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AT&T Wi-Fi Hot Spots Experience Notable Growth in Retail and Hospitality Locations
Dallas, Texas, February 26, 2013
Wi-Fi has become a necessity for the connected consumer, driving more than 2.7 Billion Wi-Fi connections made to the AT&T* Wi-Fi network in 2012. As consumers rely on Wi-Fi connectivity in their daily routine, businesses are continuing to harness the benefits of AT&T across more than 32,000 AT&T Wi-Fi Hot Spot locations.
AT&T Wi-Fi Key Facts for 2012:
- More than double the connections made to the AT&T Wi-Fi Network in 2012 versus 2011.
- AT&T's Wi-Fi footprint grew 10 percent in 2012 with connections to venues growing by nearly 200 percent in the past year.
- 3X more mobile device traffic exchanged on the Wi-Fi network soaring over 5.2 billion MB in 2012.
- 40 percent more connections made in 4Q12 from mobile smartphone and tablet devices compared to 4Q11.
- 190 percent increase in mobile data uploads on the AT&T Wi-Fi network quarter-over-quarter.
"Wi-Fi works in tandem with our global network to keep people connected wherever they are. By providing this must-have connectivity at all types of locations, businesses can bring added value to the customer experience," said Josh Goodell, Associate Vice President, AT&T Wi-Fi Services. "With connectivity to our Wi-Fi Network skyrocketing in 2012 by more than 1 billion connections year-over-year, Wi-Fi is a clear factor in mobile use, driving purchase decisions to enriched hospitality, fan and travel experiences."
AT&T Wi-Fi Spotlight on Retail and Hospitality Locations:
Big box retailers and hotels are finding innovative solutions to enhance the Wi-Fi experience for employees and customers. In 2012, more than 7 billion minutes were spent connected at AT&T Wi-Fi retail locations. On average, each connection lasted 45 minutes. With prolonged connectivity and data usage, Wi-Fi connectivity is impacting retail venues' bottom line while satisfying a necessity – a reliable connection for customers and employees.
In hotels across the globe, AT&T added Wi-Fi to more than 95,000 guest rooms last year increasing connections by more than 225% in 2012. The AT&T Wi-Fi hospitality platform brings feature rich mass-scalable solutions to a diversified portfolio of properties dedicated to strengthening management and guest experiences for anytime online access.
AT&T operates the nation's largest Wi-Fi network** including more than 32,000 AT&T Wi-Fi Hot Spots at popular restaurants, hotels, bookstores and retailers, and provides access to more than 402,000 hotspots globally through roaming agreements.
*AT&T products and services are provided or offered by subsidiaries and affiliates of AT&T Inc. under the AT&T brand and not by AT&T Inc.
** Largest based on company branded and operated hotspots. Access includes AT&T Wi-Fi Basic. A Wi-Fi enabled device required. Other restrictions apply. See www.attwifi.com for details and locations.
About AT&T
AT&T Inc. (NYSE:T, news, filings) is a premier communications holding company and one of the most honored companies in the world. Its subsidiaries and affiliates – AT&T operating companies – are the providers of AT&T services in the United States and internationally. With a powerful array of network resources that includes the nation's largest 4G network, AT&T is a leading provider of wireless, Wi-Fi, high speed Internet, voice and cloud-based services. A leader in mobile Internet, AT&T also offers the best wireless coverage worldwide of any U.S. carrier, offering the most wireless phones that work in the most countries. It also offers advanced TV services under the AT&T U-verse® and AT&T |DIRECTV brands. The company's suite of IP-based business communications services is one of the most advanced in the world.
Additional information about AT&T Inc. and the products and services provided by AT&T subsidiaries and affiliates is available at http://www.att.com/aboutus or follow our news on @ATT, on Facebook at http://www.facebook.com/att and YouTube at http://www.youtube.com/att.
© 2013 AT&T Intellectual Property. All rights reserved. 4G not available everywhere. AT&T, the AT&T logo and all other marks contained herein are trademarks of AT&T Intellectual Property and/or AT&T affiliated companies.
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Understanding Autism
Autism is a disability with characteristics that vary across a wide spectrum. While persons with autism can't be identified by their physical appearance, they usually have difficulties with language or communication, social skills, and behavior, often due to sensory difficulties.
The different levels of autism range from mild to severe. Individuals with severe autism may be nonverbal and seem to be unaware of other people. Those with mild autism can appear to be incredibly smart but may seem odd in social interactions. Most people with autism are somewhere in the middle.
Individuals with Autism Have Difficulty in Three Main Areas
1. Communication
- Repeating words or phrases, sometimes out of context
- Less responsive to requests
- Laughing or crying for no apparent reason
- Takes communication literally—does not understand social or verbal innuendos
- Inability to follow multiple instructions
2. Social Interactions
- Difficulty telling others how they feel or what they need
- Awkward social skills or a preference for being alone
- Difficulty making eye contact or using nonverbal communication
- No sense of danger
3. Behavior
- Difficulty with changes and a preference for routines
- Very susceptible to sensory overload. Easily upset by noise, crowds, too much happening at once, or touch
- Unusual play, spinning of objects, or unusually strong attachment to objects
- Intense interest in a particular topic (for example, trains, movies, dinosaurs, or animals)
- Excessive physical over-activity or under-activity
Ways to Help
- Seek to better understand a person by talking with family members about the person's interests and how best to relate to him or her.
- Interact in a relaxed and friendly manner.
- Encourage classmates to ignore inappropriate behavior and to compliment the person when he or she contributes in a positive way.
- Do not allow classmates to tease or insult others for any reason. Lead by example and find ways to make Church activities a positive experience for everyone.
- If appropriate, encourage classmates to come up with ways to include children with autism. Let them know that while children with autism may choose to spend time by themselves, they may want to make friends.
- Counsel with the family or caregiver and learn to recognize signals from the person with autism that show they are feeling overwhelmed.
Teaching Tips
1. Communication
- Prepare a quiet environment where there are few distractions.
- Keep instruction short and simple. To get a child's attention who has autism, get down on the same level and say his or her name.
- Provide order and structure to help the person feel less anxious and more comfortable. Have a consistent class or activity routine.
- Make a class schedule out of pictures or drawings (for example, song, prayer, story or lesson, activity, and prayer). Point to each picture as you progress through the schedule.
- Use pictures, objects, photos, and videos when teaching. People with autism are generally visual learners.
- Understand that if people with autism become fixed on an idea or question, it is unlikely that they will disengage until their question is answered and they feel satisfied.
- Be flexible; your schedule must be able to be adapted to the needs of the person with autism.
2. Social Interaction
- Learn what the person does well (such as putting together puzzles or singing), and find ways to help the person use those skills in the classroom.
- Select appropriate activities that include interaction with classmates. Use these activities to promote making friends and taking turns.
- Consider a "buddy system" where a classmate assists the person with autism, when needed.
3. Behavior
- Regularly teach clear, simple rules that the child can achieve.
- When inappropriate behavior occurs, repeat the rule. Then encourage the student to engage in another activity.
- Praise the specific behavior whenever the person does something well, such as, "Good job folding your arms, Carrie."
- Ignore small disruptions and consistently praise appropriate behavior and improvement.
- Ask family members about unusual or inappropriate behavior. Parents can help you understand what the child is trying to communicate and how you can respond in a helpful way.
- Provide frequent interaction and activity. It is unrealistic to expect a person with autism to sit for long periods and listen attentively. Don't expect too much too soon. Patience, consistency, and caring will eventually bring progress.
- Consider visiting the school of a young child with autism. Doing so could help you learn about the child's abilities and effective ways to interact with him or her. You will need to ask permission from the parents and school authorities before visiting.
- Do not be discouraged if the child wants to sit and watch and not interact.
- Know that there will be good and bad days that may happen without warning. A good day does not mean that everything is fixed, nor does a bad day mean that all is lost.

subset: commoncrawl


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Watch Property22 Gedy Place, Arbroath DD11 5AJ
2 Bed Terraced Villa - Offers Over £95,000
This is a fantastic opportunity to purchase an end-terraced villa situated in a cul-de-sac within a popular residential location
- End Terrace Villa
- Lounge
- Kitchen
- Wet Rm/Shower Room
- Garden Room
- 2 Bedrooms
- Garden
- EPC Rating: E
- Council Tax Band: A
- Tenure: Freehold
- TSPC Ref: 139697
- View Schedule
- Request Home Report
- Google Maps *
- * external websites are not the responsibility of TSPC and are for guidance only.
Note: maps supplied by external sites and should be taken only as an indication of the location.
Arbroath, Friockheim, Auchmithie, Colliston, Inverkeilor
It's famed for the "Declaration of 1320" and as home of the "Arbroath Smokie," although the smoked haddock delicacy actually originated in the nearby one-time fishing village of Auchmithie.
But as you would expect from the biggest of the Angus towns, there's so much more to Arbroath than just its rich seafaring heritage, captured in a multi-million-pound visitor centre by the quay. The population numbers around the 24,000 mark and it has been hailed among the country's most affordable commuter towns, with Aberdeen and Dundee both coming into play.
It is home to Angus College, the Webster Theatre, two secondary schools, 11 primaries and, of course, a harbour. The Arbroath football team's nickname is the Red Lichties, referencing the lamp which adorned the harbour entrance as an aid to shipping.
The rural hinterland includes the villages of Inverkeilor, with its parks, primary school and pub, Friockheim and the clifftop hamlet of Auchmithie.


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You never got Grandma's recipe book.
You didn't get Grandpa's favorite pocketknife, either, and that little knickknack you loved–a china reminder of childhood–went to a cousin who cherished it, too.
But that's OK. While you never inherited tangible things from your grandparents–no favored bowl or lucky coin–they left you better legacies: strength, knowledge, and a sense of who you are.
For 50 years, Selma Needham kept a farm for her great-grandson, Rayne. She knew he would care for it, just as his great-grandad had. But in the new novel "If Sons, Then Heirs" by Lorene Cary (c.2011, Atria $24.00 / $27.99 Canada, 306 pages), the passing-down may never come to pass.
Jewell Thompson was sorry for a lot of things in her life. Most of all, she was sorry that, all those years ago, she'd put her 7-year-old son on a train by himself and sent him to North Carolina for her folks to raise.
Jewell was a bad mother then. She wished she could make it up to her boy, now a man.
Alonzo Freeman Rayne never had a bad childhood, though he always wondered why his mother sent him to the farm. When he looked back, though, he had a pretty good bringing-up. Grandpa Bobo gave him discipline. Uncle Jones gave him understanding and guidance. And his great-grandma Selma gave him the love he never got from his mother.
No, Rayne couldn't complain about how he was raised. The responsibility he learned, and the work ethic he got, led him to college in Philadelphia and owning his own business. It led him to a good woman, Lillie, and her son, Khalil.
Oh, how Rayne loved that boy. And since the feeling was mutual and Rayne was heading south to visit Nana Selma anyhow, he asked Lillie if Khalil could go along. It might do the child good to spend time with the old woman who raised Rayne.
But things in North Carolina weren't as Rayne remembered. There was much work to be done, and Selma's health wasn't what it was. Though it was his great-granddaddy's beloved land, Rayne hoped to sell it so that Selma could live comfortably somewhere else, somewhere safe.
She'd been "holding" the farm for 50 years. But the farm may never have been hers to hold…
"If Sons, Then Heirs" is like a lingering, warm summer day just before a storm arrives: you'll want to savor every minute of it, even though you know it won't last long and it won't always be pleasant.
Author Lorene Cary weaves a story of several generations of family held together by love and a determination to remember where they came from, and she does it by moving easily from era to era, bygone times to the present and back. That allows you to completely immerse yourself into this engrossing novel, its characters, and their lives.
This is not a book to read casually. You'll want to pay attention to the details, because they are what makes "If Sons, Then Heirs" a recipe for a great summer read.


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ALOC To Hold Memorial Exhibit, Feature Local Painters In July
OCEAN CITY – The public is invited to the Art League of Ocean City's reception for its July Beverly Bassford Memorial Exhibit and Juried Show from 5 to 7 p.m. on July 5 at the Ocean City Center for the Arts on 94th Street bayside.
Bassford was a former Art League Board member who was passionate about the need for a new facility for the nonprofit to call home. After she passed away in 1999, her family established a prize in her name, which grew into the Bassford juried show. The show will feature fine art in all mediums by local and regional artists with Marisa Sage of Salisbury University as the juror. Appetizers will be provided by the Pirates Den and admission is free.
Laura Era of Troika Gallery in Easton will be the featured artist in the galleria with her exhibit "People, Places and Things". She is an award winning, professional portrait, still life and landscape artist with a passion for portraiture.
Born in Japan, but moving to the United States on the Eastern Shore of Maryland at the age of 5, she considers herself a shore native and an artist since the cradle. Although basically self-taught she has taken workshops from Daniel E. Greene, Burton Silverman, and Raoul Middleman. Since turning professional in 1988, Era has painted hundreds of portraits on commission, both formal and informal, in oil and pastel.
"Each person is different and, therefore, I strongly believe that each painting should have its own special personality and drama while still capturing the true essence and likeness of the subject," Era said. "A portrait should also be a great work of art."
Her portraits, landscapes, and still-lifes hang in collections throughout the U.S. and Europe. Painting trips have taken her across the U.S. and to England, France, Portugal, Germany and many times to Italy. She has a private studio in Dorchester County there and teaches classes. She is also co-owner of the prestigious Troika Gallery in historic Easton, Maryland, and can be seen working on commissions in the back studio. View photo-samples of her work in portfolios located in the gallery as well as on the gallery web-site: www.troikagallery.com.
Artists Robert and Diane Heron will be showing their paintings and photographs as the artists in residence for the month of July. Robert is an architect, who designed the OC Center for the Arts building, artist, and author who has been creating for over 40 years. He paints digitally as well as in traditional oil and acrylic. His work can be found locally in various galleries. He and his wife, Diane, several years ago were co-presenters of an "art show" on Public Television and won a national award for video production. Robert's latest exploits as an author can be read in his first published novel 'Artful Deception'.
His unique voice for story telling captivates through his creativity in twisting and tormenting the reader's imagination. By sprinkling a dry sense of humor throughout his writing, he makes the harshness a wee bit more palatable. His writing has been compared to Tartan Noir author, Christopher Brookmyre. Don't miss out on Robert's book signing for 'Artful Deception' being held during the July 5 reception. His second novel, 'The Typewriter' is due for release as we speak.
Diane Dunbar Heron is an artist, photographer and Director of Education at the Art Institute & Gallery in Salisbury. She has won numerous awards, both here and abroad, including our own 'Beverly Bassford Award'.
Diane and Robert love the arts so much that four years ago they started the annual Salisbury "Robert Burns Poetry Night" to raise funds for non-profits in the area. It's held each year on Burns' birthday, Jan. 25 to celebrate everything Scottish and in particular the poetry, songs, and writing of Scotland's Bard and national poet —Robert Burns (1759-1796). This exciting couple has recently returned from Umbria and Venice and promise to show work from their trip. Their work can be viewed at their website, www.twoheronsstudio.com
Featured in the Member Spotlight will be artist Jeanne Mueller.
As a precocious 4-year-old, budding artist Jeanne Mueller painted her mother's sofa. Although her design didn't win an award, a passion for creativity was created. After retiring to the Delaware shore, she discovered a passion for painting. With no formal training, she has become one of this area's prominent self-taught artists. In her paintings, she loves exploring color, light and shapes, she creates visual sensations with color relationships and atmosphere, bringing life to her paintings in a variety of mediums. Jeanne has won awards in many local shows, as well as at the Biggs Museum in Dover, Del. Her art is appreciated by many private collectors on the East Coast. During July, ongoing exhibits by Erik Hertz, Dorothy Harrsion Braun, Faith Lord and Tinsel Hughes will be available in the artists' studios.
The galleries at the Ocean City Center for the Arts are open daily 11 a.m. to 4 p.m.


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Introducing my new online studio
Curate | by Carrie Corson
I am very excited to share my new journey with my readers today.
After careful thought, consideration and planning I decided to move my blog to Wordpress.
I'm not only moving my blog, but as you can see I've also changed the name from
The Corson Cottage to Curate | by Carrie Corson.
This post is somewhat bitter sweet.
It will be my last post as The Corson Cottage.
This was a decision I pondered over for months.
Ultimately I decided that this was the best decision for me to be able to
create the creative online space I feel is best for my blog and the future of my creative brand.
I truly appreciate each & every Corson Cottage visitor over the last few years.
I absolutely welcome you all to my new site & hope that you will follow my new journey!
All the Best!


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Learn About the Law
Get help with your legal needs
FindLaw's Learn About the Law features thousands of informational articles to help you understand your options. And if you're ready to hire an attorney, find one in your area who can help.
Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (the Act) provides for federal funding of special programs for educationally deprived children in both public and private schools. Respondents, parents of children attending nonpublic schools in Kansas City, Mo., brought this class action, alleging that petitioner state school officials arbitrarily and illegally were approving Title I programs that deprived eligible nonpublic school children of services comparable to those offered eligible public school children, and seeking injunctive and other relief. Petitioners answered that the aid sought by respondents exceeded Title I's requirements and contravened the State's Constitution and state law and public policy. First Amendment issues were also raised. The District Court denied relief. The Court of Appeals reversed and remanded, holding that: petitioners were violating the requirement of the Act and implementing regulations that educationally deprived non-public school children be afforded a program comparable to that provided in public schools; if on-the-premises special teaching services are furnished public school children, then comparable programs must be provided nonpublic school children; the state constitutional provision barring use of "public" school funds in private schools did not apply to Title I funds; the question whether Title I funds were "public" within the meaning of the State Constitution was governed by federal law; and, since no plan for on-the-premises instruction in nonpublic schools had yet been implemented, the court would refuse to pass on petitioners' claims that the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment would be violated if Title I does require or permit such instruction. Held:
BLACKMUN, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which BURGER, C. J., and BRENNAN, STEWART, POWELL, and REHNQUIST, JJ., joined. POWELL, J., filed a concurring opinion, post, p. 428. WHITE, J., filed an opinion concurring in the judgment, post, p. 428. MARSHALL, J., concurred in the result. DOUGLAS, J., filed a dissenting opinion, post, p. 429.
Leo Pfeffer argued the cause for petitioners. With him on the briefs were Harry D. Dingman and James B. Lowe.
Thomas M. Sullivan argued the cause for respondents. With him on the brief were Edward L. Fitzgerald and Louis C. DeFeo, Jr.
Deputy Solicitor General Friedman argued the cause for the United States as amicus curiae urging affirmance. With him on the brief were Solicitor General Bork, Acting Assistant Attorney General Jaffe, Danny J. Boggs, Morton Hollander, John B. Rhinelander, Harry J. Chernock, and William A. Kaplin. *
[ Footnote * ] Kenneth W. Greenawalt, Melvin L. Wulf, and Walter Wright filed a brief for the American Civil Liberties Union et al. as amici curiae urging reversal.
Briefs of amici curiae urging affirmance were filed by William R. Consedine, George E. Reed, Charles M. Whelan, and Alfred L. Scanlan for the United States Catholic Conference; by William B. Ball and Joseph G. Skelly for the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights et al.; by Nathan Lewin for the National Jewish Commission on Law and Public Affairs; and by James P. Finnegan, Jr., for Parents Rights, Inc., et al.
Briefs of amici curiae were filed by Paul S. Berger, Theodore R. Mann, Larry M. Lavinsky, Henry N. Rapaport, and Joseph B. Robison of the American Jewish Congress et al., and by G. Dennis Sullivan for the Missouri Coalition for Public Education and Religious Liberty. [417 U.S. 402, 405]
MR. JUSTICE BLACKMUN delivered the opinion of the Court.
Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, as amended, 20 U.S.C. 241a et seq., provides for federal funding of special programs for educationally deprived children in both public and private schools.
This suit was instituted on behalf of parochial school students who were eligible for Title I benefits and who claimed that the public school authorities in their area, in violation of the Act, failed to provide adequate Title I programs for private school children as compared with those programs provided for public school children. The defendants answered that the extensive aid sought by the plaintiffs exceeded the requirements of Title I and contravened the State's Constitution and state law and public policy. First Amendment rights were also raised by the parties. The District Court, concluding that the State had fulfilled its Title I obligations, denied relief. The United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit, by a divided vote, reversed. 475 F.2d 1338 (1973). We granted certiorari to examine serious questions that appeared to be present as to the scope and constitutionality of Title I. 414 U.S. 908 (1973).
Title I is the first federal-aid-to-education program authorizing assistance for private school children as well as for public school children. The Congress, by its statutory declaration of policy, 1 and otherwise, recognized [417 U.S. 402, 406] that all children from educationally deprived areas do not necessarily attend the public schools, and that, since the legislative aim was to provide needed assistance to educationally deprived children rather than to specific schools, it was necessary to include eligible private school children among the beneficiaries of the Act. 2
Since the Act was designed to be administered by local public education officials, 3 a number of problems naturally arise in the delivery of services to eligible private school pupils. Under the administrative structure envisioned by the Act, the primary responsibility for designing and effectuating a Title I program rests with what the Act and the implementing regulations describe as the "local educational [417 U.S. 402, 407] agency." 4 This local agency submits to the "State educational agency" 5 a proposed program designed to meet the special educational needs of educationally deprived children in school attendance areas with high concentrations of children from low-income families. The state agency then must approve the local plan and, in turn, forward the approved proposal to the United States Commissioner of Education, who has the ultimate responsibility for administering the program and dispensing the appropriated and allocated funds. In order to receive state approval, the proposed plan, among other requirements, must be designed to provide the eligible private school students services that are "comparable in quality, scope, and opportunity for participation to those provided for public school children with needs of equally high priority." United States Office of Education (USOE) Program Guide No. 44, § 4.5 (1968), 6 reproduced [417 U.S. 402, 408] in Title I ESEA, Participation of Private School Children - A Handbook for State and Local School Officials, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Publication No. (OE) 72-62, p. 41 (1971) (hereinafter referred to as the Handbook).
The questions that arise in this case concern the scope of the State's duty to insure that a program submitted by a local agency under Title I provides "comparable" services for eligible private school children.
Plaintiff-respondents are parents of minor children attending elementary and secondary nonpublic schools in the inner city area of Kansas City, Missouri. They instituted this class action in the United States District Court for the Western District of Missouri on behalf of themselves and their children, and others similarly situated, alleging that the defendant-petitioners, the then State Commissioner of Education and the members of the Missouri Board of Education, arbitrarily and illegally were approving Title I programs that deprived eligible nonpublic school children of services comparable to those offered eligible public school children. The complaint sought an injunction restraining continued violations of the Act and an accounting and restoration of some [417 U.S. 402, 409] $13,000,000 in Title I funds allegedly misapplied from 1966 to 1969.
The District Court initially dismissed the complaint on the alternative grounds of failure to exhaust state remedies and abstention. The Court of Appeals reversed this dismissal and remanded the case for trial. 441 F.2d 795 (CA8 1971). It observed: "[W]e indicate no opinion on the merits of the alleged noncompliance by the state officials." Id., at 801.
On remand, the District Court found that while most of the Title I funds allocated to public schools in Missouri were used "to employ teachers to instruct in remedial subjects," the petitioners had refused "to approve any applications allocating money for teachers in parochial schools during regular school hours." Pet. for Cert. A40. The court did find that petitioners in some instances had approved the use of Title I money "to provide mobile educational services and equipment, visual aids, and educational radio and television in parochial schools. Teachers for after-school classes, weekend classes, and summer school classes, all open to parochial school pupils, have all been approved." Id., at A40-A41.
In what perhaps may be described as something less than full cooperation by both sides, the possibility of providing "comparable" services was apparently frustrated by the fact that many parochial schools would accept only services in the form of assignment of federally funded Title I teachers to teach in those schools during regular school hours. At the same time, the petitioners refused to approve any program providing for on-the-premises instruction on the grounds that it was forbidden under both Missouri law and the First Amendment and, furthermore, that Title I did not require it. Since the larger portion (over 65%) of Title I funds [417 U.S. 402, 410] allocated to Missouri has been used to provide personnel for remedial instruction, the effect of this stalemate is that substantially less money per pupil has been expended for eligible students in private schools, and that the services provided in those schools in no sense can be considered "comparable." 7
Faced with this situation, the District Court recognized that "[t]his head-on conflict . . . has resulted in an undoubtedly inequitable expenditure of Title I funds between educationally deprived children in public and nonpublic schools in some local school districts in the state." Id., at A41.
Nonetheless, the District Court denied relief. It reasoned that since the petitioners were under no statutory obligation to provide on-the-premises nonpublic school instruction, the failure to provide that instruction could not violate the Act. The court further reasoned that [417 U.S. 402, 411] since the petitioners apparently had approved all programs "except those requesting salaried teachers in the nonpublic schools," id., at A43, they had fulfilled their commitment. The court did not directly consider whether programs in effect without on-the-premises private school instruction complied with the comparability requirement despite gross disparity in the services delivered.
The Court of Appeals reversed. It traced the legislative history of Title I, examined the language of the statute and the regulations, and noted "that the Act and the regulations require a program for educationally deprived non-public school children that is comparable in quality, scope and opportunity, which may or may not necessarily be equal in dollar expenditures to that provided in the public schools." 475 F.2d, at 1344. The court then observed that the Act does not mandate that services take any particular form and that, within the confines of the comparability requirement, the Act left to the state and local agencies the task of designing a program best suited to meet the particularized needs of both the public school children and the nonpublic school children in the area. After reviewing the unique situation existing in Missouri, where funds were grossly malapportioned due to the refusal to employ either dual enrollment or Title I teachers on private school premises, 8 the court concluded that the petitioners were in violation of the comparability requirement:
The dissent argued that although Title I permits the assignment of Title I teachers to nonpublic schools, it does not mandate that assignment, and that if the Act is to be read as embracing such a mandate, it would present substantial First Amendment problems that could not be avoided. Id., at 1358-1359. 10 [417 U.S. 402, 415]
In this Court the parties are at odds over two issues: First, whether on this record Title I requires the assignment of publicly employed teachers to provide remedial instruction during regular school hours on the premises of private schools attended by Title I eligible students, and, second, whether that requirement, if it exists, contravenes the First Amendment. We conclude that we cannot reach and decide either issue at this stage of the proceedings.
A. Title I requirements. As the case was presented to the District Court, petitioners clearly had failed to meet their statutory commitment to provide comparable services 11 to children in nonpublic schools. The services provided to the class of children represented by respondents were plainly inferior, both qualitatively and quantitatively, and the Court of Appeals was correct in ruling that the District Court erred in refusing to order relief. But the opinion of the Court of Appeals is not to be read to the effect that petitioners must submit and approve plans that employ the use of Title I teachers on private school premises during regular school hours.
The legislative history, the language of the Act, and [417 U.S. 402, 416] the regulations clearly reveal the intent of Congress to place plenary responsibility in local and state agencies for the formulation of suitable programs under the Act. There was a pronounced aversion in Congress to "federalization" of local educational decisions.
At the outset, we believe that the Court of Appeals erred in holding that federal law governed the question whether on-the-premises private school instruction is permissible under Missouri law. Whatever the case might be if there were no expression of specific congressional [417 U.S. 402, 417] intent, 12 Title I evinces a clear intention that state constitutional spending proscriptions not be pre-empted as a condition of accepting federal funds. 13 The key issue, [417 U.S. 402, 418] namely, whether federal aid is money "donated to any state fund for public school purposes," within the meaning of the Missouri Constitution, Art. 9, 5, is purely a question [417 U.S. 402, 419] of state and not federal law. By characterizing the problem as one involving "federal" and not "state" funds, and then concluding that federal law governs, the Court of Appeals, we feel, in effect nullified the Act's policy of accommodating state law. The correct rule is that the "federal law" under Title I is to the effect that state law should not be disturbed. If it is determined, ultimately, that the petitioners' position is a correct exposition of Missouri law, Title I requires, not that that law be preempted, but, rather, that it be accommodated by the use of services not proscribed under state law. The question whether Missouri law prohibits the use of Title I funds for on-the-premises private school instruction is still unresolved. See n. 9, supra.
Furthermore, in the present posture of this case, it was unnecessary for the federal court even to reach the issue whether on-the-premises parochial school instruction is permissible under state law. The state-law question appeared in the case by way of petitioners' defense that it could not provide on-the-premises services because it was prohibited by the State's Constitution. But, as is discussed more fully below, the State is not obligated by Title I to provide on-the-premises instruction. The mandate is to provide "comparable" services. Assuming, arguendo, that state law does prohibit on-the-premises instruction, this would not provide a defense to respondents' complaint that comparable services are not being provided. The choice of programs is left to the State with the proviso that comparable (not identical) programs are also made available to eligible private school children. If one form of services to parochial school children is rendered unavailable because of state constitutional proscriptions, the solution is to employ an [417 U.S. 402, 420] acceptable alternative form. In short, since the illegality under state law of on-the-premises instruction would not provide a defense to respondents' charge of noncompliance with Title I, there was no reason for the Court of Appeals to reach this issue. By deciding that on-the-premises instruction was not barred by state law, the court in effect issued an advisory opinion. Even apart from traditional policies of abstention and comity, it was unnecessary to decide this question in the current posture of the case.
The Court of Appeals properly recognized, as we have noted, that petitioners failed to meet their broad obligation and commitment under the Act to provide comparable programs. 14 "Comparable," however, does not mean "identical," and, contrary to the assertions of both sides, we do not read the Court of Appeals' opinion or, for that [417 U.S. 402, 421] matter, the Act itself, as ever requiring that identical services be provided in nonpublic schools. 15 Congress recognized that the needs of educationally deprived children attending nonpublic schools might be different from those of similar children in public schools; it was also recognized that in some States certain programs for private and parochial schools would be legally impossible because of state constitutional restrictions, most notably in the church-state area. See n. 9, supra. 16 Title I was not intended to override these individualized state restrictions. Rather, there was a clear intention that the assistance programs be designed on local levels so as to accommodate the restrictions.
Inasmuch as comparable, and not identical, services are required, the mere fact that public school children are provided on-the-premises Title I instruction does not necessarily create an obligation to make identical provision [417 U.S. 402, 422] for private school children. 17 Congress expressly recognized that different and unique problems and needs might make it appropriate to utilize different programs in the private schools. A requirement of identity would run directly counter to this recognition. It was anticipated, to be sure, that one of the options open to the local agency in designing a suitable program for private school children was the provision of on-the-premises instruction, 18 and on remand this is an option open to [417 U.S. 402, 423] these petitioners and the local agency. If, however, petitioners choose not to pursue this method, or if it turns out that state law prevents its use, three broad options still remain:
First, the State may approve plans that do not utilize on-the-premises private school Title I instruction but, nonetheless, still measure up to the requirement of comparability. Respondents appear to be arguing here that it is impossible to provide "comparable" services if the public schools receive on-the-premises Title I instruction while private school children are reached in an alternative method. In support of their position, respondents argue: "The most effective type of services is that provided by a teacher or other specialist during regular school hours. There is nothing comparable to the services of personnel except the services of personnel." Brief for Respondents 49. In essence, respondents are asking this Court to hold, as a matter of federal law, that one mode of delivering remedial Title I services is superior to others. To place on this Court, or on any federal court, the responsibility of ruling on the relative merits of various possible Title I programs seriously misreads the clear intent of Congress to leave decisions of that kind to the local and state agencies. It is unthinkable, both in terms of the legislative history and the basic structure of the federal judiciary, that the courts be given the function of measuring the comparative desirability of various pedagogical methods contemplated by the Act.
In light of the uncontested statutory proscription in Missouri against dual enrollment, it may well be a significant challenge to these petitioners and the local agencies in their State to devise plans that utilize on-the-premises public school instruction and, at the same time, forgo on-the-premises private school instruction. We cannot say, however, that this is an impossibility; by relying upon "the initiative of school administrators to [417 U.S. 402, 424] develop a program that would meet the Federal [comparability] requirements," Handbook 20, it may well be possible to develop and submit an acceptable plan under Title I.
Of course, the cooperation and assistance of the officials of the private school are obviously expected and required in order to design a program that is suitable for the private school. It is clear, however, that the Act places ultimate responsibility and control with the public agency, and the overall program is not to be defeated simply because the private school refuses to participate unless the aid is offered in the particular form it requests. The private school may refuse to participate if the local program does not meet with its approval. But the result of this would then be that the private school's eligible children, the direct and intended beneficiaries of the Act, would lose. The Act, however, does not give the private school a veto power over the program selected by the local agency. 19
In sum, although it may be difficult, it is not impossible under the Act to devise and implement a legal local Title I program with comparable services despite the use of on-the-premises instruction in the public schools but not in the private schools. On the facts of this case, petitioners have been approving plans that do not meet this requirement, and certainly, if public school children continue to receive on-the-premises Title I instruction, petitioners should not approve plans that fail to make a genuine effort to employ comparable alternative programs that make up for the lack of on-the-premises instruction for the nonpublic school children. A program which provides instruction and equipment to the public school [417 U.S. 402, 425] children and the same equipment but no instruction to the private school children cannot, on its face, be comparable. In order to equalize the level and quality of services offered, something must be substituted for the private school children. The alternatives are numerous. 20 Providing nothing to fill the gap, however, is not among the acceptable alternatives.
Second, if the State is unwilling or unable to develop a plan which is comparable, while using Title I teachers in public but not in private schools, it may develop and submit an acceptable plan which eliminates the use of on-the-premises instruction in the public schools and, instead, resorts to other means, such as neutral sites or summer programs that are less likely to give rise to the gross disparity present in this case.
Third, and undoubtedly least attractive for the educationally deprived children, is nonparticipation in the program. Indeed, under the Act, the Commissioner, subject to judicial review, 20 U.S.C. 241k, may refuse to provide funds if the State does not make a bona fide effort [417 U.S. 402, 426] to formulate programs with comparable services. 20 U.S.C. 241j.
B. First Amendment. The second major issue is whether the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment prohibits Missouri from sending public school teachers paid with Title I funds into parochial schools to teach remedial courses. The Court of Appeals declined to pass on this significant issue, noting that since no order had been entered requiring on-the-premises parochial school instruction, the matter was not ripe for review. We agree. As has been pointed out above, it is possible for the petitioners to comply with Title I without utilizing on-the-premises parochial school instruction. Moreover, even if, on remand, the state and local agencies do exercise their discretion in favor of such instruction, the range of possibilities is a broad one and the First Amendment implications may vary according to the precise contours of the plan that is formulated. For example, a program whereby a former parochial school teacher is paid with Title I funds to teach full time in a parochial school undoubtedly would present quite different problems than if a public school teacher, solely under public control, is sent into a parochial school to teach special remedial courses a few hours a week. At this time we intimate no view as to the Establishment Clause effect of any particular program.
The task of deciding when the Establishment Clause is implicated in the context of parochial school aid has proved to be a delicate one for the Court. Usually it requires a careful evaluation of the facts of the particular case. See, e. g., Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971), and Tilton v. Richardson, 403 U.S. 672 (1971). It would be wholly inappropriate for us to attempt to render an opinion on the First Amendment issue when no specific plan is before us. A federal court does not sit to [417 U.S. 402, 427] render a decision on hypothetical facts, and the Court of Appeals was correct in so concluding.
The Court of Appeals disposed of the case as follows:
On this basis, the judgment of the Court of Appeals is affirmed.
[ Footnote 2 ] The implementing regulations, 45 CFR 116.1, set forth a number of definitions, some in common with, and others in addition to, the definitions contained in the Act itself, 20 U.S.C. 244. They draw no distinction between public and nonpublic school children. Specifically:
[ Footnote 3 ] In order for a local Title I proposal to be approved and a grant received, the local agency must give
[ Footnote 4 ] "[T]he term `local educational agency' means a public board of education or other public authority legally constituted within a State for either administrative control or direction of, or to perform a service function for, public elementary or secondary schools in a city, county, township, school district, or other political subdivision of a State, or such combination of school districts or counties as are recognized in a State as an administrative agency for its public elementary or secondary schools. Such term includes any other public institution or agency having administrative control and direction of a public elementary or secondary school . . . ." 20 U.S.C. 244 (6) (B). See also 45 CFR 116.1 (r).
[ Footnote 5 ] "The term `State educational agency' means the officer or agency primarily responsible for the State supervision of public elementary and secondary schools." 20 U.S.C. 244 (7). See also 45 CFR 116.1 (aa).
[ Footnote 6 ] The regulations state:
[ Footnote 7 ] The Court of Appeals noted:
[ Footnote 8 ] An informal survey conducted by the United States Office of Education revealed that Missouri was the only State which did not use either dual enrollment or on-the-premises private school instruction as a means of providing Title I services. Brief for Respondents 93-95.
[ Footnote 9 ] The Missouri Constitution, Art. 9, 5, provides:
The question in the present case is whether Title I grants to the State are "donated . . . for public school purposes" and therefore subject to the proscription held to exist in Special District. After that case was decided by the Missouri court, the State Board of Education promulgated a regulation governing the use of Title I funds in Missouri. It provides:
There is no Missouri case in point. Cf. State ex rel. School District of Hartington v. Nebraska State Board of Education, 188 Neb. 1, 195 N. W. 2d 161, cert. denied, 409 U.S. 921 (1972).
[ Footnote 10 ] On remand from the Court of Appeals the District Court on May 9, 1973, entered an "Injunction and Judgment Issued in Compliance with Mandate" requiring use of Title I personnel on private school premises during regular school hours if such personnel are also used in public schools during regular school hours. Pet. for Cert. A45-A47. Petitioners appealed from that judgment, but the Court of Appeals dismissed the appeal as moot after we granted certiorari. Our grant of certiorari was to review the judgment of the Court of Appeals entered pursuant to the opinion reported at 475 F.2d 1338. The judgment of the District Court on remand is not presently before us.
[ Footnote 11 ] The Act itself does not mention "comparability." It requires only that the state agency, in approving a plan, must determine "that, to the extent consistent with the number of educationally deprived children in the school district of the local educational agency who are enrolled in private elementary and secondary schools, such agency has made provision for including special educational services and arrangements (such as dual enrollment, educational radio and television, and mobile educational services and equipment) in which such children can participate." 20 U.S.C. 241e (a) (2).
The regulations, 45 CFR 116.19 (a) and (b), are the source of the comparability requirement. See n. 6, supra.
[ Footnote 12 ] The case from this Court primarily cited by the Court of Appeals for the proposition that federal, not state, law should govern, is United States v. 93.970 Acres of Land, 360 U.S. 328 (1959).
There, however, this Court said:
[ Footnote 13 ] During the debates in the House, it was generally understood that state constitutional limitations were to be accommodated. For example, at one point Congressman Goodell raised the possibility that state law would preclude certain forms of services to nonpublic schools. The response from Congressman Perkins, Chairman of the Subcommittee, was:
The Handbook clearly recognizes that state law is to be accommodated:
[ Footnote 14 ] HEW's Office of Education refers to the comparability requirement as follows:
[ Footnote 15 ] The Handbook 6, referring to the "comparability" definition in n. 14, supra, states:
[ Footnote 16 ] The United States, as amicus curiae, states:
[ Footnote 17 ] The State, of course, may not utilize the "comparability" provision so as to provide an inferior program. A year after the Act was passed, the House Committee on Education and Labor issued a Supplemental Report stating:
[ Footnote 18 ] The Senate Report outlined the circumstances in which this type of service would be appropriate:
[ Footnote 19 ] "There are no easy solutions to the logistical problems. However, when the legal situation allows several options and good will exists between public and private school representatives, the logistical problem can be solved or reasonably reduced." Handbook 23.
[ Footnote 20 ] A listing of possible programs suggested to the Senate Committee appears in S. Rep. No. 146, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., 10-11 (1965). Among the examples there listed are teacher aids and instructional secretaries; institutes for training teachers in special skills; supplementary instructional materials; curriculum materials center for disadvantaged children; preschool training programs; remedial programs, especially in reading and mathematics; enrichment programs on Saturday morning and during summer; instructional media centers to provide modern equipment and materials; programs for the early identification and prevention of dropouts; home and school visitors and social workers; supplemental health and food services; classrooms equipped for television and radio instruction; mobile learning centers; educational summer camps; summer school and day camps; shop and library facilities available after regular school hours; work experience programs; Saturday morning special opportunity classes; home oriented bookmobiles; afterschool study centers; and pupil exchange programs.
MR. JUSTICE POWELL, concurring.
The Court holds that under Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, as amended, 20 U.S.C. 241a et seq., federal courts may not ignore state-law prohibitions against the use of publicly employed teachers in private schools, ante, at 416-417, that Title I does not mandate on-the-premises instruction in private schools, ante, at 419, and that Title I does not require that the services to be provided in private schools be identical in all respects to those offered in public schools. Ante, at 420-421. It is thus unnecessary to decide whether the assignment of publicly employed teachers to provide instruction in sectarian schools would contravene the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. Ante, at 415. On that basis, I join the Court's opinion. I would have serious misgivings about the constitutionality of a statute that required the utilization of public school teachers in sectarian schools. See Committee for Public Education v. Nyquist, 413 U.S. 756 (1973).
MR. JUSTICE WHITE, concurring in the judgment.
As I read the majority opinion, the Court understands well enough that Title I funds are being used in Missouri [417 U.S. 402, 429] to pay the salaries of teachers giving special instruction on public school premises, that the State is obligated to furnish comparable services to private schools, and that the State has not satisfied the comparability requirement. It must do so if it is to continue to use Title I funds in the manner they are now being used.
The Court intimates no opinion as to whether using federal funds to pay teachers giving special instruction on private school premises would be constitutional. It suggests, however, that there may be other ways of satisfying the comparability requirement that the State should consider; and unless the State is being asked to chase rainbows, it is implied that there are programs and services comparable to on-the-premises instruction that the State could furnish private schools without violating the First Amendment. I would have thought that any such arrangement would be impermissible under the Court's recent cases construing the Establishment Clause. Not having joined those opinions, I am pleasantly surprised by what appears to be a suggestion that federal funds may in some respects be used to finance nonsectarian instruction of students in private elementary and secondary schools. If this is the case, I suggest that the Court should say so expressly. Failing that, however, I concur in the judgment.
MR. JUSTICE DOUGLAS, dissenting.
The case comes to us in an attractive posture, as the Act of Congress is in terms aimed to help "educationally deprived" children, whether they are in public or parochial schools, and I fear the judiciary has been seduced. But we must remember that "the propriety of a legislature's purposes may not immunize from further scrutiny a law which either has a primary effect that advances religion, or which fosters excessive entanglements [417 U.S. 402, 430] between Church and State." Committee for Public Education v. Nyquist, 413 U.S. 756, 774 .
All education in essence is aimed to help children. whether bright or retarded. Schools do not exist - whether public or parochial - to keep teachers employed. Education is a skein with many threads - from classical Greek to Latin, to grammar, to philosophy, to science, to athletics, to religion. There might well be political motivation to use federal funds to make up deficits in any part of a school's budget or to strengthen it by financing all or a part of any sector of educational activity.
There are some who think it constitutionally wise to do so; and others who think it is constitutionally permissible. But the First Amendment says: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion." In common understanding there is no surer way of "establishing" an institution than by financing it. That was true at the time of the adoption of the First Amendment. Madison, one of its foremost authors, fought the battle in Virginia where the per capita minimal levy on each person was no more than three pence. Yet if the State could finance a church at three pence per capita, the principle of "establishment" would be approved and there would be no limit to the amount of money the Government could add to church coffers. That was the teaching of his Remonstrance. 1 As Mr. Justice Black stated it, "[n]o tax in any amount, large or small, can be levied to support any religious activities or institutions, whatever they may be called, or whatever form they may adopt to teach or practice [417 U.S. 402, 431] religion." Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1, 16 . 2
Parochial schools are adjuncts of the church established at a time when state governments were highly discriminatory against some sects by introducing religious training in the public schools. The tale has been told often; 3 and there is no need to repeat it here. Parochial schools are tied to the proclamation and inculcation of a particular religious faith - sometimes Catholic, sometimes Presbyterian, sometimes Anglican, sometimes Lutheran, and so on.
The emanations from the Court's opinion are, as suggested by MR. JUSTICE WHITE, at war with our prior decisions. Federal financing of an apparently nonsectarian aspect of parochial school activities, if allowed, is not even a subtle evasion of First Amendment prohibitions. The parochial school is a unit; its budget is a unit; pouring in federal funds for what seems to be a nonsectarian phase of parochial school activities "establishes" the school so that in effect, if not in purpose, it becomes stronger financially and better able to proselytize its particular faith by having more funds left over for that objective. Allowing the State to finance the secular part of a sectarian school's program "makes a grave constitutional decision turn merely on cost accounting and [417 U.S. 402, 432] bookkeeping entries." Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602, 641 (DOUGLAS, J., concurring).
Nor could the program here be immunized from scrutiny under the Establishment Clause by portraying this aid as going to the children rather than to the sectarian schools. See Committee for Public Education v. Nyquist, supra, at 781 et seq. That argument deserves no more weight in the Establishment Clause context than it received under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, with respect to which we summarily affirmed decisions striking down state schemes to circumvent the constitutional requirement of racial integration in public schools granting tuition aid to parents who sent their children to segregated private schools. Poindexter v. Louisiana Financial Assistance Comm'n, 275 F. Supp. 833, aff'd, 389 U.S. 571 , and 296 F. Supp. 686, aff'd, 393 U.S. 17 . And see Griffin v. County School Board, 377 U.S. 218 .
The present case is plainly not moot; a case or controversy exists; and it is clear that if the traditional First Amendment barriers are to be maintained, no program serving students in parochial schools could be designed under this Act - whether regular school hours are used, or after-school hours, or weekend hours. The plain truth is that under the First Amendment, as construed to this day, the Act is unconstitutional to the extent it supports sectarian schools, whether directly or through its students.
We should say so now, and save the endless hours and efforts which hopeful people will expend in an effort to constitutionalize what is impossible without a constitutional amendment.
[ Footnote 1 ] Madison's Remonstrance is reprinted in the appendices to Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1, 63 (Rutledge, J., dissenting), and Walz v. Tax Comm'n, 397 U.S. 664, 719 (DOUGLAS, J., dissenting).
[ Footnote 2 ] Everson was a 5-4 decision sustaining a state law which provided reimbursement to parents of children in sectarian schools for the cost of public bus transportation used by the students in traveling to school, but even the majority recognized that the law went to the "verge" of forbidden territory under the Religion Clauses of the First Amendment. 330 U.S., at 16 . Although I was with the majority in that case, I have since expressed my doubts about the correctness of that decision, e. g., Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421, 443 ; Walz v. Tax Comm'n, supra, at 703.
[ Footnote 3 ] See Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602, 628 -629 (DOUGLAS, J., concurring). [417 U.S. 402, 433]
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Citation: 417 U.S. 402
Docket No: No. 73-62
Argued: January 16, 1974
Decided: June 10, 1974
Court: United States Supreme Court
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Raising the Stoltzfus Barn, Horse-and-buggy Mennonites, and a 6th NY Amish funeral
I just got back from Poland, all in one piece. Hey, it's hot here! As we were landing, the captain came on the intercom to let us know the temp awaiting us below in Raleigh: 100 degrees.
That brought a few gasps from my cabin-mates, but I think I smiled a little. If you just spent most of July in a hooded sweater, toting an umbrella, triple digit temps sound pretty good. Maybe I'll be singing a different tune in a couple of days, though.
There are a few stories I wanted to bring to your attention. The first, I'm afraid, is a sad one:
6th NY Amish funeral today
Victims of last week's crash in New York were buried last Friday and Saturday. Since then a sixth person has died, 39-year-old Elva Hershberger. Her funeral will be held today. Elva's husband Melvin died in the original wreck. With Elva's death, the couple leave behind 13 children. It's unclear what will become of the orphans. More on that here.
Amish are known for their strong support networks. But the townspeople of Jasper have been doing their part, preparing food and trying to do what they can to show support to the Amish community.
Here's a report that the Jasper High School gym has been turned into a makeshift camp, with 200 cots for Amish funeral attendees. Many Amish are expected, from as far away as Illinois, Kentucky, and Wisconsin. So the extra beds may come in handy. One quote from the piece:
Robert Mattison of Jasper Ambulance says the families want to thank the thousands of people who have reached out to them.
"Amish men come with tears in their eyes, saying they don't know how they can repay the community," said Mattison.
I've seen a number of similar responses from Amish reported in other news outlets. For those that wish to send cards or donations, here is an address:
Amish Relief Fund
Community National Bank
P.O. Box 123
Woodhull, N.Y. 14898
The Stoltzfus House gets a barn
We've covered the Stoltzfus House here a number of times. The Reading, PA home is an early residence of Nicholas Stoltzfus, 18th-century ancestor of 98% of Lancaster Amish. Stoltzfus's descendants, Amish and non-Amish, have taken a strong interest in preserving the structure, which had in recent years fallen into disrepair.
I visited the Stoltzfus House last summer while assisting a crew working on the recent History Channel "How the States Got their Shapes" series. The footage they shot at the house apparently wasn't used in the final cut, but the visit itself was quite enjoyable, despite everyone getting attacked by roving swarms of bugs (I wonder if they had anything like bug spray in Nicholas' time).
The Stoltzfus House restoration project has sought to preserve the home, plus add on a barn which will serve as facilities and a heritage center. After first getting the funds raised, a replica barn has now been raised as well.
It looks like another film crew managed to record the event. National Geographic was on the scene, so you'll probably be able to watch an Amish barn-raising in process in a future edition of one of their Amish series videos. You can read about the new barn, as well as some old-timers' barn-raising recollections, here.
Horse and Buggy Mennonites
If you're interested in horse and buggy Mennonites, the University of Winnipeg is the place to be in October, where the conference "Anti-Modern Pathways: 'Horse and Buggy' Mennonites in Canada, Belize, and Latin America" will take place.
"Horse and buggy Mennonites" would include both what are known as Old Order or Team Mennonites, found in Lancaster County, Ontario, northern Indiana, and a number of other places.
The "horse and buggy" label also includes the Old Colony Mennonites, found primarily in Mexico and South America. The Old Colony people are actually the second largest Plain Anabaptist group, following the Amish.
The conference will be held October 21-22; our friend and occasional Amish America interviewee Donald Kraybill will be giving the keynote address in what looks like a schedule packed with interesting talks.
Here's some more info from the University of Winnipeg:
A great deal of scholarly attention has been directed to Amish farm communities, mostly located in the United States. These 'horse and buggy' people are held up as models of anti-modernity, a people close to nature, rooted in large families and close-knit communities, emphasizing humility, discipleship, forgiveness and other spiritual values. They have their share of social problems, but they are known especially for their communitarian faith, simple lifestyle, plain dress, dependence on animals and traditional technologies. They especially learn from wisdom passed down through the generations.
Canada too has its 'horse and buggy' traditionalists. Some 4000 so-called 'horse and buggy' Old Order Mennonites live in southern Ontario. An additional 70,000 similarly traditionalist, Canadian-descendant Old Colony Mennonites have settled in Central and South America. They live in close-knit agrarian communities in English-speaking Belize and Spanish-speaking Mexico, Paraguay, Bolivia and Argentina. Both the Old Order and the Old Colony people practice anti-modern pathways, but they are the subjects of much less attention than the Amish, and often they are either misunderstood or ignored.
This academic conference examines the culture of both the Old Order Mennonites of southern Ontario and the most traditionalist of the Old Colony Mennonites of the Americas. It seeks to understand their ways, their perspectives, their relationships, and their religious faith in historical context. This history conference asks how it has been possible for these anti-modern people to survive in the modern world. It examines both the accomplishments and the social problems associated with anti-modern pathways.
The conference highlights studies by scholars from throughout Canada and Europe who have recently analyzed the ways of the Old Order and Old Colony Mennonites.
More info on the conference can be found here.


text:
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Complex systems inhabit a "gray world" of partial failures, MIT's Olivier de Weck says: While a system may continue to operate as a whole, bits and pieces inevitably degrade. Over time, these small failures can add up to a single catastrophic failure, incapacitating the system.
"Think about your car," says de Weck, an associate professor of aeronautics and astronautics and engineering systems. "Most of the things are working, but maybe your right rearview mirror is cracked, and maybe one of the cylinders in your engine isn't working well, and your left taillight is out. The reality is that many, many real-world systems have partial failures."
This is no less the case for aircraft. De Weck says it's not uncommon that, from time to time, a plane's sensors may short-circuit, or its rudders may fail to respond: "And then the question is, in that partially failed state, how will the system perform?"
The answer to that question is often unclear — partly because of how systems are initially designed. When deciding on the configuration of aircraft, engineers typically design for the optimal condition: a scenario in which all components are working perfectly. However, de Weck notes that much of a plane's lifetime is spent in a partially failed state. What if, he reasoned, aircraft and other complex systems could be designed from the outset to operate not in the optimal scenario, but for suboptimal conditions?
De Weck and his colleagues at MIT and the Draper Laboratory have created a design approach that tailors planes to fly in the face of likely failures. The method, which the authors call a "multistate design approach," determines the likelihood of various failures over an airplane's lifetime. Through simulations, the researchers changed a plane's geometry — for example, making its tail higher, or its rudder smaller — and then observed its performance under various failure scenarios. De Weck says engineers may use the approach to design safer, longer-lasting aerial vehicles. The group will publish a paper describing its approach in the Journal of Aircraft.
"If you admit ahead of time that the system will spend most of its life in a degraded state, you make different design decisions," de Weck says. "You can end up with airplanes that look quite different, because you're really emphasizing robustness over optimality."
De Weck collaborated with Jeremy Agte, formerly at Draper Laboratory and now an assistant professor of aeronautics and astronautics at the Air Force Institute of Technology, and Nicholas Borer, a systems design engineer at MIT. Agte says making design changes based on likely failures may be particularly useful for vehicles engineered for long-duration missions.
"As our systems operate for longer and longer periods of time, these changes translate to significantly improved mission completion rates," Agte says. "For instance, an Air Force unmanned aerial vehicle that experiences a failure would have inherent stability and control designed to ensure adequate performance for continued mission operation, rather than having to turn around and come home."
The weight of failure
As a case study, the group analyzed the performance of a military twin-engine turboprop plane — a small, 12-seater aircraft that has been well-studied in the past. The researchers set about doing what de Weck calls "guided brainstorming": essentially drawing up a list of potential failures, starting from perfect condition and branching out to consider various possible malfunctions.
"It looks kind of like a tree where initially everything is working perfectly, and then as the tree opens up, different failure trajectories can happen," de Weck says.
The group then used an open-source flight simulator to model how the plane would fly — following certain branches of the tree, as it were. The researchers modified the simulator to change the shape of the plane under different failure conditions, and analyzed the plane's resulting performance. They found that for certain scenarios, changing the geometry of the plane significantly improved its safety, or robustness, following a failure.
For example, the group studied the plane's operation during a maneuver called the "Dutch roll," in which the plane rocks from side to side, its wingtips rolling in a figure-eight motion. The potentially dangerous motion is much more pronounced when a plane's rudder is faulty, or one of its engines isn't responding. Using their design approach, the group found that in such partially failed conditions, if the plane's tail was larger, it could damp the motion, and steady the aircraft.
Of course, a plane's shape can't morph in midflight to accommodate an engine sputter or a rudder malfunction. To arrive at a plane's final shape — a geometry that can withstand potential failures — de Weck and his researchers weighed the likelihood of each partial failure, using that data to inform their decisions on how to change the plane's shape in a way that would address the likeliest failures.
Beyond perfection
De Weck says that while the group's focus on failure represents a completely new approach to design, there is also a psychological element with which engineers may have to grapple.
"Many engineers are perfectionists, so deliberately designing something that's not going to be fully functional is hard," de Weck says. "But we're showing that by acknowledging imperfection, you can actually make the system better."
Jaroslaw Sobieski, a distinguished research associate at NASA Langley Research Center, views the new design approach as a potential improvement in the overall safety of aircraft. He says engineering future systems with failure in mind will ensure that "even if failure occurs, the flight operation will continue" — albeit with some loss in performance — "but sufficient to at least [achieve] a safe landing. In practice, that alternative may actually increase the safety level and reduce the aircraft cost," when compared with other design approaches.
The team is using its approach to evaluate the performance of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) that flies over Antarctica continuously for six months at a time, at high altitudes, to map its ice sheets. This vehicle must fly, even in the face of inevitable failures: It's on a remote mission, and grounding the UAV for repairs is impossible. Using their method, de Weck and his colleagues are finding that the vehicle's shape plays a crucial role in its long-term performance.
In addition to lengthy UAV missions, de Weck says the group's approach may be used to design other systems that operate remotely, without access to regular maintenance — such as undersea sensor networks and possible colonies in space.
"If we look at the space station, the air-handling system, the water-recycling system, those systems are really important, but their components also tend to fail," de Weck says. "So applying this [approach] to the design of habitats, and even long-term planetary colonies, is something we want to look at."
New design approach tailors planes to fly in the face of likely failures.
Publication Date:
Photo: Dominick Reuter
Photo: Dominick Reuter


text:
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