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Bracelets are one of the fine jewels which any women would never want to miss out from her jewelry case. Bracelets give an elegant and versatile look on any outfits, especially with modern fashion. Bracelets have become one of the favorite ornaments known to be an imperative source of new trends in contemporary fashion. Here are some fancy bracelets. Check it out!!
Fancy golden bracelet
Reviewed by Jewellery Designs
September 21, 2019


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Table of Contents
Building and Installing Packages with sbopkg
Sbopkg is a command-line and dialog-based tool to synchronize with the SlackBuilds.org ("SBo") repository, a collection of third-party SlackBuild scripts to build Slackware packages. The program has a curses based interface which lets you pick and assemble the programs which you want to compile from source into packages. It can also be used non-interactively in case you know beforehand what your goal is - in that case it is "fire and forget".
The following information will assist you in getting sbopkg installed, and running on Slackware.
builds Slackware packages. As with any Slackware package management program, you will have to be root to use the program! Execute su -
to get a root command prompt with the correct environment configured.
Download sbopkg:
Download sbopkg from: https://www.sbopkg.org/downloads.php
You can get the sources and build a package yourself, or just grab th ready-made Slackware package. The following section of this article assumes that you downloaded the ready-built package.
Install sbopkg
- Assuming that the
package file name you downloaded to the current directory is sbopkg-0.38.0-noarch-1_wsr.tgz, theinstallpkg
command to install sbopkg (or upgrade it if it was already present on your system) is as follows:$ su - # cd /path/to/downloaded/file/ # upgradepkg --install-new sbopkg-0.38.0-noarch-1_wsr.tgz
Configure sbopkg
- Read the
documentation! See https://www.sbopkg.org/docs.php , and also do not forget there is a man page forsbopkg
. - The first time
is executed, you will be asked if it is OK that the program creates the necessary configuration files:# sbopkg The following directories do not exist: Variable Assignment -------- ---------- REPO_{ROOT,NAME,BRANCH} -> /var/lib/sbopkg/,SBo/,14.2 LOGFILE directory -------> /var/log/sbopkg QUEUEDIR ----------------> /var/lib/sbopkg/queues SRCDIR ------------------> /var/cache/sbopkg TMP ---------------------> /tmp/SBo You can have sbopkg create them or, if these values are incorrect, you can abort to edit your config files or pass different flags. (C)reate or (A)bort?:
. Select C to create these required directories.
The program will then present its main screen:
- Your first task is to synchronize with the SlackBuilds.org repository - i.e. you let
create a local copy of all the SlackBuild entries on the remote server, for the Slackware release which you are running. You either use the first menu item in the curses-based main screen, or else you can do this from the commandline:# sbopkg -r Syncing with the remote repository into /var/lib/sbopkg/SBo/14.2. receiving incremental file list <long list of filenames...> sent 451288 bytes received 36904793 bytes 371702.30 bytes/sec total size is 35271012 speedup is 0.94 Rsync with the SBo repository for Slackware 14.2 complete. Importing SBo repository for Slackware 14.2 GPG Key... Import done. ***SYNC COMPLETE***
- You are now ready to select the packages you want
to build from source.
Using Queuefiles with sbopkg
The sbopkg
program itself allows a great deal of automation: the interactive curses interface helps you manage the burden of downloading source code archives, and allowing you to select multiple programs and then compile and package all of those in one go.
But you can automate this process even further, by using sqg - sbopkg queueu generator (included in main package since 0.38.0).
sqg can generate queuefile for each or all packages in SBo repository:
sqg -p <filezilla> # this will only generate queue file for filezilla package only sqg -a # this will generate queue files for all packages in SBo repository
Note that everytime a public update is announced or new repository is available, it's recommended to run sqg -a to generate an updated queue files as deps may be added or removed.
Example of Using sbopkg
As an example, let's install Gramps. The queuefile for Gramps lists the following dependencies, in order of install:
orbit2 pyorbit libbonobo gnome-mime-data gnome-vfs libgnome gnome-python gramps
Load the "gramps.sqf
" queue file in sbopkg's curses interface, and Gramps will be successfully built on your Slackware 14.2 system and installed, along with all its dependencies.
Alternatively you can use the less interactive command-line interface:
sbopkg -i gramps Both a queuefile and a package were found with the name "gramps". Use (Q)ueuefile, (P)ackage, or (A)bort?: q ########################################### New queue process started on: Fri Aug 19 04:57:12 WIB 2016 ########################################### +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ PRE-CHECK LOG Using the SBo repository for Slackware 14.2 Queue Process: Download, build, and install ORBit2: Checking GPG for ORBit2.tar.gz ... OK Processing ORBit2 2.14.19-3 Using original .info file Using original SlackBuild file No build options selected. pyorbit: Checking GPG for pyorbit.tar.gz ... OK Processing pyorbit 2.24.0-1 Using original .info file Using original SlackBuild file No build options selected. libbonobo: Checking GPG for libbonobo.tar.gz ... OK Processing libbonobo 2.32.1-3 Using original .info file Using original SlackBuild file No build options selected. gnome-mime-data: Checking GPG for gnome-mime-data.tar.gz ... OK Processing gnome-mime-data 2.18.0-2 Using original .info file Using original SlackBuild file No build options selected. gnome-vfs: Checking GPG for gnome-vfs.tar.gz ... OK Processing gnome-vfs 2.24.4-3 Using original .info file Using original SlackBuild file No build options selected. libgnome: Checking GPG for libgnome.tar.gz ... OK Processing libgnome 2.32.1-2 Using original .info file Using original SlackBuild file No build options selected. gnome-python: Checking GPG for gnome-python.tar.gz ... OK Processing gnome-python 2.28.1-1 Using original .info file Using original SlackBuild file No build options selected. gramps: Checking GPG for gramps.tar.gz ... OK Processing gramps 3.4.3-1 Using original .info file Using original SlackBuild file No build options selected. +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ Pre-check complete. Do you wish to proceed based on the search results above? Packages not found will be skipped during the process. (P)roceed or (Q)uit?: P
References for sbopkg
- Originally written by ldkraemer
- Contributions by Eric Hameleers
- Contributions by Willy Sudiarto Raharjo

subset: commoncrawl


text:
DISCARD releases internal resources associated with a database session. These resources are normally released at the end of the session.
DISCARD TEMP drops all temporary tables created in the current session. DISCARD PLANS releases all internally cached query plans. DISCARD ALL resets a session to its original state, discarding temporary resources and resetting session-local configuration changes.
Drops all temporary tables created in the current session.
Releases all cached query plans.
Releases all temporary resources associated with the current session and resets the session to its initial state. Currently, this has the same effect as executing the following sequence of statements:
SET SESSION AUTHORIZATION DEFAULT; RESET ALL; DEALLOCATE ALL; CLOSE ALL; UNLISTEN *; SELECT pg_advisory_unlock_all(); DISCARD PLANS; DISCARD TEMP;


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SEQUIM –– Irrigation Festival volunteer Kevin Kennedy was named Sequim's Citizen of the Year at the Sequim-Dungeness Chamber of Commerce's annual awards luncheon Tuesday.
"Sequim is a great place to live, a great place to grow up and a great place to be a part of the community," Kennedy said after receiving the city's 2012 honor.
A crowd of 88 from all over the valley packed the dining hall at SunLand Golf & Country Club for the ceremony.
Larry Klinefelter and Al Freiss, the two other finalists for the award, were honored with Community Service Awards.
A near-lifelong resident, Kennedy, 57, has been an active member in planning the city's annual Irrigation Festival.
He served on its board for 25 years and organized the first logging show, which has ballooned since he and friend Dave Bekkevar set up "a Sani-Kan and a flatbed trailer" in 1988.
Prior to the logging festival, Kennedy helped run the festival's Demolition Derby in the 1970s.
"We have a saying in the Lions: 'We Serve,'" George Dooley of the Lions Club said in nominating Kennedy Tuesday.
"And Kevin Kennedy lives up to that motto every day."
A fan of logging, Kennedy, aka "The Crab Captain," according to Dooley, takes 25 students every year on a mission trip to the Door of Faith Orphanage on the Baja Peninsula in Mexico, is active in the annual Dungeness Crab & Seafood Festival in Port Angeles and regularly chops wood to donate for charity auctions around the valley –– a sometimes hazardous undertaking.
"So I'm a little stiff today," Kennedy said, having slipped, fallen and hurt his back while chopping a cord of wood for auction at the upcoming kickoff dinner for the 118th Irrigation Festival, which will be at 7 Cedars Casino on March 23.
Klinefelter, 70, was nominated by his wife, Linda, for his work in helping disabled veterans, volunteering as Santa Claus during the holidays and helping others in need.
"He is, and will always be, my hero," she said.
Klinefelter said he was honored to get the Community Service Award. "I love helping other people. And I plan to do a lot more."
As a retired Marine Corps member, Klinefelter devotes a lot of his time to veterans.
He takes wounded vets fishing through the Healing Waters program, hands out Toys for Tots and tends to the tiles at Sequim's Veterans Memorial, which he noted can be acquired for families of veterans, with forms available at the Museum & Arts Center.
Most people, though, may not recognize Klinefelter without his Santa Claus costume, which he dons every Christmas.
"He never turns down the opportunity to bring that joy to children," Linda said of her husband.
Freiss, 79, was visiting his grandchildren in Arizona on Tuesday.
He was nominated by Patsene Dashiell, volunteer coordinator for the Sequim School District. Dashiell said Freiss is devoted to the city's schools.
"He's an energetic person with a lot of great ideas," Dashiell said, noting that Freiss has a "big heart for children."
Freiss asked Mitzi Sanders, Sequim High School counselor, to read a speech on his behalf.
"The truth is, it's the children who inspire so many of us," he wrote.
Freiss volunteers with Sequim's schools and Olympic Theatre Arts, serves as the scholarship chairman for the Sequim Education Foundation and is a member of the Sunshine Rotary Club.
Dick Hughes, president of the Sequim Education Foundation and 2011 Citizen of the Year, served as master of ceremonies.
"Boy, this has been quite a ride," Hughes said.
The honor, he advised the three nominees before the awards were presented, shines a spotlight on their charitable interests and efforts.
Hughes was one of seven past Citizens of the Year in attendance.
Also at the luncheon were Bob and Elaine Caldwell, Bud Knapp, Esther Nelson, Emily Westcott, Lee Lawrence and Tom Shaafsma.
Also at the luncheon were past Humanitarian Award winners Bill and Esther Littlejohn and Brown and Sara Maloney.
Sequim-Dungeness Valley Editor Joe Smillie can be reached at 360-681-2390, ext. 5052, or at email@example.com.


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Chili is the ultimate comfort food, don't you think? When the season changes and fall winds start to blow (in Saskatchewan they never stop, actually) it's a warm bowl of chili that hits the spot more than anything. And – every time I make it – I decide that I need a "recipe" to follow, when in fact, chili is a very forgiving dish. You can add a bit of this, more of that, and taste test as it cooks and the flavours meld together in a slow cooker. In any case, I use a recipe as a good base.
Here's a new one I tried this fall that was a definite keeper, with the new and interesting ingredient being cinnamon (in the past I've used chocolate in chili and that was pretty tasty as well.)
- 2 large onions, diced
- 5 cloves garlic, chopped
- 2 pounds extra lean ground beef
- 2 cans diced tomatoes (796ml each)
- 1.5 tsp salt
- 1 tsp pepper
- 1.5 Tbsp cumin
- ½ Tbsp chili powder
- 2 Tbsp paprika
- 2 Tbsp dried oregano
- ½ tsp cinnamon
- 1 can red kidney beans
- In a large frying pan, saute onion and garlic until soft. Add ground beef: cook and stir until meat is browned. Drain fat.
- Transfer to slow cooker. Pour in tomatoes with liquid, salt, pepper, cumin, chili powder, paprika, oregano, and cinnamon. Cover and cook on low for 6 hours.
- Serve with toppings of your choice (we like sliced jalapenos and cheese!)
If you're hesitant on adding cinnamon, you could always start with 1/4tsp and taste test from there, but I found 1/2 tsp perfect and I liked challenging the family to discover the "secret ingredient" added at dinner time.


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The proposed project will result in a 50-80% reduction in energy usage from the current technology and significant utility and maintenance savings annually. Between the purchase of our lights and the retrofit to LED, the Town stands to save roughly $100,000 per year in maintenance and energy use. LED lights are more expensive, but can last 20 years, so the investment will be paid back by these savings and reduced maintenance costs in under 5 years
In addition to the extended lifecycle and lower replacement costs, LEDs result in reduced light pollution at night and improved and more uniform light quality. Because they use less energy, LEDs also help to reduce carbon emissions. LEDs also make colors look brighter and more "true" to natural color. Due to the improved color rendition things appear brighter and sharper under LEDs which is why police and other safety personnel prefer LEDs.
Show All Answers
The Town will convert all town-owned streetlights to LEDs which includes 1,800 streetlights and some park and parking lot lights that aren't already LEDs.
It is a Light Emitting Diode. Diodes are semiconductors that, in this case, convert electricity into light. A main factor that makes LED lights energy efficient is the small amount of heat that they emit compared to an incandescent bulb that release 90% of their energy in heat. For more information about LED lights visit the Department of Energy's web page.
Approximately 60% of our streetlights are currently High Pressure Sodium (HPS), 30% Mercury Vapor (MV), and 10% Incandescent cobrahead fixtures.
Color temperature of lighting is measured in Kelvin (K) units. When LED streetlights first came out most applications used 5,000 Kelvin, very cool or white. These were very harsh and almost bluish. Applications then moved to using 4,000K which is called "moonlight." Several credible sources have issued opinions about the detrimental effects of 4,000K lighting, regarding its negative affect on human sleep patterns, nocturnal animal behavior, and light pollution. The Town has chosen 3,000 kelvin LED lights due to its softened yet effective color.
No, the new lights will reduce unwanted spill light into homes and properties as most of the light is directed downward to the street and sidewalk. However, if a homeowner reports that there is too much light coming into their home from the new LEDs, the Town can install a houseshield on the streetlight to control unwanted light.
National Grid owns the street lights in areas, such as North Main Street, where electricity is fed underground. There are a few privately owned street lights that the Town also doesn't own and therefore cannot convert.
Yes. The Town has already converted all the antique post top lighting on Main St., in the Shawsheen Village, and by the Town Offices.
A system of street classification (arterial, connector, and residential) was developed to determine appropriate light levels for each street. The criteria are in accordance with guidelines used by the Federal Highway Administration, MassDOT, and the Illuminating Engineering Society. However, as the scope of this project does not include moving light poles, the Town was limited to using existing pole locations throughout the Town.
Yes but dimming controls are not included in the project. The current cost of wireless controls added 30-40% to the overall project cost. In addition, the National Grid streetlight tariff does not yet reflect savings from dimming so the Town wouldn't save additional money on utility bills from dimming. However the Town is adding components to each fixture that will make the streetlights dimming control-ready so we can take advantage of the technology when the prices come down and the utility savings are guaranteed to show up on our electric bills.


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Dog-Lovers and Baby-Killers
A couple months ago, when its dog-sledding business lost customers, a Canadian company had a hundred of its dogs killed. The incident "shocked" and "angered" people. The employee who shot the dogs said he suffered "post-traumatic stress" from killing them and wants compensation.
Animal activists used the incident in campaigns against dog-sled rides. "I don't think society is willing to accept that animals should be killed just because they are surplus or don't suit the purpose they were born for," said one. "The magnitude of this atrocity is so shocking – our heads are reeling," another said.
Huskies are beautiful, gentle animals, and I'm really sad that this happened. But the world needs to put this in perspective. Humans eat animals. Our cars kill them along highways. Wind turbines kill eagles and other birds. More important, what about people?
My wife Fiona Kobusingye lost her son, two sisters, and four cousins to malaria. Her nephew is permanently brain-damaged because of it. Almost everyone I know has lost at least one child or sibling to this killer disease. Despite millions of bednets, malaria still kills more African children than any other disease.
I cannot help thinking it would really be nice if, just once in awhile, animal-lovers, environmentalists, journalists and other people would care half as much about African babies, children and families, as about dogs.
A hundred dogs are killed, and activists and newspapers make it a huge story.
Last year, almost one hundred thousand Ugandan children and adults were killed by malaria. And yet, nobody seemed to care – certainly not enough to write a story about it, or get outraged that callous anti-pesticide activists lie about DDT risks and prevent the use of DDT and other insecticides that could prevent malaria, yellow fever, and other diseases that cause so much suffering, poverty, and death on our continent.
It's as if anti-pesticide greens believe we Africans are "surplus" people on an "over-populated" planet and don't "suit the purposes" they think people should be born for. It's as if our misery and deaths don't mean anything. This is the real atrocity, and our African heads are reeling.
Yes, government agencies, private foundations, schoolchildren, and other kind people from rich, malaria-free countries do send bednets, so at least some babies and pregnant women can sleep under one. But nets get torn, people don't always use them or hang them properly, and they only reduce malaria by 20 or 30 percent. That's why we need additional weapons – like DDT and other insecticides.
DDT keeps most mosquitoes from even going into homes. It irritates any that do come in, so they are less likely to bite. It kills any that land on walls after a blood meal, so they can't transmit malaria to other victims. DDT is cheap and long-lasting: one spray is good for six months or more. No other chemical in existence does all this, at any price.
To break the transmission cycle and stop malaria, we need to reduce mosquito populations, keep them away from people, and treat infected people quickly. Nets are essential. So are better houses and hospitals (with screens on doors and windows), greater efforts to remove mosquito resting areas near homes, and access to the best possible drugs.
But we also need chemicals to kill mosquito larvae, insecticides to kill adults, and DDT as a long-lasting spatial repellant to keep mosquitoes out of our homes. We need every one of these weapons, not just the ones chemical-hating ideologues approve of, or we will forever be burying our children.
We are constantly told the DDT we spray on walls to keep mosquitoes out of our houses, and the insecticides we use to kill these insects, are dangerous, have undesirable side effects, and shouldn't be used. But as Dr. Rutledge Taylor explains in his new film, "3 Billion and Counting," years of research actually prove that DDT is safe for people and the environment. See http://www.3billionandcounting.com/ and read The Excellent Powder, by Donald Roberts and Richard Tren.)
As Dr. Taylor points out, no one has ever died or been seriously hurt from DDT. Its worst effects are skin rashes and speculative (but unproven) connections to early lactation failure in nursing mothers and various other minor problems. Both Dr. Gordon Edwards and Dr. Taylor have actually eaten large amounts of DDT – and not been harmed.
We all know what malaria does. Besides lactation failure and low birth weights in babies, malaria makes people horribly sick and unable to work, leaves millions permanently brain-damaged, and kills millions more in the most awful, painful ways imaginable. Why anyone – especially Africans – would oppose using weapons that can stop this terrible carnage is impossible to imagine.
But a lot of people listen to the constant lies, told by baby-killing, pesticide-hating activists – and believe them. It's bad enough that Greenpeace, Environmental Defense, Pesticide Action Network, and the Stockholm Convention Secretariat tell these lies and want to ban DDT from malaria programs by 2020. It's much worse that the Global Environment Facility, United Nations Environment Programme, and even some bureaucrats in the World Health Organization support the ban.
But it's unconscionable that Ugandan companies and politicians are doing it, too.
Organic-food companies claim even a trace of DDT on their produce or flowers will keep them out of Europe. That is false. Their crops just cannot have DDT above certain levels – and that will not happen from DDT sprayed on walls. But what's really absurd is that tobacco companies refuse to allow the barest detectable trace of DDT on cancer-causing tobacco that they are happy to sell to Europeans, and Europeans are happy to smoke.
It's not just hypocrisy. For these companies, government agencies, and activist groups to put their salaries, profits, and ideologies ahead of the health and lives of African babies is immoral. It's manslaughter.
Decisions about using DDT, larvacides and insecticides (along with nets and drugs) need to be made by African health ministers – not by activists, animal lovers, or environmental and agricultural interests. These groups are spending more money trying to get rid of DDT than the world is spending to control and eradicate malaria – when almost three billion people are at risk of getting this disease, and a million die from it, year after year.
We need to use DDT and other insecticides carefully – and we are doing so. However, in the end, if we don't use them, our wonderful, brilliant, athletic, musical, hard-working children and parents will be struck down, brain-damaged and killed by malaria.
Or more accurately, they will be murdered by self-centered ideologues, businessmen, politicians, and even WHO and other medical doctors who are violating their oath to save lives.
This has to end. We need to get our priorities straight – and understand what the real risks are. We need to pray that this insane opposition to disease-preventing, life-saving chemicals will be replaced soon with a concern for babies and parents that is equal to their concern for sled dogs.
Cyril Boynes, Jr. is co-chair of the Congress of Racial Equality Uganda and a tireless advocate for health and prosperity in Africa and all other developing regions.
Click to return to TRA's Issue CCLXXXIV Index.
Learn about Mr. Stolyarov's novel, Eden against the Colossus, here.Read Mr. Stolyarov's comprehensive treatise, A Rational Cosmology, explicating such terms as the universe, matter, space, time, sound, light, life, consciousness, and volition, here.


text: /* Communicate dynamic linker state to the debugger at runtime. Copyright (C) 1996-2016 Free Software Foundation, Inc. This file is part of the GNU C Library. The GNU C Library is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. The GNU C Library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU Lesser General Public License for more details. You should have received a copy of the GNU Lesser General Public License along with the GNU C Library; if not, see . */ #include /* These are the members in the public `struct link_map' type. Sanity check that the internal type and the public type match. */ #define VERIFY_MEMBER(name) \ (offsetof (struct link_map_public, name) == offsetof (struct link_map, name)) extern const int verify_link_map_members[(VERIFY_MEMBER (l_addr) && VERIFY_MEMBER (l_name) && VERIFY_MEMBER (l_ld) && VERIFY_MEMBER (l_next) && VERIFY_MEMBER (l_prev)) ? 1 : -1]; /* This structure communicates dl state to the debugger. The debugger normally finds it via the DT_DEBUG entry in the dynamic section, but in a statically-linked program there is no dynamic section for the debugger to examine and it looks for this particular symbol name. */ struct r_debug _r_debug; /* Initialize _r_debug if it has not already been done. The argument is the run-time load address of the dynamic linker, to be put in _r_debug.r_ldbase. Returns the address of _r_debug. */ struct r_debug * internal_function _dl_debug_initialize (ElfW(Addr) ldbase, Lmid_t ns) { struct r_debug *r; if (ns == LM_ID_BASE) r = &_r_debug; else r = &GL(dl_ns)[ns]._ns_debug; if (r->r_map == NULL || ldbase != 0) { /* Tell the debugger where to find the map of loaded objects. */ r->r_version = 1 /* R_DEBUG_VERSION XXX */; r->r_ldbase = ldbase ?: _r_debug.r_ldbase; r->r_map = (void *) GL(dl_ns)[ns]._ns_loaded; r->r_brk = (ElfW(Addr)) &_dl_debug_state; } return r; } /* This function exists solely to have a breakpoint set on it by the debugger. The debugger is supposed to find this function's address by examining the r_brk member of struct r_debug, but GDB 4.15 in fact looks for this particular symbol name in the PT_INTERP file. */ void _dl_debug_state (void) { } rtld_hidden_def (_dl_debug_state)


text:
Mark Segraves, wtop.com
WASHINGTON – In the past two and a half years, Metro employees have racked up more than a quarter of a million dollars in traffic fines and late fees — most of them for either speeding or running red lights.
According to data provided by Metro through a public records request, between Jan. 1, 2010 and Aug. 10, 2012 Metro employees were fined $227,161.03 for various traffic violations while driving Metrobuses and service vehicles, plus an additional $65,499 in late fees for fines that were not paid on time.
The highest fines were for speeding violations that resulted in $400 tickets being issued to a Metrobus and a service vehicle in separate incidents. The list of violations include speeding with fines costing between $40 and $400, running a red light with fines ranging between $75 and $350 and parking tickets between $50 and $205 each.
In the 32 months of fines reviewed by WTOP, metro employees were issued 2,406 tickets, half of them of them to Metrobus drivers. The vast majority of those tickets, 2,163, were moving violations, with 1,186 issued to Metrobuses.
Metro spokesperson Dan Stessel put those numbers into context.
"That's just over one per day." Stessel wrote in an email to WTOP. "On any given weekday, we put more than 1,200 buses on the street, making more than 14,000 trips. And during the 32 month period, Metrobuses operated 110 million miles. That means that one violation occurred for every 92,000+ miles driven."
Metro employees are responsible for paying those fines and the late fees, unless Metro was delinquent in forwarding the fine to the drivers. Metro employees are also disciplined as a result of receiving a ticket.
"Discipline is administered on a progressive scale that can range from a reprimand to suspension and ultimately termination," Metro spokesperson Caroline Lukas tells WTOP in an email.
Many of the speeding fines were in excess of $100, indicating the drivers were going at least 10 miles per hour over the posted speed limits.
Stessel says it's difficult for his agency to determine the number of drivers terminated as a result of receiving more than one moving violation, but adds most drivers are not repeat offenders.
"It is uncommon to see employees who are cited and disciplined repeat the same behavior,." Stessel tells WTOP. "This is due to to the fact that, not only are they responsible for paying the fine out of their own pockets, they are also subject to Metro discipline and retraining. When you combine the effects of fines with the risk to one's livelihood, it tends to get people's attention."
The lowest fine was a $5 ticket issued to a service vehicle for an unspecified infraction.
The most unusual fine amount was a parking ticket issued to a service vehicle for $60.53.
See a list of the fines below:
Follow @SegravesWTOP and @WTOP on Twitter.
(Copyright 2012 by WTOP. All Rights Reserved.)


text:
Lack of Brain Tumor Epidemic Does Not Prove Safety of Cell Phones; Warning Labels Needed
Expert scientists working with Environmental Health Trust (EHT), a nonprofit research and educational group, say that new studies showing that cell phone radiation excites the brain strengthen the need for a major research program on cell phones and health, revamping approaches to setting standards, and putting warnings on cell phones.
Writing in today's issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association, a team of researchers led by the director of the National Institute of Drug Abuse, psychiatrist Nora D.Volkow, found that just 50 minutes of cell phone radiation significantly affected brain function and metabolism of glucose—the brain's main fuel—in those parts of the brain that received the most cell phone radiation.
Ronald B. Herberman, M.D., chair of EHT's Board and a renowned cancer biologist and physician, indicated that this work offers an important clue about the ways that cell phone radiation can alter the brain and also shows why it is appropriate to take special precautions with cell phones today.
"This stunning report indicates that even short-term exposure to nerve cells from cell phones can increase glucose in the brain," said Dr. Herberman. "We know that increased glucose also occurs with infections and other inflammatory processes, and leads to the production of potentially damaging reactive oxygen radicals that can alter the ways that cells and genes work. This important finding should stimulate many biologists to perform in-depth studies to determine the consequences of such changes in nerve cells or other bodily cells in the region of the radiation. We need to develop a better understanding of how radiofrequency radiation might contribute to increased risk for brain tumors as well as other alterations in brain functions."
Echoing advice he had issued as director of the University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute in 2008, Herberman noted that this new report provides additional reasons for taking steps to reduce direct exposure to the brain from cell phone radiation. "We need to take simple precautions to reduce brain exposures to cell phone radiation, while research on the biological impact of exposure to microwave radiation from cell phones is carried out in the meantime," he said.
"The latest research from the California Institute of Technology and the National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA) confirms that just 50 minutes of cell phone radiation affects the brain," says Lloyd Morgan, Senior Science Advisor to EHT. "Yet standards for phones today rest on the assumption that such effects cannot possibly occur. It is time to revise the standards, and to take into account both the short- and long-term effects that microwave radiation from cell phones can have on the brain and body."
Morgan explained that glucose in the brain indicates excitability. "The areas of the brain that had increased glucose in the JAMA study are involved in thinking, sensing and decision making, including repression of antisocial behavior."
Sharing Morgan's concerns, EHT scientific advisor Richard A. Stein, M.D., Ph.D., said, "By using radio-labeled PET scans to examine glucose and energy metabolism in the brain of healthy adult volunteers, the NIDA team got as close as one can get to visualize brain metabolism and brain activity in real time, in response to non-ionizing radiation. Their results validate and reinforce previous reports that used other experimental approaches, and have found that microwave radiation altered cellular signaling pathways and brain activity.
"As glucose is the sole energy source in the brain under normal dietary conditions, and there is an absolute requirement for glucose during synaptic transmission in the nervous system, the results of the current study emerge as even more significant," Dr. Stein said. "Of course, we do not know whether the changes in glucose metabolism represent the primary perturbation, or whether they occur secondarily, as a response to some other disturbance—such as the activation of heat shock pathways, which was reported to occur by several independent groups in response to non-ionizing radiation. But one thing is certain—the current study clearly reveals changes in a pathway that is essential for brain energy metabolism and synaptic transmission, and is intimately interconnected with other pathways that fulfill fundamental roles in biological systems. The Volkow study is an important contribution to public health."
Previous work from Prof. Dariusz Leszczynski's group at the Finnish Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, published in 2008 in BMC Genomics, involved a human study where punch skin biopsies were taken from the forearm of 10 human volunteers who were exposed for 1 hour of cell phone radiation. Study has revealed that the expression level of 8 proteins was changed upon exposure, and 2 proteins were changed in all volunteers, suggesting that protein expression changes might occur in response to RF exposure.
Writing in the journal Nature Neuroscience last month, neurobiologists at the California Institute of Technology showed that very weak varying electric fields affect the thinking, resting or sleeping brain.
Dr. Devra Lee Davis, president and founder of Environmental Health Trust, says that this new work, combined with studies carried out by Henry Lai, Allan Frey and others in the past three decades and documented in her new book,Disconnect: The Truth About Cell Phone Radiation, What the Industry Has Done to Hide It, and How to Protect Your Family (Dutton, 2010), reinforces the need for revamping our current approach to cell phone safety.
"Cell phone standards assume that no biological impact of microwave radiation from cell phones can occur without a detectable change in temperature," said Dr. Davis. "In fact, this JAMA study used phones with a SAR of less than 1 W/kg for 50 minutes and found significant increases in brain glucose—the sugar that provides the brain's main source of energy.
"The current study shows, along with other studies, that there are additional concerns related to cell phone use, besides tumors," adds Dr. Davis. "Tumors are just the tip of the iceberg, but their development is preceded by years of other biological perturbations that have profound medical relevance—and this study confirms that significant biological changes occur after relatively brief exposures such as those that take place daily with the world's five billion cell phones.
"Could the stimulating impact of cell phone radiation to boost brain energy explain some of the growing addiction many of us feel for our phones?" Davis asks. "That is one of the many research questions that should be addressed."
EHT is working with experts and governments in a number of U.S. cities and states, and in Finland, France, Israel and other countries around the world, to encourage a major independent research program on cell phones and simple precautionary policies in the meantime.
While that research is being carried out, EHT encourages simple precautions to reduce microwave radiation to the brain and body, such as those recommended by EHT chair Herberman in 2008 and now endorsed by a number of governments and experts around the world. Phones should be used with headsets or speakerphones and not kept directly on the body, and children should take special care not to have direct exposures.
Based on the growing evidence from laboratories and epidemiologic studies, two leaders of the WHO Interphone study on cell phones have recently broken ranks and are now calling for such precautions to be taken broadly. They note the growing biological evidence that microwave radiation from phones has impacts and that epidemiologic studies find increased risks of brain cancer after a decade of heavy use.
Professors Elisabeth Cardis and Siegal Sadetzki have urged that it is prudent to reduce exposure by simple means at this time, ranging from using speakerphones and headsets to reducing call time and children's use of phones generally.
"There are now more than 4 billion people, including children, using mobile phones," they write. "Even a small risk at the individual level could eventually result in a considerable number of tumours and become an important public-health issue. Simple and low-cost measures, such as the use of text messages, hands-free kits and/or the loudspeaker mode of the phone could substantially reduce exposure to the brain from mobile phones. Therefore, until definitive scientific answers are available, the adoption of such precautions, particularly among young people, is advisable."
A recent widely publicized piece in the journal BioElectromagnetics concluded that because the U.S. and U.K. do not currently have a brain tumor epidemic (from 1998–2007) and cell phones have been in use for a decade, therefore cell phones are safe and there is no need for precaution.
Regarding this study, Allan Frey, a well-known expert in the field of bioelectromagnetics, noted the fallacy of the argument:
"It is well established in the scientific literature that generally a cancer is not seen until 10 to 30 years after the exposure to an agent. In addition, the radio frequency-biological literature shows that cancer is not seen until at least 10 years after the exposure, which is consistent with the rest of the scientific literature."
In criticizing this study, Frey points out, "The authors analyzed data on brain tumors gathered before most of their study population owned a cell phone. Also, most of their population did not have a cell phone for more than five years. Thus, the authors knew or should have known, that if cell phones induced or promoted brain cancer, that their study would not have shown it. Yet they did the study and concluded in their paper that their study showed that there was no need for '…interventions to reduce radio frequency exposure from mobile phones' that are used today."
"To conclude that cell phones are safe misreads the science and misleads the people," Dr. Davis advised.
For more information, please visit www.ehtrust.org, www.powerwatch.org, and http://www.bioinitiative.org/
Reference to BMC Genomics study:
Karinen A, Heinävaara S, Nylund R, Leszczynski D. Mobile phone radiation might alter protein expression in human skin. BMC Genomics 9, 2008, 77 (www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2164/9/77)
About Environmental Health Trust
Environmental Health Trust (EHT) educates individuals, health professionals and communities about controllable environmental health risks and policy changes needed to reduce those risks. Current multi-media projects include: local and national campaigns to ban smoking and asbestos; working with international physician and worker safety groups to warn about the risks of inappropriate use of diagnostic radiation and cell phones, exploring what factors lie behind puzzlingly high rates of fibroid tumors, breast cancer and endometriosis in young African American women, and building environmental wellness programs in Wyoming and Pennsylvania to address the environmental impacts of energy development, the built environment and radon. EHT was created with the goal of promoting health and preventing disease one person, one community and one nation at a time. Capitalizing on growing public interest in Dr. Devra Lee Davis's popular books, When Smoke Ran Like Water, a National Book Award Finalist, and The Secret History of the War on Cancer, and recent documentary films, the foundation's website will become the go to place for clear, science-based information to prevent environmentally based disease and promote health, and will have portals for the general public, children, and health professionals.


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Ironbridge Gorge
Ironbridge Gorge
Ironbridge is known throughout the world as the symbol of the Industrial Revolution. It contains all the elements of progress that contributed to the rapid development of this industrial region in the 18th century, from the mines themselves to the railway lines. Nearby, the blast furnace of Coalbrookdale, built in 1708, is a reminder of the discovery of coke. The bridge at Ironbridge, the world's first bridge constructed of iron, had a considerable influence on developments in the fields of technology and architecture.
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
Gorge d'Ironbridge
À Ironbridge, localité minière devenue le symbole de la révolution industrielle, se trouvent tous les éléments de l'essor de cette région industrielle au XVIIIe siècle, depuis le centre d'extraction jusqu'au chemin de fer. À proximité, le haut-fourneau de Coalbrookdale, créé en 1708, rappelle la découverte de la fonte au coke. Quant au pont d'Ironbridge, premier pont métallique du monde, il eut une influence considérable sur l'évolution de la technologie et de l'architecture.
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
عنق جسر ايرونبريدج (جسر الحديد)
تحتوي منطقة جسر الحديد المنجمية التي تحوّلت الى رمز للثورة الصناعية مجمل عناصر الازدهار التي شهدتها هذه المنطقة الصناعية في القرن الثامن عشر، بدءاً بمركز الاستخراج وانتهاء بسكة الحديد، في حين يعيد مسبك كولبروكدايل المجاور الذي أنشئ عام 1708 الى الأذهان اكتشاف صهر الفحم الحجري. أما جسر ايرونبريدج وهو الجسر المعدني الاول في العالم فقد خلّف تأثيراً عميقاً في تطور التكنولوجيا والهندسة المعمارية.
source: UNESCO/CPE
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
source: UNESCO/CPE
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
Ущелье Айрон-Бридж
Айрон-Бридж известен в мире как символ промышленной революции. Здесь присутствуют все компоненты прогресса, определившие быстрое развитие этого индустриального района в XVIII в. – от шахт до железных дорог. Расположенная поблизости доменная печь Коулбрукдейл, построенная в 1708 г., напоминает об открытии возможности промышленного применения кокса. Мост Айрон-Бридж – это первый металлический мост в мире, возведение которого оказало большое влияние на развитие техники и архитектуры.
source: UNESCO/CPE
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
Garganta de Ironbridge
Símbolo mundialmente célebre de la Revolución Industrial, la localidad minera de Ironbridge presenta todos los elementos –desde las minas hasta los ferrocarriles– que contribuyeron al auge industrial de la región circundante desde el siglo XVIII. En sus cercanías se halla el alto horno de Coalbrookdale, construido en 1708, que trae a la memoria el descubrimiento de la fundición con coque. El puente que ha dado su nombre a la localidad –el primero del mundo construido en metal– ejerció una influencia considerable en la tecnología y la arquitectura de épocas posteriores.
source: UNESCO/CPE
Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
イングランド中部、セヴァーン川に沿うイギリス産業革命発祥の地コールブルックディル。ここに世界初の鉄橋アイアンブリッジが、1781年に開通した完成当時の姿で残っている。木炭の不足で操業停止に追い込まれていたこの街の製鉄所に、コークスの使用によって燃料不足を解消し、蒸気機関による鉄の大量生産に成功し、総重量400t、全長60mのこの鉄橋を完成させたのは、3代にわたるダービー一族の功績である。source: NFUAJ
Ironbridge kloof
Ironbridge staat overal ter wereld bekend als het symbool van de Industriële Revolutie. Het heeft alle elementen van de vooruitgang die bijdroegen aan de snelle ontwikkeling van deze industriële regio in de 18e eeuw: van de mijnen tot aan de spoorlijnen. De nabijgelegen hoogoven van Coalbrookdale, gebouwd in 1708, herinnert aan de ontdekking van steenkool. De brug bij Ironbridge - 's werelds eerste brug gebouwd van ijzer - had een grote invloed op de ontwikkeling van technologie en architectuur. Vandaag de dag is Ironbridge een leef- en werkgemeenschap met een bevolking van ongeveer 4.000 mensen.
Source: unesco.nl
Outstanding Universal Value
Brief synthesis
The Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage property covers an area of 5.5 km2 (550 ha) and is located in Telford, Shropshire, approximately 50 km north-west of Birmingham. The Industrial Revolution had its 18th century roots in the Ironbridge Gorge and spread worldwide leading to some of the most far-reaching changes in human history.
The site incorporates a 5 km length of the steep-sided, mineral-rich Severn Valley from a point immediately west of Ironbridge downstream to Coalport, together with two smaller river valleys extending northwards to Coalbrookdale and Madeley.
The Ironbridge Gorge provided the raw materials that revolutionised industrial processes and offers a powerful insight into the origins of the Industrial Revolution and also contains extensive evidence and remains of that period when the area was the focus of international attention from artists, engineers, and writers. The property contains substantial remains of mines, pit mounds, spoil heaps, foundries, factories, workshops, warehouses, iron masters' and workers' housing, public buildings, infrastructure, and transport systems, together with the traditional landscape and forests of the Severn Gorge. In addition, there also remain extensive collections of artifacts and archives relating to the individuals, processes and products that made the area so important.
Today, the site is a living, working community with a population of approximately 4000 people as well as a world renowned place to visit. It is also a historic landscape that is interpreted and made accessible through the work of a number of organisations, in particular, the Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust (established in 1967 to preserve and interpret the remains of the Industrial Revolution within the Ironbridge Gorge) and the Severn Gorge Countryside Trust (established in 1991 to manage the woodland, grassland and associated historic structures in the Gorge).
Within the property, five features are highlighted as of particular interest. It was in Coalbrookdale in 1709 that the Quaker Abraham Darby I developed the production technique of smelting iron with coke which began the great 18th century iron revolution. There still remains a high concentration of 18th and 19th century dwellings, warehouses and public buildings in Coalbrookdale. In Ironbridge, the community draws its name from the famous Iron Bridge erected in 1779 by Abraham Darby III. At the eastern end of Ironbridge stand the remains of two 18th century blast furnaces, the Bedlam Furnaces, built in 1757. In Hay Brook Valley, south of Madeley, lies a large open-air museum which incorporates the remains of the former Blists Hill blast furnaces and Blists Hill brick and tile works. Also of importance is the spectacular Hay Inclined Plane, which connected the Shropshire Canal to the Coalport Canal, which in turn linked with the River Severn. The small community of Jackfield on the south bank of the River Severn was important for navigation, coal mining, clay production, and the manufacture of decorative tiles. Located at the eastern end of the property and on the north bank of the River Severn, industrialisation came to Coalport in the late 18th century and the area is remembered principally for the Coalport China Works.
Criterion (i): The Coalbrookdale blast furnace perpetuates in situ the creative effort of Abraham Darby I who discovered the production technique of smelting iron using coke instead of charcoal in 1709. It is a masterpiece of man's creative genius in the same way as the Iron Bridge, which is the first known metal bridge. It was built in 1779 by Abraham Darby III from the drawings of the architect Thomas Farnolls Pritchard.
Criterion (ii): The Coalbrookdale blast furnace and the Iron Bridge exerted great influence on the development of techniques and architecture.
Criterion (iv): Ironbridge Gorge provides a fascinating summary of the development of an industrial region in modern times. Mining centres, transformation industries, manufacturing plants, workers' quarters, and transport networks are sufficiently well preserved to make up a coherent ensemble whose educational potential is considerable.
Criterion (vi): Ironbridge Gorge, which opens its doors to in excess of 600,000 visitors yearly, is a world renowned symbol of the 18th century Industrial Revolution.
The boundary of the property is clearly defined by the steep sided Gorge and encompasses an extraordinary concentration of mining zones, foundries, factories, workshops and warehouses which coexist with the old network of lanes, paths, roads, ramps, canals and railroads as well as substantial remains of traditional landscape and housing. The ironmasters' houses, the workers' living quarters, public buildings and infrastructure are all within the five identifiable areas of Coalbrookdale, Ironbridge, Hay Brook Valley with Madeley, Jackfield and Coalport, which are enclosed by a common boundary. The well preserved historic fabric is well supported by detailed historic archives and collections of manufactured goods. The technologically revolutionary Iron Bridge spanning the River Severn Gorge is the focal point of the property and, together with the attributes above, includes all that is necessary to convey the former pioneering intense industrial past within its green landscape and thus the Outstanding Universal Value of the property.
None of the key industrial attributes are under threat, but the overall mining landscape is vulnerable to land instability resulting from mining, underlying geology and incremental changes, which over time could impact the character of the valley. The landscape is a crucial part of the property, and it needs to be managed as a coherent whole, with key views across the valley identified and protected.
The decline of the industries and the prosperity of the area at the end of the 19th and start of the 20th centuries in a way helped to protect most of the urban fabric within the property and its landscape. The different types of dwellings, industrial buildings and structures did suffer from a degree of neglect following the decline in prosperity. However, in recognition of the area's unique industrial heritage significant late 20th century investment reversed this decline. With careful attention to details, materials and techniques, most of the historic buildings, structures and urban and rural patterns have retained their essential and authentic historic character, although, some industrial monuments await conservation work.
In 2010, nearly 1 million people visited the Ironbridge Gorge and its museums. The Victorian Town Open Air museum at Blists Hill was established before inscription and incorporates scheduled industrial monuments, reconstructed 19th century buildings and new buildings based on local examples. Care is taken to ensure that the relationship between the original buildings and monuments on the property and the other structures, which do not form part of the historic attributes of the property is clearly stated ensuring authenticity is not compromised.
Protection and management requirements
The UK Government protects World Heritage properties in England in two ways. Firstly, individual buildings, monuments, gardens and landscapes are designated under the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 and the 1979 Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act and secondly, through the UK Spatial Planning System under the provisions of the Town and Country Planning Acts.
Government guidance on protecting the Historic Environment and World Heritage is set out in the National Planning Policy Framework and Circular 07/09. Policies to protect, promote, conserve and enhance World Heritage properties, their settings and buffer zones are also found in statutory planning documents. World Heritage status is a key material consideration when planning applications are considered by the Local Planning Authority. The Telford & Wrekin Core Strategy contains policies to protect the property. This Strategy is replaced by a Local Plan covering a period of approximately 25 years.
The property lies predominantly in the boundary of Telford & Wrekin Council with a small south-east portion within the Shropshire Council boundary. The entire site is a designated Conservation Area and there are over 375 listed buildings of which two are Grade 1 and eighteen are Grade 2*. In addition, there are 7 Scheduled Ancient Monuments. There are two Sites of Special Scientific Interest within the World Heritage property.
Added control over changes to the property is achieved through an Article 4 (2) Directive for the Conservation Area, which withdraws permitted rights for certain development. Additional controls under a wider Article 4(2) Directive will be implemented in 2013 as an improved management tool to prevent damaging incremental change.
The Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site Management Plan is under regular review every ten years. Boundaries and protection mechanisms will be reviewed as part of the management plan process. The delivery of the management plan will be implemented by all partners, in conjunction with and on behalf of, Telford & Wrekin Council and overseen by a World Heritage Site Steering Committee by which the key stakeholders are represented. The day to day management activities are carried out at local level by Telford & Wrekin Council together with diverse organisations, agencies, and owners who have various management responsibilities within the property.
There is a need to ensure that management of the property covers the whole area within the boundaries, including the rich ensemble of minor buildings and the encompassing landscape that together give the major structures such as the Iron Bridge and the Old Furnace at Coalbrookdale their extraordinary social and economic context. The management plan review will look at ways this can be achieved. Land instability resulting from previous mining activity and underlying geology is a significant factor in the Gorge and some stabilisation took place. A comprehensive, holistic management approach is required and works are planned as part of a major phased stabilisation programme. An Environmental Impact Assessment, including heritage assessment, will be undertaken to inform the design process.
There is also a need to promote wider understanding of the scope and extent of the property and its inter-related attributes. A visitor and interpretation centre enables visitors to understand the geographical and geological context to the property and visitors are encouraged to visit the various museums and villages and to walk along the river and the slopes of the Gorge. Additional visitor facilities include upgrading visitor accommodation and a Park and Ride facility. This complements the comprehensive high quality interpretation and education service provided by the ten Ironbridge Museums and the Ironbridge Institute.
TikTok account
Twitter account
Instagram page
Page Facebook
View photos from OUR PLACE the World Heritage collection
Map of the World Heritage site (MAGIC Map server)
Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site (Borough of Telford & Wrekin) (in English only)
The Ironbridge Institute (University of Birmingham) (in English only)
A Virtual Tour of the Ironbridge Gorge (Virtual Shropshire) (in English only)
Ironbridge Gorge Museums (Ironbridge Gorge Museums Trust) (in English only)


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Cosmic dust
Cosmic dust – also called extraterrestrial dust, space dust, or star dust – is dust that occurs in outer space or has fallen onto Earth.[1][2] Most cosmic dust particles measure between a few molecules and 0.1 mm (100 μm), such as micrometeoroids. Larger particles are called meteoroids. Cosmic dust can be further distinguished by its astronomical location: intergalactic dust, interstellar dust, interplanetary dust (as in the zodiacal cloud), and circumplanetary dust (as in a planetary ring). There are several methods to obtain space dust measurement.
In the Solar System, interplanetary dust causes the zodiacal light. Solar System dust includes comet dust, planetary dust (like from Mars),[3] asteroidal dust, dust from the Kuiper belt, and interstellar dust passing through the Solar System. Thousands of tons of cosmic dust are estimated to reach Earth's surface every year,[4] with most grains having a mass between 10−16 kg (0.1 pg) and 10−4 kg (0.1 g).[4] The density of the dust cloud through which the Earth is traveling is approximately 10−6 dust grains/m3.[5]
Cosmic dust contains some complex organic compounds (amorphous organic solids with a mixed aromatic–aliphatic structure) that could be created naturally, and rapidly, by stars.[6][7][8] A smaller fraction of dust in space is "stardust" consisting of larger refractory minerals that condensed as matter left by stars.
Interstellar dust particles were collected by the Stardust spacecraft and samples were returned to Earth in 2006.[9][10][11][12]
Study and importance[edit]
Cosmic dust was once solely an annoyance to astronomers, as it obscures objects they wished to observe. When infrared astronomy began, the dust particles were observed to be significant and vital components of astrophysical processes. Their analysis can reveal information about phenomena like the formation of the Solar System.[14] For example, cosmic dust can drive the mass loss when a star is nearing the end of its life, play a part in the early stages of star formation, and form planets. In the Solar System, dust plays a major role in the zodiacal light, Saturn's B Ring spokes, the outer diffuse planetary rings at Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, and comets.
The interdisciplinary study of dust brings together different scientific fields: physics (solid-state, electromagnetic theory, surface physics, statistical physics, thermal physics), fractal mathematics, surface chemistry on dust grains, meteoritics, as well as every branch of astronomy and astrophysics.[16] These disparate research areas can be linked by the following theme: the cosmic dust particles evolve cyclically; chemically, physically and dynamically. The evolution of dust traces out paths in which the Universe recycles material, in processes analogous to the daily recycling steps with which many people are familiar: production, storage, processing, collection, consumption, and discarding.
Observations and measurements of cosmic dust in different regions provide an important insight into the Universe's recycling processes; in the clouds of the diffuse interstellar medium, in molecular clouds, in the circumstellar dust of young stellar objects, and in planetary systems such as the Solar System, where astronomers consider dust as in its most recycled state. The astronomers accumulate observational 'snapshots' of dust at different stages of its life and, over time, form a more complete movie of the Universe's complicated recycling steps.
Parameters such as the particle's initial motion, material properties, intervening plasma and magnetic field determined the dust particle's arrival at the dust detector. Slightly changing any of these parameters can give significantly different dust dynamical behavior. Therefore, one can learn about where that object came from, and what is (in) the intervening medium.
Detection methods[edit]
A wide range of methods is available to study cosmic dust. Cosmic dust can be detected by remote sensing methods that utilize the radiative properties of cosmic dust particles, c.f. Zodiacal light measurement.
Cosmic dust can also be detected directly ('in-situ') using a variety of collection methods and from a variety of collection locations. Estimates of the daily influx of extraterrestrial material entering the Earth's atmosphere range between 5 and 300 tonnes.[17][18]
NASA collects samples of star dust particles in the Earth's atmosphere using plate collectors under the wings of stratospheric-flying airplanes. Dust samples are also collected from surface deposits on the large Earth ice-masses (Antarctica and Greenland/the Arctic) and in deep-sea sediments.
Don Brownlee at the University of Washington in Seattle first reliably identified the extraterrestrial nature of collected dust particles in the latter 1970s. Another source is the meteorites, which contain stardust extracted from them. Stardust grains are solid refractory pieces of individual presolar stars. They are recognized by their extreme isotopic compositions, which can only be isotopic compositions within evolved stars, prior to any mixing with the interstellar medium. These grains condensed from the stellar matter as it cooled while leaving the star.
In interplanetary space, dust detectors on planetary spacecraft have been built and flown, some are presently flying, and more are presently being built to fly. The large orbital velocities of dust particles in interplanetary space (typically 10–40 km/s) make intact particle capture problematic. Instead, in-situ dust detectors are generally devised to measure parameters associated with the high-velocity impact of dust particles on the instrument, and then derive physical properties of the particles (usually mass and velocity) through laboratory calibration (i.e. impacting accelerated particles with known properties onto a laboratory replica of the dust detector). Over the years dust detectors have measured, among others, the impact light flash, acoustic signal and impact ionisation. Recently the dust instrument on Stardust captured particles intact in low-density aerogel.
Dust detectors in the past flew on the HEOS 2, Helios, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, Giotto, Galileo, Ulysses and Cassini space missions, on the Earth-orbiting LDEF, EURECA, and Gorid satellites, and some scientists have utilized the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft as giant Langmuir probes to directly sample the cosmic dust. Presently dust detectors are flying on the Ulysses, Proba, Rosetta, Stardust, and the New Horizons spacecraft. The collected dust at Earth or collected further in space and returned by sample-return space missions is then analyzed by dust scientists in their respective laboratories all over the world. One large storage facility for cosmic dust exists at the NASA Houston JSC.
Infrared light can penetrate cosmic dust clouds, allowing us to peer into regions of star formation and the centers of galaxies. NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope was the largest infrared space telescope, before the launch of the James Webb Space Telescope. During its mission, Spitzer obtained images and spectra by detecting the thermal radiation emitted by objects in space between wavelengths of 3 and 180 micrometres. Most of this infrared radiation is blocked by the Earth's atmosphere and cannot be observed from the ground. Findings from the Spitzer have revitalized the studies of cosmic dust. One report showed some evidence that cosmic dust is formed near a supermassive black hole.[19]
Another detection mechanism is polarimetry. Dust grains are not spherical and tend to align to interstellar magnetic fields, preferentially polarizing starlight that passes through dust clouds. In nearby interstellar space, where interstellar reddening is not intense enough to be detected, high precision optical polarimetry has been used to glean the structure of dust within the Local Bubble.[21]
In 2019, researchers found interstellar dust in Antarctica which they relate to the Local Interstellar Cloud. The detection of interstellar dust in Antarctica was done by the measurement of the radionuclides Fe-60 and Mn-53 by highly sensitive Accelerator mass spectrometry.[22]
Radiation properties[edit]
A dust particle interacts with electromagnetic radiation in a way that depends on its cross section, the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation, and on the nature of the grain: its refractive index, size, etc. The radiation process for an individual grain is called its emissivity, dependent on the grain's efficiency factor. Further specifications regarding the emissivity process include extinction, scattering, absorption, or polarisation. In the radiation emission curves, several important signatures identify the composition of the emitting or absorbing dust particles.
Dust particles can scatter light nonuniformly. Forward scattered light is light that is redirected slightly off its path by diffraction, and back-scattered light is reflected light.
The scattering and extinction ("dimming") of the radiation gives useful information about the dust grain sizes. For example, if the object(s) in one's data is many times brighter in forward-scattered visible light than in back-scattered visible light, then it is understood that a significant fraction of the particles are about a micrometer in diameter.
The scattering of light from dust grains in long exposure visible photographs is quite noticeable in reflection nebulae, and gives clues about the individual particle's light-scattering properties. In X-ray wavelengths, many scientists are investigating the scattering of X-rays by interstellar dust, and some have suggested that astronomical X-ray sources would possess diffuse haloes, due to the dust.[24]
Stardust grains (also called presolar grains by meteoriticists[25]) are contained within meteorites, from which they are extracted in terrestrial laboratories. Stardust was a component of the dust in the interstellar medium before its incorporation into meteorites. The meteorites have stored those stardust grains ever since the meteorites first assembled within the planetary accretion disk more than four billion years ago. So-called carbonaceous chondrites are especially fertile reservoirs of stardust. Each stardust grain existed before the Earth was formed. Stardust is a scientific term referring to refractory dust grains that condensed from cooling ejected gases from individual presolar stars and incorporated into the cloud from which the Solar System condensed.[26]
Many different types of stardust have been identified by laboratory measurements of the highly unusual isotopic composition of the chemical elements that comprise each stardust grain. These refractory mineral grains may earlier have been coated with volatile compounds, but those are lost in the dissolving of meteorite matter in acids, leaving only insoluble refractory minerals. Finding the grain cores without dissolving most of the meteorite has been possible, but difficult and labor-intensive (see presolar grains).
Many new aspects of nucleosynthesis have been discovered from the isotopic ratios within the stardust grains.[27] An important property of stardust is the hard, refractory, high-temperature nature of the grains. Prominent are silicon carbide, graphite, aluminium oxide, aluminium spinel, and other such solids that would condense at high temperature from a cooling gas, such as in stellar winds or in the decompression of the inside of a supernova. They differ greatly from the solids formed at low temperature within the interstellar medium.
Also important are their extreme isotopic compositions, which are expected to exist nowhere in the interstellar medium. This also suggests that the stardust condensed from the gases of individual stars before the isotopes could be diluted by mixing with the interstellar medium. These allow the source stars to be identified. For example, the heavy elements within the silicon carbide (SiC) grains are almost pure S-process isotopes, fitting their condensation within AGB star red giant winds inasmuch as the AGB stars are the main source of S-process nucleosynthesis and have atmospheres observed by astronomers to be highly enriched in dredged-up s process elements.
Another dramatic example is given by the so-called supernova condensates, usually shortened by acronym to SUNOCON (from SUperNOva CONdensate[26]) to distinguish them from other stardust condensed within stellar atmospheres. SUNOCONs contain in their calcium an excessively large abundance[28] of 44Ca, demonstrating that they condensed containing abundant radioactive 44Ti, which has a 65-year half-life. The outflowing 44Ti nuclei were thus still "alive" (radioactive) when the SUNOCON condensed near one year within the expanding supernova interior, but would have become an extinct radionuclide (specifically 44Ca) after the time required for mixing with the interstellar gas. Its discovery proved the prediction[29] from 1975 that it might be possible to identify SUNOCONs in this way. The SiC SUNOCONs (from supernovae) are only about 1% as numerous as are SiC stardust from AGB stars.
Stardust itself (SUNOCONs and AGB grains that come from specific stars) is but a modest fraction of the condensed cosmic dust, forming less than 0.1% of the mass of total interstellar solids. The high interest in stardust derives from new information that it has brought to the sciences of stellar evolution and nucleosynthesis.
Laboratories have studied solids that existed before the Earth was formed.[30] This was once thought impossible, especially in the 1970s when cosmochemists were confident that the Solar System began as a hot gas[31] virtually devoid of any remaining solids, which would have been vaporized by high temperature. The existence of stardust proved this historic picture incorrect.
Some bulk properties[edit]
Cosmic dust is made of dust grains and aggregates into dust particles. These particles are irregularly shaped, with porosity ranging from fluffy to compact. The composition, size, and other properties depend on where the dust is found, and conversely, a compositional analysis of a dust particle can reveal much about the dust particle's origin. General diffuse interstellar medium dust, dust grains in dense clouds, planetary rings dust, and circumstellar dust, are each different in their characteristics. For example, grains in dense clouds have acquired a mantle of ice and on average are larger than dust particles in the diffuse interstellar medium. Interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) are generally larger still.
Most of the influx of extraterrestrial matter that falls onto the Earth is dominated by meteoroids with diameters in the range 50 to 500 micrometers, of average density 2.0 g/cm3 (with porosity about 40%). The total influx rate of meteoritic sites of most IDPs captured in the Earth's stratosphere range between 1 and 3 g/cm3, with an average density at about 2.0 g/cm3.[32]
Other specific dust properties: in circumstellar dust, astronomers have found molecular signatures of CO, silicon carbide, amorphous silicate, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, water ice, and polyformaldehyde, among others (in the diffuse interstellar medium, there is evidence for silicate and carbon grains). Cometary dust is generally different (with overlap) from asteroidal dust. Asteroidal dust resembles carbonaceous chondritic meteorites. Cometary dust resembles interstellar grains which can include silicates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and water ice.
In September 2020, evidence was presented of solid-state water in the interstellar medium, and particularly, of water ice mixed with silicate grains in cosmic dust grains.[33]
Dust grain formation[edit]
The large grains in interstellar space are probably complex, with refractory cores that condensed within stellar outflows topped by layers acquired during incursions into cold dense interstellar clouds. That cyclic process of growth and destruction outside of the clouds has been modeled[34][35] to demonstrate that the cores live much longer than the average lifetime of dust mass. Those cores mostly start with silicate particles condensing in the atmospheres of cool, oxygen-rich red-giants and carbon grains condensing in the atmospheres of cool carbon stars. Red giants have evolved or altered off the main sequence and have entered the giant phase of their evolution and are the major source of refractory dust grain cores in galaxies. Those refractory cores are also called stardust (section above), which is a scientific term for the small fraction of cosmic dust that condensed thermally within stellar gases as they were ejected from the stars. Several percent of refractory grain cores have condensed within expanding interiors of supernovae, a type of cosmic decompression chamber. Meteoriticists who study refractory stardust (extracted from meteorites) often call it presolar grains but that within meteorites is only a small fraction of all presolar dust. Stardust condenses within the stars via considerably different condensation chemistry than that of the bulk of cosmic dust, which accretes cold onto preexisting dust in dark molecular clouds of the galaxy. Those molecular clouds are very cold, typically less than 50K, so that ices of many kinds may accrete onto grains, in cases only to be destroyed or split apart by radiation and sublimation into a gas component. Finally, as the Solar System formed many interstellar dust grains were further modified by coalescence and chemical reactions in the planetary accretion disk. The history of the various types of grains in the early Solar System is complicated and only partially understood.
Astronomers know that the dust is formed in the envelopes of late-evolved stars from specific observational signatures. In infrared light, emission at 9.7 micrometres is a signature of silicate dust in cool evolved oxygen-rich giant stars. Emission at 11.5 micrometres indicates the presence of silicon carbide dust in cool evolved carbon-rich giant stars. These help provide evidence that the small silicate particles in space came from the ejected outer envelopes of these stars.[36][37]
Conditions in interstellar space are generally not suitable for the formation of silicate cores. This would take excessive time to accomplish, even if it might be possible. The arguments are that: given an observed typical grain diameter a, the time for a grain to attain a, and given the temperature of interstellar gas, it would take considerably longer than the age of the Universe for interstellar grains to form.[38] On the other hand, grains are seen to have recently formed in the vicinity of nearby stars, in nova and supernova ejecta, and in R Coronae Borealis variable stars which seem to eject discrete clouds containing both gas and dust. So mass loss from stars is unquestionably where the refractory cores of grains formed.
Most dust in the Solar System is highly processed dust, recycled from the material out of which the Solar System formed and subsequently collected in the planetesimals, and leftover solid material such as comets and asteroids, and reformed in each of those bodies' collisional lifetimes. During the Solar System's formation history, the most abundant element was (and still is) H2. The metallic elements: magnesium, silicon, and iron, which are the principal ingredients of rocky planets, condensed into solids at the highest temperatures of the planetary disk. Some molecules such as CO, N2, NH3, and free oxygen, existed in a gas phase. Some molecules, for example, graphite (C) and SiC would condense into solid grains in the planetary disk; but carbon and SiC grains found in meteorites are presolar based on their isotopic compositions, rather than from the planetary disk formation. Some molecules also formed complex organic compounds and some molecules formed frozen ice mantles, of which either could coat the "refractory" (Mg, Si, Fe) grain cores. Stardust once more provides an exception to the general trend, as it appears to be totally unprocessed since its thermal condensation within stars as refractory crystalline minerals. The condensation of graphite occurs within supernova interiors as they expand and cool, and do so even in gas containing more oxygen than carbon,[39] a surprising carbon chemistry made possible by the intense radioactive environment of supernovae. This special example of dust formation has merited specific review.[40]
Planetary disk formation of precursor molecules was determined, in large part, by the temperature of the solar nebula. Since the temperature of the solar nebula decreased with heliocentric distance, scientists can infer a dust grain's origin(s) with knowledge of the grain's materials. Some materials could only have been formed at high temperatures, while other grain materials could only have been formed at much lower temperatures. The materials in a single interplanetary dust particle often show that the grain elements formed in different locations and at different times in the solar nebula. Most of the matter present in the original solar nebula has since disappeared; drawn into the Sun, expelled into interstellar space, or reprocessed, for example, as part of the planets, asteroids or comets.
Due to their highly processed nature, IDPs (interplanetary dust particles) are fine-grained mixtures of thousands to millions of mineral grains and amorphous components. We can picture an IDP as a "matrix" of material with embedded elements which were formed at different times and places in the solar nebula and before the solar nebula's formation. Examples of embedded elements in cosmic dust are GEMS, chondrules, and CAIs.
From the solar nebula to Earth[edit]
The arrows in the adjacent diagram show one possible path from a collected interplanetary dust particle back to the early stages of the solar nebula.
We can follow the trail to the right in the diagram to the IDPs that contain the most volatile and primitive elements. The trail takes us first from interplanetary dust particles to chondritic interplanetary dust particles. Planetary scientists classify chondritic IDPs in terms of their diminishing degree of oxidation so that they fall into three major groups: the carbonaceous, the ordinary, and the enstatite chondrites. As the name implies, the carbonaceous chondrites are rich in carbon, and many have anomalies in the isotopic abundances of H, C, N, and O.[41] From the carbonaceous chondrites, we follow the trail to the most primitive materials. They are almost completely oxidized and contain the lowest condensation temperature elements ("volatile" elements) and the largest amount of organic compounds. Therefore, dust particles with these elements are thought to have been formed in the early life of the Solar System. The volatile elements have never seen temperatures above about 500 K, therefore, the IDP grain "matrix" consists of some very primitive Solar System material. Such a scenario is true in the case of comet dust.[42] The provenance of the small fraction that is stardust (see above) is quite different; these refractory interstellar minerals thermally condense within stars, become a small component of interstellar matter, and therefore remain in the presolar planetary disk. Nuclear damage tracks are caused by the ion flux from solar flares. Solar wind ions impacting on the particle's surface produce amorphous radiation damaged rims on the particle's surface. And spallogenic nuclei are produced by galactic and solar cosmic rays. A dust particle that originates in the Kuiper Belt at 40 AU would have many more times the density of tracks, thicker amorphous rims and higher integrated doses than a dust particle originating in the main-asteroid belt.
Based on 2012 computer model studies, the complex organic molecules necessary for life (extraterrestrial organic molecules) may have formed in the protoplanetary disk of dust grains surrounding the Sun before the formation of the Earth.[43] According to the computer studies, this same process may also occur around other stars that acquire planets.[43]
In September 2012, NASA scientists reported that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), subjected to interstellar medium (ISM) conditions, are transformed, through hydrogenation, oxygenation and hydroxylation, to more complex organics – "a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides, the raw materials of proteins and DNA, respectively".[44][45] Further, as a result of these transformations, the PAHs lose their spectroscopic signature which could be one of the reasons "for the lack of PAH detection in interstellar ice grains, particularly the outer regions of cold, dense clouds or the upper molecular layers of protoplanetary disks."[44][45]
In February 2014, NASA announced a greatly upgraded database[46][47] for detecting and monitoring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the universe. According to NASA scientists, over 20% of the carbon in the Universe may be associated with PAHs, possible starting materials for the formation of life.[47] PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are abundant in the Universe,[48][49][50] and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.[47]
In March 2015, NASA scientists reported that, for the first time, complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine and thymine, have been formed in the laboratory under outer space conditions, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the Universe, may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar dust and gas clouds, according to the scientists.[51]
Some "dusty" clouds in the universe[edit]
The Solar System has its own interplanetary dust cloud, as do extrasolar systems. There are different types of nebulae with different physical causes and processes: diffuse nebula, infrared (IR) reflection nebula, supernova remnant, molecular cloud, HII regions, photodissociation regions, and dark nebula.
Distinctions between those types of nebula are that different radiation processes are at work. For example, H II regions, like the Orion Nebula, where a lot of star-formation is taking place, are characterized as thermal emission nebulae. Supernova remnants, on the other hand, like the Crab Nebula, are characterized as nonthermal emission (synchrotron radiation).
Some of the better known dusty regions in the Universe are the diffuse nebulae in the Messier catalog, for example: M1, M8, M16, M17, M20, M42, M43.[52]
Some larger dust catalogs are Sharpless (1959) A Catalogue of HII Regions, Lynds (1965) Catalogue of Bright Nebulae, Lynds (1962) Catalogue of Dark Nebulae, van den Bergh (1966) Catalogue of Reflection Nebulae, Green (1988) Rev. Reference Cat. of Galactic SNRs, The National Space Sciences Data Center (NSSDC),[53] and CDS Online Catalogs.[54]
Dust sample return[edit]
The Discovery program's Stardust mission, was launched on 7 February 1999 to collect samples from the coma of comet Wild 2, as well as samples of cosmic dust. It returned samples to Earth on 15 January 2006. In 2007, the recovery of particles of interstellar dust from the samples was announced.[55]
See also[edit]
- Accretion
- Astrochemistry
- Atomic and molecular astrophysics
- Cosmochemistry
- Extraterrestrial materials
- List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules
- Micrometeoroid
- Tanpopo, a mission that collected cosmic dust in low Earth orbit
- WR 140, a prototypical cosmic dust factory
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Further reading[edit]
- Evans, Aneurin (1994). The Dusty Universe. Ellis Horwood.


text:
Crispy Zucchini Grilled Cheese with Dijon Horseradish Aioli.
I stand firm on my conviction that one grilled cheese is never enough.
One plain grilled cheese, made with regular bread (whatever the heck that may be) and a side of pickles always leaves me wanting more. Like more in the sense of an entire second grilled cheese. Or at least three fourths of one. I've pimped out this belief on the facebook, the twitter and the instagram for years now with pictures of my drippy, crunchy sandwiches. It's just making it's way here.
Sidebar: how grossed out are you right now that I not only dip my grilled cheese in ketchup, but also in residual pickle juice?
It's fine. Go ahead. Judge me.
This is an example of how I make one grilled cheese be enough for my high maintenance appetite.
Stuff it full of things. All the things.
My parents have been legitimately obsessed with ordering fried zucchini since, like… the 90s. Maybe even earlier. No matter where we end up, it's always an appetizer. Sometimes it's completely delicious. Sometimes it's disgusting and tastes like every other thing that's been in the deep fryer since last Friday. It just depends. I'm over it.
The thing is that even though my family has funded zucchini farmers everywhere (that's not even a little bit true, I know), my earliest memories of "fried" zucchini came from my mom making it in the summer with the garden-fresh green stuff. She never truly deep fried things, but instead just added a few tablespoons of oil to her cast iron skillet (which is maybe 60 years old now?) and cooked it until crispy. It was incredible… because my mom? She is quite heavy handed on the parmesan.
Now you know where I get it.
I really wanted to call this fried zucchini grilled cheese but I thought you might throw something at me. Fried stuff inside a grilled cheese? Whaaaaaaaat. How are we even friends.
But but but – you can BAKE the crispy zucchini (on a wire rack, just like how I did the chicken yesterday) and use whole wheat bread and well, there you have it folks: HEALTH FOOD.
Whatever is easier – bake this or fry it in a little olive oil – just eat it. I'm still flipping out over all things aioli too, so… ugh.
What a freaking delicious nightmare.
Crispy Zucchini Grilled Cheese with Dijon Horseradish Aioli
- 4 slices whole grain bread
- 1 small zucchini, sliced into 1/4-inch rounds
- 1 large egg + 1 large egg white
- 3/4 cup panko bread crumbs
- 1/3 cup seasoned fine bread crumbs
- 1/4 cup flour
- 1/4 cup finely grated parmesan cheese
- 1/2 teaspoon salt
- 1/2 teaspoon pepper
- 1/2 teaspoon garlic powder
- 2 tablespoons olive oil
- 6 ounces freshly grated cheddar cheese
- softened butter for spreading
- 1 1/2 tablespoons dijon mustard
- 1 large egg yolk
- 2 teaspoons fresh lemon juice
- 1/2 cup olive oil
- 2 tablespoons whole grain mustard
- 1 1/2 tablespoons prepared horseradish
- a pinch of salt + pepper
- Prep the aioli first (recipe below).
- In a bowl, whisk together the egg and egg white. In another bowl, whisk together the panko, breadcrumbs, flour, parmesan, salt, pepper and garlic powder. Heat a large skillet over medium heat and add olive oil. Dip each zucchini slice in the egg mixture to coat, then dredge through the breadcrumbs, pressing gently to adhere. Place in the skillet and cook until golden – about 2 minutes per side. When finished, remove the slices with kitchen tongs and let drain on a paper towel.
- Spread one side of each bread slice with softened butter. Heat a skillet (I used the same one, just wiped out) over medium heat and place bread buttered-side down, then top with a spoonful of aioli, a handful of grated cheese, a few zucchini slices, more cheese, more aioli, and the second slice of bread, this time buttered-side up. Cook until cheese is melted and both sides are golden brown – at least 5 minutes per side. Lower the heat if the bread gets too brown. Serve immediately and dip any extra zucchini slices in the leftover aioli!
- Whisk together dijon mustard, egg yolk and lemon juice in a large bowl until combined. Slowly stream in olive oil while continuously whisking until the mixture emulsifies and comes together completely. Whisk in whole grain mustard and horseradish, then taste and season with a little salt and pepper as desired. Set aside.
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