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หน้าหลัก Handbook of Environmental Health: Biological,Chemical,and Physical Agents of Environmental, Volume 1
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Fourth Edition Handbook of ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH Volume 1 Biological, Chemical, and Physical Agents of Environmentally Related Disease L1536 FM frame Page 2 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Fourth Edition Handbook of ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH Volume 1 Biological, Chemical, and Physical Agents of Environmentally Related Disease Herman Koren • Michael Bisesi NEHA Co-published with the National Environmental Health Association LEWIS PUBLISHERS A CRC Press Company Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. L1536 FM frame Page 4 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Koren, Herman. Handbook of environmental health / by Herman Koren and Michael Bisesi. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: v. 1. Biological, chemical, and physical agents of environmental related disease — v. 2. Pollution interactions in air, water, and soil. ISBN 1-56670-536-3 (alk. paper) 1. Environmental health — Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Environmental engineering — Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title: Environmental health. II. Bisesi, Michael S. III. Title. RA565 .K67 2002 363.7—dc21 2002016110 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press L; LC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-536-3 Library of Congress Card Number 2002016110 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper L1536 FM frame Page 5 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Dedication To Donna Lee Koren and Christine Bisesi, our wives, dearest and very best friends, for all they have done to enhance our lives and encourage us to teach our students the true significance of improving the environment for all people. L1536 FM frame Page 6 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM L1536 FM frame Page 7 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Foreword I have spent a career in this field. My years of experience have taught me that environmental health might best be described as a colorful, complex, and diverse spectrum of interrelated topics. These topics range from the individual to the compounded effects of pollution; to the impacts of contaminated air, water, land, food, and indoor and outdoor environments; and to biological, physical, chemical, and radiological hazards. Because this field is so broad, to protect both our environment and our people properly, it is important that one possesses a credible understanding of basic science, laws and regulations, governmental and private programs, disease and injury identification, and prevention and control. Moreover, because so many environmental concerns impact on other elements of the environment, it is important that even the specialists within our field appreciate and understand the implications of how their issues can impact other environmental concerns. A reading and comprehension of the material in these books can help greatly in building that overarching understanding that professionals in this field need to have. The Handbook of Environmental Health has been, for the past 23 years, an excellent source for gaining that needed understanding of interrelated and current environmental topics. The presentations offered by this publication are particularly helpful inasmuch as they are comprehensive while concise and basic. The two volumes cover basic and applied chemistry relative to both toxicity to humans and the fate of natural and anthropogenic contaminants in the environment; basic and applied microbiology relative to both pathogenicity to humans and the fate of natural and anthropogenic contaminants in the environment; current status of each environmental problem area; discussion of the problem; potential for intervention; resources available for use, standards, practices, and techniques utilized to resolve the problem; surveillance and evaluation techniques; appropriate controls, laws, and regulations; future research needs; large number of current references; state-of-the-art graphics, and major environmental, including industrial hygiene, sampling and analytic instruments. The fourth edition of Volume I, Chapters 1 and 2, provides a significant understanding of basic new environmental issues, energy, emerging infectious diseases, recent laws, emerging microorganisms, toxicology, epidemiology, human physiology, and the effects of the environment on humans. The remainder of the chapters discuss a variety of indoor environmental issues, including food safety, food technology, insect and rodent control, pesticides, indoor environment, institutional environment, recreational environment, occupational environment, and instrumentation. Some of the new and significantly expanded and updated sections include: new food codes and programs; emerging and reemerging insectborne disease; insecticide resistance; pesticides and water quality; indoor air pollution; asthma; monitoring environmental disease; homelessness and disease; emerging zoonoses; bacteria in hospitals and nursing homes; fungal and viral agents in laboratories; prions; guidelines for infection control; principles of biosafety; a variety of risk assessment techniques; and an updated overview of the occupational environment. The fourth edition of Volume II discusses a variety of outdoor environmental issues including changes to the Clean Air Act; PM 2.5; toxic air pollutants; risk L1536 FM frame Page 8 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM assessment and air, water, solid, and hazardous waste and the interrelationship between these areas; methyl bromide; air quality index; air, water, and solid waste programs; technology transfer; methyl tertiary butyl ether; toxic releases from waste; technical tracking systems; biological processes and solid and hazardous wastes; storm water runoff; ocean dumping; waste to energy; toxics release inventory; brownfields; contaminated governmental facilities; Superfund update; geographic information systems; pollution prevention programs; environmental justice; new laws; waterborne disease update; national mapping; EnviroMapper; safe drinking water standards; maximum contaminant level; crossconnections, backflow, and backsiphonage; sewage pretreatment technologies; leaching field chambers; constructed wetlands; drip and spray irrigation systems; peat bed filters; zone of initial dilution; new laws; wetlands; nonpoint source pollution; national water quality assessments; dredging waste; trihalomethanes; environmental studies; bioterrorism; and the Federal Emergency Management Agency. There are chapters on air quality management, solid and hazardous waste management, private and public water supplies, swimming areas, plumbing, private and public sewage disposal and soils, water pollution water quality controls, terrorism and environmental health emergencies, and instrumentation. Two well-regarded environmental health professionals have written these two books. They have each conducted extensive research and are extremely knowledgeable about all areas of the environmental, industrial hygiene, and health related fields. Dr. Herman Koren is a founding director of the environmental health science and internship program at Indiana State University and is a professor emeritus there. He has gained respect as a researcher, teacher, consultant, and practitioner in the environmental health, hospital, and medical care fields as well as in management areas related to these fields; nursing homes; water and wastewater treatment plants; and other environmental and safety industries for the past 47 years. Since his retirement from Indiana State University in 1995, he has continued his lifelong quest to gain and interpret the latest knowledge possible and to share it with students and other professionals. He also continues to give numerous presentations and workshops and has written and rewritten several books. Dr. Michael Bisesi, professor and chairperson, department of public health, and associate dean, graduate allied health programs, Medical College of Ohio, School of Allied Health, has been in the environmental and occupational health fields for 20 years. He, too, is respected as a researcher, teacher, consultant, practitioner, and administrator. In addition to his environmental science and industrial hygiene accreditations, he is an expert in human exposure assessment and environmental toxicology. He also holds appointments in the School of Pharmacology and School of Medicine, has written numerous scientific and technical articles and chapters in scientific books, and is the author or co-author of several additional books. The books are user-friendly to a variety of individuals including generalist professionals as well as specialists, industrial hygiene personnel, health and medical personnel, managers, and students. These publications can be used to look up specific information or to gain deeper knowledge about an existing problem area. The section on surveillance techniques helps the individual decide the extent and nature of a problem. The appropriate and applicable standards, rules, and regulations help the reader resolve a problem. Further information and assistance can be gained through L1536 FM frame Page 9 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM the resource area and through the review of many of the updated bibliographical references. Except for Chapters 1, 2, 11, 12, in Volume I, and Chapters 8 and 9 in Volume II, all chapters follow the same format, thereby making the books relatively easy to use. The extensive index for both volumes in each book is also very useful. Thank you, Professors Koren and Bisesi, for providing environmental health professionals, new or seasoned, generalist or specialist, with such a helpful resource. Nelson Fabian Executive Director National Environmental Health Association February 28, 2002 L1536 FM frame Page 10 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM L1536 FM frame Page 11 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Preface This handbook, in two volumes, is designed to provide a comprehensive but concise discussion of each of the important environmental health areas, including energy, ecology and people, environmental epidemiology, risk assessment and risk management, environmental law, air quality management, food protection, insect control, rodent control, pesticides, chemical environment, environmental economics, human disease and injury, occupational health and safety, noise, radiation, recreational environment, indoor environments, medical care institutions, schools and universities, prisons, solid and hazardous waste management, water supply, plumbing, swimming areas, sewage disposal, soils, water pollution control, environmental health emergencies, and nuisance complaints. Sufficient background material is introduced throughout these texts to provide students, practitioners, and other interested readers with an understanding of the areas under discussion. Common problems and potential solutions are described; graphs, computerized drawings, inspection sheets, and flowcharts are utilized as needed to consolidate or clarify textual material. All facts and data come from the most recent federal government documents, many of which date from the late 1990s and early 2000s. Rules and regulations specified will continue to be in effect into the early 2000s. For rapidly changing areas in which the existing material used is likely to become dated, the reader is referred to the appropriate sources under resources and in the bibliography to update a given environmental health area or portion of an area as needed. This enhances the value of the text by providing basic and current materials that will always be needed and secondary sources that will enable the reader to keep up to date. These books are neither engineering texts nor comprehensive texts in each area of study. Their purpose is to provide a solid working knowledge of each environmental health area with sufficient detail for practitioners and students. The text can be used in basic courses in environmental health, environmental pollution, ecology, and environment and people that are offered at all universities and colleges in the United States and abroad. These courses are generally taught in departments of life science, geology, science education, environmental health, and health and safety. For general areas of study, the instructor can omit specific details, such as resources, standards, practices and techniques, and modes of surveillance and evaluation. This same approach may be used by schools of medicine, nursing, and allied health sciences for their students. These texts are also suitable for basic introductory courses in schools of public health, environmental health, and sanitary science, as well as junior colleges offering 2-year degree programs in sanitary science and environmental science. Practitioners in a variety of environmental health and occupational health and safety fields will find these volumes handy references for resolving current problems and for obtaining a better understanding of unfamiliar areas. Practitioners and administrators in other areas, such as food processing, water-quality control, occupational health and safety, and solid and hazardous waste management, will also find these reference books useful. L1536 FM frame Page 12 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM High school teachers often must introduce environmental health topics in their classes and yet have no specific background in this area. These books could serve as a text in graduate education courses for high school teachers as well as a reference source. Public interest groups and users of high school and community libraries will obtain an overall view of environmental problems by reading Chapter 1; Chapter 2; and the sections in each chapter titled "Background and Status, Problems, Potential for Intervention, Resources, and Control." This volume also supplies a concise reference for administrators in developing nations because it explains tested controls and provides a better understanding of environmental problems; various standards, practices, and techniques; and a variety of available resources. The material divides easily into two separate courses. Course I would correspond to the content of Volume I and would include Chapter 1, Environment and Humans; Chapter 2, Environmental Problems and Human Health; Chapter 3, Food Protection; Chapter 4, Food Technology; Chapter 5, Insect Control; Chapter 6, Rodent Control; Chapter 7, Pesticides; Chapter 8, Indoor Environment; Chapter 9, Institutional Environment; Chapter 10, Recreational Environment; Chapter 11, Occupational Environment; and Chapter 12, Major Instrumentation for Environmental Evaluation of Occupational, Residential, and Public Indoor Settings. Course II, corresponding to the content of the Volume II, would include Chapter 1, Air Quality Management; Chapter 2, Solid and Hazardous Waste Management; Chapter 3, Private and Public Water Supplies; Chapter 4, Swimming Areas; Chapter 5, Plumbing; Chapter 6, Private and Public Sewage Disposal and Soils; Chapter 7, Water Pollution and Water Quality Controls; Chapter 8, Terrorism and Environmental Health Emergencies; and Chapter 9, Major Instrumentation for Environmental Evaluation of Ambient Air, Water, and Soil. Because the problems of the environment are so interrelated, certain materials must be presented at given points to give clarity and cohesiveness to the subject matter. As a result, the reader may encounter some duplication of materials throughout the text. With the exception of Volume I, Chapters 1, 2, 11, and 12, and Volume II, Chapters 8 and 9, all the chapters have a consistent style and organization, facilitating retrieval. The introductory nature of Volume I (Chapters 1 and 2) as well as the unusual nature of Volume II (Chapter 8) do not lend themselves to the standard format. Volume I (Chapter 12) and Volume II (Chapter 9) discuss instrumentation for the specific areas of each volume and therefore do not follow standard format. In Volume I (Chapter 1), the reader is introduced to the underlying problems, basic concerns, and basic philosophy of environmental health. The ecological, economic, and energy bases provided help individuals understand their relationship to the ecosystem and to the real world of economic and energy concerns. It also provides an understanding of the role of government and the environmental health practitioner in helping to resolve environmental and ecological dilemmas created by humans. Chapter 2 on human health helps the reader understand the relationship between biological, physical, and chemical agents, and disease and injury causation. In Volume II, Chapter 8, the many varied facets of terrorism and environmental emergencies, nuisances, and special problems are discussed. Students may refer to L1536 FM frame Page 13 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM other chapters of the text to obtain a complete idea of each of the problems and the potential solutions. The general format of Volume I, Chapters 3 to 11, and Volume II, Chapters 1 to 7, is as follows: STANDARD CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. Background and status (brief) 2. Scientific, technological, and general information 3. Problem a. Types b. Sources of exposure c. Impact on other problems d. Disease potential e. Injury potential f. Other sources of exposure contributing to problems g. Economics 4. Potential for intervention a. General b. Specific 5. Resources a. Scientific and technical; industry, labor, university; research groups b. Civic c. Governmental 6. Standards, practices, and techniques 7. Modes of surveillance and evaluation a. Inspections and surveys b. Sampling and laboratory analysis c. Plans review 8. Control a. Scientific and technological b. Governmental programs c. Other programs d. Education 9. Summary 10. Research needs • The background and status section of each chapter presents a brief introduction to, and the current status of, each problem area. An attempt has been made in each case to present the current status of the problem. • The problem section is subdivided into several important areas to give the reader a better grasp of the total concerns. To avoid disruption in continuity of the standard outline, the precise subtitles listed may not be found in each chapter. However, the content of the subtitles will be present. The subtitle, impact on other problems, is given as a constant reminder that one impact on the environment may precipitate numerous other problems. • The potential for intervention section is designed to succinctly illustrate whether a given problem can be controlled, the degree of control possible, and some techniques of control. The reader should refer to the controls section for additional information. L1536 FM frame Page 14 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM • Resources is a unique section providing a listing of scientific, technical, civic, and governmental resources available at all levels to assist the student and practitioner. • The standards, practices, and techniques section is specifically geared to the reader who requires an understanding of some of the specifics related to surveys, environmental studies, operation, and control of a variety of program areas. • The modes of surveillance and evaluation section explains many of the techniques available to determine the extent and significance of environmental problems. • The control section presents existing scientific, technological, governmental, educational, legal, and civic controls. The reader may refer to the standards, practices, and techniques section in some instances to get a better understanding of controls. • The summary presents the highlights of the chapter. • Research needs is another unique section intended to increase reader awareness to the constantly changing nature of the environment and of the need for continued reading or in-service education on the future concerns of our society. • The reference section is extensive and as current as possible. It appears as the last area in each volume and provides the reader with sources for further research and names of individuals and organizations involved in current research. L1536 FM frame Page 15 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Acknowledgments I extend thanks to Boris Osheroff, my friend, teacher, and colleague, for opening the numerous doors needed to obtain the most current information in the environmental health field, and for contributing his many fine suggestions and ideas before and after reading the manuscript; to Ed O'Rourke for intensively reviewing the manuscript and recommending revisions and improvements; to Karol Wisniewiski for giving his review and comments on the manuscript; to Dr. John Hanlon for offering his encouragement and for helping a young teacher realize his potential; to all the environmental health administrators, supervisors, practitioners, and students for sharing their experiences and problems with me and for giving me the opportunity to test many of the practical approaches used in the book; to the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Environmental Health Science, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Cunningham Memorial Library, Indiana State University, Indiana University Library, Purdue University Library, and the many other libraries and resources for providing the material that was used in developing the manuscript; to my wife, Donna Koren, and my student, Evelyn Hutton, for typing substantial portions of the manuscript; to my daughter, Debbie Koren, for helping me organize the materials and for working along with me throughout the night at the time of deadlines to complete the work. In the second edition, Kim Malone typed portions of the new manuscript, retyped the entire manuscript, and was of great value to me. Pat Ensor, librarian, Indiana State University, was of considerable value in helping gather large numbers of references in all areas of the book. A very special thanks goes to my sister-in-law, Betty Gardner, for typing a substantial portion of the new manuscript, despite recurring severe illness. Her cheerfulness during my low periods helped me complete my work. Finally, thanks go to my wife Donna for putting up with my thousands of hours of seclusion in the den, while I was working, and for encouraging me throughout the project and my life with her. She has truly been my best friend. In the third edition, Alma Mary Anderson, C.S.C., and her assistants, Carlos Gonzalez and Brian Flynn, redid the existing illustrations and added new ones to enhance the manuscript. Professor Anderson directed the production of all the new artwork. In addition, I thank Bill Farms for his assistance with the original computerassisted drawings for the chapters on instrumentation in both volumes. My wife Donna typed much new material, and the previously mentioned libraries, Centers for Disease Control, and the University of South Florida were most helpful in my research efforts. I would like to recognize Dr. Michael Bisesi, friend and colleague, who became my co-author. In the fourth edition, Professor Anderson, advisor of the graphic design area in the department of art, Indiana State University, provided many excellent graphics and endless hours of work inserting new material and correcting previous material in the manuscripts. Without her help this new edition would not have been possible. Thanks also go to my daughter and son-in-law, Debbie and Kenny Hardas, who L1536 FM frame Page 16 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM dragged me into the computer age by purchasing my first computer and by teaching me to use it. Dr. Michael Bisesi acknowledges his appreciation of his wife Christine Bisesi, M.S., C.I.H., C.H.M.M.; his two sons Antonio (Nino) and Nicolas (Nico); and his parents Anthony (deceased) and Maria Bisesi for their love and support. In addition, he wants to acknowledge his mentors Rev. Francis Young; George Berkowitz, Ph.D.; Raymond Manganelli, Ph.D.; Barry Schlegel, M.S., C.I.H.; John Hochstrasser, Ph.D., C.I.H.; Richard Spear, H.S.D.; Christopher Bork, Ph.D.; Keith Schlender, Ph.D.; and Roy Hartenstein, Ph.D. for sharing their knowledge, wisdom, and encouragement at various phases of his academic and professional career. L1536 FM frame Page 17 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM About the Authors Herman Koren, R.E.H.S., M.P.H., H.S.D., is professor emeritus and former director of the environmental health science program, and director of the supervision and management program I and II at Indiana State University at Terre Haute. He has been an outstanding researcher, teacher, consultant, and practitioner in the environmental health field, and in the occupational health, hospital, medical care, and safety fields, as well as in management areas of these areas and in nursing homes, water and wastewater treatment plants, and other environmental and safety industries for the past 47 years. In addition to numerous publications and presentations at national meetings, he is the author of six books, titled Environmental Health and Safety, Pergamon Press, 1974; Handbook of Environmental Health and Safety, Volumes I and II, Pergamon Press, 1980 (now published in updated and vastly expanded format by Lewis Publishers, CRC Press, as a fourth edition); Basic Supervision and Basic Management, Parts I and II, Kendall Hunt Publishing, 1987 (now published in updated and vastly expanded format as Management and Supervision for Working Professionals, Volumes I and II, third edition, by Lewis Publishers, CRC Press); Illustrated Dictionary of Environmental Health and Occupational Safety, Lewis Publishers, CRC Press, 1995, second edition due in 2004. He has served as a district environmental health practitioner and supervisor at the local and state level. He was an administrator at a 2000-bed hospital. Dr. Koren was on the editorial board of the Journal of Environmental Health and the former Journal of Food Protection. He is a founder diplomate of the Intersociety Academy for Certification of Sanitarians, a Fellow of the American Public Health Association, a 46-year member of the National Environmental Health Association, founder of the Student National Environmental Health Association, and the founder and advisor of the Indiana State University Student National Environmental Health Association (Alpha chapter). Dr. Koren developed the modern internship concept in environmental health science. He has been a consultant to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the National Institute of Environmental Health Science, and numerous health departments and hospitals; and has served as the keynote speaker and major lecturer for the Canadian Institute of Public Health Inspectors. He is the recipient of the Blue Key Honor Society Award for outstanding teaching and the Alumni and Student plaque and citations for outstanding teaching, research, and service. The National Environmental Health Association has twice honored Dr. Koren with presidential citations for "Distinguished Services, Leadership and Devotion to the Environmental Health Field" and "Excellent Research and Publications." L1536 FM frame Page 18 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Michael S. Bisesi, Ph.D., R.E.H.S., C.I.H., is an environmental and occupational health scientist and board certified industrial hygienist working full-time as professor and chairman of the department of public health in the School of Allied Health at the Medical College of Ohio (MCO). He also has a joint appointment in the department of pharmacology in the School of Medicine, serves as the associate dean of allied health programs, and is director of the Northwest Ohio Consortium for Public Health. At MCO, he is responsible for research, teaching, service, and administration. He teaches a variety of graduate level and continuing education courses, including toxicology, environmental health, monitoring and analytical methods, and hazardous materials and waste. His major laboratory and field interests are environmental toxicology involving biotic and abiotic transformation of organics; fate of pathogenic agents in various matrices; and industrial hygiene evaluation of airborne biological and chemical agents relative to human exposure assessment. He also periodically provides applicable consulting services via Enviro-Health, Inc., Holland, OH. Dr. Bisesi earned a B.S. and an M.S. in environmental science from Rutgers University and a Ph.D. in environmental science from the SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry in association with Syracuse University. He continues to complete additional postgraduate course work, including an MCO faculty development leave at Harvard and Tufts Universities in the summer of 1998. He also completed a fellowship at MCO in teaching and learning health and medical sciences and earned a graduate certificate. Dr. Bisesi has published several scientific articles and chapters, including two chapters in the Occupational Environment: Its Evaluation and Control and three chapters in fourth and fifth editions of Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. In addition, he is first author of the textbook Industrial Hygiene Evaluation Methods and second author of two other textbooks, the Handbook of Environmental Health and Safety, Volumes I and II. He is a member of the American Industrial Hygiene Association (fellow), American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, American Public Health Association, National Environmental Health Association, and Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. L1536 FM frame Page 19 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Contents Volume I Chapter 1 Environment and Humans Ecosystem ..................................................................................................................1 Ecosystem Dynamics.................................................................................................3 Energy ........................................................................................................................8 History........................................................................................................................9 Energy Dilemma......................................................................................................11 Health Implications of New Energy Technologies .................................................23 Environmental Problems Related to Energy ...........................................................29 Applicable Concepts of Chemistry .........................................................................30 Transport and Alteration of Chemicals in the Environment...................................33 Environmental Health Problems and the Economy................................................39 Risk–Benefit Analyses .............................................................................................40 Environmental Health Problems and the Law ........................................................46 Creating Federal Laws and Regulations .................................................................62 Environmental Impact Statements...........................................................................64 Environmental Health Profession............................................................................66 Summary ..................................................................................................................74 Future .......................................................................................................................74 Chapter 2 Environmental Problems and Human Health Introduction..............................................................................................................79 Human Systems .......................................................................................................83 Toxicological Principles ..........................................................................................95 Applicable Concepts of Microbiology ..................................................................108 Principles of Communicable Disease....................................................................113 Epidemiological Principles....................................................................................122 Risk Assessment and Risk Management...............................................................128 Chapter 3 Food Protection Background and Status..........................................................................................131 Scientific and Technological Background.............................................................132 Problems in Food Protection .................................................................................139 Chronic Aftereffects of Foodborne Disease..........................................................169 Special Food Problems ..........................................................................................172 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................173 Resources ...............................................................................................................174 Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................174 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................192 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Inspection........................................201 Food Protection Controls.......................................................................................205 L1536 FM frame Page 20 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Summary ................................................................................................................209 Research Needs......................................................................................................210 Chapter 4 Food Technology Background and Status..........................................................................................211 Scientific and Technological Background.............................................................213 Problems of Food Technology ..............................................................................216 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................226 Resources ...............................................................................................................227 Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................227 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................242 Food Quality Controls ...........................................................................................256 Summary ................................................................................................................260 Research Needs......................................................................................................261 Chapter 5 Insect Control Background and Status..........................................................................................265 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .............................................267 Types of Insects of Public Health Significance ....................................................270 Environmental and Health Problems Created by Insects .....................................285 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................305 Resources ...............................................................................................................306 Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................306 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................307 Controls..................................................................................................................309 Summary ................................................................................................................317 Research Needs......................................................................................................318 Chapter 6 Rodent Control Background and Status..........................................................................................319 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .............................................321 Rodent Problems and Their Effect on Humans ....................................................327 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................331 Resources ...............................................................................................................331 Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................332 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................336 Rodent Control ......................................................................................................338 Summary ................................................................................................................344 Research Needs......................................................................................................345 Chapter 7 Pesticides Background and Status..........................................................................................347 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .............................................355 Problems Created by Pesticides ............................................................................368 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................373 Resources ...............................................................................................................374 L1536 FM frame Page 21 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................374 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................381 Control of Pesticides .............................................................................................382 Summary ................................................................................................................384 Research Needs......................................................................................................384 Chapter 8 Indoor Environment Background and Status..........................................................................................387 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .............................................392 Housing Problems..................................................................................................397 Accidents and Injuries ...........................................................................................416 Other Environmental Problems .............................................................................421 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................424 Resources ...............................................................................................................425 Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................426 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................432 Control of Housing................................................................................................435 Indoor Air Contaminant Controls..........................................................................441 Community Program and Injury Control..............................................................445 Role of the Federal Government in Indoor Air Quality .......................................449 Summary ................................................................................................................452 Research Needs......................................................................................................453 Chapter 9 Institutional Environment Background and Status..........................................................................................455 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .............................................458 Problems in Institutions.........................................................................................467 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................494 Resources ...............................................................................................................495 Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................496 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................514 Institutional Controls .............................................................................................530 Summary ................................................................................................................543 Research Needs......................................................................................................543 Chapter 10 Recreational Environment Background and Status..........................................................................................545 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .............................................546 Problems in Recreational Areas ............................................................................546 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................548 Resources ...............................................................................................................548 Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................549 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................557 Controls..................................................................................................................557 Summary ................................................................................................................558 Research Needs......................................................................................................558 L1536 FM frame Page 22 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Chapter 11 Occupational Environment Background and Status..........................................................................................561 Interrelated Phases of Occupational Health and Safety .......................................563 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .............................................565 Occupational Health Controls ...............................................................................592 Occupational Health and Safety Program.............................................................600 Summary ................................................................................................................602 Chapter 12 Major Instrumentation for Environmental Evaluation of Occupational, Residential, and Public Indoor Settings Background and Status..........................................................................................605 Evaluation Categories ............................................................................................606 Evaluation of Airborne Particulate and Gaseous Agents......................................608 Evaluation of Airborne Sound Levels ...................................................................630 Evaluation of Air Temperature Factors .................................................................633 Evaluation of Illumination.....................................................................................636 Evaluation of Microwave Radiation......................................................................637 Evaluation of Sources of Electric and Magnetic Fields .......................................638 Evaluation of Ionizing Radiation ..........................................................................639 Evaluation of Air Pressure, Velocity, and Flow Rate ...........................................643 Bibliography .........................................................................................................647 Index: Volume I ...................................................................................................703 Index: Volume II .................................................................................................747 L1536 FM frame Page 23 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Contents Volume II Chapter 1 Air Quality Management Background and Status..............................................................................................1 Types of Pollutants ....................................................................................................4 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .................................................5 Bubble Concept .......................................................................................................18 Air Pollution Problems............................................................................................18 Effects on Vegetation ...............................................................................................46 Potential for Intervention.........................................................................................50 Resources .................................................................................................................50 Standards, Practices, and Techniques......................................................................51 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation ...................................................................57 Air Pollution Controls .............................................................................................58 Summary ..................................................................................................................81 Research Needs........................................................................................................82 Chapter 2 Solid and Hazardous Waste Management Background and Status............................................................................................85 Scientific, Technological, and General Information ...............................................87 Solid and Hazardous Waste Problems...................................................................159 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................191 Resources ...............................................................................................................191 Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................192 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................209 Controls..................................................................................................................211 Treatment ...............................................................................................................215 Programs ................................................................................................................219 Innovative Technologies ........................................................................................225 Solid and Hazardous Waste Laws and Regulations..............................................231 Summary ................................................................................................................247 Research Needs......................................................................................................247 Chapter 3 Private and Public Water Supplies Background and Status..........................................................................................251 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .............................................255 Disinfection............................................................................................................273 Emergency Repairs to Water Distribution Systems ..............................................275 Water Supply Problems .........................................................................................275 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................292 Resources ...............................................................................................................293 Standards, Practices, and Procedures ....................................................................293 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................316 L1536 FM frame Page 24 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Controls..................................................................................................................321 Summary ................................................................................................................330 Research Needs......................................................................................................331 Chapter 4 Swimming Areas Background and Status..........................................................................................333 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .............................................334 Swimming Area Problems.....................................................................................341 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................348 Resources ...............................................................................................................348 Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................348 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................366 Controls..................................................................................................................370 Summary ................................................................................................................371 Research Needs......................................................................................................372 Chapter 5 Plumbing Background and Status..........................................................................................373 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .............................................374 Plumbing Problems................................................................................................383 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................387 Resources ...............................................................................................................387 Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................387 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................398 Controls..................................................................................................................399 Summary ................................................................................................................406 Research Needs......................................................................................................406 Chapter 6 Private and Public Sewage Disposal and Soils Background and Status..........................................................................................407 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .............................................408 Soils .......................................................................................................................452 Sewage Disposal Problems....................................................................................479 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................486 Resources ...............................................................................................................487 Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................487 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................515 Controls..................................................................................................................521 Summary ................................................................................................................527 Research Needs......................................................................................................527 Chapter 7 Water Pollution and Water Quality Controls Background and Status..........................................................................................529 Scientific, Technological, and General Information .............................................534 Water Problems......................................................................................................545 Public Health Aspects of Water Pollution.............................................................570 L1536 FM frame Page 25 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM Biological Hazards ................................................................................................570 Potential for Intervention.......................................................................................593 Resources ...............................................................................................................593 Standards, Practices, and Techniques....................................................................594 Swimming Areas....................................................................................................595 Wastewater Treatment............................................................................................603 Modes of Surveillance and Evaluation .................................................................607 Controls..................................................................................................................623 Summary ................................................................................................................649 Research Needs......................................................................................................649 Chapter 8 Terrorism and Environmental Health Emergencies Introduction............................................................................................................651 Terrorism................................................................................................................651 Types of Terrorist Acts ..........................................................................................652 Strategic Plan for Preparedness and Response .....................................................657 Some Current Programs ........................................................................................662 Types of Disasters..................................................................................................663 Disaster Plans ........................................................................................................667 Environmental Response Team .............................................................................680 Mental Health Needs in Disasters.........................................................................681 Specific Environmental Health Measures .............................................................681 Special Environmental Health Problems...............................................................685 Chapter 9 Major Instrumentation for Environmental Evaluation of Ambient Air, Water, and Soil Background and Status..........................................................................................689 Sample Collection..................................................................................................689 Sample Analysis ....................................................................................................701 Bibliography .........................................................................................................711 Index: Volume I ...................................................................................................785 Index: Volume II .................................................................................................833 L1536 FM frame Page 26 Thursday, June 6, 2002 1:13 PM L1536 ch01 frame Page 1 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM CHAPTER 1 Environment and Humans Health and safety refer to the avoidance of human illness and injury through efficient use of the environment, a properly functioning society, and an inner sense of well-being. Environmental health and safety is the art and science of protecting human function; promoting aesthetic values; and preventing illness and injury through the control of positive environmental factors and the reduction of potential physical, biological, and chemical hazards. To understand the relationship of the environment to humans and to understand how to protect humans from illness and injury, it will be necessary to discuss the ecosystem, ecosystem dynamics, and energy. Human impact on the environment and the various approaches, including risk assessment, epidemiological, economic, legal, and governmental aspects used to evaluate and resolve environmental problems, are discussed. To understand abnormal physiology, and the basis of human illness and injury, brief discussions on normal physiology, toxicology, and epidemic infectious disease are included. Finally, it is necessary to understand the role of professional environmental health practitioners, the skills that they need, and how they address the expanding scope of environmental problems. ECOSYSTEM Environments Earth is divided into the lithosphere, or land masses, and the hydrosphere, or the oceans, lakes, streams, and underground waters. The hydrosphere includes the entire aquatic environment. Our world, both lithosphere and hydrosphere, is shaped by varying life forms. Permanent forms of life create organic matter and, in combination with inorganic materials, help establish soil. Plants cover the land and reduce the potential for soil erosion — the nature and rate of erosion affects the redistribution of materials on the surface of Earth. Organisms assimilate vast quantities of certain elements and molecules, such as carbon and oxygen. Animals, through respiration, 1 L1536 ch01 frame Page 2 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM 2 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere — carbon dioxide affects the heat transmission of the atmosphere. Organisms affect the environment and in turn are affected by it. Two environments, biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving), combine to form an ecosystem. An ecosystem can also be subdivided by more specific criteria into the following four categories: (1) abiotic, the nutrient minerals that are synthesized into living protoplasm; (2) autotrophic, the producer organisms (largely the green plants) that assimilate the nutrient minerals using energy and combine them into living organic substances; (3) heterotrophic, the consumers, usually the animals, that ingest or eat organic matter and release energy; and (4) heterotrophic reducers, the bacteria or fungi that return the complex organic compounds to their original abiotic state and release the remaining chemical energy. The biotic group in the ecosystem complex is essentially composed of the autotrophs, or producer organisms that synthesize organic substances, and the heterotrophs, or consumer or reducer organisms that decompose labile organic substances. The ecosystem is important when considering the food chain, which is in effect a transfer of energy from plants through a series of organisms that eat and, in turn, are eaten. Eventually, decay will start the process all over again. The ecological niche is the combination of function and habitat of each of the approximately 1.5 million species of animals and 0.5 million species of plants on Earth. There are many interactions between species in the ecosystem, yet a balance is dictated by nature. The law of limiting factors states that a minimum quantity of essentials, such as nutrients, light, heat, moisture, and space, must be available within the ecosystem for survival of the organisms. In some instances where these limiting factors apply or where pesticides or other environmental elements are introduced into the ecosystem, the organism alters itself to exist within the new environment. This change is called mutation. Unfortunately, mutation becomes a serious concern in the area of pest control as well as in disease, because the new organism may be highly resistant to effective control and may therefore cause disease and physical destruction of plants and animals. The ecosystem is always in a dynamic instead of a static balance — changes in one part of the ecosystem cause changes in another. Biosphere The biosphere is that part of Earth — lithosphere and hydrosphere — in which life exists. However, this definition is not complete, because spores may commonly be found in areas that are too dry, too cold, or too hot to support organisms that metabolize. The biosphere contains the liquid water necessary for life; it receives an ample supply of energy from an external source, which is ultimately the Sun, and within it liquid, solid, and gaseous states of matter interface. All the actively metabolizing organisms operate within the biosphere. The operation of the biosphere depends on photosynthesis, during which carbon dioxide is reduced to form organic compounds and molecular oxygen. Oxygen, the by-product of photosynthesis, replenishes the atmosphere and most of the free water, which contains dissolved oxygen. L1536 ch01 frame Page 3 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM ENVIRONMENT AND HUMANS 3 ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS Cycles The ecosystem changes frequently. Several of the cycles that are important and that may be affected by humans include the hydrologic cycle, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, the phosphorous cycle, and energy flow. The hydrologic cycle is the movement of water from the atmosphere to Earth and back into the atmosphere. This is discussed more fully in Chapter 3 on water in Volume II. The carbon cycle begins with the fixation of atmospheric carbon dioxide by means of photosynthesis performed by plants and certain algae. During this process carbon dioxide and water react to form carbohydrates, and free oxygen is simultaneously released into the atmosphere. Some of the carbohydrates are stored in the plant, and the rest are utilized by the plant as a source of energy. Some of the carbon that has been fixed by the plants is then consumed by animals, who respire and release carbon dioxide. The plants and animals die, decomposing by action of microorganisms and other catalysts in the soil, and the carbon in their tissues is then oxidized to carbon dioxide and returned to the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide is recycled through the plants and the process repeats itself (Figure 1.1). The nitrogen cycle begins when atmospheric nitrogen is fixed or changed into more complex nitrogen compounds by specialized organisms, such as certain bacteria and blue-green algae. Some fixation may occur as a result of lightning, sunlight, or chemical processes; however, the most efficient nitrogen fixation is carried out by biological mechanisms. Other bacteria, fungi, and algae may also play an important role in nitrogen fixation. Basically the atmospheric nitrogen is changed into a nitrate that is absorbed by plants, eventually combining with other elements and becoming a plant protein. The plant protein decays when the plant dies, releases nitrogen as ammonia, and through bacterial oxidizing action becomes a nitrite; with further bacterial action the protein is reduced and released as atmospheric nitrogen. The plant protein may also be eaten by animals, may be broken down into molecules called amino acids, and eventually may be synthesized into an animal protein. Through decay of the dead animal or breakdown of excreted feces and urine, this protein is changed to ammonia. The ammonia returns to the nitrite stage through bacterial action, and again through bacterial action becomes atmospheric nitrogen (see Figure 1.1). A further description of the nitrogen cycle is found in Chapter 6 on sewage in Volume II. In the phosphorus cycle, the element moves rapidly through similar stages, becoming locked in sediment or in biological forms such as teeth or bones. The primary sources of phosphorus for agriculture are phosphate rocks and living or dead organisms (see Figure 1.1). Food Chain The cycle of energy flow may also be described as the food web. The food web, or food chain (Figure 1.2), implies that an organism has consumed a smaller organism L1536 ch01 frame Page 4 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM 4 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH Sun harmful rays from the sun plants nitrogen and oxygen molecules geological uplifting rain nitrogen phosphate in rocks runoff decayed plants and animals phosphate in solution animals bacteria absorbing nitrogen phosphate in soil sedimentation decomposers bacteria releasing nitrogen CO2 in atmosphere c liberation a Nitrogen Cycle respiration, decay dissolved in water s gas soil acids diffusion n stio bu om thesis syn oto ph Phosphorus Cycle nitrogen compounds (nitrates) P animal plant plant animal coal, oil, natural gas decay The Carbon Cycle Figure 1.1 Ecosystem dynamics. (From Koren, H., Illustrated Dictionary of Environmental Health and Occupational Safety, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1995. With permission.) L1536 ch01 frame Page 5 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM ENVIRONMENT AND HUMANS 5 respiration decomposers carnivores herbivores primary producers solar energy Figure 1.2 Food chain. and is then consumed by a larger organism. Eventually, the microscopic plants and animals become the food supply for the small fish or animals that become the food supply for humans. The importance of the food chain is illustrated by biomagnification, in which the impurities found in water are concentrated in the lower forms of life and are reconcentrated substantially during the movement of the impurities through the food chain. For example, whereas people might only get 0.001 µg of mercury in drinking water, they might get 30 to 50 µg of mercury by consuming fish that have been bioconcentrating mercury. Energy Cycles Solar energy is absorbed by Earth and eventually reradiated into space as heat. The heat is distributed over the surface of Earth through circulation caused by the atmosphere and the oceans. Diurnal changes or changes occurring in a 24-hour period due to light, wind, temperature, and humidity are important near ground level and at high levels in the atmosphere. In certain localities land masses and sea breezes may affect the overall heat and weather patterns. However, total heat movement is not affected significantly by local conditions. About 30% of the solar energy entering the atmosphere is deflected or scattered back toward outer space because of the atmosphere, the clouds, or Earth's surface. This portion of the solar energy is lost. About 50% of the incoming radiation reaches the ground or ocean, where it is absorbed as heat. The properties of the surface that receives the energy determine the thickness of the layer over which the available L1536 ch01 frame Page 6 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM 6 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH heat is distributed. In the oceans the surface wave motions effectively distribute the heat over a 300-ft layer of air. On land the energy transferred downward into the ground occurs very slowly through the process of molecular heat conduction. The penetration distance is very small. About 20% of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed as it goes through the atmosphere. In the upper atmosphere, oxygen and ozone molecules absorb an estimated 1 to 3% of the incoming radiation. This absorption occurs in the ultraviolet range and, therefore, limits the penetrating radiation to wavelengths longer than 300 nm. This absorption is very important, because it is the main source of energy for the movement of air in the upper atmosphere. This absorption also shields people on Earth from damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation. Most of the rest of the 20% is absorbed by water vapor, dust, and water droplets in the clouds. The energy that sustains all living systems is fixed in photosynthesis, as previously mentioned. Part of the energy fixed in plants and animals has been compressed over millions of years and is the source for stored energy, namely, coal, oil, and natural gas. Current Ecosystem Problems People and advanced technology affect the ecological niche by interfacing with the intricate function and habitat of various species of animals and plants. Discharges to air, water, and soil, including toxic and infectious chemical wastes, biological wastes, and radiological wastes create an environmental pressure that is detrimental to all life forms, including people. From the destruction of the rain forest of Brazil, because of the excessive clearing of trees, to the potential destruction of forests in the Northern Hemisphere due to acid precipitation, a huge number of ecosystems may be eliminated. Nature's diversity offers many opportunities for finding new pharmaceuticals, genetic mapping, genetic engineering, and potential power to improve crops. We are wasting our greatest natural resource on which we depend for food, oxygen, clean water, energy, building materials, clothing, medicine, sociological well-being, and countless other benefits. Biological diversity includes two related concepts, genetic diversity and ecological diversity. Genetic diversity is the amount of genetic variability among individuals in a single species, whereas ecological diversity is the number of species in a community of organisms. An organism's ability to withstand the challenge of varying physical and chemical problems, parasites, and competition for resources is largely determined by its genetic makeup. The more successful organisms that survive pass on the genes to the next generation. An example of this would be in the case of climatic changes where plants have smaller, thicker leaves for losing less water in areas that are becoming arid. Genetic diversity is important in developing new crops to meet new conditions. This is how disease-resistant crops can be utilized to sustain life for people. Genetic variation among species is greater than within the species. It is difficult to determine which of these species are of extreme importance and will be essential to people in the future as new supplies of food, energy, industrial chemicals, and medicine. It is anticipated that the human population will increase by nearly 50% in the next 20 years, with much of this increase occurring in very L1536 ch01 frame Page 7 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM ENVIRONMENT AND HUMANS 7 poor nations. The resources needed to feed these individuals will be substantial, and many new forms of food will have to be developed to prevent starvation. There appears to be adequate sources of fossil fuel for the immediate future. However, these fossil fuels, when burned, can potentially cause severe pollution. Eventually, fossil fuel sources will be depleted. It will then be necessary to utilize plants that can produce energy-rich materials, such as soybean oil. At present this process is very expensive. Coastal waters contain several major natural systems. Because they directly abut the land, they are affected by activities on the land. Pollutants from coastal sewage treatment plants, industrial facilities, settling of air contaminants, and erosion of land, many hundreds of miles upstream, can cause considerable problems to the coastal waters. Oil slicks are extremely hazardous to ecosystems. Trace metals can be concentrated in the food chain and, thereby, become a hazard to people eating sea life. Toxic metals, such as mercury, lead, and cadmium, have been found in coastal waters. Mollusks become indicators of environmental contamination and environmental quality. These shellfish, which live in the mud or sand bottoms of the aquatic ecosystems, accurately reflect some of the important characteristics of the water adjacent to the land. These organisms may show a direct adverse effect when they accumulate chemical substances or microorganisms. They are good for systematic monitoring, because they are stationary in nature (except for the early egg and larva stages) and filter large quantities of water to feed themselves. Because they are of significant commercial importance, reliable quantitative data are available on harvesting and other aspects of the mollusk life cycle. In the past, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sponsored studies of the accumulations of chlorinated organic pesticides in shellfish. Residues of the pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) were found for years after the use of the chemical was banned in 1972. The Mussel Watch Program has shown elevated levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). High-level concentrations of silver, cadmium, zinc, copper, and nickel have been detected in various bodies of water. Mussels have also shown the presence of radionuclei as a result of weapon-testing programs and also from effluent that has come from nuclear reactors. Records of commercial catches of clams and oysters indicate that the number of mollusks in coastal waters has been steadily declining over the years. This may result from overfishing, loss of habitat, and deterioration due to pollution and natural disasters. It has been shown that the building of a sewage treatment plant has the potential to adversely affect shellfish habitats by altering water salinity. The continued loss of tropical forests is the single greatest threat to the preservation of biological diversity. Many of Central America's ecosystems may be affected by these problems. Wetlands have exceptional value because of their location at the land and water interface. They provide ecological, biological, economic, scenic, and recreational resources. Many wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet, especially estuaries and mangrove swamps. At least half of the biological production of the oceans occurs in the coastal wetlands. From 60 to 80% of the world's L1536 ch01 frame Page 8 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM 8 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH commercially important marine fish either spend time in the estuaries or feed on the nutrients produced there. Coastal wetlands help protect inland areas from erosion, flood, waves, and hurricanes. The wetlands are an important economic resource, because they provide cash crops, such as timber, marsh hay, wild rice, cranberries, blueberries, fish, and shellfish. Desertification is the process that occurs in semiarid lands where sterile sandy desertlike ecosystems are created from grasslands, brushlands, and sparse open forests due to a loss of organic carbon in the form of stable humus from the soils. This desertification can be stimulated beyond natural forces by overgrazing of animals and by misuse of the area. This can lead to mass starvation and death. ENERGY Problems Energy is utilized in four primary areas, residential, commercial, industrial, and transportation. Residential use is approximately 11.1 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu). Industrial use is approximately 27.1 quadrillion Btu. Transportation use is approximately 24.7 quadrillion Btu. Where energy is used to produce electricity or heating, the primary consumption of the energy is significantly higher than its end use. The distinction between the end use and primary energy consumption is important because this indicates the level of efficiency of energy use. It also indicates the amount of unnecessary carbon emissions. Residential demand is the largest energy-consuming sector in the United States. Households are responsible for 20% of all carbon emissions of which 63% is attributed to the fuels used to generate electricity. With continued growth in the economy and population, residential use will always be a major factor in the production of contaminants resulting from electrical usage. The energy is also used to provide heating, cooling, and ventilation, which accounts for most of the direct use of fossil fuels, and as a power source for refrigerators, freezers, dishwashers, clothes washers and dryers, and stoves, as well as lighting and other items. Further, there has been a steady increase in the use of electricity because people now have more appliances and computers. Commercial demand consists of businesses and other organizations that provide services to stores, restaurants, hospitals, hotels, schools, jails, and other structures. This sector is the smallest of the energy users. The greatest savings in energy relate to the use of insulation and improvement in the efficiency of equipment. Industrial demand includes the agriculture, mining, construction, and manufacturing industries. This sector uses energy to produce or process goods of all types, and also produces a wide variety of basic materials such as aluminum and steel that are used to produce goods. Coal is mainly used for a boiler fuel and for production of coke in the iron and steel industry. Transportation demand includes the use of all types of vehicles including trains and planes. About 33% of all carbon emissions and about 78% of carbon emissions from petroleum consumption come from the transportation sector. People select their vehicles based on size, horsepower, price, and personal preferences. At present L1536 ch01 frame Page 9 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM ENVIRONMENT AND HUMANS 9 carbon emissions are continuing to grow because of the selection of heavier and less efficient vehicles, and because of the increase in vehicles present on the highways. The primary energy source is oil, with all its problems related to pollution. Alternative-fuel vehicle sales are dependent on vehicle price, cost of driving per mile, vehicle range, fuel availability, and commercial availability. HISTORY Energy problems were brought to the attention of the American public and the world in 1973 as a result of the Arab oil embargo and the actions of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Unfortunately, in the years preceding these dramatic events, the United States was buying an increasing amount of petroleum abroad and utilizing more natural gas than was readily available. As a result of these shortages, President Richard M. Nixon authorized the allocation of scarce fuels. By May 1973, the Office of Emergency Preparedness was reporting widespread problems of gasoline stations closing due to lack of fuel. Voluntary guidelines were announced and a variety of emergency actions taken including the lowering of the speed limit to 55 mi/hr. Project Independence was conceived with the goal of self-sufficiency in energy production by 1980. Congress established the Federal Energy Administration in December 1973, and the President created the Federal Energy Office to deal with the immediate crisis. Funding was provided for additional research and development in a variety of energy areas. Unfortunately, by 1978 the amount of fuel being purchased abroad continued to escalate. The variety of programs at the federal level were so confusing, complex, and spread out over a variety of agencies that the administration in Washington, D.C. requested the establishment of a new federal Department of Energy with an administrator of cabinet rank. It was hoped that the new department would bring organization to the chaotic mass of confusing energy problems and move the country toward self-sufficiency. Conservation Conservation and development of new energy sources or expansion of existing sources were two major phases of energy programs. Energy conservation was of critical importance to the United States; yet despite predictions of severe shortages, conservation attempts had not been entirely successful and great amounts of energy were still wasted. Greater energy efficiency was needed in cars and in electrical and gas equipment. Better insulated homes and a general reduction in energy usage was essential. The United States had to become less dependent on oil and gas as sources of energy. Oil and Gas Oil and gas in 1972 accounted for nearly 78% of U.S. energy consumption. By 1980, oil and gas remained the greatest sources of energy used, despite the fact that L1536 ch01 frame Page 10 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM 10 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH the United States had about a 300-year supply of coal available. Although in 1979, Alaska was providing new oil, the country was more dependent than ever on foreign oil. However, it was understood that no matter how many sources of oil and gas were developed, eventually the supplies would be depleted; therefore, it was necessary to examine other kinds of energy sources. These sources included oil shale, nuclear energy, geothermal energy, solar energy, fusion energy, and coal. Oil shale was available, but at rather high costs. Additional research was necessary to determine how best to extract the oil from the shale both economically and without creating surface environmental problems. Nuclear Nuclear power could certainly provide a continuing source of available energy to the country. However, many permits had been delayed because of consumer groups concerned with the possibility of nuclear accidents and with the disposal of the radioactive wastes. The threat of terrorist groups obtaining wastes from the fusion process and utilizing these materials to terrorize the world was also of great concern. In 1973, the U.S. nuclear electrical generating capacity was 20,000 MW, or over 5% of the nation's total electrical capacity. Geothermal Geothermal energy, produced by tapping Earth's heat, was being used at the geyser sites in Oregon and California, where the Pacific Gas and Electric Company employed geothermal steam as a power source for a 400-MW electrical generating facility. Geothermal resources included dry steam, hot steam, and hot water. At that time, because of cost factors, only dry geothermal heat was used to drive electric turbines. Solar Solar energy was both economically and technologically feasible. The benefits of capturing the sun's energy had been long recognized. Funding for solar energy research had increased and considerable research was needed. The 1979 federal budget included $137 million for solar research and development. Techniques under investigation included direct thermal applications, solar electric applications, and fuels from biomass. Direct thermal application consisted of solar heating for cooling of buildings and hot water supply, and the use of solar heat for agriculture and industrial processes. Agricultural applications were the drying of food, crop drying, lumber drying, heating and cooling of greenhouses, and heating of animal shelters. The solar electrical applications included research on the generation of electricity from windmills, solar cells (photovoltaic), solar thermal electric systems, and ocean thermal energy conversion. Theoretically, these systems were well understood; however, their applications were not yet economically feasible. The fuels produced from biomass suggested large-scale use of organic materials, such as animal manure, field crops, crop waste, forest crops and waste, and marine plants and animals. The L1536 ch01 frame Page 11 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM ENVIRONMENT AND HUMANS 11 conversion process was technically feasible. During World War II, much of the liquid fuel of France consisted of methanol produced from wood. Processes requiring study included fermentation to produce methane and alcohol, chemical processes to produce methanol, and pyrolysis to convert organic waste material to low Btu gaseous fuels and oils. Coal Coal was the one major source of energy that could certainly be utilized to reduce U.S. reliance on other nations. The most serious deterrent was the many contaminants, particularly sulfur, found in coal. Sulfur could be removed by utilizing new technologies in coal mining and conversion. Because coal made up 85% of the U.S. fossil energy resource base, it was wise to utilize it as well and as quickly as possible. New coal technology under development promised two very important changes in the potential pollution areas: the reduction of sulfur oxide in particulate matter from direct burning of coal, and the provision of liquid and gaseous fuel substitutes for domestic oil and gas production. The emphasis in research had shifted from conventional combustion to direct fuel to fuel conversion, that is, coal gasification and coal liquefication. Sulfur could be extracted even when coal was directly burned using fluidized beds in which crushed coal was injected into the boiler near its base. Coal was fluidized by blowing air uniformly through a grid plate. Sulfur dioxide was then removed by injecting the crushed coal with limestone particles less than ⅛ in. in diameter. The limestone particles were noncombustible and would bind the sulfur dioxide. This system also reduced the nitrogen oxides below emission standards for utility boilers of 0.7 lb of nitrogen dioxide per million Btu. The nitrogen dioxide could actually be reduced to 0.2 to 0.3 lb per million Btu. The gasification process involved the reaction of coal with air, oxygen, steam, or a mixture of these that yielded a combustion product containing carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, nitrogen, and little or no sulfur. The energy of the product ranged from 125 to 175 Btu per standard cubic foot for a low Btu gasification process to about 900 to 1000 Btu per standard cubic foot for a high Btu gasification process. The high Btu gasification process was comparable with the energy content of natural gas. The liquefication transformed the coal into a liquid hydrocarbon fuel and simultaneously removed most of the ash and sulfur. Hydrogen was frequently added in many of the direct catalytic liquefication techniques. ENERGY DILEMMA 1980s The trauma of the 1970s led to a more active role by government in the 1980s to try to resolve energy problems in the country. The Energy Security Act and the Crude Oil Windfall Act of 1980 gave the President additional power to encourage the development of oil and gas reserves and a synthetic fuels industry. Because coal was the greatest fuel resource, there was an attempt to substitute coal for oil in L1536 ch01 frame Page 12 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM 12 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH various industries. Energy was used more efficiently because of a variety of conservation programs. The federal conservation and solar programs were passed by Congress, and additional funds were allotted for weatherization assistance for lowincome people and tax breaks for others who made their homes more efficient. Funds were provided by the Solar Energy and Conservation Bank to finance the use of solar energy systems. Solar wind and geothermal tax credits were made available for residential users. Funds were provided for research and development in the use of energy sources other than fossil fuels. The biomass program and the alcohol tax credits provided $1.6 billion through 1990 to promote the conversion of grain, farm residues, and other biomasses to alcohol fuels. Through 1990, $16.5 billion were allotted to improve transportation efficiency by enhancing public transportation programs. A fuel economy program was put in place and funds were provided for enforcement of the 55 mi/hr speed limit. Auto efficiency standards were raised from 20 mi/gal for the 1980 model year vehicle to 27.5 mi/gal by 1985. A gas guzzler tax was added to new vehicles with mileage below 15 mi/gal. A building energy conservation code and an appliance efficiency standard code was established to improve fuel conservation and efficiency. As a result of all this effort, the growth of energy usage slowed substantially from the previous years. By 1984, the national energy picture had continued to brighten substantially. Prices of gasoline had dropped and the price of crude oil had dropped significantly. This progress was due in part to the decontrol of the domestic petroleum markets and the removal of restrictions on energy use. Potential new sources of energy were under development in the oceans abutting the United States. This area is larger than the country's land mass and includes many of the deep water areas, as well as the outer continental shelf. Further, the OPEC nations were in disarray because of the long war between Iran and Iraq, and the propensity for cheating on the amount of oil that each country was permitted to produce to maintain their high income. Continued conservation of energy because of the many permanent changes made in energy use over the years helped keep the price of oil at lower levels. In 1984, 1608 geothermal leases were in effect, in which 30 were capable of production and 12 actually were in production. There was an estimated 2 trillion barrels of shale oil in the Green River formation in northwestern Colorado, northwestern Utah, and southwestern Wyoming. Of this amount, it was estimated that 731 billion bbl of oil could be extracted commercially. It was also estimated that in Utah, approximately 2 billion bbl of oil were recoverable with current technology. Approximately 100 to 200 million bbl could be recovered by surface mining. The question was not the availability of these energy resources, but the cost of developing them. Since the Three Mile Island debacle of March 1979, numerous public protests occurred about the building and use of nuclear power as a source of energy. A need still exists for facilities for the permanent disposal of the high radioactive waste that is generated during the production of electricity in the nuclear power plants. Until very recently it was assumed that the nuclear waste was to be handled appropriately on-site. However, it has been disclosed that numerous leaks of nuclear waste from nuclear power plants have occurred over the decades. For example, serious problems L1536 ch01 frame Page 13 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM ENVIRONMENT AND HUMANS 13 in Ohio must be corrected to prevent disease. In 1990, the cleanup of these sites were estimated to cost $31.4 billion. 1990s In 1988, the United States consumed more energy than in any previous year in its history. The demand for petroleum was about 17 million bbl/day, which was the highest point since 1980. However, the strong underlying energy efficiency trend continued, except for the use of energy in the transportation sector. In 1991, energy usage was 81.5 quad. A quad is equivalent to 1 quadrillion Btu. The U.S. domestic oil production, which was on the rise in the 1980s, started to decline again. The running aground of the Exxon Valdez in Prince William Sound, Alaska, caused an ecological debacle temporarily cutting the amount of oil coming from Alaska down to 20% of its normal flow. Although oil flow recovered and prices declined, one wonders about future catastrophes and their effect. Because of lower oil prices during 1989, U.S. exploration decreased sharply. In 1989, there were only 740 drilling rigs, whereas in 1981 there were 4500 functioning drilling rigs. A need exists for a long lead time simply to get ready for further exploration for oil in the United States. Environmental and conservation groups attempted to limit further oil exploration in Alaska because of the incident that occurred in March 1989. On August 2, 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. By the end of February 1991, Iraq had set on fire or damaged 749 oil facilities in Kuwait. The restoration of oil production from Kuwait was a long, complicated, and expensive process. The demand for natural gas is expanding. This means gas production in excess of 20 trillion ft3/year. Electricity, despite increased efficiency in usage, is projected to rise. Because no newly ordered nuclear power plants were on-line by the year 2000, fossil-fuel plants must continue to provide most of the generating capacity. Despite the hope of the early 1970s, nuclear power has never achieved anywhere near the amount of electrical output that had been anticipated. This is in part due to the concern of citizens and a variety of lawsuits, and in a large part due to the Three Mile Island incident in 1979. The shoddy construction and need to obtain multiple permits, such as in Indiana, have further aggravated the situation. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has listed a series of unresolved safety issues. These include systems interactions, seismic design criteria, emergency containment, containment performance, station blackout, shutdown decay, heat-removal requirements, seismic qualification of equipment in operating plants, safety implications of control systems, hydrogen control measures and effects of hydrogen burns on safety equipment, high-level waste management, low-level waste management, and uranium recovery and mill tailings. With the increasing problems related to oil and gas, as well as nuclear power, electric utilities and others increasingly have turned to coal and natural gas as sources of fuel and power. This occurs at a time when acid precipitation, in the form of acidic rain and snow, continues to be an issue. The damage caused by acid rain is increasing, as well as pressure from Canada to do something about it. Although new energy technologies related to coal, as well as other sources, have been put pretty L1536 ch01 frame Page 14 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM 14 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH much on a holding pattern, it seems that it may now be necessary to explore these further and to utilize other means of securing energy. Although it is true that the Clean Air Act of 1990 put numerous additional constraints on the use of coal as a source of energy, at some time in the future it may be economically feasible to clean up the coal and use this abundant energy resource. Current Concerns of Fossil Fuel Oil The World Resources Institute states that the world has already consumed between one-third and a little less than one-half of its ultimately recoverable oil reserves. Global production of oil is expected to start declining between 2007 and 2014. The economic impacts will depend largely on the price and availability of energy alternatives. The transportation sector, including motor vehicles, airplanes, and trains, will be most affected. Unfortunately, people in those sectors are not taking this information seriously. Oil demand will increase each year as the Third World countries start to recover from the economic neglect in which they have been involved for many years. By the 1970s, the average productivity of domestic wells began to decline, and domestic oil production leveled. Alaskan production at the end of the 1970s and through 1988 partially offset the declines in the lower 48 states. In 1989, Alaskan production declined. In 1995, the United States produced 6.5 million bbl/day with 79% of the total coming from onshore wells and 21% coming from offshore wells. By 1994, petroleum imports reached a 17-year high of 45% returning almost to the peak level of 47% in 1977. Domestic oil production will continue to decline increasingly, causing the country to import foreign oil. Coal In 1995, an estimated 1 trillion tons of coal were produced in the United States with approximately 47% coming from the West. Surface mining helped produce low-sulfur coal but also increased the potential for further contamination of the immediate environment. Coal production is expected to increase, with Western production growing to 50% of the total. Coal, the second leading source of carbon emissions behind petroleum products, is expected to produce 676 million tons of carbon emissions in 2020, or 34% of the total. Most of the increases in coal emissions result from electricity generation. Gas From 1990 through 1998, natural gas consumption in the United States increased by 14%. The greater use of natural gas as an industrial and electricity generating fuel is in part due to its clean-burning qualities in comparison with other fossil fuels. There has also been lower cost due to greater competition and deregulation in the L1536 ch01 frame Page 15 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM ENVIRONMENT AND HUMANS 15 gas industry as well as an expanding transmission and distribution network. However, based on current economic realities, these costs may vary widely. Natural gas, when burned, emits less greenhouse gases and criteria pollutants per unit of energy produced than other fossil fuels because gas is more easily and fully combustible. The amount of carbon dioxide produced for an equivalent amount of heat is less for gas than oil or coal. However, because the major constituent of natural gas is methane, it also directly contributes to the greenhouse effect through venting or leaking of natural gas into the atmosphere. Methane gas is 21 times as effective as carbon dioxide in trapping heat. Although methane emissions amount to only 0.5% of U.S. emissions of carbon dioxide, they cause about 10% of the greenhouse effect in the country. Natural gas consumption has increased considerably worldwide. Domestic natural gas production is expected to increase an average of 2% for the coming years. Projected Increase in Carbon Emissions The use of fossil fuels in the future will increase and along with it more carbon will be emitted. These emissions are projected to increase by an average of 1.3% a year to the year 2020, when they will be approximately 1.956 trillion tons. Increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and other greenhouse gases may increase Earth's temperature and affect the climate. Kyoto Protocol From December 1 to 11, 1997, representatives from more than 160 countries met in Kyoto, Japan, to negotiate binding limits for greenhouse gas emissions for developed countries. The Kyoto Protocol sets emission targets for these countries relative to their emissions in 1990 to achieve an overall reduction of about 5.2% from current levels. These countries are known as Annex I countries. The reduction target is 7% for the United States and 6% for Canada and Japan, with European Union countries targeted at 8%. Non-Annex I countries have no targets under this protocol. The greenhouse gases covered by the protocol are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride. Sources of emissions include energy combustion, fugitive emissions from fuels, industrial processes, solvents, agriculture, and waste management and disposal. The targets were to be achieved on average between 2008 to 2012. However, in 2001, President George W. Bush decided to remove the country from this agreement and to review the entire process further. Cogeneration Systems To meet the Kyoto Protocol, it will be necessary to change the way we produce electricity to make it more efficient. Currently we use more than 21 quadrillion Btu of energy from the combustion of coal, natural gas, and oil to produce the equivalent of only 7 quadrillion Btu of electricity available at the plant gate. Of the energy, L1536 ch01 frame Page 16 Friday, May 31, 2002 10:07 AM 16 HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 67% is lost as waste heat, which accounts for 346 million tons or about 24% of U.S. carbon emissions. Cogeneration systems simultaneously produce heat in the form of hot air or steam, and power in the form of electricity by a single

subset: commoncrawl