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Puerto Rico
history of Puerto Rico
began with the settlement of the
Puerto Rico
by the
Ortoiroid people
between 3000 and 2000 BC. Other tribes, such as the
Indians, populated the island between 430 BC and 1000 AD. At the time of
Christopher Columbus
's arrival in the
New World
in 1492, the dominant indigenous culture was that of the
. The Taíno culture died out during the latter half of the 16th century because of exploitation by Spanish settlers, the war they waged on the Taíno, and diseases introduced by the invaders.
Located in the northeastern Caribbean, Puerto Rico formed a key part of the
Spanish Empire
from the early years of the exploration, conquest and colonization of the
New World
. The island was a major military post during many wars between Spain and other European powers for control of the region in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.
The smallest of the
Greater Antilles
, Puerto Rico was a stepping-stone in the passage from Europe to
, Mexico, Central America, and the northern territories of South America.
Throughout most of the 19th century until the conclusion of the
Spanish–American War
, Puerto Rico and Cuba were the last two Spanish colonies in the New World; they served as Spain's final outposts in a strategy to regain control of the American continents.
In 1898, during the Spanish–American war, Puerto Rico was invaded and subsequently became a possession of the United States. The first half of the 20th century was marked by the struggle to obtain greater
rights from the United States. The
Foraker Act
of 1900, which established a civil government, and the
Jones Act
of 1917, which granted Puerto Ricans
U.S. citizenship
, paved the way for the drafting of
Puerto Rico's Constitution
and the establishment of democratic elections in 1952. However, the political status of Puerto Rico, a
controlled by the United States, remains an anomaly more than 500 years after the first Europeans settled the island.
Pre-colonial Puerto Rico
The settlement of Puerto Rico began with the establishment of the
culture from the
Orinoco region
in South America. Some scholars suggest that their settlement dates back 4000 years.
An archeological dig at the island of
in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be an Ortoiroid man (named Puerto Ferro man) which was dated to around 2000 BC.
The Ortoiroid were displaced by the
, a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BC.
Between the seventh and eleventh centuries
are thought to have settled the island. During this time the Taíno culture developed, and by approximately 1000 AD it had become dominant.
Taíno culture has been traced to the village of Saladero at the basin of the
Orinoco River
; the Taínos migrated to Puerto Rico by crossing the
Lesser Antilles
At the time of Columbus' arrival, an estimated 30 to 60 thousand Taíno Amerindians, led by
(chief) Agüeybaná, inhabited the island. They called it Boriken, "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord". The natives lived in small villages led by a cacique and subsisted on hunting, fishing and gathering of indigenous
root and fruit. When the
arrived in 1493, conflicts with raiding
, who were moving up the
chain, were taking place. The Taíno domination of the island was nearing its end and the Spanish arrival would mark the beginning of their extinction. Their culture, however, remains strongly embedded in that of contemporary Puerto Rico.
Musical instruments such as
, the
, and words such as
, and
(hurricane) are examples of the legacy left by the Taíno.
Spanish Rule (1493–1898)
Beginning of colonization
On September 25, 1493,
Christopher Columbus
set sail on his
second voyage
with 17 ships and 1,200–1,500 men from
On November 19, 1493 he landed on the island, naming it
San Juan Bautista
in honor of Saint
John the Baptist
. The first settlement,
, was founded on August 8, 1508 by
Juan Ponce de León
, a
under Columbus, who later became the first
of the island. The following year, the settlement was abandoned in favor of a nearby islet on the coast, named Puerto Rico (Rich Port), which had a suitable harbor.
In 1511, a second settlement,
San Germán
was established in the southwestern part of the island.
During the 1520s, the island took the name of Puerto Rico while the port became
San Juan
took the form of
settlements, where settlers enslaved Taínos, providing them with military protection in return for labor. On December 27, 1512, under pressure from the
Roman Catholic Church
Ferdinand II of Aragon
issued the
Burgos' Laws
, which modified the
into a system called
, aimed at ending the exploitation. The laws prohibited the use of any form of punishment toward the indigenous people, regulated their work hours, pay, hygiene, and care, and ordered them to be
. In 1511, the Taínos revolted against the Spanish; cacique
, as planned by
Agüeybaná II
, ordered his warriors to drown the Spanish soldier
Diego Salcedo
to determine whether the Spaniards were immortal. After drowning Salcedo, they kept watch over his body for three days to confirm his death. The revolt was easily crushed by Ponce de León and within a few decades much of the native population had been decimated by disease, violence, and a high occurrence of suicide.
The Roman Catholic Church, realizing the opportunity to expand its influence, also participated in colonizing the island.
On August 8, 1511,
Pope Julius II
established three
in the New World, one in Puerto Rico and two on the island of
under the
The Canon of
Alonso Manso
, was appointed bishop of the Puerto Rican diocese.
On September 26, 1512, before his arrival on the island, the first school of advanced studies was established by the bishop. Taking possession in 1513, he became the first bishop to arrive in the Americas. Puerto Rico would also become the first ecclesiastical headquarters in the New World during the reign of
Pope Leo X
and the general headquarters of the
Spanish Inquisition
in the New World.
As part of the colonization process,
African slaves
were brought to the island in 1513. Following the decline of the Taíno population, more slaves were brought to Puerto Rico; however, the number of slaves on the island paled in comparison to those in neighboring islands. Also, early in the colonization of Puerto Rico, attempts were made to wrest control of Puerto Rico from Spain. The Caribs, a raiding tribe of the Caribbean, attacked Spanish settlements along the banks of the Daguao and Macao rivers in 1514 and again in 1521 but each time they were easily repelled by the superior Spanish firepower. However, these would not be the last attempts at control of Puerto Rico. The European powers quickly realized the potential of the newly discovered lands and attempted to gain control of them.
European threats
Sparked by the possibility of immense wealth, many European powers made attempts to wrest control of the Americas from Spain in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Success in invasion varied, and ultimately all Spanish opponents failed to maintain permanent control of the island. In 1528, the French, recognizing the strategic value of Puerto Rico, sacked and burned the southwestern town of San Germán.
They also destroyed many of the island's first settlements, including
before the local militia forced them to retreat.
The only settlement that remained was the capital, San Juan. French corsairs would again sack San Germán in 1538 and 1554.
Spain, determined to defend its possession, began the fortification of the inlet of San Juan in the early 16th century.
In 1532, construction of the first fortifications began with
La Fortaleza
(the Fortress) near the entrance to San Juan bay.
Seven years later the construction of massive defenses around San Juan began, including Fort San Felipe del Morro astride the entrance to San Juan bay.
Fort San Cristóbal
Fort San Jerónimo
—built with a financial subsidy from the Mexican mines—garrisoned troops and defended against land attacks.
In 1587, engineers
Juan de Tejada
Juan Bautista Antonelli
redesigned Fort San Felipe del Morro; these changes endure. Politically, Puerto Rico was reorganized in 1580 into a
captaincy general
to provide for more autonomy and quick administrative responses to military threats.
On November 22, 1595, English
Sir Francis Drake
—with 27 vessels and 2,500 troops—sailed into San Juan Bay intending to loot the city. Even though San Juan was set ablaze, they were unable to defeat the forces entrenched in the forts. Knowing Drake had failed to overcome the city's defenses by sea, on June 15, 1598, the
Royal Navy
, led by
George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland
, landed troops from 21 ships to the east in
Clifford and his men met Spanish resistance while attempting to cross the San Antonio bridge (from an area known today as
) into the islet of San Juan.
Nonetheless, the British conquered the island and held it for several months. They were forced to abandon the island owing to an outbreak of
among the troops. The following year Spain sent soldiers, cannons, and a new governor,
Alonso de Mercado
, to rebuild the city of San Juan.
The 17th and 18th centuries saw more attacks on the island.
On September 25, 1625, the
, under the leadership of
Boudewijn Hendrick
(Balduino Enrico), attacked San Juan, besieging Fort San Felipe del Morro and La Fortaleza.
Residents fled the city but the Spanish, led by Governor
Juan de Haro
, were able to repel the Dutch troops from Fort San Felipe del Morro. In their retreat the Dutch set the city ablaze. The fortification of San Juan continued; in 1634,
Philip IV of Spain
fortified Fort San Cristóbal, along with six fortresses linked by a line of sandstone walls surrounding the city. In 1702, the
assaulted the town of Arecibo, located on the north coast, west of San Juan, with no success.
In 1797, the French and Spanish declared war on the
United Kingdom
The British attempted again to conquer the island, attacking San Juan with an invasion force of 7,000 troops and an
consisting of 64 warships under the command of General
Ralph Abercromby
. Captain General Don
Ramón de Castro
and his army successfully resisted the attack.
Amidst the constant attacks, the first threads of Puerto Rican society emerged. A 1765 census conducted by Lt. General
Alejandro O'Reilly
showed a total population of 44,883, of which 5,037 (11.2%) were slaves, a low percentage compared to the other Spanish colonies in the Caribbean.
In 1786 the first comprehensive history of Puerto Rico—
Historia Geográfica, Civil y Política de Puerto Rico
Fray Iñigo Abbad y Lasierra
—was published in
, documenting the history of Puerto Rico from the time of Columbus' landing in 1493 until 1783.
The book also presents a first hand account of Puerto Rican identity, including music, clothing, personality and nationality.
Early 19th century
Royal Decree of Graces, 1815, which allowed foreigners to enter Puerto Rico
The 19th century brought many changes to Puerto Rico, both political and social. In 1809, the Spanish government, in opposition to
, was convened in Cádiz in southern Spain. While still swearing allegiance to the king, the
Supreme Central Junta
invited voting representatives from the colonies.
Ramón Power y Giralt
was nominated as the local delegate to the
Cádiz Cortes
Ley Power
("the Power Act") soon followed, which designated five ports for free commerce—
, Mayagüez,
Cabo Rojo
—and established economic reforms with the goal of developing a more efficient economy.
In 1812, the
Cádiz Constitution
was adopted, dividing Spain and its territories into provinces, each with a local corporation or council to promote its prosperity and defend its interests; this granted Puerto Ricans conditional citizenship.
On August 10, 1815, the
Royal Decree of Grace
was issued, allowing foreigners to enter Puerto Rico (including French refugees from Hispaniola), and opening the port to trade with nations other than Spain. This was the beginning of agriculture-based economic growth, with sugar, tobacco and coffee being the main products. The Decree also gave free land to anyone who swore their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and their allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church.
Thousands of families from all regions of Spain (particularly Asturias, Catalonia, Majorca and Galicia),
, Portugal, the
Canary Islands
and other locations, escaping from harsh economic times in Europe and lured by the offer of free land, soon immigrated to Puerto Rico.
However, these small gains in autonomy and rights were short lived. After the fall of Napoleon,
absolute power
returned to Spain, which revoked the Cádiz Constitution and reinstated Puerto Rico to its former condition as a
, subject to the unrestricted power of the Spanish
The integration of immigrants into Puerto Rican culture and other events changed Puerto Rican society. On June 25, 1835, Queen
María Cristina
abolished the
slave trade
to Spanish colonies. In 1851, Governor
Juan de la Pezuela Cevallos
founded the Royal Academy of Belles Letters. The academy licensed primary school teachers, formulated school methods, and held literary contests that promoted the intellectual and literary progress of the island. In 1858, the telegraph was introduced on the island with the assistance of
Samuel F.
who installed a line in the town of
at Hacienda La Enriqueta.
Struggle for autonomy
The latter half of the 19th century was marked by the Puerto Rican struggle for
. A census conducted in 1860 revealed a population of 583,308. Of these, 300,406 (51.5%) were white and 282,775 (48.5%) were persons of color, the latter including people of primarily African heritage,
. The majority of the population in Puerto Rico was illiterate (83.7%) and lived in poverty, and the agricultural industry—at the time, the main source of income—was hampered by lack of road infrastructure, adequate tools and equipment, and natural disasters, including hurricanes and droughts. The economy also suffered from increasing tariffs and taxes imposed by the Spanish Crown. Furthermore, Spain had begun to exile or jail any person who called for liberal reforms.
Lares revolutionary flag, used in the unsuccessful
Grito de Lares
(Lares Uprising)
On September 23, 1868, hundreds of men and women in the town of
—stricken by poverty and politically estranged from Spain—revolted against Spanish rule, seeking
Puerto Rican independence
Grito de Lares
("Lares Cry" or "Lares Uprising") was planned by a group led by Dr.
Ramón Emeterio Betances
, at the time exiled to the
Dominican Republic
, and
Segundo Ruiz Belvis
Dr. Betances had founded the
Comité Revolucionario de Puerto Rico
Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico
) in January 1868. The most important figures in the uprising were
Manuel Rojas
Mathias Brugman
Mariana Bracetti
Francisco Ramirez Medina
Lola Rodríguez de Tió
. The uprising, although significant, was quickly controlled by Spanish authorities.
Following the
Grito de Lares
revolt, political and social reforms occurred toward the end of the 19th century. On June 4, 1870, due to the efforts of
Román Baldorioty de Castro
Luis Padial
Julio Vizcarrondo
, the
Moret Law
was approved, giving freedom to slaves born after September 17, 1868 or over 60 years old; on March 22, 1873, the Spanish National Assembly officially abolished, with a few special clauses,
slavery in Puerto Rico
. In 1870, the first political organizations on the island were formed as two factions emerged. The Traditionalists, known as the
Partido Liberal Conservador
(Liberal Conservative Party) were led by José R. Fernández, Pablo Ubarri and Francisco Paula Acuña and advocated assimilation into the political party system of Spain, while the Autonomists, known as the
Partido Liberal Reformista
Liberal Reformist Party
) were led by Román Baldorioty de Castro,
José Julián Acosta
, Nicolás Aguayo and Pedro Gerónimo Goico and advocated decentralization away from Spanish control. Both parties would later change their names to
Partido Federal Reformista
(Reformist Federal Party) and
Partido Español Incondicional
(Unconditional Spanish Party), respectively. In March 1887, the
Partido Federal Reformista
was reformed and named the
Partido Autonomista Puertorriqueño
Puerto Rican Autonomist Party
); it tried to create a political and legal identity for Puerto Rico while emulating Spain in all political matters. It was led by Román Baldorioty de Castro,
José Celso Barbosa
Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón
Luis Muñoz Rivera
The struggle for autonomy came close to achieving its goal on November 25, 1897, when the
Carta Autonómica
Charter of Autonomy
), which conceded political and administrative autonomy to the island, was approved in Spain. In the past 400-plus years, after centuries of colonial rule,
Práxedes Mateo Sagasta
, the Prime Minister of Spain granted the island an independent government on November 25, 1897 in the empire's legislative body in Cádiz, Spain and trade was opened up with the United States and European colonies. The charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, who held the power to veto any legislative decision he disagreed with, and a partially elected parliamentary structure. That same year, the
Partido Autonomista Ortodoxo
(Orthodox Autonomist Party), led by José Celso Barbosa and
Manuel Fernández Juncos
, was founded. On February 9, 1898, the new government officially began. Local legislature set its own budget and taxes. They accepted or rejected commercial treaties concluded by Spain. In February 1898, Governor General
Manuel Macías
inaugurated the new government of Puerto Rico under the Autonomous Charter which gave town councils complete autonomy in local matters. Subsequently, the governor had no authority to intervene in civil and political matters unless authorized to do so by the Cabinet. General elections were held in March and on July 17, 1898 Puerto Rico's autonomous government began to function, but not for long.
Invasion of 1898
US 1st Kentucky Volunteers in "Porto [sic] Rico", 1898
On March 10, 1898, Dr.
Julio J.
Robert H.
, leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the
Cuban Revolutionary Party
, began to correspond with United States President
William McKinley
and the United States Senate in hopes that they would consider including Puerto Rico in the intervention planned for Cuba. Henna and Todd also provided the US government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island.
On April 24, Spanish Minister of Defense
Segismundo Bermejo
sent instructions to Spanish Admiral Cervera to proceed with his fleet from
Cape Verde
to the Caribbean, Cuba and Puerto Rico.
In May, Lt. Henry H. Whitney of the United States Fourth Artillery was sent to Puerto Rico on a reconnaissance mission. He provided maps and information on the Spanish military forces to the US government that would be useful for an invasion. On May 10, Spanish forces at Fort San Cristóbal under the command of
Ángel Rivero Méndez
in San Juan exchanged fire with the under the command of Capt.
William C.
. Two days later on May 12, a squadron of 12 US ships commanded by Rear Admiral
William T.
bombarded San Juan, causing panic among the residents. On June 25, the blocked San Juan harbor. On July 18, General
Nelson A.
, commander of US forces, received orders to sail for Puerto Rico and to land his troops.
On July 21, a convoy with nine transports and 3,300 soldiers, escorted by , sailed for Puerto Rico from
General Nelson Miles landed unopposed at
, located in the southern coast of the island, on July 25, 1898 with the first contingent of American troops.
Opposition was met in the southern and central regions of the island but by the end of August the island was under United States control.
On August 12, peace protocols were signed in
Washington, D.C.
and Spanish Commissions met in San Juan on September 9 to discuss the details of the withdrawal of Spanish troops and the cession of the island to the United States.
On October 1, an initial meeting was held in Paris to draft the Peace Treaty and on December 10, 1898, the
Treaty of Paris
was signed (ratified by the US Senate February 6, 1899).
Spain renounced all claim to Cuba, ceded
and Puerto Rico and its dependent islets to the United States, and transferred sovereignty over the
to the United States for $20,000,000.
John R.
became the first United States military governor of the island.
United States Rule (1898–present)
Military government
The 45-star flag, used by the United States during the invasion of Puerto Rico, was also the official flag of Puerto Rico from 1899 to 1908.
After the ratification of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, Puerto Rico came under the military control of the United States of America. This brought about significant changes: the name of the island was changed to
Porto Rico
(it would be changed back to Puerto Rico in 1932) and the currency was changed from the
Puerto Rican peso
to the
United States dollar
. Freedom of assembly, speech, press, and religion were decreed and an
eight-hour day
for government employees was established. A public school system was begun and the
Postal service
was extended to the island. The highway system was enlarged, and bridges over the more important rivers were constructed. The government lottery was abolished,
was forbidden, and a centralized public health service established. Health conditions were poor at the time, with high rates of infant mortality and numerous endemic diseases.
The beginning of the military government also marked the creation of new political groups. The
Partido Republicano
(Republican Party) and the
American Federal Party
were created, led by José Celso Barbosa and Luis Muñoz Rivera, respectively. Both groups supported annexation by the United States as a solution to the colonial situation. The island's
sugar planters, who had suffered from declining prices, greeted U.S. rule, hoping to gain access to the North American market.
Disaster struck in August 1899, when two hurricanes ravaged the island:
Hurricane San Ciriaco
on August 8, and an unnamed hurricane on August 22. Approximately 3,400 people died in the floods and thousands were left without shelter, food, or work. The effects on the economy were devastating: millions of dollars were lost due to the destruction of the majority of the sugar and coffee plantations.
Foraker Act of 1900
The first Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, established in 1900
The military government in Puerto Rico was short lived; it was disbanded on April 2, 1900, when the U.S. Congress enacted the
Foraker Act
(also known as the Organic Act of 1900), sponsored by Senator
Joseph B.
. This act established a civil government and free commerce between the island and the United States. The structure of the insular government included a governor appointed by the president, an executive council (the equivalent of a senate), and a legislature with 35 members, though the executive veto required a two-thirds vote to override. The first appointed civil governor,
Charles Herbert Allen
, was inaugurated on May 1, 1900. On June 5, President McKinley appointed an Executive Council which included five Puerto Rican members and six U.S. members.
The act also established the creation of a judicial system headed by the
Supreme Court of Puerto Rico
and allowed Puerto Rico to send a
Resident Commissioner
as a representative to Congress.
The Department of Education was subsequently formed, headed by Dr. M. G.
Brumbaugh (later governor of
Teaching was conducted entirely in English with Spanish treated as a special subject. However, both Spanish and English were official languages in the island. On November 6, the first elections under the Foraker Act were held and on December 3, the first
Legislative Assembly
took office.
Federico Degetau
took office in Washington as the first Resident Commissioner from Puerto Rico on March 14, 1901.
The new political status sparked the creation of more political groups on the island. In 1900, the
Partido Federal
Federal Party
) and the
Partido Obrero Socialista de Puerto Rico
Socialist Labor Party of Puerto Rico
) were founded. The former campaigned for Puerto Rico to become one of the states in the United States while the latter followed the ideals of the
Socialist Labor Party of America
. Four years later, in 1904, Luis Muñoz Rivera and
José de Diego
restructured the American Federal Party into the
Partido Unionista de Puerto Rico
Unionist Party of Puerto Rico
) with the intention of fighting against the colonial government established under the Foraker Act. In 1909,
Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón
Manuel Zeno Gandía
Luis Llorens Torres
Eugenio Benítez Castaño
, and
Pedro Franceschi
founded the
Partido Independentista
Independence Party
). It was the first political party whose agenda was the
independence of Puerto Rico
The status quo was again altered in 1909 when the Foraker Act, due to weaknesses and a small crisis in Puerto Rico's government, was modified by the
Olmsted Amendment
. This Amendment placed the supervision of Puerto Rican affairs in the jurisdiction of an executive department to be designated by the president. In 1914, the first Puerto Rican officers,
Martin Travieso
(Secretary) and
Manuel V.
(Commissioner of Interiors), were assigned to the Executive Cabinet, allowing islanders a majority. A 1915 delegation from Puerto Rico, accompanied by the Governor
Arthur Yager
, traveled to Washington, D.C. to ask Congress to grant the island more autonomy. This delegation and speeches made by Resident Commissioner Luis Muñoz Rivera in Congress, coupled with political and economic interests, led to the drafting of the
Jones-Shafroth Act
of 1917 (Jones Act).
Jones Act of 1917
Jones Act
was approved on December 5, 1916, and signed into law by President
Woodrow Wilson
on March 2, 1917. The law made Puerto Rico a
United States territory
which is "organized but unincorporated." It also granted U.S. citizenship to all Puerto Ricans. The Act allowed
to be extended to the island, sending 20,000 Puerto Rican soldiers to the
United States Army
during the
First World War
. The Act also divided governmental powers into three branches: executive (appointed by the President of the United States), legislative, and judicial. The legislative branch was composed of the senate, consisting of 19 members, and a house of representatives, consisting of 39 members. The members of the legislature were freely elected by the Puerto Rican people. A bill of rights, which established elections to be held every four years, was also created. The Act also made English the official language of the Puerto Rican courts.
On October 11, 1918, an
occurred, with an approximate magnitude of 7.3 on the
Richter scale
, accompanied by a
reaching 6.1
(20 feet) in height.
The epicenter was located northwest of Aguadilla in the Mona Passage (between Puerto Rico and the
Dominican Republic
This earthquake caused great damage and loss of life at
, and lesser damage along the west coast.
Tremors continued for several weeks.
As a consequence of the Jones Act and the establishment of elections, a new political party, the
Partido Nacionalista de Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican Nationalist Party
), was founded on September 17, 1922. In the 1930s, the Nationalist Party, led by
Pedro Albizu Campos
withdrew from political participation and increased conflict arose between their adherents and the authorities. They attacked
Blanton Winship
, the appointed Governor of Puerto Rico,
Elisha Francis Riggs
Chief of Police, and
Robert A.
Judge of the Federal Tribunal in Puerto Rico. On February 23, 1936, two Nationalists
Hiram Rosado
Elias Beauchamp
, in retaliation for the "
Rio Piedras Massacre
," killed Police Chief Riggs in San Juan. They were apprehended and summarily executed at police headquarters. On July 31, 1936, Pedro Albizu Campos,
Juan Antonio Corretjer
Clemente Soto Vélez
and other Nationalists were sentenced to six to 10 years in federal prison.
Later, on March 21, 1937, police opened fire at a
Nacionalista de Puerto Rico
(Puerto Rican Nationalist) Party parade, known as the "
Ponce Massacre
"; 20 people (including two policemen) were killed and 100 were wounded.
In the 1920s, the economy of Puerto Rico boomed. A drastic increase in the price of sugar, Puerto Rico's principal export, brought increasing revenues to the island. As a result the island's infrastructure was steadily upgraded. New schools, roads and bridges were constructed. The increase in private wealth was reflected in the erection of many residences, while the development of commerce and agriculture stimulated the extension of banking and transport facilities. The high infant mortality death rate of the late 19th century declined steadily, thanks in large measure to basic public health programs. However, the economic growth would come to a screeching halt in 1929 when the United States
stock market crashed
This period of prosperity came to an end with the onset of the
Great Depression
. At the time, agriculture was the main contributor to the economy. Industry and commerce slowed during the 1930s as well. The depression was further aggravated when on September 27, 1932,
Hurricane San Ciprián
struck the island. Exact figures of the destruction are not known but estimates say that 200–300 people were killed, more than a thousand were injured, and property damage escalated to $30–50 million. The agricultural production, the principal economic driver for the island, came to a standstill. However, the decline of the economy would not end there. A new federal
minimum wage
law of 25 cents an hour took effect in 1938. As a consequence, two-thirds of the island's textile factories closed because worker productivity was below that level.
Establishment of the Commonwealth
In the years after World War II, social, political and economical changes began to take place that have continued to shape the island's character today. The late 1940s brought the beginning of a
major migration
to the continental United States, mainly to New York City. The main reasons for this were an undesirable economic situation brought by the Great Depression, as well as heavy recruitment made by the
U.S. armed forces
and U.S. companies. In 2004, approximately 3.8 million people of Puerto Rican background lived in the United States. Political changes began in 1946 when President Truman designated the first Puerto Rican, Commissioner Resident
Jesús T.
, to serve as island governor. One year later the U.S. Congress passed an act allowing Puerto Ricans to vote for their own governor. The first elections under this act were held on November 2, 1948.
Luis Muñoz Marín
, president of the Puerto Rican Senate, successfully campaigned and became the first democratically elected Governor of the island on January 2, 1949. In the 1950s, an ambitious industrialization project dubbed
Operation Bootstrap
was launched under governor Muñoz Marín. It was coupled with agrarian reform (land redistribution) that limited the area that could be held by large sugarcane interests. Operation Bootstrap enticed US mainland investors to transfer or create manufacturing plants by granting them local and federal tax concessions, but maintaining the access to US markets free of import duties. Another incentive was the lower wage scales in the densely populated island, which had a rising urban unemployed population. The program accelerated the shift from an agricultural to an industrial society. The 1950s saw the development of labor-intensive light industries, such as textiles; later manufacturing gave way to heavy industry, such as petrochemicals and oil refining, in the 1960s and 1970s. Muñoz Marín's development programs brought some prosperity for an emergent middle class. The industrialization was in part fueled by generous local incentives and freedom from federal taxation, while providing access to continental US markets without import duties. As a result, a rural agricultural society was transformed into an industrial working class.
On July 4, 1950, President
Harry S.
signed Public Act 600, which allowed Puerto Ricans to draft their own constitution establishing the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The U.S. Congress had granted
status on Puerto Rico that enhanced Puerto Rico's political status from
to commonwealth. This, coupled with Muñoz Marín's reversal on not pursuing Puerto Rican Independence angered some Puerto Ricans. On late October 1950, a group of Puerto Rican nationalists, led by Pedro Albizu Campos, staged several revolts, the most successful of which is known as the
Jayuya Uprising
. The revolts included an attack on the governor's mansion,
La Fortaleza
, the United States Capitol and at Blair House, where nationalists attempted to assassinate United States President Harry S. Truman. These acts led Muñoz to crack down on Puerto Rican nationalists and advocates of Puerto Rican independence. The actions by both Muñoz and the United States' Government would later be determined as infringing on constitutional rights. On July 25, 1952, the Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by voters in a referendum, and the island organized as the
Estado Libre Asociado
(Commonwealth of Puerto Rico). That same year marked the first time that the
Flag of Puerto Rico
could be publicly displayed.
Partido Estadistas Unido
(United Statehooders Party) was founded by
Luis A.
to campaign for statehood in the 1967
. On July 23, 1967, the first plebiscite on the political status of Puerto Rico was held. Voters overwhelmingly affirmed continuation of Commonwealth status (Commonwealth–60.4% Statehood–39%; Independence–0.6%). Other plebiscites have taken place to determine the political status of Puerto Rico, one in 1993 and another in 1998. Both times, although by smaller margins, the status quo has been upheld. However, the U.S. constitution does not mention this avenue of status, hence legally the island remains a territory of the United States, under congressional supervision. The
Partido Estadistas Unido
organized the
Partido Nuevo Progresista
(New Progressive Party) under Ferré's leadership. The party campaigned for Puerto Rico to become the
51st state
of the Union. Luis A. Ferré was elected governor on November 5, 1968, with 43.6% of the vote, the first time a pro-statehood governor has received a plurality. The New Progressive Party, the Popular Democratic Party and the Independence Party constitute the current established political parties in the island.
Present-day Puerto Rico has become a major
destination and a leading
and manufacturing center. Still, Puerto Rico continues to struggle to define its political status. Even though Puerto Rico was granted local autonomy in 1952, it remains a
territory of the United States
. Its ambiguous status continues to spark political debates which dominate Puerto Rican society. Economically, Puerto Rico has recently seen its credit rating downgraded to
Moody's Investor Services
with the possibility of more downgrades happening in the near future. This has led to fiscal measures to reduce government spending, increase revenues and balance the budget, and the implementation of a 7% sales tax.
See also
Black history in Puerto Rico
List of Registered Historic Places in Puerto Rico
List of Puerto Ricans
Military history of Puerto Rico
Official Historian of Puerto Rico
Notes and references
Rouse, Irving.
The Tainos : Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus
Vicente Yañez Pinzón
is considered the first appointed governor of Puerto Rico, but he never arrived on the island.
Dietz, p.38.
Miller, Paul G. (1947).
Historias de Puerto Rico
The exact number of ships and troops is presently uncertain. The number of ships varies from 60 to 64 ships and the number of troops varies from 7,000 to 13,000. No exact number of ships is given by British accounts. For more information see Alonso, María M.,
The Eighteenth Century Caribbean & The British Attack on Puerto Rico in 1797
Caro Costas, Aida R. (1980).
Antología de Lecturas de Historia de Puerto Rico (Siglos XV-XVIII)
, p. 467.
Grose, Howard B.,
Advance in the Antilles; the new era in Cuba and Porto Rico
Brás, Marisabel
Brás, Marisabel, par. 8
Brás, Marisabel, par. 8-13
These clauses included that slaves were required to continue working for three more years and that the owners would be compensated 35 million
per slave.
Brás, Marisabel, par. 9
This legislature consisted of a Council of Administration with eight elected and seven appointed members, and a Chamber of Representatives with one member for every 25,000 inhabitants.
The American peace commission consisted of
William R. Day
, Sen.
Cushman K. Davis
, Sen.
William P. Frye
, Sen.
George Gray
, and the Hon.
Whitelaw Reid
. The Spanish commission was headed by
Eugenio Montero Ríos
, the President of the Senate.
Jules Cambon
, a French diplomat, also negotiated on Spain's behalf.
Emma Davila-Cox,
Puerto Rico in the Hispanic-Cuban-American War: Re-assessing 'the Picnic', in The Crisis of 1898: Colonial Redistribution and Nationalist Mobilization
(Macmillan Press: New York and London, 1999) Pg. 113
The Puerto Rican members were José Celso Barbosa,
Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón
, José de Diego,
Manuel Camuñas
Andrés Crosas
. The US members were
William H. Hunt
, Secretary;
Jacob Hollander
, Treasurer;
J. R. Garrison
, Auditor;
W. B. Eliot
, Interiors;
James A. Harlan
, Attorney General; and Dr.
Martin G. Brumbaugh
, Secretary of Education.
Hodgson, Michael, E. and Palm, Risa I.
Natural Hazards in Puerto Rico: Attitudes, Experience, and Behavior of Homeowners
. 1993.
Photos of the Jayuya Uprising
A literal translation of
Estado Libre Asociado
would be Free Associated State but since the US is composed of states it was deemed cumbersome to make this the official name, hence Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was chosen.
From 1895 to 1952 the Puerto Rican flag was outlawed.
For the complete statistics regarding these plebiscites please refer to
Elections in Puerto Rico:Results
General references
Brás, Marisabel.
The Changing of the Guard: Puerto Rico in 1898
; The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War; Hispanic Division,
Library of Congress
Retrieved on 2007-06-18
Further reading
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Coastal Photo Essay: Interstellar, Lunar Sights Above Oregon Beaches
Published 04/13/2014
(Oregon Coast) – With the likelihood of some stellar sights in the skies above Portland, western Oregon and the coast with Monday's lunar eclipse and "blood moon," it seems a good time to look back on a few really fascinating finds above the beaches. From the Aurora Borealis, other lunar phenomena to a rare satellite captured, these are just a tiny sampling of distinctive stuff caught by Oregon Coast Beach Connection at night. (Above: a blood moon in Portland in recent years).
All photos copyright Oregon Coast Beach Connection.
Back in 2010, quite the stunning lunar eclipse happened in Oregon. This night was not very cooperative on the coast, however, with lots of clouds blocking the way. But not always – luckily. Following the beginnings of the event in slightly stormy Cannon Beach, to a little less cloud cover in Manzanita, the result was this fuzzy but interesting moment. This was taken in Manzanita.
Another moment in Manzanita was a bit of a shocker. Testing the camera for other nighttime subject matter yielded this awe-inspiring streak. Experts we talked to believe it was an iridium flare rather than a meteor, which is actually rarer. This is when an orbiting satellite briefly glints in sunlight as it passes over.
Yet another night in Manzanita: the stars were thick, omnipresent and stunning. But the faint colorations are hints of the Northern Lights. Fascinating.
On a winter's eve in Depoe Bay, the moon took on this striking glow. It's a moon halo, caused by ice crystals high in the atmosphere, then refracting out in all directions in a literal rainbow of colors.
In Seaside, here is proof that not all the interesting nocturnal stuff on the beaches is seen with clear skies. Cloud cover actually makes some wild colors where city lights bounce off them and the ocean mist. You never get two such evenings looking the same, the way the ocean air shifts. The light in the distance is a vehicle several miles away on the beaches between Gearhart and Warrenton.
More about Oregon Coast Science and Astronomy.
More About Oregon Coast hotels, lodging.....
More About Oregon Coast Restaurants, Dining.....
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
Directions to St. Mary of Gostyn Campus
Our Campus is located west of Fairview Avenue, across from Hummer Park which is in between Ogden Avenue and 55th Street in Downers Grove, Illinois.
(On the map below, if you click on the lettered balloon, it will take you to mapquest, where you can get directions from a starting address.)
- (A) Our Church is located on the corner of Prairie Avenue and Douglas. There are entrances on Wilson Street, Prairie Avenue, and in the parking lot on the east side of the Parish Center.
For more information, call (630) 969-1063 or email [email protected].
- (B) Our School is located at 440 Prairie Avenue and is directly across the street from the Parish Center. Our School Program educates children from 3 year old Pre-School through 8th Grade.
For more information or for a tour, call (630) 968-6155 or email [email protected].
- (C) Our Parish Center, located at 445 Prairie Avenue, sits directly east of the church on the corner of Prairie and Douglas. The Parish Center houses the Parish Chapel, Parish Library, Parish Family Room, Underground, multiple conference rooms, and offices for Father Shaun, Deacon Al, Deacon Bob, Pastoral Counselor, Religious Education, Youth Ministry, and Development Office Staff. For more information, call (630) 960-3565 or email [email protected].
- (D) The Learning Resource Center is west of the school on Douglas and is across the street. The LRC houses our Pre-School, Kindergarten and Library.
For more information call (630) 968-6155 or email [email protected].
- (E) Our Rectory is located at 444 Wilson Street and houses the pastoral residences and administration offices.
For more information, call (630) 969-1063 or email [email protected].
If you need additional assistance, feel free to contact us, (630) 960-3565.


text:
We Are the Church
While the word 'church' indicates a special building designated for worship, as in St. James Church, it also refers to an assembly, a congregation or a gathering together of people. The Second Vatican Council defines the Church as the People of God, who are constituted in Christ by the Holy Spirit. The Latin term for church 'ecclesia' derives from the Greek which means 'to call out of". It is a people set apart, a people called out of darkness into Christ's wonderful light.
The Church as an organized society existing in our world and history is a visible reality. We call this the Church an institution, a hierarchy. The Church is also spiritual reality that transcends our world and our history. This is also referred to as the charismatic aspect of the Church. The Church is a mystery and a sacrament. It is a sign and instrument of a spiritual reality. The Church as a sacrament contains within itself as well as communicates God's power and presence.
The purpose of the Church is to make holy the members of Christ's body through the love given by Christ. By our baptism, we become part of the Church. We share in God's grace through the Church which is built on the foundation of Christ who is our way, the truth and the life. We are the Church.
Speaking of the Church as a parish: Pope John Paul II reminds us: "It is necessary that in the light of faith, all rediscover the true meaning of the parish, that is, the place where the very 'mystery' of church is present and at work… The parish is not principally a structure, a territory or a building, but rather, 'the family of God', 'a fellowship afire with a unifying spirit', 'a familial and welcoming home', 'a community of the faithful'. Plainly and simply, the parish is founded on a theological reality because it is Eucharistic community."
As we prepare for a change of pastors, let us transform our efforts into wonderful opportunities to relate with one another in a personal way, to encounter one another on behalf of Christ who works in our midst and to strengthen the bonds that ties us together as one people, sharing the one bread in the Eucharist and worshiping the one Lord of all.


text:
Police say a man is in custody following a standoff that prompted the evacuation of a South Portland, Maine, apartment building over the weekend.
Chief Edward Googins says the incident began around 5:10 p.m. Sunday when a woman reported she was being threatened by her boyfriend at the Olde English Village apartment complex.
Police say Ricky Anderson refused to exit the building or communicate with officers upon their arrival to the scene. Googins says the woman told police that her boyfriend was manufacturing drugs inside his apartment.
The latest news from around the state
Members of the Southern Maine Regional SWAT team entered the apartment around 9:30 p.m. and arrested Anderson, who didn't resist.
Googins says evidence collected from inside Anderson's apartment is consistent with a methamphetamine lab.
It's unclear if Anderson has an attorney who could comment.


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Published by: American Technos, 1990 | Developed by: Technos Japan
Genre: Action | Licensed | AKA: Street Gangs
Genre: Action | Licensed | AKA: Street Gangs
River City Ransom has been described as a cross between a beat 'em up and a role-playing game. The game follows a more or less linear path from start to finish, and fights take place in the style of Double Dragon (another Technos hit), with the player (more...)
Road Runner is an interesting variant of the platformer genre, based on the Road Runner cartoon. The gameplay is very simple: the player controls Road Runner, who is chased by Wile E. Coyote. In order to escape, Road Runner runs endlessly to the left whil (more...)
The object of the game is to complete all 50 rallies without running out of fuel. There is no limit to how many vehicles a player can receive to complete a rally, as long as they have fuel. However, the destruction of a vehicle will subtract a small amoun (more...)
Published by: Virgin Interactive, 1991 | Developed by: Sculptured Software
Genre: Adventure | Licensed
Genre: Adventure | Licensed
Tread the path of one of history's most legendary thieves. Based on the movie, Expect scenes like the jailbreak from Jerusalem, Robin's return home to Locksley Castle and his fight with Little John, who then joins him on his quest to free England (more...)
Published by: Data East, 1989 | Developed by: SAS Sakata
Genre: Action | Licensed
Genre: Action | Licensed
The game captures the spirit of the RoboCop film to some degree, as it involves killing generic criminals and enemy bosses, like the dangerous ED-209. Being quite popular, RoboCop was followed by several sequels including RoboCop 2, RoboCop 3, and RoboCop (more...)
Detroit is in chaos because the police force is on strike and the city has gone crazy and to top all the things, a new drug Nuke is roaming the streets. You are the only one who can stand against this evil and bring the city to order because you are ROBOC (more...)
Published by: Ocean, 1992 | Developed by: Probe Software
Genre: Action | Licensed
Genre: Action | Licensed
Everybody's favorite cyborg cop returns to the Nintendo in ROBOCOP 3. The OCP has deployed Rehab Officers to wipe out Old Detroit in preparation for the erection of Delta City. Now it's up to RoboCop to join the fight against the Rehabs and save D (more...)
Published by: Color Dreams, 1990 | Developed by: Color Dreams
Genre: Action | Unlicensed
Genre: Action | Unlicensed
According to the game's instruction manual, the player controls a boomerang-wielding hero whose mission is to destroy the robotic demon army of the evil king Kull. There are seven levels in Robodemons, which are titled the "levels of" Bone, (more...)


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FOREST GROVE, Ore. - Junior guard Katie Anderson was named the Northwest Conference Women's Basketball Player of the Week as announced by the league office on Tuesday.
Anderson helped the #10 Lewis & Clark women's basketball team to two wins over the weekend, moving the Pioneers into sole possession of first place in the NWC.
On Friday, she scored what was then a career-high 18 points in the teams hard fought 76-74 win over Puget Sound. Anderson then hit the court on Saturday night, knocking down 21 points in the teams final regular season home contest of the year. She also collected six rebounds on Saturday against Willamette, while averaging 19.5 points for the week.
The Pioneers take the court on Tuesday, Feb. 12 at 6 p.m. against Pacific (Ore.) in Forest Grove.


text:
When Steve Jobs–Apple's great innovator–died in 2011, business experts predicted that we would also see the slow death of his beloved company. Sure enough, over the next few years, Apple's stock and company value declined considerably. 2016 was a particularly troubling year for the brand and it seemed that what everyone was saying–that the phones aren't the best out there and the company just isn't as innovative without Jobs–was true. This year has been a completely different story. 2017 has seen a marked uptick in Apple profit and value and their stock reached an all-time high in Wednesday's market. Guess it was too early to count Apple out of this race.
Today, the value of the Apple company gained an incredible $48.1 billion in additional value (that's a crazy jump). To give that number some perspective: according to CNBC, that's more than the total value of the entire Ford motor company. That also leaves Apple with enough cash to buy Wal-Mart outright (although, there's no reason for them to want to do that). Basically, Apple is raking in record-breaking money now when a year ago we figured they were going to slowly lose all their sales to Samsung. And they haven't even changed anything. Or have they?
Apparently Apple's great secret value isn't in their latest iPhone offering or the new touch-bar Macbooks. According to CNBC, the real confidence-booster for stock holders is Apple's ever-expanding services business.
Services like the App Store, iTunes, Apple Music, AppleCare and iCloud are making almost 11 percent of the company's total revenue and getting bigger all the time. So it's the software that's really keeping Apple in it right now, but don't count out their hardware just yet either. It looks like next month could bring big new things from the tech giant.
Although Apple said that the launch of their next iPhone (whether it be a 7s or 8) will be delayed, their high projected earnings for the next quarter indicate the kind of spike they would see if they were to release a new iPhone. The original launch was supposed to be September, so we may see that new phone within the next two months after all.


text: No matter how great your website looks on a PC, real status is revealed when you check it on mobile devices. For years, businesses have been recommended to support and take mobile responsiveness into consideration for their website design. Though, majority of businesses have been procrastinating the matter all this time, but no[...]Read More


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Is it better to go with a big or small mortgage lender?December 10, 2012
A mortgage is probably the biggest loan a person will receive in their lifetime, often totaling in the hundreds of thousands of dollars and taking ten, twenty, even thirty years to repay. It is understandable, then, that some borrowers might gravitate toward the big, recognizable names: a big name means the company is more dependable in the long run, more likely to still be around in thirty years so you avoid any problems with your mortgage, right?
Most fears about smaller second and third tier mortgage lenders are centered on the idea that a small company is more likely to fail in the timeframe of their mortgage. Some borrowers simply don't know what would happen in that situation and so want to avoid having to find out. Some might think that they would suddenly have to pay the entire balance of the mortgage as soon as the company goes out of business, or if the mortgage is taken up by another lender, that the contract would be renegotiated and could end up a lot worse.
The reality is a lot more benign. Many smaller lenders are funded by larger financing companies or other investors who usually have a laundry list of regulations and protections that need to be in place before any lender is even in the position to give you a mortgage. One of those is at least one backup option in the event of a company-wide failure: another company who will pick up the mortgage exactly where it left off. Many times, there are multiple back up plans for these kinds of scenarios.
When a backup servicer picks up a mortgage, in all but the most radical of scenarios, they are legally required to uphold the contract made by the original lender. That means all payments continue exactly as if nothing ever changed: the most that might happen is the check must be made out to another company.
Subprime mortgage lenders
There is one major exception to the rule, and that is subprime mortgage lenders, like the kind that led to the global recession. Since they are necessarily dealing with a riskier crowd, the odds of a small subprime lender going under are usually higher (though still pretty low overall). And since it is a less established business model in the first place, there might not be the same protections and backup servicers in place as with a prime lender. In rare occasions, a subprime borrower might not be able to find someone to refinance their mortgage when their initial lender goes under.
The vast majority of second and third tier lenders are what is known as prime lenders, however, meaning they only give mortgages to those with credit ratings above a certain quality threshold. There is often little to no additional risk in dealing with these sorts companies compared to the larger mega-corporations.
The benefits, however, might be more obvious. Since larger companies compete over a much larger region, overhead costs are higher and they are sometimes unable to drill down offers to a very local level. For these reasons and others, smaller lenders might be able to offer you a better rate. On a $250,000 mortgage, a 0.1% reduction in interest rate equates to over $1,200 more in your pocket over five years – definitely worth shopping around for.
That's not to say the big companies don't have their own advantages. Branch locations and quantity are a major reason to go with one of the big guys, as well as integration with other financial instruments, credit lines, and online account and payment options that smaller companies might not offer.
Of course, for a lender of any size, it is always important to read the fine print before signing a mortgage contract. Unscrupulous penalties, fees, processing charges, closed terms, refinancing restrictions, and other provisions unfavorable to the customer are just as likely to be on a small lender contract as on any other. Always shop around for the best mortgage rates before deciding on a lender.


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As the temperatures drop heading into winter and things start to freeze, the leafy plants that usually carpet the forest floor all die away. But not the hearty sword fern. It keeps its foliage and withstands the cold here in the Pacific Northwest, becoming the most prominent plant that you see if you brave the chill yourself and explore the woods. This frond glowed in the sunlight that streamed through the tree canopy overhead.
Shared On: Macro Monday; I Heart Macro; MakroMontag; Inspire Me Monday; Good. Random. Fun.; Life Thru the Lens; Thorough My Lens


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The statement below was initiated by Working People Association (Indonesia) and Network of Progressive Youth Burma. It was released on September 16.
Other left groups from the Asian region that have signed it are: the Confederation Congress of Indonesia Union Alliance; the All Nepal Federation of Trade Unions; the Socialist Party of Malaysia; Socialist Alliance (Australia); and Socialist Alternative (Australia).
If your organisation would like to sign, email firstname.lastname@example.com.
* * *
We strongly condemn the military junta of Burma for its new decree to curb workers' rights to form trade unions and its harsh punishments against any industrial action.
The military junta of Burma — the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) — decreed a new regulation on August 20, at a meeting in Rangoon attended by industry employers, government ministers and Burmese military officials, including Lt-Gen Myint Swe of the ministry of defence.
It said whoever launches or takes part in industrial protests demanding better rights or conditions would be fired and blacklisted.
The reason for the decree, labour activists in Burma believe, is that the junta wants to prevent further industrial action and employers don't want their workers taking action to demand better wages.
Now they can fire those who protest and stop them from getting jobs elsewhere.
In March, workers at industries such as Shwe Pyi Thar, Taung Dagon and Hlaing Thayar launched protests demanding that employers give them time off during public holidays and increase their salaries and payments for working overtime.
An industrial worker in Burma earns about US$20-40 monthly. Many have to work overtime to augment their insufficient income.
Historically, labour movements have played a big role in the Burmese people's struggles against colonialism and fascist military dictatorships.
Burma has experienced two big uprisings in its history in which the workers played the leading role, together with students and the general public. These were the "1300 [Burmese calendar] anti-colonial uprising" and the student-led "8888" pro-democracy demonstrations in 1988.
The 1300 anti-colonial uprising took place from 1938 to 1939 and was kindled by a labour strike staged by workers from the Chauk petroleum refinery, owned by British Oil Company (BOC). The "1300 uprising" awakened strong patriotic and nationalist sentiments throughout the country and paved the way for a nationwide anti-colonial independence movement.
After the military coup in 1962 led by General Ne Win, democracy, human rights and freedom to form independent labour unions were suppressed; education, health and other socioeconomic indicators deteriorated significantly as well.
Under General Ne Win's Revolutionary Council, and later the Burma Socialist Program Party, workers faced various forms of oppression and exploitation, including low pay, poor living conditions and lack of personal security.
In June 1974, railway workers in Burma staged a strike that led to a nationwide workers' strike. The strike brought all government administration and the operation of public works to a virtual standstill.
The workers demanded higher salaries, lowering of basic commodity prices, freedom to form an independent labour union, and some fringe benefits for their families. The government rejected their demands and the workers' strike was crushed.
Many workers were gunned down inside the factories and on the streets; others were arrested and sentenced to long-term imprisonment, fired from their jobs, transferred to other towns and cities, or forced into early retirement.
During the 1988 nationwide demonstrations, many government workers joined the students in the streets of Rangoon and other cities to call for democracy and human rights.
The demonstrations quickly gained momentum and became the largest uprising in the history of modern Burma.
The one-party system of General Ne Win faced a serious political crisis and, again, government administration came to a virtual standstill as a general strike took hold.
During the protest, many independent organisations, including labour unions, emerged throughout the country. After the September 18, 1988, military coup, however, all independent organisations and unions were banned.
Many of the workers who took part in the protests were given long jail sentences, dismissed from their jobs or transferred to other locations, or forced into early retirement.
Despite several attempts by labour rights activists and lawyers to register independent labour unions, the regime has turned down the applications.
On June 23, the Burmese regime again rejected an application to form a "Burma National Labour Union". In the absence of independent labour unions and other channels, such as a free press, to express their grievances, workers in Burma remain exploited by both foreign and local factory owners.
They have no means to demand the absence of all workers' rights, adequate pay, proper working conditions and personal security.
Therefore, we the undersigned organisations and political parties declare our solidarity with the struggle of Burma's working class, and hereby demand:
• The new regulation to prevent labour rights are abolished;
• Any form of repression of workers by factory owners or government agencies are rejected; and
• Full democratic rights are granted to workers, including the right to organise, build independent trade unions and form political parties.
We declare our full support for the people of Burma to build a democratic Burma, because only in a democratic Burma can prosperity and justice be achieved. Workers of the world unite!


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|By Mail or In Person:
|Western Avenue Studios, 122 Western Avenue, Studio A-205, Lowell, MA 01851.
|Place an order:
|You can order Lush Beads Industrial directly from our website! For any other items, contact us at email@example.com for ordering and shipping information.
|Request custom work:
|If you would like a custom creation, please send email to firstname.lastname@example.com with a detailed description of the work you'd like done. Please include lengths for necklaces and bracelets, and colors of beads.
|Join the mailing list:
|To learn about future craft shows, sales, and other announcements, sign up on our email list.


text:
First-Time Home Buyer Education
Considering home ownership as your next move? First Time Home Buyer Education is where you want to start!
Homeownership may be the greatest way to reward yourself and your family. It may be also be a great invest for your future. Whether you are just around the corner or miles away from becoming a homeowner, the process of homeownership can be frustrating and even a stumbling block on your homeownership journey. First-Time Home Buyer Education is a great place to gain knowledge and start your homeownership journey with confidence rather than frustration.
From CPACS First-Time Home Buyer Education, you will learn about:
- Owning vs. renting: Am I making the right choice?
- Home buying process
- Budget: assess your affordability
- Credit: Establish, improve and manage
- Loans: What type of loan is best for me?
- Down payment assistance programs
- Shopping for a home
- Importance of home inspection and insurance
- Post-purchase: Protecting your investment


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The Atari 2600 video game consoles was one of the first and most fondly remembered consoles by gamers who like their history or who are old enough to actually remember playing it. I do remember my uncle had one though and being a grubby little child at the time, I was never allowed to go near it, but was permitted to sit in the room whilst others played which I found enthralling and entertaining!
One such fan was Rafael and for his 40th birthday, his loving wife commissioned The Pink Cake Box company to create this fantabulous cake console in honor of his fandom!
Pretty much all that you see here is edible including the console itself, the joysticks and the Pacman and Vanguard game cartridges. The only trouble with a cake like this, is that it looks so good that you are almost don't want to slice a knife through it and hand it out to your party guests. I suppose that's what they mean when they say that you can't have your cake and eat it.
Source: The Pink Cake Box


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What do you think are the most effective personal thoughts on traveling? Are you able to view everything you possibly can about them and make an effort to create your travel arrange? You will find many sources readily available for example mags, video clips, books, and displays. So where do you begin with your plan? Try going through these ways to discover your starting place.
There is only one way to generate "green" out of money. Which is, evidently, to own tons of property and plant trees! Then you enroll them acres within the "Carbon Emissions Trading Program" the U. S. Federal government has. That will get you plenty of bytes, not in plastic-type material, of "Carbon Credits." This is worth a mint! Okay, a small mint. But it is incredibly much valued by the companies that have to toe the particular mark when it comes to emissions!
If you want to make a lot of money online, then you should think about where the millionaires and large investment companies make their cash. They make a lot of their money from Forex. It is where what is the difference between money and currency (4 points) is traded 24/7. The forex market never sleeps. Once only available to banking institutions and large investment businesses, it's now open to sole currency traders, like you. You do not need a lot of cash to start forex trading. A few brokers will allow you to begin investing with $100.
Your response to your immediate environment and how you are getting influenced by it depends on exactly how sensitive you are. Changes will undoubtedly occur but how you control your way through them will verify your level of productivity.
The majority of America's economic history offers used the gold standard where the government issued sensitive legal notes. These notes had been redeemable for silver bucks. These dollars were around 90 percent silver. Throughout the Civil War, there was the coin shortage. Union authorities issued commodity money is backed by gold because individuals were hoarding coins for their metallic content. People saved cash because they feared inflation.
This is one of the money vs. currency hidden secrets to a fast metabolism. Consuming a nutritious meal every single 3-4 hours merely is by far the most efficient way to accelerate your metabolism. When regular eating is combined with the correct food choices, you'll find your self-burning off calories in an alarming rate. You'll probably question why you ever had any problems losing body fat in the past.
Providing you the best available monetary solutions, they resolve your own all money problems inside a right way. Thus, if it is a matter of your short-term cash problems, try to make use of these types of online loans, rather than wondering from anyone else. Helping you to pay back all unexpected expenses promptly, they even improve your poor credit score. So, if you are concerned about your unforeseen costs rather than able to find right methods to resolve them, seek out an internet loan from a reputed mortgage service that can get you money at the right time in the right way.
We are seeking the shepherds that will enable the five-fold ministry to become part of My church once more. I am asking the shepherds that will invite foreign apostles to their faith and have their particular church out five evenings a week to hear the apostles teaching. I am seeking shepherds that will raise up prophets from within their midst plus let them preach to the individuals my message of the crucified life, the self-refusal path and the walk associated with holiness.
Usually, do not trust the government or the Federal government Reserve. It is a trap! They will work for the financial strength elite. They are slowly seeking to take our LIBERTY. The particular new-world-order is right out of George Orwell's book "1984. Inch A Big Brother one-world-government within the disguise of cap-and-trade eco-friendly legislation is next. A significant new economic trend has become solidly in place. It will trick 9 out of every ten traders and affect everything you very own. My mission: to make a functional difference in peoples lifestyles and to help them endure the coming deflation economic climate and the more significant depression. So that you can avoid risk, worry, deficits, mistakes, doubt, discomfort, danger, embarrassment, drudgery, poverty, craving for food, ruin and business failures. Next, comes. Go to the internet site.


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From SmashWiki, the Super Smash Bros. wiki
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Ka-Master, also known as Luigi Ka-Master, is an American smasher from the Washington area who was known in the 2007 era for his success in tournaments using Luigi, and for his knowledge of the space animal matchups. He has released two very well-received combo videos and is currently considered the best Luigi player in the world. He has taken sets off of players such as Lucky, Zhu, HugS and MacD.
He also has a strong Captain Falcon, having taken sets off Bladewise and Iceman.
Ka-Master is currently ranked 2nd on the Washington Melee Power Rankings and 58th on the 2018 MPGR.
Tournament placings[edit]
Super Smash Bros. Melee[edit]
Project M[edit]
Super Smash Bros. Ultimate[edit]
External links[edit]


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indicates every 2 miles
Chester to Tarporley and Farndon Loop Cycle Route
|Cycle Route Details
|Route Name
|Chester to Tarporley and Farndon Loop
|Distance : miles (km)
|47.45 (76.36)
|Posted By
|Calories Burned
|(login and provide your weight for more accurate calories burned)
|Cycle Steps
|This is a very hilly, road route, on a mix of A, B and country roads, that although it is on good, quiet roads, is not for beginners.
There are lots of Cafes and Pubs on the route where you can stop to refuel.
Also, the element of the loop between Farndon and Pulford takes you across the border into Wales.
|Landmarks/Pubs for lunch/Sites to see?
|Beeston Castle
|Near By Cycle Shops
|Chester South Halfords
|69 Cycles
|The Bike Factory
|Cycling Clubs located in this region
|Allterrain MBC
|Boughton Buzzards
|Cheshire Roads Club
|Chester Easy Riders
|Chester's First Cycle Club
|Crewe Clarion Wheelers
|North Cheshire Clarion
|Weaver Valley Cycling Club
|Your comments?
Go Back


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Business557 needed a new logo design and created a contest on 99designs.
A winner was selected from 177 designs submitted by 63 freelance designers.
White Umbrella
Private and group music lessons, we do our own cirriculum that focuses on creativity and use of technology.
Looking for simple, classic umbrella.
Target audience are typically women in their 30's in a two income family with children between 4-11yrs. Our cutomers usually like and use apple products.
We are located in southern California.
We value creativity and innovation, while maintaining simplicity.
Prefer to not have our name or any other words in the logo.
Prefer to not have any musical reference or to associate with rain.
Find out how a design contest works or learn more about our logo design services.


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Despite the serial lawlessness, betrayal and incremental foundational self-destruction being perpetrated upon us by our political overseers, so many of us have either not noticed, not fully grasped the phenomenon, been stunned into compliance, or become inured.
Short on principled leaders and statesmen determined to faithfully defend our Constitution and absent an energetic and virtuous electorate--the very building blocks of a viable republic--an insidious and likely irreversible transformation of our way of life and governing principles is most certainly well underway. That said, one has to question if our Founders foresaw such changes and, if so, what would they have counseled?
Unlike the Articles of Confederation which established a "perpetual union"--and we can all see how "perpetual" that turned out to be--the Constitution's more conservative purpose was to establish a "more perfect union"--not perfect, but more perfect.
Stellar students of history, our Founders understood that no compact/contract could ever be perfect or perpetual; that all compacts, if breached, are subject to the equitable remedy of rescission (annulment), which, in the context of our voluntary compact of States, is equivalent to the concept of a State's secession (withdrawal), the converse of a State's accession (consent to join).
Of special significance, never once did our perceptive Founders view the "more perfect union" of States as "indivisible", a self-serving Lincoln-esque invention to justify the north's invasion of the south, or that our union, with or without a clash of arms, would stand the test of time. (In fact, contingent on their grudging consent to ratify the Constitution, and with nary a peep of protest from either Federalists or Anti-Federalists, New York, Virginia and Rhode Island, the latter which ratified the Constitution only after George Washington's election, explicitly reserved their right to rescind/revoke their ratification, or, in other words, withdraw from the union, if they became disenchanted with the arrangement. Thus, the Founders--framers and ratifiers alike--never believed that withdrawal from the union would be anything but a principled, entirely lawful, natural, and foreseeable development.)
From the outset, and despite outrageously muddled revisionist judicial opinions, e.g. Texas v White (1869), and decades of revisionist indoctrination following the deliberately misnamed "civil war", this compact of States, the United States of America, was understood by the Founders to be strictly voluntary. And like it or not, this voluntary union remains just that--voluntary. And no amount of revisionism or political correctness can alter that foundational truth.
Like in any contractual relationship, violations occur and conditions develop which render the original contract of no further use, benefit or relevance to one or more parties to that contract. Thus, perpetual was never intended to convey permanence or immutability, but, like any contract, a temporariness dictated by the benefits derived from that relationship by the parties to that contract. (The Articles of Confederation is a good example of the realistic limitations of the word "perpetual" for, as we all know, the Articles of Confederation quickly outlived is usefulness and was replaced by the States and their citizens with a federal republic in 1789.)
Astute students of history, both the Framers and Ratifiers clearly understood that, over time, no man-made political system could successfully resist corruption, mutation, transformation and, yes, eventual self-destruction. In short, they understood that the historical constancy of change and mankind's need to painfully re-learn history's unpleasant lessons is as hard-wired as DNA itself.
For reasonably serious students of history, there is nothing especially profound about the foregoing observations, but in these perilous times of gargantuan national debt, a chasmic ideological divide among the electorate and its representatives, relentless violations of the Constitution at all levels of government, rampant lawlessness and habitual mendacity among our political leadership, and, yes, crippling subversion of our political system and the country's cultural fabric from within, dramatic systemic change is not only inevitable, but is already taking place. In short, our rapid transformation from a federal union of States to a unitary corporatist-welfare state has been underway for some time now.
As for our federal republic, or what little remains of it, let's remember that a citizenry's commitment to political union at ANY price is sheer folly. If our economic, social and political systems fail to adequately safeguard our inalienable rights and our representative form of government, then our adherence to that political union is not only short-sighted, it is breathtakingly delusional and manifestly suicidal.
Going forward, I can only hope that preserving our God-given natural rights to Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness will be our primary concern. And when it becomes crystal-clear that the federal union has failed us, then from a practical standpoint our options are limited to either emigrating to other less offensive countries or relocating to those individual States within the current union where more fertile ground for constitutional and economic order exist.
Remember that NOT ONCE did any of the Founders in any way deny our fundamental right to secede or revolt. (Indeed, the venerable Declaration of Independence, was our first successful act of secession and the American Revolution our first act of revolt.)
From the outset, our Founders soberly understood that the union's days were, indeed, numbered. In fact, most of them would have been unsurprised by the so-called "civil war", though they would have bridled at the north's lawless actions to prevent the south's secession. At a terrible price in American treasure and lives, and only by application of overwhelming military force--not virtuous adherence to founding constitutional precepts--was the north able to quash the legitimate southern secession of 1861. And, of course, the systemic legacy of that costly Pyrrhic northern victory has been nothing less than the relentless assault upon and substantive transformation of our federal republic into something very much at odds with the political arrangement our Founders had so carefully crafted and adopted. Why Pyrrhic? Because since the conclusion of the War Between the States, States have become vassals of an essentially boundless central government, something our Founders would have roundly condemned. (That said, however, it appears that most of us have accepted monarchical rule so long as we are able to effectively delude ourselves into believing that our union of States is still a "republic".)
To a man, our Founders would be astonished that the union today, a shattered copy of what was originally conceived, still remains at all. Thus, as said, if our best efforts fail to restore constitutional order on a national level, and if the electoral process continues to fail to restore the union as originally conceived, then the original compact among the States is, for all practical purposes, null and void, and has been null and void for some time now. Unsurprisingly, authoritarianism and, eventually, disunion are but natural consequences of the foundational disintegration we have been experiencing since the War Between the States.
Now more than ever, and in the face of insidious political correctness, ideological delusion, a widespread Pollyanna mentality, and pervasive historical revisionism, our foundational governing principles and rights demand our clear-headed attention and vigorous assertion if we are to successfully survive the political treachery which has befallen us. If we genuinely cherish those principles and rights, then it remains our duty to defend and advance them in any way we can. If history is any lesson, once lost, only the clash of arms can again restore those principles and rights. And in that regard, we can only hope that such a painful re-learning of history's lessons can be averted.
If we can prevent national dissolution by restoring constitutional order, all well and good. But, ALL appropriate Founder-sanctioned remedies to successfully counter the malignant deconstruction of our system of governance must be on the table. That said, my personal view is that, short of a miracle, the foundational deterioration of our republican-free enterprise system is so nearly complete as to render that corruption irreversible, the consequence of which is that the successful restoration of constitutional order on a national level is most likely unattainable. Not a Pollyanna by nature, I am, therefore, expecting the deterioration to worsen, but am both hoping and working to reverse this corrosive process. So, while I'm not throwing in the towel, I am refocusing on more realistic and achievable outcomes. And that is precisely what we should all be doing. But, for starters, we must all jettison the blinders which dangerously impair our ability to clearly see conditions as they really are.
So, to clear-eyed patriots everywhere: don't be overwhelmed into compliance by the lawlessness, double-talk, chicanery and propaganda spewed by our "leaders" and their minions; keep your eyes on the ball and be prepared for further painful and dramatic change. Very importantly, however, begin developing a workable plan to survive and prevail as Freemen. My suggestion is that we take careful measure of those States within the current union which are most likely to successfully succeed as independent republican states. It's always a good idea to know where best to relocate our families when the rubber really does hit the road.
Our choice is simple: weak-kneed, mindless submission to and continued accommodation with an alien order quite at odds with our founding principles or a single-minded commitment to restore constitutional order--if not on a broad national level, then on a State or regional/confederated level. In any event, I can only hope that most Americans will clearly see the subversion taking place, make no excuses for it, and finally take appropriate action to reverse course.
Watching our republic slip into oblivion, I wonder just what it will take to rouse Americans from their stupor? What will it take to encourage them to take convincing remedial action to shake up the power structure and to actually resurrect the republic. I'm still wondering, and I'm still without an answer. I don't pretend to have the solution, but I do know that our doing more of the same, i.e. a little more than nothing, is solving absolutely nothing.
"Any people, anywhere, being inclined and having the power, have the right to rise up and shake off the existing government, and form a new one that suits them better. This is a most valuable, a most sacred right, a right which we hope and believe is to liberate the world." A. Lincoln on the floor of the US House of Representatives, 1847. (Previous to his politically-motivated flip-flop in 1861)
"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." Amendment X of the US Constitution, 1791
"If any state in the Union will declare that it prefers separation...to a continuance in the union...I have no hesitation in saying, 'let us separate.' " Thomas Jefferson
"...a breach of any one article [of the Constitution] by any one party, leaves all other parties at liberty to consider the whole convention as dissolved." James Madison, The Madison Papers
Evaluating Lincoln's beautiful Gettysburg words that Union soldiers sacrificed their lives to the cause of self-determination, i.e. government of, by and for the people, H. L. Mencken asserted that "the Union soldiers in the battle actually fought against self-determination; it was the Confederates who fought for the right of people to govern themselves."
"If tyranny and despotism justified the Revolution of 1776, then we do not see why it would not justify the secession of Five Millions of Southrons from the Federal Union in 1861." New York Tribune, 1860


text:
Jack Bosch is one of the Country's foremost experts
in Land Investments
and an industry leader in Real Estate Investment education.
Jack Bosch is one of the Country's foremost experts
in Land Investments
and an industry leader in Real Estate Investment education.
Jack Bosch (a.k.a "The Land Guy") is an experienced business owner, entrepreneur, real estate investor, respected industry leader, speaker, educator, and perhaps most importantly a parent and husband. He's the author of the bestselling financial literacy book "Forever Cash" and the creator of the Land Profit Generator real estate without hassles system.
Jack immigrated to the United States from Germany in 1997 with just 2-suitcases and a bunch of student debt and since 2002 Jack and co-founder Michelle Bosch have purchased and sold over 4,000+ properties.
With his Land For Pennies investment method Jack and Michelle went from zero to a million in just 18-months and from that built a real estate investment empire that spans multiple areas of real estate including, land flipping, financing/ notes, tax delinquent real estate, home rentals, commercial, multi-family investments, and education.
In 2008 after seeing the devastation in the housing market Jack and Michelle set out on a mission to transform lives by sharing with others the land investment techniques and strategies that have made them a success.
As a result, this simple little-known Land for Pennies real estate niche has provided thousands of people with the opportunity to get into the real estate game without the hassles of traditional real estate investing and Jack and Michelle continue to spread the message with the mission to create 1,000 millionaires and impact the lives of many more.
Note: even though Jack's land investment methods do not require a real estate license Jack currently holds a Real Estate License in the State of Arizona however does not use it to represent anyone. This disclosure is required by the State of Arizona.


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How are y'all doing?? I'm frustrated with my cousin and her twin. Just ugh. Nutshell: some pretty blatant homophobia. When are they gon' learn that the fight for all POC should and needs to include our LGBTQIA brothers and sisters?!
At least my cute planner is coming soon.
How are y'all doing?


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The Meat-Offering
DANIEL prophesied that Christ would "cause the sacrifice and oblation to cease." (Dan. 9:27) Here reference is made to the two great divisions of offerings: sacrifices with, and sacrifices without blood. The meat-offerings belonged to the last class. There was neither flesh nor blood in the meat-offering. The original meaning of the word "meat" as first used in the Bible is "food"; (Gen. 1:29) and in this sense the term is used in connection with this offering. The meat-offering consisted of flour, oil, and frankincense, (Lev. 2:1) In some cases the flour was baked into unleavened cakes, or wafers, before being offered. The bread of the meat-offering was never to be made with leaven. Every meat-offering was seasoned with salt. This offering was spoken of as "a thing most holy of the offerings of the Lord made by fire." (Lev. 2:4-13; 6:17)
No leaven or honey was allowed in any of the meat-offerings; for leaven indicated "malice and wickedness," (1 Cor. 5:8) and honey turns sour and leads to fermentation.
The qualities of salt are directly opposite. Salt removes and prevents corruption; it is also an emblem of friendship. "The salt of the covenant" was never to be omitted from the meat-offering, thus reminding God's people of His protecting care and promise to save, and that only the righteousness of Christ could make the service acceptable to God.
A portion of the meat-offering was burned on the brazen altar, whether it was flour or unleavened cakes; also a portion of the oil, and all the frankincense; (Lev. 6:15) and the remainder was eaten by the priest in the court. (Lev. 6:16,17) If a priest offered a meat-offering, no portion was eaten, but the entire offering was burned on the brazen altar. (Lev. 6:20-22) The high priest offered a meat-offering every day.
Wherever flour or cakes were offered in connection with any other offering, it was called a meat-offering. The offering for the sinner too poor to bring even a wild turtle-dove was a meat-offering or trespass-offering. There was no oil or frankincense in this offering. (Lev. 5:11) In the offering for jealousy, the oil and frankincense were also left out. No frankincense was ever added to the meat-offerings that brought "iniquity to remembrance." (Num. 5:15)
The meat-offering was a very common offering and was united with all burnt-offerings. (Num. 15:3-12) It was offered every morning and evening on the brazen altar, in connection with the morning and evening burnt-offering. (Ex. 29:39-42)
The meat-offering of first-fruits was "green ears of corn dried by the fire, even corn beaten out of full ears. " (Lev. 2:14-16) We quote from Andrew A. Bonar in regard to the significance of the green ears, "A peculiar typical circumstance attends these. These are ears of corn, a figure of Christ; (John 12:24) and ears of the best kind, for so the Hebrew intimates. They are dried by the fire, to represent Jesus feeling the wrath of His Father, as when He said, My strength is dried up, i.e., the whole force of my being is dried up; (Ps. 22:15) 'I am withered like grass.' (Ps. 102:4)
"What an affecting picture of the Man of Sorrow! How like the very life! The best ears of the finest corn in the plains of Israel are plucked while yet green; and instead of being left to ripen in the cool breeze, and under a genial sun, are withered up by the scorching fire. It was thus that the only pure humanity that ever walked on the plains of earth was wasted away during three-and-thirty years by the heat of wrath He had never deserved. While obeying night and day, with all His soul and strength, the burning wrath of God was drying up His frame. 'Beaten out of full ears,' represents the bruises and strokes whereby He was prepared for the altar. 'Though He were a Son, yet learned He obedience by the things which He suffered.' (Heb. 5:8) It is after this preparation that He is a perfect meat-offering, fully devoted, body and substance, to the Lord.
"In all this He is 'First-fruits,' intimating that many more shall follow. He the first-fruits, then all that are His in like manner. We must be conformed to Jesus in all things; and here it is taught us that we must be conformed to Him in self-dedication – self-renunciation. We must please the Father; as He left us an example, saying, "I do always those things that please Him, (John 8:29) even under the blackest sky."
The meat-offering typified the full surrender of all we have, and all we are, to the Lord. This offering was always presented along with some animal sacrifice, thus showing the connection between pardon of sin and consecration to the Lord. It is after an individual's sins are forgiven that he lays all upon the altar to be consumed in God's service.
In the meat-offering, like the sin-offering, provision was made for the poor. The wealthy class baked their meat-offerings in an oven; the individual in moderate circumstances, on the "fire plate"; while the cakes baked by the poor in the "frying pan," were equally acceptable. (Lev. 2:4-8)
Lev. 2:1-3. It was "a thing most holy of the
offerings of the Lord made by fire."
Rom. 12:1. "Present your bodies a living
sacrifice, holy, acceptable unto God."
Lev. 2:9. The meat-offering was "a sweet savor
unto the Lord."
Phil. 4:18. When God's people make sacrifices
for Him, it is "an odor of a sweet smell,...well
pleasing to God."
Lev. 2:13. "Every oblation of thy meat-offering
shalt thou season with salt;...with all thine
offerings thou shalt offer salt."
Mark 9:50. "Have salt in yourselves."
Col. 4:6. "Let your speech be alway with
grace, seasoned with salt."


text:
Optimization Methods in Structural DesignAuthor(s):
Alan Rothwell
Paperback - 9783319855936
25 July 2018
In stock
Hardcover - 9783319551968
07 April 2017
Free Shipping
In stock
Ebook - 9783319551975
27 March 2017
In stock
This book offers an introduction to numerical optimization methods in structural design. Employing a readily accessible and compact format, the book presents an overview of optimization methods, and equips readers to...Show More
This book offers an introduction to numerical optimization methods in structural design. Employing a readily accessible and compact format, the book presents an overview of optimization methods, and equips readers to properly set up optimization problems and interpret the results. A 'how-to-do-it' approach is followed throughout, with less emphasis at this stage on mathematical derivations. The book features spreadsheet programs provided in Microsoft Excel, which allow readers to experience optimization 'hands-on.' Examples covered include truss structures, columns, beams, reinforced shell structures, stiffened panels and composite laminates. For the last three, a review of relevant analysis methods is included. Exercises, with solutions where appropriate, are also included with each chapter. The book offers a valuable resource for engineering students at the upper undergraduate and postgraduate level, as well as others in the industry and elsewhere who are new to these highly practical techniques.While the specific application is to structural design, the principles involved can be applied far more widely.Show Less
Winner of a 2018 TAA Textbook Excellence Award
`Bridges the gap' between conventional design methods and advanced texts on optimization theory
Spreadsheet programs using Solver in Excel enable readers to experience optimization `hands-on'
Includes examples referring to relevant structural design problems, such as shell structures and composite laminates
Provides an accessible, compact text in which methods are adequately explained without excessive focus on mathematical derivations
Enables readers to use optimization modules in major computer packages
Worked solutions to the exercises in the book available on http://extras.springer.com/
1 The Conventional Design Process
2 Optimality Criteria
3 The General Optimization Problem
4 Numerical Methods for Unconstrained Optimization
5 Numerical Methods for Constrained Optimization
6 Optimization of Beams
7 Reinforced Shell Structures
8 Composite Laminates
9 Laminate Optimization
10 Optimization with Finite Element Analysis. Final Word
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