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Though she's hardly a familiar name today, Thomas is the one who in the early 1970s lured many a hungry idealist rebelling against a meat-and-potatoes childhood into the kitchen with "The Vegetarian Epicure," a seminal book that came out of nowhere to sell more than 1 million copies.
More than 30 years later, she has another new cookbook, "Love Soup," a collection of 100 soups and dishes to eat with them, that she hopes will lure a new generation into the kitchen in much the same way her first book did. Like so many cooks, she worries that people are losing touch with an essential skill and is determined to do her part to halt the decline.
And she sees soup as a solution. "I've been really thinking about this a lot. Soup is the portal to home cooking. You cannot make too terrible a mistake with soup," Thomas says. "Don't we want to know how to take care of ourselves a little?"
But today, changing the culinary world is the last thing on her mind. She's thinking about an evening with friends. Thomas has been cooking for her friends for decades; this will be a snap.
"Yes! Dinosaur kale!" she says, buying two bunches as she explains that it's named for "the way your toy dinosaurs looked. Because who knows what their skin really looked like?"
Although she doesn't need them for dinner, she takes the last two irresistible baskets of Gaviota strawberries from another farmer. And at the Peacock Farms stand, the young vendor assures her that although it's early in the season, the Fuyu persimmons are sweet.
"My favorite way to go to the market is not to have a plan, just to wander and see what calls me," she says, taking off her elegant, green-framed sunglasses to reveal eyes the color of the Caribbean.
In fact, her first cookbook, published in 1972, was her solution to caring for herself, albeit an audacious one. A UCLA film student without much money, she took the advice of friends who appreciated her cooking and wrote a book, and she has since balanced careers in film and food. At the moment, Thomas is working on a film dramatizing the life of Israeli poet Rachel Blaustein.
"The Vegetarian Epicure" stands as a culinary touchstone for many baby boomers. My copy came as a Christmas gift from my mother shortly after I graduated from college. As a girl who was well acquainted with tuna casserole held together by Campbell's mushroom soup, I considered myself sophisticated, even a little groovy, for making potage les deux champignons from Thomas' European-influenced, hippie-tinged book. (The pages of the book are back-to-the-land brown, and there's an acknowledgment that her readers just might smoke pot with their meals.)
The ratatouille page in my copy is splotchy, as is the one for sweet oatmeal raisin bread. There are risottos, curries and soufflés -- not, as Thomas says, ideologically based vegetarian food.
And I'm not the only one with fond memories. "I just remember reading it cover to cover because she cooked like a European," says Martha Rose Shulman, author of "The Vegetarian Feast," published in 1979, and more than 25 other cookbooks. "It was the first vegetarian book that I really thought was done by a real cook," she says.
Thomas and her then-husband, director Gregory Nava, left Los Angeles for Ojai in 1985 with their two young sons. The previous year their film "El Norte" came out. Thomas and Nava wrote it; she produced, he directed, and they earned an Oscar nomination. They lived in a big ranch house, with a kitchen roomy enough for a couch.
After a divorce, and once her younger son finished high school, Thomas moved to a smaller house that snuggled up to the Topa Topa Mountains. But it needed renovation, and for three years she was left with a kitchen just 81 inches across, tucked into one part of the house. She put most of her kitchen equipment in storage.
But she kept cooking. Soup was a natural for the tiny space.
And she kept inviting friends, ringing the dinner bell with e-mails announcing, "The soup kitchen is open."
All that soup led to her new book and to an easygoing style of entertaining
"It was really cozy. It was really great," Thomas says.
In just a few hours, the soup kitchen, now -- post-renovation -- a soaring space around a lavishly long soapstone-topped island, will be open again.
Preparing the meal
We drive to her house along roads lined with orange trees, unpack our food, and Thomas puts me to work cleaning and chopping and measuring. We're making the dishes in a menu from the book: roasted kabocha squash and celery root soup, kale salad with cranberries and walnuts, and Octavia's gingerbread.
Even for soup, she uses a metric scale because it's more exact, she says. "Two medium onions, a medium tomato. What is that?"
Chunks of turnip and celery root, and a kabocha squash cut in half go into the oven, a Wolf with a six-burner stove. The vegetables eventually are puréed for the soup.
Thomas makes the gingerbread, to be served with sweetened Greek yogurt. The recipe came from Octavia Walstrom, whom she met while making a film about the architect John Lautner. Walstrom lived in a Lautner house and made it for the crew; Thomas adapted it.
Thomas, 61, heard about someone who got an offer of a date -- sight unseen, based on the gingerbread. The date, Thomas jokes, should be hers.
While we're working, Thomas' friend Lisa Robertson stops by to loan an immersion blender -- Thomas has burned out two of them puréeing soups -- and to talk about what she might contribute to the evening. How about Manchego cheese with quince paste? It's something she brought to a party the night before that had gone mostly uneaten.
"I'll take it back from Margaret," she determines.
Thomas' older son, Chris Nava, comes in too, with a container of mussels he'd like to make that evening. So a pasta and mussels course gets added into the mix.
Nava, 25, who trained as a musician and teaches piano, is making desserts in a new restaurant in town, with two big oven burns on his forearms to show for it. Her kitchen, Thomas says, has become like Maurice Sendak's "The Night Kitchen," with Chris baking into the wee hours.
Soups have always been important to Thomas. A child of immigrants, raised in Detroit and California, she grew up eating the soups of Eastern Europe and in her first book wrote that making soup and bread gives a kitchen a soul. "The Vegetarian Epicure" included barszcz, a borscht her mother made; pea soup with butter dumplings; minestrone; chestnut and lentil soups.
The soups she makes today have less cream, and plenty are vegan. Cheese might be a garnish; butter gets browned to intensify its flavor so less is needed. Onion soup in the first book called for 10 tablespoons of butter plus "ample" grated Gruyere cheese. In the new book, fennel and onion soup gets 4 tablespoons of olive oil.
It's a small example of Thomas' soup philosophy: "Your history is in that pot of soup."
As the day ends, Thomas' guests start to arrive, good friends who care about food and wine and are part of her close-knit community, many of them also transplants from city life. They're among the people Thomas thanks in "Love Soup" for sharing produce, tasting food, offering ideas.
Steve Fields and Sims Brannon show up first, bringing a plastic container of pear sauce, homemade with Warren pears from one of the 60 heirloom fruit trees they've planted. It turns out to be a heavenly, serendipitous companion to the gingerbread.
"This is what happens. Everybody brings things," says Robertson, who did repossess the quince paste, which tastes great with the cheese on some walnut bread Thomas had made another day.
Bruce and Marie Botnick, a music producer and designer who are growing olives and grapes, arrive soon, and Marie sets the table, cutting flowers and arranging them along the long wood table.
"She's really much better at that than I am," Thomas says.
Everyone eats appreciatively; even the kitchen help gets praised. The guests talk about wine and restaurants, school food and the news of the day, a friend who is sick.
"What I loved when I started coming to Ojai, it wasn't a restaurant culture, it was about feeding each other," Robertson says.
That, it seems, hasn't changed.


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Our annual trek to the Minnesota Inventors Congress in Redwood Falls found a collection of creations from devisers of designs - many of which could soon hit the market.
Conjure up an image of an inventor and you'll probably come up with a wild-haired, bespectacled man in a white lab coat frantically working over bubbling test tubes. Not so with the inventors we talked with at this year's show. They're as normal as you and me and think practically when creating their time-saving ideas for the farm. Yet many have created what may become a mother lode.
LPEFI. The Liquid Propane Electronic Fuel Injection (LPEFI) system from Bi-Phase Technologies was the Grand Prize winner at the show.
The company devised a way for its propane injector system to work the same as a gas injector but with more power. It generates more horsepower and torque than gasoline, has quicker throttle response, will be cheaper to run than gas or diesel and rates below Ultra Low Emissions Vehicle standards (ULEV), according to the inventor.
The unit comes complete with a 56-gal. fuel tank and is now available for Dodge trucks with 8,800- to 15,000-lb. GVWR and a 5.9L, V-8 engine. It will be available on Ford and all Dodge trucks by March 1999 and on Chevy and GMCs by August 1999. Bi-Phase's warranty will cover the engine and the catalytic converter. Price: $2,500. Contact Bi-Phase Technologies Inc., Dept. FIN, Box 146, Lake Lillian, MN 56253, 320/ 664-7000.
Bulk Seed Tender. Inventor Gary Stienessen built his Bulk Seed Tender with three hoppers to carry three different varieties of seed at one time. Each hopper carries 60 bu. of product.
The unit can be mounted on a truck, running gear or gooseneck trailer and is equipped with its own scale to weigh seed as it's loaded or unloaded. Price: $6,500. Contact Gary Stienessen, Dept. FIN, Rt. 1, Box 23, Taunton, MN 56291, 507/224-2236.
Slider Hitch for no-tillers. Place seed between residue rows and reduce the havoc that stubble can create on tractor tires and gauge wheels with Paul Schlobohm's Slider Hitch.
While you drive down the previous year's tire tracks, a hydraulic cylinder on the hitch allows you to slide the mounted planter 8 in. to the left or right to plant beside residue.
Handy Rinse. Also from Schlobohm is this chemical tank rinse system that is quick, safe and easy.
Jugs in 1- or 21/2-gal. sizes are placed on top of the unit's rinse pipe. As chemicals empty out, the rinse system sprays the inside of the jug to comply with triple-rinsing rules. Prices: Not available at press time. Contact Paul Schlobohm, Dept. FIN, 47527 219th St., Aurora, SD 57002, 605/693-4346.
Mirror Wipers. Keep your truck or tractor side mirrors clean and clear for safe driving with Mirror Wipers from inventor Arnold Rudningen.
A toggle switch mounted in the cab of your truck or tractor lets you operate windshield wash fluid and the wiper as needed. The wiper fits any rectangular mirror, uses standard wiper blades and operates on 12v. Contact Arnold Rudningen, Dept. FIN, 4878 E. 255th St., Faribault, MN 55021, 507/334-7641.
Veteran inventor. It was Tim Krohn's second year at the show and once again his ideas won him an award.
Krohn's T-Screen will keep dirt, debris and bugs from flying in the back window of your pickup. The screen attaches to the truck with hook and latch material. It comes in aluminum or black finish and features weather stripping to keep water from settling between the window frame and the T-Screen. It's available in any size.
His other product, the Silver Squeegee, is deemed a must for livestock producers. The long-handled squeegee features a high-powered trigger that forces water through a hollow, aluminum tube to the squeegee where holes are drilled. Pressurized water sprays through the holes while you clean floors or walls. Prices: Not available at press time. Contact Krohn Industries, Dept. FIN, Rt. 1, Box 79, Winthrop, MN 55396, 507/834-9806.
Supermower. Why would anyone ditch a perfectly good swather just because it isn't used anymore? Jule Jacobson proves that you can put an old swather to new use with his Supermower.
This past winter he bought a 1983 Owatonna 260 hydrostatic swather and a 7-ft. Befco cyclone mower. He lowered the swather 13 in. to lower the center of gravity and narrowed the power unit 38 in. so its wheels would track inside the mower's deck.
The hydrostatic drive provides zero turning radius and the mower can be front mounted.
According to Jacobson, it's easier to mow because you look straight ahead without craning your neck, and it gets in spots other mowers can't reach. A farmer/observer lamented that he just got rid of his Owatonna swather; now after seeing Jacobson's Supermower, he wishes he hadn't. Contact Jule Jacobson, Dept. FIN, Box 53, Porter, MN 56280, 507/296-4514.
Roller Chain Ruler. John Kapphahn grew tired of counting each and every chain link at the parts store when he needed chain replacement. What he devised is so simple, you'll wonder why you didn't think of it yourself.
Kapphahn's numbered Roller Chain Rulers feature sprockets that hold broken or new chain. The numbers coincide with how many links of chain you'll need. Kapphahn notes, no matter if you need to replace a 15- or a 150-link chain, his ruler will eliminate a miscount.
The rulers come in 40-, 50- and 60-count sizes (50- and 60-count rulers also count heavy chain). They're made from recycled plastic milk jugs and are unaffected by gas, solvents or oils. Price: Set of three, $29.95. Contact Roller Chain Ruler, Dept. FIN, Rt. 1, Box 85, Elbow Lake, MN 56531, 218/685-4604.
Garden Master. This labor-saving device, built by Noren Olson, can plant up to 1/4-acre gardens and who knows if it could lead to row-crop farming. You plant in a circular pattern while sitting on the unit's carrier. The carrier is mounted on a 60-ft.-long beam that features a pulley system; as the Garden Master circles the row, you turn a wheel to move up and down the beam in desired row spacing. The unit runs on a gas engine (for cultivating or planting) or a 12v electric engine (for harvesting) and is available with either a hydraulic drive or a belt and chain drive. Center posts allow you to plant more than one garden; simply transfer the unit from post to post. Olson is looking for a manufacturer. Contact Noren Olson, Dept. FIN, 930 3rd St. N., St. James, MN 56081, 507/375-4454.
All-terrain drum mover. Bruce Hawkins' Drum Hustler II lets you move and rearrange 15- to 85-gal drums (weighing up to 1,000 lbs.) without the risk of hurting your back. The two wheeler uses balance and leverage to put most of the weight of the drum on the unit. A yoke hugs the lid of the drum and a foot pedal hydraulically raises it for transport. Larger tires let you travel over rough terrain. Price: $355. Contact Circle H Industries, Dept. FIN, 7882 E. Hwy. 92, Hereford, AZ 85615, 520/ 366-5540.

subset: commoncrawl


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The Information Commissioner's Office (ICO) has published a code of practice to help organisations guard the privacy of individuals when putting information into the public domain.
The ICO is concerned that the increasing volume of what is termed "anonymised" data released under the Government's Open Data Institute (ODI) initiative or as a result of freedom of information requests risks personal data becoming public by accident.
There is also a risk that a database holding apparently anonymised data could be compromised, the ICO said. This would leave bodies open to legal challenge under data protection legislation
The new code is a framework covering both statistical and 'qualitative' data (i.e. meeting minutes, and images), with the latter particular hard to redact because it was often held in paper form.
The ICO is particularly concerned about the possibility of 'jigsaw' trawling where intruders attempt to relate publically-known information to anonymised data as a way of identifying individuals. Organisations needed guidance on how to structure public data to minimise this possibility.
"The code also aims to bring a greater consistency of approach and to show what we expect of organisations using this data," commented UK Information Commissioner, Christopher Graham.
"Failure to anonymise personal data correctly can result in enforcement action from the ICO. However we recognise that anonymised data can have important benefits, increasing the transparency of government and aiding the UK's widely regarded research community.
"We hope today's guidance helps practitioners to protect privacy and enable the use of data in exciting and innovative ways," he said.
The ICO said it had invested £15,000 to set up a UK Anonymisation Network (UKAN), which would be run by a consortium including the University of Manchester, the University of Southampton, the Office for National Statistics (ONS) and the ODI.
This will launch in early 2013 and act as a central source of information on the Code as well as running seminars, clinics and publishing case studies.
"Ensuring that data is properly anonymised, and not just masked can be very difficult to achieve in practice, particularly as technology is constantly evolving," commented Bridget Treacy of UK privacy and information management law firm Hunton & Williams.
"Crucially, the code deals with the risk of re-identification of anonymised data and how this may change over time, particularly with advances in technology, recommending that this risk is assessed periodically," she said.
The warning was clear. "If an organisation 're-identifies' [reveals] personal data without an individual's knowledge or consent, the collection will likely be unlawful and may be subject to enforcement action, including a monetary penalty of up to £500,000."
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Archive Episodes:
1-100 101-200 201-300 301-400 401-500
501-600 601-700 701-776
These podcasts are produced by Abulsme Productions based on Wikipedia content.
They are released under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
Abulsme Productions also produces Curmudgeon's Corner, a current events podcast.
If you like that sort of thing, check it out too!
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Xanadu added to UNESCO World Heritage lineup
Described by Venetian traveler Marco Polo, romanticized by English poet Samual Taylor Coleridge, the historic site known to much of the world by the fanciful name of "Xanadu" has offically joined UNESCO's World Heritage list.
Located in modern Inner Mongolia, the summer capital of Kublai Khan's Yuan Dynasty is called Yuan Shang Du Yi Zhi (元上都遗址) by the Chinese.
UNESCO released the additions to its famed list over the weekend. A UNESCO Xanadu photo gallery is available here.
Joining Xanadu on the list are Bassari Country in Senegal and Côte d'Ivoire's Historic Town Grand Bassam.
Shaped like a square, Xanadu was the first capital designated by Kublai Khan (1215-94). It was designed by his advisor Liu Bingzhong in 1256.
According to a UNESCO press release, "The site was planned according to the traditional Chinese feng shui in relation to the nearby mountains and river. It features the remains of the city, including temples, palaces, tombs, nomadic encampments and the Tiefan'gang Canal along with other water works."
"Xanadu is the best-preserved among the Yuan (Dynasty's) capital cities and has lasted the longest," said Tong Mingkang (童明康), deputy director of China Administration of Cultural Heritage, as reported by China Daily.
"It's the only intact evidence of the rise and fall of the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), which witnessed the unique fusion of agrarian Han Chinese and nomadic Mongolian civilizations in northern Asia."
Xanadu began its journey toward being named a World Heritage site in 1996.
Other sites named
According to UNESCO, the Bassari landscape in Senegal "is marked by terraces and rice paddies, interspersed with villages, hamlets and archaeological sites."
The first capital of Côte d'Ivoire, Grand Bassam "is an example of a late 19th- and early 20th-century colonial town planned with quarters specializing in commerce, administration, housing for Europeans and housing for Africans."
On July 1, UNESCO also added Major Mining Sites of Walonia (Belgium), Decorated Farmhouses of Hälsingland (Sweden) and six other cultural and natural properties to its World Heritage list.
More on CNNGo: Gallery: Historic boarding schools seek top UNESCO marks


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I have an early 2006 iMac, the first with Intel CPU and now I am looking for speeding it up a little. I maxed out the RAM (2G) and my only other option is to install an SSD drive there.
- First of all, I would like to know if this is a good idea to speed up my iMac?
- Shall I take my iMac to the service for this installation or I can try this on my own at home?
- Would it be possible to keep the current primary hdd as a secondary hdd in the machine or there is no space inside?


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- Men
- Women
Rs. 2100/-
One shoulder Jumpsuit
Classic yet seasonal is how one would best describe Stitch Inc. With the focus on engaging with different fabrics and textures, the apparel at Stitch Inc will be a breath of fresh air to your wardrobe. Effortless and chic, their products come with a minor twist or a trend that takes the brand a notch above.
|No Size Chart Available


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Now doesn't the word catfish make you think of a cute furry swimming little animal?
If it does, you might want to try again. A catfish is nothing like that. In fact, I went and looked into these non furry fish. There are over 2,000-3,000 different species of catfish. Even though they all swim, none have fur or meow.
You can check out the article Do I Want a Catfish for a Pet. I found out some very interesting things about these fish and then I made the decision as to if I wanted one for a pet.
Oh, I also found out what the largest catfish is and a bit about the smallest type. By mistake I found a few REALLY odd types of catfish.


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Neural Stem Cell Media & Reagents Key References
- Brewer, G.J., Torricelli, J.R., Evege, E.K., and Price, P.J. (1993) J. Neuroscience Res. 35, 567.
- Mahendra S. Rao (2005) Neural Development and Stem Cells. Humana Press; 2nd edition.
- Laurie C. Doering (2009) Protocols for Neural Cell Culture. Humana Press; 4th edition


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- TOC Editorial: Government's lack of accountability bad for the PAP, worse for Singapore on theonlinecitizen.com
- The great hunt: more management failures than guards' lapses on Yawning Bread
- Beyond witch-hunts to sanction for lapses by Chua Mui Hoong (yes, on The Straits Times -- read it first before snorting in disbelief. I must admit I was surprised.)
I like Alex Au's piece because it places into context the possible lapses further up the management chain (plus, he took the trouble to watch the videos, which is a truly admirable effort). To pin the blame squarely and solely on the folks at WRDC is inappropriate. So the WRDC supervisor did not carry out audits -- did his manager ask about audits? Did Director ISD ask about audits across the department's facility?
Finally, I like Chua Mui Hoong's column because it comes very, very closest to my own thoughts on government responsibility and accountability. I never believed, and I still do not believe, that the DPM should automatically be fired or asked to resign because of what had happened.
What I do find unsatisfactory has been the apparent reluctance to simply say, "People in the Ministry of Home Affairs made errors, I lead the Ministry, and so I take responsibility for it and I am sorry." Step up, say it, accept it. Only then is it right to move on.
Chua Mui Hoong rightly pointed out that the actual words said -- "This should never have happened. I am sorry that it has." -- fall short of actually accepting responsibillity. In her words:
"["This should never have happened. I am sorry that it has."] expresses regret at an incident happening ... ["We made a mistake and I'm sorry for the mistake"] accepts institutional and personal responsibility."
She calls it a "small detail". I would go further than her. When viewed together with the comments about who is responsible and who will have action taken against them, and how those comments have been articulated, it does seem that there has been no clear and unequivocal acceptance of institutional responsibility for Mas Selamat's escape.
Ministers and top civil servants will never be the ones actually executing and implementing policies on the ground. Does this mean that they will only be held accountable for the policies and high-level decisions that they take? If that is the case, then unless policies are presented to them in excruciating minutiae, it will be well-nigh impossible for them to ever be held responsible for mistakes. Because the mistakes can almost always be pinned down to an error or omission by someone down the line.
Leadership is not management. If you view a minister purely as a manager, then he (and here I consciously chose not write he/she) is responsible for the performance of his direct reports, and his direct reports are responsible for the performance of their direct reports, and so on.
Leadership is different. The leader of an organisation is responsible for the entire organisation. Leadership requires one to take ownership of the group that one leads. Just as one takes credit for the achievements of the group, one must also take responsibility for the failings of the group, including those of individual group members. To be honest, the next time that the Government tries to claim credit for our security situation and attributes it to its policies, how credible would those claims be to Singaporeans?
What has been said about government responsibility, seems to frame the entire discussion around ministers being managers. But ministers are leaders as well. They are our leaders. And they have to demonstrate leadership, to retain the moral authority that leaders need to have.
Conceptually, accepting responsibility is different from the consequences of the occurrence of the failing. Accepting responsibility does not necessarily require the person to also resign or offer to resign. They are separate issues. That is why I, like Chua Mui Hoong, do not believe that it is necessary for the DPM to resign or offer to resign. And if the DPM clearly, explicitly, unambiguously says that he takes responsibility for what had happened, I believe that that would go a long way towards addressing the discontent of most Singaporeans.
The continued absence of a clear, explicit acknowledgment and acceptance of responsibility and apology will make it difficult for Singaporeans to accept what has been said and to move on. And that is a huge pity. It was a chance to set an example of true accountability and transparency to the world, and I think we let that chance slip.


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Because I use the same spreader bar for fixed hook riding and don't want the shackle dangling around when not riding waves. The simple ring stows neatly when popped over one of the knots on the end of the line as pictured earlier. It also orients the shackle to function as a push away release. Something I'm used to.
If I find it ever goes off unintentionally I will go to a smaller stopper on the trigger line.


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There was a cute ad on television a few weeks ago. A furniture store advertised that after the mother of all winters they were going to have the mother of all sales! I feel sad for a lot of businesses that lost sales that they will never regain. Restaurants are a good example of that. Many days it was so cold and nasty that I just stayed in the house except for cattle chores. On the very worst days I was the busiest. I always volunteer at a nearby nursing home to take the employees to work with my 4-wheel drive truck. This year that became a big job. Sometimes people called at 5 a.m. and sometimes I didn't get home until midnight. It was a nice opportunity to do something useful and gave me a chance to meet new folks and to thank them for the work they do. I was apprehensive at times because I knew that if I got stuck I would be stranded for a long time. An elderly man 16 miles from here froze to death in his home in early winter. His wife had to be hospitalized for hypothermia.
One thing we really appreciated was the warmth from our wood boiler. It's something I bought three years ago but it really paid off big this year. I learned about wood boilers while attending farm shows. They can burn large pieces of wood, and since they are outside away from the house the risk of fire is greatly decreased. The hot water is continually pumped to the house and makes delightful heat. The system is also rigged up to our water heater so it saves us money there, too, and we have piping hot water within 15 seconds after we turn on the spigots.
It was disheartening to read and hear about the problems pork producers are having with disease. I was fortunate not to have any pigs this winter. I am trying to catch up on working on equipment because I really didn't get anything done on it this winter. I enjoyed the educational meetings that I went to and having a chance to chat with other farmers over a meal after the meetings were over. I learned that soybean seed is being developed to be resistant to heavy pre-emerge applications of Kixor herbicide. That will be very useful in battling marestail since Kixor is very good at controlling it.
I enjoyed taking a week and a half off to visit relatives in southern California and attend the World Ag Expo there. The weather was perfect and we had a chance to learn a lot and see a cornucopia of new equipment.
Like FIN blogs? Subscribe to Farm Industry News Now e-newsletter to get the latest ones and more straight to your inbox twice weekly.


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There are two ways of producing peanuts, says southwest Georgia's Bob McLendon. "You can produce them as cheaply as possible and yields won't be quite as good as they might be otherwise. But I've always taken the other position," says McLendon, this year's Farm Press Peanut Profitability Award winner for the lower Southeast region.
To pay for good labor and good equipment, a farmer has to make good yields, and that's the approach McLendon has taken to peanut production. "We spend quite a bit on our peanuts. Our variable costs run at about $275 per acre, and those are the inputs we purchase to make a crop. Our yields are extremely good," he says.
McLendon also was the University of Georgia's yield champ this past year in the 700-plus acres category, with a yield of 5,116 pounds per acre on about 1,100 acres.
McLendon began farming in 1974, growing corn and peanuts on an every-other-year rotation. "We started putting in irrigation systems before we started farming, in 1972. My background in banking and finance taught me that the only way to make money in farming was with irrigation," says the Calhoun County, Ga., farmer.
Because of nematode problems, the University of Georgia recommended in 1979 that he grow cotton for rotational purposes because nematicides were being taken off the market.
"We started growing cotton in 1980, and we still continue to grow corn and peanuts. With the elimination of the boll weevil through the eradication program, our corn continued to decrease while our cotton acres continued to climb. In 1986 or 1987, we ended up with cotton and peanuts on a three-year rotation, with two years of cotton and one year of peanuts.
"This year, because of demand, we've put corn back into our rotation. The preferred rotation for peanuts is peanuts followed by cotton followed by corn, with peanuts being planted behind corn. I'm now on a three-year rotation, and as long as corn prices stay at $3.50 per bushel or better, we'll continue to plant corn. It helps to divide our work. I didn't realize how nice it was to have one-third of your acreage planted in March," he says.
Corn requires more irrigation, says McLendon, but 100-percent of his cropland is irrigated. "All of our crops are irrigated and have been for 20 to 25 years. All of our irrigation is center pivot, with about half of the water coming from wells and the other half coming from above-ground storage, including ponds and lagoons.
"With irrigation, even when prices are bad, you still have something to sell. And when dry weather — like we've seen this year — results in less than desirable production, you have something to sell at a higher price. We've consistently been able to make crops over the years because of irrigation," he says.
McLendon says he basically follows the University of Georgia's recommendations for his peanut production program, along with those from the National Peanut Research Lab in Dawson, Ga., and his consultant Jack Royal.
"We were the first in Calhoun County to plant twin-row peanuts, and they improved our yields by 500 to 700 pounds per acre. The other factor that has enabled us to make higher yields is our fungicide program. Dr. Davidson, former director of the peanut lab, came up with a program that we have followed, with some adjustments. We use Abound, which has controlled rhizoctonia and pod rot. These were our biggest problems. With the twin rows and Abound, our yields increased significantly," says McLendon.
This is his third year for using GPS for planting and harvesting peanuts, and he has been pleased with the results. "We plant the crop and determine the latitude and longitude on which we plant, and then we store that information in a computer. When we come back to plow up peanuts, we put in those same numbers. This allows us to follow the same row, tremendously reducing our harvesting losses."
McLendon strives to do everything on a timely basis, and having good labor contributes to his success in this area.
"They work at trying to harvest everything we make, and they work as hard for me as if they were working for themselves. I have one employee who has been with me since I started in 1974. The bad news is that out of eight employees, four are on Social Security. They work because they want to work. They enjoy working and I provide a good place for them to work. I'm on Social Security myself, but I don't want to retire. I don't hunt or fish, so all I know how to do is work."
For weed control on peanuts, he uses traditional herbicides, including Sonalan, Storm, Gramoxone and Cadre.
"We don't put out any fertilizer on peanuts and haven't for many years. Peanuts utilize the fertilizer from past crops. We do use insecticides, including Lorsban. We've tried not using Lorsban because it's so expensive, but we learned that skimping wasn't the way to make high yields. In some years, we don't have to use anything for worms. Last year, we used Steward insecticide where needed."
McLendon sprays fungicides on a 10-day schedule, starting with Tilt/Bravo and then moving to Bravo. He then makes two applications of Abound before applying Folicur for white mold control.
"We have tomato spotted wilt virus, but we've delayed our planting to the window recommended by the Extension Service, and we don't start planting peanuts now until after May 10. Twenty-five years ago, we were planting on April 10. We've found that twin rows cover the ground more quickly, and it reduces tomato spotted wilt virus, regardless of when we plant."
Although he has looked at the possibility of strip-tilling peanuts, McLendon says the research hasn't shown a big enough yield difference between strip-till and conventional to justify the changeover. So he continues to break and turn his peanut land while strip-tilling cotton and corn.
He uses the IrrigatorPro expert computer system from the National Peanut Lab to help determine when to irrigate. "We put the data in the computer twice a week, and we irrigate whenever it says to irrigate."
McLendon says his county Extension agent, Paul Wigley, uses the hull-scrape method to help him determine the optimum time for harvesting.
"I use a lot of people in my farming operation. I've never done anything right the first time by myself. I've always followed what other people have done, and I try to improve on it," he says.
McLendon's entire peanut acreage is planted in the Georgia Green variety. "The variety has been awfully good to me. I'll keep using it until we have one that's a proven producer that performs better than Georgia Green."
His peanut acres have continued to fluctuate over the years mainly because of purchasing land and rotation needs. "I started in 1973 with about 600 acres of all crops. Through the years, we've added land, and we're now at about 4,500 acres of row crops. But I rent out a good portion of that to other producers."
Dry weather during the early part of the 2007 season has been a concern for McLendon and other area farmers.
"We've had to irrigate corn quite a bit, and we irrigated cotton up to a stand — we've always done that. It took two irrigations this year to get peanuts up to a stand. In April, we paid about $14 per acre just for fuel to irrigate. This will be a very expensive crop, and it's as dry as I can remember for this time of the year."
Peanuts, say McLendon, remain his most profitable crop. "Our peanut yields this past year resulted in us grossing more than $1,000 per acre. Nothing comes close to that. Fertilizer prices have increased so much that it has taken a great deal of the profitability out of corn."
A past president and former chairman of the board of the National Cotton Council, McLendon says the most satisfying thing he has done in agriculture was to give the testimony for the 2002 farm bill, recommending the direct and counter-cyclical payments for cotton.
"We were the first to testify, and the farm bill we got — including the peanut program — was recommended by the National Cotton Council."
Looking ahead to the new farm bill, he believes cotton and rice won't fare as well as in the current legislation. "Because of high commodity prices, we have less money to write a farm bill than we had in 2001. I don't expect we'll have farm programs as good as the ones we now have.
"In the history of farm bills, a good bill usually is followed by one that is not as good. Freedom to Farm just about put us out of business, but then we got a good program in 2002.
The peanut program, says McLendon, has generally been good for the industry. "The program put us in the possibility of a world market. But the USDA's determination of peanut redemption prices has been higher than the world price of peanuts. We tried to craft the program like the one we have for cotton. But with cotton, we have a known formula for determining the adjusted world price, and we need the same for peanuts. We need a world price that will allow us to be competitive.
McLendon and his wife Barbara have four daughters and seven grandchildren.


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Lunch and Learn: A Change of Scenery
On Wednesday, July 9, Daniel and Andrew McCurry led "A Change of Scenery," a Lunch and Learn event which showed participants how to make their landscape fit their current lifestyle, physical needs and desires. A new Lunch and Learn series will begin on July 23 with "GrandScapes: Playful Gardening" led by Vasha Rosenblum. Sallie Lee leads "The Buzz on Pollinators" on August 6, while James Horton leads "Porous, Permeable and Pervious" on August 13.
All Lunch and Learn sessions take place from 11:30 – 12:30 p.m., and they're all FREE! Bring your lunch and we'll provide the drinks and desserts! Make plans to join our next series!


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Physical Sciences
Research Highlights
April 2009
Fueling Our Future Using New Approaches to Designing Catalysts
Review article details how to improve catalysts for hydrogen production and storage
Reaction profiles for forming hydrogen (H2), proceeding from left to right. The solid black curve, which requires the most energy, is for producing hydrogen via an uncatalyzed reaction. The green curve is for the reaction using a moderate catalyst. The blue curve, which requires the least energy to produce hydrogen, is for an ideal catalyst. Enlarged View
Results: Solar cells only provide power when the sun shines. So, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory's Institute for Integrated Catalysis scientists Dr. M. Rakowski DuBois, Dr. Daniel L. DuBois, and Dr. R. Morris Bullock are designing catalysts to use solar energy to power reactions that turn water into hydrogen, which can be used when needed. They developed catalysts that use a unique approach that incorporates the concepts of energy matching and proton relays into their catalysts. Proton relays provide a physical pathway for controlling the movements of protons and electrons during the catalytic process.
Using this new approach, the team developed effective catalysts based on both nickel and cobalt. In the January 2009 issue of Chemical Society Reviews, the team described how others can apply these tools to their own research. In many ways, this process is similar to charging a battery, except that the substances that are used are abundant and cheap: sunshine and water.
When energy is needed, the hydrogen could be used in a fuel cell, using the same catalysts, to produce electricity. Currently, the most efficient catalyst for this process is platinum; however, platinum is expensive, and its supply is limited. Researchers have found that Mother Nature uses enzymes called hydrogenases to speed the conversion of water to hydrogen and the reverse process in the same way as platinum, except that hydrogenases use more abundant and cheaper metals such as nickel and iron.
Why it Matters: Solar power will not curb our reliance on fossil fuels in the long term unless storage solutions are found for the excess intermittent energy produced by solar and renewables. The challenge is finding a storage solution that is cheap, efficient, and uses an abundant material. Storing energy using hydrogen is just one option, but it requires effective and affordable catalysts to make this happen. This review provides insights to aid in designing catalysts so that more hydrogen can be produced with less-expensive metals.
Methods: The team found that a key issue is controlling the movement of the protons within the catalytic molecule by providing a physical pathway for the catalytically active site to make hydrogen. To do this, features—called proton relays—were incorporated into the catalyst. The team also found that without this proton relay, the catalyst does not work, or if it does work, it is slow and it takes much more energy that it should.
In the team's many thermodynamic studies on their catalysts, they found that the energies of both the physical pathway and the catalytically active site need to be matched, or be on the same energy level. To do this, the team needed to determine the thermodynamic properties of both the proton relay and the catalytically active site. This thermodynamic approach, or energy matching, allows intermediate molecules, which require a lot of energy to create and move along to the next state, to be avoided.
What's Next: Dr. DuBois, Dr. Rakowski DuBois, and Dr. Bullock will continue research into low-cost, effective catalysts to produce hydrogen in conjunction with other researchers at PNNL. Their general approach can be applied not only to hydrogen production and oxidation but to any transfer process that involves multiple protons and electrons including carbon dioxide and nitrogen reduction.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the National Science Foundation and the Department of Energy's Office of Basic Energy Sciences.
Reference: DuBois MR and DL DuBois. 2009. "The role of the first and second coordination spheres in the design of molecular catalysts for H2 production and oxidation." Chemical Society Reviews 38:62-72.


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In political and social sciences, communism (from Latin communis, "common, universal")[1][2] is the philosophical, social, political, and economic ideology and movement whose ultimate goal is the establishment of the communist society, which is a socioeconomic order structured upon the common ownership of the means of production and the absence of social classes, money[3][4] and the state.[5][6]
Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism and anarchism (anarcho-communism), as well as the political ideologies grouped around both. All of these share the analysis that the current order of society stems from its economic system, capitalism; that in this system there are two major social classes; that conflict between these two classes is the root of all problems in society; and that this situation will ultimately be resolved through a social revolution. The two classes are the working class—who must work to survive and who make up the majority within society—and the capitalist class—a minority who derives profit from employing the working class through private ownership of the means of production. The revolution will put the working class in power and in turn establish social ownership of the means of production, which according to this analysis is the primary element in the transformation of society towards communism. Critics of communism can be roughly divided into those concerning themselves with the practical aspects of 20th century communist states[7] and those concerning themselves with communist principles and theory.[8]
Early communism
The term "communism" was first coined and defined in its modern definition by the French philosopher and writer Victor d'Hupay. In his 1777 book Projet de communauté philosophe, d'Hupay pushes the philosophy of the Enlightenment to principles which he lived up to during most of his life in his bastide of Fuveau (Provence). This book can be seen as the cornerstone of communist philosophy as d'Hupay defines this lifestyle as a "commune" and advises to "share all economic and material products between inhabitants of the commune, so that all may benefit from everybody's work".[9]
According to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece.[10] The 5th-century Mazdak movement in Persia (Iran) has been described as "communistic" for challenging the enormous privileges of the noble classes and the clergy, for criticizing the institution of private property and for striving to create an egalitarian society.[11][12] At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, generally under the inspiration of Scripture.[13] For example, in the medieval Christian church some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property (see religious and Christian communism).
Communist thought has also been traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia (1516), More portrayed a society based on common ownership of property, whose rulers administered it through the application of reason. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, where a Puritan religious group known as the "Diggers" advocated the abolition of private ownership of land.[14] In his 1895 Cromwell and Communism,[15] Eduard Bernstein argued that several groups during the English Civil War (especially the Diggers) espoused clear communistic, agrarian ideals and that Oliver Cromwell's attitude towards these groups was at best ambivalent and often hostile.[15] Criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution communism emerged as a political doctrine.[16]
In the early 19th century, various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. However, unlike many previous communist communities they replaced the religious emphasis with a rational and philanthropic basis.[17] Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana (1825), as well as Charles Fourier, whose followers organized other settlements in the United States such as Brook Farm (1841–1847).[17]
In its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the proletariat—a new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Karl Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels. In 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto.[17]
State communism in the Soviet Union
The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to state power of Vladimir Lenin's Bolsheviks, which was the first time any avowedly communist party reached that position. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority.[18][19][20] The event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development. However, Russia was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule.[21]
The moderate Mensheviks (minority) opposed Lenin's Bolshevik (majority) plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Bolsheviks' successful rise to power was based upon the slogans such as "Peace, bread and land" which tapped into the massive public desire for an end to Russian involvement in the First World War, the peasants' demand for land reform, and popular support for the soviets.[22] The Soviet Union was established in 1922.
Following Lenin's democratic centralism, the Leninist parties were organized on a hierarchical basis, with active cells of members as the broad base. They were made up only of elite cadres approved by higher members of the party as being reliable and completely subject to party discipline.[23] The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Joseph Stalin's attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party. In the Moscow Trials, many old Bolsheviks who had played prominent roles during the Russian Revolution of 1917 or in Lenin's Soviet government afterwards, including Kamenev, Zinoviev, Rykov and Bukharin, were accused, pleaded guilty and executed.[24]
Cold War
Its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and communist parties played a leading role in many independence movements. Marxist–Leninist governments modeled on the Soviet Union took power with Soviet assistance in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland, Hungary and Romania. A Marxist–Leninist government was also created under Marshal Tito in Yugoslavia, but Tito's independent policies led to the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the Cominform which had replaced the Comintern and Titoism was branded "deviationist". Albania also became an independent Marxist–Leninist state after World War II.[25] Communism was seen as a rival of and a threat to western capitalism for most of the 20th century.[26]
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
The Soviet Union was dissolved on December 26, 1991. It was a result of the declaration number 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union.[27] The declaration acknowledged the independence of the former Soviet republics and created the Commonwealth of Independent States, although five of the signatories ratified it much later or did not do it at all. On the previous day, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev (the eighth and final leader of the Soviet Union) resigned, declared his office extinct and handed over its powers – including control of the Soviet nuclear missile launching codes – to Russian President Boris Yeltsin. That evening at 7:32, the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag.[28]
Previously, from August to December all the individual republics, including Russia itself, had seceded from the union. The week before the union's formal dissolution, eleven republics signed the Alma-Ata Protocol formally establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States and declaring that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist.[29][30]
Present situation
At present, states controlled by Marxist–Leninist parties under a single-party system include the People's Republic of China, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam. North Korea currently refers to its leading ideology as Juche, which is portrayed as a development of Marxism–Leninism. Communist parties, or their descendant parties, remain politically important in a number of other countries. The South African Communist Party is a partner in the African National Congress-led government. In India, as of March 2018, communists lead the government of only one state, Kerala. In Nepal, communists hold a majority in the parliament.[31] The Communist Party of Brazil was a part of the parliamentary coalition led by the ruling democratic socialist Workers' Party until August 2016.
The People's Republic of China has reassessed many aspects of the Maoist legacy and along with Laos, Vietnam and to a lesser degree Cuba has decentralized state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. Chinese economic reforms were started in 1978 under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping and since then China has managed to bring down the poverty rate from 53% in the Mao era to just 6% in 2001.[32] These reforms are sometimes described by outside commentators as a regression to capitalism, but the communist parties describe it as a necessary adjustment to existing realities in the post-Soviet world in order to maximize industrial productive capacity. In these countries, the land is a universal public monopoly administered by the state, as are natural resources and vital industries and services. The public sector is the dominant sector in these economies and the state plays a central role in coordinating economic development.
Marxist communism
Marxism, first developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the mid 1800's, has been the foremost ideology of the communist movement. Marxism considers itself to be the embodiment of scientific socialism, and rather than model an "ideal society" based on intellectuals' design, it is a non-idealist attempt at the understanding of society and history through an analysis based in real life. Marxism does not see communism as a "state of affairs" to be established, but rather as the expression of a real movement, with parameters which are derived completely from real life and not based on any intelligent design.[33] Therefore, Marxism does no blueprinting of a communist society and it only makes an analysis which concludes what will trigger its implementation and discovers its fundamental characteristics based on the derivation of real life conditions.
At the root of Marxism is the materialist conception of history, known as historical materialism for short. It holds that the key characteristic of economic systems through history has been the mode of production and that the change between modes of production has been triggered by class struggle. According to this analysis, the Industrial Revolution ushered the world into a new mode of production: capitalism. Before capitalism, certain working classes had ownership of instruments utilized in production, but because machinery was much more efficient this property became worthless and the mass majority of workers could only survive by selling their labor, working through making use of someone else's machinery and therefore making someone else profit. Thus with capitalism the world was divided between two major classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.[34] These classes are directly antagonistic: the bourgeoisie has private ownership of the means of production and earns a profit off surplus value, which is generated by the proletariat, which has no ownership of the means of production and therefore no option but to sell its labor to the bourgeoisie.
Historical materialism goes on and says: the rising bourgeoisie within feudalism, through the furtherance of its own material interests, captured power and abolished, of all relations of private property, only the feudal privileges and with this took out of existence the feudal ruling class. This was another of the keys behind the consolidation of capitalism as the new mode of production, which is the final expression of class and property relations and also has led into a massive expansion of production. It is therefore only in capitalism that private property in itself can be abolished.[35] Similarly, the proletariat will capture political power, abolish bourgeois property through the common ownership of the means of production, therefore abolishing the bourgeoisie and ultimately abolishing the proletariat itself and ushering the world into a new mode of production: communism. In between capitalism and communism there is the dictatorship of the proletariat, a democratic state where the whole of the public authority is elected and recallable under the basis of universal suffrage.[36] It is the defeat of the bourgeois state, but not yet of the capitalist mode of production and at the same time the only element which places into the realm of possibility moving on from this mode of production.
An important concept in Marxism is socialization vs. nationalization. Nationalization is merely state ownership of property, whereas socialization is actual control and management of property by society. Marxism considers socialization its goal and considers nationalization a tactical issue, with state ownership still being in the realm of the capitalist mode of production; in the words of Engels: "[The transformation [...] into State-ownership does not do away with the capitalistic nature of the productive forces. [...] State-ownership of the productive forces is not the solution of the conflict, but concealed within it are the technical conditions that form the elements of that solution".[37] This has led some Marxist groups and tendencies to label states such as the Soviet Union—based on nationalization—as state capitalist.[38]
We want to achieve a new and better order of society: in this new and better society there must be neither rich nor poor; all will have to work. Not a handful of rich people, but all the working people must enjoy the fruits of their common labour. Machines and other improvements must serve to ease the work of all and not to enable a few to grow rich at the expense of millions and tens of millions of people. This new and better society is called socialist society. The teachings about this society are called 'socialism'.
–Vladimir Lenin, 1903[39]
Leninism is the body of political theory, developed by and named after the Russian revolutionary and later Soviet premier Vladimir Lenin for the democratic organisation of a revolutionary vanguard party and the achievement of a dictatorship of the proletariat, as political prelude to the establishment of socialism. Leninism comprises socialist political and economic theories developed from Marxism, as well as Lenin's interpretations of Marxist theory for practical application to the socio-political conditions of the agrarian early-twentieth-century Russian Empire. In February 1917, for five years Leninism was the Russian application of Marxist economics and political philosophy, effected and realised by the Bolsheviks, the vanguard party who led the fight for the political independence of the working class.
Marxism–Leninism, Stalinism and Trotskyism
Marxism–Leninism and Stalinism
Marxism–Leninism is a political ideology developed by Joseph Stalin,[40] which according to its proponents is based in Marxism and Leninism. The term describes the specific political ideology which Stalin implemented in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and in a global scale in the Comintern. There is no definite agreement between historians of about whether Stalin actually followed the principles of Marx and Lenin.[41] It also contains aspects which according to some are deviations from Marxism, such as "socialism in one country".[42][43] Marxism–Leninism was the ideology of the most clearly visible communist movement. As such, it is the most prominent ideology associated with communism.
Marxism–Leninism refers to the socioeconomic system and political ideology implemented by Stalin in the Soviet Union and later copied by other states based on the Soviet model (central planning, one-party state and so on), whereas Stalinism refers to Stalin's style of governance (political repression, cult of personality and the like). Marxism–Leninism stayed after de-Stalinization, Stalinism did not. In the last letters before his death, Lenin in fact warned against the danger of Stalin's personality and urged the Soviet government to replace him.[44]
Maoism is a form of Marxism–Leninism associated with Chinese leader Mao Zedong. After de-Stalinization, Marxism–Leninism was kept in the Soviet Union, but certain anti-revisionist tendencies such as Hoxhaism and Maoism argued that it was deviated from, therefore different policies were applied in Albania and China, which became more distanced from the Soviet Union.
Marxism–Leninism has been criticized by other communist and Marxist tendencies. They argue that Marxist–Leninist states did not establish socialism, but rather state capitalism.[38] According to Marxism, the dictatorship of the proletariat represents the rule of the majority (democracy) rather than of one party, to the extent that co-founder of Marxism Friedrich Engels described its "specific form" as the democratic republic.[45] Additionally, according to Engels state property by itself is private property of capitalist nature[46] unless the proletariat has control of political power, in which case it forms public property.[47] Whether the proletariat was actually in control of the Marxist–Leninist states is a matter of debate between Marxism–Leninism and other communist tendencies. To these tendencies, Marxism–Leninism is neither Marxism nor Leninism nor the union of both, but rather an artificial term created to justify Stalin's ideological distortion,[48] forced into the CPSU and Comintern. In the Soviet Union, this struggle against Marxism–Leninism was represented by Trotskyism, which describes itself as a Marxist and Leninist tendency.
Trotskyism is a Marxist and Leninist tendency that was developed by Leon Trotsky, opposed to Marxism–Leninism. It supports the theory of permanent revolution and world revolution instead of the two stage theory and socialism in one country. It supported proletarian internationalism and another communist revolution in the Soviet Union, which Trotsky claimed had become a "degenerated worker's state" under the leadership of Stalin, in which class relations had re-emerged in a new form, rather than the dictatorship of the proletariat.
Trotsky and his supporters, struggling against Stalin for power in the Soviet Union, organized into the Left Opposition and their platform became known as Trotskyism. Stalin eventually succeeded in gaining control of the Soviet regime and Trotskyist attempts to remove Stalin from power resulted in Trotsky's exile from the Soviet Union in 1929. While in exile, Trotsky continued his campaign against Stalin, founding in 1938 the Fourth International, a Trotskyist rival to the Comintern In August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico City on Stalin's orders.
Trotsky's politics differed sharply from those of Stalin and Mao, most importantly in declaring the need for an international proletarian revolution (rather than socialism in one country) and support for a true dictatorship of the proletariat based on democratic principles.
Libertarian Marxism
Libertarian Marxism is a broad range of economic and political philosophies that emphasize the anti-authoritarian aspects of Marxism. Early currents of libertarian Marxism, known as left communism,[49] emerged in opposition to Marxism–Leninism[50] and its derivatives, such as Stalinism, Maoism and Trotskyism.[51] Libertarian Marxism is also critical of reformist positions, such as those held by social democrats.[52] Libertarian Marxist currents often draw from Marx and Engels' later works, specifically the Grundrisse and The Civil War in France,[53] emphasizing the Marxist belief in the ability of the working class to forge its own destiny without the need for a revolutionary party or state to mediate or aid its liberation.[54] Along with anarchism, libertarian Marxism is one of the main currents of libertarian socialism.[55]
Libertarian Marxism includes such currents as Luxemburgism, council communism, left communism, Socialisme ou Barbarie, the Johnson-Forest tendency, world socialism, Lettrism/Situationism and operaismo/autonomism and New Left.[56] Libertarian Marxism has often had a strong influence on both post-left and social anarchists. Notable theorists of libertarian Marxism have included Anton Pannekoek, Raya Dunayevskaya, CLR James, Antonio Negri, Cornelius Castoriadis, Maurice Brinton, Guy Debord, Daniel Guérin, Ernesto Screpanti and Raoul Vaneigem.
Council communism
Council communism is a movement originating in Germany and the Netherlands in the 1920s. Its primary organization was the Communist Workers Party of Germany. Council communism continues today as a theoretical and activist position within both left-wing Marxism and libertarian socialism.
The central argument of council communism, in contrast to those of social democracy and Leninist communism, is that democratic workers' councils arising in the factories and municipalities are the natural form of working class organization and governmental power. This view is opposed to both the reformist and the Leninist ideologies, with their stress on respectively parliaments and institutional government (i.e. by applying social reforms on the one hand and vanguard parties and participative democratic centralism on the other).
The core principle of council communism is that the government and the economy should be managed by workers' councils composed of delegates elected at workplaces and recallable at any moment. As such, council communists oppose state-run authoritarian "state socialism"/"state capitalism". They also oppose the idea of a "revolutionary party", since council communists believe that a revolution led by a party will necessarily produce a party dictatorship. Council communists support a worker's democracy, which they want to produce through a federation of workers' councils.
Left communism
Left communism is the range of communist viewpoints held by the communist left, which criticizes the political ideas and practices espoused—particularly following the series of revolutions which brought the First World War to an end—by Bolsheviks and by social democrats. Left communists assert positions which they regard as more authentically Marxist and proletarian than the views of Marxism–Leninism espoused by the Communist International after its first congress (March 1919) and during its second congress (July–August 1920).[57]
Left communists represent a range of political movements distinct from Marxist–Leninists (whom they largely view as merely the left-wing of capital), from anarcho-communists (some of whom they consider internationalist socialists) as well as from various other revolutionary socialist tendencies (for example De Leonists, whom they tend to see as being internationalist socialists only in limited instances).[58]
Non-Marxist communism
The dominant forms of communism are based on Marxism, but non-Marxist versions of communism (such as Christian communism and anarcho-communism) also exist.
Anarcho-communism (also known as libertarian communism) is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, private property and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production,[59][60] direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need".[61][62]
Anarcho-communism differs from Marxism rejecting its view about the need for a state socialism phase before building communism. The main theorist of anarcho-communism, Peter Kropotkin, argued that a revolutionary society should "transform itself immediately into a communist society", that is should go immediately into what Marx had regarded as the "more advanced, completed, phase of communism".[63] In this way, it tries to avoid the reappearance of "class divisions and the need for a state to oversee everything".[63]
Some forms of anarcho-communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are egoist and strongly influenced by radical individualism,[64][65][66] believing that anarchist communism does not require a communitarian nature at all. Most anarcho-communists view anarchist communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.[67][68][69]
To date in human history, the best-known examples of an anarcho-communist society, established around the ideas as they exist today and that received worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon, are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution and the Free Territory during the Russian Revolution. Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War, starting in 1936 anarcho-communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia as well as in the stronghold of Anarchist Catalonia before being brutally crushed by the combined forces of the authoritarian regime that won the war, Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Communist Party of Spain repression (backed by the Soviet Union) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself. During the Russian Revolution, anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked to create and defend—through the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine—anarcho-communism in the Free Territory of the Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921.
Christian communism
Christian communism is a form of religious communism based on Christianity. It is a theological and political theory based upon the view that the teachings of Jesus Christ compel Christians to support communism as the ideal social system. Although there is no universal agreement on the exact date when Christian communism was founded, many Christian communists assert that evidence from the Bible suggests that the first Christians, including the Apostles, established their own small communist society in the years following Jesus' death and resurrection. As such, many advocates of Christian communism argue that it was taught by Jesus and practiced by the Apostles themselves.
Christian communism can be seen as a radical form of Christian socialism. Christian communists may or may not agree with various aspects of Marxism. They do not agree with the atheist and antireligious views held by secular Marxists, but they do agree with many of the economic and existential aspects of Marxist theory, such as the idea that capitalism exploits the working class by extracting surplus value from the workers in the form of profits and the idea that wage labor is a tool of human alienation that promotes arbitrary and unjust authority. Like Marxism, Christian communism also holds the view that capitalism encourages the negative aspects of humans, supplanting values such as mercy, kindness, justice and compassion in favor of greed, selfishness and blind ambition.
Criticism of communism can be divided into two broad categories: those concerning themselves with the practical aspects of 20th century communist states[7] and those concerning themselves with communist principles and theory.[70]
Marxism is also subject to general criticisms, criticisms related to historical materialism that it is a type of historical determinism, the necessary suppression of liberal democratic rights, issues with the implementation of communism and economic issues such as the distortion or absence of price signals. In addition, empirical and epistemological problems are frequently identified.[71][72][73]
See also
- ↑ "Communism". Britannica Encyclopedia.
- ↑ World Book, 2008, p. 890.
- ↑ Principles of Communism, Frederick Engels, 1847, Section 18. "Finally, when all capital, all production, all exchange have been brought together in the hands of the nation, private property will disappear of its own accord, money will become superfluous, and production will so expand and man so change that society will be able to slough off whatever of its old economic habits may remain".
- ↑ The ABC of Communism, Nikoli Bukharin, 1920, Section 20.
- ↑ The ABC of Communism, Nikoli Bukharin, 1920, Section 21.
- ↑ George Thomas Kurian, ed. (2011). "Withering Away of the State". The Encyclopedia of Political Science. CQ Press. doi:10.4135/9781608712434. ISBN 9781933116440. Retrieved January 3, 2016.
- 1 2 Bruno Bosteels, The Actuality of Communism (Verso Books, 2014).
- ↑ Raymond C. Taras, The Road to Disillusion: From Critical Marxism to Post-communism in Eastern Europe (Routledge, 2015).
- ↑ Cassely, 2016 : Aix insolite et secrète JonGlez p. 192–193 (références Bibliothèque nationale de France).
- ↑ Richard Pipes Communism: A History (2001) ISBN 978-0-8129-6864-4, pp. 3–5.
- ↑ The Cambridge History of Iran Volume 3, "The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Period". Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved March 30, 2008., edited by Ehsan Yarshater, Parts 1 and 2, p. 1019, Cambridge University Press (1983).
- ↑ Ermak, Gennady (2016). Communism: The Great Misunderstanding. ISBN 1533082898.
- ↑ Lansford 2007, pp. 24–25.
- ↑ "Diggers' Manifesto". Archived from the original on July 29, 2011. Retrieved July 19, 2011.
- 1 2 Bernstein 1895.
- ↑ "Communism" A Dictionary of Sociology. John Scott and Gordon Marshall. Oxford University Press 2005. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.
- 1 2 3 "Communism". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- ↑ Russia in the Twentieth Century: The Quest for Stability. David R. Marples. p. 38.
- ↑ How the Soviet Union is Governed. Jerry F. Hough. p. 81.
- ↑ The Life and Times of Soviet Socialism. Alex F. Dowlah, John E. Elliott. p. 18.
- ↑ Marc Edelman, "Late Marx and the Russian road: Marx and the 'Peripheries of Capitalism'"—book reviews. Monthly Review, December 1984.
- ↑ Holmes 2009, p. 18.
- ↑ Norman Davies. "Communism". The Oxford Companion to World War II. Ed. I. C. B. Dear and M. R. D. Foot. Oxford University Press, 2001.
- ↑ Sedov, Lev (1980). The Red Book on the Moscow Trial: Documents. New York: New Park Publications. ISBN 0-86151-015-1.
- ↑ "Kushtetuta e Republikës Popullore Socialiste të Shqipërisë : [miratuar nga Kuvendi Popullor më 28. 12. 1976]. – SearchWorks (SULAIR)" (in Albanian). Archived from the original on July 29, 2011. Retrieved June 3, 2011.
- ↑ Georgakas, Dan (1992). "The Hollywood Blacklist". Encyclopedia of the American Left. University of Illinois Press.
- ↑ (in Russian) Declaration № 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, formally establishing the dissolution of the Soviet Union as a state and subject of international law.
- ↑ "Gorbachev, Last Soviet Leader, Resigns; U.S. Recognizes Republics' Independence". New York Times. Retrieved April 27, 2015.
- ↑ "The End of the Soviet Union; Text of Declaration: 'Mutual Recognition' and 'an Equal Basis'". The New York Times. December 22, 1991. Retrieved March 30, 2013.
- ↑ "Gorbachev, Last Soviet Leader, Resigns; U.S. Recognizes Republics' Independence". The New York Times. Retrieved March 30, 2013.
- ↑ "Nepal's election The Maoists triumph Economist.com". Economist.com. April 17, 2008. Archived from the original on July 29, 2011. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
- ↑ "Fighting Poverty: Findings and Lessons from China's Success". World Bank. Archived from the original on July 29, 2011. Retrieved August 10, 2006.
- ↑ Marx, Karl. The German Ideology. 1845. Part I: Feuerbach. Opposition of the Materialist and Idealist Outlook. A. Idealism and Materialism. "Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established, an ideal to which reality [will] have to adjust itself. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things. The conditions of this movement result from the premises now in existence".
- ↑ Engels, Friedrich. Marx & Engels Selected Works, Volume One, pp. 81–97, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1969. "Principles of Communism". No. 4 – "How did the proletariat originate?".
- ↑ Engels, Friedrich. Marx & Engels Selected Works, Volume One, pp. 81–97, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1969. "Principles of Communism". No. 15 – "Was not the abolition of private property possible at an earlier time?".
- ↑ Thomas M. Twiss. Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy. Brill. pp. 28–29.
- ↑ Engels, Friedrich. Socialism: Utopian and Scientific. Chapter 3. "But, the transformation—either into joint-stock companies and trusts, or into State-ownership—does not do away with the capitalistic nature of the productive forces. In the joint-stock companies and trusts, this is obvious. And the modern State, again, is only the organization that bourgeois society takes on in order to support the external conditions of the capitalist mode of production against the encroachments as well of the workers as of individual capitalists. The modern state, no matter what its form, is essentially a capitalist machine—the state of the capitalists, the ideal personification of the total national capital. The more it proceeds to the taking over of productive forces, the more does it actually become the national capitalist, the more citizens does it exploit. The workers remain wage-workers—proletarians. The capitalist relation is not done away with. It is, rather, brought to a head. But, brought to a head, it topples over. State-ownership of the productive forces is not the solution of the conflict, but concealed within it are the technical conditions that form the elements of that solution".
- 1 2 "State capitalism" in the Soviet Union, M.C. Howard and J.E. King.
- ↑ "To the Rural Poor" (1903). Collected Works. vol. 6. p. 366.
- ↑ Г. Лисичкин (G. Lisichkin), Мифы и реальность, Новый мир (Novy Mir), 1989, № 3, p. 59 (in Russian).
- ↑ Александр Бутенко (Aleksandr Butenko), Социализм сегодня: опыт и новая теория// Журнал Альтернативы, №1, 1996, pp. 2–22 (in Russian).
- ↑ Contemporary Marxism, issues 4–5. Synthesis Publications, 1981. p. 151. "[S]ocialism in one country, a pragmatic deviation from classical Marxism".
- ↑ North Korea Under Communism: Report of an Envoy to Paradise. Cornell Erik. p. 169. "Socialism in one country, a slogan that aroused protests as not only it implied a major deviation from Marxist internationalism, but was also strictly speaking incompatible with the basic tenets of Marxism".
- ↑ Ermak, Gennady (2016). Communism: The Great Misunderstanding. ISBN 1533082898.
- ↑ A Critique of the Draft Social-Democratic Program of 1891. "Marx & Engels Collected Works", Vol 27, p. 217. "If one thing is certain it is that our party and the working class can only come to power under the form of a democratic republic. This is even the specific form for the dictatorship of the proletariat".
- ↑ "Socialism: Utopian and Scientific". Friedrich Engels. Part III. Progress Publishers. "But, the transformation—either into joint-stock companies and trusts, or into State-ownership—does not do away with the capitalistic nature of the productive forces".
- ↑ "Socialism: Utopian and Scientific". Friedrich Engels. Part III. Progress Publishers. "The proletariat seizes the public power, and by means of this transforms the socialized means of production, slipping from the hands of the bourgeoisie, into public property. By this act, the proletariat frees the means of production from the character of capital they have thus far borne, and gives their socialized character complete freedom to work itself out".
- ↑ History for the IB Diploma: Communism in Crisis 1976–89. Allan Todd. p. 16. "The term Marxism–Leninism, invented by Stalin, was not used until after Lenin's death in 1924. It soon came to be used in Stalin's Soviet Union to refer to what he described as 'orthodox Marxism'. This increasingly came to mean what Stalin himself had to say about political and economic issues." [...] "However, many Marxists (even members of the Communist Party itself) believed that Stalin's ideas and practices (such as socialism in one country and the purges) were almost total distortions of what Marx and Lenin had said".
- ↑ Pierce, Wayne.Libertarian Marxism's Relation to Anarchism. "The Utopian". 73–80.
- ↑ Hermann Gorter, Anton Pannekoek and Sylvia Pankhurst (2007). Non-Leninist Marxism: Writings on the Workers Councils. St. Petersburg, Florida: Red and Black Publishers. ISBN 978-0-9791813-6-8.
- ↑ Marot, Eric. "Trotsky, the Left Opposition and the Rise of Stalinism: Theory and Practice"
- ↑ The Retreat of Social Democracy ... Re-imposition of Work in Britain and the 'Social Europe'. Aufheben. Issue No. 8. 1999.
- ↑ Ernesto Screpanti, Libertarian Communism: Marx Engels and the Political Economy of Freedom, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2007.
- ↑ Hal Draper (1971). The Principle of Self-Emancipation in Marx and Engels. The Socialist Register. Retrieved April 25, 2015.
- ↑ Chomsky, Noam. "Government In The Future" Poetry Center of the New York YM-YWHA. Lecture.
- ↑ "A libertarian Marxist tendency map". libcom.org. Retrieved October 1, 2011.
- ↑ Non-Leninist Marxism: Writings on the Workers Councils (includes texts by Gorter, Pannekoek, Pankhurst and Rühle), Red and Black Publishers, St. Petersburg, Florida, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9791813-6-8.
- ↑ "The Legacy of De Leonism, part III: De Leon's misconceptions on class struggle". Internationalism. 2000–2001.
- ↑ Alan James Mayne (1999). From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 316. ISBN 978-0-275-96151-0.
- ↑ Anarchism for Know-It-Alls. Filiquarian Publishing. 2008. ISBN 978-1-59986-218-7.
- ↑ Fabbri, Luigi (13 October 2002). "Anarchism and Communism. Northeastern Anarchist #4. 1922". Archived from the original on 29 July 2011.
- ↑ Makhno, Mett, Arshinov, Valevski, Linski (Dielo Trouda) (1926). "Constructive Section". The Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists. Archived from the original on July 29, 2011.
- 1 2 ""What is Anarchist Communism?" by Wayne Price". Archived from the original on July 29, 2011.
- ↑ Christopher Gray, Leaving the Twentieth Century, p. 88.
- ↑ Novatore, Renzo. "Towards the creative Nothing". Archived from the original on July 29, 2011.
- ↑ "Bob Black. Nightmares of Reason". Archived from the original on July 29, 2011.
- ↑ "Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual liberty—provided that the idea that begets the community be Liberty, Anarchy ... Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of association, because it can guarantee wellbeing, even luxury, in return for a few hours of work instead of a day's work". Kropotkin, Peter. "Communism and Anarchy". Archived from the original on July 29, 2011.
- ↑ This other society will be libertarian communism, in which social solidarity and free individuality find their full expression, and in which these two ideas develop in perfect harmony. Dielo Truda (Workers' Cause). "Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists". Archived from the original on July 29, 2011.
- ↑ "I see the dichotomies made between individualism and communism, individual revolt and class struggle, the struggle against human exploitation and the exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and feel that those who accept them are impoverishing their own critique and struggle". "MY PERSPECTIVES – Willful Disobedience Vol. 2, No. 12". Archived from the original on July 29, 2011.
- ↑ Raymond C. Taras, The Road to Disillusion: From Critical Marxism to Post-communism in Eastern Europe (Routledge, 2015).
- ↑ See M. C. Howard and J. E. King, 1992, A History of Marxian Economics: Volume II, 1929–1990. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
- ↑ Popper, Karl (2002). Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. Routledge. p. 49. ISBN 0-415-28594-1.
- ↑ John Maynard Keynes. Essays in Persuasion. W. W. Norton & Company. 1991. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-393-00190-7.
- Bernstein, Eduard (1895). Kommunistische und demokratisch-sozialistische Strömungen während der englischen Revolution [Cromwell and Communism: Socialism And Democracy in the Great English Revolution]. marxists.org. Stuttgart: J.H.W. Dietz. OCLC 36367345.
- Holmes, Leslie (2009). Communism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955154-5.
- Lansford, Tom (2007). Communism. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-2628-8.
- Link, Theodore (2004). Communism: A Primary Source Analysis. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8239-4517-7.
- Rabinowitch, Alexander (2004). The Bolsheviks come to power: the Revolution of 1917 in Petrograd. Pluto Press.
- "Ci–Cz Volume 4". World Book. Chicago, Illinois: World Book, Inc. 2008. ISBN 978-0-7166-0108-1.
Further reading
- Adamczak, Bini. Communism for Kids. Translated by Jacob Blumenfeld and Sophie Lewis. MIT Press, 2017. ISBN 9780262533355.
- Adami, Stefano. "Communism", in Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies, ed. Gaetana Marrone – P. Puppa, Routledge, New York, London, 2006.
- Beer, Max. The General History of Socialism and Social Struggles Volumes 1 & 2. New York, Russel and Russel, Inc. 1957.
- Daniels, Robert Vincent. A Documentary History of Communism and the World: From Revolution to Collapse. University Press of New England, 1994. ISBN 978-0-87451-678-4.
- Dean, Jodi. The Communist Horizon. Verso, 2012. ISBN 978-1844679546.
- Dirlik, Arif. Origins of Chinese Communism. Oxford University Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-19-505454-5.
- Forman, James D. Communism From Marx's Manifesto To 20th century Reality. New York, Watts. 1972. ISBN 978-0-531-02571-0.
- Furet, Francois and Deborah Kan (translator). The Passing of An Illusion: The Idea of Communism In the Twentieth Century. University of Chicago Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-226-27341-9.
- Ghodsee, Kristen R. Red Hangover: Legacies of Twentieth-Century Communism. Duke University Press, 2017. ISBN 978-0822369493.
- Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engels. Communist Manifesto. (Mass Market Paperback – REPRINT), Signet Classics, 1998. ISBN 978-0-451-52710-3.
- Pons, Silvio and Robert Service. A Dictionary of 20th century Communism. 2010.
- Zinoviev, Alexandre. The Reality of Communism (1980), Publisher Schocken, 1984.
External links
- Libcom.org. Extensive library of almost 20,000 articles, books, pamphlets and journals on libertarian communism.
"Communism". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. Lindsay, Samuel McCune (1905). "Communism". New International Encyclopedia.
- The Radical Pamphlet Collection at the Library of Congress contains materials on the topic of communism.


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