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if you have a stock kernel running. If you are
if you have a stock kernel running. If you are to build a custom kernel, the following options should be enabled for maximum security, performance and effectiveness:
Revision as of 21:24, 19 December 2013
Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) is a Linux feature that provides a variety of security policies, including U.S. Department of Defense style mandatory access controls (MAC), through the use of Linux Security Modules (LSM) in the Linux kernel. It is not a Linux distribution, but rather a set of modifications that can be applied to Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux and BSD.
Running SELinux under a Linux distribution requires three things: An SELinux enabled kernel, SELinux Userspace tools and libraries, and SELinux Policies (mostly based on the Reference Policy). Some common Linux programs will also need to be patched/compiled with SELinux features.
- 1 Concepts: Mandatory Access Controls
- 2 Prerequisites
- 3 Installing SELinux
- 4 Post-installation steps
- 5 Working with SELinux
- 6 Troubleshooting
- 7 References
- 8 See also
Concepts: Mandatory Access Controls
Before you enable SELinux, it is worth understanding what it does. Simply and succinctly, SELinux enforces Mandatory Access Controls (MACs) on Linux. In contrast to SELinux, the traditional user/group/rwx permissions are a form of Discretionary Access Control (DAC). MACs are different from DACs because security policy and its execution are completely separated.
An example would be the use of the sudo command. When DACs are enforced, sudo allows temporary privilege escalation to root, giving the process so spawned unrestricted systemwide access. However, when using MACs, if the security administrator deems the process to have access only to a certain set of files, then no matter what the kind of privilege escalation used, unless the security policy itself is changed, the process will remain constrained to simply that set of files. So if sudo is tried on a machine with SELinux running in order for a process to gain access to files its policy does not allow, it will fail.
Another set of examples are the traditional (-rwxr-xr-x) type permissions given to files. When under DAC, these are user-modifiable. However, under MAC, a security administrator can choose to freeze the permissions of a certain file by which it would become impossible for any user to change these permissions until the policy regarding that file is changed.
As you may imagine, this is particularly useful for processes which have the potential to be compromised, i.e. web servers and the like. If DACs are used, then there is a particularly good chance of havoc being wrecked by a compromised program which has access to privilege escalation.
For further information, do visit the MAC Wikipedia page.
This information was originally sourced from the Debian Wiki.
Only ext2, ext3, ext4, JFS, XFS and BtrFS filesystems are supported to use SELinux. Some filesystems have a few quirks which you should be aware of before migration, though:
- BtrFS: Currently an autorelabel operation won't cover subvolumes on btrfs. You need to manually relabel the subvolume. Once it's labelled everything will work correctly.
- XFS: XFS users should use 512 byte inodes (the default is 256). SELinux uses extended attributes for storing security labels in files. XFS stores this in the inode, and if the inode is too small, an extra block has to be used, which wastes a lot of space and incurs performance penalties.
# mkfs.xfs -i size=512 /dev/sda1 (for example)
- SquashFS: SquashFS supports xattr (which is required for SELinux file labeling) since kernel version 2.6.30.
- ReiserFS: ReiserFS has partial support for SELinux as it supports extended attributes but not atomic labelling meaning that newly created files will not have a SELinux context. This makes using SELinux under ReiserFS quite painful. ReiserFS is therefore not supported by utilities like
fixfiles, so you should first migrate to one of the above listed filesystems if you intend to use SELinux.
Also, please do make sure that Xattr (Extended Attributes) are enabled for your filesystems. To do that, you can issue the following command:
$ zcat /proc/config.gz | grep -i <filesystem name>
<filesystem name> can be reiser, xfs, etc. Somewhere among the output should be something like:
If you just want to see what filesystems have extended attributes enabled, just issue:
$ zcat /proc/config.gz | grep -i xattr
If the output says that your filesystems do not have xattrs enabled, you need to recompile the kernel to enable them. Also, if you wish to use ReiserFS despite the warnings given, also make sure that it has security labels enabled as a separate option.
Preparing the Kernel
By default, the Arch Kernel does not have the SELinux LSM enabled. To check, you can issue the command:
$ zgrep -i selinux /proc/config.gz
To which your output should be something of the sort:
# CONFIG_SECURITY_SELINUX is not set
if you have a stock kernel running. If you are considering to build a custom kernel, the following options should be enabled for maximum security, performance and effectiveness:
CONFIG_AUDIT_ARCH=y CONFIG_AUDIT=y CONFIG_AUDITSYSCALL=y CONFIG_AUDIT_WATCH=y CONFIG_AUDIT_TREE=y CONFIG_AUDIT_LOGINUID_IMMUTABLE=y CONFIG_SECURITY_SELINUX=y CONFIG_SECURITY_SELINUX_BOOTPARAM=y CONFIG_SECURITY_SELINUX_DISABLE=y CONFIG_SECURITY_SELINUX_DEVELOP=y CONFIG_SECURITY_SELINUX_BOOTPARAM_VALUE=1 CONFIG_SECURITY_SELINUX_CHECKREQPROT_VALUE=1 CONFIG_SECURITY_SELINUX_ENABLE_SECMARK_DEFAULT=y CONFIG_SECURITY_SELINUX_AVC_STATS=y CONFIG_SECURITY_SELINUX_POLICYDB_VERSION_MAX=n CONFIG_LSM_MMAP_MIN_ADDR=65536 CONFIG_DEFAULT_SECURITY_SELINUX=y CONFIG_EXT2_FS=y CONFIG_EXT2_FS_XATTR=y CONFIG_EXT2_FS_POSIX_ACL=y CONFIG_EXT2_FS_SECURITY=y CONFIG_EXT2_FS_XIP=y CONFIG_EXT4_FS=y CONFIG_EXT4_FS_POSIX_ACL=y CONFIG_EXT4_FS_SECURITY=y CONFIG_EXT4_DEBUG=y CONFIG_EXT3_FS=m CONFIG_EXT3_DEFAULTS_TO_ORDERED=y CONFIG_EXT3_FS_XATTR=y CONFIG_EXT3_FS_POSIX_ACL=y CONFIG_EXT3_FS_SECURITY=y CONFIG_REISERFS_FS=y CONFIG_REISERFS_CHECK=y CONFIG_REISERFS_PROC_INFO=y CONFIG_REISERFS_FS_XATTR=y CONFIG_REISERFS_FS_POSIX_ACL=y CONFIG_REISERFS_FS_SECURITY=y CONFIG_XFS_FS=y CONFIG_XFS_QUOTA=y CONFIG_XFS_POSIX_ACL=y CONFIG_XFS_RT=y CONFIG_XFS_DEBUG=y CONFIG_JFS_FS=m CONFIG_JFS_POSIX_ACL=y CONFIG_JFS_SECURITY=y CONFIG_JFS_DEBUG=y CONFIG_JFS_STATISTICS=y CONFIG_REISERFS_FS=y CONFIG_REISERFS_CHECK=y CONFIG_REISERFS_PROC_INFO=y CONFIG_REISERFS_FS_XATTR=y CONFIG_REISERFS_FS_POSIX_ACL=y CONFIG_REISERFS_FS_SECURITY=y CONFIG_BTRFS_FS=y CONFIG_BTRFS_FS_POSIX_ACL=y
Save the file in the directory you're building the kernel and then modify the PKGBUILD such that it goes from this:
if [ "${CARCH}" = "x86_64" ]; then cat "${srcdir}/config.x86_64" > ./.config else cat "${srcdir}/config" > ./.config fi
to this:
if [ "${CARCH}" = "x86_64" ]; then cat "${srcdir}/config.x86_64" > ./.config else cat "${srcdir}/config" > ./.config fi cat /absolute/path/to/config.selinux-custom >> ./.config
If you know what you're doing, then you can remove anything relating to filesystems you do not plan to use.
For those of you who do not wish to be bothered by kernel configuration or anything else regarding PKGBUILDs, simply install the package linux-selinuxAUR from the AUR.
Installing SELinux
Package description
All SELinux related packages belong to the selinux group. The group selinux-system-utilities is a group of modified packages from the
[core] repository. The group selinux-userspace contains packages from the SELinux Userspace project. Security policies belong to the selinux-policies group. Other packages are in the selinux-extras group. All the packages mentioned below are present in the AUR.
SELinux aware system utilities
- linux-selinuxAUR
- SELinux enabled kernel. It's not really needed, however, installing it comes recommended if you aren't a kernel tweaker.
- selinux-coreutilsAUR
- Modified coreutils package compiled with SELinux support enabled. It replaces the coreutils package
- selinux-flexAUR
- Flex version needed only to build checkpolicy. The normal flex package causes a failure in the checkmodule command. It replaces the flex package.
- selinux-pamAUR and selinux-pambaseAUR
- PAM package with pam_selinux.so. and the underlying base package. They replace the pam and pambase packages respectively.
- selinux-systemdAUR
- An SELinux aware version of Systemd. It replaces the systemd package.
- selinux-util-linuxAUR
- Modified util-linux package compiled with SELinux support enabled. It replaces the util-linux package.
- selinux-findutilsAUR
- Patched findutils package compiled with SELinux support to make searching of files with specified security context possible. It replaces the findutils package.
- selinux-sudoAUR
- Modified sudo package compiled with SELinux support which sets the security context correctly. It replaces the sudo package.
- selinux-psmiscAUR
- Psmisc package compiled with SELinux support; for example, it adds the
-Zoption to
killall. It replaces the psmisc package.
- selinux-shadowAUR
- Shadow package compiled with SELinux support; contains a modified
/etc/pam.d/loginfile to set correct security context for user after login. It replaces the shadow package.
- selinux-cronieAUR
- Fedora fork of Vixie cron with SELinux enabled. It replaces the cronie package.
- selinux-logrotateAUR
- Logrotate package compiled with SELinux support. It replaces the logrotate package.
- selinux-opensshAUR
- OpenSSH package compiled with SELinux support to set security context for user sessions. It replaces the openssh package.
SELinux userspace utilities
- selinux-usr-checkpolicyAUR
- Tools to build SELinux policy
- selinux-usr-libselinuxAUR
- Library for security-aware applications. Python bindings needed for semanage and setools now included.
- selinux-usr-libsemanageAUR
- Library for policy management. Python bindings needed for semanage and setools now included.
- selinux-usr-libsepolAUR
- Library for binary policy manipulation.
- selinux-usr-policycoreutilsAUR
- SELinux core utils such as newrole, setfiles, etc.
- selinux-usr-sepolgenAUR
- A Python library for parsing and modifying policy source.
SELinux policy packages
- selinux-refpolicyAUR
- Precompiled modular-otherways-vanilla Reference policy with headers and documentation but without sources.
- selinux-refpolicy-srcAUR
- Reference policy sources
- selinux-refpolicy-archAUR
- Precompiled modular Reference policy with headers and documentation but without sources. Development Arch Linux Refpolicy patch included, but for now [February 2011] it only fixes some issues with
Other SELinux tools
- selinux-setoolsAUR
- CLI and GUI tools to manage SELinux
- auditAUR
- This is the only package mentioned here which is available in the official repos. These are the user space utilities for storing and searching the audit records generated by the audit subsystem in the Linux kernel. SELinux (AVC) will log all denials using audit. Very useful in troubleshooting SELinux. Also
audit2allowuses logs from this program.
A lot of credit for this section must go to jamesthebard for his outstanding work and documentation.
The first install needs to be of selinux-pambaseAUR and selinux-pamAUR. However, do not use
yaourt -S selinux-pam selinux-pambase or use
sudo after building to install the package. This is because pam is what handles authentication. Hence, it is best if the packages are built as an ordinary user using
makepkg and installed by root using a simple
pacman -U <packagename>.
Next, you need to build and install selinux-coreutilsAUR, selinux-usr-libsemanageAUR, selinux-shadowAUR, libcgroupAUR, selinux-usr-policycoreutilsAUR, selinux-cronieAUR, selinux-findutilsAUR, selinux-flexAUR, selinux-logrotateAUR, selinux-opensshAUR and selinux-psmiscAUR from the AUR and python2-ipy from the community repository.
Next, the swig package needs to be downgraded to version 2.0.4-3, else the package selinux-setoolsAUR gives an error.
Now comes the selinux-setoolsAUR package. For this, do make sure that you have the jdk7-openjdk package installed, in order for the
JAVA_HOME variable to be set properly. If it still isn't even after installing the package, run:
$ export JAVA_HOME=/usr/lib/jvm/java-7-openjdk
Also, you need to edit the PKGBUILD in order for it to compile properly. Change the PKGBUILD around line 14 so that it looks as follows:
optdepends=('glib2' 'gtk2>=2.8' 'bwidget>=1.8')
Next, backup your
/etc/sudoers file. Install selinux-sudoAUR, selinux-usr-checkpolicyAUR, selinux-util-linuxAUR and audit.
Install selinux-systemdAUR. Make sure that you change the PKGBUILD so that the
build() section looks this way:
build() { cd "$_origname-$pkgver" ./configure \ --enable-static \ --libexecdir=/usr/lib \ --localstatedir=/var \ --sysconfdir=/etc \ --enable-introspection \ --enable-gtk-doc \ --enable-selinux \ --enable-audit \ --disable-ima \ --with-sysvinit-path= \ --with-sysvrcnd-path= \ --with-firmware-path="/usr/lib/firmware/updates:/usr/lib/firmware" make }
before installing.
Changing boot loader configuration
If you've installed a new kernel, make sure that you update your bootloader accordingly
Run the following command:
# grub-mkconfig -o /boot/grub/grub.cfg
Change your syslinux.cfg file by adding:
LABEL arch-selinux LINUX ../vmlinuz-linux-selinux APPEND root=/dev/sda2 ro INITRD ../initramfs-linux-selinux.img
at the end. Change "linux-selinux" to whatever kernel you are using.
Checking PAM
A correctly set-up PAM is important to get the proper security context after login. Check for the presence of the following lines in
# pam_selinux.so close should be the first session rule session required pam_selinux.so close
# pam_selinux.so open should only be followed by sessions to be executed in the user context session required pam_selinux.so open
Installing a policy
Policies are the mainstay of SELinux. They are what govern its behaviour. The only policy currently available in the AUR is the Reference Policy. In order to install it, you should use the source files, which may be got from the package selinux-refpolicy-srcAUR. Change the
pkgver to
20130424 and the
sha256sums to
6039ba854f244a39dc727cc7db25632f7b933bb271c803772d754d4354f5aef4 and build the file. Now, navigate to
/etc/selinux/refpolicy/src/policy and run the following commands:
# make bare # make conf # make install
to install the reference policy as it is. Those who know how to write SELinux policies can tweak them to their heart's content before running the commands written above. The command takes a while to do its job and taxes one core of your system completely, so don't worry. Just sit back and let the command run for as long as it takes.
Then, make the file
/etc/selinux/config with the following contents (Only works if you used the defaults as mentioned above. If you decided to change the name of the policy, you need to tweak the file):
# This file controls the state of SELinux on the system. # SELINUX= can take one of these three values: # enforcing - SELinux security policy is enforced. # Set this value once you know for sure that SELinux is configured the way you like it and that your system is ready for deployment # permissive - SELinux prints warnings instead of enforcing. # Use this to customise your SELinux policies and booleans prior to deployment. Recommended during policy development. # disabled - No SELinux policy is loaded. # This is not a recommended setting, for it may cause problems with file labelling SELINUX=permissive # SELINUXTYPE= takes the name of SELinux policy to # be used. Current options are: # refpolicy (vanilla reference policy) # <custompolicy> - Substitute <custompolicy> with the name of any custom policy you choose to load SELINUXTYPE=refpolicy
Now enable the audit daemon by running:
# systemctl enable auditd.service
If you do not so this, then you may get a kernel panic on rebooting. Now, you may reboot. After rebooting, run:
# restorecon -r /
to label your filesystem.
Now, make a file
requiredmod.te with the contents:
module requiredmod 1.0; require { type devpts_t; type kernel_t; type device_t; type var_run_t; type udev_t; type hugetlbfs_t; type udev_tbl_t; type tmpfs_t; class sock_file write; class unix_stream_socket { read write ioctl }; class capability2 block_suspend; class dir { write add_name }; class filesystem associate; } #============= devpts_t ============== allow devpts_t device_t:filesystem associate; #============= hugetlbfs_t ============== allow hugetlbfs_t device_t:filesystem associate; #============= kernel_t ============== allow kernel_t self:capability2 block_suspend; #============= tmpfs_t ============== allow tmpfs_t device_t:filesystem associate; #============= udev_t ============== allow udev_t kernel_t:unix_stream_socket { read write ioctl }; allow udev_t udev_tbl_t:dir { write add_name }; allow udev_t var_run_t:sock_file write;
and run the following commands:
# checkmodule -m -o requiredmod.mod requiredmod.te # semodule_package -o requiredmod.pp -m requiredmod.mod # semodule -i requiredmod.pp
This is required to remove a few messages from
/var/log/audit/audit.log which are a nuisance to deal with in the reference policy. This is an ugly hack and it should be made very clear that the policy so installed simply patches the reference policy in order to hide the effects of incorrect labelling.
Post-installation steps
You can check that SELinux is working with
sestatus. You should get something like:
SELinux status: enabled SELinuxfs mount: /sys/fs/selinux SELinux root directory: /etc/selinux Loaded policy name: refpolicy Current mode: permissive Mode from config file: permissive Policy MLS status: disabled Policy deny_unknown status: allowed Max kernel policy version: 28
To maintain correct context, you can use restorecond:
# systemctl enable restorecond
To switch to enforcing mode without rebooting, you can use:
# echo 1 > /sys/fs/selinux/enforce
If you have a swap file instead of a swap partition, issue the following commands in order to set the appropriate security context:
# semanage fcontext -a -t swapfile_t "/path/to/swapfile" # restorecon /path/to/swapfile
Working with SELinux
SELinux defines security using a different mechanism than traditional Unix access controls. The best way to understand it is by example. For example, the SELinux security context of the apache homepage looks like the following:
$ls -lZ /var/www/html/index.html -rw-r--r-- username username system_u:object_r:httpd_sys_content_t /var/www/html/index.html
The first three and the last columns should be familiar to any (Arch) Linux user. The fourth column is new and has the format:
To explain:
- User: The SELinux user identity. This can be associated to one or more roles that the SELinux user is allowed to use.
- Role: The SELinux role. This can be associated to one or more types the SELinux user is allowed to access.
- Type: When a type is associated with a process, it defines what processes (or domains) the SELinux user (the subject) can access. When a type is associated with an object, it defines what access permissions the SELinux user has to that object.
- Level: This optional field can also be know as a range and is only present if the policy supports MCS or MLS.
This is important in case you wish to understand how to build your own policies, for these are the basic building blocks of SELinux. However, for most purposes, there is no need to, for the reference policy is sufficiently mature. However, if you are a power user or someone with very specific needs, then it might be ideal for you to learn how to make your own SELinux policies.
This is a great series of articles for someone seeking to understand how to work with SELinux.
Because of the way the installation is done, SELinux will output its messages to
/var/log/audit/audit.log. Another place to look for SELinux errors is the systemd journal. In general, your
audit.log messages will be many and varied, but you really want to look out for AVC messages, for they are the ones warning you of an SELinux policy transgression by a file or user. They look something like:
type=AVC msg=audit(1369578264.750:12): avc: denied { execmem } for pid=473 comm="polkitd" scontext=system_u:system_r:kernel_t tcontext=system_u:system_r:kernel_t tclass=process
It is a good idea to learn how to use the
audit2why and
audit2allow commands. The first command will tell you what the cryptic messages in your
audit.log actually mean while the second will translate them into installable policies. In order to transform all your
audit.log error messages to a single policy called "examplemod", use the following commands:
# audit2allow -i /var/log/audit/audit.log -m examplemod > examplemod.te # checkmodule -m -o examplemod.mod examplemod.te # semodule_package -o examplemod.pp -m examplemod.mod # semodule -i examplemod.pp
There will be times when the
audit2why command will simply tell you what to do along with the command needed to do so. In that case, simply copy-paste what you need to.
Useful tools
There are some tools/commands that can greatly help with SELinux.
- restorecon
- Restores the context of a file/directory (or recursively with
-R) based on any policy rules
- chcon
- Change the context on a specific file
- audit2allow
- Reads in log messages from the AVC log file and tells you what rules would fix the error. Do not just add these rules without looking at them though, they cannot detect errors in other places (e.g. the application is running in the wrong context in the first place), or sometimes things will generate error messages but may maintain functionality so it would be better to add dontaudit to just ignore the access attempts.
- Security Enhanced Linux
- Gentoo SELinux Handbook
- Fedora Project's SELinux Wiki
- NSA's Official SELinux Homepage
- Reference Policy Homepage
- SELinux Userspace Homepage
- SETools Homepage
See also
- AppArmor (Similar to SELinux, much easier to configure, less features.)


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An incunable, or sometimes incunabulum (plural incunables or incunabula, respectively), is a book, pamphlet, or broadside (such as the Almanach cracoviense ad annum 1474) that was printed—not handwritten—before the year 1501 in Europe. "Incunable" is the anglicised singular form of "incunabula", Latin for "swaddling clothes" or "cradle",[1] which can refer to "the earliest stages or first traces in the development of anything."[2] A former term for "incunable" is "fifteener", referring to the 15th century.
The first recorded use of incunabula as a printing term is in a Latin pamphlet by Bernhard von Mallinckrodt, De ortu et progressu artis typographicae ("Of the rise and progress of the typographic art", Cologne, 1639), which includes the phrase prima typographicae incunabula, "the first infancy of printing", a term to which he arbitrarily set an end, 1500, which still stands as a convention.[3] The term came to denote the printed books themselves in the late 17th century. John Evelyn, in moving the Arundel Manuscripts to the Royal Society in August 1678, remarked of the printed books among the manuscripts "The printed books, being of the oldest impressions, are not the less valuable; I esteem them almost equal to MSS."[4]
The convenient but arbitrarily chosen end date for identifying a printed book as an incunable does not reflect any notable developments in the printing process, and many books printed for a number of years after 1500 continued to be visually indistinguishable from incunables. "Post-incunable" typically refers to books printed after 1500 up to another arbitrary end date such as 1520 or 1540.
As of 2008, there are between 28,000 and 30,000 distinct incunable editions known to be extant, while the number of surviving copies in Germany alone is estimated at around 125,000.[5][6]
There are two types of incunabula in printing: the Block book printed from a single carved or sculpted wooden block for each page, by the same process as the woodcut in art (these may be called xylographic), and the typographic book, made with individual pieces of cast metal movable type on a printing press. Many authors reserve the term incunabula for the typographic ones only.[7]
The spread of printing to cities both in the north and in Italy ensured that there was great variety in the texts chosen for printing and the styles in which they appeared. Many early typefaces were modelled on local forms of writing or derived from the various European forms of Gothic script, but there were also some derived from documentary scripts (such as most of Caxton's types), and, particularly in Italy, types modelled on handwritten scripts and calligraphy employed by humanists.
Printers congregated in urban centres where there were scholars, ecclesiastics, lawyers, nobles and professionals who formed their major customer base. Standard works in Latin inherited from the medieval tradition formed the bulk of the earliest printing, but as books became cheaper, works in the various vernaculars (or translations of standard works) began to appear.
Examples and collections
Incunabula include the Gutenberg Bible of 1455, the Peregrinatio in terram sanctam of 1486—printed and illustrated by Erhard Reuwich—both from Mainz, the Nuremberg Chronicle written by Hartmann Schedel and printed by Anton Koberger in 1493, and the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili printed by Aldus Manutius with important illustrations by an unknown artist. Other printers of incunabula were Günther Zainer of Augsburg, Johannes Mentelin and Heinrich Eggestein of Strasbourg, Heinrich Gran of Haguenau and William Caxton of Bruges and London. The first incunable to have woodcut illustrations was Ulrich Boner's Der Edelstein, printed by Albrecht Pfister in Bamberg in 1461.[8]
The Ludwig Hain published, Repertorium bibliographicum— a checklist of incunabula arranged alphabetically by author: "Hain numbers" are still a reference point. Hain was expanded in subsequent editions, by Walter A. Copinger and Dietrich Reichling, but it is being superseded by the authoritative modern listing, a German catalogue, the Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke, which has been under way since 1925 and is still being compiled at the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. North American holdings were listed by Frederick R. Goff and a worldwide union catalogue is provided by the Incunabula Short Title Catalogue.[9]
Notable collections, with the approximate numbers of incunabula held, include:
Statistical data
The data in this section were derived from the Incunabula Short-Title Catalogue.[65]
- Printing towns: The number of printing towns and cities stands at 282. These are situated in some 18 countries in terms of present-day boundaries. In descending order of the number of editions printed in each, these are: Italy, Germany, France, Netherlands, Switzerland, Spain, Belgium, England, Austria, the Czech Republic, Portugal, Poland, Sweden, Denmark, Turkey, Croatia, Montenegro, and Hungary (see diagram below). The following table shows the 20 main 15th century printing locations; as with all data in this section, exact figures are given, but should be treated as close estimates (the total editions recorded in ISTC at May 2013 is 28,395):
|Town or city
|No. of editions
|% of ISTC recorded editions
- Languages: The 18 languages that incunabula are printed in, in descending order, are: Latin, German, Italian, French, Dutch, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Catalan, Czech, Greek, Church Slavonic, Portuguese, Swedish, Breton, Danish, Frisian, and Sardinian (see diagram below).
- Illustrations: Only about one edition in ten (i.e. just over 3,000) has any illustrations, woodcuts or metalcuts.
- Survival: The 'commonest' incunable is Schedel's Nuremberg Chronicle ("Liber Chronicarum") of 1493, with c 1,250 surviving copies (which is also the most heavily illustrated). Very many incunabula are unique, but on average about 18 copies survive of each. This makes the Gutenberg Bible, at 48 or 49 known copies, a rather common (though extremely valuable) edition.
- Total number of volumes: Counting extant incunabula is complicated by the fact that most libraries consider a single volume of a multi-volume work as a separate item, as well as fragments or copies lacking more than half the total leaves. A complete incunable may consist of a slip, or up to ten volumes.
- Formats: In terms of format, the 29,000 odd editions comprise: 2,000 broadsides, 9,000 folios, 15,000 quartos, 3,000 octavos, 18 12mos, 230 16mos, 20 32mos, and 3 64mos.
- Caxton: ISTC at present cites 528 extant copies of books printed by Caxton, which together with 128 fragments makes 656 in total, though many are broadsides or very imperfect (incomplete).
- Dispersal: Apart from migration to mainly North American and Japanese universities, there has been remarkably little movement of incunabula in the last five centuries. None were printed in the Southern Hemisphere, and the latter appears to possess less than 2,000 copies – i.e. about 97.75% remain north of the equator. However many incunabula are sold at auction or through the rare book trade every year.
The end date for identifying a printed book as an incunable is convenient but was chosen arbitrarily. It does not reflect any notable developments in the printing process around the year 1500. Books printed for a number of years after 1500 continued to look much like incunables, with the notable exception of the small format books printed in italic type introduced by Aldus Manutius in 1501. The term post-incunable is sometimes used to refer to books printed "after 1500—how long after, the experts have not yet agreed."[66] For books printed on the Continent, the term generally covers 1501–1540, and for books printed in England, 1501–1520.[66]
See also
- ^ C.T. Lewis and C. Short, A Latin dictionary, Oxford 1879, p. 930. The word incunabula is a neuter plural; the singular incunabulum is never found in Latin and not used in English by most specialists.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 1933, I:188.
- ^ Glomski, J (2001). "Incunabula Typographiae: seventeenth-century views on early printing". The Library 2: 336.
- ^ Evelyn, The Diary of John Evelyn From 1641 to 1705/6.
- ^ British Library: Incunabula Short Title Catalogue gives 29,777 editions as of 8 January 2008, which also includes some prints from the 16th century though (retrieved 11 March 2010).
- ^ According to Bettina Wagner: "Das Second-Life der Wiegendrucke. Die Inkunabelsammlung der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek", in: Griebel, Rolf; Ceynowa, Klaus (eds.): "Information, Innovation, Inspiration. 450 Jahre Bayerische Staatsbibliothek", K G Saur, München 2008, ISBN 978-3-598-11772-5, pp. 207–224 (207f.) the Incunabula Short Title Catalogue lists 28,107 titles published before 1501.
- ^ Oxford Companion to the Book, ed. M.F. Suarez and H.R. Woudhuysen, OUP, 2010, s.v. 'Incunabulum', p. 815.
- ^ Daniel De Simone (ed), A Heavenly Craft: the Woodcut in Early Printed Books, New York, 2004, p. 48.
- ^ "ISTC". Retrieved 2009-05-16.
- ^ "Incunabula". Bayerische Staatsbibliothek. Retrieved 2013-05-20.
- ^ "Incunabula Collections". British Library. Retrieved 2013-05-20.
- ^ "Les Incunables". Bibliothèque nationale de France. Retrieved 2013-09-07.
- ^
- ^ "Research on Holdings". Österreichische Nationalbibliothek. Retrieved 2012-09-30.
- ^ "Rare Books (Western) - Bodleian Library". Bodleian Library, University of Oxford. Retrieved 2012-11-15.
- ^ "Incunabula Cataloguing Project". Cambridge University Library. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
- ^ "Guida rapida: Informazioni utili" (in Italian). Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli. Retrieved 2011-03-07.
- ^ Catalogue of Incunables at the Danish Royal Library
- ^ "Zahlen und Fakten" (in German). Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. Retrieved 2011-03-07.
- ^ Whitesell, David (2006). First supplement to James E. Walsh's Catalogue of the fifteenth-century printed books in the Harvard University Library. Cambridge, Mass.:
- ^ "Incunabula". National Library of the Czech Republic. Retrieved 2014-05-16.
- ^ "La Biblioteca - Informazioni generali - Patrimonio librario" (in Italian). Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze. Retrieved 2011-03-07.
- ^ "The Jagiellonian University Library Collection". Biblioteka Jagiellońska. 2009-12-31. Retrieved 2011-03-07.
- ^ "Biblioteca Nacional de España - Colecciones - Incunables" (in Spanish). Biblioteca Nacional de España. Retrieved 2013-05-01.
- ^ http://www.ub.uu.se/arv/special/einkunab.cfm
- ^ "Raccolte - Opere a stampa" (in Italian). Biblioteca comunale dell'Archiginnasio. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
- ^ http://ccfr.bnf.fr/portailccfr/servlet/ViewManager?menu=menu_view&record=rnbcd:INSTITUTION:6929&setCache=rnbcd.INSTITUTION
- ^ "Collections" (in French). Bibliothèque Mazarine. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
- ^ "Les incunables" (in French). Bibliothèque nationale et universitaire de Strasbourg. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
- ^ "Collezioni" (in Italian). Biblioteca nazionale centrale di Roma. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
- ^ "Incunaboli" (in Italian). Biblioteca Nazionale Universitaria di Torino. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
- ^ "Incunabula". Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal. Retrieved 2011-03-15.
- ^ "Il patrimonio bibliografico" (in Italian). Biblioteca Universitaria di Padova. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
- ^ "Concise history of the monastic library". Royal Canonry of Premonstratensians at Strahov. Retrieved 2014-05-16.
- ^ "Les imprimés" (in French). Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
- ^ "Manuscript and Rare Books". Walters Art Museum. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
- ^ "Bibliothèque Municipale de Lyon" (in French). Lectura. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
- ^ "Institución Colombina - Biblioteca Colombina - Incunables" (in Spanish). Institución Colombina. Retrieved 2013-05-01.
- ^
- ^ "Incunabula: Printing in Europe before 1501". Bridwell Library, Perkins School of Theology, Southern Methodist University. Retrieved 2011-01-04.
- ^ "Glasgow Incunabula Project". University of Glasgow. Retrieved 2012-08-16.
- ^ http://catalog.huntington.org/search/X?SEARCH=%28ad%29%20or%20%28ein%29%20or%20%28del%29%20or%20%28da%29&Db=1501&SORT=D&m=a&b=stack.
- ^ "Médiathèque Ceccano" (in French). Mairie d'Avignon. Retrieved 2011-03-09.
- ^ Bibliothèque Interuniversitaire de la Sorbonne. Bibliotheque.sorbonne.fr. Retrieved on 2011-02-20.
- ^ U.S. National Library of Medicine, History of Medicine Division. http://nlm.nih.gov/hmd Retrieved on 2012-02-29.
- ^ "La Bibliothèque Humaniste en quelques chiffres & dates" (in French). Bibliothèque Humaniste de Sélestat. Retrieved 2011-03-09.
- ^ [1]
- ^ "Collections". Special Collections Library, The University of Michigan. Retrieved 2013-04-07.
- ^ http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Medieval_Studies/brown/
- ^ "Incunabula". Harry Ransom Center, The University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 2011-05-12.
- ^ "Åbo Akademis biblioteks inkunabler" (in Swedish). Åbo Akademi University. Retrieved 2013-09-16.
- ^ "Rare Book Collections". University of Chicago Library, Special Collections Research Center. Retrieved 2011-08-20.
- ^ Portail de lecture publique. Mediatheques-cus.fr. Retrieved on 2011-02-20.
- ^ La bibliothèque municipale de Strasbourg | Bulletin des Bibliothèques de France. Bbf.enssib.fr. Retrieved on 2011-02-20.
- ^ Bordeaux : Culture – Bibliothèque. Bordeaux.fr. Retrieved on 2011-02-20.
- ^ Vilnius University Library. Retrieved on 2013-10-29.
- ^ (French) Patrimoine documentaire / Documentation / Université Montpellier 1 – Université Montpellier 1. Univ-montp1.fr. Retrieved on 2011-02-20.
- ^ [2]
- ^ Supplément au catalogue des incunables et livres du XVIe s. (jusqu'en 1530) de la bibliothèque du grand séminaire de Strasbourg = Supplement to the Catalogue of Incunabulum and Books of the Sixteenth Century (Until 1530) of Strasbourg High Seminary Library. Cat.inist.fr. Retrieved on 2011-02-20.
- ^ specimens&searchscope=2 "Incunabula specimen search". SL-NSW. Retrieved 2014-11-08.
- ^ Kynžvart Castle: Library (Czech)
- ^ First Impressions: Hebrew Printing in the Fifteenth Century, The Library of The Jewish Theological Seminary. Jtsa.edu. Retrieved on 2011-02-20.
- ^ Guide to the Incunabula Collection at Stanford University, 1467-1500
- ^ List of incunabula in Special Collections and Archives, Cardiff University
- ^ BL.uk, consulted in 2007. The figures are subject to slight change as new copies are reported. Exact figures are given but should be treated as close estimates; they refer to extant editions.
- ^ a b Carter, John; Barker, Nicolas (2004). ABC for Book Collectors (PDF) (8th ed.). New Castle, Del.: Oak Knoll Press and the British Library. p. 172.
External links
- Centre for the History of the Book
- British Library worldwide Incunabula Short Title Catalogue
- Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke (GW), partially English version
- History of Incunabula Studies
- UIUC Rare Book & Manuscript Library
- Grand Valley State University Incunabula & 16th Century Printing digital collections
- Incunable Collection at the Library of Congress
- All articles with unsourced statements
- Articles with unsourced statements from March 2011
- CS1 Italian-language sources (it)
- CS1 German-language sources (de)
- CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)
- All articles with dead external links
- Articles with dead external links from March 2011
- CS1 French-language sources (fr)
- Pages with citations lacking titles
- Pages with citations having bare URLs
- CS1 Swedish-language sources (sv)
- Articles with French-language external links
- Books by type
- Incunabula


text:
Provided by: libbio-perl-perl_1.7.2-3_all
Bio::AlignIO::nexml - NeXML format sequence alignment input/output stream driver
Do not use this module directly. Use it via the Bio::AlignIO class.
This object can transform Bio::SimpleAlign objects to and from NeXML format. For more information on NeXML, visit <http://www.nexml.org>.
Support Please direct usage questions or support issues to the mailing list: firstname.lastname@example.com rather than to the module maintainer directly. Many experienced and reponsive experts will be able look at the problem and quickly address it. Please include a thorough description of the problem with code and data examples if at all possible. Reporting Bugs Report bugs to the Bioperl bug tracking system to help us keep track the bugs and their resolution. Bug reports can be submitted via the web: https://github.com/bioperl/bioperl-live/issues
Chase Miller
Mark Jensen, email@example.com Rutger Vos, firstname.lastname@example.com
The rest of the documentation details each of the object methods. Internal methods are usually preceded with a _ next_aln Title : next_aln Usage : $aln = $stream->next_aln Function: returns the next alignment in the stream. Returns : Bio::Align::AlignI object - returns 0 on end of file or on error Args : See Bio::Align::AlignI rewind Title : rewind Usage : $alnio->rewind Function: Resets the stream Returns : none Args : none doc Title : doc Usage : $treeio->doc Function: Returns the biophylo nexml document object Returns : Bio::Phylo::Project Args : none or Bio::Phylo::Project object write_aln Title : write_aln Usage : $stream->write_aln(@aln) Function: writes the $aln object into the stream in nexml format Returns : 1 for success and 0 for error Args : L<Bio::Align::AlignI> object See Bio::Align::AlignI


text:
Yesterday I committed some more configs to generate doxygen documentation of FreeBSD-kernel drivers. I mechanically generated missing configs for subdirectories of src/sys/dev/. This means there is no dependency information included in the configs, and as such you will not get links e.g. to the PCI documentation, if a driver calls functions in the PCI driver (feel free to tell me about such dependencies).
If you want to generate the HTML or PDF version of some subsystem, just go to src/tools/kerneldoc/subsys/ an run "make" to get a list of targets to build. As an example, "make dev_sound" will generate the HTML version for the sound system, "make pdf-dev_sound" generates the PDF version. The sound system is probably the most "nice" example, as it includes a page with TODO items, and has even some real API docs instead of just the call-graphs and such automatically generated information.
Some drivers already have (some) doxygen markup (I did just a quick grep for '/*[*!]' to detect doxygen markup indicators, no idea about the coverage or quality), namely:
There is more documentation than only for those drivers, I just listed those as there are at least parts of doxygen documentation inside.


text:
Pingu Goes Fishing
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The state is paying millions of dollars a year in sanctions because it's unable to evaluate the mental health competency of jailed defendants in a timely manner.
Soon, some of those languishing lengthy periods behind bars might need to be released and charges against them dismissed.
On June 26, the state Supreme Court heard oral arguments in the case of a Pierce County man who was found incompetent to stand trial and spent 76 days in jail waiting to be admitted to Western State Hospital in Lakewood for court-ordered treatment.
The man, Anthony Gene Hand, eventually received services, stood trial and was convicted on charges including drug possession and escape from an alternative confinement program. His lawyer argued the prolonged wait for evaluation and treatment violated his constitutional right to liberty and due process and asked justices to dismiss the original charges.
What happened to Hand after his September 2014 arrest isn't uncommon. Washington's mental health system is overwhelmed. It's really bad in the criminal justice system where for several years the number of court orders for evaluation and restoration services for defendants like Hand has exceeded what the state is able to handle at Western and its other psychiatric hospital near Spokane. It's actually worsened in recent months.
A lawsuit launched in Snohomish County led to an April 2015 federal court decision that the Department of Social and Health Services was taking too long to provide those services. In the case known as Trueblood the state is under court orders to provide competency evaluations within 14 days and mental health services intended to restore competency within seven days.
As extended waits persist, trial courts are imposing sanctions on the state Department of Social and Health Services aimed at spurring action by the agency.
"This case is not unique. It is not isolated. But it is representative of a pervasive and ongoing systemic problem," Marie Trombley, Hand's attorney, told the court.
Trombley asked the court to dismiss the charges and give lower courts the ability to release defendants and dismiss charges if court-ordered treatment is not provided within timelines set out in state law and by the federal court.
Jason Ruyf, a Pierce County deputy prosecutor, argued there were no judicial or procedural errors which violated Hand's due process. He cautioned that if the Supreme Court created a path for trial courts to let out some defendants awaiting evaluations, violent offenders could get released as a consequence.
Serial killers like Ted Bundy "are undoubtedly going to raise some kind of mental health claim," he said.
And such a move by the court isn't going to make DSHS work faster, he contended.
"Dismissing prosecutions would not in my opinion give Western State any more incentive to do its job well because its mandate is not our mandate," he said.
But Supreme Court Justice Mary Yu voiced support for the court doing something to try to remedy the situation.
"I find myself attracted to the argument because there seems to be no other recourse. Nothing seems to have worked," Yu said to Ruyf. "I am really troubled by it so what are you offering as an alternative other than don't worry about it and forget the due process?"
Yu said there needed to be "some bright lines" for trial courts. She suggested lower courts be allowed to dismiss charges without prejudice if a person has spent a certain period of time locked up and waiting. This would leave the door open for prosecutors to refile the charges.
Ruyf argued against a threshold of a specific number of days and for giving lower courts discretion to consider the merits of each case.
"It could be a serial killer or it could be someone who is homeless who fails to appear," Yu responded. "It really could be the whole range. There just can't be an open-ended detention."
Jerry Cornfield: 360-352-8623;
jcornfield@herald net.com
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Ranch Musings: Our mental health and well-being in these times
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text:
List of Paracorr settings for all brands of EP's
Posted 28 July 2007 - 05:25 PM
35mm 2" XYZ brand Oober ultra wide eyepiece- Setting "2"
- Charlespl likes this
Posted 28 July 2007 - 08:49 PM
TeleVue Paracorr tunable top settings chart
The chart is about 3/4 of the way down on the linked page.
Posted 29 July 2007 - 06:15 PM
Siebert 34mm Observatory Series - Paracorr setting 1
Meade 36mm QX - Paracorr setting 1
Posted 29 July 2007 - 06:29 PM
20mm Pentax XW #1
I don't use the paracorr with the 5mm,7mm and 10mm Pentax XW's
Clear Skies
Posted 29 July 2007 - 07:27 PM
(to be honest, I might have those reversed, but those 2 eyepieces require the extremes when used as 2" eyepieces fully inserted).
Note: The Paracorr has a 43mm lens to shoulder distance at the in-most setting. These two Series 4000 UWAs cannot be used with 1-1/4" filters without hitting the Paracorr's lenses, so the use of these eyepieces in a Paracorr requires the use of 2" filters on the bottom of the Paracorr. If you must use 1-1/4" filters on these eyepieces, use spacers on the 2" barrels to stand the eyepieces out more. This will require different settings on the Paracorr, and the one requiring the most inward position will no longer reach the best position for correction of coma.
Posted 29 July 2007 - 07:29 PM
This is purely from memory, and from my recollection that the 14mm Meade requires a bunch of out-travel of the focuser. Or was it my 8.8mm Meade Series 4000 UWA which required all the out-travel??? Hmmm??? I may also have these reversed.
Posted 30 July 2007 - 12:26 AM
14mm Meade Series 4000 UWA, setting #1 when used in 2" mode.
Yup, that's the setting I always use. When using the 14mm without the Paracorr, I have to pull the 2" skirt out a bit to be able to reach focus.
Posted 30 July 2007 - 08:07 PM
The setting = (0.365 + adp tk - dim f)/0.12
0.365 = three combined measurments of the Paracorr.
(I'll explain futher if anyone wishes.)
adp tk = flange thickness of the 1.25 to 2 inch adpter used.
0 if using a 2in ep.
0.16 in for the old style paracorr adapter.
I don't have this dimension for the new style. I'll add it if someone will measure it and send it to me.
dim f = the distance of the eyepiece focal plane (field stop) below the top of the ep barrel (surface that sets of the top of the draw tube).
Positive = focal plane inside draw tube,
negative = focal plane above draw tube.
(see TeleVue ep specs for a drawing, bottom of page).
Posted 04 August 2007 - 06:23 AM
The only permitted user input is for:
1) Field Stop location in inches (remember to apply the proper +/- sign for this value)
2) 1.25" eyepiece adapters added height in inches (zero for no adapter, as with 2" eyepieces)
Once you have entered these two parameters, read the spreadsheets calculated value for your eyepiece on the extreme right hand side. Then compare this value with the nominal values provided for the various Paracorr settings, and choose the Paracorr setting for which the provided value most closely matches the value as seen on the extreme right for your eyepiece.
Attached Files
Posted 04 August 2007 - 11:20 AM
TeleVue gives us a chart (reference my first post in this thread for the link) of optimal Paracorr settings, but for 1.25" eyepieces this chart is seriously flawed by the fact that apparently 2 quite differing heights of TeleVue 1.25" to 2" adapter are (or at least were) available for the Paracorr, and the TeleVue table does not specify which adapter they used for the chart. Whichever adapter they used, if you have the other one, then the TeleVue chart is pretty much useless in providing you with the best setting for your 1.25" eyepieces.
One of the adapters has a set-screw which fits into a recessed slot, and is thus of a low profile, and the other adapter does not, and is therefore high profile. Both are pictured along with the Paracorr's as seen above the TeleVue website Paracorr tunable top chart.
Most budget after market 1.25" to 2" adapters are of the high profile variety.
Posted 04 August 2007 - 11:34 AM
Posted 04 August 2007 - 12:16 PM
Would you like a copy of my speadsheet?
Posted 04 August 2007 - 01:22 PM
I see now that if the 1.25" to 2" adapter which TeleVue actually used to generate their chart is in fact 3 times thicker (higher in profile) than the one I assumed they used (using your provided 0.16" figure, I had assumed the low profile model), then my spreadsheets results are highly accurate just as it is written and attached above for all TeleVue eyepices, and the fudge factor of 3 times the height for the adapter (which I refused on logical grounds to include in my spreadsheet) is in fact unnecessary. The pictured high profile adapter on the TeleVue Paracorr website does indeed look visually to be every bit of a full 3 times thicker than the low profile adapter sitting beside it.
By inference, my initial fundamental assumption is correct, and by further inference, any non TeleVue eyepiece which comes to focus in close proximity to an existing TeleVue eyepiece will thereby share that TeleVue eyepieces recommended (or spreadsheet derived) Paracorr tunable top setting.
Also, since most after market 1.25" to 2" adapters are of the high profile variety, the TeleVue chart is useful for them as well. My spreadsheet will work for all adapter heights, so those with unique adapters need not worry.
Posted 04 August 2007 - 09:37 PM
Have fun.
Attached Files
Posted 05 August 2007 - 12:38 AM
Hope that helps.
Posted 05 August 2007 - 01:20 AM
To all:
I would like to know a few more measurements for specifically the Visual Paracorr model which comes with the taller 0.379" high 1.25" to 2" eyepiece adapter:
CAUTION / WARNING: Whatever anyone willing to undertake these measurements may do to achieve them, please do not scratch your Paracorr in the process.
1) With the Paracorr at setting #1, what is the distance from the top (eyepiece shoulder) to the first (eye) lens element (on axis if possible).
2) Ditto for setting #3
3) Ditto for setting #5
(and ditto with bonus points for settings #2 and #4 if you are brave)
For those less brave (or should I say foolhardy), simply providing the total tunable top span distance from setting #1 to setting #5 would be a great help (I.E. the total travel distance of the tunable top itself, which is the measure of the gain in overall length of the Paracorr). Another great help would be answering if the individual settings gain distance linearly, or non linearly (in which latter case knowing the actual gain in height (length) for each setting would be great).
Posted 07 August 2007 - 03:20 PM
Posted 07 August 2007 - 04:24 PM
Second plea: I'm now willing to accept much less than before. Will anyone simply measure the total travel span distance (overall height increase from lowest to highest setting) for their modern style (high profile adapter model, the one with no recess slot for the adapters set-screw) Visual Paracorrs tunable top? This is a non-destructive measurement.
Height of top of Paracorr w/o adapter, setting 5(low): 1.545"
Height of top of Paracorr w/adapter, setting 5: 1.920"
Length of insertion tube part of Paracorr: 2.39"
Height added to top when adjustable top is in highest position: 0.5" (Setting 5=0", setting 1 =0.5" up), each setting increases by 1/8" on smooth, even ramp. Setting 4=+1/8", Setting 3=+1/4", Setting 2=+3/8", Setting 1=+1/2".
I vaguely recall, when I was using Meade Series 4000 UWA eyepieces in the Paracorr, that the maximum depth of an eyepiece that wouldn't hit the lens in position 5 (the lowest setting) was 43mm (1.7"). I don't recall if that was being conservative so as not to risk the lens or whether or not that was actually the distance from lens center to 2" shoulder in setting 5. I do know that I could not use 1-1/4" filters on the Meade 14 or 8.8 (which had the same height of barrel, though it was the 8.8, I guess, that used position 5) without hitting the lens. So if you have one of those to measure, the distance to lens is definitely larger than that length.
I don't have any way to measure that distance without risking a scratch on the lens. Sorry.
Posted 07 August 2007 - 05:05 PM
Just to clarify. Are you saying that both the 14mm UWA and 8.8mm UWA when used in 2" mode would safely fit into the Paracorr while at its lowest tunable top setting and without a filter screwed on, but at least one of them (if not both) would most certainly hit the lens of the Paracorr with a filter screwed on?
If this is correct, then can someone who has these eyepieces tell me what their length is from the focuser shoulder to the end of the 1.25" barrel section? Perhaps just standing them up on a table top and carefully measuring from the table top to the focuser shoulder would be the easiest means to accomplish this.
Posted 07 August 2007 - 05:24 PM
CAUTION / WARNING: Again, I warn that I would not wish or intend that anyone scratch a Paracorr in attempting to measure it.
Posted 07 August 2007 - 07:40 PM
Exactly. The addition of a typical filter (Meade, Orion, etc.) would hit the lens--in the lowest setting of the Paracorr.
Don, Thank you again!
Just to clarify. Are you saying that both the 14mm UWA and 8.8mm UWA when used in 2" mode would safely fit into the Paracorr while at its lowest tunable top setting and without a filter screwed on, but at least one of them (if not both) would most certainly hit the lens of the Paracorr with a filter screwed on?
If this is correct, then can someone who has these eyepieces tell me what their length is from the focuser shoulder to the end of the 1.25" barrel section? Perhaps just standing them up on a table top and carefully measuring from the table top to the focuser shoulder would be the easiest means to accomplish this.
Posted 07 August 2007 - 07:47 PM
Depth is 49mm or 1.93"(about as accurate as I can be) between center of lens and shoulder of 2" insertion barrel, tunable top in place at its lowest setting.
One "relatively" safe means to measure the insertion depth of a late model Visual Paracorr while at its lowest height setting on the tunable top would be to simply place a cotton 'Q'-tip down the side until it rests by gravity on the lens element, and then mark it at the shoulder junction. Then remove it, and stand it up (without any downward force applied), and measure from the table top to the mark on the 'Q'-tip.
CAUTION / WARNING: Again, I warn that I would not wish or intend that anyone scratch a Paracorr in attempting to measure it.
Thanks for the Q-Tip idea--I went ahead and cleaned the lens at the same time. It had a lot of dust on it.
Posted 08 August 2007 - 06:08 PM
As always, please let me know if my UNIX based "OpenOffice" spreadsheet software translates this properly to the Microsoft Excel format. Despite my best efforts to save things in the proper Excel format, sometimes the translation gets a bit jumbled in its formatting, formulas, etc... Excel is not available in UNIX......
As always, kick the tires, and feel free to fix any mistakes I may have made, or improve upon my ideas as you see fit.
Attached Files
Posted 08 August 2007 - 06:36 PM
Worked fine. Excel converted the spreadsheet into the latest version of Excel.
I utilized the empirical method to decide the optimum Paracorr setting for each of my TeleVue eyepieces rather than trust TeleVue's spreadsheet that showed the proper setting.
I started at the outmost (1) setting and focused, examined the edge, moved in one setting (2), focused and examined the edge, repeating the process through all 5 settings if necessary.
If two settings seemed to have equal edge correction, I tried the in between setting (e.g.2.5) to see if the correction was better.
All my eyepieces are Naglers now, but I had a Panoptic at the time, and some series 4000 Meade UWAs. My empirical results pretty much agreed with TeleVue's. A couple of the eyepieces' best settings were in between settings, I thought, but the TeleVue recommendations would be fine for their eyepieces in my f/5 scope. At shorter f/ratios, coma correction becomes more critical and residual coma is visible even in a Paracorred eyepiece. In such cases, an in-between setting might become more important.
I put a small marker label on each eyepiece with the proper Paracorr setting, and marked the 1-5 settings of the Paracorr with numbers as well. Now, when I take an eyepiece out of the case, I merely match number with setting--no memory involved.
In the cases where settings 1 or 5 were chosen as the best candidates, I've often wondered if having the tunable top move a little farther in each direction would result in improved coma correction. In other words, I'd have been happier with 7 settings where all my eyepieces' best corrections were settings 2-6. Your spreadsheet could have answered the question if you allowed it to calculate the optimum position rather than the optimum setting.
Posted 08 August 2007 - 06:43 PM


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Standard Electrode Coaxial Ge Detectors (SEGe)
The conventional coaxial germanium detector is often referred to as Pure Ge, HPGe, Intrinsic Ge, or Hyperpure Ge. Regardless of the superlative used, the detector is basically a cylinder of germanium with an n-type contact on the outer surface, and a p-type contact on the surface of an axial well. The germanium has a net impurity level of around 1010 atoms/cc so that with moderate reverse bias, the entire volume between the electrodes is depleted, and an electric field extends across this active region. Photon interaction within this region produces charge carriers which are swept by the electric field to their collecting electrodes, where a charge sensitive preamplifier converts this charge into a voltage pulse proportional to the energy deposited in the detector.
The n and p contacts, or electrodes, are typically diffused lithium and implanted boron respectively. The outer n-type diffused lithium contact is about 0.5 mm thick. The inner contact is about 0.3 µm thick. A surface barrier may be substituted for the implanted boron with equal results.
The CANBERRA Coaxial Ge detector can be shipped and stored without cooling. However, long term stability is best preserved by keeping the detector cold. Like all germanium detectors, it must be cooled when it is used to avoid excessive thermally-generated leakage current. The non-perishable nature of this detector widens the application of Ge spectrometers to include field use of portable spectrometers.
The useful energy range of the Coaxial Ge detector is 40 keV to more than 10 MeV. The resolution and peak shapes are excellent and are available over a wide range of efficiencies. A list of available models is given in the accompanying table.
- Energy range from 40 keV to >10 MeV
- High resolution – good peak shape
- Excellent timing resolution
- High energy rate capability
- Diode FET protection
- Warm-up/HV shutdown
- High rate indicator
Broad Energy Germanium Detectors (BEGe)
The CANBERRA Broad Energy Ge (BEGe) Detector covers the energy range of 3 keV to 3 MeV like no other. The resolution at low energies is equivalent to that of our Low Energy Ge (LEGe) Detector and the resolution at high energy is comparable to that of good quality coaxial (SEGe) detectors.
Most importantly the BEGe has a short, fat shape which greatly enhances the efficiency below 1 MeV for typical sample geometries. This shape is chosen for optimum efficiency for real samples in the energy range that is most important for routine gamma analysis. This is in stark contrast to the traditional relative efficiency measurement – a 60Co point source at 25 cm which is hardly a relevant test condition for real samples. See the figures below comparing absolute detector efficiencies of a 5000 mm² and 6500 mm² BEGe Detector to coaxial detectors with approximately 60% relative efficiency.
In addition to higher efficiency for typical samples, the BEGe exhibits lower background than typical coaxial detectors because it is more transparent to high energy cosmogenic background radiation that permeates above ground laboratories and to high energy gammas from naturally occurring radioisotopes such as 40K and 208Tl (thorium). This aspect of thin detector performance has long been recognized in applications such as actinide lung burden analysis.
Most Low Energy Detectors are aptly named because they do not give good resolution at higher energies. In fact resolution is not usually specified above 122 keV. The BEGe represents a breakthrough in this respect. The BEGe is designed with an electrode structure that enhances low energy resolution and is fabricated from select germanium having an impurity profile that improves charge collection (thus resolution and peak shape) at high energies. Indeed, this ensures good resolution and peak shape over the entire mid-range which is particularly important in analysis of the complex spectra from uranium and plutonium.
In addition to routine sample counting, there are many applications in which the BEGe Detector really excels. In internal dosimetry the BEGe gives the high resolution and low background need for actinide lung burden analysis and the efficiency and resolution at high energy for whole body counting. The same is true of certain waste assay systems particularly those involving special nuclear materials.
The BEGe detector and associated preamplifier are normally optimized for energy rates of less than 60 000 MeV/sec. Charge collection times prohibit the use of short amplifier shaping time constants. Resolution is specified with an optimum shaping time constant and Lynx® digital peaking time equivalent.
Another big advantage of the BEGe is that the detector dimensions are virtually the same on a model by model basis. This means that like units can be substituted in an application without complete recalibration and that computer modeling can be done once for each detector size and used for all detectors of that model.
With cross-sectional areas of 20 to 65 cm2 and thickness' of 20 to 30 mm, the nominal relative efficiency is given below along with the specifications for the entire range of models. BEGe detectors are normally equipped with our composite carbon windows which are robust and provide excellent transmission to below 10 keV. Beryllium or aluminum windows are also available. Aluminum is preferred when there is no interest in energies below 30 keV and improved ruggedness is desired. Beryllium should be selected to take full advantage of the low energy capability (down to 3 keV) of the BEGe detector.
Features & Benefits
- Energy range from 3 keV to 3 MeV combines the spectral advantages of Low Energy and Coaxial HPGe detectors
- Detection efficiencies and energy resolutions are optimized in the 3 keV to 662 keV energy region where most tightly-grouped gamma lines of interest are located
- Flat, non-bulletized crystals offer optimum efficiencies for samples counted close to the detector
- Thin, stable entrance window allows the detector to be stored warm with no fear of low energy efficiency loss over time
Reverse Electrode Coaxial Ge Detectors (REGe)
The reverse-electrode detector (REGe) is similar in geometry to other coaxial germanium detectors with one important difference. The electrodes of the REGe are opposite from the conventional coaxial detector in that the p-type electrode, (ion-implanted boron) is on the outside, and the n-type contact (diffused lithium) is on the inside. There are two advantages to this electrode arrangement – window thickness and radiation damage resistance.
The ion-implanted outside contact is extremely thin (0.3 μm) compared to a lithium-diffused contact, enabling the REGe detector to cover a broad energy range from 3 keV up to several MeV. REGe detectors are normally equipped with a carbon composite window which is robust and provides excellent transmission to below 10 keV. Beryllium or aluminum windows are also available. Aluminum is preferred when there is no interest in energies below 20 keV and improved ruggedness is desired. Beryllium should be selected to take full advantage of the low energy capability (down to 3 keV) of the REGe detector.
It has been found that radiation damage, principally due to neutrons or charged particles, causes hole trapping in germanium. Unlike the case of the conventional coaxial detector, holes are collected by the outside electrode of the REGe detector. Since a much greater amount of the active detector volume is situated within a given distance, ∆ R, of the outside contact, than of the inside contact (Volume ≈ R2) it follows that, on average, holes have less distance to travel if they are attracted to the outside contact than if they are attracted to the inside contact. With less distance to travel, they are less likely to be trapped in radiation damaged material. The extent of the improved resistance to radiation damage depends on other facts, of course, but experimental evidence suggests that the REGe detector may be 10 times as resistant to damage as conventional coaxial germanium detectors.
- Spectroscopy from 3 keV to >10 MeV
- Ultra-thin ion implanted
- Radiation damage resistant
- Excellent timing resolution
- High energy rate capability
- Diode FET protection
- Warm-up/HV shutdown
- High rate indicator
Extended Range Coaxial Ge Detectors (XtRa)
The CANBERRA XtRa is a coaxial germanium detector having a unique thin-window contact on the front surface which extends the useful energy range down to 3 keV. Conventional coaxial detectors have a lithium-diffused contact typically between 0.5 and 1.5 mm thick. This dead layer stops most photons below 40 keV or so rendering the detector virtually worthless at low energies. The XtRa detector, with its exclusive thin entrance window and with a Carbon Composite cryostat window, offers all the advantages of conventional standard coaxial detectors such as high efficiency, good resolution, and moderate cost along with the energy response of the more expensive Reverse Electrode Ge (REGe) detector.
The response curves (below) illustrate the efficiency of the XtRa detector compared to a conventional Ge detector. The effective window thickness can be determined experimentally by comparing the intensities of the 22 keV and 88 keV peaks from109Cd. With the standard 0.6 mm Carbon Composite window, the XtRa detector is guaranteed to give a 22 to 88 keV intensity ratio of greater than 20:1. Beryllium and aluminum windows are also available.
- Spectroscopy from 3 keV to >10 MeV
- Wide range of efficiencies
- High resolution – good peak shape
- Excellent timing resolution
- High energy rate capability
- Diode FET protection
- Warm-up/HV shutdown
- High rate indicator
Small Anode Germanium Well Detectors (SAGe Well)
The CANBERRA SAGe™ Well Detector combines excellent energy resolution at low and high energies with maximum efficiency for small samples. Like Traditional Well Detectors, the SAGe Well is fabricated with a blind hole, leaving at least 20 mm of active detector thickness at the bottom of the well. The counting geometry therefore approaches 4p.
The low detector capacitance associated with the small anode technology (similar to what is used on CANBERRA's BEGe detectors) gives the SAGe Well superior low and medium-energy resolution performance compared to Traditional Well or Coaxial Detectors, as well as excellent resolution for higher energy gamma rays.
Furthermore, the detector is manufactured with an aspect ratio of a coaxial detector to allow excellent efficiency performance for standard laboratory geometries such as Marinelli beakers or other large sample containers. The result is a versatile detector that can deliver reductions in count time, through improvements in Minimum Detectable Concentration/Activity (MDC/MDA), for a range of sample sizes and geometries counted inside the well, on the end cap or in Marinelli beakers.
The thin lithium (approximately 50 µm) diffused contact inside the well, combined with a thin-walled aluminum insert in the detector end cap (0.5 mm on the sides and a 1 mm thick bottom) provide a good low-energy response, allowing spectroscopy down to 20 keV. The contact on the outer surface of the detector is approximately 0.5 mm thick, similar to what is used on Standard Electrode Germanium (SEGe) coaxial detectors. Therefore, the useful energy range for sources outside of the well is limited to 40 keV and up.
Features / Benefits
- Blind well approaches 4p counting geometry yielding high absolute efficiency
- Superior resolution compared to Traditional Well Detectors at both low and high energies
- Larger well diameter (28 mm) available with the same excellent resolution as the standard (16 mm) well sizes
- Thin lithium diffused contact inside well allows spectroscopy from 20 keV up to 10 MeV
- Full LabSOCS™ characterization available, allowing True Coincidence Summing correction
- Environmental samples
- Radiobioassay
- Geology
- Oceanography
Traditional Germanium Well Detectors
The CANBERRA High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) Well Detector provides maximum efficiency for small samples because the sample is virtually surrounded by active detector material. The CANBERRA Well detector is fabricated with a blind hole rather than a through hole, leaving at least 15 mm of active detector thickness at the bottom of the well. The counting geometry therefore approaches 4π.
The Well insert in the endcap is made of aluminum with a side-wall thickness of 0.5 mm and a 1 mm thick bottom. The ion implanted contact on the detector element is negligibly thin compared to 0.5 mm of aluminum so these detectors have intrinsically good low energy response, allowing spectroscopy down to 20 keV.
- Environmental samples
- Geology
- Oceanography
- Life sciences
Features / Benefits
- Blind well approaches 4π counting geometry yielding high absolute efficiency
- Large variety of models available allowing to select the optimum Well detector for your application
- Thin, ion-implanted contact inside Well allows spectroscopy from 20 keV up to 10 MeV
Low Energy Germanium Detectors (LEGe)
The Low Energy Germanium Detector (LEGe) is in all aspects optimized for performance at low and moderate energies and has specific advantages over conventional planar or coaxial detectors. The LEGe detector is fabricated with a thin front and side contact. The rear contact is of less than full area which gives a lower detector capacitance compared to a planar device of similar size. Since preamplifier noise increases with detector capacitance, the LEGe affords lower noise and consequently better resolution at low and moderate energies than any other detector geometry. Unlike grooved planar detectors, there is little dead germanium beyond the active region. This, and the fact that the side surface is charge collecting rather than insulating, results in fewer long-rise time pulses with improved count rate performance and peak-to-background ratios.
The LEGe detector is available with active areas from 50 mm2 to 2000 mm2 and with thicknesses ranging from 5 to 20 mm. For applications involving moderate gamma-ray energies, the LEGe may well outperform a more expensive large volume coaxial detector. The efficiency curve given below illustrates the performance of a typical LEGe detector.
To take full advantage of the low energy response of this intrinsically thin window detector, LEGe cryostats are usually equipped with a thin (1 to 20 mil) beryllium window. A LEGe cryostat can also be equipped with a 0.6 mm carbon epoxy window which improves ruggedness over the Be window, but still has a good low energy transmission. For applications at energies above 30 keV, the LEGe can be provided with a conventional 0.5 mm Aluminum window. In any case, a wide range of available CANBERRA cryostats allows optimizing the detector configuration for your application.
Features & Benefits
- Thin front and side contact, allowing spectroscopy from 3 keV up
- Wide range of sizes allows selecting the best detector for your application
- Low noise and consequently high resolution at low and moderate energies
- Low energy gamma spectroscopy
- X-ray absorption spectroscopy
- Nuclear safeguards
Ultra-LEGe Detectors (GUL)
The CANBERRA Ultra-LEGe detector extends the performance range of Ge detectors down to a few hundred electron volts, providing resolution and peak-to-background ratios once thought to be unattainable with semiconductor detectors. The Ultra-LEGe retains the high-energy efficiency intrinsic to germanium detectors because of the high atomic number (Z), combined with a relatively high thickness (5-10 mm), and thus covers an extremely wide range of energies. The graph in Figure 2 below compares the efficiency on the high-energy side of the X-ray spectrum of a 5 mm thick germanium detector to typical silicon based detectors.
Conventional Ge detectors, including those made especially for low energies, suffer from poor peak shape and efficiency below 3 keV. This characteristic, once thought to be fundamental to Ge, prohibited use of Ge detectors in most analytical x-ray applications. CANBERRA has developed detector fabrication techniques which have eliminated these problems. The resulting detector, the Ultra-LEGe, delivers the intrinsic efficiency and resolution advantages of germanium without the disadvantages of the conventional germanium detector.
Features & Benefits
- Spectroscopy from 300 eV to 300 keV
- High efficiency compared to Si(Li) and SDD
- Excellent resolution up to very high count rates
- High peak/background ratio
- X-ray spectroscopy
ACT-II Actinide Ge Detectors
The CANBERRA ACT-II Ge Detector was designed specifically for the detection of internally deposited actinides, particularly uranium, plutonium and americium. Because of the low gamma-ray abundance from uranium, and the low energy of the x rays from plutonium, which emits few gammas, this application demands a very specialized detector system. To achieve desired sensitivities, four detectors are placed in virtual contact with the subject in close proximity to the lungs. The measurement must be carried out in a shielded room. For optimum results, the detectors must be closely spaced, the detector background must be low, the resolution must be good, and the sensitivity of the detector must be high over the energy range of interest (13-20 keV for Pu, 60 keV for Am, and 140-190 keV for U). The ACT-II Ge Detector from CANBERRA provides all this performance and more.
- Specialized detector system for difficult-to-detect internally deposited actinides
- Closely-spaced detectors with low background
- Excellent resolution and high-sensitivity at low to moderate energies
- Operates in all attitudes from vertical upright to vertical downlooking
Germanium Array Detectors
The broad-band x-ray flux from synchrotron radiation sources has revitalized the relatively old experimental technique known as x-ray absorption spectrometry. X-ray absorption spectroscopy measures the attenuation of an x-ray beam passing through a sample, just as do the more familiar infrared or UV-visible techniques. Typical x-ray energies are on the order of 300 eV to 30 keV or more, compared to visible light of 2–3 eV and infrared energies of about 0.05–0.5 eV. High energy x-ray absorption transitions involve core electrons which are only slightly perturbed by chemical changes in the valence electrons, hence each element has characteristic absorption edges at which the x-ray energy is just sufficient to liberate a particular type of core electron. Since edges are generally well separated in energy, x-ray absorption is a technique which can uniquely probe the environment of any element from carbon through the transuranics. A generalized x-ray absorption spectrum is illustrated at right.
CANBERRA has been the leader in the development and production of Germanium Array Detectors for this application. Herein you will find a brief summary of our capabilities and products.
Discrete Array Detectors
Most of the x-ray array detectors manufactured by CANBERRA have been made with discrete LEGe or Ultra-LEGe detector elements coupled to reset preamplifiers. Because of the high count rates involved, the Integrated- Transistor Reset Preamp (I-TRP) is used exclusively in this application. The discrete element detectors take full advantage of the performance characteristics of LEGe and Ultra-LEGe detectors, notably the energy resolution with short pulse processing (shaping) times. These detectors operate well with shaping time constants of 1/8 μs and up. The Ultra-LEGe detector extends the usable energy range down to 300 eV or so, depending on the cryostat window. Because of the difficulty in handling large numbers of detector elements, discrete array detectors are limited to about 36 channels.
Monolithic Array Detectors
CANBERRA now has the capability to make segmented planar Ge detectors using advanced photolithographic techniques. This technology lends itself to the production of pixel detectors wherein multiple elements are formed in a single slice of germanium. Monolithic array detectors offer improved packing density compared to discrete array detectors. The packing density is defined as the active detector area divided by the total area circumscribed by the array. Monolithic detectors, which have no dead space between elements, have virtually 100% packing density. The packing density of discrete array detectors ranges from about 35 to 55%. Packing density is an important factor in applications requiring an optimized solid angle and best fit to detection area.


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2 lbs of boneless pork rib, cut into 1 inch cubes
1 cup red wine
1/4 cup flour
3 medium potatoes, peeled and cubed
2 cups broth, chicken or vegetable
2 leeks, halved and sliced
2 fennel bulbs, cut into thin 1 inch strips
2 cloves garlic, minced
2 carrots, cut into bite-sized pieces
2 tablespoons olive iil
1 teaspoon fennel seed
1 sprig fresh thyme
salt and pepper and paprika to taste
Season pork cubes with salt, pepper, and paprika. Put the flour in a bowl (a paper bag would work well also), add a bit of salt and pepper, and then toss the pork in the flour until it is coated. Heat the oil in a large flat-bottomed pot, add the pork, the garlic, and the fennel seeds. Brown the meat on all sides. Add the fennel and leeks. Cook, stirring, for about 10 minutes until the vegetables have started to soften. Add the wine to the pot and stir until the wine has thickened and the flour stuck to the pan has loosened, about 2 minutes. Add the broth and the thyme and bring to a boil. Turn the heat down low and cover the pan, simmering for 45 minutes. Skim the scum off the top periodically during this time. Then add the potatoes and carrots, and cook (stirring frequently) at a medium-low heat for 1 hour or until the carrots and potatoes are tender. Salt and pepper to taste. Serve hot.


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Single woman, not well-off, building a house. Researched thoroughly and decide the prudent thing to do is geothermal. I'm a cook, but I sacrificed the granite countertops, professional stove and good frig, in addition to other things, in order to pay three times what a conventional system would have cost. In the long run, I felt I would come out ahead. Chose what I thought was, at that time, the best company doing geothermal, Water Furnace.
$$$$ in repairs later (not maintenance work, but repairs to my upstairs unit and it's finally failed.
The pertinent facts:
Got a bad vibe right off the bat with the original contractor, so called the home office to request the name of another contractor. Was put in touch with the territory manager, who told me that this particular contractor was their best, and I should stick with him. He said that I would be making a mistake to use anyone else.
Upstairs unit never works properly and had to constantly be re-set to keep it functioning.
Several years later I phone territory manager and demand the name of a different contractor, which I am given.
After contractor #2 visits my house, he informs me that I don't have the main unit that was specified in my contract and for which I paid. Additionally, the pump that was installed with my system is not what I should have with my system, and that's why my second unit has never worked properly.
Two letters to contractor #1, copying Water Furnace, informing him about what I have just learned. No offer to make things right, so I contact two different attorneys who tell me that, even though I have just learned of the situation, the statute of limitations has passed and I have no redress through the courts or legal system.
The line to the upstairs unit collapsed and had to be replaced with PVC pipe to make the system work at all. I learn later that PVC is subject to leaks, which means I am also sitting on a time bomb.
In the meantime, several other service calls to keep it working.
Pump finally burns out. Contractor #2 quotes me a price of between $$$$ to replace it. I remember hearing some radio ads by one of the leading HVAC dealers in my area saying that they're now doing geothermal (by Water Furnace) so I contact them asking for help. They don't service my area, but I'm given the name of one of their sub-contractors who should help. (By the way, they're no longer selling Water Furnace, they're selling Climate Master).
He comes out, and for the price of $$$$ his crew replaces my pump kit, replaces the flow center, and changes all of the PVC pipes connected to the flow center with a different material.
Now the upstairs unit has finally failed and I'm replacing it with a conventional system, for which I'm still getting estimates. It makes no sense to leave it geothermal, since that would be putting it into a system that is designed to fail and which will continue to cost money to keep working.
By the time it's all done, I will have spent approximately $$$$ over and above the initial cost of my system. That's less than a conventional system would have cost me from the beginning. Needless to say, this has been a financial catastrophe for me.
Water Furnace says they never got either of my two letters, and supposedly don't know about my experience. However, I find it curious that shortly after my situation came to light, their "best" contractor was forbidden to sell their systems any longer. He was still allowed to service the systems he had already installed, however. I puzzled over that until it occurred to me that if new technicians start to service his other installations, they may find that others, like me, don't have the units for which they paid, which could really open up a can of worms. Water Furnace has gotten rid of a bad seed, but they've left me hanging out to dry with an installation that can't work.
These are just the highlights of my problems, I could write pages more. My advice to anyone considering geothermal is to be very careful of the company you chose to work with.


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Almost all new Linux wanna be guru (read as users who want to switch to Linux) asks a question:
I want to switch to Linux completely from Windows XP SP2. Which Linux version will be best – Redhat, SuSE, or other? I use my PC for:
Browsing Internet
Watching DVD / MP3
Writing CD/DVD
I'm also willing to spend a small amount of money if required to purchase Linux version.
Short answer is none. I can't suggest *distro* name.
Long answer:
Linux is all about choice and freedom. There are different Linux distribution exists with different goals. It is good idea to define your goals and select Linux distribution as per your requirements.
I like Redhat and Debian for server as they are rock solid stable and comes with good binary packaging system. Some will swear up by Knoppix Live CD.
Some people like Suse and other recommends Ubuntu. There are others who like to compile everything from scratch (Gentoo).
- Consider following factors while selecting Linux:
- Games
- Your Linux skill level
- Linux as server / network admin workstation
- Running Linux on a new Hardware / Laptop
- Running Linux on an older machine (486/PI/PII/Celeron)
- Multilingual support (Hindi / Japanese language user interface)
- Running Linux on Office PC for email and office work
- Community support
- Commercial support
Further readings:
- More on Linux distribution
- Comparison of Linux distributions
- Choosing a desktop Linux distro (another good article)
- Linux Distribution Chooser
Surely, there are dozens of other reasons to select specific distro, so please do share your views and suggestions 😀


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chuck out(redirected from chucked us out)
Like this video? Subscribe to our free daily email and get a new idiom video every day!
chuck (something) out
To throw away or dispose of something. It always annoyed me having to chuck out so much of people's food when I worked in the restaurant. I think it's about time we chuck the old clothes out.
chuck out
1. To force someone to leave a place, perhaps violently. A noun or pronoun can be used between "chuck" and "out." They chucked us out of the movie for talking.
2. To dispose of something. A noun or pronoun can be used between "chuck" and "out." I need to chuck these old clothes out because they haven't fit me in years. Please chuck out all of those papers on the floor.


text: gosh-darned hackers just refuse to get off Sony's lawn, serving up yet another exploit for the outfit's latest baby, the PlayStation Vita. Well, sort of -- the Vita's own code hasn't been breached, but it sure plays nice with PlayStation 3 custom firmware 3.55. The PS3 tweak apparently recognizes the Vita as a mobile phone, which somehow allows it to Remote Play a wider assortment of PS3 games than normal. It's not all unicorns and double rainbows, however, as input lag appears to be an issue -- but it should help tide over enterprising Vita owners until Sony officially expands its list of Remote Play-compatible titles. In the meantime, those on the straight and narrow can console themselves with the Vita's recently updated 3G data plan. Hit the break to see the trick cram Battlefield 3 onto the small screen.


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Watch: Trailer of "Bully," the doc the MPAA was wrong about
In the end, the Motion Picture Association of America's ratings arm CARA (the Classification & Rating Association) did not bend to gale-force of pressure and lower its R rating for Lee Hirsch's documentary "Bully" to a PG-13.
Monday the Weinstein Company, the movie's distributor, announced it will release "Bully" without a rating March 30 in New York and L.A. It's slated to open in Denver April 13.
The Weinstein Company hoped that the 475,000 signatures Michigan's Katy Butler — a onetime bullied student — delivered to the MPAA in early March would persuade the organization to grant a lower rating on appeal. It didn't. Nor did the support of public figures Rev. Jesse Jackson, Anderson Cooper, Drew Brees, Meryl Streep and Johnny Depp to name a very few.
Mad Moviegoer held off on judging the MPAA too harshly for a rating based on brief (and unfortunately accurate) language or second-hand reporting until I saw a screening.
Afterward, it was hard not to be deeply disappointed in a process so rigid it gives an R rating to a documentary that shows kids what so many of them already live with when the same ratings system allows depictions of gratiuous violence with great regularity in its PG-13 fare. But you've heard this lament before.
Worse things can happen than "Bully" going into theaters with no rating. While the film can't get the widespread, school screenings it might otherwise have (a great loss to be sure), parents and chaperons can — and should — take younguns' to see the film, then have a conversation. Blogging on the MPAA website said as much. , Joan Graves, chair of the MPAA's Classification and Rating Administration. And the comments posted on the parent-aiding site Common Sense are worth a read.
But it's also worth remembering Weinstein Company co-founder Harvey Weinstein is very good fueling and utilizing spin. Film critics and others were right to take aim at CARA on its R rating of "The King's Speech" in 2010. But it was a bit dispiriting that after the film's Academy Award for best picture the indie studio went ahead and re-released a version of film edited for a PG-13 rating (reportedly against the director's and stars' wishes no less). Bottom line seemed to trump artistic and ethical considerations.
What does this mean for moviegoers? In a Tuesday morning email, John Fithian, president and CEO of the National Association of Theatre Owners (who copartner with the MPAA on CARA) replied: "I can simply tell you that each individual theater company will decide if they want to play the movie or not, consistent with their own company's policies on unrated movies. NATO has suggested to our members, though, that if they do decide to play the movie, they should treat it as an "R" rated movie, given the fact that the movie was assigned an "R" by the ratings board and the content of the movie has not been changed since then."


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Olympic Volleyball Player Kerri Walsh Eats a Banana, Wins Gold
This video funded by the U.S. Department of Health & Human Service's Small Step program features Olympic gold medalists Kerri Walsh and Misty May-Treanor (filmed before they won yesterday) plugging healthy food. Along with the cast of the animated Christian show 3-2-1 Penguins!, the women promote their idea of a "balanced" diet—one drastically different from that of fellow American athlete Michael Phelps.
Says Kerri Walsh:
My favorite snack is a banana because it gives me all the energy I need to before a big match.
A banana? No three sandwiches of fried eggs, grits, French toast, and chocolate chip pancakes? Phelps would scoff. Then he would eat a banana as if it were the Runts candy version. Watch the banana-promoting video after the jump.
Kerri Walsh Eats a Banana to Win Gold
Olympic Gymnast Shawn Johnson in Butter Form
McDonald's to Offer Olympics-Inspired Menus Around the World
China Promises Safe Food for 2008 Olympics
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