text:
Persian people
|Total population
|ca. 70 million
|Regions with significant populations
|8,592,168(Only consists of Tajiks)[3]
|6,360,694(including Tajiks)[4]
|1,406,430-3,000,000(including Tajiks)[5][6]
|United States
|United Arab Emirates
|Persian (varieties of Dari, Hazaragi, and Tajiki), Luri
|Zoroastrianism, Shia Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Bahá'í, irreligion
|Related ethnic groups
|Iranian peoples
The Persian people[21] are an Iranian people who speak the modern Persian language[22] and closely akin Iranian dialects and languages.[23][24] Their origins are traced to the ancient Iranian peoples, themselves part of the Indo-Iranian branch of the greater Indo-European peoples.
The term Persian translates to "from Persis" which is a region north of the Persian Gulf located in Pars, Iran. It was from this region that Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Achaemenid empire, united all other Iranian empires (such as the Medes), and expanded the Persian cultural and social influences by incorporating the Babylonian empire, and the Lydian empire. Although not the first Iranian empire, the Achaemenid empire is the first Persian empire well recognized by Greek and Persian historians for its massive cultural, military and social influences going as far as Athens, Egypt, and Libya.[25]
Persians have generally been a pan-national group often comprising regional people who often refer to themselves as "Persians" and have also often used the term "Iranian" (in the ethnic-cultural sense). Some scholars, mechanically identifying the speakers of Persian as a distinct ethnic unit (the 'Persians'), exclude those Iranians who speak dialects of Persian. However, this approach can be misleading, as historically all ethnic groups in Iran, were always referred to, collectively, as Iranians (Irani).[26]
Terminology 1
- Ancient history and origin 1.1
- Islamic era 1.2
- Modern era 1.3
- Ethnicity 2
- Sub-groups 3
- History 4
- Language 5
- Religion 6
Culture 7
Pre-Islamic Persian culture 7.1
Achaemenids 7.1.1
- History 188.8.131.52
- Traditions 22.214.171.124
- Parthians and Sassanids 7.1.2
- Achaemenids 7.1.1
- Post-Islamic Persian culture 7.2
- Arts 7.3
- Architecture 7.4
- Cinema 7.5
- Gardens 7.6
- Music 7.7
- Carpets 7.8
- Statues 7.9
- Pre-Islamic Persian culture 7.1
- Women 8
- See also 9
- References 10
- External links 11
The term Persia was adopted by all western languages through the Greeks and was used as an official name for Iran by the West until 1935. Due to that label, all Iranians were considered Persian. People who embraced the Persian language and culture are also often referred as Persian (as a part of the Persian civilization culturally and/or linguistically).
Ancient history and origin
The origin of the ethnic Persian peoples are traced to the Ancient Iranian peoples, who were part of the ancient Indo-Iranians and themselves part of the greater Indo-European language family. The Ancient Iranian peoples emerged in parts of the Iranian plateau circa 1000 BCE.[28] Important Iranian tribes such as Old Persians, Medes, Parthians, Bactrians, Scythians, and the Avesta people used the name Arya (Iranian), which was a collective definition, denoting peoples who were aware of belonging to a generally common ethnic stock, speaking very closely related languages, and mainly sharing a religious tradition that centered on the worship of Ahura Mazda.[29]
The Old Persians, who were one of these ethnic Iranian groups, were originally nomadic, pastoral people in the western Iranian plateau and by 850 BCE were calling themselves the Parsa and their constantly shifting territory Parsua for the most part localized around Persis (Pars), bounded on the west by Tigris river and on the south by the Persian Gulf.[30] The first known written record of the term Persian is from Assyrian inscriptions of the 9th century BCE, which mention both Parsuash and Parsua .[31][32] The Iranian Persians and Medes were initially dominated by the Assyrian Empire for much of the first three centuries after arriving in the region. However, the Medes and Persians played a major role in the downfall of Assyria, after it had been riven by internal civil war.[33] These cognate words were taken from old Iranian Parsava and presumably meant border, borderland and were geographical designations for Iranian populations (who referred to themselves as Aryans as an ethnic designation or showing the nobility). Nonetheless, Parsua and Parsuash were two different geographical locations, the latter referring to southwestern Iran, known in Old Persian as Pârsa (Modern Fars). The Greeks (who tended earlier to use names related to "Median") began in the 5th century to use adjectives such as Perses, Persica or Persis for Cyrus the Great's empire,[34] which is where the word Persian in English comes from. In the later parts of the Bible, where this kingdom is frequently mentioned (Books of Esther, Daniel, Ezra and Nehemya), it is called "Paras" (Hebrew פרס), or sometimes "Paras ve Madai" (פרס ומדי) i.e. "Persia and Media". As the Old Persians gained power, they developed the infrastructure to support their growing influence, including creation of a capital named Pasargadae, and an opulent city named Persepolis.[35] Starting around 550 BCE, from the region of Persis in southern Iran, encompassing the present Fars province, the ancient Persians spread their language and culture to other parts of the Iranian plateau and assimilated and intermingled with local Iranian and 'indigenous non-Iranian' groups including the Elamites, Gutians and Manneans over time.[36] Persians also interacted with other ancient civilizations in Europe and Africa. The first Persian empire extended as far as the limits of the Greek city states, where Persians and Athenians influenced each other in what is essentially a reciprocal cultural exchange.[37]
At the same time, the Old Persians were part of the wider Ariya (Iranian nation);[29] Darius and Xerxes boast of belonging to a stock which they call "Iranian": they proclaim themselves "Iranian" and "of Iranian stock," ariya and ariya čiça respectively, in inscriptions in which the Iranian countries come first in a list that is arranged in a new hierarchical and ethno-geographical order.[29] Until the Parthian era, Iranian identity had an ethnic, linguistic, and religious value, however it did not yet have a political import.[29] The Parthian language, an important Iranian language, was spoken by the Parthians and is mutually intelligble with the Middle Persian language[38] became an official language of the Parthian empire. The Parthian language had an important influence in the modern Persian language[39] as well as other Iranian languages.[40][41] In the 1st century BCE, Strabo (c. 64 BCE–24 CE) would note a relationship between the various Iranian peoples and their languages: "[From] beyond the Indus [...] Ariana is extended so as to include some part of Persia, Media, and the north of Bactria and Sogdiana; for these nations speak nearly the same language." (Geography, 15.2.1–15.2.8[42]) He mentions the Cyrtians, the plausible ancestors of the modern Kurds as one of the Persian tribes. Cyrtians, the generally accepted progenitors of the Kurds and Lurs might already have been significantly scattered in the Zagros from Persis into Media.[43][44]
During Sassanian Iran, a national culture, fully aware of being "Iranian" took shape and was partially motivated by the restoration and the revival of the wisdom of the "sages of old," dānāgān pēšēnīgān.[29] Other aspects of this national culture included the glorification of a great heroic past and an archaizing spirit.[29] Throughout the period, the pre-Islamic Iranian identity reached its height in every aspect: political, religious, cultural and even linguistic.[29] In terms of linguistic, Middle Persian, which is the immediate ancestor of Modern Persian[39][45][46] and variety of other Iranian dialects, became the official language of the empire[47] and was greatly diffused amongst Iranians.[29] The intermingling of Persians, Medes, Parthians, Bactrians and indigenous people of Iran, including the Elamites gained more ground and a homogeneous Iranian identity was created to the extent that all were just called Iranians/Persians irrespective of clannish affiliations and regional linguistic or dialectical alterities. The Elamite language may have survived as late as the early Islamic period. Ibn al-Nadim among other medieval historians, for instance, wrote that "The Iranian languages are Fahlavi (Pahlavi), Dari, Khuzi, Persian and Suryani", and Ibn Moqaffa noted that Khuzi was the unofficial language of the royalty of Persia, "Khuz" being the corrupted name for Elam. However the Elamite identity might have vanished already. Furthermore, the process of incomers' assimilation which had been started with the Greeks, continued in the face of Arab, Mongol and Turkic invasions and proceeded right up to Islamic times.[36][48]
Islamic era
The term Persian continued to refer to various Iranian people including speakers of Chorasmian Language,[49] old Tabari language,[50] Old Azari language ,[51] Laki and Kurdish speakers.[52]
The Iraqi historian Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn Al-Masudi (896–956) also refers to various Persian dialects and the speakers of these various Persian dialects as Persian. While considering modern Persian (Dari) to be one of these dialects, he also mentions Pahlavi and Old Azari, as well as other Persian languages. Al-Masudi states:[53]
The Persians are a people whose borders are the Jorjan and Abarshahr, and that is Nishabur, and Herat and Marv and other places in land of Khorasan, and Sejistan and Kerman and Fars and Ahvaz... All these lands were once one kingdom with one sovereign and one language...although the language differed slightly. The language, however, is one, in that its letters are written the same way and used the same way in composition. There are, then, different languages such as Pahlavi, Dari, Azari, as well as other Persian languages.[54]
Modern era
|Major Ethnic Groups of Iran
The name "Persia" was the "official" name of Iran in the Western world before 1935, but Persian people inside their country since the Sassanid period (226–651 CE) have called it "Iran". Accordingly the term "Persian" was used in the Western world as the people inhabiting Iran; for instance, Ramsay MacDonald (1866–1937), the Prime-Minister of the United Kingdom, and the British ambassador in Iran, Percy Loraine, used Persian and Persian people to talk about the Iranian people and government.[55] On 21 March 1935, the ruler of the country, Reza Shah Pahlavi, issued a decree asking foreign delegates to use the term Iran in formal correspondence. From then on "Iranian" and "Persian" was applied interchangeably to the population of Iran. It is still historically being used to designate predominant population[56] of the Iranian people living in Iranian cultural continent.[57][58][59]
While a categorization of a "Persian" ethnic group persists in the West, Persians have generally been a pan-national group often comprising regional people who often refer to themselves as 'Persians' and have also often used the term "Iranian" (in the ethnic-cultural sense). As a pan-national group, defining Persians as an ethnic group, at least in terms used in the West, is not inclusive since the ethnonym "Persian" includes several Iranian people including the speakers of Modern Persian. Some scholars, classify the speakers of Persian language as a single ethnic unit (the 'Persians') and exclude those Iranians who speak dialects of Persian, or other Iranian dialects closely related to Persian;[26] however this approach to ethnicity in Iran is erroneous, since the designation Iranian (Irani) as an ethnic term has been used by all these ethnic group in Iran, including the "Persians" irrespective of their origin, language and religion.[26]
Turkey, Armenia, Oman, the Caucasus, Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan. Like the Persians of Iran (Western Persians), the Tajiks (Eastern Persians) are descendants of various Iranian peoples, including Persians from Iran, as well as numerous invaders.[61] Tajiks and Farsiwan have a particular affinity with Persians in neighboring Khorasan due to historical interaction some stemming from the Islamic period. Scholars also include Iranian language speakers such as Lurs,[23] Talysh, Gilak, Mazandaranis and speakers of Central Iranian languages in Iran under the term Persian.[62][63] Specifically, the Lurs speak an Archaic Persian language.[23] In addition, the Hazara and Aimaq of Afghanistan are Persian-speaking communities of mixed Mongol,[64] Turkic and Tajik origins.
Other smaller ethnic groups of Persians includes the Lari people of Larestan (who are mostly Sunni Muslims) and the Qizilbash of Afghanistan who are related to the Farsiwan and Azerbaijanis. In the Caucasus, the Tats are concentrated in Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Russian Dagestan and their origins are traced to Sassanid merchants who settled in the region. In the Indian subcontinent the Parsis are a distinct ethno-religious community that are descended from Persian (largely Khorasani) Zoroastrians. They are a Zoroastrian sect settled mainly in western India, centered around Gujarat and Mumbai. The Iranis, another small community in India, are descended from more recent Persian Zoroastrian immigrants.
The Persians are believed to be descendents of the Aryan (Indo-Europeans) tribes that began migrating from Central Asia into what is now Iran in the second millennium BCE[65][66][67] The Persian language and other Iranian tongues emerged as these Aryan tribes split up into two major groups, the Persians and the Medes, and intermarried with minority peoples indigenous to the Iranian plateau such as the Elamites.[68][69] The first mention of the Persians dates to the 9th century BCE, when they appear as the Parsu in Assyrian sources, as a people living at the southeastern shores of Lake Urmia.
The ancient Persians from the province of Pars became the rulers of a large empire under the Achaemenid dynasty (Hakhamaneshiyan) in the 6th century BCE, reuniting with the tribes and other provinces of the ancient Iranian plateau and forming the Persian Empire. Over the centuries Persia was ruled by various dynasties; some of them were ethnic Iranians including the Achaemenids, Parthians (Ashkanian), Sassanids (Sassanian), Buwayhids and Samanids, and some of them were not, such as the Seleucids, Ummayyads, Abbasids, and Seljuk Turks.
The founding dynasty of the empire, the Achaemenids, and later the Sassanids, were from the southwestern region of Iran, Pars. The latter Parthian dynasty arose from the north. However, according to archaeological evidence found in modern day Iran in the form of cuneiforms that go back to the Achaemenid era, it is evident that the native name of Parsa (Persia) had been applied to Iran from its birth.[70][71]
The Persian language is one of the world's oldest languages still in use today, and is known to have one of the most powerful literary traditions, with formidable Persian poets like Ferdowsi, Hafiz, Khayyam, Attar, Saadi, Nizami, Roudaki, Rumi and Sanai. By native speakers it eventually came to be known as Fārsī, which was the Arabic form of Parsi as there is no "P" sound in Arabic. Additionally, Persian was constitutionally renamed from Farsi to Dari in Afghanistan during the 1960s for political reasons. The dialect of Persian spoken in Tajikistan is called Tajiki.
"Persian" has historically referred to some Azerbaijan.
The Persian civilization spawned three major religions: Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, which heavily influenced Saint Augustine before he turned to Christianity, and the Bahá'í Faith. Another religion that arose from ancient Iran is Mazdakism, which has been dubbed the first communistic ideology. Both Mazdakism and Manichaeism were sub-branches of Zoroastrianism that is said to be the first monotheistic religion.
Sunni was the dominant form of Islam in most of Iran until rise of Safavid Empire. There were however some exceptions to this general domination of the Sunni creed which emerged in the form of the Zaydīs of Tabaristan, the Buwayhid, the rule of Sultan Muhammad Khudabandah (1304–1316 CE), the Hashashin and the Sarbedaran. Nevertheless, apart from this domination there existed, firstly, throughout these nine centuries, Shia inclinations among many Sunnis of this land and, secondly, all three surviving branches of Shi'a Islam, Twelver, Ismaili, as well as Zaidiyyah had prevalence in some parts of Iran. During this period, Shia in Iran were nourished from Kufa, Baghdad and later from Najaf and Hillah.[73] Shiism were dominant sect in Tabaristan, Qom, Kashan, Avaj and Sabzevar. In many other areas the population of Shia and Sunni was mixed. In recent centuries Ismailis have also largely been an Indo-Iranian community.[74]
Many scholars and scientists in Persia who lived before the Safavid era such as Ferdowsi, Jābir ibn Hayyān, Al-Farabi and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, were Shi'a Muslims, as was most of Iran's elite, while other renowned Sunni Muslim scientists, scholars and personaliries were Persian or had Persian descent, including Abu Dawood, Hakim al-Nishaburi, Al-Tabarani, Ghazali, Imam Bukhari, Tirmidhi, Al-Nasa'i and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, amongst many others. Abu Hanifa, the founder of the Sunni Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence is also widely accepted of Persian ancestry.
The first officially Shia empire, the Safavid dynasty in Iran, advocated the Twelver faith, made Twelver law the law of the land, and supported Twelver scholarship. For this, Twelver ulama "crafted a new theory of government" which held that while "not truly legitimate", the Safavid monarchy would be "blessed as the most desirable form of government during the period of waiting" for the twelfth imam.[74]
Today, most Persians are Twelver Shia succeeded by Hanafi Sunni Muslims. There is also a sizeable number of Shafi`i Sunni Muslims in southern Iran and amongst Kurds. Small Ismaili Shia minorities also exist in scattered pockets. Some communities practice Shi'a Sufism. There are also smaller communities of Zoroastrians, Christians, Jews, and Bahá'ís. Bahá'ís are the largest non-Muslim religious minority in Iran.[75] There exist Persians who are atheist and agnostic.
Culture by one definition is the collective programming of the human mind that distinguishes the members of one human group from those of another.[76] Persian culture therefore reflects the collective mindset of the Persian people throughout time, whether Persian is meant in an ethnic sense or a culturally inclusive pan-ethnic sense. From the early inhabitants of Persis, to the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sassanid Empires, to the neighbouring Greek city states,[77] to the Caliphate and the Islamic world,[78][79] all the way to the modern day Iran and such far places as those found in India,[80] Asia,[81] and Indonesia, Persian culture, has been either recognized, incorporated, adopted, or celebrated.[78][82] The unique aspect of Persian culture is its geo-political context and its intricate relationship with the ever changing Persian political arena once as dominant as the Achaemenids stretching from India in east to Libya in west, and now limited to Iran stretching from Afghanistan, and Pakistan in the east to Iraq and Turkey in the west. It is this ever-changing reach within the Iranian plateau that brought Persians face to face with Babylonians, Greeks, Egyptians, Scythians, Arabs, Turks, Mughals, Hindus, North Africans, and even the Chinese, allowing them to influence these populations with their cultural norms all the while being influenced by them in what can best be described as a "reciprocal cultural receptivity".[82]
Some reciprocal cultural exchange was achieved through commerce and foreign relations, some through victory or defeat through military conquests, and some as a function of geopolitical proximity with neighbouring states. Cyrus the Great, and his son Cambyses II would bring Persians face to face with the Elamites, Babylonians, Hittites, Lydians, Egyptians, and Libyans through conquest, and Greeks and Scythians through border contact whether in form of military conflicts, employment, or even political and military cooperation.[83] From a chronological perspective, and also weighing political and social forces accordingly, Persian culture can be divided into pre-Islamic era with major contact with the Western powers of the time, the Macedonians/Greeks, and the later Romans and the post-Islamic era, with major contact with emerging Eastern powers such as Arabs, Ottoman Turks, and Mughals and in recent years imperalist powers such as the Russians, and the British empire. The Achaemenids, Parthians, and Sassanids would represent the Persian cultural globe in the pre-Islamic era while an array of emerging Persian empires namely the Safavids, Samanids, Qajar, Pahlavi and countless others would represent the post-Islamic era.
Persian cultural contributions include artistic (Persian carpets, Persian artworks and crafts, miniature paintings, calligraphy), linguistic (Persian literature and poetry), Societal (Architectural influences, customs & clothing, Gardening, music, social norms and standards), culinary, political and ceremonial (Nowruz festivity, Chaharshanbe Suri festival) contributions.
Pre-Islamic Persian culture
The Persian culture and its influence during the Achaemenid Persian empire has been traditionally described by a "center-periphery" model.[82] Center-Periphery model is a model of cultural influence composed of a dominant center with greater power and economic resources and often some form of overt control and a subordinate periphery; in this cultural model, the periphery strives to incorporate prestige via adoption of cultural and value systems of the center, a process termed "emulation" while the center is an engine for generation of new cultural standards.[82] The cultural interaction between the Achaemenid center and the periphery was through a system of states, called the "satrapy." The influence of the Persian center was such that places such as Anatolia, Lydia, and the Lykian dynasty completely adopted the Persian culture acting as a full periphery to the central influence.[82] The Greeks also were influenced by the Persians, since originally they were a logical next step in the cultural expansion of the Achaemenids, and in fact such places as Cyprus, and Ionia were for a considerable time within the sphere of Persian cultural influences.[82] As Greeks gained power, Athens developed into a central power in its own right and developed its own cultural periphery and inevitably came to clash with the Persians. The contact was most prominent through the Ionian coast, where the periphery regions of both entities overlapped in what can be thought of as an "interaction zone" between Persian and Greek influences. The interaction between Greeks and Persians however is not entirely a center-periphery model with inevitable clashes, but is in fact a "reciprocal cultural interaction" in which Persians were influenced by the Greek culture and its architectural, philosophical elements, while the Greeks were influenced by the Persian culture and its sociopolitical, artistic, and ceremonial elements.[82]
Exchange between ancient Persians and their neighbours must have been diverse including such areas as sciences, art, philosophy, architecture, cuisine, governance, marriage, military technology, clothing, and symbols of elitism. For instance, the use of parasol fan or flywhisk-bearing was a marker of status in Persia, and this was adopted by the Greeks, mainly women, who depicted their aristocratic status by the use of fans, whereas use of statues as a symbol of power and wealth by the Greek men influenced the Persian monarchs' use of statue in their reliefes for depiction of wealth and power.[82]
One of the most well known cultural traditions dating back to the Achaemenid era is the tradition of Nowruz or the celebration of the new year by the Achaemenids.[84] Nowruz has Zoroastrian roots, but has since the time of Islam been mostly stripped of its Zoroastrian references.[84] Nowruz is recognized by UNESCO as an "Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity."[85]
Nowruz first appeared in Persian records in the 2nd century CE, but its origin traces back to the Achaemenid era where satraps (or governors) from different nations under the control of the Persian king would bring gifts to honor the king on the first day of the spring. The word Nowruz in New Persian is composed of "Now" which means new and "rouz" which means day to translate into "new day." Its Old Persian word "navarYznah" is composed of "nava" meaning new and "rYzanh" meaning day or daylight to also indicate a new day or a new light.
Parthians and Sassanids
Parthians and the Sassanids would also interact with the Romans culturally as well as come into contact with them through their cultural periphery. Persian culture would be best represented by the achievements of the Parthians and Sassanids both through their royal customs and their social hierarchy. Territorial disputes and battles between Sassanid Empire and the Roman and later Byzantine empires would shape the landspace of Middleast, North Africa, and the Mediterrania. Byzantine invasion of the Sassanids and subsequent defeat of Khusrau II is a defining moment for the Sasanids, as it destabilized the royal structure, leading to inability to mount an effective defence against the Arab invasion of Persia.
Post-Islamic Persian culture
The influence of the Persian people, and Persian culture in the post-Islamic world can hardly be exaggerated. From influences in India and Asia, to those in Arabia and Greece, Persian presence has left a lasting impression. Examples of Persian influence are far too many to mention here but are mostly cultural, linguistic, scientific, and social. For instance the presence of vast amount of Persian literature produced in India after Islam, led to the eventual creation and modernization of the language of Urdu.[88] Similarly, Persian influences, carried by the Islamic wave of conquest, went as far east as Indonesia, where Indonesians took on adopting Persian names and customs.[89] Scientific advances led by Persia are various but include some of the Islamic figures such as Avicenna, whose work on Medicine was utilized in Europe for hundreds of years.
Persian influence in Islam can be viewed from a pre and post-Islamic perspective. In the era prior to the invasion of Persia by the Arab army, the Sassanids played a key political role in Arabia and in fate of Islam; In 575 CE Sassanid Persians actually protected the Arabian city of Mecca from invasion by a neighbouring Christian Kingdom at the request of the southern tribes of Arabia from then Persian emperor Khosrau I. In response Khosrau came south to Arabia with both foot-soldiers and a fleet of ships preventing Christianity from spreading easterward into Arabia, and Mecca and protecting the Islamic prophet Muhammad who was at the time a six year boy in the Quraysh tribe.[90] There are a few scholars who consider that Zoroastrianism, "began the whole Western or Judaeo-Christian-Muslim concept of progressive time."[91] If this assumption is true, then role of Persian influence is that much more significant. Additionally, Persia became an important center for dissemination of Islam, as newly converted Persians, adopted Islam as their own and spread it to the periphery of the Persian empire.
Persia also had a great influence on the Mughals, as they utilized Persians as advisors. Mughals were also influenced by Persians in architecture, military, gardening, politics, and social cutoms. It is important to note that along with their great influence that Persians had on the Arabs, Turks, Mugals, and Indians, they were also influenced by them in return, however, the Persian influence stemming from the earlier achievements of the Sassanids, and the Achaemenids and the grand scale of their geo-political influence, made Persian influence during the Islamic era, a recognizable one.
The artistic heritage of Persia is eclectic and includes major contributions from both east and west. Persian art borrowed heavily from the indigenous Elamite civilization and Mesopotamia and later from Hellenism (as can be seen with statues from the Greek period). In addition, due to Persia's somewhat central location, it has served as a fusion point between eastern and western arts and architecture as Greco-Roman influence was often fused with ideas and techniques from India and China. When talking of the creative Persian arts one has to include a geographic area that actually extends into Central Asia, the Caucasus, Asia Minor, and Iraq as well as modern Iran. This vast geographic region has been pivotal in the development of the Persian arts as a whole. Persian art includes painting, calligraphy, miniature-painting, illustrated manuscripts, glasswork, lacquer work, a unique and native form of marquetry called "Khatam work," metal work, pottery, textile and fabric design, and modern arts.[92]
Architecture is one of the areas where Persians have made outstanding contributions. The most prominent ancient examples some of which are still extant today, are the work of the Achaemenids hailing from Persis. The quintessential feature of Persian Achaemenid architecture was its eclectic nature with elements of Median, Assyrian, and Asiatic Greek all incorporated.[93] Achaemenid architectural heritage, beginning with the expansion of the empire around 550 BCE, was a period of artistic growth that left an extraordinary architectural legacy ranging from Cyrus the Great's solemn tomb in Pasargadae to the splendid structures of the opulent city of Persepolis, and such historical sites as Naqsh-e Rustam.[30]
With the advent of the second Persian Empire, the Sassanid dynasty (224–624 CE), revived Achaemenid tradition by construction of temples dedicated to fire, and monumental palaces.[30] During the Sassanid Persian Era, multiple architectural projects took place some of which are still existing including Palace of Ardashir, and Sarvestan Palace in Sarvestan to name a few. Certain ancient architectural sites have existed to date and some have even been in use till recent times; one such example is the Arg-é Bam a massive structure at 1,940,000 square feet (180,000 m2) constructed on the Silk road, in Bam around 500 BCE and was in use till 1850 CE Bam is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[94]
Ancient examples can be seen throughout Persia and its territories, while in modern times monuments such as the Tomb of Omar Khayyam in Nishapur are displays of the varied traditions in Persia that have progressed through time. Various cities in Iran are historical displays of a distinctive Persian style that can be seen in the Kharaghan twin towers of Qazvin province, the Shah Mosque found in Isfahan, tomb of Baba Taher in Hamedan and countless other works. Persian architecture streams the vast area of the Persian empires and is also seen throughout Central Asia as with the Bibi Khanum Mosque in Samarkand as well as Samanids mausoleum in Bukhara and the Minaret of Jam in western Afghanistan. Islamic architecture was founded on the bases established by the Persians. Persian techniques can also be clearly seen in the structures of the Taj Mahal at Agra and the Blue Mosque in Istanbul.
Modern contemporary architectural projects by Persians include the mausoleum of Ferdowsi in Tus erected by Reza Shah, King Memorial Tower (Azadi Tower) erected in 1971 in Tehran by a Persian architect, projects such as the Dariush Grand Hotel, a hundred and twenty five million dollar hotel complex created in the Achaemenid architectural style, located on Kish Island, in the Persian Gulf, and Milad Tower, Iran's tallest telecommunication tower, and world's fourth tallest tower (as of 2008), standing 435 meters high, hosting a rotating restaurant, TV and radio stations as well as traffic control centers, to name a few.[92]
Persian Sassanid floor mosaic detail from the palace of Shapur I
Decorative wall details of Palace of Darius (flowers), Louvre, France
Decorative wall details of Palace of Darius (waves), Louvre, France
Ahmad Shah Qajar's Pavilion
Persian culture can be defined through its films, as Persian cinema has attained a substantial amount of international and critical acclaim through such films as Children of Heaven and Taste of Cherry, which give both insights into the current state of Persian culture and profound depictions of the general human condition.
"The Great King [Cyrus the Great]...in all the districts he resides in and visits, takes care that there are 'paradises' as they [Persians] call them, full of the good and beautiful things that the soil will produce"
_Xenophon, The Oeconomicus, 339 B.C.E.[95]
On the plains of Marvdasht, east of the Zagros mountains still exist today, remains of the earliest historically recorded gardens. These remains are associated with remnants of the structures that once surrounded them, including white columns that still remain to date. These gardens were created by the Achaemenids at the time of Cyrus the Great. For the early Persian monarchs, gardens assumed an important place in their cultural lives.[95]
Persian gardens utilized the Achaemenid knowledge of water technologies[96] as they utilized aqueducts, earliest historically recorded gravity-fed water rills, and basins arranged in a geometric system. The enclosure of this symmetrically arranged planting and irrigation, by an infrastructure such as a building or a palace created the impression of "paradise."[97] When the Spartan general Lysander reported back to Xenophon, he described how Persians have created Paradeisos (paradises) where they collected all manners of plants specially fruit trees, and exotic animals they encountered on their military campaigns. Xenophon would translate the Old Persian term Pairidaeza (a combination of pairi meaning "around" and daeza meaning "wall") into the Greek term Paradeisos.
Cyrus the Great's quadripartite garden plan, incorporated architectural elements, as well as planting, water rills, and shade-giving pavilions, producing the background to all later garden developments in Persia. These Persian gardens had a reach far greater than their immediate civilazation and were vital in the development of spiritual Muslim gardens, and the Indian gardens of the Mughal empire as they have been influential in the gardens of Renaissance Europe and the Western civilization.[95]
The quadripartite (New Persian term: Chahar bagh) design would be reinterpreted by the Muslim Arabs after their 7th century conquest of Persia, in creation of their gardens. Arab rulers cultivated Persian techniques to create gardens of Persian design including such examples as Al-Andalus, and Kashgar.[95] This quadripartite design was still the dominant design in the 14th century during the time of Timur, the Mughal emperor. In the 17th century, the Anglo-French jeweler Sir John Chardin, describes the Persian garden in his, "Voyages en Perse" where he stresses the quadripartite structure of the gardens. Chardin also stresses that unlike westerners, Persians do not walk much in the gardens as they often use it for a period of time, often seated, and then retire.[95]
Parthians and Sassanids would later add their own modifications to the original Achaemenid design. They would create specially recessed, platforms, often connected to the main building with an open porticoes overlooking the garden, while providing a cool, shaded area in which to sit or loiter. This structure came to be known as "ayvans" or "ivan" in Old Persian.[95] Persian gardens are also immortalized in the One Thousand and One Nights and the works of Omar Khayyam.
Today some of the best examples of the traditional Persian gardens can be seen in such places as the Borujerdis House, and the Tabataba'i House, as well as such gardens as "Bagh-e Mostoufi" near the village of Vanak, Tehran, "Bagh-e Shahzadeh" in Mahan, "Bagh-e Golshan" or "Karim Khan's beautiful garden" in Tabas, "Qavam House" or "Naranjestan-e Ghavam" in Shiraz, "Bagh-e Fin" outside of Kashan, Hafiz's tomb garden in Shiraz, and the Eram Garden or "Bagh-e Eram" in Fars.
Persian style garden (Qavam House) in Shiraz. Note the stereotypical quadripartite structure with the narrow axis ending in the pavilion.
This Isfahan carpet depics the quadripartite structure of a Persian garden. Note the central water feature, followed by accessory ducts (jubs) leading to it
A depiction of a Persian garden. Thought not a technical drawing note the presence of fruit trees around the narrow walkways, a common feature of early Persian gardens
A schematic diagram of a Persian garden. Note the quadripartite structure with focal water feature, connecting aqueducts, and surrounding trees, as well as the placement of the palace
The music of Persia goes back to the days of Barbad in the royal Sassanid courts, and even earlier. Sassanid music was influential and was later adopted by the Abbasids.[98] In traditional Sassanid music, the octave is divided into seventeen tones, while by the end of the 13th century some music from Persia also maintained a twelve interval octave, which resembled the western counterpart.[99] In terms of comparison between the basic style of the Persian music, employment of smaller intervals, and the transition from one key to another by progressions that are minute compared to their European counterparts, is what gives Persian music its unique quality. The different keys or modes that result from this small interval system are written in circles. Also in the music of Persia only spaces are taken into account, and they have a value and are called "Kah" or place; thus "Yek-Kah" signifies first space, "Dow-Kah" second space and so forth. Persian spaces are also assigned color assignments, with first space green, second rose-colored and following spaces having their own assigned coloring system.[99]
Unlike European music, Persian music has no notes. Their music is composed of modes or harmonious phrases, which take their name from persons or places and which serve as stereotypical models for the production of the imagination of the composers. These models are either fundamental to the number four, or derived eight in number or compounded, which vary to infinity. Each musical mode has its special use. For instance, the "Zenkeleh" mode is the most melodious, the "Ecchac" appropriate for war and love, "Rast" unique for when Shahnameh is sung, and the "Buzurg" and "Rahavi" modes for funerals.[99] Originally, there were no more than seven modes in the Persian music but Saadi, an intellectual poet and musician, extended it to twelve.[99]
Persian music utilizes a variety of musical instruments that are unique to the region, and the time period in which they are utilized often constantly being modified or reinvented. During Sassanid era, Chang, a musical instrument utilizing five strings under tension was used as a royal musical tool.[100]
Persian music has evolved since its ancient and medieval times and is now almost indistinguishable from the modern music of Europe and America, owing to a modernization of the musical process as well as an ever present globalization trend. This has led to such genre as Persian rap for instance. Persian music is also affected by restrictions locally on performance of certain genres which has led to its development at times overseas in Europe and America.
Qamar-ol-Moluk Vaziri, the first female singer of Iran to appear without hejab in 1924, after Reza Shah's reforms[1]
Viguen, known as the king of Persian pop and jazz
Googoosh, one of the most popular Persian pop singers
Faramarz Aslani, another popular Persian pop singer
Darya Dadvar, a famous Persian classical singer
Rana Farhan, a famous Persian jazz singer in Poletik comedy show
Persia was in many sense the first permanent home of carpet weaving, and while robbed of much of her political power, and only a shadow of her former self, still holds up to the ideals of textile art, well worth a comprehensive study.[102] World's oldest existing carpet, Pazyryk carpet, a pile-carpet dating back to 400–300 BCE discovered in 1949, depicts clear elements of Assyrian and Achaemenid design, including stylistic references to stone slab designs found in the palaces of the Persian empire. This has made many scholar consider it to be woven, and made in the Persian Achaemenid empire.[103]
Rug and carpet artistry is well recognized in Persia, as Xenophon describes carpet production in the city of Sardis, then a province of the Achaemenid empire, stating that the locals take pride in their carpet production. Special mention of Persian carpets are made by Athenaeus of Naucratis (around 200 CE) in his Deipnosophists when he describes a "delightfully embroidered Persian carpet, having some Persian figures, and preposterous shapes of Persian griffins, and such like beasts" incorporated in its design.[103]
When the Byzantine emperor Heraclius pillaged the palace of Khusrau II of the Sassanid Persia, he found various luxurious textiles including carpets that were embroidered with needles, most likely a pile carpet. A 7th century Sassanid stone carving at Taq-i-Bustan depics a fabric draped over the side of the boat, most likely a pile carpet. One of the most famous Sassanid era, Persian rugs was a carpet known as "Spring of Kusrau" depicting a pleasure garden, worked with gold, and silver, and emobroidered with jewels and colored stones. Unfortunately, this carpet did not survive the Arab invasion as the Arabs cut it up distributing it among themselves as spoils after they sacked the capital of Ctesiphon in 642 CE[103]
Islamic geographers record Mazandaran, one of the provinces of Persia as important carpet weaving center in third to the 9th century, while in fourth and 10th century Bukhara, as well as Khuzistan and Pars in southern Persia are also cited as notable production centers.[103]
Many foreigners and foreign scholars have described their accounts of Persian carpets. Ruy González de Clavijo a Castilian traveller, (around 1400 CE) described the wonderful textile work he observed in Samarqand, court of Timur remarking that everywhere was covered with carpetry and reed matting.[103]
Persian carpets also acted as vessels for art, design, and literature to be disseminated. One such example is the 16th century, "Ardabil Carpet" containing an inscription from the 14th century Persian poet, Hafiz:[103]
- I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold
- There is no place of protection for my head other than this porchway
- The work of the slave of the holy place Maqsud Kashani in the year 946 (1540 C.E.)
German architect and art enthusiast, Gottfried Semper called rugs "the original means of separating space". Rug weaving was thus developed by ancient civilizations as a basis of architecture. Persian rugs are said to be the most detailed hand-made works of art. Also known as the "status rugs", Persian rugs are very important in Persian culture. Interworking of fibers to produce cloth was known in Iran as early as the 5th millennium BCE[104]
When the famous Greek commander Themistocles was asking for asylum from Persia, the "Persian carpet" was mentioned in his speech:
He [Artaxerxes I of Persia] commanded him to speak freely what he would concerning the affairs of Greece. Themistocles replied, that a man's discourse was like to a rich Persian carpet, the beautiful figures and patterns of which can only be shown by spreading and extending it out; when it is contracted and folded up, they are obscured and lost; and, therefore, he desired time.—Plutarch (Plutarch's Lives, Chapter 49, Themistocles[105])
In general Persian carpets are classified based on their region of production including Feraghan (Kashan), Hamedan, Herat (Afghani), Herez (Azeri), Isfahan, Kerman & Kermanshah, Khorasan, Mashhad, Shiraz, Senna, Saraband (southwest of Arak), Saruk (Markazi), Sultanabad, and Tabriz.[102]
Persian carpet in the Louvre Museum
Antique Mashhad rug details
Persian carpet from Kerman
An Isfahan rug made by Mohammad Seirafian
Antique Kerman rug details
Carpet shops in the Bazaar of Tehran
Persians' artistic expression can be seen as far back as the Achaemenid period as numerous statues depicting various important figures, usually of political significance as well as religious, such as the Immortals (elite troops of the emperor) are indicative of the influence of Mesopotamia and ancient Babylon. What is perhaps most representative of a more indigenous artistic expression are Persian miniatures. Although the influence of Chinese art is apparent, local Persian artists used the art form in various ways including portraits that could be seen from the Ottoman Empire to the courts of the Safavids and Mughals.
From the Achaemenid days, Persian women have had great influence and presence. One such Persian figure was Cassandane, queen consort of Cyrus the Great and mother of Cambyses II, Atossa, and Bardiya. Cyrus the Great had a special dearly love for Cassandane. Cassandane also loved Cyrus to the point that upon her death bed she is noted as having found it more bitter to leave Cyrus, than to depart her life.[106] According to the chronicle of Nabonidus, when Cassandane died, all the nations of Cyrus's empire observed "a great mourning", and, particularly in Babylonia, there was probably even a public mourning lasting for six days (identified as 21–26 March 538 BC).[107]
Atossa was the daughter of Cyrus the Great and Cassandane, and the queen consort of Darius the Great; she would play a critical role in solidifying Darius's legitimacy to the throne after the overthrow of the magus impersonator of Bardiya. Achaemenids also allowed women high positions including military and royal positions, best exemplified by Artemisia I of Caria, a Halicarnassian who was an Achaemenid Navy admiral, serving Xerxes I of Persia.[108]
During the Sassanid era, women also practiced power although in a limited scale. One such example was the Sassanid queen Byzantine empire and then attempting to amend the civil disturbances of the empire. She would however be murdered soon in the chaos only after a year of rule. It is this chaos that led to election of Yazdegerd III and contributed to the subsequent Arab victories after their invasion of Persia.[109]
Scheherazade, though fictional, is an important figure of female wit and intelligence, while the beauty of Mumtaz Mahal inspired the building of the Taj Mahal itself and the poet Táhirih had a great influence on modern women's movements throughout the Middle East. Persian women have also achieved national and international recognition in such diverse areas as sciences, politics, and entertainment. Such individuals include Shirin Ebadi, the Persian lawyer and activist who won a Nobel Peace Prize in 2003 for her efforts in human rights,[110] as well as Iranian singer Googoosh, who was a well known national singer in the 1960s in Iran and abroad.
Although in ancient times, aristocratic females possessed numerous rights sometimes on par with men, Persian women did not attain greater parity until the 20th century. Universal suffrage was constitutionally approved for all women in January 26, 1963, under the Pahlavi regime.[111] Persian women can be seen working in a variety of areas such as politics, law enforcement, transportation industries, health industry, military, universities, and in the Iranian parliament.
See also
- ^ United States Central Intelligence Agency(CIA) (April 28, 2011). "The World Fact Book – Iran". CIA. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
- ^ Library of Congress, Library of Congress – Federal Research Division. "Ethnic Groups and Languages of Iran". http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf Retrieved 2009-12-02.
- ^ "Afghanistan". United States Central Intelligence Agency. July 2011. Retrieved 2011-07-23.
- ^ "Tajikistan". United States Central Intelligence Agency. December 13, 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-26.
- ^ "Uzbekistan". United States Central Intelligence Agency. December 13, 2007. Retrieved 2007-12-26.
- ^ Richard Foltz, "The Tajiks of Uzbekistan", Central Asian Survey, 15(2), 213–216 (1996).
- ^ "Persian in Turkey".
- ^ "Iraq – People Groups".
- ^ a b "The Persian Diaspora, List of Persians and Persian Speaking Peoples living outside of Iran, Worldwide Outreach to Persians, Outreach to Muslims around the Globe". Farsinet.com. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
- ^ "Iranian-American stats, Phyllis McIntosh". The Iranian. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
- ^ This figure only includes Tajiks from Afghanistan. The population of people from Afghanistan in the United States is estimated as 80,414 (2005), Of which 65% are estimated to be Tajiks. United States Census Bureau. "US demographic census". Retrieved 2008-01-23. Robson, Barbara and Lipson, Juliene (2002) "Chapter 5(B)- The People: The Tajiks and Other Dari-Speaking Groups" The Afghans – their history and culture Cultural Orientation Resource Center, Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C., OCLC 56081073.
- ^ "Why are people going to Iran?".
- ^ "United Arab Emirates: Demography". Encyclopædia Britannica World Data.
- ^ "Persian World Outreach – ''Persian-speaking people outside of Iran''". Persianwo.org. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
- ^ GTZ: Migration and development – Afghans in Germany: estimate for Tajiks based on total of 100,000 Afghans in Germany.
- ^ '2006 Canadian Census''"'". 2.statcan.ca. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
- ^ This figure only includes Tajiks from Afghanistan. The population of people with descent from Afghanistan in Canada is 48,090 according to Canada's 2006 Census. Tajiks make up an estimated 33% of the population of Afghanistan. The Tajik population in Canada is estimated from these two figures. Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada.
- ^ "Bahrain – People Groups".
- ^ "2002 Russian census". Perepis2002.ru. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
- ^ "Ethnologue report for language code:pes". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
- ^ Library of Congress, Library of Congress – Federal Research Division. "Ethnic Groups and Languages of Iran". Retrieved 2009-12-02.
- ^ R. N. Fyre, "IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN" in Encycloapedia Iranica, "The largest group of people in present-day Iran are Persians (*q.v.) who speak dialects of the language called Fārsi in Persian, since it was primarily the tongue of the people of Fārs."
- ^ a b c C.S. Coon, "Iran:Demography and Ethnography" in Encycloapedia of Islam, Volme IV, E.J. Brill, pp 10,8. Excerpt: "The Lurs speak an aberrant form of Archaic Persian" See maps also on page 10 for distribution of Persian languages and dialect
- ^ Kathryn M. Coughlin, "Muslim cultures today: a reference guide," Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pg 89: "...Iranians speak Persian or a Persian dialect such as Gilaki or Mazandarani"
- ^ Edward Farr (1850). History of the Persians. Robert Carter. pp. 124–7.
- ^ a b c Amanolahi, Sekandar (2005), "A Note on Ethnicity and Ethnic Groups in Iran", Iran and the Caucasus, vol. 9/1: 37–42. Quote:"Furthermore, some scholars, mechanically identifying the speakers of Persian as a distinct ethnic unit (the 'Persians'), exclude those Iranians who speak dialects of Persian, or other Iranian dialects closely related to Persian.3 On the other hand, the Persian-speaking non-Iranian ethnic groups (such as, for instance, Arabs) are numbered as Persians. However, it is obvious that this approach to ethnicity in Iran is misleading, as historically all ethnic groups in Iran, including the 'Persians', irrespective of their origin, language, or religion were always referred to, collectively, as Iranians (Irani)."
- ^ Don Stillo, "Isfahan-Provincial Dialetcs" in Encyclopedia Iranica, Excerpt: "While the modern SWI languages, for instance, Persian, Lori-Baḵtiāri and others, are derived directly from Old Persian through Middle Persian/Pahlavi"
- ^ a b Mallory 1989
- ^ a b c d e f g h GHERARDO GNOLI, "IRANIAN IDENTITY" in Encyclopaedia Iranica". Excerpt 1: " All this evidence shows that the name arya Iranian was a collective definition, denoting peoples (Geiger, pp. 167 f.; Schmitt, 1978, p. 31) who were aware of belonging to the one ethnic stock, speaking a common language, and having a religious tradition that centered on the cult of Ahura Mazdā.". Excerpt 2: "The inscriptions of Darius I (see DARIUS iii) and Xerxes, in which the different provinces of the empire are listed, make it clear that, between the end of the 6th century and the middle of the 5th century B.C.E., the Persians were already aware of belonging to the ariya "Iranian" nation (see ARYA and ARYANS). Darius and Xerxes boast of belonging to a stock which they call "Iranian": they proclaim themselves "Iranian" and "of Iranian stock," ariya and ariya čiça respectively, in inscriptions in which the Iranian countries come first in a list that is arranged in a new hierarchical and ethno-geographical order, compared for instance with the list of countries in Darius's inscription at Behistun" Excerpt 3: "Although, up until the end of the Parthian period, Iranian identity had an ethnic, linguistic, and religious value, it did not yet have a political import. The idea of an "Iranian" empire or kingdom is a purely Sasanian one". Excerpt 4:"It was in the Sasanian period, then, that the pre-Islamic Iranian identity reached the height of its fulfilment in every aspect: political, religious, cultural, and linguistic (with the growing diffusion of Middle Persian). Its main ingredients were the appeal to a heroic past that was identified or confused with little-known Achaemenid origins (Yarshater, 1971; Daryaee, 1995), and the religious tradition, for which the Avesta was the chief source.". Also accessed online at: [1] in May, 2011
- ^ a b c David Sacks, Oswyn Murray, Lisa R. Brody (2005). Encyclopedia of the ancient Greek world. Infobase Publishing. pp. 256 (at the right portion of the page).
- ^ Abdolhossein Zarinkoob "Ruzgaran : tarikh-e Iran az aghaz ta soqut-e saltnat-e Pahlevi" pp. 37
- ^ Bahman Firuzmandi "Mad, Hakhamaneshi, Ashkani, Sasani" pp. 155
- ^ F Leo Oppenheim – Ancient Mesopotamia
- ^ Liddell and Scott, Lexicon of the Greek Language, Oxford, 1882, p 1205
- ^ Charles Gates (2003). Ancient cities: the archaeology of urban life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome. Psychology Press. p. 186.
- ^ a b Lands of Iran Encyclopedia Iranica (July 25, 2005) (retrieved 3 March 2008)
- ^ Margaret Christina Miller (2004). Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge University Press. p. 243.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica: ""Middle Persian [Sassanian Pahlava] and Parthian were doubtlessly similar enough to be mutually intelligible." (Enc.Brit.vol.22,2003, p.627) [2]
- ^ a b Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Peter Trudgill, "Sociolinguistics Hsk 3/3 Series Volume 3 of Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society", Walter de Gruyter, 2006. 2nd edition. pg 1912. Excerpt: "Middle Persian, also called Pahlavi is a direct continuation of old Persian, and was used as the written official language of the country." "However, after the Moslem conquest and the collapse of the Sassanids, Arabic became the dominant language of the country and Pahlavi lost its importance, and was gradually replaced by Dari, a variety of Middle Persian, with considerable loan elements from Arabic and Parthian."
- ^ Windfuhr, G. (1989), "New West Iranian," R. Schmitt (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, Wiesbaden: 251-62.
- ^ • Asatrian, G. (1995), "Dimli", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition.
- ^ Hamilton, H. C. & W. Falconer (1903). The Geography of Strabo. Literally translated, with notes 3. London: George Bell & Sons. p. 125. 15.2)Geography(
- ^ BRUNNER, C. J. (May 2006). "IRAN, v(2). Pre-Islamic Period". Center for Iranian Studies, Encyclopædia Iranica. New York: Columbia University. Retrieved 2009-05-09.
- ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger. "CYRTIANS". Center for Iranian Studies, Encyclopædia Iranica. New York: Columbia University. Retrieved 2009-05-09.
- ^ Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). Encyclopedia Iranica,"Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts, "new Persian, is "the descendant of Middle Persian" and has been "official language of Iranian states for centuries", whereas for other non-Persian Iranian languages "close genetic relationships are difficult to establish" between their different (Middle and Modern) stages. Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a direct descendant; Bactrian may be closely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); and Wakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese."
- ^ Gilbert Lazard: The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Farsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran. In Lazard, Gilbert 1975, "The Rise of the New Persian Language" in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Benjamin W. Fortson, "Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction", John Wiley and Sons, 2009. pg 242: " Middle Persian was the official language of the Sassanian dynasty"
- ^ "History of Iran". Iranologie.com. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
- ^ For example, Abu Rayhan Biruni, a native speaker of the Eastern Iranian language Khwarezmian mentions in his Āthār al-bāqiyah ʻan al-qurūn al-xāliyah that: "the people of Khwarizm, they are a branch of the Persian tree." See: Abu Rahyan Biruni, "Athar al-Baqqiya 'an al-Qurun al-Xaliyyah" ("Vestiges of the past: chronology of ancient nations"), Tehran, Miras-e-Maktub, 2001. Original Arabic of the quote: "و أما أهل خوارزم، و إن کانوا غصنا ً من دوحة الفُرس"(pg 56)
^ The language used in the ancient Marzbānnāma was, in the words of the 13th-century historian Sa'ad ad-Din Warawini, " the language of Ṭabaristan and old, original Persian (fārsī-yi ḳadīm-i bāstān)"See: Kramers, J.H. "Marzban-nāma." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman , Th. Bianquis , C.E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007. Brill Online. 18 November 2007
^ The language of Tabriz, being an Iranian language during the time of Qatran Tabrizi, was not the standard Khurasani Parsi-ye Dari. Qatran Tabrizi(11th century) has an interesting couplet mentioning this fact: Mohammad-Amin Riahi. "Molehaazi darbaareyeh Zabaan-I Kohan Azerbaijan"(Some comments on the ancient language of Azerbaijan), 'Itilia'at Siyasi Magazine, volume 181–182. Also available at: [3]
بلبل به سان مطرب بیدل فراز گل
گه پارسی نوازد، گاهی زند دری
The nightingale is on top of the flower like a minstrel who has lost her heart It bemoans sometimes in Parsi (Persian) and sometimes in Dari (Khurasani Persian)
^ Lady (Mary) Shiel in her observation of Persia during the Qajar describes the Persian tribes and Koords/Laks identified themselves and were identified commonly as Old Persians. See: Shiel, Lady (Mary). Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia. London: John Murray, 1856. See:[4], excerpt:
The PERSIAN TRIBES. The tribes are divided into three races-Toorks, Leks, first are the invaders from Toorkistan, who, from time 'immemorial, have established themselves in Persia, and who still preserve their language. The Leks form the clans of genuine Persian blood, such as the Loors, BekhtiaTees, &c. To them might be added the Koords, as members of the Persian family; but their numbers in the dominions of the Shah are comparatively few, the greater part of that widely-spread people being attached to Turkey. Collectively the Koords are so numerous that they might be regarded as a nation divided into distinct tribes. Who are the Leks, and who are the Koords? This in- quiry I cannot solve. I never met any one in Persia, either eel or moolla, who could give the least elucidation of this question. All they could say was, that both these races were Foors e kadeem,-old Persians. They both speak dialects the greater part of which is Persian, bearing a strong resemblance to the colloquial language of the present day, divested of its large Arabic mixture. These dialects are not perfectly alike, though it is said that Leks and Koords are able to comprehend each other. One would be disposed to consider them as belonging to the same stock,. did they not both disavow the connection. A Lek will- admit that a Koord, like himself, is an 11 old Persian," but he denies that the families are identical, and a Koord views the question in the same light.
- ^ (Al Mas'udi, Kitab al-Tanbih wa-l-Ishraf, De Goeje, M.J. (ed.), Leiden, Brill, 1894, pp. 77–8). Original Arabic from www.alwaraq.net: فالفرس أمة حد بلادها الجبال من الماهات وغيرها وآذربيجان إلى ما يلي بلاد أرمينية وأران والبيلقان إلى دربند وهو الباب والأبواب والري وطبرستن والمسقط والشابران وجرجان وابرشهر، وهي نيسابور، وهراة ومرو وغير ذلك من بلاد خراسان وسجستان وكرمان وفارس والأهواز، وما اتصل بذلك من أرض الأعاجم في هذا الوقت وكل هذه البلاد كانت مملكة واحدة ملكها ملك واحد ولسانها واحد، إلا أنهم كانوا يتباينون في شيء يسير من اللغات وذلك أن اللغة إنما تكون واحدة بأن تكون حروفها التي تكتب واحدة وتأليف حروفها تأليف واحد، وإن اختلفت بعد ذلك في سائر الأشياء الأخر كالفهلوية والدرية والآذرية وغيرها من لغات الفرس.
- ^ Al Mas'udi (1894). De Goeje, M.J., ed. Kitab al-Tanbih wa-l-Ishraf (in Arabic). Brill. pp. 77–78.
- ^ Ghani, Cyrus. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power, 2001, p. 310, I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-629-8
- ^ "Persian". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved Feb 6, 2011.
- ^ "Persian entry in the Merriam-Webster online dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. 2010-08-13. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
- ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition (2000). [5]
- ^ Bausani, Alessandro. The Persians, from the earliest days to the twentieth century. 1971, Elek. ISBN 978-0-236-17760-8
- ^ "SociolinguistEssex X – 2005".
- ^ Mayhew, Bradley (August 2007). Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan. Lonely Planet. p. 60. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ "Both Mazanderanis and Gilakis are of Persian origin and the differences between them and the Farsis are due to their isolation, behind the Elburz, and to climatic rather than racial conditions."
- ^ "Although physically isolated from the Persian heartland by the high ranges of the Alborz Mountains, the Gilakis and the Mazanderanis are closely integrated into the overall Iranian mosaic."
- ^ [url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1181978 Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor]
- ^ "Iran :: Ethnic groups – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". .britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
- ^ The Medes and the Persians, c.1500-559 from The Encyclopedia of World History Sixth Edition, Peter N. Stearns (general editor), © 2001 The Houghton Mifflin Company, at Bartleby.com.
- ^ Bahman Firuzmandi "Mad, Hakhamanishi, Ashkani, Sasani" pp. 20
- ^ Iran. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05
- ^ Bahman Firuzmandi "Mad, Hakhamanishi, Ashkani, Sasani" pp. 12–19
- ^ Persia – Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
- ^ The Splendor of Persia: The Land and the People – by Robert Payne
- ^ Afghan poll's ethnic battlegroundBBC News –
- ^ Four Centuries of Influence of Iraqi Shiism on Pre-Safavid Iran
- ^ a b Nasr, Vali, The Shia Revival, Norton, (2006), p.74-76
- ^ Federation Internationale des Ligues des Droits de L'Homme (August 2003). "Discrimination against religious minorities in IRAN" (PDF). fidh.org. Archived from the original on 2006-06-14. Retrieved 2006-10-04.
- ^ Thomas Wagner (2009). Foreign Market Entry and Culture. GRIN Verlag. p. 2.
- ^ George Grote (1899). Greece: I. Legendary Greece: II. Grecian history to the reign of Peisistratus at Athens, Volume 12. P. F. Collier. p. 106.
- ^ a b Ira Marvin Lapidus (2002). A history of Islamic societies. Cambridge University Press. p. 127.
- ^ Richard G. Hovannisian (1998). The Persian presence in the Islamic world. Cambridge University Press. pp. 80–83.
- ^ Krishna Chandra Sagar (1992). Foreign influence on ancient India. Northern Book Centre. p. 17.
- ^ Bertold Spuler, M. Ismail Marcinkowski (2003). Persian historiography and geography: Bertold Spuler on major works produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India, and early Ottoman Turkey. Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd. pp. multiple pages & Back cover.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Margaret Christina Miller (2004). Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 243–251.
- ^ Emmet John Sweeney (2008). The Ramessides, Medes, and Persians. Algora Publishing. p. 120.
- ^ a b Lindsay Jones (2005). Encyclopedia of religion, Volume 10. Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 6731–2.
- ^ UNCESCO (2009). "Intangible Heritage List". Retrieved March 9, 2011.
- ^ Beate Dignas, Engelbert Winter (2007). Rome and Persia in late antiquity: neighbours and rivals. Cambridge University Press. p. 232.
- ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1987). Islamic art and spirituality. SUNY Press. p. 64.
- ^ Mohammad Shujaat (2004). Islam and Indian culture. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.
- ^ Ahmad Ibrahim, Sharon Siddique, Yasmin Hussain (1985). Readings on Islam in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
- ^ S. Wise Bauer (2010). The history of the medieval world: from the conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 243.
- ^ Nikki R. Keddie (2002). Iran and the surrounding world: interactions in culture and cultural politics. University of Washington Press. p. 6.
- ^ a b Andrew Burke, Mark Elliot (2008). Iran. Lonely Planet. pp. 295 & 114–5 (for architecture) and pp. 68–72 (for arts).
- ^ Charles Henry Caffin (1917). How to study architecture. Dodd, Mead and Company. p. 80.
- ^ Rafie Hamidpour PhD D E Dabfe, Rafie Hamidpour (2010). Land of Lion, Land of Sun. AuthorHouse. p. 54.
- ^ a b c d e f g Penelope Hobhouse, Erica Hunningher, Jerry Harpur (2004). Gardens of Persia. Kales Press. pp. 7–13.
- ^ L. Mays (2010). Ancient Water Technologies. Springer. pp. 95–100.
- ^ Mehdi Khansari, M. Reza Moghtader, Minouch Yavari (2004). Persian Garden: Echoes Of Paradise. Mage Publishers.
- ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1987). Islamic art and spirituality. SUNY Press. pp. 3–4.
- ^ a b c d Janet M. Green, Josephine Thrall (1908). The American history and encyclopedia of music. I. Squire. pp. 55–58.
- ^ Sibyl Marcuse (1975). A survey of musical instruments. Harper & Row. pp. 398–401.
- ^ Erik Nakjavani (December 15, 2008). "QAMAR-AL-MOLUK VAZIRI". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
- ^ a b Mary Beach Langton (1904). How to know oriental rugs, a handbook. D. Appleton and Company. pp. 57–59.
- ^ a b c d e f Ronald W. Ferrier (1989). The Arts of Persia. Yale University Press. pp. 118–120.
- ^ Rubinson, Karen S. "carpets :vi.pre-Islamic carpets (pages 858 – 861)". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 2008-05-11.
- ^ Themistocles. Plutarch. 1909–14. Plutarch's Lives. The Harvard Classics
- ^ Benjamin G. Kohl, Ronald G. Witt, Elizabeth B. Welles (1978). The Earthly republic: Italian humanists on government and society. Manchester University Press ND. p. 198.
- ^ Dandamaev, M. A. (1992). "Cassandane". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. 5. Encyclopedia Iranica Foundation.
- ^ Joyce E. Salisbury (2001). Women in the ancient world. ABC-CLIO. pp. 20–21.
- ^ William Ainger Wigram (1910). An introduction to the history of the Assyrian Church or the church of the Sassanid Persian Empire, 100–640 A.D.. Society for promoting Christian knowledge. pp. 307–309.
- ^ Kylie Baxter, Rebecca Barlow. Islam and the Question of Reform: Critical Voices from Muslim Communities. Academic Monographs. pp. 30–1.
- ^ Hamideh Sedghi (2007). Women and politics in Iran: veiling, unveiling, and reveiling. Cambridge University Press. p. 155.
External links
- Western PersianEthnologue's entry for
- Persian People, Lifestyle, History and Religion
- Iranian/Persian Inventions and contribution to human civilization
- WorldHeritage protected pages without expiry
- WorldHeritage pages with incorrect protection templates
- Articles containing Persian-language text
- "Related ethnic groups" needing confirmation
- All articles with unsourced statements
- Articles with unsourced statements from December 2011
- Articles with unsourced statements from March 2013
- Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012
- Articles with unsourced statements from July 2014
- All articles with dead external links
- Articles with dead external links from September 2010
- CS1 Arabic-language sources (ar)
- Ancient peoples
- Persian people
- Iranian peoples
- Ethnic groups in Asia
- Ethnic groups in Iran
- Ethnic groups in Azerbaijan
- Ethnic groups in Afghanistan
- Ethnic groups in Tajikistan
- Ethnic groups in Uzbekistan
- Ethnic groups in Iraq
- Ethnic groups in the Middle East


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I saw a woman today who rode no fewer than three toddlers to the intersection of 4th and Thomas using a combination of a bike child seat and a trailer. Good for her. It was entirely ambiguous why they had stopped there since there wasn't much for the kids to do other than play in the dirt and watch some other older kids wait for a bus to summer school. I wanted to take a picture, but, in general, I don't think parents like strangers taking photos of their children so it can be put on the internet. Even more so, if the pics are going up on a bike blog.
That's why I got this guy's photo, all secret-like:
I'll forgive the first four drivers for making a turn after the light changes, but the fifth one is history's greatest monster. Have you no decency?
Got stuck behind a guy (one of those guys who rides to work in mesh basketball shorts) who was having a rather difficult time figuring out how to handle the bus driving in front of us. Spoiler alert: bus stops tend to be on the right side of the street. That means that when the bus stops, it'll be moving to the right and you'll be able to ride around the bus on the left. Or, you could wait behind the stopped bus and it goes again. These are pretty much the only two good options. There's no mystery here. It's pretty easy to anticipate it.
Those fake lofts sure are going up fast. But the renderings are horrible! I assume that one of the primary advantages (and the reason it costs to such) of buying one of these condos is the proximity to the relatively dense and sorta urban R-B corridor and the pictures do nothing but show grassy fields and plenty of cars. If you wanted grassy fields, you should have left it as it was:
View Larger Map
It's been almost 11 years since I first set foot on the Hilltop (most pretentious way ever of referring to this place) and it's amazing to me that the "uniform" of a blue oxford and khakis hasn't changed at all. It's like a Potemkin Village run by J Crew where time is frozen like catalog copy. There must be some sort of training camp is central Jersey where the recruits are gathered, trained and issued their uniforms prior to being deployed. And instead of "jump wings," you get a whale belt. Ridiculous.
Rode past a guy and his kid riding a Bike Friday tandem, with the kid at stoker. Kid didn't look happy. They had a rear rack and two, mostly filled Ortlieb panniers. I don't know where they were headed, but I told the guy that I liked his "set-up" (whatever the hell that means) and he said "Yeah" (whatever the hell that means). I didn't say that the kid wasn't pedaling both because he was and because it's not clever and makes you out to be a jerk.
Use turn signals and make a bicyclist's day. Drivers want us to ride on the right, until of course, they want to make a right turn at which point we're in their way. This is why I approach stop lights where turning right is quite common by taking the lane. However, if I continued to ride along on the ride sight, it would really be helpful if you signaled your intention to turn so that I could know either to hurry up or slow down.

subset: commoncrawl


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The BBC has an interesting article on the largest unseen diamond:
The Wittelsbach-Graff Diamond was last seen in public at the 1958 World Exhibition in Brussels. After that, it disappeared and its whereabouts remained a mystery until Laurence Graff, a billionaire diamond dealer, bought it at auction in 2008, appending his surname.
He and his son Francois were in the gallery of the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History in Washington DC as the blue stone, was brought up from a secret vault and finally revealed.
Some great pictures in the article too:


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used portable buildings
Prior to delivery of the used portable buildings for sale will be subjected to a thorough cleaning regimen and will be tested to the highest standards by fully qualified and professional staff. Ensure top levels of chump adeptness during the able activity from alpha to finish. Portable architectonics sales will be delivered by Hiab wagon, accepting it to be tailored and acclimatized to the customer's needs and purposes.


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Shripad Chandrachood, MathWorks
As a part of ensuring power system reliability through accurate system simulation, math models of generating stations are periodically re-validated through comparison with field test data. This is a non-trivial task, and the time and cost associated with manually performing such verification can be significant.
In this webinar, MathWorks engineers will demonstrate how MATLAB and Simulink can be used to automate the process of parameter estimation and model validation thereby significantly reducing the resource required to perform these tasks. The powerful optimization algorithms built in the tool provide a fast and reliable method to assist in the verification and validation process. The demonstration will cover the complete process of identifying generator and exciter model parameters using representative data obtained through load rejection and voltage step tests on the units.
Who should attend:
This webinar is for engineers across various power generation facilities whose focus is on dynamic model validation of power plant equipment such as generators, exciters, AVRs, and/or governors. Familiarity with MATLAB and/or Simulink is not required.
Presenter: Shripad Chandrachood, MathWorks Applications Engineer
Recorded: 14 May 2012


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Pet-Friendly Apartments for Rent in Bryan City, OH - 4 Rentals available
$569 - $775
- 2-3 Beds
- 1 Bath
Popular Searches
Nearby Cities
Popular Zip Codes
Bryan City, OH Demographics
- Total Population8,285
Female 3,714Male 4,571
- Median Age39.8
Bryan City, OH Households
- Total Number of Households3,851
Family 1,957Non-family 1,894
Children 987No Children 2,864
- Average People Per Household2.12
- Median Household Income$35,639
- Median Housing Costs Per Month$684
Bryan City, OH Education Statistics
- No High School1%
- Some High School45%
- Some College31%
- Associate Degree10%
- Bachelor Degree9%
- Graduate Degree5%
Renting a pet-friendly apartment in Bryan City, OH
Moving can be a huge pain, even before you start packing all the stuff you ever accumulated and labeling boxes and all that fun stuff. The big search for your next apartment commences before all that. Now, browsing through rental properties can be tiring, but if you're trying to rent with pets it takes it to a whole other level. The new apartment doesn't have to satisfy only your needs, but those of your beloved pet too. Add to the equation that not every landlord shares the same affinity for animals as you do, and you might end up thinking that you're really out of luck. No need to worry, there are 1 rental communities in Bryan City, OH that offer pet-friendly units. There is something for every pocket, with listings are starting from $569 per month. If you're looking to rent a more upscale apartment and budget is a non-issue, there are amazing properties suitable for pets for up to $775 per month.
Finding pet-friendly apartments in Bryan City, OH that allow certain dog breeds
Finding apartments that accept pets, or even just pet-friendly rooms, can get complicated when it comes to certain breeds. Browsing through our 2 apartments and finding housing for you and your bird will probably be easier than finding no breed restriction apartments for you and your not so little four-legged friend. If you have a service dog, leaving him behind it is absolutely out of question, as he or she is not just a trusty companion but a real necessity. If you just got a pit bull puppy and are wondering how to rent with a pit bull, we can help. pit bull friendly rentals are not all that common. So, we cannot promise that there will be plenty of apartments that allow pit bulls, yet large breed dog friendly apartments will not pose so much of a challenge for you and your cuddly companion. To make your search easier, filter your results by going to the top menu, under "More" you may select a pet policy. Every property will have extra details about pet restrictions and fees in their own description. Extra tip: the average size of an apartment in Bryan City, OH is 926 Sqft, but consider renting something bigger if you have a large dog or more than one pet.


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$3.59 - $16.99
- Developed by the Boeing company for lubrication and protection of aircraft components - Dries to a thin waxy film that clings to metal for months - Law prohibits ORM-D materials from shipping by air
Ritchey's Liquid Torque creates extra friction between 2 surfaces, reducing tightening torque required to avoid slippage. - Creates extra friction between two surfaces, allowing tightening torque to be reduced by up to 30% - Particularly useful when over-clamping can damage sensitive components such as carbon bars or steerer tubes - Approved for use with carbon, steel, alloy and titanium surfaces - Use with Ritchey Torqkey to ensure safe installation of Ritchey bars and stems
Titanium is a super-light, exceptionally strong material that's great for bicycle frames and components, yet it requires a little special care for the best results. To stop cold-welding, galling or seizing of titanium components and fasteners, Finish Line offers Anti-Seize Assembly Lubricant. It's a premium blend of synthetic oils, graphite, bronze, copper and aluminum complex and works great as a conventional anti-seize for aluminum, stainless steel, and other specialty metals, too. - Works on all metals, but highly recommended when attaching reactive metals like titanium, aluminum, stainless steel and specialty alloys and magnesium - Prevents cold-welding, galling, and seizing of metal to metal contact parts, especially those subject to high torque and moist conditions such as bolt threads, seat posts, pedals and bottom brackets - 3-Pack of 6.5cc Sachets
Recommended by RockShox for shock rebuilds. • Rear shock seals lubricant • 2g tube
$5.00 - $24.00
Keep your Reverb dropper post performing at its best with RockShox's Reverb Hydraulic Fluid. It's optimized for the remotes of the Reverb as well as the Monarch XX rear shock.
$5.00 - $37.00
RockShox's Suspension Oil comes in different weights to match the most popular suspension fork and shock setups.
Tri-Flow Superior Soy Lube - advanced performance combining science and nature. This lube is a superior, light viscosity lube that allows for deep penetration into hard to reach moving parts. - Rapidly biodegradable formula, more than 90% will biodegrade in less than 28 days! - Formulated with natural soy oil and P.T.F.E. Specially formulated with the most advanced performing elements combined with natural soy for the environmentally conscious consumer. A blend of the finest quality renewable resource available treated with the most effective anti-oxidants, extreme pressure, anti-wear, PTFE and corrosion protection additives. High grade oils provide optimum lubrication under extreme temperatures (12 to 475F) and humidity. The formula and packaging were designed and manufactured taking steps to reduce environmental impact. The hand charged aerosol spray uses no chemical propellant!
$5.49 - $9.99
- Highly versatile dry weather chain lubricant - Deep penetrating, durable P.T.F.E. chain lubricant - Hold up to extreme conditions which can destroy ordinary lubes - Comfort bottle with pipette system for ease of use and application
$5.49 - $9.99
- Ultra durable, long distance chain lubricant - Excel in long distance wet or muddy conditions - It penetrates deep into the chain links core to provide long lasting lubrication and total protection - Extreme pressure additives coat every part of the link to provide silky smooth gear change and ultra efficient drivetrain
- Makes braking and shifting super smooth by reducing the drag in cable housings - Law prohibits ORM-D materials from shipping by air
Finish Line's Ceramic Wet Lubricant provides outstanding protection for your drivetrain in even the nastiest conditions. Its ceramic bonding technology allows you to greatly extend your re-lubing intervals so you can spend more time riding and less time on routine maintenance. In fact, every time you apply the lube, it builds on the ceramic coating and the result is a chain so slippery even dirt has a hard time sticking! Think efficient. Think quiet. Think Finish Line!
$5.99 - $32.99
Finish Line's Dry Lubricant with Teflon keeps your bike running silky-smooth rain or shine. It's very thin yet extremely durable thanks to its synthetic oils and Teflon particles. Great for your chain, cables, cleats and springs, its dry surface texture minimizes the accumulation of dirt and grit. Plus, it's biodegradable. - Great for dry, dirty and dusty environments. Attracts less grime and runs clean - Holds up well in moderately wet conditions - Can be used on derailleurs, shifters, cables and brake pivot points - Finish Line's most popular and versatile lubricant
The great thing about wax-type lubes is that the shedding action of wax keeps parts cleaner during most riding conditions. Finish Line's Wax Lubricant is a unique formulation that features DuPont's Krytox, a highly advanced, thermally stable lubricant. Its specialized paraffin waxes set up dry and hard to repel grit and grime so your drivetrain runs silky-smooth and stays clean.
$5.99 - $32.99
For extreme conditions, you need an extreme lube. That's when you grab Finish Line's Wet Lubricant. It's ultra water-resistant and long-lasting thanks to its special formulation of synthetic oils, special polymers and anti-wear additives. This lube delivers superb drivetrain lubrication and protection and it's the ultimate choice for muddy off-road rides, all-day epics and long, rainy commutes. - Formulated with high viscosity synthetic oils, water repelling polymers, and advanced anti-wear additives - Will require more attention to drivetrain cleanliness, but delivers the ultimate in lubricity and protection - Upon application, wipe excess off chain to minimize attraction of dirt and grime
- Long lasting teflon paraffin wax and oil penetrant set up dry - Law prohibits orm-D materials from shipping by air
$5.99 - $127.10
- Light viscosity oil for deep penetration with teflon for durability - Law prohibits orm-D materials from shipping by air
A proprietary ceramic formulation containing integral Boron Nitride compounds for low friction in dry and dusty conditions. Formulated with our unique eBike specific lubricity pack to handle the higher-torque loads of an eBike drivetrain. Ideal for chains, cables, shifters, derailleurs & pedals. - Creates a dry ceramic coating for increased durability and dry condition performance - Contains Boron Nitride compounds - Ceramic compounds provide ultra-low friction for unparalleled lubrication - Non-dust attracting - excels in dry and dusty conditions - Utilizes biodegradable organic compounds - Ideal for road and off-road
A proprietary ceramic formulation containing integral Boron Nitride compounds for low friction in wet and harsh conditions. Formulated with unique eBike specific lubricity pack to handle the higher-torque loads of an eBike drivetrain. Ideal for: Chains, cables, shifters, derailleurs & pedals. - Specifically designed for the hi-torque loads applied to an eBike chain - Creates a ceramic coating for incredible durability and long-distance performance - Contains Boron Nitride compounds - Ceramic compounds provide ultra-low friction for excellent efficiency - Waterproof - excels in wet conditions - Readily biodegradable - Ideal for road and off-road - Integral UV tracer dye - aids a
Park's PolyLube is specifically formulated to protect bearing components. Its Polyurea grease has extremely high shear strength to protect bottom brackets, headsets, pedals and hubs. Use it on threads, seatposts, stems and cables, too. It's also safe for fork seals, and repels water.
$6.99 - $11.99
For a clean, smooth-pedaling drivetrain, look no further than Finish Line's Ceramic Wax Lubricant. Its ceramic bonding technology allows you to greatly extend your re-lubing intervals for maximum durability and convenience. In fact, every time you apply the lube, it builds on the ceramic coating and the result is a chain so slippery even dirt has a hard time sticking! Think efficient. Think quiet. Think Finish Line! - With each application the ceramic coating is enhanced, ultimately providing the durability of many oil-based lubricants - No wetness or stickiness so dirt and grime will not be attracted or absorbed by the lubricant - Helps avoid abrasive wear allowing parts to run more smoothly and last longer - As the white ceramic particles embed themselves on the chain they will displace grime, causing a grey or black film to form on top of the wax coating. Over 2-3 applications this will lessen or cease. This discoloration is normal and will not compromise performance.
Finish Line's Gear Floss is the ultimate detailing tool, perfect for cleaning your cassette, chainrings, derailleur pulleys, hubs and all those hard-to-reach nooks and crannies. Made with microfiber, it works by attracting and capturing dirt, grease and particles inside its star-shaped grooves. Each package has 20, 20-inch-long ropes that are washable and reusable.
Finish Line's Long Reach Sprayer attaches to 1-gallon jugs of cleaner, degreaser, and polish. Perfect for shop use, this heavy-duty accessory features a 38-inch hose and a spray nozzle.
- All Purpose Penetrating Lube - Forms A Protective Film On Metal - Provides Excellent Corrosion Protection - Displaces Water - Will Not Harm Plastic Or Painted Surfaces
$7.00 - $12.00
SRAM's Ceramic Bearing Grease is perfect for maintaining your SRAM components that feature ceramic bearings. This high-tech lubricant minimizes friction to maximize your performance and it keeps your SRAM components going strong year after year. Plus, the 10ml syringe container makes it easy to grease your parts, too.
• Penetrating all purpose lubricant with PTFE • Repels moisture and prevents rust and corrosion • Use on chains, cables and pivot points • Loosens rusted and corroded nuts and bolts • Ideal for all conditions wet, dry, road and trail • 12 ounces
Keep your bike running smoothly with Sunlite's Dry Lube w/Silicone. It's silicone based, so you can use it on metal, plastic, rubber, almost everywhere. Being a dry lube, it doesn't attract dirt and grime, either.
• High gloss formula provides the ultimate shine on all surfaces: metal, carbon fiber, plastic, rubber and vinyl. • Polishes and protects in one easy step • Use on bicycles, fitness equipment, motorcycles, watercraft, ATVs and more. • Slick film helps prevent dirt build-up on frame and parts.
$7.90 - $17.90
- Premium red formula all-purpose bicycle grease
- Premium white grease - Great for bearings and overhauls
$7.99 - $25.58
Help your bearings run smoother and longer with Finish Line's Ceramic Grease. Its special blend of ceramic particles, Teflon and synthetic oils helps lube your bearings and dissipate heat, guaranteeing longer life and better function. Plus, it works great on stems, posts, cables and other threaded assemblies, too. - Optimizes performance and efficiency of bottom brackets, hubs and headset bearings - Use on stems, seat posts, cables and any threaded assemblies - Prevents rusting even when exposed to salt water - Clear and non-staining
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Jacaranda Workshop
Jacaranda Workshop, a nonprofit organization located in Nairobi, Kenya, provides employment, training and other assistance to artisans with mental or physical disabilities. In addition to employment, Jacaranda provides artisans with financial assistance for housing and bus fare, lunch on site, salary supplements for artisans with severe disabilities and medical assistance. Jacaranda encourages artisans to develop savings plans.
Jacaranda Special School was founded in 1982. With no formal education, Jacaranda graduates struggled to find training or employment. For those who did, it was difficult to cope with the demands of a manager who did not understand disabilities. This led to the establishment of the Jacaranda Workshop to provide sheltered training and employment. The workshop is sponsored by the Rotary Club of Nairobi, and has exported its jewelry products since 1984.


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- A brilliant all round skin peel that leaves your skin feeling smoother, cleaner and clearer
- Your skin tone & texture will look brighter & more even
- Reduces the appearance of enlarged pores
Clear Skincare Glycolic 12% MiniPeel
- 10ml of 12% Buffered Glycolic Acid minipeel solution in a graduated screw top plastic tube
- Approximately 5 peels
- A sample cotton tip to apply your peel
- Full instructions
Perfect for oily, breakout, acne prone, combination, normal skin types
How To Use:
In the morning or evening
- Cleanse the area to be peeled with your Clear Skincare Gel Cleanser.
- Using the cotton tip supplied, paint a generous amount of peel solution onto the treatment area.
- Let the peel dry. Leave the peel for a few more minutes then rinse off with water. Discard your cotton tip and use a fresh one each time you perform your peel.
Recommended frequency of Peel - once a week
Some users may not experience any tingling especially with the Clear Skincare 8% Glycolic Minipeel Peel as it is a very mild acid.
How It Works:
Glycolic acid is a light to medium AHA acid that is derived from sugar cane. While it is a bit stronger than lactic acid, glycolic acid is a good 'all-around' peel for a wide variety of skin symptoms. Glycolic acid peels are used to improve the look of wrinkles and lines, eliminate acne (all levels), smooth out skin texture, reduce skin discoloration (such as liver spots) and even skin tone. Glycolic acid also has the benefits of making your skin look smoother, fresher, and more youthful. Glycolic acid has few disadvantages as it rarely causes excessive swelling, redness or peeling.
Clear Skincare homecare peels do not cause mass skin shedding, they promote even, controlled and accelerated exfoliation (shedding) of dead and damaged skin cells. Although the skin naturally replaces these old skin cells with new ones, this process slows as we age. Skin peels rejuvenate the skin by stimulating the growth of new skin cells.
Who Should NOT Have a Skin Peel.
Patients with the following should not have a peel:
- Roaccutane use within the past six (6) months
- Active herpes simplex (cold sores) or history of fever blisters
- Facial Warts
- Pregnancy or breast feeding
- History of keloid or hypertrophic scars or history of delayed healing
- History of sun allergies
- History of moderate to severe rosacea, eczema, moderate to severe psoriasis, dermatitis, extremely sensitive or hyper-allergic skin
- Prior bad reaction to a peel
- Recent radiation treatment for cancer
- Sunburn or significant sun exposure in the last two days or have open wounds in the area to be peeled
- Surgery or cryosurgery within the last month to the area to be peeled
DO NOT USE Clear Skincare Minipeels if you have had any kind of peeling treatment in the last 2 weeks.
- Any acid peel
- Recent microdermabrasion treatment
- Used retinol products (such as Retin-A, Stieva A, Green Cream or Renova) or any product with tretinoin
- Any kind of intensive exfoliation
Clear Skincare Minipeels contain low pH acid that irritates the skin, however they should not cause excessive irritation. Each persons response to a skin peel is unique. If this is your 1st skin peel you should undertake a test patch prior to applying the peel to your whole face. If you experience excessive irritation wash off immediately with cold water. Continue to rinse with cold water until the irritation stops.
The Clear Skincare 12% Buffered Glycolic Acid Minipeel is a home care skin peel perfect for improving the appearance of hyper pigmentation such as sun spots, sun damage, hormone related hyper pigmentation, acne, oily skin, acne scarring and enlarged pores as well as being effective with uneven skin texture, lines and wrinkles.