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Alchemy is an influential philosophical tradition whose practitioners have, from antiquity, claimed it to be the precursor to profound powers. The defining objectives of alchemy are varied, but historically have typically included one or more of the following goals: the creation of the fabled philosopher's stone; the ability to transform base metals into the noble metals (gold or silver); and development of an elixir of life, which would confer youth and longevity.
Alchemy differs significantly from modern science in its inclusion of Hermetic principles and practices related to mythology, magic, religion, and spirituality. It is recognized as a protoscience that contributed to the development of modern chemistry and medicine. Alchemists developed a structure of basic laboratory techniques, theory, terminology, and experimental method, some of which are still in use today.
The defining goals of alchemy are often given as the transmutation of common metals into gold (known as chrysopoeia), the creation of a panacea, and the discovery of a universal solvent.[1] However, this only highlights certain aspects of alchemy. Alchemists have historically rewritten and evolved the explanation of their art, making a single definition difficult.[2] H.J. Sheppard gives the following as a comprehensive summary:
Alchemy is the art of liberating parts of the Cosmos from temporal existence and achieving perfection which, for metals is gold, and for man, longevity, then immortality and, finally, redemption. Material perfection was sought through the action of a preparation (Philosopher's Stone for metals; Elixir of Life for humans), while spiritual ennoblement resulted from some form of inner revelation or other enlightenment (Gnosis, for example, in Hellenistic and western practices).[3]
Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric aspects. The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences who have examined the subject in terms of protochemistry, medicine, and charlatanism. The latter interests psychologists, spiritual and new age communities, hermetic philosophers, and historians of esotericism.[4] The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite the modern split, numerous sources stress an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy. Holmyard, when writing on exoteric aspects, states that they cannot be properly appreciated if the esoteric is not always kept in mind.[5] The prototype for this model can be found in Bolos of Mendes' 3rd-century BCE work, Physika kai Mystika ("On Physical and Mystical Matters").[6] Marie-Louise von Franz tells us the double approach of Western alchemy was set from the start, when Greek philosophy was mixed with Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology. The technological, operative approach, which she calls extraverted, and the mystic, contemplative, psychological one, which she calls introverted are not mutually exclusive, but complementary instead, as meditation requires practice in the real world, and conversely.[7]
Relation to the science of chemistry
Practical applications of alchemy produced a wide range of contributions to medicine and the physical sciences. The alchemist Robert Boyle[8] is credited as being the father of chemistry. Paracelsian iatrochemistry emphasized the medicinal application of alchemy (continued in plant alchemy, or spagyric).[9] Studies of alchemy also influenced Isaac Newton's theory of gravity.[10] Academic historical research supports that the alchemists were searching for a material substance using physical methods.[11]
It is a popular belief that alchemists made contributions to the "chemical" industries of the day—ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of gunpowder, ink, dyes, paints, cosmetics, leather tanning, ceramics, glass manufacture, preparation of extracts, liquors, and so on (it seems that the preparation of aqua vitae, the "water of life", was a fairly popular "experiment" among European alchemists). Alchemists contributed distillation to Western Europe. The attempts of alchemists to arrange information on substances, so as to clarify and anticipate the products of their chemical reactions, resulted in early conceptions of chemical elements and the first rudimentary periodic tables. They learned how to extract metals from ores, and how to compose many types of inorganic acids and bases.
During the 17th century, practical alchemy started to disappear in favor of its younger offshoot chemistry,[12] as it was renamed by Robert Boyle, the "father of modern chemistry".[13] In his book, The Skeptical Chymist, Boyle attacked Paracelsus and the natural philosophy of Aristotle, which was taught at universities. However, Boyle's biographers, in their emphasis that he laid the foundations of modern chemistry, neglect how steadily he clung to the scholastic sciences and to alchemy, in theory, practice and doctrine.[14] The decline of alchemy continued in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework within a new view of the universe based on rational materialism.
Relation to Hermeticism
In the eyes of a variety of esoteric and Hermetic practitioners, the heart of alchemy is spiritual. Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.[6] This approach is often termed 'spiritual', 'esoteric', or 'internal' alchemy.
Early alchemists, such as Zosimos of Panopolis (c. AD 300), highlight the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul.[15] This approach continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes were used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true spiritual philosophy. Practitioners and patrons such as Melchior Cibinensis and Pope Innocent VIII existed within the ranks of the church, while Martin Luther applauded alchemy for its consistency with Christian teachings.[16] Both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning.
In his 1766 Alchemical Catechism, Théodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was a symbol:
<poem>Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver?
A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.[17]</poem>
During the renaissance, alchemy broke into more distinct schools placing spiritual alchemists in high contrast with those working with literal metals and chemicals.[18] While most spiritual alchemists also incorporate elements of exotericism, examples of a purely spiritual alchemy can be traced back as far as the 16th century, when Jacob Boehme used alchemical terminology in strictly mystical writings.[19] Another example can be found in the work of Heinrich Khunrath (1560–1605) who viewed the process of transmutation as occurring within the alchemist's soul.[18]
The recent work of L. M. Principe and William R. Newman, seeks to reject the 'spiritual interpretation' of alchemy, especially as applied to medieval, 16th- and 17th-century alchemy, stating it arose as a product of the Victorian occult revival.[20] There is evidence to support that some classical alchemical sources were adulterated during this time to give greater weight to the spiritual aspects of alchemy.[21][22] Despite this, other scholars such as Calian and Tilton reject this view as entirely historically inaccurate, drawing examples of historical spiritual alchemy from Boehme, Isaac Newton, and Michael Maier.[23]
{{#invoke:main|main}} The word alchemy may derive from the Old French alquimie, which is from the Medieval Latin alchimia, and which is in turn from the Arabic al-kimia (Template:Rtl-lang). This term itself is derived from the Ancient Greek chemeia (χημεία) or chemia (χημία)[24] with the addition of the Arabic definite article al- (Template:Rtl-lang).[25] The ancient Greek word may have been derived from[26] a version of the Egyptian name for Egypt, which was itself based on the Ancient Egyptian word kēme (hieroglyphic Khmi, black earth, as opposed to desert sand).[25]
The word could also have originally derived from the Greek chumeia (χυμεία) meaning "mixture" and referring to pharmaceutical chemistry.[27] With the later rise of alchemy in Alexandria, the word may have derived from Χημία, and thus became spelled as χημεία, and the original meaning forgotten.[28] Its etymology is still open to question.
Alchemy covers several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: Chinese alchemy, centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; Indian alchemy, centered around the Indian subcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center has shifted over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt, to the Islamic world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the Dharmic faiths, whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced by, various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.
Alchemy in Greco-Roman Egypt
The start of European alchemy may generally be traced to Hellenistic Egypt. The Hellenistic city of Alexandria was a center of Greek alchemical knowledge, and retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.[29] Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and Greek philosophy, each with their own much longer histories, combined to form the earliest known records of alchemy in the West. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote the oldest known books on alchemy {{ safesubst:#invoke:Unsubst||date=__DATE__ |$B= {{#invoke:Category handler|main}}{{#invoke:Category handler|main}}[citation needed] }} while Mary the Jewess is credited as being the first non-fictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in Greek and lived in Egypt under Roman rule.
Mythology – Zosimos of Panopolis claimed that alchemy dated back to pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class; there is little or no evidence for such a claim though.[30] Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation.[31] These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many others.
The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge.[32] The Hermetica of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era.
Technology – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, extending back to 3500 BCE.[33] Many writings were lost when the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books[34] after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (292 CE). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leyden papyrus X. Dating from 300 to 500 CE, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and the manufacture of imitation gold and silver.[35] These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes (or Pseudo-Democritus) which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the Classical elements.[36] Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.[37]
Philosophy – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's character.[36] An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and fire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed.[38] The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are. "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form."[39] Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. Lactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. Augustine (354–430 CE) later affirmed this, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry.[40] Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period.
Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Moses, Isis, Cleopatra, Democritus, and Ostanes. Others authors such as Komarios, and Chymes, we only know through fragments of text. After 400 CE, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors.[41] By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline.[42] It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.[43]
Alchemy in the Islamic world
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations.[44] The word alchemy itself was derived from the Arabic word الكيمياء al-kimia. The Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries.
In the late 8th century, Jābir ibn Hayyān (known as "Geber" in Europe) introduced a new approach to alchemy, based on scientific methodology and controlled experimentation in the laboratory, in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very little concern for laboratory work.[45] Jabir is thus "considered by many to be the father of chemistry",[46] albeit others reserve that title for Robert Boyle or Antoine Lavoisier. The historian of science, Paul Kraus, wrote:
To form an idea of the historical place of Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the problem of its sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the Greek language. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected by Byzantine scientists from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages.
The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugiere and others, could make clear only few points of detail ....
The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense which refuses any interpretation.
It is different with Jabir's alchemy. The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical apparati, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between the `ilm and the `amal. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented, for example, in the Book of Seventy.[45]
Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentation:
The first essential in chemistry is that thou shouldest perform practical work and conduct experiments,
for he who performs not practical work nor makes experiments will never attain to the least degree of mastery.[47]
Early Islamic chemists such as Jabir Ibn Hayyan (جابر بن حيان in Arabic, Geberus in Latin; usually rendered in English as Geber), Al-Kindi (Alkindus) and Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rasis or Rhazes in Latin) contributed a number of key chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic (hydrochloric acid), sulfuric and nitric acids, and more. The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, could dissolve the noblest metal, gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium.
Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness.[48] According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.[48] By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.
The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical elements (aether, air, earth, fire and water), in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals: sulphur, 'the stone which burns', which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity.[49] The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.[50]
During the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including Alkindus,[51] Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,[52] Avicenna[53] and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the transmutation of metals.
Alchemy in Medieval Europe
The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe occurred on 11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the Arabic Book of the Composition of Alchemy. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century Toledo, Spain, through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath.[54] Translations of the time included the Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.[55]
Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. Saint Anselm (1033–1109) put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context.
Peter Abelard (1079–1142) followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. And later, Robert Grosseteste (1170–1253) used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.[56]
Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered around translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon are the most notable of these.[57] Their works explained and summarized the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. There is little to suggest that Albertus Magnus (1193–1280), a Dominican, was himself an alchemist. In his authentic works such as the Book of Minerals, he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus, and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, twenty-eight or more alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist.[58] Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274).
Roger Bacon (1214–1294) was an Oxford Franciscan who studied a wide variety of topics including optics, languages and medicine. After studying the Pseudo-Aristotelian Secretum Secretorum around 1247, he dramatically shifted his studies towards a vision of a universal science which included alchemy and astrology. Bacon maintained that Albertus Magnus' ignorance of the fundamentals of alchemy prevented a complete picture of wisdom. While alchemy was not more important to him than any of the other sciences, and he did not produce symbolic allegorical works, Bacon's contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology. Bacon's writings demonstrated an integration of morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Pope Clement IV highlighted this integration, calling attention to the importance of alchemy to the papacy.[59] Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into the practical and theoretical. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical however, confirmed the theoretical through experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.[60]
Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Pseudo-Geber (sometimes identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared. His Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described.[61] By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.[62]
In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves.[63] Dante, Piers the Ploughman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, Spondent quas non exhibent forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists.[64] In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (Although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV [65]). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.[66]
Nicolas Flamel is a well known alchemist, but a good example of pseudepigraphy, the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Though the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612.[67][68] Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone.[69]
Through the late Middle Ages (1300–1500) alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions in the 14th and 15th centuries. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.
Alchemy in the Renaissance and modern age
During the Renaissance, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed.
Francis Melville, in his translation of the Arabic Book of the Composition of Alchemy, commented on the Emerald Tablet and the Hermetic texts by stating, "Here was an ancient body of theological, philosophical, scientific, and medical writings of extraordinary beauty, intellectual power, and spiritual authority, in which Jews, Christians, and Muslims could find confirmations, amplifications, and refinements of their own sacred teachings."
In the late 15th century, Marsilo Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. Renaissance Humanism and Renaissance Neoplatonism guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel.
Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535) who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his De Occulta Philosophia he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermetism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.[70][71]
Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from chrysopoeia. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."[72]
His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them.[73] Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named spagyrics (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning to separate and to join together, based on the Latin alchemic maxim: solve et coagula).[74] Iatrochemistry also refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus.
John Dee (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Though better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I, Dee's alchemical Monas Hieroglyphica, written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom As above so below.[75]
Entrepreneurial opportunities were not uncommon for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones.[76] Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate Edward Kelley. King James IV of Scotland,[77] Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Augustus, Elector of Saxony, Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, and Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel all contracted alchemists.[78] John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physician to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchemical book Fasciculus Chemicus.
Though most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. Betrüger would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists.[79] False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud.
The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Michael Sendivogius (Michał Sędziwój, 1566–1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van Helmont. Their Hermetism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science.
The decline of European alchemy
The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its apogee in the 18th century. As late as 1781 James Price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold.
Robert Boyle (1627–1691), better known for his studies of gases (cf. Boyle's law) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.[80] This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton — which finally provided a logical, quantitative and reliable framework for understanding matter transmutations, and revealed the futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philosopher's stone.
Meanwhile, Paracelsian alchemy led to the development of modern medicine. Experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the human body, such as blood circulation (Harvey, 1616), and eventually traced many diseases to infections with germs (Koch and Pasteur, 19th century) or lack of natural nutrients and vitamins (Lind, Eijkman, Funk, et al.). Supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry, the new science easily displaced alchemy from its medical roles, interpretive and prescriptive, while deflating its hopes of miraculous elixirs and exposing the ineffectiveness or even toxicity of its remedies.
During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the Royal Society: Robert Boyle and Elias Ashmole. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels.[81]
The words "alchemy" and "chemistry" were used interchangeably during most of the 17th century; only during the 18th century was a distinction drawn rigidly between the two.[20][82] In the 18th century, "alchemy" was considered to be restricted to the realm of "gold making", leading to the popular belief that most, if not all, alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.[82] The obscure and secretive writings of the alchemists was used as a case by those who wished to forward a fraudulent and non-scientific opinion of alchemy.[83] In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to separate and divorce the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, and even to the present day.[84]
During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science.[83][85] The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience.[20][86][87] This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.[87]
In the 19th century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy."[88][89] Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock, in his Remarks Upon Alchymists (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron Carl Reichenbach, published his studies on Odic force, a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.[90]
Indian alchemy
{{#invoke:main|main}} {{#invoke:see also|seealso}}
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the Vedas describe a connection between eternal life and gold. The use of Mercury for alchemy is first documented in the 4th- to 3rd-century BC Artha-śāstra. Buddhist texts from 2nd- to 5th-century AD mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. Greek alchemy was introduced to Ancient India through the invasions of Alexander the Great in 325 BC, and kingdoms that were culturally influenced by the Greeks like Gandhāra.[91]
An 11th-century Persian chemist and physician named Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī reported that they "have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which in Sanskrit is called Rasayāna and in Persian Rasavātam. It means the art of obtaining/manipulating Rasa: nectar, mercury, and juice. This art was restricted to certain operations, metals, drugs, compounds, and medicines, many of which have mercury as their core element. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age." One thing is sure though, Indian alchemy like every other Indian science is focused on finding Moksha: perfection, immortality, liberation. As such it focuses its efforts on transmutation of the human body: from mortal to immortal. Many are the traditional stories of alchemists still alive since time immemorial due to the effects of their experiments.
Since alchemy eventually became ingrained in the vast field of Indian erudition, influences from other metaphysical and philosophical doctrines such as Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika and Ayurveda were inevitable. Nonetheless, most of the Rasayāna texts track their origins back to Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of Matsyendranath.
Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Nāgārjuna Siddha and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, Rasendramangalam, is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote Rasaratnākara, also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, "rasa" translates as "mercury" and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method or converting mercury into gold.[92]
Reliable scholarship on Indian alchemy has been advanced in a major way by the publication of The Alchemical Body by David Gordon White.[93] Trustworthy scholarship on Indian alchemy must now take the findings of this work into account.
An important modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has also been provided by David Gordon White at Oxford Bibliographies Online.[94]
Chinese alchemy
Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble ones, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears.
Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, Chinese alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a potion for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Arab world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century.
Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional Chinese medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion, and to martial arts such as Tai Chi Chuan and Kung Fu (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the philosophical or hygienic branches of Taoism, not Alchemical). In fact, in the early Song Dynasty, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest mercuric sulfide, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the Qi, etc.).
Alchemy as a subject of historical research
The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study.[95] As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and philosophy, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements.[96] Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana University, the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE), and the University of Amsterdam's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam. Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include 'Ambix', published by the Society for the History of alchemy and Chemistry, and 'Isis', published by The History of Science Society.
Modern alchemy
Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.[97] Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman, have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These practitioners have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.[98]
At the opposite end of the spectrum, esoteric alchemists interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements.[99] Groups like the rosicrucians and freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism.
Alchemy in traditional medicine
Traditional medicine sometimes involves the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In Ayurveda the samskaras are claimed to transform heavy metals and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day.[100]
Spagyrists of the 20th century Albert Richard Riedel and Jean Dubuis merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The schools they founded, Les Philosophes de la Nature and The Paracelsus Research Society, popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products.[101] The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a new age medicinal practice.
Alchemical symbolism has been used by psychologists such as Carl Jung who reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and presented the inner meaning of alchemical work as a spiritual path.[102][103] Jung was deeply interested in the occult since his youth, participating in seances, which he used as the basis for his doctoral dissertation "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena."[104] In 1913, Jung had already adopted a "spiritualist and redemptive interpretation of alchemy", likely reflecting his interest in the occult literature of the 19th century.[105] Jung began writing his views on alchemy from the 1920s and continued until the end of his life. His interpretation of Chinese alchemical texts in terms of his analytical psychology also served the function of comparing Eastern and Western alchemical imagery and core concepts and hence its possible inner sources (archetypes).[106][107][108]
Jung saw alchemy as a Western proto-psychology dedicated to the achievement of individuation.[102][108] In his interpretation, alchemy was the vessel by which Gnosticism survived its various purges into the Renaissance,[108][109] a concept also followed by others such as Stephan A. Hoeller. In this sense, Jung viewed alchemy as comparable to a Yoga of the East, and more adequate to the Western mind than Eastern religions and philosophies. The practice of Alchemy seemed to change the mind and spirit of the Alchemist. Conversely, spontaneous changes on the mind of Western people undergoing any important stage in individuation seems to produce, on occasion, imagery known to Alchemy and relevant to the person's situation.[110] Jung did not completely reject the material experiments of the alchemists, but he massively downplayed it, writing that the transmutation was performed in the mind of the alchemist. He claimed the material substances and procedures were only a projection of the alchemists' internal state, while the real substance to be transformed was the mind itself.[111]
Marie-Louise von Franz, a disciple of Jung, continued Jung's studies on alchemy and its psychological meaning. Jung's work exercised a great influence on the mainstream perception of alchemy, his approach becoming a stock element in many popular texts on the subject to this day.[112] Modern scholars are sometimes critical of the Jungian approach to alchemy as overly reflective of 19th-century occultism.[20][85][113]
Magnum opus
{{#invoke:main|main}} The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors.
- nigredo, a blackening or melanosis
- albedo, a whitening or leucosis
- citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis
- rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis[114]
Alchemy in art and entertainment
{{#invoke:main|main}} Alchemy has had a long standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of Terry Pratchett.
Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, comics and video games.
See also
Notes and references
- ↑ Alchemy at Dictionary.com.
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ For a detailed look into the problems of defining alchemy, see Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. Western esotericism and the science of religion. 1995. p.96
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Arthur Greenburg. From alchemy to chemistry in picture and story.
- ↑ H. Stanley Redgrove. Alchemy Ancient and Modern p.60
- ↑ Mitch Stokes. Isaac Newton p. 57
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ William R Newman & Lawrence M Principe (1998) "The Etymological Origins of an Historiographic Mistake" in Early Science and Medicine, Vol. 3, No. 1 pp. 32–65
- ↑ Template:Cite web
- ↑ {{#invoke:Citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=journal }}
- ↑ Allen G. Debus. Alchemy and early modern chemistry. The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry. p.34.
- ↑ Raphael Patai. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. Princeton University Press. p.4
- ↑ Théodore Henri de Tschudi. Hermetic Catechism in his L'Etoile Flamboyant ou la Société des Franc-Maçons considerée sous tous les aspects. 1766. (A.E. Waite translation as found in The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus.)
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Raphael Patai. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. Princeton University Press. p.3
- ↑ Daniel Merkur. Gnosis: an esoteric tradition of mystical visions and unions. State University of New York Press. p.75
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Newton and Newtonianism by James E. Force, Sarah Hutton, p211
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ alchemy, Oxford Dictionaries
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 Template:OED Or see Template:OEtymD.
- ↑ See, for example, the etymology for χημεία in {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ See, for example, both the etymology given in the Oxford English Dictionary and also that for χυμεία in {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ The original source for this analysis is the article on pp. 81–85 of {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ New Scientist, 24–31 December 1987
- ↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ Yves Bonnefoy. 'Roman and European Mythologies'. University of Chicago Press, 1992. pp. 211–213
- ↑ Clement, Stromata, vi. 4.
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 A History of Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent, Isabelle Stengers, Harvard University Press, 1996, p13
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ Fanning, Philip Ashley. Isaac Newton and the Transmutation of Alchemy: An Alternative View of the Scientific Revolution. 2009. p.6
- ↑ F. Sherwood Taylor. Alchemists, Founders of Modern Chemistry. p.26.
- ↑ Allen G. Debus. Alchemy and early modern chemistry: papers from Ambix. p. 36
- ↑ Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar. Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world. p. 284–285
- ↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 Kraus, Paul, Jâbir ibn Hayyân, Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque,. Cairo (1942–1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam. 67–68), Frankfurt. 2002: (cf. Template:Cite web)
- ↑ {{#invoke:Citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=journal }}
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ Strathern, Paul. (2000), Mendeleyev's Dream – the Quest for the Elements, New York: Berkley Books
- ↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ Felix Klein-Frank (2001), "Al-Kindi", in Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr, History of Islamic Philosophy, p. 174. London: Routledge.
- ↑ {{#invoke:Citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=journal }}
- ↑ Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 196–197.
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ John Read. From Alchemy to Chemistry. 1995 p.90
- ↑ James A. Weisheipl. Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays. PIMS. 1980. p.187-202
- ↑ Edmund Brehm. "Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy." Ambix. Vol. 23, Part I, March 1976.
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Template:Harvnb.
- ↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire. University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49
- ↑ John Hines, II, R. F. Yeager. John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition. Boydell & Brewer. 2010. p.170
- ↑ D. Geoghegan, "A licence of Henry VI to practise Alchemy" Ambix, volume 6, 1957, pages 10-17
- ↑ Leah DeVun. From Prophecy, Alchemy, and the End of Time: John of Rupescissa in the late Middle Ages. Columbia University Press, 2009. p. 104
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ "Nicolas Flamel. Des Livres et de l'or" by Nigel Wilkins
- ↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ Glenn Alexander Magee. Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition. Cornell University Press. 2008. p.30
- ↑ Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction. Oxford University Press. 2008 p.60
- ↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑ Joseph Needham. Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 5, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Physiological Alchemy. Cambridge University Press. P.9
- ↑ William Royall Newman, Anthony Grafton. ''Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe''. MIT Press, 2001. P.173.
- ↑ Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire. p.4
- ↑ Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, vol. iii, (1901), 99, 202, 206, 209, 330, 340, 341, 353, 355, 365, 379, 382, 389, 409.
- ↑ Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire. p.85-98
- ↑ Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire. p.171
- ↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=book }}
- ↑
- Journal of the History of Ideas, 41, 1980, p293-318
- Template:Harvnb
- The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest, by Lawrence M. Principe, 'Princeton University Press', 1998, pp 188 90
- ↑ 82.0 82.1 Template:Harvnb
- ↑ 83.0 83.1 Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ 85.0 85.1 Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ 87.0 87.1 Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Daniel Merkur. Gnosis: An Esoteric Tradition of Mystical Visions and Unions. SUNY Press. 1993 p.55
- ↑ Multhauf, Robert P. & Gilbert, Robert Andrew (2008). Alchemy. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008).
- ↑ See Dominik Wujastyk, "An Alchemical Ghost: The Rasaratnākara of Nāgarjuna" in Ambix 31.2 (1984): 70-83. Online at http://univie.academia.edu/DominikWujastyk/Papers/152766/
- ↑ See bibliographical details and links at http://openlibrary.org/works/OL3266066W/The_Alchemical_Body
- ↑ Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. Western esotericism and the science of religion. 1995. p.viii–xvi
- ↑ See Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism website
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Richard Conniff. "Alchemy May Not Have Been the Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was." Smithsonian Magazine. February 2014.
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Junius, Manfred M; The Practical Handbook of Plant Alchemy: An Herbalist's Guide to Preparing Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs; Healing Arts Press 1985
- ↑ Joscelyn Godwin. The Golden Thread: The Ageless Wisdom of the Western Mystery Traditions. Quest Books, 2007. p.120
- ↑ 102.0 102.1 Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed. 1968 Collected Works Vol. 12 ISBN 0-691-01831-6). London: Routledge.
- ↑ Jung, C. G., & Hinkle, B. M. (1912). Psychology of the Unconscious : a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido, a contribution to the history of the evolution of thought. London: Kegan Paul Trench Trubner. (revised in 1952 as Symbols of Transformation, Collected Works Vol.5 ISBN 0-691-01815-4).
- ↑ The Jung Cult, by Ricard Noll, Princeton University Press, 1994, p144
- ↑ Noll. Aryan Christ. p171
- ↑ C.-G. Jung Preface to Richard Wilhelm's translation of the I Ching.
- ↑ C.-G. Jung Preface to the translation of The Secret of The Golden Flower.
- ↑ 108.0 108.1 108.2 Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. The Cambridge companion to Jung. Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33
- ↑ Jung, C. G., & Jaffe A. (1962). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. London: Collins. This is Jung's autobiography, recorded and edited by Aniela Jaffe, ISBN 0-679-72395-1.
- ↑ Jung, C. G.—Psychology and Alchemy; Symbols of Transformation.
- ↑ Redemption in Alchemy, by Carl Jung, p210
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Template:Harvnb
- ↑ Joseph Needham. Science & Civilisation in China: Chemistry and chemical technology. Spagyrical discovery and invention : magisteries of gold and immortality. Cambridge. 1974. p.23
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External links
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- SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry
- ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism
- Association for the Study of Esotericism
- The Alchemy Website. – Adam McLean's online collections and academic discussion.
- Template:In Our Time
- Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Alchemy
- Book of Secrets: Alchemy and the European Imagination, 1500-2000 – A digital exhibition from the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University
Template:Alchemy Template:Metaphysics Template:Philosophy of science


text:
Im not sure if I ask here, but could someone make me an avatar with this picture?
Picture: http://i51.tinypic.com/fokgtg.jpg Just of her face, thank you.
James wrote:Here's a version which adheres to the rule of thirds at the expense of her hat.
Zhuanyong wrote:Rule of thirds?
Zhuanyong wrote:Yours is higher quality, I don't have PS on my work computer.
Zhuanyong wrote:Side note: Are you going to post those avis I sent you? I will be sending you another batch once eps 37 & 38 are released.
James wrote:The rule of thirds is derived in ways from the golden ratio and is one of the most important rules of photography, but it also plays an important role in painting and other mediums where the final result is an unmoving artistic presentation (whether it be a bee, a barn, or a bloke). Playing on how we visually take in the context of presented media (a photograph, a painting, an avatar, or even sequences of a movie) it is just a simple rule of thumb which helps to frame a subject in an interesting and aesthetically pleasing manner. It all comes down to what the subject of the avatar is. Usually if you want to include something like a hat you have to zoom out more and include some clothing to achieve the proper balance, but sometimes when working with smaller dimensions that can be prohibitive. All it really boils down to is I dropped the hat to make her face the focus, moved her eyes up along the top third division, and off-set her to the left a little to accent the way her hair flows and make the avatar a little more interesting.
James wrote:I've just been busy for the most recent days working, painting in my home, and preparing for a wedding.
Zhuanyong wrote:We usually use our eyes to look top-to-bottom or otherwise center-out.
Zhuanyong wrote:Trust me, I understand. I spent over six hours this past weekend putting up a swingset. We may also be painting the inside of our home in the upcoming months. Planted a garden outside.
If it's your wedding, then CONGRATS!!! Hope it's an awesome experience! If not, then congrats to whoever will be enjoying the rest of their life with their lovely lady or fellow.
James wrote:From my understanding and experience we tend to look for a quick initial focal point in the central areas toward a corner roughly relative to where a 2x2 evenly spaced grid would find juncture points, thus the reason why the 'rule of thirds' has become so loved in various artistic communities. Once we find our initial focal point we either search for one which is more appropriate (artists hope to avoid this) or we follow that focal point to other interests as we explore the work.
Sanada wrote:Can someone make a avatar and a sig about Yukimura Sanada?
Thank you in advance.
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French Open 2012
Highlights from this year's French Open. Rafael Nadal won his record-setting seventh French Open title on June 11, defeating world No. 1 Novak Djokovic 6-4, 6-3, 2-6, 7-5 in their rain-delayed final to break a tie with Bjorn Borg for most titles won in the clay court major.


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Welcome to the Parish Church of Saint Aidan Bamburgh, Northumberland.
A place of worship was founded on the site of the present church in 635 by Saint Aidan. St Aidan was called to Bamburgh from Iona by King Oswald to establish Christianity in his newly united kingdom of Northumbria.
No trace of that wooden building can now be seen – other than perhaps a beam in the Baptistery. Tradition has it that this is the beam that St Aidan was leaning against when he died and it is said to have miraculously survived two fires.
The site of St Aidan's death is marked by a simple shrine within the present church. The church building that is now seen dates from the end of the 12th century.
This parish church has been a focus of pilgrimage over the centuries and modern day visitors and pilgrims are very welcome.
As well as being the Apostle of Northumbria, Aidan is rightly regarded as the Apostle of England. This parish church is therefore not only the "mother church" of the modern day Diocese of Newcastle but also central to the history of Christianity in this land.
The church works closely with the Grace Darling Museum, just across the road, and both in the church and in the churchyard memorials to the Victorian heroine can be found.
School groups exploring the heritage of the northern saints and Grace Darling are most welcome.
Today, as in times past, the church seeks to serve the people of this small village and scattered parish; it offers traditional and contemporary worship; it is a place of calm and reflection in a beautiful setting. St Aidan's neighbouring churches can found at www.achurchnearyou.com/bamburgh-st-aidan and information about the Church of England found at www.cofe.anglican.org


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INDOFirmware.site – On this page, you will get the official link firmware Itel IT2060 Stock ROM ( Flash File ) on your Computer. The Firmware comes in a zip package, which contains Flash File, Free Flash Tool, USB Driver and Guide How-to Flash Manual.
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- Miracle BOX App
- Itel IT2060 And Make sure the battery Capacity more than 50% to prevent Failed when Flashing.
How to Flash Itel IT2060 Use this Stock ROM by Miracle Box
- Install USB Driver
- Extract Downloaded Stock ROM using Winrar, Winzip or 7zip App
- Open Miracle BOX
- Wait untill Miracle Box Software opens to the Dashboard
- Choose Chipset model ex : Mediatek, SPD or compatible with your android will FLashing
- Choose Chipset model Ex MT6735
- Select Folder Icon Located and Choose Extracted Firmware File
- Click Start Button
- Turn Off your Phone and connect to PC Using Compatible USB Cable Miracle Box should detect the phone
- When device Detected Miracle box should begin flashing the firmware, wait till it gets to 100%
- Once it gets to 100%, close Miracle box and disconnect the phone
If still confused please follow complete tutorial How to FLash android using Miracle Box with Picture
Congratulation Now Your Phone already Succes FLashing
Notes :
# That's basically how to flash a Mediatek Android phone's firmware using Miracle box
# If Flashing failed may be Your Phone damage by Hardware not Firmware. or try using other tool and firmware file
# Please backup before start Flashing cause all of your data on the phone will be erased.
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We have a few unfilled seats for InfoCat's annual TM1/Express update day. If you are interested in seeing a demonstration of the latest "Planning Analytics powered by TM1" and "Planning Analytics Workspace", the all-new web-based front end for TM1, then please register using this link http://www.infocat.co.uk/events/register.
There will also be an update on the latest versions and recent product enhancements and we are pleased to welcome Chris Marriott from IBM for a review of the product road maps and IBM's cloud strategy. Details of timings and location can be found on our web site at http://www.infocat.co.uk/events.
InfoCat TM1 and Cognos Express update day - Monday 27 June
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Durban, South Africa, 11 December 2011 (IUCN). Governments at the UN climate talks in Durban agree on a package of measures to sustain current global efforts to reduce harmful greenhouse gas emissions and to conclude a new agreement with legal force that would involve all countries in averting the threat of dangerous global climate change.
In addition, the agreement on a Green Climate Fund and initial financial pledges offer hope that sufficient finance will flow to deal with climate change impacts.
"We had anticipated that Durban would be where the developed world would raise the bar on their current ambitions and all countries would purposefully commit to the development of a credible roadmap for deep and wide ranging targets for the comprehensive reduction of greenhouse gas emissions," says Stewart Maginnis, IUCN's Director of Environment and Development. "This has been achieved, and steps have been laid out for a new agreement to be put in place by 2015. A new spirit of compromise spanning the developed and developing countries is an encouraging step forward."
This comes in the nick of time, as climate change is not going to wait for the negotiations on this new deal to be finalized. The impacts on ecosystems and peoples' lives will continue to become more and more evident and resolving these will come at an ever-increasing cost in years to come.
The Durban Package signals recognition that the world's governments will purposely and comprehensively address the causes of climate change. The final agreement that will involve all countries will have to ensure that climate change mitigation measures are sufficient to meet the goal of keeping global temperature rise below 2°C.
The package also makes it clear that national governments will step up their own efforts both to reduce emissions and to adapt to climate change, and to apply "no regrets" solutions while the final architecture of the agreements are hammered out.
There is growing bottom-up demand to manage natural systems better to buy the world's vulnerable communities some much needed breathing space in mitigating and adapting to climate change. In this respect it is imperative that national governments continue to take early, no regrets actions, as seen in countries like Rwanda, which earlier this year committed to a comprehensive border-to-border restoration of its degraded soils, wetlands and forests.
IUCN applauds the momentum that has resulted in a second commitment period to the Kyoto Protocol and strongly urges Parties to the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) to move swiftly towards putting in place a new global agreement that has legal force, aiming to stabilize the world's climate. Investments in the Green Climate Fund should provide the necessary resources for countries to move ahead with their own efforts. Among these there should be an increased emphasis on building on what already works: the power of intact natural ecosystems.
"Ecosystem- based approaches to climate change mitigation and adaptation are cost effective, no-regrets solutions that governments ought to incorporate proactively into national policies and take immediate action to implement on the ground," adds Maginnis. "Improving the management of river systems, coastal ecosystems, coral reefs, mangroves and forests, and dryland systems can conserve carbon and improve the resilience of communities to deal with both the sudden and long-term consequences of climate change."
For more information or to set up interviews, please contact:
Ewa Magiera, m +41 79 856 76 26, email@example.com;
Brian Thomson, m CH +41 79 721 8326, e firstname.lastname@example.com;
Daniel Shaw, m CH +41 79 345 1404, e email@example.com;


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The Chicago High School for Agricultural Sciences was abuzz with activity last Friday, September 16th, when Dennis Pietranduono presented two pregnant mares–Calling Card and Vega to the students at the Chicago High School for Agricultural Sciences. Chicago Public School CEO Juan-Caaude Brizard and Chief of Schools Harrison Peters joined elected officials Alderman Matt O'Shea and Senator William Maloney joined Advisory Board Co-Chairs,Attorney Rouhy Shalabi and Eli's Marc Schulman for the arrival of the mares and a tour of the school.
This program is unique as students in the Animal Science Pathway along with some Special Education students will participate in a special program that will allow them to raise and eventually sell horses for harness racing. During this program students will be able to experience the birthing process and the raising of the foals.


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50 cities, 50 last-minute Valentine's dates
If your romantic tendencies don't include pre-planning or gift splurging, you're in luck.
This guide to last minute (but totally cool) Valentine's dates will leave you looking mushier than "Titanic 3D." In a good way.
Failure to book in advance just became a good thing.
1. Amsterdam: Win prizes at a comedy show
Prizes are available at a special "Valentijnsdag" improv comedy show.
The aptly named Rozentheater (literally "Roses Theater"), new home of Boom Chicago, the 'Dam's biggest comedy show, features bubbly (prosecco), a Valentine's sex quiz (with prizes) and the comedy troupe's hilarious new show, "Baby I Like it Raw!"
Rozengracht 117, Amsterdam; www.boomchicago.nl
2. Athens: Stroll the Gazi District
Enough with the Colosseum. The spot to head now in Athens is the Gazi District, a transformed public gasworks and Athens' hippest address with cafes, bars, coffee shops and lots of amusing graffiti.
3. Auckland: Give your partner the stars
You can tour planets, stars and celestial objects like the Rosebud Nebula at Stardome Planetarium.
Valentine packages include the show, champagne, a gift basket and your own adopted star that comes with a certificate, a star chart showing where to find it and info on its constellation.
670 Manukau Road, One Tree Hill, Auckland, New Zealand; +64 9 624 1246; www.stardome.org.nz
4. Banff, Canada: Drink martinis amid mountains
Ah, martinis in the Canadian Rockies. At Eden bar in The Rimrock Resort Hotel guests can try the "My Name is Jewel" martini.
It's made from rare Napa vodka, 150-year-old Grand Marnier and Delamonte brut champagne and comes decorated with either Swarovski Crystal earrings or diamond hoop earrings.
Yes, you get to keep them.
The Rimrock Resort Hotel, 300 Mountain Ave., Banff, Alberta, Canada; +1 403 762 3356; www.rimrockresort.com
5. Barcelona: Count on chocolate
Orio Balaguer is a prize-winning pastry chef whose chocolates are sold across the globe.
A visit to his original shops in Barcelona should be a pilgrimage on any chocolate lover's bucket list. Confectionary is displayed like precious jewels.
For Valentine's fireworks, there's the Mazcleta, chocolate with crystals that pop and sizzle on impact with your tongue.
Oriol Balaguer Shop Barcelona, Pl. Sant Gregori Taumaturg, 2; +34 932 011 846 or Travessera de les Corts, 340 Barcelona; +34 933 632 298; www.oriolbalaguer.com
6. Beijing: Groove to a techno pioneer
Never mind that one of DJ Mickey Zhang's most popular songs was "Axe Murderer."
He and DJ Ouyang are spinning a free Valentine's show, followed by fireworks, at Yugong Yishan that, like a phoenix, arose from the ashes after its 2007 get-gussied-up-for-the-Olympics demolition.
Still the best live house in Beijing, its resurrection revealed a bigger stage, a better sound system and a dance floor that can accommodate up to 700 ravers.
Dongcheng district, Zhang Zizhong Road 3-2; +86 010 8402 8477; www.yugongyishan.com
7. Berlin: Snuggle up at the Tajikistan Teestube
Berliners tried to keep Tajikistan Teestube, an intimate tea room that was once displayed at the Leipzig Fair, a secret. They failed.
Although you'll miss the fairy tales (they're told every Monday by candlelight), you can enjoy 30 types of tea, sit on beautiful Persian carpets (chairs are verboten and you have to remove your shoes) and lie back on woven pillows as you nod amiably at the tea room's motto, "Tee trinken heisst die Welt vergessen," which roughly translates, "Drink some tea and forget your troubles."
Oranienburger Str. 27 at KunstHof, 10117 Berlin – Mitte; +49 30 204 11 12; www.tadshikische-teestube.de
8. Brisbane, Australia: Go on a grape date
Charter a helicopter to take you to the Granite Belt's best boutique wineries.
+61 7 3201 0005; www.pterodactylhelicopters.com.au
9. Buenos Aires: Take a tango class
Tango practically screams sex, romance and all that Valentine's Day stands for. And there's a magazine that tells you where to go to get down.
Compiled by Tito Palumbo, B.A. Tango is one of the city's many dedicated tango magazines. Not only does it list such primo tango houses as Rojo Tango and El Querandi, but it lists milongas (tango salons), teachers and places such as Academia Nacional de Tango that offer tango lessons every evening.
Tango maps are also available at most tourism kiosks.
10. Cairo: Get kinky with chocolate and sugar
Egyptians celebrate Valentine's Day on November 4, but massage therapists at the spa at Four Seasons First Residence will rub both your bodies on February 14 with either chocolate (it's said to be an aphrodisiac) or brown sugar body polish for a full two hours.
Also thrown in during the Hot Coco and Sugar Rush spa treatments are strawberries, chocolate and red roses.
Four Seasons Hotel Cairo at The First Residence, 35 Giza St., Giza, Cairo, Egypt 12311; +20 2 3567 1600; www.fourseasons.com
11. Cape Town, South Africa: Open champagne with a sword
Called sabrage, this unique bottle-opening ceremony was started by Napoleon to celebrate his countless European victories.
A small sword (a champagne saber) is slid along the bottle (it's held at a 20-degree angle), which, according to some weird law of physics, breaks away the neck.
Table Bay Hotel, a stunning spot with towering windows and an impressive high tea, offers the sabrage ceremony on Valentine's Day, as well as the other 364 days of the year.
Table Bay Hotel, Quay 6, Victoria & Alfred Waterfront, Cape Town; +27 21 4065 0000, www.suninternational.com
12. Chicago: Ice skate for free
Although known to attract skating zombies and Santas (for setting Guinness records), McCormick Tribune Ice Rink reserves its eat-your-heart-out-Rockefeller Center-sized rink for glove-holding lovers on Cupid's Day.
201 E. Randolph St., Chicago, Ill.; +1 312 742 1168
13. Copenhagen, Denmark: Watch a movie in a love seat
The Falkoner Cinema has private, back-of-the-room love seats for two. Whether or not you decide to watch the film? Up to you.
Sylows Allé 15, 2000 Frederiksberg C, Copenhagen, Denmark; +45 7013 1211; www.falkonerbio.dk
14. Dubai, United Arab Emirates: Buy some sparkle
At Dubai's Gold Souk it's rumored that, at any one time, there are more than 10 tons of high-quality gold. It's available in every possible incarnation from jewelry to coins to gold bricks.
If you can't find a lustrous keepsake among the more than 300 shops and wholesalers in this bazaar wedged between Dubai Fish and Vegetable Market and the Deira Corniche, you're not trying hard enough.
Sikkat al-Khail Street, Deira, Dubai, U.A.E.; www.goldsoukdubai.net
15. Dublin: Pay homage to 'the big guy'
In the mid-1830s, Pope Gregory XVI, in an effort to boost Catholicism, sent the relics (bones) of Saint Valentine to Dublin's Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church.
They're still there in a casket to the right of the main altar. Once a year (yep, February 14) they're carried out in procession for a special Mass at the 19th-century Byzantine-style church.
56 Aungier St., Dublin 2; +44 353 1 475 8821; www.carmelites.ie
16. Hong Kong: Head to the beach
It's renowned for its skyscrapers, but Hong Kong's beaches are just as beautiful.
The seaside village of Stanley offers two beaches, a laid-back vibe and Murray House, the old officers' quarters that stands as a romantic testament to endurance, having been moved here brick by brick from Central.
17. Istanbul: Sip soul-warming sahlep
Known as an aphrodisiac, sahlep is a hot, milky beverage made from the hand-harvested orchids of Anatolian mountain orchids.
Street vendors sell it from large copper urns, but the most romantic spot for sipping the cinnamon-topped beverage is at Bebek Kahve, a quaint coffeeshop perched on the edge of the Bosphorus.
You might need to ignore a few serenading seagulls.
Cevdet Pasa Caddesi No. 137, +90 0212 257 5402
18. Kerala, India: Rent a spice barge
Many of Kerala's old rice and spice barges, humbly made of jackwood and held together with coconut fiber, have been converted into floating palaces.
Some are three stories high with sun decks, multiple living rooms and karaoke lounges.
Even the simplest kettuvalam, as they're called in Malayalam, the local dialect, meander through Kerala's backwaters past 500-year-old temples, rural hamlets and spits of land where wrinkled women smoke coconut husks as their grandsons cast bamboo poles.
Silence is interrupted only by the swoosh of egret wings or a coconut falling into the water.
19. London: Get your palm read
At Ripley's Believe It or Not resident fortune teller, Psychic Sunita, will be giving complimentary readings from noon to 2 on February 14.
If she reveals marriage in the cards, you can stroll over to the museum's collection of toilet paper wedding dresses and duct-tape tuxedo.
The London Pavilion, 1 Piccadilly Circus, London; +44 0 20 3238 0022; www.ripleyslondon.com
20. Maldives: Make a rap song
At SubSix, the world's first underwater dance club, DJ superstars Joe Flizzow and Sona One will be offering three workshops that end with your own personal rap song packed and ready for delivery.
Niyama Resort, Dhaalu Atoll, Republic of Maldives; +960 6762 828; www.niyama.peraquum.com
21. Manila, Philippines: Catch a concert
Yes, they were once married, then divorced, but Martin Nievera and Pops Fernandez still love making music together, which they'll do at a historic Valentine's concert with a new pair of singing lovebirds, Ogie Alacasid and Regine Velasquez.
Mall of Asia Arena, Pasay City; +63 2 470 2222; www.smtickets.com
22. Mexico City: Pucker up at Zocalo Plaza
Although you missed participating in the record-breaking kiss now listed by Guinness World Records (39,897 joined in one big simultaneous kiss fest), you can still suck face at the very place were it happened.
Zocalo Plaza, Centro, Cuauhtémoc, 06060 Mexico City, DF, Mexico; +52 954 893 6778
23. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States: Take an illicit tour
This is the building Virtual Tourist calls "The World's Sexiest." Milwaukee Art Museum, an architectural masterpiece designed by the renowned Santiago Calatrava, offers a self-guided, tongue-in-cheek tour (it's called The Naughty Bits tour) of its racier pieces.
Visitors can follow up with a Tiki Love Bowl (two straws and lots of rum served in a fiery goblet) at nearby At Random, a cocktail lounge Mad Men's Don Draper would love.
Needless to say, there's Sinatra, more than 100 specialty cocktails and matronly waitresses in support hose insisting you hold hands and make wishes.
Milwaukee Art Museum, 700 Art Museum Dr., Milwaukee, Wis.; +1 414 224 3200; www.mam.org
At Random, 2501 S. Delaware Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.; +1 414 481 8030
24. Montreal: Have a bed in
Although Montreal's Queen Elizabeth was the site of John Lennon and Yoko Ono's bedroom peace vigils, it was here that the anthem of the anti-war movement was written.
"Give Peace a Chance" was composed by the pajama-wearing couple on May 26, 1969, along with Tommy Smothers, Timothy Leary, Petula Clark and a group of Canadian Radha Krishnas.
Fairmont The Queen Elizabeth, 900 Rene Levesque Blvd. W. Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3B 4A5; +1 514 861 3511; www.fairmont.com
25. Moscow: Come out of hibernation for a winter stroll
With enough winter fur, you'll feel like Lara and Dr. Zhivago exploring Moscow's nearly empty streets (compare that to the sweaty Kremlin crowds of August), full of glittery snow, ice rinks and well-lit trees.
The Moskva river at Kolomenskoye leads to the 16th-century Church of the Ascension past a triple-domed wooden chapel and log cabin cafes serving coffee and pancakes.
1 Letnyaya Ulitsa, Moscow; +7 499 615 2768; www.kolomenskoe-park.ru
26. Nairobi, Kenya: Have breakfast with giraffes
Giraffe Manor, a boutique hotel surrounded by 140 acres of Kenyan bush, has its own resident herd of Rothschild's giraffes who stick their necks into the windows of the candle-lit dining room.
In fact, happy hour kicks off each night with nuts for the 20-foot members of the endangered herd.
Just outside Nairobi; +254 732 812 896; www.giraffemanor.com
27. New Orleans: Combine Valentine's Day with Mardis Gras
At Arnaud's, a legendary New Orleans restaurant, you'll be served in a turn-of-the-century dining rooms with white tablecloths, tuxedoed waiters and Dixieland troubadours.
Afterward, visit the restaurant's official Mardis Gras museum (it's upstairs) with more than two dozen lavish costumes -- including 13 worn by the restaurant's owner who holds the record (22) for most reigns as queen of a Mardis Gras ball.
813 Bienville Ave., New Orleans, La. 70112; +1 504 523 5433; www.arnaudsrestaurant.com
28. New York: Blow your inheritance
The Warwick, the New York hotel publishing magnate William Randolph Hearst allegedly built for actress Marion Davies, is offering a US$21,400 Valentine's package that includes a chauffeured limousine, two-night stay, personal photographer, in-room massage, breakfast and dinner and a US$10,000 gift card to nearby Cartier.
65 W. 54th St. New York, N.Y. 10019; +1 212 247 2700; www.warwickhotelny.com
29. Outside Bangkok: Take a hot air balloon ride
In Khao Yai National Park you can silently glide over 800 acres of lush UNESCO world heritage rainforest. Back on firm ground you can enjoy a champagne breakfast to a live jazz band.
Kirimaya, 1/3 Moo 6 Thanarat Road, Moo-Si, Pakchong, Nakorn Ratchasima 30130; +66 4442 6000; www.kirimaya.com
30. Oxford, England: 'Lock in' your love
At the 10-century-old Oxford Castle, from the comfort of their own private prison cell, guests can enjoy a three-course meal served by a costumed "prison guard."
Oxford Castle Unlocked, 44-46 Oxford Castle, Oxford, England; +44 1865 26 0666; www.oxfordcastleunlocked.co.uk
31. Paris: Pretend to be Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir
OK, so it's winter when the City of Love's infamous café culture is driven indoors, but at Les Deux Margots, where the famous intellectual lovebirds wrote every morning, it's no less romantic for enjoying a café creme.
6 place St. Germain des Pres, 6th arrondissement, Paris; +33 1 4548 5525; www.lesdeuxmagots.fr
32. Portland, Oregon, United States: Tie the knot at Voodoo Doughnut
Couples can get legally hitched night or day by owners Tres Shannon, a flamboyant one-time mayoral candidate, and Kenneth "Cat Daddy" Pogson, who are both ordained ministers and will gladly invoke what they call the Holey Spirit.
The signature voodoo donut is worth a try. We won't spoil the surprise, but let's say it involves a gingerbread-shaped man, a pretzel stick and raspberry jelly.
22 S.W. Third Ave., Portland, Ore.; +1 503 241 4704; www.voodoodoughnut.com
33. Prague: Face the music
With a staff musicologist who presides over a 4,000-CD library (from Dvorak to Jimi Hendrix), the Aria Hotel has a lobby depicting the notes of a Gregorian chant, 52 rooms named for famous musicians and iPods with 546 pieces of music (of all styles) for guests to take to their room.
Tržiště 9, Prague 1, 11800 Czech Republic; +420 225 334 111; www.ariahotel.net
34. Quebec City: Cozy up in an ice hotel
Constructed entirely from ice and show, Hotel de Glace, Version 13.0 features 44 rooms and suites, ice chandeliers, sculptures, a chapel and the Grand Ice Slide.
9530 Rue de la Faune Québec, QC G1G 4G4, Canada; +1 418-623-2888; www.hoteldeglace-canada.com
35. Quito, Ecuador: Warm your toes by the fire
Café Cultura, a renovated colonial mansion owned by Ecuadorian architect Laxzlo Karolyi, has floor-to-ceiling frescoes, a handsome, wood-paneled library, antique rugs, three toasty fireplaces and cuisine inspired by the local tastes of guanabana, tree-tomato and cherimoya.
Robles 513 y Reina Victoria, Quito, Ecuador; +593 2 2224271; www.cafecultura.com
36. Rio de Janeiro: Wind down after Carnival
Brazilians, who are usually six-foot deep in feathers, sequins and skimpy costumes on February 14, celebrate their version, Dia dos Namorados (Lovers Day) in June, so there's no struggle for tables, inflated prices or pressure to "perform."
This year Carnival will be over, so pick a restaurant, any restaurant.
37. Rome: Go Baroque
Take in an early concert (6:30 p.m.) at Sant'Agnese in Agone, the quintessence of Baroque architecture, that combines Bernini's "Fountain of the Four Rivers" with chamber music by the greatest composers of the famous sculptor's day.
Musicians perform on historical Baroque instruments.
Piazza Navona, Navona, Rome 00186; +39 06 6819 2134; www.santagneseinagone.org
38. San Antonio, Texas, United States: Dish up some spiciness
The prestigious Culinary Institute of America (CIA) cooking school is a 22-acre edgy foodie destination with great restaurants, a weekly farmer's market (featuring everything from lavender soap, watercress and free range eggs to heritage pork, grass-fed bison and sour cream pecan muffins) and a kitchenware store owned by famed cookbook author Melissa Guerra, (look for such hard-to-find items as authentic Mexican molcajetes, hand-embroidered dish towels and mesquite rolling pins)..
The San Antonio version specializes in chili-fueled recipes like Andean harvest pot roast.
200 E. Grayson St.; +1 210 212 7260; www.atpearl.com
39. San Francisco: Play Spin the Bottle
At the California Academy of Sciences there's a photo booth for memorializing the day, a craft table for making your own valentine, grown-up board games and X-rated mating in the Animal Attraction exhibit.
55 Music Concourse Drive, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco; +1 415 379 8000; www.calacademy.org
40. Santiago, Chile: Get lost in a kitschy maze
Ky, a resto-bar, as they call it in Latin America, offers an idiosyncratic Asian menu, drinks worth talking about and an eclectic atmosphere that resembles a flea market.
Avenida Peru 631, Recoleta Santiago; +56 2 777 7245; www.restobarky.cl
41. Seoul, South Korea: Throw away the key
Unless you're fluent in Korean, you have an excuse for not abiding by the sign at the top of Namsan Mountain that requests that you "respect the environment" and don't toss the key, an act that was first initiated by a celebrity couple on Korean TV after placing a love lock at the 480-meter tower that marks the highest point in the city.
Either way, the view is gorgeous, especially at night, and you can add your own "vow of unlockable love" to the thousands that already weigh down the fences and rails around the CJ Seoul Tower.
1-3 Yongsandong 2 (i)-ga, Yongsan-gu, Seoul; +82 2 3455 9277; www.nseoultower.co.kr
42. Singapore: Escape to Sentosa
Although three-quarters of this island is covered with rainforest and the monkeys, monitor lizards, peacocks and parrots that like that sort of habitat, there's a swanky hotel on the beach that's throwing one wing-ding of a Valentine's party.
Choose between the OTT option at US$14,000 (it includes a Rolls-Royce transfer, a 4,000-square-foot manor, a private pool, a five-course dinner accompanied by a private live band, 99 roses, a four-hour couples' massage and jewelry) or the just under US$1,000 package that has flowers, champagne, chocolate strawberries and a one-hour couple's massage.
1 The Knolls, Sentosa Island, Singapore 098297; +65 6377 8888; www.capellahotels.com
43. St. Ignacio, Belize: Skinny dip at a private waterfall
It averages 30 degrees Celsius (86 F) in February, but the other 11 waterfalls on Hidden Valley Inn's spectacular 7,200-acre nature reserve are open to the other dozen or so guests.
To reserve your own waterfall (it also has two natural pools) for the day, contact Hidden Valley Inn, 4 Cooma Cain Road, Mountain Pine Ridge, Cayo District, Belize; +501 822 3320; www.hiddenvalleyinn.com
44. St. Petersburg, Russia: Enjoy the ballet
In a small theater in the sumptuously barbaric Vladimir Palace, just down the Neva from the Winter Palace, dancers from two of St. Petersburg's great ballet companies will perform.
Contact Scenic Cruises, who have a thing about setting up rare, one-of-a-kind experiences.
45. Stockholm: Write your own snapsvisor
Say what? A snapsvisor is a vigorous drinking song, a toasting tradition very much alive in Sweden, especially at Stockholm's Museum of Spirits, newly opened in a pair of 18th-century naval buildings on the island of Djurgarden.
There's wine and whiskey tasting at the beautiful park by the harbor and a café and where snapsvisors on what the Swedes call "The Day of All Hearts" (Alla Hjartans Dag).
Djurgårdsvägen 38, 115 12 Stockholm ; +46 8 1213 1300; spritmuseum.se
46. Sydney: Buy a G-string, bustier or silk chemise
Internationally known lingerie designer Collette Dinnigan launched her line of lingerie on William Street in Paddington. Even though she's now a favorite with the red carpet set (Nicole Kidman and Rachel McAdams) and has branched out into wedding dresses and swimwear, her flagship store that moved in 2011 to Queen Street still features a wide selection of the sexy hand-embroidered items.
104 Queen St. Sydney, New South Wales, 2025, Australia; +61 2 9363 2698; www.collettedinnigan.com.au
47. Tel Aviv, Israel: Indulge in some matkot
What's not to like? Israel's national sport is played on the beach (and with 14 kilometers of beach, there's lots of playing fields) so it's win-win.
The goal is to keep the small rubber ball in the air for as long as possible, not to cram it down your opponent's throat. You both go down (or hopefully keep the ball up) together. Not a bad metaphor for relationships.
Local enthusiast Amnon Nissim (he calls himself Amnon the Cannon) has turned his apartment in Neve Tzedek into what is undoubtedly the world's only Museum of Matkot.
You can't miss the place. Just look for the four brightly decorated paddles nailed up a telephone pole.
48. Tokyo: Pig out on chocolate
In Japan on February 14, the tables are turned. It's the men's chance to be showered with chocolate and gifts.
White Day, a month later, is the reverse -- on that day, ladies get the goodies.
For either of those days, head to 100 percent ChocolateCafé at the base of Tokyo Skytree, where 56 varieties of chocolate in a dizzying range of flavors (ginger, basil, collagen?) are numbered and assigned a color, making it easy to order whether or not you speak Japanese.
Kyobashi 2-4-16, Chuo-ku, Tokyo; www.meiji.co.jp
49. Toronto: Bounce off the walls
Sky Zone is the world's first trampoline park. Couples can take the leap together at this endless sea of bounce with open jump, 3D dodgeball and SkyRobics.
3636 Hawkestone Road, Mississauga, Ontario; +1 905 306 9898; www.skyzonesports.com
50. Venice, Italy: Visit the world's oldest coffee shop
Under the arches of the Procuratie Nove, at Caffe Florian, where Verdi, Proust, Goethe and Casanova have all sipped espresso (mainly because it was the only coffeeshop in town that admitted women when it opened in 1720), you can escape from all the other romance-seeking tourists in a series of seven little-known courtyards.


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Miley Cyrus' 2014 MTV VMAs Date Jesse Helt Has a Warrant Out for His Arrestby Maggie Malach | PopCrush
Miley Cyrus got people talking when she sent her 2014 MTV VMAs date — Jesse Helt, a young homeless man — to accept her Video of the Year accolade. Only days after the awards ceremony, news broke that he is a wanted man.
E! News reports that there is a warrant out for the arrest of Jesse, for violation of probation, stemming from previous charges including criminal trespassing and criminal mischief.
"He still has an outstanding warrant. If he's contacted by the police in Oregon he would be arrested," local Judicial Services Specialist Jon Troike told the Sun (quote via Daily Mail).
According to E!, Jesse was previously charged with burglary after a 2010 incident in which he reportedly tried to break into an apartment.
Things aren't looking good for Jesse, who allegedly violated his probation on numerous occasions, including failing to report to his probation officer or take a drug test, breaking his curfew and not completing his community service.
While Miley has not directly commented about the situation, around the time the news broke, she tweeted the following messages:
People who are homeless have lived very hard lives. Jesse included.
— Miley Ray Cyrus (@MileyCyrus) August 26, 2014
I hope that this can be the start of a national conversation about youth homelessness and how to end it.
— Miley Ray Cyrus (@MileyCyrus) August 26, 2014
Does looking down upon the homeless help people excuse their inaction?
— Miley Ray Cyrus (@MileyCyrus) August 26, 2014
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