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Prevalence of alcohol and tobacco use among Brazilian adolescents: a systematic review
Prevalência de consumo de álcool e tabaco entre adolescentes brasileiros: revisão sistemática
Prevalencia de consumo de alcohol y cigarro entre adolescentes brasileños: revisión sistemática
Valter Cordeiro Barbosa FilhoI; Wagner de CamposII; Adair da Silva LopesIII
IPrograma de Pós-graduação em Educação Física. Departamento de Educação Física. Universidade Federal do Paraná. Curitiba, PR, Brasil
IICentro de Pesquisa em Exercício e Esporte. Departamento de Educação Física. Universidade Federal do Paraná. Curitiba, PR, Brasil
IIICentro de Desportos. Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. Florianópolis, SC, Brasil
Correspondência | Correspondence
OBJECTIVE: To analyze alcohol and tobacco use among Brazilian adolescents and identify higher-risk subgroups.
METHODS: A systematic review of the literature was conducted. Searches were performed using four databases (LILACS, MEDLINE /PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar), specialized websites and the references cited in retrieved articles. The search was done in English and Portuguese and there was no limit on the year of publication (up to June 2011). From the search, 59 studies met all the inclusion criteria: to involve Brazilian adolescents aged 10-19 years; to assess the prevalence of alcohol and/or tobacco use; to use questionnaires or structured interviews to measure the variables of interest; and to be a school or population-based study that used methodological procedures to ensure representativeness of the target population (i.e. random sampling).
RESULTS: The prevalence of current alcohol use (at the time of the investigation or in the previous month) ranged from 23.0% to 67.7%. The mean prevalence was 34.9% (reflecting the central trend of the estimates found in the studies). The prevalence of current tobacco use ranged from 2.4% to 22.0%, and the mean prevalence was 9.3%. A large proportion of the studies estimated prevalences of frequent alcohol use (66.7%) and heavy alcohol use (36.8%) of more than 10%. However, most studies found prevalences of frequent and heavy tobacco use of less than 10%. The Brazilian literature has highlighted that environmental factors (religiosity, working conditions, and substance use among family and friends) and psychosocial factors (such as conflicts with parents and feelings of negativeness and loneliness) are associated with the tobacco and alcohol use among adolescents.
CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that consumption of alcohol and tobacco among adolescents has reached alarming prevalences in various localities in Brazil. Since unhealthy behavior tends to continue from adolescence into adulthood, public policies aimed towards reducing alcohol and tobacco use among Brazilians over the medium and long terms may direct young people and the subgroups at higher risk towards such behavior.
Descriptors: Adolescent. Adolescent Behavior. Smoking, epidemiology. Alcohol Drinking, epidemiology. Review. Brazil.
OBJETIVO: Analisar o uso de álcool e tabaco em adolescentes brasileiros e identificar os subgrupos de maior risco.
MÉTODOS: Foi realizada revisão sistemática da literatura. A busca dos artigos foi feita em quatro bases de dados (LILACS, MEDLINE/PubMed, Web of Science e Google Scholar), websites especializados e referências dos artigos selecionados. Foram selecionadas referências em inglês e português, sem limites para ano de publicação (até junho de 2011), das quais foram incluídos 59 artigos que atenderam aos critérios de inclusão: envolver adolescentes brasileiros de dez a 19 anos de idade; avaliar a prevalência do uso de álcool e/ou de tabaco; usar questionários ou entrevistas estruturadas para mensurar as variáveis de interesse; ser um estudo populacional ou de base escolar que adotou procedimentos metodológicos para garantir a representatividade da população alvo (isto é, amostra aleatória).
RESULTADOS: A prevalência de uso atual de álcool (uso na época da pesquisa ou no mês anterior) variou de 23,0% a 67,7%. A prevalência média (refletindo uma tendência central das estimativas encontradas nos estudos) de uso atual de álcool foi de 34,9%. A prevalência de uso atual de tabaco variou de 2,4% a 22,0%, com uma prevalência média de 9,3%. Grande parte dos estudos estimou prevalências superiores a 10% para o uso frequente (66,7%) e pesado (36,8%) de álcool; a maioria deles estimou prevalências menores de 10% para o uso frequente e pesado de tabaco. A literatura nacional tem destacado a associação de fatores ambientais (religiosidade, condição de trabalho e uso de substâncias entre os amigos e parentes) e psicossociais (como conflitos com pais e sentimentos negativos e de solidão) com o uso de álcool e tabaco entre os adolescentes.
CONCLUSÕES: Os resultados sugerem que o consumo de álcool e tabaco entre adolescentes tem atingido alarmantes prevalências em várias localidades do Brasil. Como hábitos não saudáveis tendem a continuar da adolescência até a vida adulta, políticas públicas que visam à redução do uso de álcool e de tabaco na população brasileira a médio e longo prazos podem direcionar a população jovem e os subgrupos de maior risco a esses comportamentos.
Descriptors: Adolescente. Comportamento do Adolescente. Tabagismo, epidemiologia. Consumo de Bebidas Alcoólicas, epidemiologia. Revisão. Brasil.
OBJETIVO: Analizar el uso de alcohol y cigarro en adolescentes brasileños e identificar los subgrupos de mayor riesgo.
MÉTODOS: Se realizó revisión sistemática de la literatura. La búsqueda de artículos fue hecha en cuatro bases de datos (LILACS, MEDLINE/PubMed, Web of Science y Google Scholar), sitios en internet especializados y referencias de los artículos seleccionados. Se seleccionaron referencias en inglés y portugués, sin límites para año de publicación (hasta junio de 2011), de las cuales se incluyeron 59 artículos que atendieron los criterios de inclusión: involucrar adolescentes brasileños de edad de diez a 19 años; evaluar la prevalencia del uso de alcohol e/o de cigarro, usar cuestionarios o entrevistas estructuradas para medir las variables de interés; ser un estudio poblacional o de base escolar que adoptó procedimientos metodológicos para garantizar la representatividad de la población objetivo (es decir, muestra aleatoria).
RESULTADOS: La prevalencia de uso actual de alcohol (uso en la época de la investigación o en el mes anterior) varió de 23,0% a 67,7%. La prevalencia promedio (reflejando una tendencia central de las estimativas encontradas en los estudios) de uso actual de alcohol fue de 34,9%. La prevalencia de uso actual de cigarro varió de 2,4% a 22,0%, con una prevalencia promedio de 9,3%. Gran parte de los estudios estimó prevalencias superiores a 10% para el uso frecuente (66,7%) y pesado (36,8%) de alcohol; la mayoría de ellos estimó prevalencias menores de 10% para el uso frecuente y pesado de cigarro. La literatura nacional ha destacado la asociación de factores ambientales (religiosidad, condición de trabajo y uso de sustancias entre los amigos y parientes) y psicosociales (como conflictos con padres y sentimientos negativos de soledad) con el uso de alcohol y cigarro entre los adolescentes.
CONCLUSIONES: Los resultados sugieren que el consumo de alcohol y tabaco entre adolescentes han alcanzado prevalencias alarmantes en varias localidades de Brasil. Como los hábitos no saludables tienden a continuar desde la adolescencia hasta la vida adulta, políticas públicas que buscan la reducción del uso de alcohol y de cigarro en la población brasileña a mediano y largo plazos pueden direccionar la población joven y los subgrupos de mayor riesgo a tales comportamientos.
Descriptores: Adolescente. Conducta del Adolescente. Tabaquismo, epidemiología. Consumo de Bebidas Alcohólicas, epidemiología. Revisión. Brasil.
Tobacco use is an important modifiable risk factor for the development of non-communicable diseases (NCD). Globally, 60% of deaths are caused by NCD, which is the leading cause of mortality. Tobacco use is responsible for 5.1 million deaths per year, second only to high blood pressure, which kills 7.5 million people per year.65 If serious action is not taken, annual tobacco-related deaths are projected to increase to 8 million by 2030 (10% of all deaths).67
Use of alcohol is responsible for 2.3 million deaths per year (4% of all deaths). Alcohol use is associated with more than 60 types of disease and injury. It can also decrease the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke and diabetes.65 Harmful use of alcohol is a major risk factor for premature death and disability worldwide.26
Alcohol and tobacco are used in different countries across all income groups.65 Therefore, monitoring the exposure of individuals and populations to these substances can be considered to provide an important assessment of the health status of the world's population.64 Since alcohol and tobacco use frequently begin in childhood and adolescence and continue into adult life, use of alcohol and tobacco among young people is a predictor of the future burden of alcohol- and tobacco-related diseases.21,45 Estimating the consumption of alcohol and tobacco among adolescents is an important tool for monitoring the population's health status.66
Studies have monitored the consumption of alcohol and tobacco among young people. The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS)17 has been conducted biennially in the United States since 1991. These surveys provide estimates and temporal trends of alcohol and tobacco use among American adolescents. The Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) is an international survey that monitors several health-related risk factors among young people.21,46 The GSHS has contributed to knowledge of alcohol and tobacco use, especially among adolescents in developing countries. The first studies on alcohol and tobacco use among adolescents in Brazil were conducted in the mid-1980s.22,25 Since then, more comprehensive epidemiological studies on these habits among Brazilian youth have been conducted.24,32,36
The present study aimed to systematically review the literature on the prevalence of alcohol and tobacco use among Brazilian adolescents, in order to identify high-risk subgroups and to contribute towards developing national policies focused on combating alcohol and tobacco use among adolescents. This review may contribute towards better awareness of the main cities and locations where the rates of alcohol and tobacco use are higher, especially among adolescents who are usually not evaluated in national studies (i.e. teenagers in small towns).
The literature search was performed in June 2011 on the LILACS, MEDLINE/PubMed and Web of Science electronic databases and the Google Scholar portal. A combination of Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), Descritores de Ciências da Saúde (DeCS; for terms in Portuguese) and text words were used to generate the list of citations. The search process was constructed specifically for each database, and no limits were used in these searches. The key terms were used to search in MEDLINE/PubMed, LILACS and Google Scholar and by topic in the Web of Science. The search was conducted in English and Portuguese.
Our search strategy was based on a combination of three search parameters: risky behavior, sample type and nationality. The keywords for behavioral risk factors were stratified into three subgroups, featuring the behavioral outcomes included: (i) general terms for behavioral risk factors (adolescent behavio* OR adolescent health OR cardiovascular health OR cardiovascular diseas* OR health behavio* OR lifestyle OR risky behavio* OR risk factor*); (ii) alcohol use (alcohol use OR illicit drugs OR alcohol drinking OR alcoholism OR alcoholic beverages); and (iii) tobacco use (smoking OR illicit drug OR tobacco use OR tobacco). Each subgroup of the behavioral risk factor descriptors was used in combination with keywords for sample type (youth OR teen* OR adolesc* OR child*) and nationality (Brazil*) to locate potentially relevant studies. The Boolean operator "AND" was used to combine the three groups in the search. The truncation symbols for each specific database (e.g., *, $, or #) were used to capture all suffix variations of a root word.
Articles were selected in accordance with a systematic method. First the article titles and abstracts were read, then the inclusion criteria were applied to the analysis. All of the full-text articles were obtained and included if they met the inclusion criteria. The references for all selected papers were examined to identify other publications that should be reviewed. Searches were conducted on institutional websites to reach national survey data not published in scientific journals.a The inclusion criteria for studies were as follows: (i) original research study; (ii) sample including Brazilian adolescents aged ten to 19 years (or with mean age within this range); (iii) observational study that assessed the prevalence of alcohol or tobacco use, regardless of whether the study considered this variable to be an exposure or an outcome; (iv) questionnaires or structured interviews to measure alcohol and tobacco use; and (v) school- or populational-based study that used methodological procedures to ensure representativeness of the target population (i.e., random sampling). Studies were not included if participants were selected based on a convenience sample or another non-probabilistic method, for example, if studies selected participants by evaluating adolescents from the largest school in town or a single class. Studies that included only adolescents from specific areas within a city (for example, slums or poor neighborhoods) were not included. These criteria were selected in order to increase comparability between the studies.
Articles were excluded if they averaged the measurements of smoking or alcohol consumption (for example, average number of cigarettes or alcoholic beverages per day), because these measurements would not assess the prevalence of the behavior in the target population. Studies that evaluated only lifetime alcohol and/or tobacco use and that did not measure the prevalence of alcohol or tobacco use in adolescents were also excluded. Theses, dissertations and monographs were not included, as it would be impractical to perform a systematic search of these papers. Likewise, case reports and reviews were not included. In the case of duplication, the most recent or the most complete publication was used, and the other publications were excluded.
The following data were extracted: location and year of survey, sample size, age of participants and definition of alcohol and/or tobacco use. The prevalence of current alcohol and tobacco use and the respective 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) are presented for the total sample sizes. Prevalence rates and 95%CI are presented for the total sample and stratified according to gender for frequent and heavy use of alcohol and tobacco. The 95%CI were obtained directly from original articles whenever possible,1,5,7,11,20,23,28,32,33,36,39,40,51-53,55,56,59,68 or were calculated using the statistics program Stata 10.0 (Stata Corp., College Station, United States) the 'cii' command (95%CI exact for binomial distribution).
Overall mean prevalences were calculated to demonstrate the central trend for current use of alcohol and tobacco in Brazilian studies. These (weighted) mean prevalence rates were calculated by summing the numbers of cases in all the studies considered, dividing by the sum of the number of participants in all the studies considered, and multiplying by 100. The studies were organized according to the criteria used to identify the behavior of interest (i.e. current, frequent or heavy use of alcohol or tobacco). The studies were further organized according to geographical region of Brazil, in alphabetical order by study site and in chronological order by survey year.
The literature search yielded 3,195 potentially relevant articles. After reading the titles, 647 articles were selected on the basis of the inclusion criteria. The 647 abstracts were reviewed and 160 articles were selected for full text review. Of these, 65.4% were excluded for the following reasons: 32 used a non-probabilistic method for selecting participants, 28 studies did not present the variables of interest, 39 were duplicated studies and five did not include adolescents. Thus, 56 studies met our inclusion criteria. One additional study was obtained from the reference search, and two national surveysb,c were obtained from the website search. Therefore, 59 studies were reviewed (Figure 1).
Of the 59 studies included, 62.7% presented estimates of the prevalence of alcohol and tobacco use among adolescents; 28.8% contained estimates of the prevalence of tobacco use only,2,9,13,16,28,32,33,35,38-40,42,51,53,57,68 and the prevalence of alcohol use only was assessed in 10.2%.3,24,37,43,47,52
Most surveys were conducted between 2000 and 2004 (45.8%),1-3,6,8,11,14-16,18,20,24,28,30,32,35,37-39,41,43,49,55-57,62,68 or between 2005 and 2009 (28.8%);5,7,12,19,27,31,36,42,47,48,50, 54,59,61,63,b,c 1.7% were conducted in the 1980s,25 15.2% in the 1990s;4,9,10,23,30,33,44,58,60 3.4% were performed in other decades;22,40 and 6.8% did not include the survey year.13,51-53
The southern region of Brazil was the study location for 49.0% of the studies;5,13,16,18,20,28-31,33,35,38-40,42,43,50,53,56,59,60,63,68 the southeastern region was the study location for 30.5%;1,3,4,6,8-12,23,37,41,44,51,52,55,61,62 11.9% were conducted in the northeast,7,14,15,19,27,54,57 and 6.8% were conducted in the central-western region of Brazil;25,48,49,58 13.6% were conducted in two or more regions of Brazil.2,22,24,32,36,47,b,c
The study sample sizes ranged from 28154 to 60,97336 participants; 11.7% had samples of fewer than 500 adolescents,15,23,31,54,61,68,b and 28.1% included 1,000 to 2,000 adolescents.3,11,15,18,25,27,33,43,44,48,53,55,57,59,62,63 However, most studies (40.7%) had sample sizes greater than 2,000 adolescents.2,4,6,7,12,19,20,22,24,28,32,35,36,38-41,49,51,52,56,58,60,c Most of the articles described school-based surveys of adolescents from public schools only (43.4%).6,7,9-12,14,15,18,20,27,28,31,35,37,41,43,50,54-56,58,61,63,68 Fourteen additional school-based studies (23.7%) included adolescents from public and private schools.2,4,5,13,19,36,42,44,48,49,53,57,60,62 Only 5.1% included only adolescents from private schools;25,51,52 1.7% included adolescents from public and private universities,b and 27.1% selected participants using population-based sampling.1,3,8,16,22-24,29,30,32,33,38-40,47,59,c
Current alcohol use was evaluated in 28 studies (Figure 2). The prevalence of current alcohol use ranged from 23.0%59 to 67.7%.56 The mean prevalence (which reflects the central trend of the studies included in this review) of current alcohol use was 34.9%. Of the 28 studies evaluating current alcohol use among adolescents, 21.4% had prevalence of less than 30%,15,36,44,47,59,61 and 28.6% had prevalence rates of 50% or higher.12,29,31,44,54,56,60,61
The prevalence of current tobacco use was evaluated in 30 studies (Figure 3). The prevalence rates ranged from 2.4%57 to 22.0%,41 and the mean prevalence of current tobacco use was 9.3%. Most studies measured a prevalence of approximately 10%, but 20.0% found prevalence rates higher than 15%.28,30,41,44,60,68
The definition of frequent and heavy alcohol consumption has several defining criteria; thus, we chose not to present these data in chart form. Twelve studies provided estimates of frequent alcohol consumption among adolescents; 58.3% of these defined frequent alcohol use as weekly consumption,14,15,19,25,37,47,48 whereas 33.3% of the studies defined frequent alcohol consumption as consuming six or more drinks per month.22,55,60,61 The prevalence of frequent alcohol use among Brazilian adolescents ranged from 5.0%25 to 29.1%.14 Most studies found a prevalence of more than 10% (66.7%).6,14,15, 19,22,37,55,60,61 Three studies stratified prevalence rates by gender14,19,60 and found higher prevalence among male adolescents. However, there was no overlap of the 95%CI between male and female adolescents (Table 1).
Twenty studies assessed heavy alcohol use among Brazilian adolescents. Experiencing an episode of heavy alcohol consumption (five or more doses per drinking occasion)10,18,47,51,62 or "drunkenness"10,24,43,61 were the most common definitions of heavy alcohol use in the studies that we reviewed. High frequent alcohol use (usually 20 or more times per month) was also used to define heavy alcohol use.55,60,61 The prevalence of heavy alcohol use ranged from 0.8%25 to 34.5%;37 40% estimated the prevalence of heavy alcohol use to be higher than 10%.10,18,20,43,51,58,62,b Ten studies stratified the prevalence rates by gender, showing higher prevalence among male adolescents, with no overlap of the 95%CI between male and female adolescents (Table 1).10,18,20,23,43,51,58,60,62
Seventeen studies measured frequent use of tobacco among adolescents: 68.7% defined frequent tobacco use as weekly consumption,12,18-20,24,29-31,40,42,53 and 25.0% defined frequent tobacco use as smoking six or more cigarettes per month.22,55,60,61 The prevalence of frequent tobacco use ranged from 0.5%13 to 35.6%.12 Most studies (68.7%) found a prevalence of frequent tobacco use of less than 10%;6,13,18-20,22,25,31,42,55,61 however, in 18.7%, the estimated prevalence was higher than 15%.12,30,40 Ten studies stratified the prevalence rates according to gender.12,18-20,29-31,40,53,60 In two of those studies, the prevalence of frequent tobacco use was higher among male adolescents,12,18 and the estimate was higher for female adolescents in one study (Table 1).40
Nineteen studies estimated the prevalence of heavy tobacco use among adolescents. Heavy tobacco use was usually defined as smoking one or more cigarettes per day,9,15,16,25,32,35,38,39,44,63 or smoking 20 or more cigarettes per month.10,41,55,60,61 The prevalence of heavy tobacco use ranged from 0.9%35 to 15.7%.39 Most studies found a prevalence of less than 5%; however, two studies indicated heavy tobacco use estimates higher than 10%.32,41 Eight studies stratified the prevalence rates by gender, and in all of these studies the prevalence rates were similar for male and female adolescents (Table 1).9,10,16,23,32,39,51,60
The Brazilian literature includes a large number of studies on alcohol and tobacco use during adolescence. Alcohol and tobacco use among adolescents has been treated fairly in the national literature, through development of several comprehensive high-quality epidemiological studies.2,22,24,32,36,47 The high number of Brazilian studies indexed in international databases (e.g. MEDLINE/PubMed and Web of Science; Figure 1), indicate increasing interest in alcohol and tobacco-related research relating to young Brazilians and the impact of risky behavior on the individual's health.
However, there are some gaps in the national literature on alcohol and tobacco use among young Brazilians. There was a high concentration of studies focusing on the southern and southeastern regions of Brazil, whereas few of the studies included were conducted in the northern, northeastern and central-western regions. The development of scientific research relating to these risky behaviors in Brazil has yet to cover all regions of the country. Efforts have been made by regional and national institutions to conduct surveys involving adolescents in all regions of Brazil. These institutions have invested financially and academically in this research area, and have developed policies for diagnosing and preventing behavioral risk factors among young people in different regions of Brazil.
Although the sale of alcoholic beverages to children under 18 years has been prohibited in Brazil,d many Brazilian adolescents have consumed alcohol. Several studies observed prevalence rates of current alcohol use of more than 50%.12,29,31,44,54,56,60,62 The most worrisome findings, however, were the high prevalence rates (above 10%) of frequent6,14,15,19,22,37,55,60,61 and heavy10,18,20,43,52,58,62 alcohol use in several studies. The prevalence rates of tobacco among Brazilian adolescents were also high, with several studies finding rates of more than 15%.28,30,41,44,60,68 Although the rates of frequent and heavy tobacco use were well below the rates observed for frequent and heavy alcohol use, some studies at different sites found estimates higher than 10%.12,30,39-41 These behaviors are exhibited by large portions of the young Brazilian population at several sites and are contributing negatively to the health status of these adolescents.
Several studies included in this review sought to identify risk factors associated with current, frequent and heavy use of alcohol and tobacco among young Brazilians (Table 2). A large number of studies highlighted a positive association between age and consumption of these substances, which may explain the different prevalence estimates, since these studies examined different age groups.
Some of the highest estimates for current alcohol12,31,56 and tobacco30,51,68 use were obtained in studies with older adolescents (14 years or older). However, studies that included young adolescents (those younger than 14 years) also revealed high prevalence rates. For example, the Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde do Escolar (National Adolescent School-based Health Survey),36 a national survey among eighth-grader students (over 90% were 13-15 years) in all 27 Brazilian state capitals, found high prevalences of current alcohol (27.3%) and tobacco (6.3%) use. Another study, which evaluated young adolescents (13-15 years) in three state capitals in Southern Brazil, found high estimates for current tobacco use (10.7%, 12.6%, and 17.7% in Florianópolis, Curitiba, and Porto Alegre, respectively).28 One study on adolescents from a birth cohort study in Pelotas, Southern Brazil, demonstrated the early onset of smoking among the participants.40 Of these, 7.5% consumed cigarettes on a weekly basis at 14-15 years of age, and this prevalence nearly tripled in late adolescence to 21.5% at 17-19 years of age.40 Cross-sectional data from this cohort also indicate that more than half the adolescents with any lifetime tobacco use smoked their first cigarette before reaching ten years of age.38 These data suggest that the prevalence of alcohol and tobacco use is already high in early adolescence and that these estimates tend to increase with age.
Gender was frequently analyzed in studies to identify subgroups at higher risk of alcohol and tobacco use. However, the direction of association between gender and alcohol and tobacco use has important variations according to the particular behavior presenting risk. Male adolescents are more likely to drink alcohol, and this result was obtained for current, frequent and heavy alcohol use (Table 2). However, for tobacco use, some studies showed that female adolescents had higher rates of smoking habits (Table 2), while some studies indicated that male adolescents were at higher risk of smoking. These conflicts may be related to historical and social conditions or concepts of male and female identity.30 However, the current trend indicates that the consumption of alcohol and tobacco may be increasing among female adolescents, thus indicating an at-risk population in future generations.
The Brazilian literature has also indicated that sociocultural and environmental factors (such as religiosity, working condition and substance use among family and friends) are associated with tobacco and alcohol use during adolescence. Adolescents who are not religious are more likely to use alcohol and tobacco (Table 2), a finding that may be related to the doctrines followed by some religious denominations, which prohibit unhealthy behavior.7 Some studies have suggested that secondary exposure to smoking and alcohol consumption by parents, older brothers and friends may be an important risk factor for developing these behaviors (Table 2). Data from a study conducted in three state capitals in Southern Brazil indicated that adolescents with friends who smoke are nine times more likely to smoke than adolescents without friends who smoke.28
Psychosocial factors (such as conflict with parents and negative feelings such as sadness and loneliness) also contributed towards alcohol and tobacco use among Brazilian adolescents. One study on adolescents in all 27 state capitals found that those in poor relationships with their parents were 50% more likely to be heavy alcohol drinkers.24 Another study on students in Gravataí, Southern Brazil, showed that adolescents who experienced feelings of sadness over the previous 12 months were 2.6 and 1.7 times more likely to report current tobacco and alcohol use, respectively.63 The national literature has indicated the importance of environmental and psychosocial factors on alcohol and tobacco consumption among adolescents. Reducing alcohol and tobacco use in adolescents may involve reducing exposure to these risk factors.
The national literature has highlighted the association between alcohol consumption and smoking during adolescence.1,19,29,49 Students in João Pessoa, Northeastern Brazil, who drank alcohol on a weekly basis were 20 times more likely to consume tobacco on a weekly basis.19 In Brasilia, in Central-Western Brazil, nearly eight in ten adolescent smokers also drank alcohol.49 These two behaviors are associated, but the association does not necessarily imply causality. However, interventions aiming to reduce alcohol consumption among adolescents could also reduce tobacco use, and vice-versa.
Some studies have examined temporal trends in the consumption of alcohol and tobacco consumption among adolescents. Data from a series of surveys conducted between 1987 and 1997 by the Centro Brasileiro de Informações sobre Drogas (Brazilian Center for Information on Psychotropic Drugs - CEBRID) have shown important estimates for temporal trends in these behaviors among adolescents in ten Brazilian state capitals.22 The prevalence of frequent alcohol use (six or more drinks per month) increased in six of the cities studied. However, the prevalences of frequent alcohol use (13.2% in 1987 and 15.0% in 1997) and frequent tobacco use (7.0% in 1987 and 6.2% in 1997) were generally stable.22 Another study from CEBRID presented estimates for tobacco use in 2004, which were compared with data from 1997.35 With the exception of Recife and Rio de Janeiro, there was a significant decrease in heavy use of tobacco (defined as 20 or more cigarettes in the previous month). The decrease in tobacco use was related to changes in public policy in Brazil during the interval between the surveys (cigarette advertising was banned from the Brazilian media in 2000).35
Public policy can be effective in reducing unhealthy behavior. Given the high prevalence of current, frequent and heavy alcohol use among Brazilian adolescents (Figure 2 and Table 1), there is an urgent need for policies that are effective for reducing alcohol use among adolescents.
Some limitations of this review should be highlighted. The first limitation is the variability between the studies reviewed. Although several studies have used questionnaires based on instruments from the GSHS,21,46 there are important variations in the definitions of alcohol and tobacco use patterns, recall periods and sample selection methods. These inter-study methodological differences may be related to the objectives established for each study. Future studies should aim to minimize these variations. Local and regional studies with a standardized methodological procedure (i.e. instruments, cutoff points, etc.) would be required to contribute towards diagnosing and monitoring alcohol and tobacco use among Brazilian adolescents.
The second limitation relates not only to this review but also to most studies included in it: the use of questionnaires to estimate alcohol and tobacco use among adolescents. Many studies did not test the validity of the questionnaires, and when they were tested, they found that adolescents tended to underestimate their consumption.35 Thus, the real prevalence rates may be greater than those found in these studies.34
The last limitation is that some important studies may not have been included in this review. A large number of studies on alcohol and tobacco use in Brazilian adolescents are theses and dissertations that have not been published in journals. However, most of the main research concerning alcohol and tobacco use among Brazilian adolescents is presented in this review.
There are important inter-study variations in the prevalence rates of current, frequent and heavy alcohol and tobacco use among Brazilian adolescents. However, a large proportion of the studies included reached worrying prevalence rates of alcohol and tobacco consumption.
This review pointed out the relationship between some environmental factors (e.g. religiosity, working condition and substance use among family and friends) and psychosocial factors (e.g. conflict with parents and negative feelings such as sadness and loneliness) and alcohol and tobacco use among young Brazilians. However, we recommended that further studies should be conducted to identify risk factors, especially in relation to alcohol use, because the national literature does not comprehensively assess these variables. Since unhealthy behaviors continue through adolescence and adulthood, medium and long-term public policies created to reduce the use of alcohol and tobacco among Brazilians should focus on interventions among young people and subgroups that are at higher risk, so as to promote adoption of healthier behaviors.
1. Abreu MNS, Souza CF, Caiaffa WT. Tabagismo entre adolescentes e adultos jovens de Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brasil: influência do entorno familiar e grupo social. Cad Saude Publica. 2011;27(5):935-43. DOI:10.1590/S0102-311X2011000500011
2. Almeida LM, Cavalcante TM, Casado L, Fernandes EM, Warren CW, Peruga A, et al. Linking Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) data to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC): the case for Brazil. Prev Med. 2008;47(Suppl 1):S4-10. DOI:10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.11.017
3. Andrade SC, Barros MBA, Carandina L, Goldbaum M, Cesar CLG, Fisberg RM, et al. Dietary quality index and associated factors among adolescents of the state of São Paulo, Brazil. J Pediatr. 2010;156(3):456-60. DOI:10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.09.06
4. Anteghini M, Fonseca H, Ireland M, Blum RW. Health risk behaviors and associated risk and protective factors among Brazilian adolescents in Santos, Brazil. J Adolesc Health. 2001;28(4):295-302.
5. Beck CC, Lopes AS, Giuliano ICB, Borgatto AF. Fatores de risco cardiovascular em adolescentes de município do sul do Brasil: prevalência e associações com variáveis sociodemográficas. Rev Bras Epidemiol. 2011;14(1):36-49. DOI:10.1590/S1415-790X2011000100004
6. Bertoni N, Bastos FI, Mello MB, Makuch MY, Souza MH, Osis MJ, et al. Uso de álcool e drogas e sua influência sobre as práticas sexuais de adolescentes de Minas Gerais, Brasil. Cad Saude Publica. 2009;25(6):1350-60. DOI:10.1590/S0102-311X2009000600017
7. Bezerra J, Barros MVG, Tenório MCM, Tassitano RM, Barros SSH, Hallal PC. Religiosidade, consumo de bebidas alcoólicas e tabagismo em adolescentes. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2009;26(5):440-6. DOI:10.1590/S1020-49892009001100009
8. Bigio RS, Verly Júnior E, Castro MA, César CLG, Fisberg RM, Marchioni DML. Determinants of fruit and vegetable intake in adolescents using quantile regression. Rev Saude Publica. 2001;45(3):448-56. DOI:10.1590/S0034-89102011005000023
9. Bordin R, Nipper VB, Silva JO, Bortolomiol L. Prevalência de tabagismo entre escolares em município de área metropolitana da Região Sul, Brasil, 1991. Cad Saude Publica. 1993;9(2):185-9. DOI:10.1590/S0102-311X1993000200010
10. Carlini-Cotrim B, Gazal-Carvalho C, Gouveia N. Comportamentos de saúde entre jovens estudantes das redes pública e privada da área metropolitana do Estado de São Paulo. Rev Saude Publica. 2000;34(6):636-45. DOI:10.1590/S0034-89102000000600012
11. Castro IRR, Cardoso LO, Engstrom EM, Levy RB, Monteiro CA. Vigilância de fatores de risco para doenças não transmissíveis entre adolescentes: a experiência da cidade do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. Cad Saude Publica. 2008;24(10):2279-88. DOI:10.1590/S0102-311X2008001000009
12. Ceschini FL, Andrade DR, Oliveira LC, Araújo Júnior JF, Matsudo VKR. Prevalence of physical inactivity and associated factors among high school students from state's public schools. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2009;85(4):301-6. DOI:10.1590/S0021-75572009000400006
13. Cimadon HMS, Geremia R, Pellanda LC. Dietary habits and risk factors for atherosclerosis in students from Bento Gonçalves (State of Rio Grande do Sul). Arq Bras Cardiol. 2010;95(2):166-72. DOI:10.1590/S0066-782X2010005000088
14. Costa MCO, Silva MCM, Santos JS, Teles C, Souza KEP, Melo BO. Estilo de vida de adolescentes: consumo alimentar de bedida alcoólica em Teixeira de Freitas - Bahia. Rev Baiana Saude Publica. 2004;28(2):151-6.
15. Costa MCO, Alves MVQM, Santos CAST, Carvalho RC, Souza KEP, Sousa HL. Experimentação e uso regular de bebidas alcoólicas, cigarros e outras substâncias psicoativas na adolescência. Cienc Saude Coletiva. 2007;12(5):1143-54. DOI:10.1590/S1413-81232007000500011
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32. Leitão Filho FS, Galduróz JCF, Noto AR, Nappo AS, Carlini EA, Nascimento OA, et al. Levantamento randomizado sobre a prevalência de tabagismo nos maiores municípios do Brasil. Rev Bras Pneumol. 2009;35(12):1204-11. DOI:10.1590/S1806-37132009001200007
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35. Malcon MC, Menezes AMB, Assunção MCF, Neutzling MB, Hallal PC. Agreement between self-reported smoking and cotinine concentration in adolescents: a validation study in Brazil. J Adolesc Health. 2008;43(3):226-30. DOI:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.02.002
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37. Martins RA, Cruz LAN, Teixeira PS, Manzato AJ. Padrão do consumo de álcool entre estudantes do ensino médio de uma cidade do interior do Estado de São Paulo. SMAD Rev Eletronica Saude Mental Alcool Drog [online]. 2008;4(1):1-16. Availabel from: http://www.revistasusp.sibi.usp.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1806-69762008000100005&lng=pt&nrm=iso&tlng=pt
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39. Menezes AMB, Hallal PC, Horta BL. Early determinants of smoking in adolescence: a prospective birth cohort study. Cad Saude Publica. 2007;23(2):347-54. DOI:10.1590/S0102-311X2007000200011
40. Menezes AMB, Minten GC, Hallal PC, Victora CG, Horta BL, Gigante DP, et al. Smoking prevalence in the 1982 birth cohort: from adolescence to adult life, Pelotas, Southern Brazil. Rev Saude Publica. 2008;42(Supl 2):78-85. DOI:10.1590/S0034-89102008000900011
41. Micheli D, Formigoni MLOS. Drug use by Brazilian students: associations with family, psychosocial, health, demographic and behavioral characteristics. Addiction. 2004;99(5):570-8. DOI:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2003.00671.x
42. Moraes ACF, Fernandes CAM, Elias RGM, Nakashima ATA, Reichert FF, Falcão MC. Prevalence of physical inactivity and associated factors among adolescents. Rev Assoc Med Bras. 2009;55(5):523-8. DOI:10.1590/S0104-42302009000500013
43. Moreira TC, Belmonte EL, Vieira FR, Noto AR, Ferigolo M, Barros HMT. Community violence and alcohol abuse among adolescents: a sex comparison. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2008;84(3):244-50. DOI:10.2223/JPED.1795
44. Muza GM, Bettiol H, Muccillo G, Barbieri MA. Consumo de substâncias psicoativas por adolescentes escolares de Ribeirão Preto, SP (Brasil). I.- Prevalência do consumo por sexo, idade e tipo de substância. Rev Saude Publica. 1997;31(1):21-9. DOI:10.1590/S0034-89101997000100005
45. Paavola M, Vartiainen E, Haukkala A. Smoking, alcohol use, and physical activity: a 13-year longitudinal study ranging from adolescence into adulthood. J Adolesc Health. 2004;35(3):238-44. DOI:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.12.004
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47. Pinsky I, Sanches M, Zaleski M, Laranjeira R, Caetano R. Patterns of alcohol use among Brazilian adolescents. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2009;32(3):242-9. DOI:10.1590/S1516-44462010005000007
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49. Rodrigues MC, Viegas CAA, Gomes EL, Morais JPMG, Zakir JCO. Prevalence of smoking and its association with the use of other drugs among students in the Federal District of Brasília, Brazil. Rev Bras Pneumol. 2009;35(10):986-91. DOI:10.1590/S1806-37132009001000007
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54. Silva DAS, Smith-Menezes A, Almeida-Gomes M, Sousa TF. Estágios de mudanças de comportamento para atividade física em estudantes de uma cidade do Brasil. Rev Salud Publica, 2010;12(4):623-34. DOI:10.1590/S0124-00642010000400009
55. Silva EF, Pavani RAB, Moraes MS, Chiaravalloti Neto F. Prevalência do uso de drogas entre escolares do ensino médio do Município de São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brasil. Cad Saude Publica. 2006;22(6):1151-8. DOI:10.1590/S0102-311X2006000600004
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▲Correspondência | Correspondence:
Valter Cordeiro Barbosa Filho
Rua Coração de Maria, 92 (BR- 116, KM95), Jardim Botânico
80215-370 Curitiba, PR, Brasil
E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
Received: 30/11/2011
Approved: 23/4/2012
Study based on master's dissertation of Valter Cordeiro Barbosa Filho presented to Universidade Federal do Paraná in 2012. The authors declare that there were no conflicts of interest.
a The following institutional websites were accessed: Brazilian Department for Alcohol and Other Drugs Policies (www.obid.senad.gov.br); Brazilian Center for Information on Psychotropic Drugs (www.cebrid.epm.br); National Institute of Cancer (www2.inca.gov.br), Health Ministry (portalsaude.saude.gov.br); and the Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics (www.ibge.gov.br).
b Secretaria Nacional de Políticas sobre Drogas. I levantamento nacional sobre o uso de álcool, tabaco e outras drogas entre universitários das 27 capitais brasileiras. Brasília (DF); 2010 [cited 2012 Apr 1]. Available from: http://www.obid.senad.gov.br/portais/OBID/biblioteca/documentos/Dados_Estatisticos/ Estudantes
c Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Pesquisa nacional de amostra por domicílios - Tabagismo 2008. Rio de Janeiro; 2009 [cited 2012 Apr 1]. Available from: www1.inca.gov.br/inca/Arquivos/publicacoes/tabagismo.pdf
d The sale of alcoholic beverages to persons under 18 years of age was established as an infraction under article 243 of the Estatuto da Criança e do Adolescente (Statute for Minors; Federal law 8.069/90) and the Lei de Contravenções Penais (Law on Criminal Contraventions, article 63).


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A "direct threat" against a U.S. congresswoman — posted on a military-oriented Facebook page that graphically belittled her and her efforts to stem sexual misconduct within the branches — has been referred to U.S. Capitol Police for investigation.
The threat was made last week against Rep. Jackie Speier, D-Calif., and her husband shortly after Speier sent a letter May 8 to Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel informing him of the Facebook page which, according to Speier, helped "contribute to a culture that permits and seems to encourage sexual assault and abuse." U.S. Capitol Police have asked Speier and her staff not to divulge the nature of the threat.
Before that page was taken down Friday afternoon by Facebook, Speier's staff was able to confirm that several active-duty Marines had posted messages on the page, which disparaged the congresswoman and made numerous sexual jokes about women in the military. At least three people who had "liked" the page — and who had posted comments there supporting its content — list themselves as active-duty service members on their personal Facebook pages. As of Friday morning, the page — called "F*** You Jackie Speier — was active and had 182 "likes."
Speier's staff has not been able to determine the identity of the person or people or who created the Facebook page — or several earlier versions of the same page (with other names) that contained the same content, commentary and photos. Those previous iterations were also dismantled by Facebook.
In her May 8 letter, also sent to Gen. James Amos, commandant of the Marine Corps, Speier said it was her "understanding that not only is the Marine Corps Inspector General aware of this page and monitoring it, but they have been doing so for over three years."
Speier has authored three bills aimed at transforming the military justice system's treatment of sexual assault cases. Those include the STOP Act (HR 1593), which seeks to take all cases of sexual assault outside of the chain of command by creating an independent office within the military to handle the reporting, investigation, and prosecution of such crimes. The bipartisan bill has 122 co-sponsors but has not been placed into consideration for a House vote.
Before the anti-Speier Facebook page was removed, it displayed a banner photo of a topless woman holding up her middle fingers as well as multiple posts and pictures making fun of military rape, including an image posted Friday morning with a caption that joked about raping a pregnant woman.
In addition, there were photos posted mocking Jewish concentration camp prisoners, African Americans, and President Barack Obama, shown with a rope around his neck. But the page's primary theme involved deriding women in the military, particularly those within the Marines. The administrator posted pictures titled "this is my rape face," and "I can 'bang' even when I'm not on my back!!" atop the image of a woman holding a gun in her camouflage uniform.
Courtesy Facebook
A screen grab shows one of the photos posted on a page about Jackie Speier.
There also was a picture of Speier, photoshopped with a black eye. One poster — whose personal Facebook page lists his occupation as "Military infantry" — wrote of Speier: "I still firmly believe someone needs to struggle snuggle the s*** outta her."
The Pentagon acknowledged that it is aware of the Facebook page.
"Secretary Hagel made clear that sexual assault is a despicable crime and one of the most serious challenges facing the Department of Defense," Cynthia O. Smith, a Pentagon spokeswoman, said Friday in reaction to the page. "Leaders will be held accountable for preventing and responding to sexual assault in the ranks. The Secretary will respond directly back to Congresswoman as appropriate."
"Unfortunately, we cannot offer comment," added Shennell Antrobus, spokesman for the U.S. Capitol Police. "As a matter of Department policy, we do not discuss information relating to the security of Senators, Members of the House, or the Capitol Complex."
Facebook declines to comment on individual pages within its network but it does list a strict set of "community standards" that govern allowable content.
"We maintain a robust reporting infrastructure that leverages over 1 billion people who use our site to keep an eye out for offensive or potentially dangerous content," said Alison Schumer, a Facebook spokeswoman. "This reporting infrastructure includes report links on pages across the Facebook site, systems to prioritize the most serious reports, and a trained team of reviewers who respond to reports."
Facebook, which also lists its "law enforcement guidelines," has been known to cooperate with police agencies with active investigations that may delve into a suspect's Facebook accounts and activity.
- Male rape survivors tackle military assault in tough-guy culture
- Senators seek to reform military's 'unacceptable' sex abuse policies
- Gillibrand leads charge for protocol changes in sexual assault cases
- US military faces historic tipping point on rape epidemic
- Army sergeant assigned to sex-abuse prevention investigated for pimping, sexual assault
- Air Force's sex-abuse prevention honcho charged with sexual battery

subset: commoncrawl


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**UPDATE** This giveaway has ended. CONGRATULATIONS to the 3 winners, Amy Williams, Gretchen G and Sheena Bush! Thank you to everyone who entered!!**
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text: Just weeks ago, we welcomed two new puffin chicks to our Sea Cliffs exhibit! Back in 2006, we were happy to report the first successful hatching of a puffin chick at the National Aquarium. The parents, Victor and Vixen, presented us with another healthy chick in 2010, later named Vinny. On June 28, 2011, they hatched their third little puffin! The chick weighed 40 grams at the time of the hatch, and weighed 90 grams at 8 days old. This follows the weight pattern of his older brother. Just a little over a week later, on July 6, first-time puffin parents Tex and Kingster hatched their own chick, making this the Aquarium's first year for multiple puffin hatchings. This chick weighed 39.4 grams at the time of the hatch and 168 grams at 12 days old. For the next several weeks, the young puffins will remain in their burrows while they are cared for by their parents. Visitors may see the parents bringing fish into the nest burrows, which are located in the far left side of the exhibit. When they are about 45 days old, they should begin exploring life outside of the burrow and will be visible to the public. Check back here in the upcoming weeks for updates and naming opportunities! Here is a video of the first chick being weighed just days ago: Curious about what it takes to care for puffins? Be an early bird to the Aquarium on August 28 for a talk with one of our aviculturists, from 7:45–9 a.m. Light breakfast fare will be provided. Cost: $30, includes Aquarium admission. Member price: $8. Reserve your ticket by calling 410-727-3474. Tags: animal-babies, baby-animals, birds, puffins Categories: Animals Previous Post Next Post


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Dawn Hochsprung 'died a hero'
WOODBURY -- As hundreds of mourners for slain Sandy Hook Elementary School principal Dawn Hochsprung arrived for calling hours Wednesday, luminaries were on display, designed to spell a single word: Hope.
Hochsprung died at the school in an effort to stop 20-year-old Adam Lanza from embarking on his shooting spree Friday that claimed the lives of 20 students and six adults.
She has been hailed as a selfless educator whose dedication to her young charges is an inspiration to people around the world.
"I'm not even a little surprised that Dawn died a hero. Nobody was going to hurt one of her kids," said Kim Gallo, a lifelong friend and former colleague from Hochsprung's years as an educator in Woodbury.
" I knew Dawn for 22 years," said Brian Jones, of Southbury, a family friend. "Dawn set positive goals and met them. She had a positive, outgoing, energetic spirit. People loved to be around her. She's a shining example of all that's good and positive in the world."
Coast Guard cadet Alexis Kanapp, 18, brought a handmade card from the seventh-graders of Woodbury. She'd known Hochsprung as her principal.
Gov. Dannel P. Malloy arrived to pay his respects and left shortly after 3 p.m. Newtown First Selectman Pat Llodra, Danbury Mayor Mark Boughton and former Danbury Mayor Gene Eriquez were among those attending.


text:
Naturalistic atheism is a blog dedicated to the discussion of arguments, news, and other information relevant to naturalistic atheism, the view that no supernatural beings exist.
Saturday, December 02, 2006
Can a Theist be a Freethinker?
9 comments:
- beepbeepitsme said...
FREETHOUGHT: The philosophical stance of freethought derives from "freethinker", a person who has rejected authority and dogma (especially in religious thinking) in favor of rational inquiry and intellectual speculation.
How can a theist be a freethinker under that definition?
- December 3, 2006 at 8:34:00 PM PST
- Jeffery Jay Lowder said...
A theist can be a freethinker if they arrive at the conclusion that God exists independently of authority and dogma. The quotation of Bertrand Russell in my article makes this point nicely:
"To be worthy of the name [freethinker], he must be free of two things; the force of tradition, and the tyranny of his own passions. No one is completely free from either, but in the measure of a man's emancipation he deserves to be called a free thinker. ... What makes a free thinker is not his beliefs, but the way in which he holds them. If he holds them because his elders told him they were true when he was young, or if he holds them because if he did not he would be unhappy, his thought is not free; but if he holds them because, after careful thought, he find a balance of evidence in their favor, then his thought is free, however odd his conclusions may seem."
- December 3, 2006 at 8:46:00 PM PST
- beepbeepitsme said...
How can someone reject authority and still believe in god?
- December 8, 2006 at 6:01:00 AM PST
- bpabbott said...
beep, there are many possibilities for reconciling theism and freethought. I'll offer two.
(1) God's realm is beyond the natural universe. He play no part in our present existence, or has moved on to other interests. You either think for yourself or let someone else think for you.
(2) There is no objective means to know explicitly what the truth of what God wants of us. Thus, it is impossible to know what God's truth is. Thus, an individuals' divinity is not measured by how closely he follows dogma, but rather who aply he seeks out God's truth. For the latter, a free and thinking mind is quite useful.
- December 11, 2006 at 4:19:00 AM PST
- Bradley Bowen said...
You appear to offer an alternative definition of "freethinker":
Person P is a freethinker if and only if P applies critical thinking and logic to all areas of their life, including religion.
The problem with this definition is that virtually no one satisfies the criterion. Most of us ordinary mortals have areas of our lives about which we don't think critically. This is true of atheists, agnostics, liberal Christians, Jews, Catholics, etc. So if the term "freethinker" is going to be a useful category that applies to more than just a handful of highly disciplined critical thinkers, the criterion will need to be loosened up a bit.
I can imagine a theist satisfying your very strict criterion, so I agree that a theist can be a freethinker. If we lower the standard a bit, then there should be no doubt that actual theists fall into the category "freethinker".
There should be an intention and willingness to apply critical thinking and logic to all areas of one's life, including religion, but actually fully carrying out this ideal is a nearly superhuman task, especially in a world that does not particularly value truth, rationality, and justice, especially given the depth and strength of irrational tendencies that all human beings share (e.g. egocentrism and sociocentrism).
I disagree with the claim that Evangelical Christians cannot be freethinkers.
I was an Evangelical Christian who embraced Critical Thinking as an ideal, and I did not immediately renounce my Evangelical Christian beliefs and values. After a few years of thinking critically about my religious beliefs, I decided that Evangelical Christianity was unworthy of my acceptance, and I left the Christian faith and became a secular humanist.
In the transitional years between those two opposing points of view, I was an Evangelical Christian who was willing to put my beliefs to the test of reason, and when I had critically examined those beliefs and found them wanting, I rejected them and changed my point of view. My case may be a bit unusual, but I'm not the only person who has walked down that road.
You point to a couple of Bible passages that appear to direct believers to be uncritical thinkers. But passages from the Bible, as you know, are almost always open to multiple interpretations:
Thus, Evangelical Christians are supposed to "Lean not on [their] own understanding" (Proverbs 3:5) and "take captive every thought to make it obedient to Christ" (2 Cor. 10:5).
The command to "Lean not on your own understanding" is more than a little bit vague. I suppose a common interpretation of this advice is that a full grasp of reality and truth is possible only when a person allows truths that are revealed by God to play an important role in their thinking. But this is perfectly reasonable advice given the assumption that there are truths that have been revealed by God, and that can be identified as such. As an Evangelical Christian, I thought there were good reasons for believing that the Bible contained such revelations. So, in using Biblical "truths" as part of my thinking, I was simply doing what was reasonable and rational and supported by the evidence (or so I thought at one time).
Paul's command to "take captive every thought to make it obedient to Christ" is similarly vague and open to various interpretations (it is an analogy afterall). But, if there are good reasons to believe that Jesus is the divine Son of God and the Savior of mankind, then it is only reasonable and rational to view the life and teachings of Jesus as being of central importance, and thus as of great significance for one's thinking, philosophy, religious beliefs, political beliefs, etc.
Furthermore, there are also a few Biblical passages that provide support for critical thinking:
See, I am sending you out like sheep into the midst of wolves; so be wise as serpents and innocent as doves.
- Jesus (Matthew 10:16)
but test everything; hold fast to what is good;
– Paul (IThessalonians 5:16)
Finally, beloved, whatever is true, whatever is honorable, whatever is just, whatever is pure, whatever is pleasing, whatever is commendable, if there is any excellence and if there is anything worthy of praise, think about these things.
– Paul (Philippians 4:8)
If the Bible contains some passages that are opposed to critical thinking and other passages that are supportive of critical thinking, then an honest and sincere Evangelical Christian might well follow the passages that are supportive of critical thinking and ignore or re-interpret those passages that are opposed to critical thinking.
- December 11, 2006 at 10:29:00 PM PST
- Chris said...
I definitely don't agree that freethought and theism can coexist. I just had a rather heated debate about this topic on my site, and your piece on Infidels was used to argue that theists can indeed be considered freethinkers at times.
I guess it depends on whether or not you group deists in with theists. But a Christian cannot be a freethinker since the only way they could have learned and accepted the notion that Jesus was the son of God would be through the authority of the Bible. There is nothing "apparent" or independently verifiable about this extraordinary claim. It exists in the Christian Bible and nowhere else, therefore the Christian who believes that Jesus was the son of God is accepting the dogma of the Bible. This is not freethought.
BookTalk - the freethinkers book discussion group
- January 19, 2007 at 8:40:00 PM PST
- the Nebes said...
I'm one of those few people that you would classify as a "freethinking theist".
I see we're dealing with semantics and given the accepted definition of "freethinker", theism and this term are somewhat at odds.
However, the word itself, "freethinker," suggests open-mindedness (and therefore 'freedom' from bias or parameters) when it comes to thinking about the world.
Now, it's important to remember that people all have different ways of viewing the world, and thus of thinking about it. And each pushes their own preferred method of thinking. Some think about things from scientific point of view, for instance. That does not mean, however, that it should be the only valid way of seeing the world. The same goes with an extreme opposite: taking literal/fundamentalist views of life/world through the lens of religion.
Scientific thinking has revealed many aspects of the physical universe -- at least all observable aspects of it, while religious and philosophical thinking reveals much about our condition as human beings (beyond that of an animal species) from a moral/psychological perspective.
But there is something that many people, from atheist to deists, keep forgetting or just dismiss: each person's life is experience is different and unique, yet more importantly, it is very real. For example, some people say they've seen ghosts (or something they've interpreted as ghosts). Others never have. Ghosts are real for those people that have experienced them, despite science not being able to prove (or disprove) their existence, whereas they're imaginary to those who have never seen any. Why should those who have never seen ghosts determine the validity of their existence?
From examples such as the one above, my free-thinking rational mind would conclude that there is more to life than just the shared observable universe.
Does God exist? My answer would be "yes". Do I know exactly what God is? No. I believe there is truly no way of expressing God in this world due to the limits of the physical universe. I mean, the universe seems to be a self-contained place with its own laws, rules, and limitations.
Additionally, I'm sure different individuals have different interpretations of what God is and is all about. Again, it comes down to personal experiences where science reaches as far as explaining the physical workings of life but not the source or meaning behind these personal events.
Anyway, I've babbled enough already and, looking back, I probably wrote much about nothing. Because, once again, only those who have had similar experiences to myself might grasp the gist of what I've written above.
- February 13, 2007 at 9:01:00 PM PST
- Fester said...
I don't believe that a Theist can be simultaneously a Freethinker - but it is certainly possible that a Theist may become a Freethinker by way of reason and conviction.
- January 22, 2011 at 2:17:00 PM PST
Mitsubishi Renewal Lamps: Hc3800 Table lamp
Also visit my web blog :: online video to mp3 converter (www.fromvideotomp3.com)
- June 16, 2013 at 12:28:00 AM PDT


text:
Difference between revisions of "Iwd"
(→Usage: mv note to appropriate section)
(→iwctl: add header for managing known networks)
|Line 72:
|Line 72:
[iwd]# device ''interface'' show
[iwd]# device ''interface'' show
known networks
[iwd]# known-networks list
[iwd]# known-networks list
a known network:
[iwd]# known-networks forget ''network_name''
[iwd]# known-networks forget ''network_name''
Revision as of 14:15, 22 March 2019
iwd (iNet wireless daemon) is a wireless daemon for Linux written by Intel that aims to replace WPA supplicant. The core goal of the project is to optimize resource utilization by not depending on any external libraries and instead utilizing features provided by the Linux Kernel to the maximum extent possible. [1]
iwd can work in standalone mode or in combination with comprehensive network managers like ConnMan, systemd-networkd and NetworkManager.
- 1 Installation
- 2 Usage
- 3 WPA Enterprise
- 4 Optional configuration
- 5 Troubleshooting
- 6 See also
The iwd package provides the client program
iwctl, the daemon
iwd and the Wi-Fi monitoring tool
iwd.service so it can be controlled using the
iwctl command.
To get an interactive prompt do:
# iwctl
The interactive prompt is then displayed with a prefix of
- In the
iwctlprompt you can auto-complete commands and device names by hitting
- You can use all commands as command line arguments without entering an interactive prompt. For example:
iwctl device wlp3s0 show.
List available commands:
[iwd]# help
Connect to a network
First, if you do not know your wireless device name, list all wifi devices:
[iwd]# device list
Then, to scan for networks:
[iwd]# station device scan
You can then list all available networks:
[iwd]# station device get-networks
Finally, to connect to a network:
[iwd]# station device connect SSID
iwdautomatically stores network passphrases in the
/var/lib/iwddirectory and uses them to auto-connect in the future. See #Optional configuration.
- To connect to a network with spaces in the SSID, the network name should be double quoted when connecting.
- iwd only supports PSK pass-phrases from 8 to 63 ASCII-encoded characters. The following error message will be given if the requirements are not met: "PMK generation failed. Ensure Crypto Engine is properly configured"
Disconnect from a network
To disconnect from a network:
[iwd]# station interface disconnect
Displaying details of a WiFi device (like MAC address, state and connected network):
[iwd]# device interface show
Manage known networks
To list networks you have connected to perviously:
[iwd]# known-networks list
To forget a known network:
[iwd]# known-networks forget network_name
WPA Enterprise
For connecting to a EAP-PWD protected enterprice access point you need to create a file called:
essid.8021x in the folder
/var/lib/iwd with the following content:
[Security] EAP-Method=PWD EAP-Identity=your_enterprise_email EAP-PWD-Password=your_password [Settings] Autoconnect=True
If you do not want autoconnect to the AP you can set the option to False and connect manually to the access point via
iwctl. The same applies to the password, if you do not want to store it plaintext leave the option out of the file and just connect to the enterprise AP.
TLS Based EAP Methods
Until Linux kernel v4.20, to connect to EAP-TLS, EAP-TTLS, and EAP-PEAP, the kernel has to be patched. Edit the PKGBUILD for the kernel and add the following sources
"iwd1.patch::https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/dhowells/linux-fs.git/patch/?id=ab2a33c1c0b1b0a45c16746dd0101057c6d432ed" "iwd2.patch::https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/dhowells/linux-fs.git/patch/?id=3a478ace6154e33009f9b01acbd4eaf7615fef0e" "iwd3.patch::https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/dhowells/linux-fs.git/patch/?id=5faadff684460b7f4064f9f28db8915a56601147" "iwd4.patch::https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/dhowells/linux-fs.git/patch/?id=3c7f3a6c70b47858a065b7a86313f390b083ee40" "iwd5.patch::https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/dhowells/linux-fs.git/patch/?id=5362bbfdf2a8a5810d4237e4dbbf5da043e47fb6" "iwd6.patch::https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/dhowells/linux-fs.git/patch/?id=5c93ce3acc010425eab01dc8e0ffb5529f3f85c1" "iwd7.patch::https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/dhowells/linux-fs.git/patch/?id=ca4d545b92cf52ffe777cc7cfbaf64100dfa6e9c" "iwd8.patch::https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/dhowells/linux-fs.git/patch/?id=f2ac228eaba9fe3f4fcf80b121eb92707afdd4de"
And add the following line to the end of the kernel config:
Then update the checksums of the PKGBUILD with
updpkgsums (from pacman-contrib):
$ updpkgsums
and build the package.
Example configuration files for these network types can be found in subdirectories here https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/network/wireless/iwd.git/tree/autotests
Optional configuration
/etc/iwd/main.conf can be used for main configuration.
By default,
iwd stores the network configuration in
/var/lib/iwd directory. The configuration file is named as
network.type where network is network SSID and type is network type i.e. one of "open", "wep", "psk", "8021x". The file is used to store the encrypted
PreSharedKey and optionally the cleartext
Passphrase and can be created by the user without invoking
iwctl. The file can also be used for other configuration pertaining to that network SSID.
A minimal example file to connect to a WPA2/PSK secured network with SSID "spaceship" and passphrase "test1234":
[Security] PreSharedKey=aafb192ce2da24d8c7805c956136f45dd612103f086034c402ed266355297295
The PreSharedKey can be calculated with wpa_passphrase from the SSID and the WIFI passphrase:
$ wpa_passphrase "spaceship" "test1234"
network={ ssid="spaceship" #psk="test1234" psk=aafb192ce2da24d8c7805c956136f45dd612103f086034c402ed266355297295 }
- _. If it contains any other characters, the name will instead be an
=-character followed by the hex-encoded version of the SSID.
Disable auto-connect for a particular network
Create / edit file
/var/lib/iwd/network.type. Add the following section to it:
/var/lib/iwd/spaceship.psk (for example)
[Settings] Autoconnect=false
Disable periodic scan for available networks
By default when
iwd is in disconnected state, it periodically scans for available networks. To disable periodic scan (so as to always scan manually), create / edit file
/etc/iwd/main.conf and add the following section to it:
[Scan] disable_periodic_scan=true
Deny console (local) user from modifying the settings
By default
iwd D-Bus interface allows any console user to connect to
iwd daemon and modify the settings, even if that user is not a root user.
If you do not want to allow console user to modify the settings but allow reading the status information, then create a D-Bus configuration file as follows.
<!-- prevent local users from changing iwd settings, but allow reading status information. overrides some part of /usr/share/dbus-1/system.d/iwd-dbus.conf. --> <!-- This configuration file specifies the required security policies for iNet Wireless Daemon to work. --> <!DOCTYPE busconfig PUBLIC "-//freedesktop//DTD D-BUS Bus Configuration 1.0//EN" "http://www.freedesktop.org/standards/dbus/1.0/busconfig.dtd"> <busconfig> <policy at_console="true"> <deny send_destination="net.connman.iwd"/> <allow send_destination="net.connman.iwd" send_interface="org.freedesktop.DBus.Properties" send_member="GetAll" /> <allow send_destination="net.connman.iwd" send_interface="org.freedesktop.DBus.Properties" send_member="Get" /> <allow send_destination="net.connman.iwd" send_interface="org.freedesktop.DBus.ObjectManager" send_member="GetManagedObjects" /> <allow send_destination="net.connman.iwd" send_interface="net.connman.iwd.Device" send_member="RegisterSignalLevelAgent" /> <allow send_destination="net.connman.iwd" send_interface="net.connman.iwd.Device" send_member="UnregisterSignalLevelAgent" /> </policy> </busconfig>
Connect issues after reboot
A low entropy pool can cause connection problems in particular noticeable after reboot. See Random number generation for suggestions to increase the entropy pool.
Systemd unit fails on startup due to device not being available
Some users have reported that the provided systemd unit does not wait for the wireless device to become available. [2] Thus, the unit fails on startup. To fix this, one can create a systemd unit with the following content:
[Unit] Description=Wireless service on %I BindsTo=sys-subsystem-net-devices-%i.device After=sys-subsystem-net-devices-%i.device [Service] Type=dbus BusName=net.connman.iwd ExecStart=/usr/lib/iwd/iwd --interface %i LimitNPROC=1 Restart=on-failure
Then one can enable the
firstname.lastname@example.com unit for the specific wireless device.
See FS#61367.


text:
by Denny Berkery
The Retailers of Glass Art and Supplies (RAGS) is an organization filled with members who are dedicated to helping one another find the best ways to operate a retail glass art business. Surveys have shown them that a nontraditional approach to marketing is a must for attracting new customers, many of whom are better reached through Internet programs, Groupon offerings, and similar promotional events.
This article was originally published on page 38 of the May/June 2011 issue of Glass Art.


text:
isbn 9781846742149 Countryside Books, 2010
This tells the story of Nottinghamshire's railway during their heyday, describing the lines, the people who built them, the trains and those who travelled on them. It also shows how the story of the county's railways is linked to the development of the mining industry. 128pp illus.


text:
Hotels aligning themselves with other brands seems all the rage at the moment despite its risky potential.
Take for instance the unlikely partnership between Bally Total Fitness and Hilton Hotels announced a few months ago. Hilton guests will be able to work out with a Bally personal trainer at the hotel or at a local Bally. Bally also designed an in-room exercise program for Hilton guests. I can't help but wonder about the thought process that led to this partnership decision.
Hilton Hotels prides itself on luxury, service and upscale properties. Bally, on the other hand, is a low-cost fitness provider and, therefore, a low service provider. Historically, Bally Total Fitness has targeted the 18- to 25-year-old market in its television ads. Additionally, Bally is currently under investigation with the Securities and Exchange Commission and will have to re-state financials going back a number of years.
Unfortunately, if you don't control the brand, you risk being tarnished by what is not in your control despite the intentions and potential. This is especially true when talking about the health club and spa industries. Brands in these industries haven't been around for a long time, and no one knows what they will look like in the future.
When I speak to real estate and hotel professionals who aren't familiar with the health club industry, they sometimes confuse Sports Club Co. (whose clubs go by Sports Club/LA) with LA Fitness — so how strong is branding in the health club industry? It doesn't compare to the hotel industry. It seems everyone is for sale, so when a new owner comes in, will the brand have the same direction? Will they care about their properties located in hotels as much as they care for their larger, more profitable properties?
The risk also exists when you align yourself with a line of equipment (although maybe not as much now since there has been so much consolidation in the industry). Maybe you were with Flex — oops, now it's Star Trac — or you were with Trotter, but now it's Cybex, or maybe you were with Body Masters, but now it has filed bankruptcy. Can you imagine how franchisees would feel if you made them buy a particular brand of equipment and that company went out of business? Corporate had better do its homework.
Spas and hotel chains have also formed partnerships. Starwood bought Bliss for its W hotels — nice match. For the reported $25 million purchase price, I would love to see the effect on occupancy and how the spa affected that. The deal, however, may have been more to own a stand-alone profit center, deliver a superior room amenity with soaps and shampoo, and build a package that would justify a higher room rate. One exec from the Bliss and Starwood organization said that his goal was that when guests check into a W, they know that they also get all of these other brands. Is the brand of the hotel not strong enough on its own? Is this what travelers want? They were extremely successful in developing their own hotel brand; I was surprised that they didn't develop their own spa brand.
Regent seems to have developed a relationship with Guerlain. Now I understand that LVMH (prior owner of Bliss) wants to put that brand up for sale. The perfume division may be separate from the spa division, but whatever direction the new owner of the perfume division takes will definitely affect the perception of the spa brand. Other hotel chains are reviewing brands in the spa industry to develop strategic relationships — again, risky when you have no control over the other brand.
Look at Elizabeth Arden, a long-standing brand in the spa industry that was purchased by North Castle Partners not long ago. The Wall Street Journal ran a story in January about some of the troubles North Castle Partners has had, especially when it purchased another large salon chain and became somewhat integrated and separate at the same time. Arden became very corporate with standard operating procedures. The staff didn't agree with some of these changes, such as discouraging spa workers from talking directly to the customer. The article quotes a former Arden customer who now uses smaller, independently owned salons/spas as saying, "The independents have a much friendlier environment."
It appears that working with a brand is not the home run some people think it is. With brands, especially in the spa business, you have to look at the next generation of spa visitors and how — or if — they will relate to an aging brand when so many new players keep entering the market. Will the brands keep up, or will they have to reinvent themselves like Arden is trying to do with its new Red Door spas?
One solution may be for hotels to develop their own brands that they can control, something Fairmont Hotels did with Willow Stream. Perhaps more hotels will try this in the future.
Glenn Colarossi is the president of Colarossi Spa & Health Club Consulting & Management. He has worked on projects throughout the world for five-star clients. He can be reached at 203-357-7555 or at www.healthclubandspa.com