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Dr. A. V. Baliga Memorial Trust
A Brief Overview
Dr. A. V. Baliga Memorial Trust founded by great freedom fighter Bharat Ratna Aruna Asaf Ali is a non profit organization operating its diversified activities in slums and resettlement colonies of National Capital Territory of Delhi and performing various developmental activities comprising livelihood promotion, child rights and protection, education, health, and addressing the issues for the empowerment of youth and women for over four decades. The trust has emerged as a multi-disciplinary organization and focuses on marginalized and disadvantaged people belonging to socio-economically weaker sections of the society especially youth and women for their socio-economic rehabilitation through skills development and vocational training, health and financial inclusion programs since 1968. After relentless effort for over four decades towards the betterment of the less privileged community, the Trust speeded its developmental drive to reach more and more unreached people but with a commitment to adhere to the values and standard set by the organization. Accountability, Transparency and Commitment is an integral part of our development process. Baliga Trust in its indomitable style performed, achieved and contributed to a peaceful, just and friendly society through its pursuits in the sphere of development and liberation.
To endeavor to bring about a secular nationally integrated egalitarian society empowering the disadvantaged through education, awareness and employment opportunities.
To break down barriers of negativity in religion, caste and gender. Education for all, Universalization of elementary education, ensuring the child rights. A secular society in learning and living environment, more employment through focused awareness programs and empowered women.
To create a democratic, non violent, classless society without any discrimination of caste, gender, age, religion, class and race through involving Government, Non Government and Other developmental agencies.
Approaches: The blending of right based and need based approaches is visible in our intervention. These reflect a resolute focus on our commitment to make a difference in the society.
Strategies: Our major strategies for years were advocacy, awareness, capacity building, networking, linkages and service delivery.
Geographical Area: Resettlement, slums and Kachchi colonies of Mangolpuri, Sultanpuri, Narela and Holambikalan in North west District while Bheem Nagar, Nangloi, Nihal Vihar, Prem Nagar Kiradi, Jwalapuri, Udyog Nagar and Khyala and Meerabag in West District and Basti Khwaja Meer Dard in Central District.
Our Major Thrusts:
- Education: The education program consists of five types of interventions – Learning Centers(Bridge course) and Balwadies for preparing out of school children to mainstream them into regular schools, Remedial Classes for retention of children, particularly the girl child in schools, Continuing education Centers (including adult literacy) and Condensed Course Centers for young drop-out girls who yearn to get a formal certification for secondary and higher secondary education. Cluster Resource Center supplements the effort of above mentioned education centers.
- Child Rights: Child Centered Community Development Program– with right based approach towards ensuring the major rights –survival, protection, participation and development of children. Chuppi Todo – Campaign Against Child Sexual Abuse, Campaign Against Child Labour, Because I am a Girl Campaign, Right to Education Campaign.
- Health, Water, Environment and Sanitation: Advocacy, awareness, capacity building, linkages, networking and service delivery as integral part of the intervention. Emphasis on preventive,promotive & curative measures and population education. The focus was on Women and children but all age groups being covered with need based activities. Community and Children Groups such as Cohesive Community Action Groups, Slum Health and Sanitation Team WES monitoring Committee of School children are major stakeholders while a new band of Community Health Volunteers proved to be backbone of health intervention program.
Women Empowerment, Financial Inclusion and Skill development – Financial Inclusion/Banking on Change, Skill enhancement and income generation for under privileged women and youth: Over18000 under privileged women organized in Self Help group and out of that over 7000 women engaged in income generation program over the years. Again, over 2500 young girls are placed in regular jobs. Gender Resource Center, Women solidarity Groups, Self Help Groups, Vocational and job oriented Training programs, income generation activities, financial inclusion, finance literacy, Cooperative society with the aim of empowering women by providing skill enhancement as part of an overall holistic development program as well as adult and continuing education.
- Family counseling and legal literacy: providing counseling and legal support to needy women of the disadvantaged communities backed by awareness camps.
- Art and Craft: providing training and promoting conventional arts.
The values of secularism, national integration and peace pervade all activities of the Trust.
Some remarkable achievements at a glance
Adult Literacy and Continuing Education: Over 20,000 women made literate over the years.
Mainstreaming and retention of out of school children: Over 18,000 out of school children enrolled into regular schools.
Ensured retention of over 10,000 at risk school going children.
Financial Inclusion, Skill enhancement and income generation for under privileged women and youth: Over 18000 under privileged women engaged in Self Help group and out of that over 7000 women engaged in income generation program through over the years. Again, over 2000 youth are placed in regular jobs.
Chuppi Todo – Campaign Against Child Sexual Abuse: The innovative advocacy program to address the issue of child protection especially against Child sexual abuse. Reached over ten million people through live media, TV spots, 95.0 FM Radio, screening of film – Chuppi Todo. Addressing the issue through holistic approach covering children, parents, schools, government and non government stakeholders, civil societies and Police.
Sensitization of Police Personnel for child protection: over 5000 Police personnel at Police Station level were sensitized on Juvenile Justice Act and POCSO Act in a period of three years. The Trust is a resource agency for Outer District to train and sensitize Police Personnel.
Reaching unreached through Mobile health Unit: Over1,00,000 under privileged patients especially women and children were benefitted in a period of three years through static Health Clinics and Mobile Health Van.
Networks, Technical Alliances and Collaborations
- CHILD RIGHTS FOR WORLD SOCIAL FORUM (the Trust is Convener)
- CAMPAIGN AGAINST CHILD LABOUR – DELHI (Co -convener and hosts the Secretariat).
- Delhi State Co-operative Societies
- JAN SWASTHYA ABHIYAN – DELHI (Co -convener)
- State Resource Center, Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi
- PAC – DIET, Dariaganj, Delhi
The Trust has had the privilege of partnership with the following organizations:
- Plan International/Plan India
- HPS Social Welfare Foundation.
- Integrated Village Development Trust, U.K.
- Ministry of HRD, Govt. of India.
- Directorate of Education, Delhi.
- Delhi Social Welfare Advisory Board.
- Central Social Welfare Board
- Directorate of Social Welfare
- State Resource Centre, Jamia Millia Islamia
- National Institute of Urban Affairs.
- Rajiv Gandhi Foundation.
- Concern India Foundation.
- Delhi Commission for Women.
- Reach India (USAID)
- Terre des Hommes –(Germany) India Program
- Penguin Books India Ltd.
- Isle of Man, U.K.
- TEACH India, Times of India
- Save the Children – Bal Raksha Bharat
Board of Trustees:
Mrs. Binoo Sen. Retd. IAS, – President
Mrs. Ranjana Ray, Founder Member Secretary
Dr. (Ms.) Varsha Das – Ex Director, National Book Trust
Advocate Jitender Sharma, Senior Advocate, Supreme Court
Mrs. Amarjeet Kaur, Social worker and Activist
Mrs. Sarla Sharma, Social worker and Activist
Mr. Samiur Rahman, Treasurer
Dr. Koninika Ray, Social worker and Activist
Mr. Ashok Kumar, Ex officio Member,
Ashok Kumar
Executive Director
Dr A V Baliga Memorial Trust
Patriot House, 3 BSZ Marg
Press Area, New Delhi – 111 002
Annual Reports


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The International Gymnastics Federation has rejected North Korea's appeal of its 30-day competition ban, confirming the nation's gymnasts cannot compete at the world championships in Rotterdam.
"The arguments and explanations provided [by the North Korean gymnastics federation] do not justify a reconsideration of the provisional decision made by the President of the FIG Disciplinary Commission," the FIG stated.
On Sept. 30, IG reported that North Korean gymnast Hong Su Jong had been registered with three different birth dates, including one that would have made her ineligible for the 2004 Olympic Games. After appearing with birth dates of March 9, 1985 and March 9, 1986, Hong was registered for the 2010 Worlds with a birthdate of March 9, 1989. Hong was a member of the 12th-place North Korean team at the 2004 Olympics, which was open to gymnasts born in 1988 and earlier.
The latest birth date for Hong Su Jong confirms the long-held suspicion that she and her sister are twins. Hong Un Jong, the 2008 Olympic champion on vault, has always been registered with a birth date of March 9, 1989.
On Oct. 6, the FIG's Disciplinary Commission handed down the provisional suspension to the North Korean gymnastics federation, banning the gymnasts from competing in any international or even national event.
The North Korean federation filed an appeal, in order to allow its gymnasts to compete at the world championships, which begin Saturday. The appeal was rejected.
The Hong case is the second disciplinary action the FIG has taken against North Korea. In 1993, the North Korean women were unable to compete at the world championships because world champion Kim Gwang Suk had been registered as being 15 years old for three consecutive years.
The FIG went one step further for the Hong Su Jong case, banning the North Korean men as well. North Korean vaulter Ri Se Gwang — the only gymnast performing two vaults worth the maximum 7.2 in difficulty — will be unable to challenge for a medal in Rotterdam.
The FIG may take further action against the North Koreans, suspending them for a longer period of time. The federation also could strip Hong Su Jong of her silver medal on vault at the 2007 World Championships, even though she was age eligible at the time. The FIG stated it was investigating North Korea not just for age falsification, but also for "false registrations." If Hong Su Jong's year of birth is confirmed to be 1989, it would mean she was registered using a falsified passport in Stuttgart, where her year of birth was listed as 1986.
"The FIG Disciplinary Commission will meet in the near future and will invite the parties to a hearing, before finalizing and delivering its conclusions to the FIG Presidential Commission," the FIG stated.
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"Only the earth itself spins without the help of SKF"*That is of course a huge exaggeration. But as a leading knowledge engineering company we are committed to help things run better – by reducing friction. We have a strong drive to support our customers with cutting-edge solutions for a wide range of applications that stretch from wind farms and offshore oilrigs, to high-speed trains, washing machines and millions of motorcycles, trucks and cars. Our 46,000 employees in 130 countries enjoy exceptional career opportunities, intercultural teamwork and a highly varied professional environment focused on delivering strong operational and environmental benefits.
With your talent and our resources, there can be no limits to the possibilities that we can create together. Welcome to SKF, and a world of opportunities.
*Quote from the book "The soul of SKF"
Welcome to SKF - a world of opportunities
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Be part of a global network where the resources and possibilities to innovate are endless. Face exciting challenges, varied tasks and the opportunity to use your experience and lead teams of dedicated and highly motivated people.
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Everything and anything is possible when you are empowered with the right knowledge. At SKF, we believe in providing a dynamic and open environment that challenges people to achieve the extraordinary.
Discover more about us
Since our beginning, SKF has focused on growth in the areas of technology, industrial experience and world-wide presence. Our five technology platforms are bearings and units, seals, mechatronics, services and lubrication systems.


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The residences at the Grand Colorado on Peak 8 are inspired by the mountain environment that surrounds the resort. Well-thought-out architectural details that seem born of the surrounding landscape, spacious floor plans designed for comfortable mountain living and plush furnishings that bring a superior level of sophistication to the resort all create an atmosphere of a luxurious home away from home.
With a total of 400 square feet, Suite Residences feature a king bed, a queen sleeper sofa in the living area, flat-screen LCD TVs and a kitchenette.
For a more detailed description or to book lodging, please feel free to call us at 866-539-2102.
Residence Amenities:
- Authentic natural materials
- Stainless steel appliances
- Flat-screen televisions
- Spacious living and dining areas
- Granite countertops
- Fully equipped kitchenettes
- Wireless internet
Resort Amenities:
- Indoor/outdoor aquatics
- Spacious outdoor grilling area
- Outdoor seating area with fire ring
- Infinity Spa and grotto
- Fitness center
- Lobby lounge
- Private movie theaters
- Robbie's Tavern at the Bergenhof
- Family fun center
- Activities program
- On-site ski lockers
Suite Residence Floor Plan:
*Any representation as to square footage is approximate. The square footage or floor areas shown in any marketing or other materials may be more or less than the actual size and square footage of the residential unit, common area, or any other portion of the project. The developer/seller reserves the right to change features, amenities and pricing without notice. Renderings, photography, illustrations, floor plans, amenities, finishes and other information described herein are representative only and are not intended to reflect any specific feature, amenity, unit condition or view when built. The actual condition of the project, amenity or unit, when and if completed, will control. There is no representation or warranty that any particular improvement or amenity will be constructed or constructed as shown. No representations and warranties are made with regard to the accuracy, completeness or suitability of the information published herein. The information presented is proposed and should not be relied upon as a basis for purchasing. Prices and availability are subject to change at any time without notice. Obtain and review the Colorado Disclosure Document for the Grand Colorado on Peak 8 project and the Residential Contract to Buy and Sell Grand Colorado on Peak 8 made available in accordance with Colorado law before signing anything.


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St. Paul, Minn., October 26, 2013 – The Washington University in St. Louis football team put together its best defensive effort of the season in a 7-0 win at Macalester College Saturday afternoon in St. Paul, Minn.
Sophomore running back Cody Ratermannbroke the scoreless tie with a 15-yard touchdown run with 7:55 left in the fourth quarter. Macalester drove down to the one-yard line on the ensuing possession after a long run by junior QB Samson Bialostok. WUSTL's defense slammed the door and preserved the shutout with four-consecutive stops, including two from the one-inch line.
Washington University improves its overall record to 5-2 with its fourth-straight win, while Macalester drops its fourth-straight game to fall to 2-5. The Bears are 5-2 for the first since 2010, when Washington U. finished with a 7-3 record.
Washington U.' defense forced eight punts and three turnovers in the victory. The Bears limited Macalester to 238 yards of total offense in the win (170 rushing, 68 passing). Bialostok ran for 129 yards on 18 carries, and was 9-of-24 for 68 yards and an interception through the air.
It was an offensive struggle for both teams in the first half with the winds gusting at 20 miles per hour on a brisk day in the Twin Cities. Washington U.'s defense forced five punts and two turnovers in the opening half of play.
Macalester had a pair of chances to break the tie in the second quarter against a WUSTL defense that spent most of the first half on the field. Junior wide receiver Tim Bartholomew fumbled on a reverse call on 2nd-and-20 deep in the Scots' territory, but the WUSTL defense came up with a forced fumble. The Scots had another opportunity with less than a minute to go before half, but Bialostok was picked off at the two-yard line by sophomore Quincy Marting to halt the drive.
Washington U.'s offense totaled 230 yards of total offense (124 rushing, 111 passing) in the win and punted six times. Senior quarterback Eric Daginella threw for 111 yards on 14-of-23 passes, while adding 29 yard rushing. Ratermann (11 carries, 4-0 yards) and sophomore running back Alex Graham (four carries, 29 yards) filled in for junior starter Zach Lonneman, who was injured in the first quarter.
Junior linebacker Fade Oluokun led the defensive unit with nine tackles, two tackles for loss and a forced fumble.
Washington U. opens University Athletic Association (UAA) play and concludes a three-game road trip at Carnegie Mellon University Saturday, Nov. 2. Game time is set for Noon (ET) in Pittsburgh.
Bear Notebook: Washington U. leads the all-time series with Macalester, 4-1, and the two teams met for the first time since 1977 … The win for the Bears was their 499th in school history … Washington U. is 5-5 in games played after a bye week since 2004 … The shutout for Washington U. was its first since Oct. 3, 2009 – a 23-0 win vs. Rhodes … The Bears practiced at the Metrodome Friday afternoon after staying Thursday night in Iowa City, Iowa.


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Alice Leny witnessed the firing of a target missile from Kwajalein missile base in 2000. The missile was intended to intercept a target fired from Vandenburg Air Force Base in California. It missed. This was Alice's audio report, radioed in live as the missile was fired and two Greenpeace activists breached the security around the launch.
© Greenpeace
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(CMT Offstage keeps a 24/7 watch on everything that's happening with country music artists behind the scenes and out of the spotlight.)
I have not listened to Kenny Chesney's upcoming album, Welcome to the Fishbowl. But there is a song on it I know I'm going to be crazy about from the title alone. "While He Still Knows Who I Am" is, according to Billboard , a song about someone going back home to visit a father who has Alzheimer's disease. But Chesney told the magazine, "It's got so much more than that." He says there's an element of searching in it. "This guy's going back to reconnect with his father, but in a sense he's trying to connect with himself, too. He's busy and he's getting lost in the world, and that was me to a T, really," Chesney said. (That makes it sound very "Cat's in the Cradle.") He adds, "It's interesting that I have this knack for connecting with thousands of people in an audience and, in an ironic kind of way, in the middle of doing that I've felt this disconnect from the people that love and care about me the most and molded me as a person growing up in East Tennessee." I don't know any more than that. I don't know if Chesney comes out and sings the word "Alzheimer's" (because honestly, what rhymes with that?) in the song. I don't know if it has a happy or sad ending. And I don't know if it forced Chesney to do some reconnecting of his own. I just know I'm going to love it like I love all of his heartbreaking songs: "Don't Blink," "The Good Stuff," "Who You'd Be Today" and "There Goes My Life."


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Create real-time, highly interactive apps quickly with the powerful XMPP protocol
XMPP is a robust protocol used for a wide range of applications, including instant messaging, multi-user chat, voice and video conferencing, collaborative spaces, real-time gaming, data synchronization, and search. This book teaches you how to harness the power of XMPP in your own apps and presents you with all the tools you need to build the next generation of apps using XMPP or add new features to your current apps. Featuring the JavaScript language throughout and making use of the jQuery library, the book contains several XMPP apps of increasing complexity that serve as ideal learning tools.
Coverage Includes:
Note: CD-ROM/DVD and other supplementary materials are not included as part of eBook file.


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Thanks for recommending us, Scott! We find a lot of designers really love our Portfolio and Blog features since they are great ways to promote their work.
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We're looking for an affordable or mid-range retirement community with nearby golf courses. There are a few options including one in PA, Alden Place, which has near access to golf courses. We're open to a few recommendations though. Hopefully those near this area.


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The New Mexico Wilderness Alliance is a grassroots, member-based organization. The work we accomplish is only possible through support from individuals like you. You can take positive steps to support the New Mexico Wilderness Alliance:
If you are interested in donating stock, please call us at 505-843-8696 ext. 106 to obtain our brokerage account information.


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Help us to make this the most complete winners of the best of the Web. Just fill out the info below and we'll be in touch. Thanks!
Sites that promote personal health and well-being on behalf of a brand or organization. These include medical services, prescription medicine, alternative medicine, health and lifestyle, and fitness.


text: The Women's Fund GO Ahead & Play is a public art project led by 6th-12th grade GO: Give Back students. GO students are using their talent, time and leadership to bring art and music to central Indiana. The project is completely student-driven and is guided by parents and Women's Fund staff.


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Herbert Hoover Knecht of Dover, DE, passed away at home on Saturday, August 4, 2012 at the age of 83.
Herbert Hoover Knecht of Dover, DE, passed away at home on Saturday, August 4, 2012 at the age of 83.
Mr. Knecht was born November 17, 1928 in Stillwater, NJ, the son of the late Lewis and Rachael Knecht.
He was a lifetime Owner/Operator with Allied Van Lines until his retirement.
Herbert enjoyed mechanics and restoring old cars and was a long time member of Audubon-Parkside Masonic Lodge 218 of Audubon, NJ.
In addition to his parents, he was preceded in death by his wife, Orpha in 2004; a daughter, Nancy; four brothers; and two sisters.
He is survived by two daughters, Linda G. Holonia (Paul) of Audubon, NJ and Deborah L. Roussell of Clayton, DE; two sisters, Trudy Simpson (Charles) of Sussex, NJ and Margaret Strunk (Ben) of Washington, NJ; seven grandchildren, Rachel (John), Jason, Joshua, Steven, Rebekah (Russ), Michael and his fiancée Tiffany, and Sharon; twelve great grandchildren, Colin, Derek, Samantha, Steven Jr., Abigail, Natalie, Elijah, Paige, Michael Jr., Mikey, Ana, and Zachary.
A viewing will be held on Thursday, August 9, 2012 from 10 to 11 a.m., in the Faries Funeral Chapel, located at 29 S. Main St., Smyrna, Funeral services will begin at 11 a.m. Burial will follow in Glenwood Cemetery in Smyrna, DE.
In lieu of flowers, the family suggests contributions be made to Delaware Hospice, 911 South DuPont Hwy., Dover, DE 19904.
Condolence letters may be sent by visiting www.fariesfuneralhome.com.


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Auditory Processing in the Aging Brain
Summary and Keywords
Age-related hearing loss affects over half of the elderly population, yet it remains poorly understood. Natural aging can cause the input to the brain from the cochlea to be progressively compromised in most individuals, but in many cases the cochlea has relatively normal sensitivity and yet people have an increasingly difficult time processing complex auditory stimuli. The two main deficits are in sound localization and temporal processing, which lead to poor speech perception. Animal models have shown that there are multiple changes in the brainstem, midbrain, and thalamic auditory areas as a function of age, giving rise to an alteration in the excitatory/inhibitory balance of these neurons. This alteration is manifest in the cerebral cortex as higher spontaneous and driven firing rates, as well as broader spatial and temporal tuning. These alterations in cortical responses could underlie the hearing and speech processing deficits that are common in the aged population.
Keywords: aging, age-related hearing loss, auditory processing, ascending auditory system, auditory cortex, primate, rodent
Neural representations are continuously changing throughout one's lifetime. Starting early in development, dramatic changes take place in the number of neurons, synaptic strengths, dendritic and axonal arborizations, and myelination. These processes are believed to be largely completed in early adulthood, but functional changes can continue to occur throughout the lifespan. This "adult plasticity" is thought to be largely related to changes in behavioral and perceptual abilities, and in that sense it is adaptive for the individual. However, detrimental changes are also recognized, for example, in cases of tinnitus (see Eggermont & Tass, 2015) or phantom limb pain (see Luo & Anderson, 2016). These are examples of maladaptive plasticity that occur in some people, however natural aging also results in profound changes in the ability of most people and animals to process and perceive sensory stimuli. These perceptual deficit have been shown in all sensory systems, and some of them can be attributed to problems in the sensory periphery, such as the optics of the eye, changes in skin dynamics, and cochlear pathology. However, changes noted in the cerebral cortex are not fully explained by these peripheral changes (Frisina & Frisina, 1997; Wang et al., 2005; David-Jurgens et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2008; Juarez-Salinas et al., 2010; Engle & Recanzone, 2013). Studies in the auditory system have begun to shed new light on how natural aging can alter not only the periphery, but also neural processing all along the ascending neural pathways through the brainstem, midbrain, thalamus and cortex. While most studies have been done in rodents or humans, more recent studies in nonhuman primates are beginning to provide further clues as to how cortical activity could potentially account for age-related hearing deficits. This article summarizes some of the key studies in this area but is in no way exhaustive.
Age-Related Hearing Loss
Age-related hearing loss, or presbycusis, is a major sensory deficit afflicting the aged. Study results vary, but it has been estimated that across the U.S. population, age-related hearing loss starts in middle age (~2 percent for adults aged 45–54 years) and progresses, with increasing numbers of adults suffering disabling hearing loss (8.5 percent for those aged 55–64 years) until nearly a quarter of early retirees (65–74 years) and half of those over 75 years of age are afflicted (NIDCD). While these rather large numbers are startling, they do not encompass all of the individuals who also suffer from age-related hearing deficits. In this instance, a person may have a normal audiogram, and therefore can "hear fine," and yet is still unable to process complex auditory signals as well as when he or she was younger. This is most prevalent as deficits in understanding speech, particularly in noisy environments (see Gordon-Salant, 2005). These deficits can lead to social isolation, depression, dementia, and other mental disorders as the individuals withdraw from society owing to their lack of communication skills (see Genther et al., 2015; Deal et al., 2016; Nirmalasari et al., 2016). Pinpointing what specific processing deficits exist in aged human subjects can provide some insights into the neural changes that could underlie these deficits.
Psychophysically Measured Deficits
In the laboratory, age-related hearing deficits can be broadly placed into spatial and temporal categories. In most studies of human subjects, the intensity of the stimuli is equated with the audiogram of the individual, so that the sensation level is the same across subjects. This leaves only the processing itself that is being tested, as the stimuli are the same "loudness" across subjects. Such studies have indicated that aged humans have spatial processing deficits across a number of different stimuli (Abel et al., 2000; Dobreva et al., 2011; Otte et al., 2013). The consequences of these conditions have been suggested to partially underlie speech processing deficits in noisy environments, such as the "cocktail party" environment. If one cannot accurately localize the sound source of interest, it is more difficult to allocate attention to that particular location in space. Thus, one question that arises is how aging affects the auditory regions that are processing spatial information, particularly in the superior olivary complex and the cerebral cortex.
In addition to spatial processing deficits, temporal processing deficits have also been demonstrated in a number of different ways. As speech can be parsed into a number of different acoustic structures, these basic elements have been tested in young versus aged humans (see Gordon-Salant, 2005; Gordon-Salant et al., 2011). For example, stop-consonants result in a break in the acoustic stream, which can be modeled by varying the duration of a gap in a noise burst. Such studies have demonstrated that older subjects need longer gap lengths for them to perceive that there were two noise bursts instead of one (Ozmeral et al., 2016). Similarly, the envelope of a speech signal, which parses the different syllabi, is an important component of speech perception (He et al., 2008) and can explain much of the success of cochlear implants, particularly those with few electrodes (Kalkman et al., 2016). This can be modeled in the laboratory as varying the depth and/or frequency of an amplitude-modulated noise. Such studies are also consistent in that older subjects have a more difficult time discriminating different temporal aspects of sounds (Fitzgibbons & Gordon-Salant, 1996; Gordon-Salant, 2005; He et al., 2008). Thus, these spatial and temporal processing deficits that likely underlie the speech processing deficits experienced by aged subjects can be used in animal studies to help determine how neural processing changes could underlie these deficits.
Anatomical Changes Throughout the Ascending Auditory System
Early studies by Schuknecht and colleagues investigated cochlear histopathologies in subjects who died within six months of measurements of their audiograms (Schuknecht, 1955, 1964; Ramadan & Schuknecht, 1989). These studies indicated that four main cochlear histopathologies could underlie audiometric deficits. The first three included degradation of the neural elements of the cochlea, the inner hair cells, outer hair cells, and spiral ganglion cells. The fourth was the thickness of the stria vascularis, which supports the cochlear high K+ environment of the scala media, that is, the "cochlear battery." These ideas have been tested in various animal models and recently in the macaque monkey. The macaque monkey ages at about three times the rate of humans (Davis & Leathers, 1985). Recent studies using the auditory brainstem response to test hearing ability across monkeys spanning the equivalent of 30–90+ human years of age indicate that this species suffers from age-related hearing loss across their lifespan in a manner similar to that seen in humans and other mammals (Ng et al., 2015). In a subset of these monkeys, Engle et al. (2013) investigated the cochlear histopathologies of monkeys with varying degrees of age and age-related hearing loss and compared these histopathologies to the measured hearing ability of that particular animal. This study revealed the surprising finding that there was no consistent relationship either with age, with the hearing ability, or any single histopathology. Instead, it was the number of histopathologies that increased with increasing age. Thus, for two monkeys with what would be considered mild hearing loss, one monkey could have a reduction in inner hair cells, whereas the other could have a reduction in spiral ganglion cells. Similarly, two monkeys with more severe hearing loss would have two deficits (i.e., inner and outer hair cell loss) but not necessarily the same two.
If we consider that a similar phenomenon occurs in humans, where different cochlear histopathologies arise over the course of time but at different time courses in different individuals, it could account for the wide variability that is observed in the aged human population. It also has treatment implications, as hearing aids could be very beneficial for someone with outer hair cell damage but not necessarily effective for someone with spiral ganglion cell damage. In the end, of course, the results of these different cochlear histopathologies will result in a decrease in the excitatory output from the cochlea to the central nervous system. How, then, can the central nervous system respond to this decreased excitatory drive from the cochlea?
Brainstem and Midbrain
One experimental strategy that has been used to understand changes throughout the auditory nervous system is to stain neurons with antibodies or other markers associated with excitatory or inhibitory transmission. Popular targets include glutamate receptors and GABA receptor precursors (Tadros et al., 2007; Caspary et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2011). Other targets have included calcium-binding proteins such as calbindin, calretinin, and parvalbumin. These studies in both rodents and nonhuman primates are all converging on the same general notions that there are widespread changes in the excitatory/inhibitory balance as well as in the regulation of intracellular calcium throughout the ascending auditory system as a function of age and hearing deficits. These changes, however, show considerable differences between different species (i.e., mice, rats, monkeys, and likely humans), but also in some cases in different strains of the same species (reviewed by Ouda et al., 2015; Gray & Recanzone, 2016).
The cochlear nucleus (CN) is the first central auditory structure to receive input from the cochlea via the auditory nerve. The CN can be subdivided into three distinct nuclei, all of which receive input from each spiral ganglion cell leaving the cochlea: the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN), anterior ventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN), and the posterior ventral cochlear nucleus (PVCN; Ehret & Romand, 1997). In mice, if one looks at the distribution of the calcium-binding proteins parvalbumin, calbindin and calretinin, there is an increase in both the DCN and PVCN, but not AVCN, despite a decline in total cell density (Idrizbegovic et al., 2003, 2004, 2006; Zettel et al., 2003). Analogous research in monkeys is sparse, but one study found that parvalbumin expression remained constant with age across the three subdivisions of the CN (Gray et al., 2014a). However, given the large number of different calcium binding proteins and calcium-dependent proteins, it could be that the monkey has a different cellular mechanism to adapt to the decreased excitatory drive from the cochlea. For example, the same study in monkeys saw an increase in the density of neurons containing the molecule NADPHd (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydrogen phosphate diaphorase), but only within the PVCN. This molecule has been associated with calbindin in other brain structures in the monkey, but that was not tested in the Gray et al. (2014a) study, so it is unknown which CaBPs, if any, NADPHd co-localizes with in the primate CN. Additionally, as Gray et al. (2014a) tested only PV, there are likely age-related changes in the cell densities of neurons expressing other CaBPs in the aged CN of the macaque.
The next main structure in the ascending auditory system is the superior olivary complex (SOC). This structure is divided into the medial and lateral superior olive (MSO and LSO, respectively) and the nucleus of the trapezoid body (NTB). The SOC is the first region of binaural integration in the auditory system (Reuss, 2000; Tollin, 2003) and processes the three major cues for sound localization along the horizon. Differences in the time and phase that the sounds reach the two ears are processed in the MSO, which is responsive primarily to low frequencies where these cues are less ambiguous. The differences in the intensity of the sound between the two ears are processed in the LSO, where high frequencies provide the most salient information (Jeffress, 1948; Galambos et al., 1959; Boudreau & Tsuchitani, 1968; Guinan et al., 1972). The emphasis of these different frequency ranges is reflected in the size of the nuclei based on the hearing range of the particular species. For example, the MSO is greatly reduced in rodents compared to macaques, since most rodents, such as mice and rats, have a higher frequency hearing range compared to macaques (Yin, 2002; Heffner & Heffner, 2007). The NTB is a source of input to both the MSO and LSO. It receives excitatory input from the contralateral CN and then sends glycinergic inhibitory outputs to the MSO and LSO, which also receive direct excitatory input from the ipsilateral CN (Banks & Smith, 1992; Thompson & Schofield, 2000). Our current understanding is that the comparisons between these excitatory and inhibitory inputs play a significant role in the representation of interaural difference cues in the SOC.
As noted above, sound localization deficits are a hallmark of age-related hearing loss, so how this structure is affected by natural aging is of key interest. Unfortunately, given its location and the small size of this structure, it has been little studied beyond in the cat (see Yin & Chan, 1990; Joris & Yin, 1998; Tollin et al., 2009a, 2009b). Age-related studies have shown that the rodent NTB has the most pronounced anatomical changes (Casey, 1990), and both CaBPs and NADPHd increase as well (O'Neill et al., 1997; Reuss, 2000). Gray et al. (2013a) reported that PV and NADPHd increases are localized exclusively to the macaque MSO, and not the NTB or LSO. Functionally, these interspecies differences can be accounted for by the differences in hearing abilities between rodents compared to primates, as discussed earlier.
As inputs ascend throughout the brainstem, there is an obligatory input to the inferior colliculus (IC) in the midbrain, which receives inputs from the SOC (Webster, 1995; Oliver, 2000; Reuss, 2000), as well as from fusiform cells of the DCN, which are tuned to sound locations in elevation (Young & Davis, 2002). This convergence of spatial information suggests that the IC can represent sound source location in two-dimensional space (Zwiers et al., 2004). Interestingly, the IC is also the first nucleus to show pronounced separation of the PV- and CB-defined parallel processing pathways characteristic of the ascending auditory system (see Jones, 2003), demonstrating that along with functional specificity, the IC contains a level of chemical specificity not seen in lower auditory nuclei. Specifically, the lemniscal (direct) pathway ascends through the central nucleus of the IC (ICc) and is primarily PV positive, whereas the nonlemniscal (indirect) pathway ascends through the peripheral cortex region of the IC (ICx) and is primarily CB positive.
Age-related histochemical studies have been conducted in both rodents and monkeys. Overall, these results vary between species and even between different strains of the same species. For example, age-related increases in PV and decreases in CB and CR have been reported (Ouda et al., 2008, 2012), whereas other studies have seen increases in CR (Zettel et al., 1997, 2001). In the macaque both the ICc and the ICx increase PV expression with age (Engle et al., 2013). PV was the only CaBP tested in that study, but NADPHd expression was also investigated and found to be unchanged. Unlike cortical PV and CB expressing neurons, the neurons of the auditory brainstem and midbrain have been shown to co-localize with markers of both GABAergic and glutamatergic transmission in both rodents and macaques (Fredrich & Reisch, 2009; Gray et al., 2014b).
Thalamus and Auditory Cortex
The medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of the thalamus, like the IC, has subdivisions that correspond to either lemniscal or nonlemniscal regions (Hu, 2003; Jones, 2003). The MGN can be divided into the ventral (vMGN), dorsal (dMGN), and magnocellular (mMGN). In the macaque, like most mammals, the lemniscal pathway ascends through the vMGN, which primarily stains positively for PV. Conversely, the nonlemniscal pathway ascends through the dMGN, which primarily stains positively for CB. The mMGN shares characteristics with both pathways and is generally considered an intermediate nucleus. Not surprisingly, the MGN shows different age-related changes in different histochemical markers. The rodent MGN shows decreases in CB and NADPHd with age, and these changes are only observed in the vMGN (Ouda et al., 2008; Villena et al., 2003; Ouda et al., 2012). The macaque MGN, unlike the rodent MGN, displays strong immunoreactivity to PV. Consistent with the rodent, changes are only observed in the vMGN (not the dMGN), except that the age-related changes are increases (Gray et al., 2013b). These changes in the vMGN are greater than that seen in the adjacent lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). This indicates that these changes are at least in part specific to the auditory system, and not a general mechanism employed by multiple systems or a general effect of aging on primate tissue.
Finally, similar changes in the expression of different anatomical markers are noted in the primary auditory cortex, a cortical region that is found across mammalian species and receives the majority of its input from the vMGN. There, declines in immunoreactivity to both PV and CB have been reported in rodents (Ouda et al., 2008, 2012). Unfortunately, there have been no reports of similar studies in primates, so it is only possible to speculate how changes, if any, would occur in the auditory cortex.
In summary, histochemical age-related changes along the ascending auditory pathway have been described in the brainstem, midbrain, and thalamus in both rodents and primates. However, the direction, magnitude, and location of these changes differ between rodents and primates, and therefore cannot be completely generalized between these two animal models (see Ouda et al., 2015; Gray & Recanzone, 2016). Curiously, some nuclei have shown large changes that differ between species, and others have not been demonstrated to show any type of change. While some of this could be attributed to the behavioral relevance of different acoustic frequencies given the differences in hearing range, it is also important to remember that numerous calcium-binding proteins and other structures remain untested in any species, and it may well be that across nuclei species-specific changes are potentially compensating for the decreased excitatory drive from the cochlea.
Examples of Electrophysiological Function of Neurons Expressing Different Calcium-Binding Proteins in the Central Auditory System
There is a good understanding of the response properties of some neurons that express different CaBPs compared to others that do not (Carder et al., 1996; Parent et al., 1996; Prensa et al., 1998; Cicchetti et al., 2000). A good example is from the neurons in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus that express PV. These neurons are GABAergic basket neurons with narrow action potential waveforms and short, nonadapting interspike latencies (Kawaguchi et al., 1987; Kawaguchi & Kubota, 1997; Gibson et al., 1999; Ascoli et al., 2008; Xu & Callaway, 2009; Rudy et al., 2011). These properties make them powerful inhibitors, and this inhibition is thought to be critical in defining the receptive fields of neurons within the local circuitry. Thus, it is tempting to interpret increases in PV staining neurons to indicate an increase in inhibition, which seems counterintuitive given the decreased excitatory drive from the cochlea. However, studies in the brainstem of both rodents and nonhuman primates indicate that these neurons are likely not inhibitory, but rather excitatory as they co-localize with glutamatergic, and not GABAergic, markers (Fredrich & Reisch, 2009; Gray et al., 2014b). These same studies show that neurons in the auditory midbrain (IC) are primarily (but not exclusively) GABAergic.
To complicate matters further, the extent to which PV+ and CB+ cells co-localize with GABA and glutamate also changes with age. For example, in parts of the SOC, PV co-localizes less with GABA, whereas CB+ cells co-localize more with GABA with increasing age in the macaque (Gray et al., 2014b), and ICc neurons become more GABAergic. These results indicate that a great deal of imbalance between the excitatory and inhibitory inputs is occurring with natural aging. Clearly, these anatomical experiments will not suffice to provide a clear understanding of the functional consequences of the age-related changes in the expression of CaBPs seen throughout the auditory system. Future work is necessary to make coherent sense of how the ascending auditory nervous system is attempting to compensate for the decreased excitatory output from the cochlea.
How Anatomical Changes Potentially Relate to Electrophysiological Properties
Correlation with ABR Recordings
Depending on the species, electrophysiological studies in the brainstem can be extremely difficult. Thus, the auditory brainstem response (ABR) has been used as a proxy to the overall neural activity in early brainstem areas. This technique relies on surface recordings from the scalp to average the responses across several hundred stimulus repetitions, and the resulting waveforms can be attributed to the function of the different early ascending auditory areas (Møller & Burgess, 1986). This technique has been extremely helpful in studying primate physiology of early auditory areas (Allen & Starr, 1978; Torre & Fowler, 2000; Torre et al., 2004; Fowler et al., 2010; Ng et al., 2015).
By recording ABRs in animals where different CaBPs have also been determined, Gray et al. (2013a, 2014a) noted that the densities of PV neurons were correlated with responses to high-stimulus frequencies, but not low-stimulus frequencies, in the CN and SOC. Interestingly, the greater the PV staining (and greater the age), the lower the amplitude of the ABR waveforms related to these auditory structures. This may seem counterintuitive given that PV is presumably related to excitatory neurons (but see above), and greater excitation should lead to greater amplitudes of the ABR signal. However, the ABR does not measure the overall amplitude of the neural signal; rather, it measures the ability of the neurons to synchronize with each other. Thus, it may well be that the neuron-by-neuron coherence is what is most affected by aging (a potential substrate for temporal processing deficits seen at the psychophysical level), and either the increase in PV neurons cannot compensate for this or they may indeed be firing out of synchrony with the other excitatory neurons.
Changes in Response Properties in the Auditory Cortex
Recently, the effects of natural aging on the response properties of auditory cortical neurons have been investigated by several studies in alert macaque monkeys. The primate auditory cortex is made up of multiple cortical fields organized into a core–belt–parabelt fashion (Kaas & Hackett, 2000; Rauschecker & Tian, 2000; Hackett et al., 2001). The core is made up of primary auditory cortex (A1), a more rostral field (R), and a thChanges in spontaneous activityird field located rostral to R, called RT. Surrounding these core fields are the belt fields, largely denoted by their relative anatomical position. Of interest is the field located caudal and lateral to A1, the caudolateral field (CL). Physiological studies have indicated that the neurons in area CL have broader spectral tuning than those of A1 (Merzenich & Brugge, 1973; Rauschecker et al., 1997; Recanzone et al., 2000a; Tramo et al., 2005). In contrast, neurons in CL have sharper spatial tuning (Recanzone et al., 2000b; Tian et al., 2001; Woods et al., 2006; Juarez-Salinas et al., 2010; Engle & Recanzone, 2013). Further, the sharper tuning of single CL neurons is sufficient to account for sound localization ability of primates (Miller & Recanzone, 2009), indicating that this region forms part of a spatial processing stream, similar to the dorsal processing stream of visual cortex (Rauschecker & Tian, 2000).
Changes in spontaneous activity
A pressing question is how the decreased excitatory drive from the cochlea, the decreased amplitude and/or synchrony of neural responses in the brainstem, the pervasive histochemical changes throughout the ascending auditory pathway, and the large individual variability in auditory perception with age, is ultimately manifest in the activity of auditory cortical neurons. Several experiments in the alert macaque monkey have indicated that there are dramatic changes in the response properties of neurons in auditory cortex, both in the core area A1 and in the belt area CL.
The initial observation in the alert macaque auditory cortex was that there was a several-fold increase in the spontaneous activity (Juarez-Salinas et al., 2010; Engle & Recanzone, 2013). This was true in both A1 and CL. This finding is consistent with that seen in rodent A1 (De Villers-Sidani et al., 2010; Hughes et al., 2010), as well as rodent inferior colliculus (e.g., Palombi & Caspary, 1996; Walton et al., 1997, 2008). While this may seem surprising given the decreased excitatory drive from the cochlea, it indicates a severe imbalance of excitation and inhibition in the aged nervous system, ultimately leading to an overall decrease in inhibition and increased activity of these cortical neurons.
These changes in auditory cortex are not specific for the auditory system, as they have also been seen in primary visual cortex (V1, Wang et al., 2005) as well as secondary areas V2 (Wang et al., 2005), the middle temporal area MT (Yang et al., 2008; Liang et al., 2010), and the hippocampus of aged monkeys (Thome et al., 2015). Similar findings have been made in the somatosensory cortex in both the rat (e.g., Benali et al., 2008; David-Jurgens et al., 2008) and human (e.g., Kalisch et al., 2009; Lenz et al., 2012; Canu et al., 2012). Thus, there is a general decrease in inhibition and/or suppression across the different cerebral cortical areas as well as across different species, giving rise to these increased spontaneous rates, presumably due to decreased excitatory drive from the sensory periphery resulting from decreased optics (i.e., cataracts) and tactile receptors and the physical properties of the skin, gait, and other factors (e.g., see David-Jurgens et al., 2008).
Changes in Driven Activity: Spatial Tuning
Given the changes in spontaneous activity, the question becomes, whether driven activity is also altered? Thus far, the most salient information in the auditory system of primates comes from studies of A1 and CL with respect to the representation of acoustic space. Multiple psychophysical studies have noted that humans and macaque monkey share similar sound localization abilities across stimulus frequencies, spectral content, azimuth, elevation, and stimulus intensity (Recanzone et al., 1998; Recanzone et al., 2000b; Su & Recanzone, 2001; Recanzone & Beckerman, 2004; Miller & Recanzone, 2009). As noted above, neurons in area CL have sharper spatial tuning than those of A1, and this spatial tuning is sufficient to account for human sound localization ability across azimuth and stimulus intensity (Woods et al., 2006; Miller & Recanzone, 2009). Thus, since a hallmark of age-related hearing deficits is in sound localization, the question becomes how the neurons in A1 and CL respond as a function of spatial location. The initial studies indicated that, while the spontaneous activity was higher in aged than in younger animals, the spatial tuning of A1 neurons was about the same in aged monkeys compared to younger monkeys (Juarez-Salinas et al., 2010). When CL neurons were examined, however, they were no more sharply tuned to the spatial location of the stimulus than were A1 neurons, which was clearly different from what was seen in the younger animals (Juarez-Salinas et al., 2010). In other words, there was not the progressive sharpening of spatial tuning between A1 and CL in aged monkeys that was seen in younger ones. This is similar in many respects to what was seen in the visual cortex of aged monkeys, where the orientation selectivity and the direction selectivity of individual neurons was broader in aged animals than in younger animals (Wang et al., 2005; Yang et al., 2008; Liang et al., 2010).
The finding that CL neurons are no sharper in their spatial tuning than A1 neurons in aged animals suggests that, under "normal" circumstances, CL spatial tuning is shaped from the A1 inputs, likely through some form of inhibition or suppression. There is an anatomical substrate to support this hypothesis, as belt fields receive direct inputs from the core, and elimination of these inputs can dramatically affect the responses of belt field neurons (Rauschecker et al., 1997). Further, there are direct connections from the thalamus to each of the belt fields (Hackett, 2015; de la Mothe et al., 2012). To investigate this possibility given the data available, the responses across the population of A1 and CL neurons were plotted relative to the best direction for each individual neuron (Engle & Recanzone, 2013). This provides an overall population response for a stimulus presented from any given location. The results showed that in young A1, the shortest latency was for the best location and latencies increased as the stimulus moved to greater eccentricities, although there were clear responses at all locations tested. These latency differences were enhanced in CL, reflecting the sharper spatial tuning of individual neurons, and the locations that elicited a good response were cut nearly in half. These results indicate that the same latency increases and response decreases occur over a much smaller spatial range across the population of CL neurons compared to A1 neurons.
A very different result was noted in the aged monkeys. In this case, the latency difference as a function of spatial location was nearly absent in A1 as well as CL. Further, there were good (nearly equivalent) responses across all locations tested for both populations of neurons. Finally, the onset latencies in the aged monkeys not only did not vary across location, but they were in fact less than the shortest latencies noted in the A1 neurons of the younger animals, consistent with a lack of inhibition and/or suppression in the inputs to the cortex in aged monkeys. Thus, not only is the spatial and driven activity higher and spatially broader, but it also has a much shorter latency in the aged animals compared to the younger ones.
A second analysis technique applied in that study was to make the simple distinction between whether the response was less than, the same as, or greater than the spontaneous activity as a function of both spatial location and time. This provides a spatiotemporal profile of the relative amount of activity across the population of A1 and CL neurons. In young animals, there was clear suppression of the response at locations far from the best direction in A1, and this suppression was even greater in CL. Thus, at least one mechanism of sharpening spatial tuning between A1 and CL is by suppressing the flanks of the receptive fields. Again, in contrast to younger animals, in the aged animals there was virtually no suppression at any spatial location, at any time. These results indicate that during natural aging, there is a lack of suppression in the corticocortical connections. Thus, the imbalance of excitation and inhibition presumed to be occurring in the subcortical regions is manifest as a decrease in suppression at the cortical level and in the inability of receptive field refinement between cortical areas. These changes in spatial receptive fields are consistent with the decreased sound localization ability noted with increasing age.
Changes in Driven Activity: Temporal Tuning
A second age-related hearing deficit is in the inability to encode temporal information. For example, the gap detection thresholds for aged neurons are much greater than predicted by the psychophysical performance in younger monkeys (Recanzone et al., 2011). This is consistent with studies in rodent inferior colliculus, where increased gap thresholds are noted as a function of age (Walton et al., 1997, 1998).
A second series of studies in the primate auditory cortex indicates that the envelope of the speech signal is also degraded. Overton and Recanzone (2016) investigated the ability of A1 neurons to encode the envelope of an amplitude-modulated (AM) noise stimulus and compared those responses to the responses recorded in younger monkeys (Yin et al., 2011). In principle, neurons can encode the frequency of an AM noise stimulus in two ways. The first way is to try to replicate the stimulus envelope as accurately as possible, a phenomenon known as phase locking. In this instance, the neuron will respond only during a particular phase of the stimulus and not during the opposite phase. A neuron can therefore respond with more than one action potential for each phase, but the action potentials will be clustered into a regular series of "response epochs" and "no-response epochs" that corresponds to the AM stimulus frequency. For example, for a 10 Hz stimulus, the response of an average of 10 spikes/burst will be clustered every 100 msec, but for a 20 Hz stimulus the bursts could average 5 spikes/burst but would occur every 50 msec. Thus, the same number of spikes could nonetheless accurately encode different stimulus frequencies by when they occurred. This can be measured by various metrics, one of the more popular being the vector strength and its' derivatives, where a value of 1.0 means that the action potentials are always at exactly the same phase of the stimulus, to 0.0 where the action potentials occur randomly compared to the stimulus frequency (Goldberg & Brown, 1969; Yin et al., 2011; Overton & Recanzone, 2016).
The second way that the AM rate can be encoded by the overall firing rate of the neuron, which would vary as a function of the AM rate, similar to intensity tuning in many auditory neurons or orientation tuning in visual cortical neurons. In young monkeys, both types of coding schemes are used, with over half of the neurons showing significant tuning using each metric. In contrast, in aged monkeys there are fewer neurons that encode AM using both a rate and temporal code; rather, a disproportionate number of neurons encode AM with only a firing rate code (Overton & Recanzone, 2016). Further, in younger monkeys those neurons that encode AM with only the firing rate do so with a reduced firing in about one-third of neurons. In contrast, the same population of cells in aged monkeys rarely shows decreases in their firing rate to encode AM, even though they have higher spontaneous activity. This again indicates that there is less suppression/inhibition at the cortical level than can be used to better encode the stimulus.
With respect to the temporal tuning, there was an overall decrease in neurons in aged monkeys that could encode the AM rate with synchronous firing to the stimulus, and those that did tended to have smaller vector strength metrics, indicating that they were not as precisely tuned as those in the younger animals. Finally, in younger animals there was a correlation between the best AM tuning using both the rate and temporal codes; that is, the AM rate that gave the highest firing rate usually was the rate that resulted in the highest vector strength. In contrast, these metrics were not correlated in aged monkeys, as the temporal code was mainly highest at the low AM rates and the firing rate mainly highest at the high AM rates, with considerable scatter between neurons. These results are again consistent with an imbalance of excitatory and inhibitory drive if one assumes that phase locking is dependent on enhancing responses at one phase of the stimulus and inhibiting/suppressing responses at the opposite phase.
Natural aging results in a wide variety of different anatomical and physiological consequences, all of which are highly variable between individuals. Starting at the cochlea, the number of different pathologies increases with increasing age, resulting in a decreased excitatory drive over time. This decreased excitatory drive is potentially compensated for by the differential expression of different calcium-binding proteins, likely reflecting different adjustments to the excitatory and inhibitory balance of the circuitry throughout the brainstem, midbrain, and thalamus. Presumably, these changes are initially compensatory, allowing the individual to maintain the same level of auditory perception in spite of differences coming from the cochlea. The predominant findings from mammals, including the nonhuman primate data, indicate that this occurs as early as middle age, and this may underlie the relatively small number of middle-aged humans who report age-related hearing deficits. However, as aging progresses, these compensatory mechanisms start becoming inadequate, and the response properties of auditory cortical neurons begin to degrade, consistent with the perceptual deficits common with aging. As the excitatory and inhibitory balance is upset, cortical neurons have higher spontaneous and driven firing rates, broader spatial tuning, poorer gap detection, and reduced AM rate encoding. Further, these deficits are enhanced in secondary auditory cortical fields as compared to primary auditory cortex. These cortical response differences are consistent with the decreased spatial and temporal resolution common in the aged. The pressing question, then, is how to either reduce or reverse these cortical changes, which would presumably be an effective treatment of age-related hearing deficits. Several strategies are possible; a promising one is behavioral training, which has been shown to be effective in the aged rat auditory cortex (DeVillers-Sidani & Merzenich, 2011). The precise training regimes and the details of how such manipulations could be most effective and efficient in ameliorating age-related hearing loss remains to be worked out.
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Welcome to the Baroque Music Promotion Management web site.
Our aim is to organize high quality Baroque Music concerts. We represent artists who are specialized in this field of Early Music, with international experience, trajectory, level and activities.
Our repertory is based on solo and chamber music that can be presented and organized as single performances, series, cycles or tours. Willing to reach all kinds of public, we are prepared to adapt them to different needs offering ordinary concerts, private concerts, didactic concerts, concerts as part of festivals, etc., in a variety of venues such as proper concert halls, or historical, cultural, educative and private locations.
In this web site you will find updated information about the artists, programme examples and good quality material for the impression of hand programs and publicity including high resolution photos, biographies, and program notes.
Our artists also offer lectures and master classes.
We wish you enjoy your visit to this Website.


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Soggy and wet but home safe and sound.
To say it rained last night is an understatement. At least we were dry until we had to take our gear down.
Saw a large gang of turkeys on the road outside the park and had to stop to let them go by.
Who donated the hammock for the raffle ?


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E30. 'Round about these parts, it's the answer to every question almost a much as the Miata is. And why wouldn't it be? With a combination of understated good looks, compact size and rear-wheel-drive, it's hard to go wrong with a 1980s 3-Series. It's even better in super-sexy M3 trim.
I like this picture of the E30 M3 because although the photographer is different, it reminds me quite a bit of a wallpaper we featured a few months ago of a Porsche 911 from around the same era. And here the lights feature the famous striped colors of the M badge, which is pretty damned cool.
Would you put the first M3 in your garage?
Photo credit estoril. Click here for a giganto-desktop version.


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The Vision Search Task Force (VSTF) met for a fifth time in Hollywood, Calif. at the AOM Alliance's most recent annual conference. Task force members continued the planning of an AOM Future Search conference, which is tentatively being planned for late summer or early fall 2005.
The task force has also enlisted the help of a distinguished Future Search consultant, Sandra Janoff. Dr. Janoff is a world-renowned specialist in bringing disparate groups together in one setting to identify community differences and commonalities. The latter is used for the development of a unified vision that the community as a whole can embrace and work towards achieving. Dr. Janoff is currently co-director (with Marvin Weisbord) of the Future Search Network, a worldwide network offering communities as well as corporations future search processes and training. Drs. Janoff and Weisbord are originators of the process and co-authors of the well-received Future Search: An Action Guide to Finding Common Ground in Organizations and Communities.
Dr. Janoff has agreed to help the VSTF over the next year and a half to organize and conduct a Future Search Conference for the acupuncture and Oriental medicine (AOM) community. This three-day event will be attended by a select number of participants, each representing their specific stakeholder group. Initial stakeholder groups have tentatively been identified and would include voices from such groups as practitioners, regulators, consumers, vendors, educators (including administrators, faculty and students), third-party payers, national and state professional organization members, as well as AOM researchers. The list of stakeholder groups will be defined much better and expanded as the VSTF planning progresses over the next several months. If you have a stakeholder group that is not included above and you feel it can provide another important voice, please log onto www.acupuncturetoday.com/vstf and contact us directly to be sure your input is considered in the planning process. Hopefully, by the end of the summer, we will have the stakeholder groups well-defined and a nomination process in place on our website where specific individuals can be nominated within stakeholder groups. Please look for "An Update on VSTF Activities" in the August issue of Acupuncture Today for information on our nomination process.
The typical number of participants at a Future Search Conference is usually in multiples of 64, i.e., eight tables of eight participants. At this time, it is unclear just how many participants will be invited to the AOM Future Search Conference, since the funding has not been clarified and the level of interest has yet to be assessed. However, if attendance at the VSTF Town Hall meetings is any indication of interest, it is anticipated that at least 128 (2 x 64) representative stakeholders would be invited from the AOM community to participate in a three-day conference.
The Future Search conference process has worked wonders within many communities across all continents, with amazing success. Readers are encouraged to visit the website of Drs. Janoff and Weisbord at www.futuresearch.net, or go the Vision Search Task Force at www.acupuncturetoday.com/vstf and click "Future Search" under the "Links" section.
Our website contains a listing of VSTF membership and meeting dates; all of the VSTF meeting minutes; the VSTF Town Hall summaries; a discussion forum for the major AOM issues that have been identified so far; and various articles written about our purpose and progress over the last two years. Under development is a link to a "Future Search Participant Nomination Site" that will allow individuals to be identified for possible selection to the three-day conference to be held in 2005.
We realize that most of our input to date has been regional, since not everyone can attend the Town Hall meetings held in conjunction with the biannual professional conferences. Fortunately, with the construction of the VSTF website, anyone anywhere in the world can access the VSTF by logging on to our site or by e-mailing us directly. We value your ideas concerning the Future Search process and need your insights and input for planning a successful AOM Future Search conference.
Our next Town Hall meeting will be held in Las Vegas on Friday, October 22. A VSTF panel will share updates on conference planning as well as the status of the selection process to be used for selecting participants from the various stakeholder groups. Try to make this important meeting, or at least submit your thoughts prior to the meeting through our website.
Our hope is that a successful AOM Future Search Conference will:
- Identify an attainable and inspirational common vision for the AOM community, which will include all voices from within the profession;
- Establish a broad conversation to stimulate and encourage the acceptance of a common vision; and
- Define dignified and effective guidelines for strategic planning and conflict resolution for the AOM community in the future.
If you wish, you can submit written responses directly to:
Pacific College of Oriental Medicine
ATTN: Dr. Tom Haines
7445 Mission Valley Road, Suite 105
San Diego, CA 92108-4407


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May 10, 2019
Toll Collector Featured
$12.00 - $15.00 hourly
The New Jersey Turnpike Authority maintains and operates two of the most heavily traveled roads in the United States - the New Jersey Turnpike and the Garden State Parkway. These roads provide a critical link in the transportation system of the Northeast. We are seeking highly qualified, innovative employees with a strong work ethic to become part of a friendly and passionate team that works hard every day to keep our customers safe and our roads and facilities in good repair. As an Authority employee, you will enjoy an excellent benefits package and opportunities for career development and growth. The New Jersey Turnpike is an Equal Opportunity Employer. Responsibilities: Collect and classify tolls (currency, tickets, and other) from patrons. Account for personally collected or assigned funds. Maintain good public relations with patrons. Maintain assigned property owned by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority. Perform all other functions and tasks as described by the Toll Collector's Manual or as assigned by management. Minimum Qualifications: High school graduate or equivalent. Must possess a New Jersey Driver's License and have access to reliable transportation. Must be a resident of New Jersey. Please Note: The job duties of the position above requires a valid driver's license and a reliable vehicle to move within a fifty (50) mile radius when on duty. If hired, I understand and agree to maintain a valid driver's license and report to/from work in a reliable vehicle should I be required to move within the field as directed by management.
New Jersey Turnpike Authority Various Locations - New Jersey Part-Time