text:
HISTORY of the CHRISTIAN CHURCH*
INNOCENT III. AND HIS AGE. a.d. 1198–1216.
§ 35. Literature.
Sources: Innocentii III. Opp. omnia, in Migne, 4 vols. 214–217; three vols. contain Innocent's official letters; a 4th, his sermons, the de contemptu mundi, and other works.—S. Baluzius: Epistolarum Inn. III. libri undecim, 2 vols. Paris, 1682.—Böhmer: Regesta imperii 1198–1254, new ed. by J. Ficker, Innsbruck, 1881.—Potthast: Regesta, pp. 1–467, 2041–2056—Gesta Innoc. III. auctore anonymo sed coaevo (a contemporary Life, about 1220), in Migne, 214, pp. xvii-ccxxviii, and Baluzius.—Mansi, XXII.—Mirbt: Quellen, 125–136, gives some of the characteristic passages. For the older edd. of Inn.'s letters and other works, see Potthast, Bibliotheca med. aevi, I. 520, 650.
Modern Works: Friedrich von Hurter (1787–1886): Geschichte Papst Innocenz des Dritten und seiner Zeitgenossen, 2 vols. Hamburg, 1833–1835; 3d ed. 4 vols. 1841–1844 (trans. into French and Italian). The last two volumes are devoted to the monastic orders and the Eccles. and social conditions of the thirteenth century. An exhaustive work full of enthusiastic admiration for Innocent and his age. Hurter wrote it while antistes or pastor of the Reformed Church in Schaffhausen, Switzerland, and was led by his studies to enter, with his family, the Roman Catholic communion in 1844 and became imperial counsellor and historiographer of Austria. Gfrörer, likewise a Protestant, dazzled by the splendor of the Gregorian papacy in the preparation of his Life of Gregory VII., was also led to join the Roman communion.—Jorry: Hist. du pape Inn. III.; Paris, 1853.—F. F. Reinlein: Papst Inn. III. und seine Schrift de contemptu mundi, Erlangen, 1871; also Inn. III nach s. Beziehung zur Unfehlbarkeitsfrage, Erlangen, 1872.—H. Elkan: Die Gesta Inn. III. im Verhältniss zu d. Regesten desselben Papstes, Heidelberg, 1876.—Fr. Deutsch: Papst Inn. III. und s. Einfluss auf d. Kirche, Bresl., 1876.—Leop. Delisle: Mémoire sur les actes d'Inn. III, suivi de l'itinéraire de ce pontife, Paris, 1877.—J. N. Brischar, Roman Catholic: Papst Inn. III. und s. Zeit, Freib. im Br. 1883.—J. Langen: Gesch. d. röm. Kirche von Gregor. VII. bis Inn. III., Bonn, 1893; also Hefele-Knöpfler, vol. V.—the Works on the Hohenstaufen and the Crusades.—Ranke: Weltgesch., VIII. 274 sqq.—the Histories of Rome by Reumont, Bryce, and Gregorovius,—Hauck: Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, IV. 658–745.—T. F. Tout: The Empire and the Papacy, 918–1272, N. Y. 1898.—H. Fisher: The Med. Empire, 2 vols. London, 1898.—For fuller lit., see Chevalier; Répertoire, pp. 1114 sq. and Suppl. 2659, and art. Inn. III., by Zöpffel-Mirbt, in Herzog, IX. 112–122.
§ 36. Innocent's Training and Election.
The brilliant pontificate of Innocent III., 1198–1216, lasted as long as the combined and uneventful reigns of his five predecessors: Lucius III., 1181–1185; Urban III., 1185–1187; Gregory VIII. less than two months, 1187; Clement III., 1187–1191; Coelestin III., 1191–1198. It marks the golden age of the mediaeval papacy and one of the most important eras in the history of the Catholic Church. No other mortal has before or since wielded such extensive power. As the spiritual sovereign of Latin Christendom, he had no rival. At the same time he was the acknowledged arbiter of the political destinies of Europe from Constantinople to Scotland. He successfully carried into execution the highest theory of the papal theocracy and anticipated the Vatican dogmas of papal absolutism and infallibility. To the papal title "vicar of Christ," Innocent added for the first time the title "vicar of God." He set aside the decisions of bishops and provincial councils, and lifted up and cast down kings. He summoned and guided one of the most important of the councils of the Western Church, the Fourth Lateran, 1215, whose acts established the Inquisition and fixed transubstantiation as a dogma. He set on foot the Fourth Crusade, and died making preparation for another. On the other hand he set Christian against Christian, and by undertaking to extirpate religious dissent by force drenched parts of Europe in Christian blood.
Lothario, Innocent's baptismal name, was born about 1160 at Anagni, a favorite summer resort of the popes. He was the son of Count Trasmondo of the house of the Conti de Segni, one of the ruling families of the Latium.173 It furnished nine popes, of whom Innocent XIII. was the last. He studied theology and canon law at Paris and Bologna, and became proficient in scholastic learning. Through the influence of three uncles, who were cardinals, he was rapidly promoted, and in 1190, at the age of twenty-nine, was appointed cardinal-deacon by one of them, Pope Clement III. Though the youngest member of the curia, he was at once assigned a place of responsibility.
During the pontificate of Coelestin III., a member of the house of the Orsini which was unfriendly to the Conti, Lothario withdrew into retirement and devoted himself to literature. The chief fruit of this seclusion is the work entitled The Contempt of the World or the Misery of the Mortal Estate.174 It might well have been followed, as the author says in the prologue, by a second treatise on the dignity of man's estate. To this time belongs also a work on the sacrifice of the mass.175 After his elevation to the papal throne, Innocent composed an Exposition of the Seven Penitential Psalms. While pope he preached often both in Rome and on his journeys. His sermons abound in mystical and allegorical figures. Of his letters more than five hundred are preserved.
The Contempt of the World is an ascetic plaint over the sinfulness and woes of this present life. It proceeds upon the basis of Augustine's theory of total depravity. The misery of man is described from the helplessness of infancy to the decrepitude of age and the sufferings of the future estate. Pessimistic passages are quoted from Jeremiah, Ecclesiastes, and Job, and also from Horace, Ovid, and Juvenal. Three master passions are constantly tormenting man,—avarice, lust, and ambition,—to which are added the innumerable ailments of the body and troubles of the soul. The author deplores the fate of masters and servants, of the married and the unmarried, of the good and the bad, the rich and the poor. "It is just and natural that the wicked should suffer; but are the righteous one whit better off? Here below is their prison, not their home or their final destiny. As soon as a man rises to a station of dignity, cares and trouble increase, fasting is abridged, night watches are prolonged, nature's constitution is undermined, sleep and appetite flee, the vigor of the body gives way to weakness, and a sorrowful end is the close of a sorrowful life."176 In the case of the impenitent, eternal damnation perpetuates the woes of time. With a description of these woes the work closes, reminding the reader of the solemn cadences of the Dies Irae of Thomas of Celano and Dante's Inferno.177
Called forth from retirement to the chief office in Christendom, Innocent had an opportunity to show his contempt of the world by ruling it with a strong and iron hand. The careers of the best of the popes of the Middle Ages, as well as of ecclesiastics like Bernard of Clairvaux and Thomas of Canterbury, reveal the intimate connection between the hierarchical and ascetic tendencies. Innocent likewise displayed these two tendencies. In his treatise on the mass he anticipated the haughty assumption of the papacy, based on the rock-foundation of Peter's primacy, which as pope he afterwards displayed.
On the very day of Coelestin's burial, the college of cardinals unanimously chose Lothario pope. Like Gregory I., Gregory VII., Alexander III., and other popes, he made a show of yielding reluctantly to the election. He was ordained priest, and the next day, February 22, was consecrated bishop and formally ascended the throne in St. Peter's.
The coronation ceremonies were on a splendid scale. But the size of Rome, whose population at this time may not have exceeded thirty-five thousand, must be taken into account when we compare them with the pageants of the ancient city.178 At the enthronization in St. Peter's, the tiara was used which Constantine is said to have presented to Sylvester, and the words were said, "Take the tiara and know that thou art the father of princes and kings, the ruler of the world, the vicar on earth of our Saviour Jesus Christ, whose honor and glory shall endure throughout all eternity." Then followed the procession through the city to the Lateran. The pope sat on a white palfrey and was accompanied by the prefect of the city, the senators and other municipal officials, the nobility, the cardinals, archbishops, and other church dignitaries, the lesser clergy and the popular throng—all amidst the ringing of bells, the chanting of psalms, and the acclamations of the people. Along the route a singular scene was presented at the Ghetto by a group of Jews, the rabbi at their head carrying a roll of the Pentateuch, who bowed low as they saluted their new ruler upon whose favor or frown depended their protection from the populace, yea, their very life. Arrived at the Lateran, the pope threw out handfuls of copper coins among the people with the words, "Silver and gold have I none, but such as I have give I thee." The silver key of the palace and the golden key of the basilica were then put into his hands, and the senate did him homage. A banquet followed, the pope sitting at a table alone.179 Upon such pomp and show of worldly power the Apostles, whose lot was poverty, would have looked with wonder, if they had been told that the central figure of it all was the chief personality in the Christian world.
When he ascended the fisherman's throne, Innocent was only thirty-seven years old, the youngest in the line of popes up to that time. Walter von der Vogelweide gave expression to the fear which his youth awakened when he wrote, O wê der bâbest ist ze june, hilf hêrre diner kristenheit. "Alas! the pope is so young. Help, Lord, thy Christian world." The new pontiff was well formed, medium in stature,180 temperate in his habits, clear in perception, resolute in will, and fearless in action. He was a born ruler of men, a keen judge of human nature, demanding unconditional submission to his will, yet considerate in the use of power after submission was once given,—an imperial personality towering high above the contemporary sovereigns in moral force and in magnificent aims of world-wide dominion.
§ 37. Innocent's Theory of the Papacy.
The pope with whom Innocent is naturally brought into comparison is Hildebrand. They were equally distinguished for moral force, intellectual energy, and proud assertion of prelatic prerogative. Innocent was Hildebrand's superior in learning, diplomatic tact, and success of administration, but in creative genius and heroic character he was below his predecessor. He stands related to his great predecessor as Augustus to Julius. He was heir to the astounding programme of Hildebrand's scheme and enjoyed the fruits of his struggles. Their personal fortunes were widely different. Gregory was driven from Rome and died in exile. To Innocent's good fortune there seemed to be no end, and he closed his pontificate in undisputed possession of authority.
Innocent no sooner ascended the papal chair than he began to give expression to his conception of the papal dignity. Throughout his pontificate he forcibly and clearly expounded it in a tone of mingled official pride and personal humility. At his coronation he preached on the faithful and wise servant. "Ye see," he said, "what manner of servant it is whom the Lord hath set over his people, no other than the viceregent of Christ, the successor of Peter. He stands in the midst between God and man; below God, above man; less than God, more than man. He judges all and is judged by none. But he, whom the pre-eminence of dignity exalts, is humbled by his vocation as a servant, that so humility may be exalted and pride be cast down; for God is against the high-minded, and to the lowly He shows mercy; and whoso exalteth himself shall be abased."
Indeed, the papal theocracy was Innocent's all-absorbing idea. He was fully convinced that it was established of God for the good of the Church and the salvation of the world. As God gave to Christ all power in heaven and on earth, so Christ delegated to Peter and his successors the same authority. Not man but God founded the Apostolic see.181 In his famous letter to the patriarch of Constantinople, Nov. 12, 1199,182 he gave an elaborate exposition of the commission to Peter. To him alone the command had been given, "Feed my sheep." On him alone it had been declared, "I will build my church." The pope is the vicar of Christ, yea of God himself.183 Not only is he intrusted with the dominion of the Church, but also with the rule of the whole world. Like Melchizedek, he is at once king and priest. All things in heaven and earth and in hell are subject to Christ. So are they also to his vicar. He can depose princes and absolve subjects from the oath of allegiance. He may enforce submission by placing whole nations under the interdict. Peter alone went to Jesus on the water and by so doing he gave illustration of the unique privilege of the papacy to govern the whole earth. For the other disciples stayed in the ship and so to them was given rule only over single provinces. And as the waters were many on which Peter walked, so over the many congregations and nations, which the waters represent, was Peter given authority—yea over all nations whatsoever (universos populos).184 In this letter he also clearly teaches papal infallibility and declares that Peter's successor can never in any way depart from the Catholic faith.
Gregory VII.'s illustration, likening the priestly estate (sacerdotium) to the sun, and the civil estate (regnum or imperium) to the moon, Innocent amplified and emphasized. Two great lights, Innocent said, were placed by God in the firmament of heaven, and to these correspond the "pontifical authority and the regal authority," the one to rule over souls as the sun rules over the day, the other to rule over the bodies of men as the moon rules over the night. And as the moon gets its light from the sun, and as it is also less than the sun both in quality and in size, and in the effect produced, so the regal power gets its dignity and splendor from the pontifical authority which has in it more inherent virtue.185 The priest anoints the king, not the king the priest, and superior is he that anoints to the anointed.186 Princes have authority in separate lands; the pontiff over all lands. The priesthood came by divine creation; the kingly power by man's manipulation and violence.187 "As in the ark of God," so he wrote to John of England, "the rod and the manna lay beside the tables of the law, so at the side of the knowledge of the law, in the breast of the pope, are lodged the terrible power of destruction and the genial mildness of grace." Innocent reminded John that if he did not lift his foot from off the Church, nothing would check his punishment and fall.188 Monarchs throughout Europe listened to Innocent's exposition and obeyed. His correspondence abounds with letters to the emperor, the kings of Hungary, Bohemia, Sicily, France, England, the Danes, Aragon, and to other princes, teaching them their duty and demanding their submission.
Under Innocent's rule, the subjection of the entire Christian world to the Roman pontiff seemed to be near realization. But the measures of force which were employed in the Latin conquest of Constantinople, 1204, had the opposite effect from what was intended. The overthrow of the Byzantine empire and the establishment of a Latin empire in its stead and the creation of a new hierarchy of Constantinople only completed the final alienation of the Greek and Latin churches. To Innocent III. may not be denied deep concern in the extension of Christendom. But the rigorous system of the Inquisition which he set on foot begat bitterness and war of churchman against Christian dissenter and of Christian against Mohammedan. More blood was shed at the hand of the Church during the pontificate of Innocent, and under his immediate successors carrying out his policy, than in any other age except during the papal counter-Reformation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The audacious papal claim to imperialism corrected itself by the policy employed by Innocent and his successors to establish the claim over the souls and bodies of men and the governments of the earth.189
§ 38. Innocent and the German Empire.
Additional Literature.—Ed. Winkelmann: Philip von Schwaben und Otto IV. von Braunschweig, 2 vols. Leipzig, 1873–1878.—R. Schwemer: Innocent III. und d. deutsche Kirche während des Thronstreites von 1198–1208, Strassburg, 1882.
The political condition of Europe was favorable to Innocent's assertion of power. With the sudden death of Henry VI., Sept. 28, 1197, at the early age of thirty-two, the German empire was left without a ruler. Frederick, the Emperor's only son, was a helpless child. Throughout Italy a reaction set in against Henry's hard and oppressive rule. The spirit of national freedom was showing itself, and a general effort was begun to expel the German princes and counts from Italian soil.
Innocent III. has been called by Ranke Henry's real successor.190 Taking advantage of the rising feeling of Italian nationality, the pope made it his policy to separate middle and lower Italy from the empire, and, in fact, he became the deliverer of the peninsula from foreign agents and mercenaries. He began his reign by abolishing the last vestiges of the authority of the empire in the city of Rome. The city prefect, who had represented the emperor, took the oath of allegiance to the pope, and Innocent invested him with a mantle and silver cup. The senator likewise acknowledged Innocent's authority and swore to protect the Roman see and the regalia of St. Peter.
The pope quickly pushed his authority beyond the walls of Rome. Spoleto, which for six centuries had been ruled by a line of German dukes, Assisi, Perugia, and other cities, submitted. Mark of Anweiler, the fierce soldier of Henry VI., could not withstand the fortunate diplomacy and arms of Innocent, and the Romagna, with Ravenna as its centre, yielded. A Tuscan league was formed which was favorably disposed to the papal authority. Florence, Siena, Pisa, and other cities, while refusing to renounce their civic freedom, granted privileges to the pope. Everywhere Innocent had his legates. Such full exercise of papal power over the State of the Church had not before been known.
To confirm her son Frederick's title to the crown of Sicily, his mother delivered the kingdom over to the pope as a papal fief. She survived her imperial consort only a year, and left a will appointing Innocent the guardian of her child. The intellectual training and political destinies of the heir of the Hohenstaufen were thus intrusted to the hereditary foe of that august house. Innocent was left a free hand to prosecute his trust as he chose.191
In Germany, Innocent became the umpire of the imperial election. The electors were divided between two aspirants to the throne, Philip of Swabia, the brother of Henry VI., who was crowned at Mainz, and Otto, the son of Henry the Lion, who was crowned at Aachen by Adolf, archbishop of Cologne. Otto was the nephew of Richard Coeur de Lion and John of England, who supported his claims with their gold and diplomacy. Both parties made their appeal to Rome, and it is not a matter of surprise that Innocent's sympathies were with the Guelf, Otto, rather than with the Hohenstaufen. Moreover, Philip had given offence by occupying, as duke of Tuscany, the estates of Matilda.
Innocent made the high claim that the German throne depended for its occupant "from the beginning and ultimately" upon the decision of the papal see. Had not the Church transferred the empire from the East to the West? And had not the Church itself conferred the imperial crown,192 passing by the claims of Frederick and pronouncing Philip "unworthy of empire?" Innocent decided in 1201 in favor of Otto, "his dearest son in Christ who was himself devoted to the Church and on both sides was descended from devout stock." The decision inured to Rome's advantage. By the stipulation of Neuss, subsequently repeated at Spires, 1209, Otto promised obedience to the pope and renounced all claim to dominion in the State of the Church and also to Naples and Sicily. This written document was a dangerous ratification of the real or pretended territorial rights and privileges of the papacy from Constantine and Pepin down.
Civil war broke out, and when the tide of success turned in Philip's favor, the pope released him from the sentence of excommunication and was about to acknowledge him as emperor193 when the murderous sword of Otto of Wittelsbach, in 1208, brought Philip's career to a tragic end. The year following Otto was crowned in St. Peter's, but he forgot his promises and proceeded to act out the independent policy of the rival house of the Hohenstaufen.194 He laid heavy hand upon Central Italy, distributing rich estates and provinces among his vassals and sequestrating the revenues of the clergy. He then marched to Southern Italy, the territory of Frederick, and received the surrender of Naples.
All that Innocent had gained seemed in danger of being lost. Prompt measures showed him equal to the emergency. He wrote that the stone he had erected to be the head of the corner had become a rock of offence. Like Rachel he mourned over his son whom he lamented to have made king. Otto was excommunicated and a meeting of magnates at Nürnberg, 1211, declared him deposed, and, pronouncing in favor of Frederick, sent envoys to Palermo to convey to him the intelligence. Otto crossed the Alps to reclaim his power, but it was too late. Frederick started north, stopping at Rome, where Innocent saw him for the first and last time, April, 1212. He was elected and crowned king at Frankfurt, December, 1212, and was recognized by nearly all the princes at Eger the year following. Before setting out from Italy he had again recognized Sicily as a fief of Rome. At Eger he disavowed all imperial right to the State of the Church.195
Otto joined in league with John of England and the Flemish princes against Philip Augustus of France; but his hopes were dashed to the ground on the battlefield of Bouvines, Belgium, 1415. His authority was thenceforth confined to his ancestral estate. He died 1218. Innocent had gained the day. His successors were to be defied by the young king, Frederick, for nearly half a century.
With equal spirit and decision, Innocent mingled in the affairs of the other states of Europe. In France, the controversy was over the sanctity of the marriage vow. Philip Augustus put away his second wife,196 a Danish princess, a few months after their marriage, and took the fair Agnes of Meran in her stead. The French bishops, on the plea of remote consanguinity, justified the divorce. But Innocent, listening to the appeals of Ingeborg, and placing France under the interdict, forced the king to take her back.197
The Christian states of the Spanish peninsula felt the pontiff's strong hand. The kingdom of Leon was kept under the interdict five years till Alfonso IX. consented to dismiss his wife on account of blood relationship. Pedro, king of Aragon, a model of Spanish chivalry, received his crown at Rome in 1204 and made his realm a fief of the Apostolic see. Sancho, king of the newly risen kingdom of Portugal, was defeated in his effort to break away from the pope's suzerainty.
In the North, Sweden accepted Innocent's decision in favor of the house of Schwerker, and the Danish king, who was attempting to reduce the tribes along the Baltic to Christianity, was protected by the pope's threat of interdict upon all molesting his realm. The king of England was humbled to the dust by Innocent's word. To the king of Scotland a legate was sent and a valuable sword. Even Iceland is said to have been the subject of Innocent's thought and action.
In the Southeast, Johannitius of Bulgaria received from Innocent his crown after bowing before his rebuke for having ventured to accept it from Philip of Swabia. Ottoker, prince of Bohemia, was anointed by the papal legate, and Emmeric of Hungary made a vow to lead a crusade, which his brother Andrew executed. Thus all the states of Europe west of Russia were made to feel the supremacy of the papal power. The conquest of Constantinople and the Holy Land, as we shall see, occupied an equal share of attention from this tireless and masterful ruler, and the establishment of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, 1205, was regarded as a signal triumph for the papal policy.
§ 39. Innocent and King John of England.
"This royal throne of kings, this sceptr'd isle,
This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars,
This other Eden, demi-paradise;
This fortress, built by nature for herself,
Against infection, and the hand of war;
This happy breed of men, this little world,
This precious stone set in the silver sea,
Which serves it in the office of a wall,
Or as a moat defensive to a house,
Against the envy of less happier lands;
This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England,
This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings,
Fear'd by their breed, and famous by their birth."
—Shakespeare, Richard II., Act II. Sc. 1.
Additional Literature.—The Chronicle of Roger of Wendover (the first of the St. Alban annalists) and the revision and continuation of the same by Matthew Paris (a monk of St. Alban's, the last and greatest of the monastic historians of England), ed. by H. R. Luard in Rolls Series, 7 vols. London, 1872–1883, vol. II. Engl. vol. II. trans. of Wendover by J. A. Giles, Bohn's Lib. 2 vols. London, 1849; of M. Paris by Giles, 3 vols. London, 1852–1854.—Memorials of Walter of Coventry, ed. by Stubbs, 2 vols. 1872 sq.—Radulph of Coggeshall: Chronicon Anglicanum, ed. by J. Stevenson, 1875. The Annals of Waverley, Dunstable, and Burton, all in the Rolls Series.—W. Stubbs: The Constitutional Hist. of England, 6th ed. 3 vols. Oxford, 1897, and Select Charters, etc., 8th ed. Oxford, 1900, pp. 270–306.—Gee and Hardy: Documents, London, 1896.—R. Gneist: Hist. of the Engl. Court, Engl. trans. 2 vols. London, 1886, vol. I. 294–332.—E. Gütschow: Innocent III. und England, Munich, 1904, pp. 198.—The Histories of Lingard (R. C.), Green, Milman, Freeman (Norman Conquest, vol. V.).—For Stephen Langton, Dean Hook: Lives of the Abp. of Canterbury, and art. Langton, in Dict. of Natl. Biog.—Also W. Hunt, art. John, in Dict. of Natl. Biog. XXIX. 402–417.—Sir James H. Ramsey: The Angevin Empire, 1154–1216, London, 1903. He calls John a brutal tyrant, hopelessly depraved, without ability in war or politics.
Under Innocent, England comes, if possible, into greater prominence in the history of the papacy than during the controversy in the reign of Alexander III., a generation before. Then the English actors were Henry II. and Thomas à Becket. Now they are Henry's son John and Becket's successor Stephen Langton. The pope was victorious, inflicting the deepest humiliation upon the English king; but he afterwards lost the advantage he had gained by supporting John against his barons and denouncing the Magna Charta of English popular rights. The controversy forms one of the most interesting episodes of English history.
John, surnamed Sansterre or Lackland, 1167–1216, succeeded his brother Richard I. on the throne, 1199. A man of decided ability and rapid in action but of ignoble spirit, low morals, and despotic temper, he brought upon his realm such disgrace as England before or since has not suffered. His reign was a succession of wrongs and insults to the English people and the English church.
John had joined Richard in a revolt against their father, sought to displace his brother on the throne during his captivity after the Third Crusade, and was generally believed by contemporaries to have put to death his brother Geoffrey's son, Arthur of Brittany, who would have been Richard's successor if the law of primogeniture had been followed. He lost Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Aquitaine to the English. Perjury was no barrier to the accomplishment of his plans. He set aside one wife and was faithless to another. No woman was too well born to be safe against his advances. He plundered churches and convents to pay his debts and satisfy his avarice, and yet he never undertook a journey without hanging charms around his neck.198
Innocent came into collision with John over the selection of a successor to Archbishop Hubert of Canterbury, who died 1205.199 The monks of Canterbury, exercising an ancient privilege, chose Reginald one of their number. With the king's support, a minority proceeded to another election and chose the king's nominee, John de Grey, bishop of Norwich. John was recognized by the suffragan-bishops and put into possession by the king.
An appeal was made by both parties to Rome, Reginald appearing there in person. After a delay of a year, Innocent set aside both elections and ordered the Canterbury monks, present in Rome, to proceed to the choice of another candidate. The choice fell upon Stephen Langton, cardinal of Chrysogonus. Born on English soil, Stephen was a man of indisputable learning and moral worth. He had studied in Paris and won by his merits prebends in the cathedral churches of Paris and York. The metropolitan dignity could have been intrusted to no shoulders more worthy of wearing it.200 While he has no title to saintship like à Becket, or to theological genius like Anselm, Langton will always occupy a place among the foremost of England's primates as a faithful administrator and the advocate of English popular liberties.
The new archbishop received consecration at the pope's own hand, June 17, 1207, and held his office till his death, 1228.201 The English king met the notification with fierce resistance, confiscated the property of the Canterbury chapter, and expelled the monks as guilty of treason. Innocent replied with the threat of the interdict. The king swore by God's teeth202 to follow the censure, if pronounced, with the mutilation of every Italian in the realm appointed by Innocent, and the expulsion of all the prelates and clergy. The sentence was published by the bishops of London, Ely, and Worcester, March 22, 1208.203 They then fled the kingdom.
The interdict at once took effect, casting a deep gloom over the nation. The church bells remained unrung. The church buildings were closed. The usual ministrations of the priesthood remained unperformed. The great doors of the monasteries were left unopened, and worshippers were only admitted by secret passages. Penance was inflicted upon the innocent as well as the erring. Women, after childbirth, presented themselves for purification outside the church walls. The dead were refused burial in consecrated ground, and the service of the priest was withheld.
John, although he had seen Philip Augustus bend under a similar censure, affected unconcern, and retaliated by confiscating the property of the higher clergy and convents and turning the inmates out of doors with little more than the clothes on their backs. The concubines of the priests were forcibly removed and purchased their ransom at heavy expense. A Welshman accused of murdering a priest was ordered by the king dismissed with the words, "Let him go, he has killed my enemy." The relatives of the fugitive bishops were thrown into prison.
In 1209 Innocent added to the interdict the solemn sentence of the personal anathema against the king.204 The bishops who remained in England did not dare publish it, "becoming like dumb dogs not daring to bark."205 John persisted in his defiant mood, continued to eke out his vengeance upon the innocent, and sought to divert the attention of his subjects by negotiations and wars with Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. Geoffrey, archdeacon of Norwich, who had been in his service and now felt he could no longer so remain, was thrown into prison and there allowed to languish to death, covered from shoulders to feet with a cope of lead.206
One more weapon lay in the pope's power. In 1212 John was declared unworthy of his throne, and deposed. His subjects were absolved from the obligation of allegiance, and Christian princes were summoned to execute the sentence and take the crown. Gregory VII. had resorted to the same precarious measure with Henry IV. and been defeated. The bull was published at Soissons by Langton and the exiled bishops. Philip of France was quick to respond to the summons and collected an army. But the success of the English fleet checked the fear of an immediate invasion of the realm.
The nation's suspense, however, was taxed almost beyond the point of endurance. The king's arbitrary taxes and his amours with the wives and daughters of the barons aroused their determined hatred. Pressed from different sides, John suddenly had a meeting at Dover with the pope's special envoy, the subdeacon Pandulf.207 The hermit, Peter of Wakefield, had predicted that within three days of Ascension Day the king would cease to reign. Perhaps not without dread of the prediction, and not without irony to checkmate the plans of the French monarch, John gave in his submission, and on May 15, 1213, on bended knee, delivered up to Pandulf his kingdom and consented to receive it back again as a papal fief. Five months later the act was renewed in the presence of Nicolas, cardinal-archbishop of Tusculum, who had been sent to England with legatine authority. In the document which John signed and swore to keep, he blasphemously represented himself as imitating him "who humbled himself for us even unto death." This notorious paper ran as follows: —
"We do freely offer and grant to God and the holy Apostles Peter and Paul and the holy Roman Church, our mother, and to our Lord the pope Innocent and his Catholic successors, the whole realm of England and the whole realm of Ireland with all their rights and appurtenances for the remission of our sins and those of all our race, as well quick as dead; and from now receiving back and holding these, as a feudal dependent, from God and the Roman Church, do and swear fealty for them to our Lord the pope Innocent and his Catholic successors and the Roman Church."208
John bound himself and England for all time to pay, in addition to the usual Peter's pence, 1000 marks annually to the Apostolic see, 700 for England and 300 for Ireland. The king's signature was witnessed by the archbishop of Dublin, the bishop of Norwich, and eleven noblemen. John also promised to reimburse the outlawed bishops, the amount finally settled upon being 40,000 marks.
Rightly does Matthew Paris call this the "detestable and lamentable charter."209 But although national abasement could scarcely further go, it is probable that the sense of shame with which after generations have regarded John's act was only imperfectly felt by that generation of Englishmen.210 As a political measure it succeeded, bringing as it did keen disappointment to the warlike king of France. The interdict was revoked in 1214, after having been in force more than six years.
The victory of Innocent was complete. But in after years the remembrance of the dishonorable transaction encouraged steadfast resistance to the papal rule in England. The voice of Robert Grosseteste was lifted up against it, and Wyclif became champion of the king who refused to be bound by John's pledge. Writing to one of John's successors, the emperor Frederick II. called upon him to remember the humiliation of his predecessor John and with other Christian princes resist the intolerable encroachments of the Apostolic see.
§ 40. Innocent and Magna Charta.
An original manuscript of the Magna Charta, shrivelled with age and fire, but still showing the royal seal, is preserved in the British Museum. A facsimile is given in the official edition of the Statutes of the Realm. Stubbs gives the Latin text in Select Charters, etc., 296–306.
In his treatment of the Great Charter, the venerable instrument of English popular rights, Innocent, with monarchical instinct, turned to the side of John and against the cause of popular liberty. Stephen Langton, who had released John from the ban of excommunication, espoused the popular cause, thereby incurring the condemnation of the pope. The agreement into which the barons entered to resist the king's despotism was treated by him with delay and subterfuge. Rebellion and civil war followed. As he had before been unscrupulous in his treatment of the Church, so now to win support he made fulsome religious promises he probably had no intention of keeping. To the clergy he granted freedom of election in the case of all prelates, greater and less. He also made a vow to lead a crusade. After the battle of Bouvines, John found himself forced to return to England, and was compelled by the organized strength of the barons to meet them at Runnymede, an island in the Thames near Windsor, where he signed and swore to keep the Magna Charta, June 15, 1215.
This document, with the Declaration of Independence, the most important contract in the civil history of the English-speaking peoples, meant defined law as against uncertain tradition and the arbitrary will of the monarch. It was the first act of the people, nobles, and Church in combination, a compact of Englishmen with the king. By it the sovereign agreed that justice should be denied or delayed to no one, and that trial should be by the peers of the accused. No taxes were to be levied without the vote of the common council of the realm, whose meetings were fixed by rule. The single clause bearing directly upon the Church confirmed the freedom of ecclesiastical elections.
After his first paroxysms of rage, when he gnawed sticks and straw like a madman,211 John called to his aid Innocent, on the ground that he had attached his seal under compulsion. In fact, he had yielded to the barons with no intention of keeping his oath. The pope made the fatal mistake of taking sides with perjured royalty against the reasonable demands of the nation. In two bulls212 he solemnly released John from his oath, declaring that "the enemy of the human race had, by his crafty arts, excited the barons against him." He asserted that the "wicked audacity of the barons tended to the contempt of the Apostolic see, the detriment of kingly prerogative, the disgrace of the English nation, and the endangering of the cross." He praised John for his Christian submission to the will of the supreme head of Christendom, and the pledge of annual tribute, and for his vow to lead a crusade. As for the document itself, he "utterly reprobated and condemned it" as "a low and base instrument, yea, truly wicked and deserving to be reprobated by all, especially because the king's assent was secured by force."213 Upon pain of excommunication he forbade its observance by the king, and pronounced it, null and void for all time."214
The sentence of excommunication which Innocent fulminated against the refractory barons, Langton refused to publish. For his disobedience the pope suspended him from his office, Nov. 4, 1215, and he was not allowed to resume it till 1219, when Innocent had been in his grave three years. London, which supported the popular cause, was placed under the interdict, and the prelates of England who took the popular side Innocent denounced, as worse than Saracens, worse than those open enemies of the cross."215
The barons, in self-defence, called upon the Dauphin of France to accept the crown. He landed in England, but was met by the papal ban.216 During the struggle Innocent died, but his policy was continued by his successor. Three months later, Oct. 19, 1216, John died at Newark, after suffering the loss of his goods in crossing the Wash. He was thrown into a fever, but the probable cause of his death was excess in eating and drinking.217 He was buried at his own request in Worcester cathedral. In his last moments he received the sacrament and commended his children to the protection of the pope, who had stood by him in his last conflict.
§ 41. The Fourth Lateran Council, 1215.
Literature.—Works of Innocent, Migne, 217.—Mansi, xxii.—Labbaeus, xi.—Potthast, Regesta, I. 437 sqq., gives a summary of the canons of the council.—Hefele-Knöpfler, V. 872 sqq.—Hurter, II. 538 sqq.—Lea: Hist. of the Inquisition, passim.
The Fourth Lateran, otherwise known as the Twelfth Oecumenical Council, was the closing act of Innocent's pontificate, and marks the zenith of the papal theocracy. In his letter of convocation,218 the pope announced its object to be the reconquest of Palestine and the betterment of the Church. The council was held in the Lateran and had three sittings, Nov. 11, 20, 30, 1215. It was the most largely attended of the synods held up to that time in the west. The attendance included 412 bishops, 800 abbots and priors, and a large number of delegates representing absent prelates. There were also present representatives of the emperor Frederick II., the emperor Henry of Constantinople, and the kings of England, France, Aragon, Hungary, Jerusalem, and other crowned heads.219
The sessions were opened with a sermon by the pope on Luke 22:15, "With desire have I desired to eat this passover with you before I suffer." It was a fanciful interpretation of the word "Passover," to which a threefold sense was given: a physical sense referring to the passage of Jerusalem from a state of captivity to a state of liberty, a spiritual sense referring to the passage of the Church from one state to a better one, and a heavenly sense referring to the transition from the present life to the eternal glory. The deliverances are grouped under seventy beads, and a special decree bearing upon the recovery of Jerusalem. The headings concern matters of doctrine and ecclesiastical and moral practice. The council's two most notable acts were the definition of the dogma of transubstantiation and the establishment of the institution of the Inquisition against heretics.
The doctrinal decisions, contained in the first two chapters, give a comprehensive statement of the orthodox faith as it concerns the nature of God, the Incarnation, the unity of the Church, and the two greater sacraments. Here transubstantiation is defined as the doctrine of the eucharist in the universal Church, "outside of which there is no possibility of salvation."220
The council expressly condemned the doctrine of Joachim of Flore, that the substance of the Father, Son, and Spirit is not a real entity, but a collective entity in the sense that a collection of men is called one people, and a collection of believers one Church. It approved the view of Peter the Lombard whom Joachim had opposed on the ground that his definition would substitute a quaternity for the trinity in the Godhead.221
Amaury of Bena, a teacher in Paris accused of pantheistic teachings, was also condemned by name. He had been accused and appeared before the pope at Rome in 1204, and recalled his alleged heresy.222 He or his scholars taught that every one in whom the Spirit of God is, becomes united with the body of Christ and cannot sin.
The treatment of heretics received elaborate consideration in the important third decree.223 The ecclesiastical and moral regulations were the subject of sixty-seven decrees. The rank of the patriarchal sees is fixed, Rome having the first place.224 It was an opportune moment for an array of these dignitaries, as Innocent had established a Latin succession in the Eastern patriarchates which had not already been filled by his predecessors. To avoid the confusion arising from the diversity of monastic rules, the establishment of monastic orders was thenceforth forbidden.225
The clergy are warned against intemperance and incontinence and forbidden the chase, hunting dogs and falcons, attendance upon theatrical entertainments, and executions, duelling, and frequenting inns. Prescriptions are given for their dress. Confession is made compulsory at least once a year, and imprisonment fixed as the punishment of priests revealing the secrets of the confessional. The tenure of more than one benefice is forbidden except by the pope's dispensation. New relics are forbidden as objects of worship, except as they might receive the approbation of the pope. Physicians are bidden, upon threat of excommunication, to urge their patients first of all to summon a priest, as the well-being of the soul is of more value than the health of the body. Jews and Saracens are enjoined to wear a different dress from the Christians, lest unawares carnal intercourse be had between them. The Jews are bidden to keep within doors during passion week and excluded from holding civil office.226
The appointment of a new crusade was the council's last act, and it was set to start in 1217. Christians were commanded to refrain from all commercial dealings with the Saracens for four years. To all contributing to the crusade, as well as to those participating in it, full indulgence was promised, and added eternal bliss.227 Another important matter which was settled, as it were in a committee room of the council, was the appeal of Raymund VI., count of Toulouse, for redress from the rapacity of Simon de Montfort, the fierce leader of the crusade against the Albigenses in Southern France.
The doctrinal statements and ecclesiastical rules bear witness to the new conditions upon which the Church had entered, the Latin patriarchs being in possession in the East, and heresy threatening its unity in Southern France and other parts of the West.
Innocent III. survived the great council only a few months and died scarcely fifty-six years old, without having outlived his authority or his fame. He had been fortunate in all his undertakings. The acts of statecraft, which brought Europe to his feet, were crowned in the last scene at the Lateran Council by the pious concern of the priest. To his successors he bequeathed a continent united in allegiance to the Holy See and a Church strengthened in its doctrinal unity. Notwithstanding his great achievements combining mental force and moral purpose, the Church has found no place for Innocent among its canonized saints.
The following are a few testimonies to his greatness:—
Gregorovius declares228 that, although he was
"Not a creative genius like Gregory I. and Gregory VII., he was one of the most important figures of the Middle Ages, a man of earnest, sterling, austere intellect, a consummate ruler, a statesman of penetrating judgment, a high-minded priest filled with religious fervor, and at the same time with an unbounded ambition and appalling force of will, a true idealist on the papal throne, yet an entirely practical monarch and a cool-headed lawyer .... No pope has ever had so lofty and yet so real consciousness of his power as Innocent III., the creator and destroyer of emperors and kings."
Ranke says:229 —
"A superstitious reverence such as Friedrich Hurter renders to him in his remarkable book I am not at all able to accord. Thus much, however, is certain. He stands in the foremost rank of popes, having world-wide significance. The task which he placed before himself he was thoroughly equal to. Leaving out a few dialectic subtleties, one will not find in him anything that is really small. In him was fulfilled the transition of the times."
Baur gives this opinion:230 —
"With Innocent III. the papacy reached its height and in no other period of its long history did it enjoy such an undisturbed peace and such a glorious development of its power and splendor. He was distinguished as no other in this high place not only by all the qualities of the ruler but by personal virtues, by high birth and also by mind, culture, and learning."231
Hagenbach:232 —
"Measured by the standard of the papacy, Innocent is beyond controversy the greatest of all the popes. Measured by the eternal law of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, that which here seems great and mighty in the eyes of the world, seems little in the kingdom of heaven, and amongst those things which call forth wonder and admiration, only that will stand which the Spirit of God, who never wholly withdraws from the Church, wrought in his soul. How far such operation went on, and with what result, who but God can know? He alone is judge."
* Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, (Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc.) 1997. The material has been carefully compared and corrected according to the Eerdmans reproduction of the 1907 edition by Charles Scribner's sons, with emendations by The Electronic Bible Society, Dallas, TX, 1998.
173 Like Hildebrand, Innocent may have combined Germanic with Italian blood. Upon the basis of such family names among the Conti as Lothaire and Richard, Gregorovius finds evidence of Lombard origin.
174 The de contemptu mundi sive de miseria conditionis humanae was first printed at Ulm, 1448, then at Lyons, 1473, Nürnberg, 1477, etc. See Migne's ed. 217, 701-746.
175 Mysterium evangelicae legis et sacramentum eucharistiae or de missarum mysteriis.
177 The Dies Irae has been ascribed to Innocent. Here are the concluding words of this famous treatise. "Ibi erit fletus et stridor dentium (Matthew xiii.),gemitus et ululatus, luctus et cruciatus, stridor et clamor, timor et tremor, dolor et labor, ardor et faetor, obscuritas et anxietas, acerbitas et asperitas, calamitas et egestas, angustia et tristitia, oblivio et confusio, torsiones et punctiones, amaritudines et terrores, fames et sitis, frigus et cauma, sulphur et ignis ardens in saecula saeculorum. Unde liberet nos Deus, qui est benedictus in saecula saeculorum. Amen." III. 17; Migne, 217, 746.
178 See Gregorovius, V. 7.
179 Elaborate descriptions of the ceremonies are given by Hurter, I. 92 sqq.,and Gregorovius, V. 7-15.
180 Statura mediocris, etc. See Gesta, Migne, 214, XVII. The portrait prefixed in Hurter has no historic value. For Innocent's personal habits and methods of conducting business, see Hurter, II 743 sqq.
181 Apostolicae sedis primatus quem non homo sed Deus, imo verius Deus homo constituit.
182 Reg. II. 209; Migne, 214, 758-765.
183 Cum non humana sed divina fiat auctoritate quod in hac parte per summum pontificem adimpletur, qui non hominis puri sed veri Dei vere vicarius appellatur. I. 326; Migne, 214, 292.
184 Nam cum aquae multae sint, populi multi, congregationesque aquarum sunt maria, per hoc quod Petrus super aquas maris incessit, super universos populos se potestatem accepisse monstravit. II. 209; Migne, 214, 760; Potthast, 82. In this letter Innocent quotes no less than twenty-five passages of Scripture.
185 Sicut luna lumen suum a sole sortitur, quae re vera minor est isto quantitate simul et qualitate, situ pariter et effectu, sic regalis potestas ab auctoritate pontificali suae sortitur dignitatis splendorem, etc. See Mirbt, Quellen, 130.
186 Minor est qui unguitur quam qui ungit, et dignior est unguens quam unctus. Migne, 216, 1012, 1179; Potthast, 98.
187 Sacerdotium per ordinationem divinam, regnum autem per extorsionem humanam. He also speaks of the unity of the Church as the product of grace and the divisions of the empire as the product of or judgment of sin. Ecclesia per Dei gratiam in unitate consistit, et imperium peccatis exigentibus est divisum. Migne, 216, 1179; Potthast, 98.
188 Migne, 217, 922. Gregorovius pronounces this "probably the most imperious document of the papal power." V. 104.
189 Hauck, IV. 743, acknowledging the genius of Innocent, expresses the somewhat disparaging judgment that "he was more of a rhetorician than a theologian, and more of a jurist and administrator than a statesman." Many Protestant writers of Germany show their national feeling by a disposition to disparage Gregory VII. and Innocent III.
190 Weltgeschichte, VIII. 274. Matthews, 105 sq. gives Henry VI.'s Testament.
191 One of Frederick's first acts was to release a portion of his patrimony to the pope's brother, Count Richard. At a later period, under Honorius, Frederick recalled his gift.
192 Imperium principaliter et finaliter dignoscitur pertinere, principaliter quia ipsa transtulit imperium ab Oriente ad Occidentem; finaliter quia ipsa concedit coronam imperii. Migne, 216, 1182; Potthast, 98; also Migne, 216, 1048; Potthast, 119.
193 The very archbishop of Cologne who had crowned Otto now put the crown on Philip's head.
194 Otto had sought to join the fortunes of the two houses by marrying Philip's daughter, Beatrice, who died soon after the nuptials.
195 This was the so-called Golden Bull of Eger, July 12, 1213. Frederick calls himself in it, "King of the Romans and of Sicily." He promised to defend Sicily for the Roman Church as a "devoted son and Catholic prince,"devotus filius et Catholicus princeps. Mirbt, Quellen, 131 sqq.; Matthews, 115 sqq.
196 Migne, 215, 1493, etc.
197 The pope legitimatized the children of Agnes, who died in 1201.
198 The contemporary annalists know no words too black to describe John's character. Lingard says, "John stands before us polluted with meanness, cruelty, perjury, murder, and unbridled licentiousness." Green, after quoting the words "foul as hell is, hell itself is defiled with the foul presence of John," says, "In his inner soul John was the worst outcome of the Angevins ... . But with the wickedness of his race he inherited its profound abilities." III. chap. I. Hunt, in Dict. of Nat'l. Biog., XXIX. 406, uses these words, "He was mean, false, vindictive, abominably cruel, and scandalously immoral."
199 He had before come into collision with John over the harsh treatment of the archbishop of Dublin. Works of Innocent III., Reg., VI. 63; Migne, 215, 61; Potthast, 167.
200 His scholarly tastes are attested by his sermons, poems, and comments on books of the Bible which still exist in manuscript in the libraries of Oxford, Cambridge, Lambeth, and of France. He is falsely credited by some with having been the first to divide the entire Bible into chapters. See Hook, Archbishops of Canterbury, II. 678.
201 Innocent, in his letter to John of May 26, 1207, declared he would turn neither to the right nor to the left in confirming the election. Potthast, 264.
202 This and the expression "by God's feet" were John's favorite forms of objurgation.
203 See Migne, 217, 190; Potthast, 286.
204 Potthast, 316.
205 A favorite expression of Matthew Paris.
206 Another example of John's unspeakable cruelty was his treatment of a rich Jew of Bristol upon whom he had made a demand for 10,000 marks. On his refusing, John ordered ten teeth to be taken out, one each day. The executioner dentist began with the molars. The sufferer held out till he had been served this way seven times. He then yielded, giving up the money, which, as Matthew Paris says, he might have done seven days before, thus saving himself all his agony. Luard's ed., II. 528.
207 Shakespeare is responsible for the popular mistake which makes Pandulf a cardinal. King John, Act III. Sc. 1. He served as legate in England, 1217-1221. The official documents call him "subdeacon and familiar to our lord the pope Innocent."
208 Potthast, 416. The Latin in Matthew Paris, Luard's ed. II. 541-546; a translation is given by Gee and Hardy, 75-79.
209 IV. 479, carta detestabilis quam lacrimabilis memoriae Johannes infeliciter confecit
210 Henry II. had become the feudatory of Alexander III., and Richard I., after resigning his crown to the emperor, had held it for the payment of a yearly rent. Lingard offers extenuating considerations for John's surrender, which, however, he denominates "certainly a disgraceful act."
211 M. Paris, Luard's ed. II. 611.
212 Aug. 24, 1215, Potthast, 435.
213 Compositionen hujusmodi reprobamus penitus et damnamus compositio non solum sit vilis et turpis, verum etiam illicita et iniqua ut merito sit abomnibus reprobanda. M. Paris, Luard's ed., II. 619 sq. Another ground given by Innocent for annulling the document was that he as England's overlord had not been consulted before the king's signature was attached.
214 The language is the strongest: tam cartam quam obligationes irritantes penitus et cassantes, ut nullo unquam tempore aliquam habeant firmitatem. M. Paris, Luard's ed. II. 619. See Hurter, II. 656 sq. Some excuse has been found by advocates of papal infallibility for this fierce sentence upon the ground that Innocent was condemning the mode by which the king's consent was obtained. Innocent adduces three considerations, the conspiracy of the barons to force the king, their disregard of his Crusading vow, and the neglect of all parties to consult the pope as overlord. He condemns, it is true, the document as a document, and it has been said the contents were not aimed at Innocent's mistake and official offence were that, passing by entirely, the merits of the Charter, he should have espoused the despotism of the iniquitous king.
215 Potthast, 437; M. Paris, in Luard, II. 627. About the same time at John's request, Innocent annulled the election of Simon Langton, Stephen's brother, to the see of York.
216 Thomas Fuller remarks that "the commonness of these curses caused them to be contemned, so that they were a fright to few, a mock to many, and a hurt to none."
217 Roger of Wendover says he surfeited himself with peaches and new cider. M. Paris, Luard's ed., II. 667. Shakespeare, following a later tradition, represents him as dying of poison administered by a monk:—
"The king, I fear is poisoned by a monk,
* * * * * * * *
It is too late; the life of all his blood
Is touched corruptibly; and his pure brain
Which some suppose the soul's frail dwelling-house)
Doth, by the idle comments that it makes,
Foretell the ending of mortality."
—King John, Act V. Sc. 6 sq.
218 April 19, 1213.
219 The invitation included the prelates of the East and West, Christian emperors and kings, the grand-masters of the Military Orders, and the heads of monastic establishments.
220 In qua idem ipse sacerdos et sacrificium Jesus Christus, cujus corpus et sanguis in sacramento altaris sub speciebus panis et vini veraciter continentur, transubstantiatis pane in corpus, et vino in sanguinem, etc. Mansi, XXII. 982; Mirbt, Quellen. 133.
221 The Lombard had defined the substance of the three persons as a real entity, quaedam summa res.
222 See Hauck, art. Amalrich, in Herzog, I. 432 sq.
223 See chapters on the Inquisition and the Cathari.
224 The patriarchs of Jerusalem and Constantinople, of the Latin succession, were conspicuous at the council, and also Antioch by a representative, the Melchisite patriarch of Alexandria, and the Maronite patriarch.
225 Chapter XIII.
226 A repetition of the decrees of the synod of Toledo, 681.
227 Plenam suorum peccaminum de quibus fuerint corde contriti et ore confessi veniam indulgemus et in retributione justorum salutis eternae pollicemur augmentum.
228 V: 102 sq. Gibbon, ch. LIX, after acknowledging Innocent's talents and virtues, has this criticism of two of the most far-reaching acts of his reign: "Innocent may boast of the two most signal triumphs over sense and humanity, the establishment of transubstantiation, and the origin of the Inquisition."
229 Weltgeschichte, viii: 334.
230 Geschichte des Mittelalters, p. 220.
231 For judgments of mediaeval authors, see Potthast, Regesta, 461. The contemporaneous author of the Gesta Innocentii, Migne, 214, p. xviii., thus describes Innocent: "Fuit vir perspicacis ingenii et tenacis memoriae, in divinis et humanis litteris eruditus, sermone tam vulgari quam litterali disertus, exercitatus in cantilena et psalmodia, statura mediocris et decorus aspectu, medius inter prodigalitatem et avaritiam, sed in eleemosynis et victualibus magis largus, et in aliis magis parcus, nisi cum necessitatis articulus exigebat severus contra rebelles et contumaces, sed benignus erga humiles et devotos; fortis et stabilis, magnanimus et astutus; fidei defensor, et haeresis expugnator; in justitia rigidus, sed in misericordia pius; humilis in prosperis, et patiens in adversis; naturae tamen aliquantulum indignantis, sed facile ignoscentis."
232 Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters, ch. XIX.


text:
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
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text:
The Mariner mat men wrestled seven duals last weekend, taking eigth place in the 2012 Peninsula Duals at Nikiski.
This 16-team tournament showed Homer defeating Kenai, Houston and Colony, while losing to Dillingham twice, Colony JV and Skyview.
Homer was beating Skyview 40-36 going into the final match, looking to have a shot at the fifth place game. Sophomore Danny Rios looked solid, taking down Skyview's DJ Tourtman in the first period. Tourtman then countered Rios' pinning combination, pinning the Mariner, giving the Panthers six points and the win.
Another big Skyview matchup this weekend was Frank Navarro's loss to Homer's Pedro Ochoa 18-3. This was a turnaround from the last time these two met. Ochoa's only loss came to No. 3-ranked Cade Schlagel from Dillingham.
Juniors Calvin Johnson and Harley Wells both went 5-1 last weekend. Johnson's only loss came to a former state champion, Hope Steffenson from Kenai; he pinned all of his other opponents. With these victories, Johnson moved up to No. 3 in the Alaska rankings.
Wells was able to defeat No. 4-ranked Ryan Radmer of Houston, but was then injured and not able to finish the last two duals. Coach Chris Perk argued that if Wells was able to compete, Homer would have beaten Dillingham and Skyview instead of forfeiting the six points.
David Woo won six matches, including a come-from-behind cross-face cradle on Palmer's Alex Smith.
Jazida Martin had more competition than usual at 98 pounds, going 5-2, with a legitimate shot at qualifying for state. Senior Mark McGregor and brother Austin returned to the mat for the first time this year. Mark, who wrestled at 170 and 182, should already be ranked in the top six this week as he split matches with No. 3-ranked Sonny Flensburg. As a sophomore, Austin went 3-3, but is a grappler who Perk says is very capable of pinning someone at any time.
Colony edged Kodiak 37-36 on Saturday in the championship dual of the 2012 Peninsula Duals at Nikiski.
Meanwhile, Palmer defeated West 59-20 for third place, Kotzebue toppled Nikiski 54-24 for fifth place and Dillingham defeated Homer 39-37 for seventh place.
This weekend Homer travels to Palmer for a 30-team meet, where the best 4A and small schools will set to compete.


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Thu, Jan 21, 2021
By GREG BEACHAM (AP Sports Writer)
The UFC will no longer punish fighters for using marijuana in most cases, making a major change to its anti-doping policy.
The world's largest mixed martial arts promotion confirmed Thursday that it will no longer worry about positive tests for carboxy-THC, the psychoactive ingredient in cannabis, unless it believes a fighter used it intentionally to enhance performance.
All other cannabinoids derived naturally from marijuana are no longer prohibited substances, said Jeff Novitzky, the UFC's senior vice president of athlete health and performance.
"The bottom line is that in regard to marijuana, we care about what an athlete consumed the day of a fight, not days or weeks before a fight, which has often been the case in our historic positive THC cases," Novitzky said. "UFC athletes will still be subject to marijuana rules under various athletic commission regulations, but we hope this is a start to a broader discussion and changes on this issue with that group."
Indeed, the UFC's decision doesn't affect the rules of various state athletic commissions and international governing bodies, but those groups often follow promoters' leads on anti-doping policy. The UFC hopes state commissions will similarly relax their rules to reflect the more widespread tolerance for marijuana use.
The Nevada State Athletic Commission last year reduced its potential suspensions for marijuana use to six months, while the California commission typically only fines fighters $100. Other states can be more stringent.
The UFC won't allow fighters to compete while under the influence of cannabinoids, but Novitzky said the promotion recognizes that MMA fighters often use marijuana for pain management or relaxation. Fighters advocating for legal competitive marijuana use have previously argued that a loosening of the UFC's anti-marijuana rules could lead to a reduction in the use of antidepressants or more addictive pain medications.
The UFC partnered with the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency in 2015 to produce a comprehensive anti-doping program in a notoriously fractious sport. Mixed martial arts once frequently showcased fighters semi-openly using steroids and testosterone replacement therapy, among other performance enhancements.
"The goal of the UFC anti-doping program is to protect the rights of clean athletes by deterring intentional cheaters and holding those who choose to dope accountable in a fair and effective way," USADA CEO Travis Tygart said. "These amended rules are aimed at this, and to continue our focus on preventing intentional cheating and not to unnecessarily punish athletes for behavior that does not impact the fairness or safety of competition."
Despite its prior ban, marijuana and CBD products have had a prominent role in many MMA fighters' training and financial backing. Many fighters have sponsorships from CBD businesses, while others have launched CBD-related business ventures.
Nick and Nate Diaz, two semi-retired but wildly popular fighters from Stockton, California, have built their outlaw image partly around their enthusiastic use of marijuana and CBD products. Nick Diaz, who hasn't fought in six years, tested positive for marijuana use after two of his last three fights.
The recreational use of marijuana is legal in 15 U.S. states, while all but two states have legalized some level of use for medical purposes.
More AP sports: https://apnews.com/hub/sports
Latest MMA News


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July 2014—Colombia has seen many gains in lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) human rights in recent years. Although these gains have been developing quickly, there is still a long way to go, especially for the transgender community.
Like many transgender individuals, Tatiana Piñeros Laverde had to work harder than most to overcome discrimination and mistreatment throughout her life. For example, when Piñeros was in the final stages to be hired for a secretarial job, she was denied the position when her employers found out she was transgender.
Although Piñeros had her family's support throughout her life and schooling, she knows that is not the experience for most transgender people. Despite discrimination, Piñeros continued to pursue a career and is now the director of corporate development and human resources in the Office of Social Welfare in Bogotá. In this role, she oversees social welfare spending on everything from homes for the elderly to cafeterias for preschoolers. Piñeros is one of the few openly LGBT officials in Colombia.
USAID's LGBT Global Development Partnership, a public-private initiative supporting LGBT human rights and equality in developing countries, is helping individuals like Piñeros develop the skills necessary to succeed in the midst of discrimination.
The roles of LGBT officials in office are crucial for the expansion of human rights and inclusive development globally. Piñeros understands firsthand how crucial these relationships are in a government.
"The election of LGBT officials is important at all times since it allows people to openly work towards the recognition of rights and equality … and contributes to the demolishing of negative public perception due to the lack of interaction of LGBT people," said Piñeros.
Piñeros continues to serve as an example of LGBT leadership in public office. In August 2013, she attended a USAID-supported training in Cartagena to build her leadership skills and develop political and campaign expertise. During this training, she and 29 other attendees learned different aspects of political leadership and campaigns from messaging to skills needed to run as an openly LGBT candidate. These trainings help Piñeros in her current role and may assist her in the future if she runs for office.
An 90 additional people in Colombia, the Balkans, and Peru have since received the training. The training, implemented by the Victory Institute, is a critical part of the four-year LGBT Global Development Partnership, which began in April 2013.
Piñeros isn't sure what her political future holds but says, "The training has allowed me to focus my work towards acquiring the skills that in the right moment, could help me to be a successful candidate for public office."
In the meantime, she is committed to working hard in her position to better the welfare of the Colombian people while embracing diversity and equality. "With trainings such as those conducted by the Victory Institute, we can increase awareness of people in public institutions and recognize and respect diversity, rights, and equality."


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Synology DS414 High Performance 4-bay NAS Server for SMB & SOHO Review
Storage/NAS by stefan @ 2014-04-14
The DS414 NAS from Synology is based on a dual-core Marvell Armada XP running at 1.33Ghz and is paired with a total of 1GB DDR3, which should be enough for home use and small business. Inside the bays we can use both 2.5'' (HDD/SSD) and 3.5'' drives (screwless installation). The NAS operates paired with the latest DSM 5.0 version which features a consistent visual redesign for an easier use.


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Find a good deal on your flight from London to Udaipur with Netflights. 42 flights go via this route every week, and we've collected them all to help you find the best deal. If you want to keep your options open, take a look at flights from another airport in London.
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This article is more than 1 year old
German ISPs team up with gov agency to clean up malware
Although anti-botnet offensive panned by critics
The German government is planning to establish a botnet cleanup helpline for computer users affected by malware infection.
ISPs are teaming up with the German Federal Office for Information Security (BSI) to set up an operation geared towards cleansing consumer systems from botnet infestation. ISPs will track down infected machines, before directing users towards a website offering advice and an associated call centre, staffed by around 40.
The project, due to start in 2010, was announced on Tuesday at the German IT summit in Stuttgart. No funding details were provided.
A statement by eco (a German Internet Industry Association), explains that the project aims to take Germany out of the top 10 countries harbouring the highest number of malware infected systems. Germany currently ranks third on this list of shame.
The overall scheme is similar to recently announced draft plans by Australian Internet Industry Association (IIA) to purge systems of botnet infections. Meanwhile, over in the US, Comcast announced a browser-based virus infection notification service back in October. The service is linked to a security portal offering security software from McAfee and others at no extra charge to customers of Comcast's broadband services.
Malware in general, and botnets in particular, are a Windows ecosystem problem. Some bloggers have taken exception to the German plan, and have described it as a state funded subsidy to Microsoft, arguing that the money would be better spent offering advice on how to switch to less virus-infected systems. Such a change (desirable or not) is hardly likely to happen overnight and anything that improves internet hygiene in the meantime is welcome.
The success of the German scheme is likely to be closely monitored by ISPs across the world. ®


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That's oh-be-GUY-n, not oh-be-GIN, as some (primarily people from Texas) would like to refer to my chosen profession. Although, working in this field can sometimes cause one to develop a penchant for gin...hmmm.
Friday, April 13, 2007
So far my Friday the 13th has progressed in standard crappy fashion, I started the morning off puking my guts up. I had been off of the Z0fran for a solid week and was feeling too cocky. Next I got to explain to the young girl in her early twenties (who was admitted to the hospital for unexplained ascites) that she has a pelvic mass, and, in all likelihood, has a large ovarian cancer. She has never been pregnant. She has never even had sex. Therefore, she had never seen an OB/GYN. Please go get pelvic exams, ladies, even if you aren't having sex. I can't help but wonder if the mass would have been caught so much earlier if she had only had an exam.
Then I saw a million and a half patients squeezed into a "half day" of appointments, not to mention a large wound infection (on a section that my partner did, thankyouverymuch) that I had to open, drain, and pack in the office. While the rest of the office staff breezed out of the office by 2pm, I caught up my charts and sifted through mountains of paperwork, FMLA papers, consult letters, and lab results. This weekend I am on call, and so I am fielding asinine phone calls from OtherDoc's patients wishing for me to phone them in narcotics (I won't) and diagnose anemia over the phone. Sigh.
In positive news, I am 25 weeks and 1 day. My last appointment my blood pressure was awesome at 124/80 (yay!) my weight was up for a total of 10 pounds for the pregnancy thus far (boo!) and everything is measuring right on target. The Bean is a mover and a shaker, and he particularly likes to party between 9-11 pm. In other big news, Miss CindyLou Whoo is all but done with diapers. She has been dry for almost 2 weeks solid now! Woo HOO! We still put her in a diaper at night (more as a failsafe than a necessity) but she only wears panties during the day. It is sad to be so excited, but we were hoping to get her good and out of diapers before the Bean makes his debut. So far, so good! I hope you all had a better Friday the 13th than I, and I also hope that you are having nicer weather wherever you are, it is too fragging cold and icky for APRIL 'round these parts! Have a fantastic weekend!
9 comments:
- Doc's Girl said...
Good news all around...! :o) Amazing that when you put the diapers away, you get a few months of peace before it starts right back up again. :-P
- MarlaQuack said...
I've really enjoyed reading your thoughts. As a patient I usually always ask the Dr. how they are doing before I let them touch me. I've gone so far as to tell one to sit for a minute on my time and catch her breath. I thought Geez if you're not doing alright how can you think clearly to help me. Granted this type of Dr. /Patient relationship is not for everyone, but I feel that by caring about how the Dr. is doing I receive far superior care from them.
- Macha said...
Thanks for posting, Dr. Whoo! (I hope this is not a duplicate comment--if so please delete). I am curious about how many nurses/medical assistants you use to see the quantity of patients you see. What do they do for the pt, what do you do? Thanks for any info...trying to streamline my practice! Keep up the good work and here's hoping you get some warm sunshine soon.
- AtYourCervix said...
Yeah on the little one with potty training! I just went through that with my 3 1/2 year old, and I am SO glad (and hopeful....) that she's done for good this time.
25 weeks already? My, how time flies! - 4/14/2007 8:51 PM
- Ottoette said...
Congrats on CindyLou's accomplishment! It's only been a few months since Kimo got there and I know what a huge relief it is - esp with the little one on the way.
Sorry for the news you had to break - what is it with these virgins thinking pap smears and pelvics are related to sexual activity? I have met a few of them in my day and gone crazy trying to convince them otherwise. My Mom took me for my first pelvic 2 years before I lost my virginity and it was pretty clear to me that it was a medical thing - not a sexual thing. So sad. - 4/15/2007 8:57 AM
This is a story about a family from my church dealing with a poor prenatal diagnosis, birth, and death of their baby. I prayed for them, and saw them almost weekly. Their family watched our older children during my second sonogram. They understand what I am going through in my fear before the diagnosis, however, I cannot bring myself to seek them out for comfort as of yet. We don't have a diagnosis, are still considering amnio. Don't know what to do. We have a sonogram this Friday morning, and will decide.
Jawndoejah here. I am signing as anon because my husband's blog isn't working (I think he didn't update and it just died). I did have a 2nd level 2 u/s and the peri wouldn't do amnio for two reasons. 1. Baby looked good with no visible markers at the almost 20 week sonogram(still measuring 8 days behind the first dating sonogram at 10 weeks). 2. I won't terminate. I did say I thought hard about amnio and would do it to determine if I want a c-section or need to look at the heart to prepare for surgery for baby after birth. He then added, "if I saw a heart problem I would be in your face for the amnio so we could avoid a c-section or heart surgery that would not be warranted on a baby with trisomy 18." Fact is, if baby has a fatal condition (which seems unlikely with the good sonograms...I hope) I want time with baby. If the baby cannot tolerate labor but can be brought out alive, I want that so I can see my baby. If baby has a mosaic form of t-18, and looks like it might have any chance of being one of the few to make it past a few months, I want to do surgery. I know it's a chance, a slim chance, but some families are blessed with more time with interventions that would normally not happen. It all depends on how things look, and I understand comfort care is usually best...but if there is any chance, I'm going to take it. The peri just made me realize how much I need to study up and learn so I can decide what to do. I also have a low lying placenta, and it's anterior. My OB was a bit agitated that he didn't schedule another sonogram. She mentioned the placenta, and I think I will get at least another peek later. I want the heart to really be examined as I know SLOS and other things can come out as positive screen for Trisomy 18, and I want to at least be as responsible as I can. If any markers are found at a later sonogram, I will see if I can get amnio then. Otherwise, we're going to treat this as a normal pregnancy...as far as we know baby is okay.
Dawn (Jawndoejah) - 4/27/2007 8:59 PM
- dr. whoo? said...
doc's girl~ Hi! It will be a short reprieve, but definitely worthwhile. In some respects, diapers were easier. Now we get to visit every public restroom in sight, and CindyLou's favorite time to go potty is right when the restaurant brings hot food to the table. Murder on the pregnant lady, let me tell you! ;) Thanks for reading!
marlaquack~ Thank you for your kind words. I am glad that you have enjoyed the blog...if only I could update more often! I agree that treating people well should increase your odds of getting treated well in return, oddly enough, this isn't always the case. I do try to make it a point to sit down and talk to my patient at every visit (as opposed to standing over them) even if the visit is just a quick consult. It gives a different feel to the encounter. Hope that you continue to enjoy the blog!
rural ob/gyn~ Hi there! I share an office staff with OtherDoc (who sees 50-70 patients per day sometimes on his full days, crazy) and we are both hospital employees, so the hospital actually hires our staff. OtherDoc's wife is our office manager (which is another rant for another day!).
Our front office staff includes a front receptionist, a discharge receptionist, a billing clerk/surgery scheduler, and a general assistant that can do any of the above jobs to some degree,call patients for appointment reminders, answer phones, and file.
I have a medical assistant that takes vitals and checks patients in (updates meds/allergies/etc.) and an LPN that assists me with exams, does injections, some diabetic teaching, wound checks, staple removals, and (most importantly) answers phone calls. She can also see prenatals if I get called out for a delivery (fundal height, heart tones, etc.) I just got the medical assistant. Prior to her hire, my LPN did all of the checking in, vitals, etc. in addition to her other duties. She is awesome, so she did fairly well, but I know it was difficult.
OtherDoc has a medical assistant and LPN, as well, with similar job descriptions. At times, if my nurse is ill, the MA will fill in and help with exams. I hope this helps, and good luck streamlining your practice!
atyourcervix~ Thank you! I just hope that CindyLou doesn't decide to regress once the Bean gets here. I hope you are feeling well and recovering!
ottoette~ Thank you for the congrats! We are so proud of her. As for the little girl with the pelvic mass, it just breaks my heart. Denial can be such a powerful force in the human psyche. I continue to be amazed at how little some women understand about their bodies (for example, one patient thought that a catheter in her bladder would prevent her from delivering a baby, you know, since pee and babies come from the "same hole." Eeeek.) I hope that your pregnancy is progressing well, you are getting close! :)
Dawn~ Thank you for your update. My heart just aches for you. The uncertainty has got to be so difficult. I am so glad that the ultrasound looks good, and I think that "hoping for the best but preparing for the worst" is a smart way to approach things. I will keep you and your family in my thoughts and prayers, and hope for a continued healthy pregnancy. Please keep me posted! - 4/28/2007 11:15 AM
- XE said...
Congrats on the potty training, and the progress with the bean! Hopefully the morning sickness will abate soon - doesn't it normally subside after 14 to 16 weeks?
I'm sorry to hear about the woman with the pelvic mass. I know that the guidelines are set up so that you're supposed to start paps and pelvics at 18 regardless of sexual activity, but I don't know how many teens adhere to them. Certainly not many I know. Thanks for reminding me to have a chat with the leader of the health promotion team at school about perhaps running some kind of information campaign. - 4/28/2007 6:48 PM


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How can I produce exercises in one part of a LaTeX document with selected answers in another? I could, of course, simply typeset the questions and the answers separately, but this is too likely lead to divergence in the labels for the questions and the answers as the document is edited.
What I'd really like is a command that would allow me to typeset exercises at the point at which the command was used and which took an optional argument for a solution to be stored until a final section (chapter, or part) "Selected Exercise Answers". I'd like the questions (and the selected answers) to be labeled in the output by Chapter.Section.Question or even Chapter.Question.


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60 seconds. That's all it takes to reach the water from Surfer's Paradise. You can literally roll out of bed, zip up the wetsuit, and hit the surf in about a minute.
Croyde Bay's a designated 'Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty' in North Devon, one of Britain's best breaks and has recently been awarded a prestigious Seaside Award for 2018 by Keep Britain Tidy. Croyde Bay is home to some of the best surfing this side of the Atlantic. Mind you, it's not just great for surfing. It's also pretty good for beach volleyball and just chilling out.
And guess what? It's just over the dunes whenever you camp at Surfer's Paradise. The clear waters and golden sands of Croyde Bay keep surfers from around the world coming back to stay at our campsite on Britain's Gold Coast.