5% for isoflurane). The linear terms were compared with t tests for independent samples. All tests were adjusted for multiple comparisons (4 tests for each site) with Hommel procedure28 implemented in SAS Statistical Software (version 9.2; SAS Institute Inc.). Back to Top | Article Outline RESULTS Behavioral Observations After equilibration at the 0.75% isoflurane plateau, animals ambulated spontaneously with poor coordination and all promptly righted after attempts to place them on their side. Ambulation and righting attempts were completely abolished at the 1.1% plateau. Back to Top | Article Outline Concentration-Effect Relationships Figure 1 shows that isoflurane caused a highly significant (P < 0.001) linear decrease of logarithmic EEG power as a function of concentration for both the cortex and thalamus in all frequency ranges. Table 1 details the results of the regression analysis of the effect of isoflurane on spectral power in each frequency band, including the regression coefficients for the linear term (β1, i.e., the slope of the regression line), along with their SE and the probability that they differ from 0. In addition, the CCCs, which provide a measure of how well the regression parameters fit the data, are all >0.5, an indication that the regression analysis provided a satisfactory fit of the data. Furthermore, the slope of the regression line (β1 parameter in Table 1) for the thalamus is significantly steeper than for the cortex in the 51 to 75 Hz (P = 0.029), 76 to 125 Hz (P < 0.001), and 126 to 200 Hz (P < 0.001) bands. The difference between slopes for the 30 to 50 Hz band was not significant (P = 0.020). Table 1 Figure 1 The concentration-dependent effect of isoflurane on the power of fast rhythms is readily noticeable on the average spectra with all animals combined (Fig. 2 top panels) as well as on the power spectra from a single animal (Fig. 2 bottom panels). The distance between the traces in these spectra is greater for the thalamus than for the cortex, an observation that is consistent with the steeper negative slope of the concentration-effect plots for the thalamus. Figure 2 The attenuation of the power of fast rhythms is also readily apparent in spectrograms (Fig. 3B) based on 30-second recordings (shown in Fig. 3A) from a single animal. The decrease in high-frequency power is revealed by the predominance of the blue color for the 0.75%, 1.1%, and 1.5% panels, and this effect was more pronounced for the thalamus than for the cortex, an observation suggesting a more pronounced effect on the thalamus. The spectrograms also indicate stable frequency content of the EEG within each period, and this pattern was maintained during the entire recording. Figure 3 Table 2 Table 2 shows the comparison of the isoflurane slope parameters with those recently reported for propofol.19 The comparison shows that the slope for the cortex is significantly less steep with propofol than for isoflurane for all frequency ranges (P = 0.033). The slopes for the thalamus were steeper with isoflurane for the 51 to 200 Hz range, but the difference was significant only for the 126 to 200 Hz band and before correction for multiple comparisons. Back to Top | Article Outline Recovery and Paired Comparisons The transition from the last concentration studied (1.5%) to recovery was associated with a significant increase in power in all instances (P values ranged from 0.0001 to 0.0495 for cortex and from 0.0001 to 0.0014 for thalamus after corrections for multiple comparisons). Recovery recordings were obtained to confirm a return toward baseline of power values after cessation of anesthetic administration and to rule out other possible causes for the observed power changes such as duration of experiment, technical fault, etc. The study was not designed to identify the precise moment when the animals regained consciousness. Back to Top | Article Outline DISCUSSION The main new finding of this study is that isoflurane causes a concentration-dependent attenuation of the power of high-frequency (30–200 Hz) EEG in the cerebral cortex and thalamus and that this effect is stronger for the thalamus than for the cortex (in the 51–200-Hz range). We are aware of no prior reports of alterations of thalamic high-frequency rhythms by isoflurane. The present observations demonstrate, for the first time, important similarities between the effects of isoflurane and those we recently reported for propofol.19 Both drugs caused a comparable attenuation of high-frequency rhythms in the sensory thalamus, and their effect on the thalamus was stronger than on the cortex. These effects may possibly constitute an electrophysiologic signature of the anesthetized state, similar to that revealed by functional brain imaging in humans.33 This is not surprising because high-frequency LFP power correlates tightly with changes in regional cerebral blood.34 The present observations provide strong evidence that anesthetic-induced unconsciousness is associated with impairment of high-frequency thalamocortical rhythms and also strongly reaffirm the role of impaired thalamic function in anesthetic action.20,35 There are interesting differences between isoflurane and propofol with regard to their effect on the cerebral cortex. First, the attenuation by isoflurane of cortical power occurred over the entire frequency range studied (30–200 Hz), whereas the effect of propofol was limited to the 76 to 125 and 126 to 200 Hz bands. Second, the slope of the attenuation of cortical power was significantly steeper for isoflurane in all frequency bands. Isoflurane thus appears to cause more cortical suppression than propofol in the concentration range studied. A similar difference was reported in humans using somatosensory-evoked potentials.36 The more intense suppression observed with isoflurane in the present study cannot be attributed to use of higher concentrations for isoflurane because the range of concentrations (normalized for each drug by the lowest concentration that abolished righting) were similar (see Statistical Analysis). Although the concentration ranges of propofol and isoflurane were chosen by aiming for approximately equivalent effects on the loss of the righting reflex, the results of the comparison between these agents require careful interpretation. First, the comparison of potency of these drugs was solely based on their ability to abolish righting and may not apply to their other effects, such as suppression of movement in response to pain. Second, the demonstration of a steeper concentration-effect curve for isoflurane provides no information on the maximal level of cortical suppression achievable with these drugs if given at higher concentrations. Thus, although we can conclude that, in the concentration range relevant for loss of righting, isoflurane causes more suppression of cortical activity than propofol, this does not mean that isoflurane is intrinsically more potent than propofol in reducing cortical activity. The most likely explanation for the steeper concentration-effect slope of isoflurane is that this agent, similar to other volatile anesthetics, has additional molecular targets, notably the 2-pore potassium channels and the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor.37 As noted by Purdon et al.21 in their recent review, the similarity of the spectral signatures (in the 0–30 Hz range) of propofol and isoflurane suggest that potentiation of the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type A receptors is likely a key determinant of their mechanisms of action. The more pronounced effect of both propofol and isoflurane on thalamic EEG is also compatible with the effects mediated by GABA type A receptors, given the pivotal role of the reticular thalamic nucleus, which influences thalamic function via GABAergic inhibition. In planning the experiment, we assumed that the EEG would remain stable at each anesthetic concentration plateau, and inspection of the data revealed stable EEG patterns within each period. This finding contrasts with those reported by Hudson et al.38 who found that ≥2 activity patterns with distinct power frequency distributions could occur at a stable anesthetic concentration. Hudson et al. used prolonged recording periods (approximately 1 hour per concentration) and obtained their recordings in an acute setting. These factors may explain why we did not observe changes of EEG patterns. The present report confirms prior observations on the effects of volatile anesthetics on spontaneous (as opposed to stimulus induced) fast (30–200 Hz) EEG rhythms in the cerebral cortex. Hudetz et al.23 showed, in rats, that isoflurane attenuates spectral power in the 70 to 140 Hz range in neocortical and hippocampal recordings in a concentration-dependent manner. Silva et al.39 showed that isoflurane 0.8% decreases power in the 50 to 100 Hz range in rat primary sensory cortex. These 2 groups, however, found no evidence of attenuation for the 30 to 50 Hz band as was observed in the present study, but Ma et al.40 showed a reduction of 30 to 100 Hz power by halothane in hippocampal EEG. In contrast to the present findings, Vanderwolf41 reported that the amplitude of cortical gamma (30–90 Hz) activity in rats during isoflurane anesthesia is variable and often greater than during waking state. However, Vanderwolf did not examine concentration-effect relationships, but rather studied effects of low concentrations of isoflurane combined with noxious stimulation sufficient to cause righting, and also used a different method to quantify gamma activity. An important aspect of the study by Vanderwolf is the evidence that the amplitude of gamma activity is influenced by the phase of the slow EEG oscillations, an observation that deserves further inquiry. The concentration of isoflurane that caused loss of righting in all animals (1.1%) is greater than the 0.8% concentration reported by Hudetz et al.23 and Silva et al.39 Two factors may account for the difference. We defined loss of righting as absence of any righting attempts or movements after placing the animal on its side, a definition that is more stringent. Second, Hudetz et al. and Silva et al. used Sprague-Dawley rats and we used Long-Evans. There is evidence that the minimal anesthetic concentration of isoflurane is higher for Long-Evans than for Sprague-Dawley rats,42 suggesting that the Long-Evans may be more resistant to the effects of isoflurane. We propose that the attenuation of power of ≥80 Hz by isoflurane reflects a decrease in neuronal firing rates based on the evidence that high-gamma power (80–150 Hz) in LFPs is strongly correlated with average firing rate18,43 and that isoflurane markedly decreases spontaneous neuronal firing rates in the rat barrel cortex44 and VPM.45 Concurrent recordings of both LFPs and of action potentials with the same electrodes would allow verification of this interpretation. We conclude that isoflurane, similar to propofol, causes a concentration-dependent attenuation of the spectral power of thalamocortical rhythms in the 30 to 200 Hz range. This effect is more consistent and more pronounced for the thalamus than for the cortex for frequencies >50 Hz. These observations provide strong support for the hypothesis that anesthetic-induced unconsciousness is associated with impairment of high-frequency thalamocortical rhythms and rhythms that reveal increased neuronal activity and possibly reflect mechanisms of information coding and network function.17 Further work, thus, is warranted to determine how, and to what extent, the physiologic changes revealed by the attenuation of high-frequency spectral power contribute to the hypnotic action of general anesthetics. Back to Top | Article Outline DISCLOSURES Name: Gilles Plourde, MD. Contribution: This author helped design the study, perform the surgery and testing, analyze the data, and write the manuscript. Attestation: Gilles Plourde has seen the original study data, performed the analysis of the data, approved the final manuscript, and is the author responsible for archiving the study files. Name: Sean J. Reed, MSc. Contribution: This author helped design the study, perform the surgery and testing, analyze the data, and write the manuscript. Attestation: Sean J. Reed has seen the original study data, reviewed the analysis of the data, and approved the final manuscript. Name: C. Andrew Chapman, PhD. Contribution: This author helped design the study, provided assistance for initial testing sessions, and participated to the writing the manuscript. Attestation: C. Andrew Chapman has seen the original study data, reviewed the analysis of the data, and approved the final manuscript. This manuscript was handled by: Markus W. Hollmann, MD, PhD, DEAA. Back to Top | Article Outline ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank Chantale Porlier for help with testing and Xianming Tan (Biostatistics Core Facilities, McGill University Health Center Research Institute) for advice on regression analysis and SAS programming.Back to Top | Article Outline REFERENCES 1. Alkire MT, Hudetz AG, Tononi G. Consciousness and anesthesia. 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Cited Here... | View Full Text | PubMed | CrossRef 24. Paxinos G, Watson C. The Rat Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates. 20045th ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Cited Here... 25. Buzsáki G, Anastassiou CA, Koch C. The origin of extracellular fields and currents—EEG, ECoG, LFP and spikes. Nat Rev Neurosci 2012;13:407–20. Cited Here... | PubMed | CrossRef 26. Welch PD. The use of fast Fourier transform for the estimation of power spectra: a method based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms. IEEE Trans Audio Electroacoust 1967;15:70–3. Cited Here... | CrossRef 27. Glantz SA, Slinker BK. Primer of Applied Regression & Analysis of Variance. 2001Toronto, ON, Canada: McGraw-Hill Inc.. Cited Here... 28. Hommel G. A Stagewise rejective multiple test procedure based on a modified Bonferroni test. Biometrika 1988;75:383–6. Cited Here... | PubMed | CrossRef 29. Lin LI. A concordance correlation coefficient to evaluate reproducibility. Biometrics 1989;45:255–68. Cited Here... | PubMed | CrossRef 30. Vonesh EF, Chinchilli VM, Pu K. Goodness-of-fit in generalized nonlinear mixed-effects models. Biometrics 1996;52:572–87. Cited Here... | PubMed | CrossRef 31. Gao F, Thompson P, Xiong C, Miller JP. LeBouton KJ, Analyzing multivariate longitudinal data using SAS®. In: Thirty-first Annual SAS® Users Group International (SUGI) Conference San Francisco, 2006. Cited Here... 32. Sokal RR, Rohlf FJ. Biometry. 1969San Francisco, CA: Freeman. Cited Here... 33. Kaisti KK, Metsähonkala L, Teräs M, Oikonen V, Aalto S, Jääskeläinen S, Hinkka S, Scheinin H. Effects of surgical levels of propofol and sevoflurane anesthesia on cerebral blood flow in healthy subjects studied with positron emission tomography. Anesthesiology 2002;96:1358–70. Cited Here... | View Full Text | PubMed | CrossRef 34. Niessing J, Ebisch B, Schmidt KE, Niessing M, Singer W, Galuske RA. Hemodynamic signals correlate tightly with synchronized gamma oscillations. Science 2005;309:948–51. Cited Here... | View Full Text | PubMed | CrossRef 35. Fiset P, Paus T, Daloze T, Plourde G, Meuret P, Bonhomme V, Hajj-Ali N, Backman SB, Evans AC. Brain mechanisms of propofol-induced loss of consciousness in humans: a positron emission tomographic study. J Neurosci 1999;19:5506–13. Cited Here... | PubMed 36. Liu EH, Wong HK, Chia CP, Lim HJ, Chen ZY, Lee TL. Effects of isoflurane and propofol on cortical somatosensory evoked potentials during comparable depth of anaesthesia as guided by bispectral index. Br J Anaesth 2005;94:193–7. Cited Here... | View Full Text | PubMed | CrossRef 37. Franks NP. Molecular targets underlying general anaesthesia. Br J Pharmacol 2006;147(suppl 1):S72–81. Cited Here... | View Full Text | PubMed 38. Hudson AE, Calderon DP, Pfaff DW, Proekt A. Recovery of consciousness is mediated by a network of discrete metastable activity states. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014;111:9283–8. Cited Here... | PubMed | CrossRef 39. Silva A, Cardoso-Cruz H, Silva F, Galhardo V, Antunes L. Comparison of anesthetic depth indexes based on thalamocortical local field potentials in rats. Anesthesiology 2010;112:355–63. Cited Here... | View Full Text | PubMed | CrossRef 40. Ma J, Shen B, Stewart LS, Herrick IA, Leung LS. The septohippocampal system participates in general anesthesia. J Neurosci 2002;22:RC200. Cited Here... | PubMed 41. Vanderwolf CH. Are neocortical gamma waves related to consciousness? Brain Res 2000;855:217–24. Cited Here... | PubMed | CrossRef 42. Russell GB, Graybeal JM. Differences in anesthetic potency between Sprague-Dawley and Long-Evans rats for isoflurane but not nitrous oxide. Pharmacology 1995;50:162–7. Cited Here... | PubMed | CrossRef 43. Ray S, Crone NE, Niebur E, Franaszczuk PJ, Hsiao SS. Neural correlates of high-gamma oscillations (60-200 Hz) in macaque local field potentials and their potential implications in electrocorticography. J Neurosci 2008;28:11526–36. Cited Here... | PubMed | CrossRef 44. Hentschke H, Schwarz C, Antkowiak B. Neocortex is the major target of sedative concentrations of volatile anaesthetics: strong depression of firing rates and increase of GABAA receptor-mediated inhibition. Eur J Neurosci 2005;21:93–102. Cited Here... | View Full Text | PubMed | CrossRef 45. Detsch O, Vahle-Hinz C, Kochs E, Siemers M, Bromm B. Isoflurane induces dose-dependent changes of thalamic somatosensory information transfer. Brain Res 1999;829:77–89. Cited Here... | PubMed | CrossRef © 2016 International Anesthesia Research Society Article Outline Abstract METHODS Ethics Statement Surgery Design Electrophysiologic Recording Perfusion and Histology Statistical Analysis RESULTS Behavioral Observations Concentration-Effect Relationships Recovery and Paired Comparisons DISCUSSION DISCLOSURES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES Source Attenuation of High-Frequency (50–200 Hz) Thalamocortical Electroencephalographic Rhythms by Isoflurane in Rats Is More Pronounced for the Thalamus Than for the Cortex Anesthesia & Analgesia122(6):1818-1825, June 2016. Full-Size Email + Favorites Export View in Gallery Email to a Colleague Colleague's E-mail is Invalid Your Name: (optional) Your Email: Colleague's Email: Separate multiple e-mails with a (;). Message: Thought you might appreciate this item(s) I saw at Anesthesia & Analgesia. Send a copy to your email Your message has been successfully sent to your colleague. 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Nissan Armada SE
Take command of the road in the 2008 Nissan Armada. A 5.6 liter V-8 engine pairs with a sophisticated 5 speed automatic transmission, and for added security, dynamic Stability Control supplements the drivetrain. This model accommodates 8 passengers comfortably, and provides features such as: power trunk closing assist, front and rear reading lights, a built-in garage door transmitter, front bucket seats, remote keyless entry, adjustable pedals, and power windows. Back seat passengers will appreciate the rear audio controls, allowing them to make easy adjustments to the stereo system. Nissan also prioritized safety and security by including: dual front impact airbags with occupant sensing airbag, head curtain airbags, traction control, brake assist, anti-whiplash front head restraints, ignition disabling, and 4 wheel disc brakes with ABS. A Carfax history report provides you peace of mind by detailing information related to past owners and service records. We have the vehicle you've been searching for at a price you can afford. Stop by our dealership or give us a call for more information.

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Archives of the TeradataForum
Message Posted: Tue, 30 Dec 2003 @ 12:48:11 GMT
i am running a query using BTEQ that returns a very large number of rows. the results will be read into an excel spreadsheet and therefore i only want one heading to appear in the result set. i am using the ".SET PAGELENGTH" command, but this will only allow me to return a maximum 32767 rows before outputting another heading. Does anyone know of a way to force BTEQ to only output the first heading and no more afterward?
scott t.
2003 Indexes
|Copyright 2016 - All Rights Reserved
|Last Modified: 27 Dec 2016


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Catchy title, eh? This week, we're blogging about the challenges we face in wrapping up book one and starting the second in a series. The timing is apropos for me because I am working on my second book, The Hunt, right now. Notice I said working on and not writing.
So far, my biggest challenge has been keeping details and characters straight. I decided this week, before I attempt to write past chapter seven, I'll make some index cards. I've read the technique works for some writers, and I usually do well when I make lists to keep track of details.
Obviously, the basics for the main characters in book one are set in stone now. I know them well, know what they'd say, and how they'd react to almost any given situation. But in the second book, I'm switching things up. I have five male and two female points of view (POVs), hence the seven chapters done so far. I thought it would behoove me to flesh out each new voice first before moving on in my writing. And that means making them real. Give them pasts, give them flaws, heck—give them an accent! Anything to make them come to life and leap off the pages.
If I create believable people now, there should be less to correct in later chapters, right? That's my hope. One of the biggest challenges writers face is being consistent with voice and dialogue for each character throughout an entire book. So what happens when it's a series, and you've got new people entering the scene and others dying off?
Ask any artist: perfection is in the details of any piece. Sure, in the end, there will be flaws—that's the case whenever you create. But overall, your art should flow and be consistent within your vision.
What do you do when you have a first book heavy on blood, sex, and action? Amp up the death count and keep the sex hot (at least that's what I plan to do). Oh, and master multiple POVs in a present tense story.
As my friends (and fellow wicked writers have pointed out)—I have unshakable confidence in myself in most things. That confidence was tested last week when I started to doubt whether I could pull off seven POVs in The Hunt. My biggest challenge in creating the second book will be mastering head-hopping in each chapter and doing it well.
I know the story I want to write; it's crystal clear in my head. Will I have the skill to weave all the elements to tell the tale as I envision it? Time will tell and I'm excited to give it a shot. Sure, it'll be hard. Sure, I might mess up.
But this isn't brain surgery we're talking about. Nor is it a first encounter with a new love. The death and sex I write about will wait for me to prefect them, as best I can, before being revealed to the audience. The worst that can happen is a reader will close the book and put it down—and I plan to work damn hard to make sure that doesn't happen.
helena gardella permalinkMarch 22, 2010 7:27 am
Great idea with the index cards. I don't usually like stories with too many points of view, but I am enjoying yours immensely. I can't imagine anyone picking up your book and putting it down.
Have fun getting the "accents" right! You can do it. I have confidence in you.
Michelle permalinkMarch 22, 2010 2:40 pm
I'm thinking you're doing a great job of it so far. I was thinking each chapter from a different point of view would have a lot of repetition in it, but I like that you're moving the story forward rather than showing the same scene from each person's POV. And I think the index card thing is necessary, with all the people you have coming and going (or will have), you will need to be consistent through the books with the ones that are constants… You don't want someone who is a "regular" to have a different color eyes in book one than they have in book two.
I enjoy these blogs though I don't always comment on them, it's nice getting to know the type of talent that exists in this world!
Harley D. Palmer permalink*March 22, 2010 9:02 pm
I'm sure you can do it CJ. I have multiple POV's in my novel too, but I write in the past tense. It's easier for me that way – so I applaud you writing in the present tense! I tried it once and it did not come out pretty! Keep up the great work!
Barbara Ellison permalinkMarch 23, 2010 8:53 am
The index card profiling each character is a great idea. I wrote all the characters names on the inside front cover of VV Inn. I was having a hard time remembering who belonged to who and who was a vampire etc. I can't even imagine writing about dozens of different charaters.
I love this blog and the diverse opinions of each of you Wicked Writers. I do read it everyday and will try and comment more.


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We are located at Bayford Boarding Kennels in the countryside outside a small village called Bayford in Hertfordshire. We are easy to find as we are on the same road as Paradise Wildlife Park which is signposted from the A10. We are 10 minutes or less from Hertford, Broxbourne, Hoddesdon, Potters Bar and Brookmans Park.
The SAT NAV systems send you a mile up the road to a nursery and hydrotherapy centre but please continue on (if coming from Newgate Street) until you reach the big green sign of Scissor and Suds Pet Grooming.
Unfortunately, the salon does not have it's own reception area. If the front gates are shut; use the buzzer and someone will open them. If the gates are open; park in the drive and walk down the hill and the salon is on the left handside of the metal gates. Do NOT open any gates as there are often dogs running loose. Someone will appear shortly to assist and if they don't please phone 07799 233 836!
Bayford Boarding Kennels and Cattery,
White Stubbs Lane,


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Team Biography
Meowley Cyrus once said, "We cat stop, and we won't stop." Was she pawsibly refurrencing cATLanta? Fur sure! Now the cat is out of the bag that cATLanta is purrrhaps the meowst clawesome team out there. And we are not kitten around…Every fe-lineup of seven cats on the field is bound to be cathletic. We pounce up in the air and CATch every one of our purrrfect throws. This litter is feline very excited to face tough opponents and make new furriends with pawsitive cattitudes!
Atlanta, GA


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owned and operated by Tonia Floyd, Certified Professional Trainer
My name is Tonia Floyd and I love dogs! I love learning why they think like they do and how we can communicate clearly and effectively to have a better life together. It takes work and a commitment, but you can have any life you want with your dog, at any age, once you understand how they think and communicate, and I can help you with this. Through Obedience training your dog learns a language that you can share to motivate them and help them live in a human home.
I have rescued and worked with shelter dogs most of my adult life and have twelve of my own currently that work with me as a stable social pack. I will work with you to teach you what your dog is capable of and how to set realistic expectations based on age, breed, canine capabilities and your lifestyle. We will address obedience and behavior issues with an in-home evaluation and establish a training plan for you and your family to reach your goals. This is accomplished as well by communicating and discussing progress along the way as you learn to work the plan. I work with each dog and owner or family as an individual case and we take the time and effort it takes to reach a place that you and your canine family members are living happy, peaceful lives together.
I can help you with the language that your dog understands and teach you to be a great dog owner, but it takes other dogs to teach dogs to be dogs! If your dog has human or canine behavioral issues, my pack helps to socialize and correct behaviors in a way that only canines can. I guide the socialization based on the needs of the dog we are working with and by starting small and building trust with canine and humans at Training Spot. Your dog will learn to be handled by us and live with the whole pack before they leave the Ranch. You are able to see your dog in a stable environment and know what is possible and we will take this confidence to the street and your life with sessions based around the individual dog and families needs.
The pictures on this page are of the Training Spot Ranch pack and they all have their purpose here and work in some way with our Behavior Modification programs. There are many personalities and ages to help the transition for scared, confused or unsocialized dogs. They are great for humans with canine fears, to help people learn how dogs play as a pack, what is normal for their dog to act like in a pack and help by being instant sources of information to show people on the spot how dogs interact, what is tolerated and how to handle it as the human pack leader.
My pack have all come from shelters, rescues, the streets and owner surrenders and all live harmoniously at the Ranch. These once lost dogs now help with socializing puppies from a young age to have manners and they work with shelter dogs that are shy or scared to show them how to be happy dogs again. Along with obedience training and human socialization we see crazy dogs become happy, stable dogs and shy, scared dogs or unfocused puppies become comfortable, confident well mannered dogs.
I would love to help you with your basic puppy training needs or help you and your family have a better relationship with any dog you own at any age.


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The Arkansas River and Little Arkansas River are valuable assets providing pastoral beauty, wildlife habitat and recreational opportunities to Wichita and the region. Over the years, water quality in these rivers has improved substantially with more effective treatment technologies, better land management practices, and increasingly more stringent water quality regulations. Nevertheless, there is opportunity for additional improvement.
Extensive water quality testing continues through the efforts of the City of Wichita, the Kansas Department of Health and Environment, and the United States Geological Survey. This sampling provides data that further defines the sources of contamination detrimental to the river.
Different colored flags are used during the Wichita River Festival to inform the public of river water quality status. These levels of Big Arkansas River water quality information will be based on water testing performed during the Wichita River Festival. Find out what steps are taken to test the water.
Water Quality Status Flag Program Protocol
The flags will be displayed at strategic locations near the Douglas and Lewis Street bridges. Citizens wishing to participate in river-related activities at River Festival should continue to do so being mindful of the water quality status flags. There are two levels: blue and green.
Water is suitable for recreational use.
Suitable for use subject to advisory conditions.
Formerly known as River City WRAPS, Wichita Clean Streams's vision is to improve and protect the water quality of the Arkansas River and its watershed. Wichita Clean Streams
Contact Jim HardestyP: (316) 268-8317 Email Jim Hardesty
The Arkansas River Access Coalition, a consortium of municipalities, counties, and various user groups, has united to develop 120 miles of the Arkansas River into a recreational amenity that will draw users from all around the region.
Desired recreational uses include, but are not limited to, canoeing, kayaking, hiking, biking, wildlife viewing, fishing, and hunting. To achieve this objective, a Master Plan has been created as a blueprint for developing access points at desired intervals in a way that is both cost-effective and protective of the Arkansas River's natural amenities and character.
Available for download: ARCAP Master Plan ARCAP Brochure
Date: May 4, 2019
Time: 9am - NOON
Check-In Location: 151 N Waco
Individual Sign-in Sheet Group Sign-in Sheet
Contact Charles Anderson
P: (316) 350-3386 Email Charles Anderson
Sponsors: Cargill, Spirit Aerosystems, City of Wichita, Ducks Unlimited - Wichita Chapter, Intrust Bank, Arkansas River Coalition, Terracon, Smile Craft Family Dentistry, Davis Moore Chevrolet - Big Al, Ray Rental, Spectrum Promotional, Waste Connections, Envision, Burns McDonnell, Key Construction, Marketplace Properties, Starbucks, NBC World Series, Pepsi, Freddy's Frozen Custard & Steakburger, Pure NRG Productions, Westar, Drury Plaza Hotel, Dillons, and Sedgwick County Zoo. Transportation Provided by Party Express Bus and Success National Lease.
Visiting Environmental Health?
1900 E 9th St NWichita, KS 67214
Environmental Health Hours
8am - 5pm (M-F)CLOSED (Sa-Su)
List of holiday closures.
Contact Us
Email Environmental Health


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Friendswood pulls out 2OT win over Dickinson
October 2, 2017
FRIENDSWOOD — The game between Friendswood and Dickinson came down to two field goal kickers. One would make their attempt and the other would miss leaving one team jumping and leaping with joy while the other would return home with a loss.
It was the District 24-6A opener between both teams and Dickinson was looking to defend their league title in 2017.
For the last two weeks, the Mustangs have entered the game as the underdogs, but that only means that Friendswood is going to increase their intensity and effort which has always characterized a Friendswood team.
The Mustangs knocked off Summer Creek (27-19) and now Dickinson to begin the district season.
"That's Friendswood football right there," Mustangs head coach Robert Koopmann said. "It may not be pretty, but we got after it tonight."
The play that won it for Friendswood was a 40-yard field goal by senior Sam Wittman in the second overtime.
However, the Mustangs and their faithful followers couldn't fully celebrate as the Gators had their opportunity to pull out a win.
Dickinson moved to the Friendswood eight-yard line in the second OT with a first-and-goal. After the aggressive Friendswood defense got a 4-yard loss on running back Myles Lewis and two incomplete passes to follow setting up a game-tying 28-yard field goal.
However, the field goal attempt went wide and the celebration began as the Mustangs pulled out a 27-24 double-overtime come-from-behind victory.
"I think we're an ugly football team that plays really hard and makes things happen," Koopmann said. "It's not how far we've come since last week because I thought we played well last week (versus Summer Creek) minus the mistakes.
"It's how far these guys have come since the Barbers Hill game. We're not even the same team that we got off the bus with at Barbers Hill."
The opening quarter was a back-and-forth affair with Friendswood getting on the scoreboard first on a 1-yard Calvin Whitaker scoring plunge. Wittman nailed the PAT for a 7-0 lead with 36 seconds left in the first period that capped a 12-play 56-yard drive with running back Mason Barnes contributing 29 rushing yards to drive.
Dickinson answered with 9:52 left in the second quarter as Lewis scored on an 8-yard run to tie up the game 7-7. The score was aided by an interception by the Gator defense.
The Gators took the lead at the 5:23 mark when Lewis got loose for a 69-yard scoring jaunt for a 14-7 lead.
But the Mustangs were going away as they put together a 13-play, 83-yard scoring drive that took almost five minutes off the clock before intermission.
Once again, Barnes was a workhorse in the drive with four totes for 38 yards while Whitaker scored on another 1-yard plunge to tie up the game 14-14 at halftime.
The Gators scored on their first possession of the second half driving 71-yards in 9-plays which was topped off by a 6-yard run by Lewis for a 21-14 advantage.
After Friendswood couldn't answer on their next possession, the Mustangs defense stepped up as sophomore Dane Roenne recovered a Gator fumble which was returned to the Dickinson 37.
The Mustangs ended up settling for a 25-yard field goal by Wittman to cut the lead to 21-17 with 11:19 left in the game.
Friendswood re-took the lead with 1:03 left in the game as back-up quarterback sophomore Christian Lee hit Ben Redding who turned it into a 31-yard scoring strike and a 24-21 lead.
Dickinson wasn't going away as they moved from their 36-yard line to the Friendswood 13. With 4 seconds left in the game, the Gators got a game-tying 30-yard field goal that barely cleared the crossbar to tie up the game 24-24 sending the game into an extra period.
The first overtime was a scoreless stalemate, as Friendswood's defense forced a turnover on downs, and a 31-yard field goal try by the Mustangs sailed wide left.
A 40-yard field goal by Mustangs kicker Sam Wittman in the second overtime, however, was put through the uprights, and proved to be the game winner when a 28-yard Dickinson field goal try was not converted on the ensuing OT possession.
"I'm proud of the way our defense played; I'm proud of the way our offense battled against that doggone defense over there with as fast and as long as they are," Koopmann said. "That's a really good football team, and we went toe to toe with them."
Friendswood quarterbacks, Christian Lee (5-of-13, 76 yards, 1 TD) and Garrett Hurst (5-of-16, 34 yards) combined for 10-of-29 passing for 110 yards and one TD.
Barnes was the workhorse for the Mustangs as he had 42 carries for 187 yards that set up the scoring for Friendswood.
Redding had four catches for 57 yards and one touchdown.
Friendswood will travel to Veteran's Memorial Stadium in League City to face the Clear Falls Knights on Friday, Oct. 6 at 7:00 p.m.


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I lived and worked in Vietnam for over a year and during this time, I tried to shoot as much film as I could. Came back to Europe with a dusty shoebox full of negatives. Most of them never made it out of the shoebox but some of them got published in a magazine called Brother.
High Five to Clint Darby for going on motorbike trips and sharing film.


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In January 2017, Dr. McGinn was appointed as the President of the Academy of Cognitive Therapy. The Academy of Cognitive Therapy is an international non-profit organization that certifies clinicians and trainers skilled in cognitive therapy, offers continuing education, training, and research in cognitive therapy, and proposes a valuable resource in cognitive therapy for professionals and the public at large.
The Academy of Cognitive Therapy Board of Directors


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Our animal companions often have injuries or illnesses that appear deceptively simple or may even be completely hidden from view. Especially at that time, diagnostic experience and technology are important to your pet. South Wilton Veterinary Group offers you both in our diagnostic imaging department.
Correct diagnosis requires expert interpretation of test results by our highly skilled professionals using the finest diagnostic technology available. From high-definition digital radiology to the advanced technology of ultrasound and endoscopy, your pet receives the ultimate in service. A board-certified internal medicine specialist examines our ultrasound images and radiographs for the most professional pet health care available.
Identifying the cause, providing appropriate treatment, offering the most qualified professionals, and extending unparalleled customer service to every pet owner—expect excellence from South Wilton Veterinary Group.
Veterinary radiology, or X-ray, is widely used for its speed and relatively low cost when diagnosing illness or injury in your pet. We also offer the latest in X-ray technology, digital X-rays, which produce images that are clearer and very detailed on a computer screen. These images can be sent anywhere in the world or put on a disc for your records. In addition, digital X-rays expose the animal to lower doses of radiation.
Ultrasounds are similar to X-rays but provide real-time evaluation of your pet's internal organs. With access to board-certified radiology and internal medicine specialists, we provide an extremely high level of advanced imaging services on-site, so you know that experts in the field are evaluating your pet.
Ultrasounds can locate foreign bodies in the intestines without costly and time-consuming procedures, leading to earlier intervention and surgical removal. An ultrasound examination is minimally invasive, providing a less stressful and more comfortable experience for your pet.
An endoscopy allows our veterinarians to look inside your pet using a series of small cameras attached to a flexible tube. This technology enables us to examine a body cavity or organ and diagnose a problem without invasive surgery. Endoscopies are less stressful than standard surgery and allow for a shorter recovery time for your pet.
This highly sophisticated technology allows for real-time images inside birds and other small exotic pets. Using this instrument, the surgeon can obtain biopsies and perform other procedures. Through a very small incision, the rigid storz video endoscopy also can be used in small cavities of dogs such as noses, throats, bladders, and joints (arthroscopy).
Our veterinary laboratory allows us to run a range of tests on-site, gaining results and beginning treatment without delay. In most cases, we are able to send your pet home with appropriate treatments that very same day.
Blood tests help us determine causes of illness accurately, safely, and quickly and let us monitor progress of medical treatments. They are also an integral part of wellness and pre-operative screening tests. View our blood work handout for a greater understanding of the tests we routinely perform on your pet.