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This entry is a Bike Hacks classic (originally posted by Bren).
Lately I've been eyeballing some repair stands and contemplating building my own. I don't have a real garage, just a carport with a small attached shop area. The shop area has a workbench, but there's just not much room to move. So I'm thinking of building a movable repair stand. Something that I can put up and take down quickly, but also something that can move around a bit. I've got a great covered area in my carport, but no easy hose access for washing. However, I do have 4x4 posts in both the carport and over near the hose.
So I'm thinking that this post-mounted repair stand (it is an old link, no more detailed pictures, sorry) might be just the thing for me. It's nice because it uses inexpensive standard hardware and the main body of the stand is easily moved from location to location, provided you've got mounts already installed.
As usual, Instructables has some nicely designed bike repair stands. This one is a really sweet looking bench mounted repair stand, made of PVC. The clamp is very similar to the first version, with a PVC 'T' cut in half and reassembled with hinges and a clasp. The overall design is super simple and ought to be just the thing if you've got a workbench with a little extra room.
Here's the second design from Instructables. It's a free standing PVC bike repair stand. This is a pretty clever design that uses no clamp to hold the bike in place. The bike's bottom bracket just rests on the stand. Be sure and read through the comments before beginning this build, since you may require a repair stand with a bit more stability.
This wooden bench mounted repair stand looks like a straightforward build. You'll need a workbench and some pipe clamps. This one uses a bit of plumbing polyurethane in place of the foam pipe insulation of the previous builds.
Now here's a serious project. This heavy duty bike repair stand is nothing to sneeze at, but if you've got the gear and the welding chops then get after it. This thing looks like a medieval torture device.
This fine looking pipe based bike repair stand uses simple and easily obtainable raw materials. The clamp looks a little overbuilt, though I bet you could use one of the PVC clamps from above without much ill effect. The base of the stand uses the same metal flange as used on the first repair stand in this post.
This next one is pretty interesting. I found reference to it in various search engines, but the site was gone. Wayback Machine to the rescue! This design is a freestanding wooden bike repair stand that ends up looking a bit like a miniature gallows. But don't let that deter you. If you've got the wood sitting around, it might be just the thing. If you've got to buy the wood, then you can probably count on not really saving any money over a cheap stand. But then again, cheap stands aren't as much fun as building your own, eh?
UPDATE - If you like this post, check out other repair stands posted since!
Weight Stands Bike Repair Stand


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|By Dustin Amrhein
Article Rating:
|March 2, 2012 09:00 AM EST
How about we start this post off with some facts?
- Mobile data traffic exceeded voice traffic in 2010 (Wireless Industry News, August 26, 2010)
- Shipments of smartphones exceeded the shipment of PCs for the first time in 2011 (2011 Economist)
- Ten billion mobile connected devices are expected to be in use by 2020 (2011 Economist)
- 74% of surveyed CIOs indicated mobile capabilities were a top investment priority over the next three to five years (2011 IBM Global CIO Study)
As you may surmise from the above, the mobile computing space is hot. Companies are already doing mobile, and many have already or are looking to define their three to five year strategy. In that respect, this month's acquisition of Worklight by my employer, IBM, is not at all surprising. Let's take a little closer look at exactly what Worklight is and what it delivers.
A quick perusal of existing Worklight material provides us with the simplest explanation of the solution:
Worklight is an open, complete and advanced mobile application platform for HTML5, hybrid and native apps.
While I grant you that the above statement sounds like something right out of a product brochure that does not mean it is not accurate. We need to go a bit deeper than that though, and the best place to start is with an architectural diagram of the Worklight solution:
As you can see, the Worklight solution is made up of four primary components. These include the Worklight Studio, Worklight Server, Device Runtime, and Worklight Console. Let's tackle each one of these in turn, starting with the Worklight Studio.
The Worklight Studio is first and foremost and Eclipse-based IDE. When installed, it augments your Eclipse runtime with a powerful set of tools focused on helping you to develop every aspect of your mobile enterprise applications. Worklight Studio embraces open web technology such as HTML5, CSS3, and JavaScript by proffering a model where developers start with a common, shared code base for their application. From that common code base, Worklight Studio makes it easy to create subcomponents of the main application that are optimized for specific platforms. This makes it quite simple to start with a common code base and build a deployable application for Android, Blackberry, iPhone, WinPhone, and more.
All of this is not to say that you cannot create rich mobile applications that access native device functionality. Worklight Studio includes the PhoneGap library that provides a device-agnostic JavaScript bridge to native device functionality such as the camera, accelerometer, and geolocation facilities. Furthermore, Worklight Studio provides native device SDK integration as well as the ability to develop applications that freely move between native and non-native screens.
Next up is the Worklight Server. First and foremost, the Worklight Server provides a central distribution point for your mobile applications. You deploy your mobile application assets to the Worklight Server, and you have a central point where you can manage application versions, push direct application updates, and handle application versioning, up to and including disabling old versions. Beyond these capabilities, the Worklight Server facilitates many mobile application security aspects. It provides the means to enforce secure connectivity from client devices, and it is capable of checking the authenticity of applications with which it is communicating.
There are a few other capabilities worth pointing out in regards to the Worklight Server. First, the Worklight Server plays host to what Worklight refers to as 'adapters'. Adapters are JavaScript code that provide connectivity from mobile applications to backend enterprise information systems such as REST-based services, web services, databases, or just about anything else to which you need to connect. Seeing as these adapters run in the Worklight Server (within a Rhino container), you have the means to secure these as is necessary for services that reach into your Enterprise Information Systems. Secondly, the Worklight Server delivers a unified push architecture that makes it simpler to send push notifications to applications running on a number of different client device types. Effectively, this unified push architecture serves to hide the complexities associated with pushing messages across the different mobile platforms and lets administrators focus on simply reaching their application users.
In addition to all of this, the Worklight client API that is part of the Device Runtime component provides integration capabilities with the Worklight Server to enforce user authentication, check network connectivity, log user actions for reporting and analytics, integrate with the push notification capability of the Worklight Server, and much more. Finally, the Device Runtime enables the unique notion of skins. Skins allow you to apply different views for mobile applications that run on different device types within the same device family (e.g. iPhone and iPad). This means that you can reuse nearly all application artifacts across a wide array of devices in the same family, thereby significantly reducing development costs.
Our brief and I mean very brief, overview of the Worklight solution concludes with a look at the Worklight Console. The console provides a web user interface through which you can manage many aspects of your mobile applications. First, you can manage application versions and easily take advantage of the capability provided by the Worklight Server to disable application versions. Through the console you can also manage push notifications to various applications across various devices, thereby taking advantage of the unified push architecture provided by the server. Finally, the console provides a central view of reports on mobile application usage and activity per the out-of-the-box statistics provided by Worklight as well as what your mobile applications report via the Worklight client API.
I hope this gives you a good, if not high-level overview of the Worklight solution that is new to the IBM family. I want to reiterate that this is in no means an exhaustive explanation, but more of a primer. I am sure I will be writing more on this topic in the coming weeks and months, but until then I hope to hear from you. If you have questions, let me know right here or on Twitter @damrhein. Until next time!
- Forget Defining Cloud Computing
- IBM & Cloud Computing: Self-Service Clouds with Fine-Grained Control
- IBM & Cloud Computing: How WebSphere CloudBurst Delivers Consumability
- Cloud Computing and Virtual Images
- Bringing Cloud Computing to SOA
- Five Reasons to Choose a Private Cloud
- What's in a Cloud Appliance?
- Should Developers Care About Cloud Computing?
- Reference Architecture for Cloud Computing
- Confronting The Culture of Cloud Computing

subset: commoncrawl


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Welcome back.
So starting this blogventure (my version of an adventure) has been on my mind for sometime. The original idea came to me while running with my two poochies, Alice and Dora. Since I try to be a responsible poochie parent, I was carrying two bags of poo. In case you were wondering, it's not a good look or fun. The stories I could share of the mishaps along the way would have you laughing so hard, stuff would come out of your nose. But that is for another time.
Cutie isn't she? She's definitely therapy. Reminds me to take every day for what it is and enjoy it.
Back to the idea. When I had the idea originally, I wanted to call it "Running with Poo". I know, pretty weird right? At the time, it sort of captured what was happening in my life. Sort of the Life running me instead of the other way around.
Flash forward to a couple of business trips Mr. Hubby had. Picture this: he leaves and the house is a certain way and color scheme. He returns to someting completely different- down to furniture, painted rooms, curtains, etc. I had been doing stuff like this to him since we have been married. Fortunately for me, he is super tolerant. For the most part, he will make a few comments and let it go. (As I typed that, I heard the Frozen song in my head…) I had always explained it was a destresser for me. After the third or fourth time of a complete redo of a room, a discussion had to take place.
Always a lover of design and pre Pinterest, I would save pictures from Southern Living, Traditional Home and others as my inspiration. Don't know about you, but I find inspiration much easier when I implement it by myself.
Given that, I waited until he was out of town to put plans in action. After all, having someone else provide an opinion yeah or nay, gave the whole process a level of stress I didn't need. I simply explained that doing something to make the home better (at least I thought so) was therapeutic for me. And most of the time cheaper than going to a therapist. I guess one could argue that in itself is a reason to see a therapist. But hey, Mr. Hubby figured out it was something he could live with. It was therapy.
I started running a while back and have done multiple Marathons, half marathons and 10K races. About a month into training for my first race, it occurred to me I missed it when I didn't get to my workout for the day. It also became apparent to me, the activity gave me an outlet for stress and was very cathartic. It became therapy.
Several years ago, I joined the Atlanta Track Club's In Training for the Women's 5K. You can more information about it here ATC In Training for Womens 5K. This wonderful group of women are so much fun to train with and give me inspiration every time. They are therapy.
There are so many more examples of things I do I consider therapy. Stuff that enhances my life, reduces stress, gives me an outlet or uses a different part of my brain. I found myself saying " it's therapy I swear" to people when explaining why I was doing something. And now here you go. The blog.
What do you do that's therapy? I'll bet you have a bunch of things too. Let me know what gives you the most happiness.
Til next time…


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H.R.2061 - Civilian Service Recognition Act of 2011112th Congress (2011-2012)
|Rep. Hanna, Richard L. [R-NY-24] (Introduced 05/31/2011)
|House - Oversight and Government Reform | Senate - Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
|Committee Reports:
|H. Rept. 112-149
|Latest Action:
|12/20/2011 Became Public Law No: 112-73. (TXT | PDF) (All Actions)
|Roll Call Votes:
|There has been 1 roll call vote
This bill has the status Became Law
Here are the steps for Status of Legislation:
- Introduced
- Passed House
- Passed Senate
- To President
- Became Law
Subject — Policy Area:
- Government Operations and Politics
- View subjects
Summary: H.R.2061 — 112th Congress (2011-2012)All Information (Except Text)
Shown Here:
Public Law No: 112-73 (12/20/2011)
(Although this measure has not been amended since it was reported to the House, the text was changed by H. Con. Res. 86, which made enrollment corrections, and the summary has been modified as necessary.)
Civilian Service Recognition Act of 2011 - Authorizes a federal executive agency head to: (1) give a U.S. flag for an individual who was an agency employee and who died of employment-related injuries suffered as a result of a criminal act, an act of terrorism, a natural disaster, or other circumstance as determined by the President, upon the request of the employee's widow or widower, child, sibling, or parent, or other another individual other than the next of kin as determined by the Director of the Office of Personnel Management (OPM); and (2) disclose unclassified information that does not endanger national security to show that such employee is eligible to receive a flag.
Requires agency heads to provide appropriate notice to agency employees of the flag benefit provided by this Act.
Defines "employee" for purposes of this Act to include an officer or employee of the U.S. Postal Service (USPS) or the Postal Regulatory Commission.


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It's snowing on Tioga Pass right now!!!!Posted by Mono County Tourism - California's Eastern Sierra on Thursday, July 9, 2015
"It's snowing on Tioga Pass right now!!!!!" Mono County Tourism gushed on its Facebook page Thursday morning. The accompanying video posted by the Eastern Sierra agency shows snow falling at the almost 10,000-foot Sierra pass on the east side of Yosemite National Park.
Tioga Pass on California 120 closed for a few hours Wednesday night when snow started, according to tweets by Caltrans. Here's what westbound traffic on the highway that runs east-west through the park looked like Thursday.
Here's a current view of westbound SR120W Tioga Pass at the Yosemite Entrance Gate, Yes that's Snow!!! Carry Chains! pic.twitter.com/OlVK9Htc6a— Caltrans District 9 (@Caltrans9) July 9, 2015
Snow also accumulated farther north at Sonora Pass on California 108.
Here is the latest photos from our crew up on SR108 Sonora Pass, still snowing but it's seems to be slowing down now. pic.twitter.com/4yY2V5ZkaS— Caltrans District 9 (@Caltrans9) July 9, 2015
The snow fizzled to rain by Thursday afternoon. Weather forecasts say rain and is expected Friday (today) and Saturday throughout Yosemite, with highs in the 60s.


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natural law
being →
database →
ethics →
fiction →
history →
internet →
language →
linux →
logic →
method →
news →
policy →
purpose →
religion →
science →
software →
truth →
unix →
wiki →
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feed →
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system →
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critical →
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natural law
please note:{{short description|System of law that is purportedly determined by nature, and is thus universal}}{{other uses}}File:Carlo Crivelli 007.jpg|thumb|200px|Thomas Aquinas, a Catholic philosopher of the Middle Ages, revived and developed the concept of natural law from ancient Greek philosophyancient Greek philosophyNatural law (, lex naturalis) is law that is held to exist independently of the positive law of a given political order, society or nation-state. As determined by nature, the law of nature is implied to be objective and universal;ENCYCLOPEDIA, Strauss, Leo, Leo Strauss, Natural Law, International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 1968, Macmillan, it exists independently of human understanding, and of the positive law of a given state, political order, legislature or society at large. Historically, natural law refers to the use of reason to analyze human nature to deduce binding rules of moral behavior from nature's or God's creation of reality and mankind.The concept of natural law was documented in ancient Greek philosophy, including Aristotle,Rommen, Heinrich A., The Natural Law: A Study in Legal and Social Philosophy trans. Thomas R. Hanley, O.S.B., Ph.D. (B. Herder Book Co., 1947 [reprinted 1959]), p. 5 and was referred to in Roman philosophy by Cicero. References to natural law are also found in the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, later expounded upon in the Middle Ages by Christian philosophers such as Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas. The School of Salamanca made notable contributions during the Renaissance.Modern natural law theories were greatly developed in the Age of Enlightenment, combining inspiration from Roman law with philosophies like social contract theory. It was used to challenge the divine right of kings, and became an alternative justification for the establishment of a social contract, positive law, and governmentâand thus legal rightsâin the form of classical republicanism. Conversely, the concept of natural rights is used by others to challenge the legitimacy of all such establishments.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}Contemporarily, the concept of natural law is closely related to the concept of natural rights. Indeed, many philosophers, jurists and scholars use natural law synonymously with natural rights (), or natural justice. while others distinguish between natural law and natural right.Because of the intersection between natural law and natural rights, natural law has been claimed or attributed as a key component in the Declaration of Independence (1776) of the United States, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) of France, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) of the United Nations, as well as the European Convention on Human Rights (1953) of the Council of Europe.
- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
- the content below is remote from Wikipedia
- it has been imported raw for GetWiki
Ancient Greece
Plato{{Original research section|date=May 2011}}Although Plato did not have an explicit theory of natural law (he rarely used the phrase 'natural law' except in Gorgias 484 and Timaeus 83e), his concept of nature, according to John Wild, contains some of the elements found in many natural law theories.BOOK, Wild, John, 1953, Plato's Modern Enemies and the Theory of Natural Law,weblink registration, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 136, According to Plato, we live in an orderly universe.Plato, Gorgias 508a. The basis of this orderly universe or nature are the forms, most fundamentally the Form of the Good, which Plato describes as "the brightest region of Being".Plato, The Republic, 518bâd. The Form of the Good is the cause of all things, and when it is seen it leads a person to act wisely.Plato, The Republic, 540a, 517bâd. In the Symposium, the Good is closely identified with the Beautiful.Plato, Symposium, 205eâ6a. In the Symposium, Plato describes how the experience of the Beautiful by Socrates enabled him to resist the temptations of wealth and sex.Plato, Symposium, 211dâe. In the Republic, the ideal community is "a city which would be established in accordance with nature".Plato, The Republic, 428e9.
Aristotle{{see also|Treatise on Law#Natural law}}File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|upright|Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by RaphaelRaphaelGreek philosophy emphasized the distinction between "nature" (physis, ÏúÏιÏ) on the one hand and "law", "custom", or "convention" (nomos, νóμοÏ) on the other.{{cn|date=July 2019}} What the law commanded would be expected to vary from place to place, but what was "by nature" should be the same everywhere. A "law of nature" would therefore have the flavor more of a paradox than something that obviously existed. Against the conventionalism that the distinction between nature and custom could engender, Socrates and his philosophic heirs, Plato and Aristotle, posited the existence of natural justice or natural right (dikaion physikon, δικαιον ÏÏ Ïικον, Latin ius naturale). Of these, Aristotle is often said to be the father of natural law.JOURNAL, Shellens, Max Solomon, Aristotle on Natural Law, Natural Law Forum, 4, 1, 1959, 72â100, 10.1093/ajj/4.1.72, Aristotle's association with natural law may be due to the interpretation given to his works by Thomas Aquinas.BOOK, Jaffa, Harry, Harry V. Jaffa, Thomism and Aristotelianism, 1952, 1979, Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, But whether Aquinas correctly read Aristotle is in dispute. According to some, Aquinas conflates natural law and natural right, the latter of which Aristotle posits in Book V of the Nicomachean Ethics (Book IV of the Eudemian Ethics). According to this interpretation, Aquinas's influence was such as to affect a number of early translations of these passages in an unfortunate manner, though more recent translations render those more literally.CONFERENCE, Corbett, Ross J., The Philosophic Context of the Development of Natural Law, April 2012, Midwest Political Science Association, 2021235, Aristotle notes that natural justice is a species of political justice, specifically the scheme of distributive and corrective justice that would be established under the best political community; were this to take the form of law, this could be called a natural law, though Aristotle does not discuss this and suggests in the Politics that the best regime may not rule by law at all.JOURNAL, Ross J., Corbett, The Question of Natural Law in Aristotle, History of Political Thought, 30, 2, Summer 2009, 229â50, The best evidence of Aristotle's having thought there was a natural law comes from the Rhetoric, where Aristotle notes that, aside from the "particular" laws that each people has set up for itself, there is a "common" law that is according to nature.Aristotle, Rhetoric 1373b2â8. Specifically, he quotes Sophocles and Empedocles:Universal law is the law of Nature. For there really is, as every one to some extent divines, a natural justice and injustice that is binding on all men, even on those who have no association or covenant with each other. It is this that Sophocles' Antigone clearly means when she says that the burial of Polyneices was a just act in spite of the prohibition: she means that it was just by nature:
"Not of to-day or yesterday it is, But lives eternal: none can date its birth."And so Empedocles, when he bids us kill no living creature, he is saying that to do this is not just for some people, while unjust for others:
"Nay, but, an all-embracing law, through the realms of the sky Unbroken it stretcheth, and over the earth's immensity."Aristotle, Rhetoric, Book I â Chapter 13, WEB,weblink Archived copy, 2012-12-22, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20150213075009weblink">weblink 2015-02-13,Some critics believe that the context of this remark suggests only that Aristotle advised that it could be rhetorically advantageous to appeal to such a law, especially when the "particular" law of one's own city was averse to the case being made, not that there actually was such a law; Moreover, they claim that Aristotle considered two of the three candidates for a universally valid, natural law provided in this passage to be wrong. Aristotle's paternity of natural law tradition is consequently disputed.
Stoic natural lawThe development of this tradition of natural justice into one of natural law is usually attributed to the Stoics. The rise of natural law as a universal system coincided with the rise of large empires and kingdoms in the Greek world.Lloyd's Introduction to Jurisprudence, Seventh Edition.{{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}} Whereas the "higher" law that Aristotle suggested one could appeal to was emphatically natural, in contradistinction to being the result of divine positive legislation, the Stoic natural law was indifferent to either the natural or divine source of the law: the Stoics asserted the existence of a rational and purposeful order to the universe (a divine or eternal law), and the means by which a rational being lived in accordance with this order was the natural law, which inspired actions that accorded with virtue.As the English historian A. J. Carlyle (1861â1943) notes:There is no change in political theory so startling in its completeness as the change from the theory of Aristotle to the later philosophical view represented by Cicero and Seneca ... We think that this cannot be better exemplified than with regard to the theory of the equality of human nature."BOOK, A. J., Carlyle, A History of Medieval Political Theory in the West, vol. 1, Edinburgh, 1903, 8â9, Charles H. McIlwain likewise observes that "the idea of the equality of men is the most profound contribution of the Stoics to political thought" and that "its greatest influence is in the changed conception of law that in part resulted from it.BOOK, Charles H., McIlwain, The Growth of Political Thought in the West: From the Greeks to the End of the Middle Ages,weblink New York, 1932, 114â15, Natural law first appeared among the stoics who believed that God is everywhere and in everyone (see classical pantheism). According to this belief, within humans there is a "divine spark" which helps them to live in accordance with nature. The stoics felt that there was a way in which the universe had been designed, and that natural law helped us to harmonise with this.
Ancient RomeFile:Thorvaldsen Cicero.jpg|thumb|180px|Marcus Tullius CiceroMarcus Tullius CiceroCicero wrote in his De Legibus that both justice and law originate from what nature has given to humanity, from what the human mind embraces, from the function of humanity, and from what serves to unite humanity.Cicero, De Legibus, bk. 1, sec. 16â17. For Cicero, natural law obliges us to contribute to the general good of the larger society.BOOK, Francis, Barham, Introduction, The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero, London, Edmund Spettigue, 1842,weblink The purpose of positive laws is to provide for "the safety of citizens, the preservation of states, and the tranquility and happiness of human life." In this view, "wicked and unjust statutes" are "anything but 'laws,'" because "in the very definition of the term 'law' there (wikt:inheres|inheres) the idea and principle of choosing what is just and true."Cicero, De Legibus (Keyes translation), bk. 2, sec. 11. Law, for Cicero, "ought to be a reformer of vice and an incentive to virtue."Cicero, De Legibus (Keyes translation), bk. 1, sec. 58. Cicero expressed the view that "the virtues which we ought to cultivate, always tend to our own happiness, and that the best means of promoting them consists in living with men in that perfect union and charity which are cemented by mutual benefits."In De Re Publica, he writes:}}Cicero influenced the discussion of natural law for many centuries to come, up through the era of the American Revolution. The jurisprudence of the Roman Empire was rooted in Cicero, who held "an extraordinary grip ... upon the imagination of posterity" as "the medium for the propagation of those ideas which informed the law and institutions of the empire."BOOK, Charles Norris, Cochrane, Christianity and Classical Culture: A Study of Thought and Action from Augustus to Augustine,weblink New York, Oxford University Press, 1957, 39, Cicero's conception of natural law "found its way to later centuries notably through the writings of Saint Isidore of Seville and the Decretum of Gratian."BOOK, Edward S., Corwin, The "Higher Law" Background of American Constitutional Law,weblink registration, Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1955, 17â18, Thomas Aquinas, in his summary of medieval natural law, quoted Cicero's statement that "nature" and "custom" were the sources of a society's laws.Thomas Aquinas, Treatise on Law (Summa Theologica, Questions 90â97), ed. Stanley Parry (Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1969), p. 18The Renaissance Italian historian Leonardo Bruni praised Cicero as the person "who carried philosophy from Greece to Italy, and nourished it with the golden river of his eloquence."Quoted in Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought(Cambridge, 1978), vol. 1, p. 89. The legal culture of Elizabethan England, exemplified by Sir Edward Coke, was "steeped in Ciceronian rhetoric."BOOK, Allen D., Boyer, Sir Edward Coke, Ciceronianus: Classical Rhetoric and the Common Law Tradition, Law, Liberty, and Parliament: Selected Essays on the Writings of Sir Edward Coke, Allen D. Boyer, Indianapolis, Liberty Fund, 2004, 224â25, The Scottish moral philosopher Francis Hutcheson, as a student at Glasgow, "was attracted most by Cicero, for whom he always professed the greatest admiration."BOOK, William Robert, Scott, Francis Hutcheson: His Life, Teaching, and Position in the History of Philosophy, 1900, New York, Augustus M. Kelley, 1966, More generally in eighteenth-century Great Britain, Cicero's name was a household word among educated people. Likewise, "in the admiration of early Americans Cicero took pride of place as orator, political theorist, stylist, and moralist."BOOK, Meyer, Reinhold, Classica Americana: The Greek and Roman Heritage in the United States,weblink registration, Detroit, Wayne State University Press, 1984, 150, The British polemicist Thomas Gordon "incorporated Cicero into the radical ideological tradition that travelled from the mother country to the colonies in the course of the eighteenth century and decisively shaped early American political culture."JOURNAL, Stephen, Botein, Cicero as Role Model for Early American Lawyers: A Case Study in Classical 'Influence', The Classical Journal, 73, 4, AprilâMay 1978, 315, Cicero's description of the immutable, eternal, and universal natural law was quoted by BurlamaquiBOOK, Jean Jacques, Burlamaqui, Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, The Principles of Natural and Politic Law, Trans. Thomas Nugent, Indianapolis, Liberty Fund, 2006, 1763, book I, part 2, ch. 5, sec. 11, and later by the American revolutionary legal scholar James Wilson.BOOK, James, Wilson, James Wilson, Of the Law of Nature, The Works of James Wilson, Robert G. McCloskey, Robert Green, McCloskey, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1967, 1, 145â46, Cicero became John Adams's "foremost model of public service, republican virtue, and forensic eloquence."JOURNAL, James M., Farrell, John Adams's Autobiography: The Ciceronian Paradigm and the Quest for Fame, The New England Quarterly, 62, 4, December 1989, 506, 10.2307/366395, 366395, Adams wrote of Cicero that "as all the ages of the world have not produced a greater statesman and philosopher united in the same character, his authority should have great weight."BOOK, John, Adams, John Adams, A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America, 3, 1797, Darmstadt, Scientia Verlag Aalen, 1979, 1, xviiâxviii, Thomas Jefferson "first encountered Cicero as a schoolboy while learning Latin, and continued to read his letters and discourses throughout his life. He admired him as a patriot, valued his opinions as a moral philosopher, and there is little doubt that he looked upon Cicero's life, with his love of study and aristocratic country life, as a model for his own."BOOK, Jefferson's Literary Commonplace Book, Douglas L., Wilson, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1989, 159, Jefferson described Cicero as "the father of eloquence and philosophy."Jefferson to Amos J. Cook, 21 Jan. 1816; quoted in Jefferson's Literary Commonplace Book, p. 161.
ChristianityThe New Testament carries a further exposition on the Abrahamic dialogue and links to the later Greek exposition on the subject, when Paul's Epistle to the Romans states: "For when the Gentiles, which have not the law, do by nature the things contained in the law, these, having not the law, are a law unto themselves: Which shew the work of the law written in their hearts, their conscience also bearing witness, and their thoughts the meanwhile accusing or else excusing one another."{{bibleverse||Romans|2:14â15|KJV}} The intellectual historian A. J. Carlyle has commented on this passage, "There can be little doubt that St Paul's words imply some conception analogous to the 'natural law' in Cicero, a law written in men's hearts, recognized by man's reason, a law distinct from the positive law of any State, or from what St Paul recognized as the revealed law of God. It is in this sense that St Paul's words are taken by the Fathers of the fourth and fifth centuries like St Hilary of Poitiers, St Ambrose, and St Augustine, and there seems no reason to doubt the correctness of their interpretation."BOOK, A. J., Carlyle, A History of Medieval Political Theory in the West, 1, 83,weblink New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1903, live,weblink 2016-06-08, Because of its origins in the Old Testament, early Church Fathers, especially those in the West, saw natural law as part of the natural foundation of Christianity. The most notable among these was Augustine of Hippo, who equated natural law with humanity's prelapsarian state; as such, a life according to unbroken human nature was no longer possible and persons needed instead to seek healing and salvation through the divine law and grace of Jesus Christ.The natural law was inherently teleological, however, it is most assuredly not deontological. For Christians, natural law is how human beings manifest the divine image in their life. This mimicry of God's own life is impossible to accomplish except by means of the power of grace. Thus, whereas deontological systems merely require certain duties be performed, Christianity explicitly states that no one can, in fact, perform any duties if grace is lacking. For Christians, natural law flows not from divine commands, but from the fact that humanity is made in God's image, humanity is empowered by God's grace. Living the natural law is how humanity displays the gifts of life and grace, the gifts of all that is good. Consequences are in God's hands, consequences are generally not within human control, thus in natural law, actions are judged by three things: (1) the person's intent, (2) the circumstances of the act and (3) the nature of the act. The apparent good or evil consequence resulting from the moral act is not relevant to the act itself. The specific content of the natural law is therefore determined by how each person's acts mirror God's internal life of love. Insofar as one lives the natural law, temporal satisfaction may or may not be attained, but salvation will be attained. The state, in being bound by the natural law, is conceived as an institution whose purpose is to assist in bringing its subjects to true happiness. True happiness derives from living in harmony with the mind of God as an image of the living God.After the Protestant Reformation, some Protestant denominations maintained parts of the Catholic concept of natural law. The English theologian Richard Hooker from the Church of England adapted Thomistic notions of natural law to Anglicanism five principles: to live, to learn, to reproduce, to worship God, and to live in an ordered society.AV MEDIA,weblink Natural Law aspects of theory, Rsrevision.com, PDF, live,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20141026050618weblink">weblink 2014-10-26, {{irrelevant citation|date=June 2019|reason=doesnât mention Hooker; is not academic source (Catholic secondary school notes).}}
Catholic natural law jurisprudence{{see also|Treatise on Law|Determinatio}}File:Tommaso_da_modena,_ritratti_di_domenicani_(vescovo)_1352_150cm,_treviso,_ex_convento_di_san_niccol%C3%B2,_sala_del_capitolo.jpg|thumb|Albertus Magnus, O.P. (c. 1200â1280).]]File:Benozzo Gozzoli 004a.jpg|thumb|190px|Thomas AquinasThomas Aquinas{{Catholic philosophy |expanded=all}}In the twelfth century, Gratian equated the natural law with divine law. Albertus Magnus would address the subject a century later, and his pupil, St. Thomas Aquinas, in his Summa Theologica I-II qq. 90â106, restored Natural Law to its independent state, asserting natural law as the rational creature's participation in the eternal law.Summa Theologica, I-II, Q. 91, Art. 2 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704182120weblink |date=2007-07-04 }} "I answer that" Yet, since human reason could not fully comprehend the Eternal law, it needed to be supplemented by revealed Divine law. (See also Biblical law in Christianity.) Meanwhile, Aquinas taught that all human or positive laws were to be judged by their conformity to the natural law. An unjust law is not a law, in the full sense of the word. It retains merely the 'appearance' of law insofar as it is duly constituted and enforced in the same way a just law is, but is itself a 'perversion of law.'Summa Theologicae, Q. 95, A. 2. At this point, the natural law was not only used to pass judgment on the moral worth of various laws, but also to determine what those laws meant in the first place. This principle laid the seed for possible societal tension with reference to tyrants.JOURNAL, Burns, Tony, 2000, Aquinas's Two Doctrines of Natural Law, Political Studies, 48, 929â46, 10.1111/1467-9248.00288, 5, The Catholic Church holds the view of natural law introduced by Albertus Magnus and elaborated by Thomas Aquinas,Pope John Paul II, Veritatis Splendor {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027082206weblink |date=2014-10-27 }}, n. 44; International Theological Commission, The Search for Universal Ethics: A New Look at the Natural Law, n. 37. particularly in his Summa Theologiae, and often as filtered through the School of Salamanca. This view is also shared by some Protestants,A Biblical Case for Natural Law, by David VanDrunen. Studies in Christian Social Ethics and Economics, no. 1. Grand Rapids: Acton Institute, 2006. and was delineated by Anglican writer C. S. Lewis in his works Mere Christianity and ''The Abolition of Man.BOOK, Man's "natural powers": essays for and about C. S. Lewis, Raymond Paul Tripp,weblink Society for New Language Study, 1975, The Catholic Church understands human beings to consist of body and mind, the physical and the non-physical (or soul perhaps), and that the two are inextricably linked.Pope John Paul II, Veritatis Splendor {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027082206weblink |date=2014-10-27 }}, n. 48. Humans are capable of discerning the difference between good and evil because they have a conscience.Pope John Paul II, Veritatis Splendor {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027082206weblink |date=2014-10-27 }}, n. 54 ff. There are many manifestations of the good that we can pursue. Some, like procreation, are common to other animals, while others, like the pursuit of truth, are inclinations peculiar to the capacities of human beings.International Theological Commission, The Search for Universal Ethics: A New Look at the Natural Law, n. 46.To know what is right, one must use one's reason and apply it to Thomas Aquinas' precepts. This reason is believed to be embodied, in its most abstract form, in the concept of a primary precept: "Good is to be sought, evil avoided."Summa Theologica IâII, Q. 94, A. 2. St. Thomas explains that:
and secondly, certain secondary and more detailed precepts, which are, as it were,However, while the primary and immediate precepts cannot be "blotted out", the secondary precepts can be. Therefore, for a deontological ethical theory they are open to a surprisingly large amount of interpretation and flexibility. Any rule that helps humanity to live up to the primary or subsidiary precepts can be a secondary precept, for example:
conclusions following closely from first principles. As to those general principles, the
natural law, in the abstract, can nowise be blotted out from men's hearts. But it is blotted
out in the case of a particular action, insofar as reason is hindered from applying the
general principle to a particular point of practice, on account of concupiscence or some
other passion, as stated above (77, 2). But as to the other, i.e., the secondary precepts, the
natural law can be blotted out from the human heart, either by evil persuasions, just as in
speculative matters errors occur in respect of necessary conclusions; or by vicious customs
and corrupt habits, as among some men, theft, and even unnatural vices, as the Apostle
states (Rm. i), were not esteemed sinful.Summa Theologica IâII, Q. 94, A. 6.
conclusions following closely from first principles. As to those general principles, the
natural law, in the abstract, can nowise be blotted out from men's hearts. But it is blotted
out in the case of a particular action, insofar as reason is hindered from applying the
general principle to a particular point of practice, on account of concupiscence or some
other passion, as stated above (77, 2). But as to the other, i.e., the secondary precepts, the
natural law can be blotted out from the human heart, either by evil persuasions, just as in
speculative matters errors occur in respect of necessary conclusions; or by vicious customs
and corrupt habits, as among some men, theft, and even unnatural vices, as the Apostle
states (Rm. i), were not esteemed sinful.Summa Theologica IâII, Q. 94, A. 6.
- Drunkenness is wrong because it injures one's health, and worse, destroys one's ability to reason, which is fundamental to humans as rational animals (i.e., does not support self-preservation).
- Theft is wrong because it destroys social relations, and humans are by nature social animals (i.e., does not support the subsidiary precept of living in society).
Islamic natural law{{Further|Fitra}}AbÅ« RayhÄn al-BÄ«rÅ«nÄ«, an Islamic scholar and polymath scientist, understood natural law as the survival of the fittest. He argued that the (:wikt:antagonism|antagonism) between human beings can only be overcome through a divine law, which he believed to have been sent through prophets. This is also the position of the Ashari school, the largest school of Sunni theology.BOOK, Corbin, Henry, Henry Corbin, History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard and Philip Sherrard, London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 0-7103-0416-1, 39, 1993, 1964, (original in French.) Averroes (Ibn Rushd), in his treatise on Justice and Jihad and his commentary on Plato's Republic, writes that the human mind can know of the unlawfulness of killing and stealing and thus of the five maqasid or higher intents of the Islamic sharia or to protect religion, life, property, offspring, and reason. The concept of natural law entered the mainstream of Western culture through his Aristotelian commentaries, influencing the subsequent Averroist movement and the writings of Thomas Aquinas.JOURNAL, What the Law Requires Is Written on Their Hearts: Noachic and Natural Law among German-Speakers in Early Modern North America, A. G., Roeber, William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 58, 4, October 2001, 883â912 [887], 10.2307/2674504, 2674504, The Maturidi school, the second largest school of Sunni theology, posits the existence of a form of natural law. Abu Mansur al-Maturidi stated that the human mind could know of the existence of God and the major forms of 'good' and 'evil' without the help of revelation. Al-Maturidi gives the example of stealing, which is known to be evil by reason alone due to people's working hard for their property. Killing, fornication, and drinking alcohol were all 'evils' the human mind could know of according to al-Maturidi. The concept of Istislah in Islamic law bears some similarities to the natural law tradition in the West, as exemplified by Thomas Aquinas. However, whereas natural law deems good what is self-evidently good, according as it tends towards the fulfilment of the person, istislah calls good whatever is connected to one of five "basic goods". Al-Ghazali abstracted these "basic goods" from the legal precepts in the Qur'an and Sunnah: they are religion, life, reason, lineage and property. Some add also "honour". Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya also posited that human reason could discern between 'great sins' and good deeds.{{citation needed|date=April 2009}}
Brehon lawEarly Irish law, An Senchus Mor (The Great Tradition) mentions in a number of places recht aicned or natural law. This is a concept predating European legal theory, and reflects a type of law that is universal and may be determined by reason and observation of natural action. Neil McLeod identifies concepts that law must accord with: fÃr (truth) and dliged (right or entitlement). These two terms occur frequently, though Irish law never strictly defines them. Similarly, the term córus (law in accordance with proper order) occurs in some places, and even in the titles of certain texts. These were two very real concepts to the jurists and the value of a given judgment with respect to them was apparently ascertainable. McLeod has also suggested that most of the specific laws mentioned have passed the test of time and thus their truth has been confirmed, while other provisions are justified in other ways because they are younger and have not been tested over timeNeil McLeod, The Concept of Law in Ancient Irish Jurisprudence, in "Irish Jurist" 17 (1982) The laws were written in the oldest dialect of the Irish language, called Bérla Féini [Bairla-faina], which even at the time was so difficult that persons about to become brehons had to be specially instructed in it, the length of time from beginning to becoming a learned Brehon was usually 20 years. Although under the law any third person could fulfill the duty if both parties agreed, and both were sane.BOOK,weblink Ancient Laws and Institutes of Ireland Volume 1, Ireland, Ireland. Commissioners for Publishing the Ancient Laws and Institutes of Ireland, 1865-1901, Dublin : Printed for H. M. Stationery Office ; A. Thom, Kelly - University of Toronto, It has been included in an Ethno-Celtic breakaway subculture, as it has religious undertones and freedom of religious expression allows it to once again be used as a valid system in Western Europe.WEB,weblink HERITAGE:Other:Brehon law, 2017-08-24, live,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20170824231855weblink">weblink 2017-08-24,
English jurisprudenceHeinrich A. Rommen remarked upon "the tenacity with which the spirit of the English common law retained the conceptions of natural law and equity which it had assimilated during the Catholic Middle Ages, thanks especially to the influence of Henry de Bracton (d. 1268) and Sir John Fortescue (d. cir. 1476)."BOOK, Heinrich A., Rommen, The Natural Law: A Study in Legal and Social History and Philosophy, Trans. and rev. Thomas R. Hanley, 1947, Indianapolis, Liberty Fund, 1998, 100â01, Bracton's translator notes that Bracton "was a trained jurist with the principles and distinctions of Roman jurisprudence firmly in mind"; but Bracton adapted such principles to English purposes rather than copying slavishly.BOOK, Samuel E., Thorne, Translator's Introduction, Henry, de Bracton, Of the Laws and Customs of England, trans. Samuel E. Thorne, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, Belknap Press and The Selden Society, 1968, 1, xxxiii, In particular, Bracton turned the imperial Roman maxim that "the will of the prince is law" on its head, insisting that the king is under the law.BOOK, Charles Howard, McIlwain, Constitutionalism: Ancient and Modern, rev., Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1958, 1947, 71â89, The legal historian Charles F. Mullett has noted Bracton's "ethical definition of law, his recognition of justice, and finally his devotion to natural rights."BOOK, Charles F., Mullett, Fundamental Law and the American Revolution 1760â1776,weblink registration, New York, Octagon Books, 1966, 1933, 33, Bracton considered justice to be the "fountain-head" from which "all rights arise."BOOK, Henry, de Bracton, Of the Laws and Customs of England, trans. Samuel E. Thorne, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, Belknap Press and The Selden Society, 1968, 2, 22, For his definition of justice, Bracton quoted the twelfth-century Italian jurist Azo: "'Justice is the constant and unfailing will to give to each his right.'"BOOK, Henry, de Bracton, Of the Laws and Customs of England, trans. Samuel E. Thorne, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, Belknap Press and The Selden Society, 1968, 2, 23, Bracton's work was the second legal treatise studied by the young apprentice lawyer Thomas Jefferson.BOOK, Imogene E., Brown, American Aristides: A Biography of George Wythe, East Brunswick, NJ, Associated University Presses, 1981, 77, Fortescue stressed "the supreme importance of the law of God and of nature" in works that "profoundly influenced the course of legal development in the following centuries."BOOK, Harold Dexter, Hazeltine, General Preface: The Age of Littleton and Fortescue, John, Fortescue, De Laudibus Legum Anglie, ed. and trans. S. B. Chrimes, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1949, l, xxviii, The legal scholar Ellis Sandoz has noted that "the historically ancient and the ontologically higher lawâeternal, divine, naturalâare woven together to compose a single harmonious texture in Fortescue's account of English law."BOOK, Ellis, Sandoz, Ellis Sandoz, Editor's Introduction, The Roots of Liberty: Magna Carta, Ancient Constitution, and the Anglo-American Tradition of Rule of Law, ed. Ellis Sandoz, Columbia, MO, University of Missouri Press, 1993, 7, As the legal historian Norman Doe explains: "Fortescue follows the general pattern set by Aquinas. The objective of every legislator is to dispose people to virtue. It is by means of law that this is accomplished. Fortescue's definition of law (also found in Accursius and Bracton), after all, was 'a sacred sanction commanding what is virtuous [honesta] and forbidding the contrary.'"BOOK, Norman, Doe, Fundamental Authority in Late Medieval English Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990, 49, Fortescue cited the great Italian Leonardo Bruni for his statement that "virtue alone produces happiness."BOOK, John, Fortescue, De Laudibus Legum Anglie, S. B., Chrimes, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1949, l1, Christopher St. Germain's Doctor and Student was a classic of English jurisprudence,JOURNAL, Vinogradoff, Paul, Paul Vinogradoff, Reason and Conscience in Sixteenth-Century Jurisprudence, Law Quarterly Review, 96, 373â74, Oct 1908,
and it was thoroughly annotated by Thomas Jefferson.BOOK, Mullett, Charles F., Fundamental Law and the American Revolution, 1760â1776,weblink registration, New York, Octagon Books, 1933, 1966, 39, St. Germain informs his readers that English lawyers generally don't use the phrase "law of nature", but rather use "reason" as the preferred synonym.Doctor and Student, bk. 1, ch. 5.BOOK, Doe, Norman, Norman Doe, 1990, Fundamental Authority in Late Medieval English Law, Cambridge University Press, 112â13, Norman Doe notes that St. Germain's view "is essentially Thomist," quoting Thomas Aquinas's definition of law as "an ordinance of reason made for the common good by him who has charge of the community, and promulgated".BOOK, Doe, Norman, Norman Doe, 1990, Fundamental Authority in Late Medieval English Law, Cambridge University Press, 113, , note 23, citing Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a, 2ae, 90, 4.Sir Edward Coke was the preeminent jurist of his time.Sir Edward Coke, The Selected Writings and Speeches of Sir Edward Coke, ed. Steve Sheppard (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2003), vol. 1, p. xxvii. Coke's preeminence extended across the ocean: "For the American revolutionary leaders, 'law' meant Sir Edward Coke's custom and right reason."John Phillip Reid, In a Defiant Stance: The Conditions of Law in Massachusetts Bay, The Irish Comparison, and the Coming of the American Revolution (University Park, Penn.: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977), 71.Thomas Jefferson wrote to James Madison in 1826 that before the Revolution, the first volume of Coke's Institutes of the Laws of England "was the universal elementary book of law students, and a sounder Whig never wrote, nor of profounder learning in the orthodox doctrines of the British constitution, or in what were called English liberties." See The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 16, p. 155. Coke defined law as "perfect reason, which commands those things that are proper and necessary and which prohibits contrary things".John Underwood Lewis, "Sir Edward Coke (1552â1634): His Theory of 'Artificial Reason' as a Context for Modern Basic Legal Theory," in Law, Liberty, and Parliament: Selected Essays on the Writings of Sir Edward Coke, ed. Allen D. Boyer (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2004), pp. 108â09; citing Edward Coke, First Part of the Institutes, 319b. For Coke, human nature determined the purpose of law; and law was superior to any one person's reason or will.Lewis, "Sir Edward Coke (1552â1634): His Theory of 'Artificial Reason' as a Context for Modern Basic Legal Theory", p. 120. Coke's discussion of natural law appears in his report of Calvin's Case (1608): "The law of nature is that which God at the time of creation of the nature of man infused into his heart, for his preservation and direction." In this case the judges found that "the ligeance or faith of the subject is due unto the King by the law of nature: secondly, that the law of nature is part of the law of England: thirdly, that the law of nature was before any judicial or municipal law: fourthly, that the law of nature is immutable." To support these findings, the assembled judges (as reported by Coke, who was one of them) cited as authorities Aristotle, Cicero, and the Apostle Paul; as well as Bracton, Fortescue, and St. Germain.Sir Edward Coke, The Selected Writings and Speeches of Sir Edward Coke, ed. Steve Sheppard (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2003), vol. 1, pp. 195â97.After Coke, the most famous common law jurist of the seventeenth century is Sir Matthew Hale. Hale wrote a treatise on natural law that circulated among English lawyers in the eighteenth century and survives in three manuscript copies.British Library, London, Add. MS 18235, fols. 41â147 [1693]; Harley MS 7159, fols. 1â266 [1696]; Hargrave MS 485 [late-eighteenth century] This natural-law treatise has been published as Of the Law of Nature (2015).Matthew Hale, Of the Law of Nature {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514014830weblink |date=2016-05-14 }}, ed. David S. Sytsma (CLP Academic, 2015). Hale's definition of the natural law reads: "It is the Law of Almighty God given by him to Man with his Nature discovering the morall good and moral evill of Moral Actions, commanding the former, and forbidding the latter by the secret voice or dictate of his implanted nature, his reason, and his concience."Hale, Of the Law of Nature, 41. He viewed natural law as antecedent, preparatory, and subsequent to civil government,Hale, Of the Law of Nature, 85â106. and stated that human law "cannot forbid what the Law of Nature injoins, nor Command what the Law of Nature prohibits."Hale, Of the Law of Nature, 194. He cited as authorities Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Seneca, Epictetus, and the Apostle Paul.Hale, Of the Law of Nature, 41, 52, 64, 150â51. He was critical of Hobbes's reduction of natural law to self-preservation and Hobbes's account of the state of nature,Hale, Of the Law of Nature, 43, 86, 94. but drew positively on Hugo Grotius's De jure belli ac pacis, Francisco Suárez's Tractatus de legibus ac deo legislatore, and John Selden's De jure naturali et gentium juxta disciplinam Ebraeorum.Hale, Of the Law of Nature, 7â8, 17, 49, 63, 111â19, 192.As early as the thirteenth century, it was held that "the law of nature...is the ground of all laws"8 Edw 4 fol. 12 and by the Chancellor and Judges that "it is required by the law of nature that every person, before he can be punish'd, ought to be present; and if absent by contumacy, he ought to be summoned and make default".9 Ed. 4 fol. 14Fort. 206 Further, in 1824, we find it held that "proceedings in our Courts are founded upon the law of England, and that law is again founded upon the law of nature and the revealed law of God. If the right sought to be enforced is inconsistent with either of these, the English municipal courts cannot recognize it."2 B. & C. 471
Hobbes(File:Thomas Hobbes.jpeg|thumb|right|190px|Thomas Hobbes)By the 17th century, the medieval teleological view came under intense criticism from some quarters. Thomas Hobbes instead founded a contractarian theory of legal positivism on what all men could agree upon: what they sought (happiness) was subject to contention, but a broad consensus could form around what they feared (violent death at the hands of another). The natural law was how a rational human being, seeking to survive and prosper, would act. Natural law, therefore, was discovered by considering humankind's natural rights, whereas previously it could be said that natural rights were discovered by considering the natural law. In Hobbes' opinion, the only way natural law could prevail was for men to submit to the commands of the sovereign. Because the ultimate source of law now comes from the sovereign, and the sovereign's decisions need not be grounded in morality, legal positivism is born. Jeremy Bentham's modifications on legal positivism further developed the theory.As used by Thomas Hobbes in his treatises Leviathan and De Cive, natural law is "a precept, or general rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life, or takes away the means of preserving the same; and to omit that by which he thinks it may best be preserved."Hobbes, Leviathan, pt. 1, ch. 14 (p. 64)According to Hobbes, there are nineteen Laws. The first two are expounded in chapter XIV of Leviathan ("of the first and second natural laws; and of contracts"); the others in chapter XV ("of other laws of nature").
- The first law of nature is that every man ought to endeavour peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek and use all helps and advantages of war.
- The second law of nature is that a man be willing, when others are so too, as far forth, as for peace, and defence of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himself.
- The third law is that men perform their covenants made. In this law of nature consisteth the fountain and original of justice... when a covenant is made, then to break it is unjust and the definition of injustice is no other than the not performance of covenant. And whatsoever is not unjust is just.
- The fourth law is that a man which receiveth benefit from another of mere grace, endeavour that he which giveth it, have no reasonable cause to repent him of his good will. Breach of this law is called ingratitude.
- The fifth law is complaisance: that every man strive to accommodate himself to the rest. The observers of this law may be called sociable; the contrary, stubborn, insociable, forward, intractable.
- The sixth law is that upon caution of the future time, a man ought to pardon the offences past of them that repenting, desire it.
- The seventh law is that in revenges, men look not at the greatness of the evil past, but the greatness of the good to follow.
- The eighth law is that no man by deed, word, countenance, or gesture, declare hatred or contempt of another. The breach of which law is commonly called contumely.
- The ninth law is that every man acknowledge another for his equal by nature. The breach of this precept is pride.
- The tenth law is that at the entrance into the conditions of peace, no man require to reserve to himself any right, which he is not content should be reserved to every one of the rest. The breach of this precept is arrogance, and observers of the precept are called modest.
- The eleventh law is that if a man be trusted to judge between man and man, that he deal equally between them.
- The twelfth law is that such things as cannot be divided, be enjoyed in common, if it can be; and if the quantity of the thing permit, without stint; otherwise proportionably to the number of them that have right.
- The thirteenth law is the entire right, or else...the first possession (in the case of alternating use), of a thing that can neither be divided nor enjoyed in common should be determined by lottery.
- The fourteenth law is that those things which cannot be enjoyed in common, nor divided, ought to be adjudged to the first possessor; and in some cases to the first born, as acquired by lot.
- The fifteenth law is that all men that mediate peace be allowed safe conduct.
- The sixteenth law is that they that are at controversie, submit their Right to the judgement of an Arbitrator.
- The seventeenth law is that no man is a fit Arbitrator in his own cause.
- The eighteenth law is that no man should serve as a judge in a case if greater profit, or honour, or pleasure apparently ariseth [for him] out of the victory of one party, than of the other.
- The nineteenth law is that in a disagreement of fact, the judge should not give more weight to the testimony of one party than another, and absent other evidence, should give credit to the testimony of other witnesses.
Cumberland's rebuttal of HobbesThe English cleric Richard Cumberland wrote a lengthy and influential attack on Hobbes's depiction of individual self-interest as the essential feature of human motivation. Historian Knud Haakonssen has noted that in the eighteenth century, Cumberland was commonly placed alongside Alberico Gentili, Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf "in the triumvirate of seventeenth-century founders of the 'modern' school of natural law."Knud Haakonssen, "The Character and Obligation of Natural Law according to Richard Cumberland," in English Philosophy in the Age of Locke, ed. M.A. Stewart (Oxford, 2000), 29. The eighteenth-century philosophers Shaftesbury and Hutcheson "were obviously inspired in part by Cumberland."Haakonssen, Natural Law and Moral Philosophy: From Grotius to the Scottish Enlightenment (Cambridge, 1996), 51. Historian Jon Parkin likewise describes Cumberland's work as "one of the most important works of ethical and political theory of the seventeenth century."Jon Parkin, Science, Religion and Politics in Restoration England: Richard Cumberland's De Legibus Naturae (Bury St. Edmunds, United Kingdom, 1999), 8. Parkin observes that much of Cumberland's material "is derived from Roman Stoicism, particularly from the work of Cicero, as "Cumberland deliberately cast his engagement with Hobbes in the mould of Cicero's debate between the Stoics, who believed that nature could provide an objective morality, and Epicureans, who argued that morality was human, conventional and self-interested."Parkin, 8. In doing so, Cumberland de-emphasized the overlay of Christian dogma (in particular, the doctrine of "original sin" and the corresponding presumption that humans are incapable of "perfecting" themselves without divine intervention) that had accreted to natural law in the Middle Ages.By way of contrast to Hobbes's multiplicity of laws, Cumberland states in the very first sentence of his Treatise of the Laws of Nature that "all the Laws of Nature are reduc'd to that one, of Benevolence toward all Rationals."Richard Cumberland, A Treatise of the Laws of Nature, trans. John Maxwell (Indianapolis, 2005; orig. 1727), "Contents" (p. 237). Cumberland's treatise was originally published in Latin in 1672. A Latin edition was published in Germany in 1684. He later clarifies: "By the name Rationals I beg leave to understand, as well God as Man; and I do it upon the Authority of Cicero." Cumberland argues that the mature development ("perfection") of human nature involves the individual human willing and acting for the common good.Cumberland, ch. 1, sec. 33 (p. 356) For Cumberland, human interdependence precludes Hobbes's natural right of each individual to wage war against all the rest for personal survival. However, Haakonssen warns against reading Cumberland as a proponent of "enlightened self-interest." Rather, the "proper moral love of humanity" is "a disinterested love of God through love of humanity in ourselves as well as others."Haakonssen, "The Character and Obligation of Natural Law according to Richard Cumberland," pp. 34, 35. Cumberland concludes that actions "principally conducive to our Happiness" are those that promote "the Honour and Glory of God" and also "Charity and Justice towards men."Cumberland, ch. 5, sec. 13 (pp. 523â24). Cumberland emphasizes that desiring the well-being of our fellow humans is essential to the "pursuit of our own Happiness."Cumberland, ch. 5, sec. 12 (p. 525) He cites "reason" as the authority for his conclusion that happiness consists in "the most extensive Benevolence," but he also mentions as "Essential Ingredients of Happiness" the "Benevolent Affections," meaning "Love and Benevolence towards others," as well as "that Joy, which arises from their Happiness."Cumberland, ch. 5, sec. 15 (pp. 527â28).
American jurisprudenceThe U.S. Declaration of Independence states that it has become necessary for the people of the United States to assume "the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them". Some early American lawyers and judges perceived natural law as too tenuous, amorphous, and evanescent a legal basis for grounding concrete rights and governmental limitations.JOURNAL, 10.1057/palgrave.polity.2300065, Judicial Review without a Constitution, Douglas E. Edlin, Polity, 38, 3, Jul 2006, 345â68, Palgrave Macmillan Journals, 3877071, Natural law did, however, serve as authority for legal claims and rights in some judicial decisions, legislative acts, and legal pronouncements.BOOK, Reid, John Phillip, Constitutional History of the American Revolution: The Authority of Rights,weblink registration, University of Wisconsin Press, 1986, 90â91, Robert Lowry Clinton argues that the U.S. Constitution rests on a common law foundation and the common law, in turn, rests on a classical natural law foundation.BOOK, Clinton, Robert Lowry, God and Man in the Law: The Foundations of Anglo-American Constitutionalism, University Press of Kansas, 1997, Natural law has been embraced as consistent with the Isagorial Theory of Human Progress, in which all apolitical human progress is attributed to freedom of the common man and woman to form groups to pursue self-interest (the essence of the term âisagorialâ). In this theory progress is prevented by egalitarianism in primitive societies and aborted by political repression in developed societies. Insofar as these expressions of authoritarianism routinely overrule the human conscience by their actions and "positive" laws, this negation of access to natural law results in stagnation in the primitive state, serfdom and strife in developed societies, and the cycling of civilizations. The theory is consistent with the conclusion that constitutional freedoms of the West, best expounded in the Constitution of the United States and the Bill of Rights, by not restricting the ability of a citizen to consult his or her conscience and to thereby abide by natural law, has resulted in the global dominance of Western culture and is traceable to the freedom of conscience first liberated by the Reformation of the 16th century.BOOK, The Natural State of Medical Practice: Escape from Egalitarianism, Adams, William, Liberty Hill Publishing, 2019, 978-1-5456-6550-3, Maitland (FL),
European liberal natural lawFile:Dr Sir Albericus Gentilis (Father of international law).png|thumb|190px|Dr Alberico Gentili, the founder of the science of international law.]]Liberal natural law grew out of the medieval Christian natural law theories and out of Hobbes' revision of natural law, sometimes in an uneasy balance of the two.Sir Alberico Gentili and Hugo Grotius based their philosophies of international law on natural law. In particular, his writings on freedom of the seas and just war theory directly appealed to natural law. About natural law itself, he wrote that "even the will of an omnipotent being cannot change or abrogate" natural law, which "would maintain its objective validity even if we should assume the impossible, that there is no God or that he does not care for human affairs." (De iure belli ac pacis, Prolegomeni XI). This is the famous argument etiamsi daremus (non esse Deum), that made natural law no longer dependent on theology. However, German church-historians Ernst Wolf and M. Elze disagreed and claimed that Grotius' concept of natural law did have a theological basis.Ernst Wolf, Naturrecht, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band IV (1960), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1357 In Grotius' view, the Old Testament contained moral precepts (e.g. the Decalogue) which Christ confirmed and therefore were still valid. Moreover, they were useful in explaining the content of natural law. Both biblical revelation and natural law originated in God and could therefore not contradict each other.M. Elze, Grotius, Hugo, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band II (1958), col. 1885In a similar way, Samuel Pufendorf gave natural law a theological foundation and applied it to his concepts of government and international law.H. Hohlwein, Pufendorf, Samuel Freiherr von, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band V (1961), col. 721John Locke incorporated natural law into many of his theories and philosophy, especially in Two Treatises of Government. There is considerable debate about whether his conception of natural law was more akin to that of Aquinas (filtered through Richard Hooker) or Hobbes' radical reinterpretation, though the effect of Locke's understanding is usually phrased in terms of a revision of Hobbes upon Hobbesian contractarian grounds. Locke turned Hobbes' prescription around, saying that if the ruler went against natural law and failed to protect "life, liberty, and property," people could justifiably overthrow the existing state and create a new one.John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, Second Treatise, Chapter 13, §149While Locke spoke in the language of natural law, the content of this law was by and large protective of natural rights, and it was this language that later liberal thinkers preferred. Political philosopher Jeremy Waldron has pointed out that Locke's political thought was based on "a particular set of Protestant Christian assumptions."Jeremy Waldron (2002), God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought. Cambridge University Press, p. 13 To Locke, the content of natural law was identical with biblical ethics as laid down especially in the Decalogue, Christ's teaching and exemplary life, and St. Paul's admonitions.Jeremy Waldron, God, Locke, and Equality, pp. 12â15, 45â46, 95â97, 195â98, 230 Locke derived the concept of basic human equality, including the equality of the sexes ("Adam and Eve"), from Genesis 1, 26â28, the starting-point of the theological doctrine of Imago Dei.Jeremy Waldron, God, Locke, and Equality, pp. 21â43 One of the consequences is that as all humans are created equally free, governments need the consent of the governed.Jeremy Waldron, God, Locke, and Equality, p. 136 Thomas Jefferson, arguably echoing Locke, appealed to unalienable rights in the Declaration of Independence, "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."Pangle, The Spirit of Modern Republicanism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 209. The Lockean idea that governments need the consent of the governed was also fundamental to the Declaration of Independence, as the American Revolutionaries used it as justification for their separation from the British crown.Cf. Robert Middlekauff (2005),The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763â1789, Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-531588-2}}, pp. 49â52, 136The Belgian philosopher of law Frank van Dun is one among those who are elaborating a secular conceptionWEB,weblink Natural law, positive law, justice [natuurrecht, droit naturel], 2007-12-28, live,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20071213180721weblink">weblink 2007-12-13, of natural law in the liberal tradition. Libertarian theorist Murray Rothbard argues that "the very existence of a natural law discoverable by reason is a potentially powerful threat to the status quo and a standing reproach to the reign of blindly traditional custom or the arbitrary will of the State apparatus."BOOK, The Ethics of Liberty,weblink Natural Law Versus Positive Law, 17, Rothbard, Murray, live,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20131126063000weblink">weblink 2013-11-26, Ludwig von Mises states that he relaid the general sociological and economic foundations of the liberal doctrine upon utilitarianism, rather than natural law, but R. A. Gonce argues that "the reality of the argument constituting his system overwhelms his denial."JOURNAL, 10.2307/1056701, Natural Law and Ludwig von Mises' Praxeology and Economic Science, R. A. Gonce, 39, 4, Apr 1973, Southern Economic Journal, 490â507, 1056701, Southern Economic Association, Murray Rothbard, however, says that Gonce makes a lot of errors and distortions in the analysis of Mises's works, including making confusions about the term which Mises uses to refer to scientific laws, "laws of nature", saying it characterizes Mises as a natural law philosopher.JOURNAL, Rothbard, Murray, Summer 1980, Ludwig von Mises and Natural Law: A Comment on Professor Gonce, The Journal of Libertarian Studies, IV, David Gordon notes, "When most people speak of natural law, what they have in mind is the contention that morality can be derived from human nature. If human beings are rational animals of such-and-such a sort, then the moral virtues are...(filling in the blanks is the difficult part)."WEB, Gordon, David, Review of In Defense of Natural Law by Robert George,weblink Ludwig von Mises Institute, dead,weblink 2014-09-14, Economist and philosopher F. A. Hayek said that, originally, "the term 'natural' was used to describe an orderliness or regularity that was not the product of deliberate human will. Together with 'organism' it was one of the two terms generally understood to refer to the spontaneously grown in contrast to the invented or designed. Its use in this sense had been inherited from the stoic philosophy, had been revived in the twelfth century, and it was finally under its flag that the late Spanish Schoolmen developed the foundations of the genesis and functioning of spontaneously formed social institutions."BOOK,weblink Studies in Philosophy, Politics and Economics, Hayek, Friedrich, 97â98, dead,weblink 2016-10-11, The idea that 'natural' was "the product of designing reason" is a product of a seventeenth century rationalist reinterpretation of the law of nature. Luis Molina, for example, when referred to the 'natural' price, explained that it is "so called because 'it results from the thing itself without regard to laws and decrees, but is dependent on many circumstances which alter it, such as the sentiments of men, their estimation of different uses, often even in consequence of whims and pleasures".BOOK,weblink Law, Legislation and Liberty, Hayek, Friedrich, Routledge, 1982, 1973, 0-415-09868-8, London, 21, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20161008175341weblink">weblink 2016-10-08, And even John Locke, when talking about the foundations of natural law and explaining what he thought when citing "reason", said: "By reason, however, I do not think is meant here that faculty of the understanding which forms traint of thought and deduces proofs, but certain definite principles of action from which spring all virtues and whatever is necessary for the proper moulding of morals."BOOK, Essays Concerning the Law of Nature, Locke, John, W. von Leyden, 1954, Oxford, 111, This anti-rationalist approach to human affairs, for Hayek, was the same which guided Scottish enlightenment thinkers, such as Adam Smith, David Hume and Adam Ferguson, to make their case for liberty.BOOK,weblink Studies in Philosophy, Politics and Economics, Hayek, Friedrich, 98â99, dead,weblink 2016-10-11, For them, no one can have the knowledge necessary to plan society, and this "natural" or "spontaneous" order of society shows how it can efficiently "plan" bottom-up.BOOK,weblink The Trend of Economic Thinking, Hayek, Friedrich, Routledge, 1991, 22â24, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160829053955weblink">weblink 2016-08-29, 2016-08-21, Also, the idea that law is just a product of deliberate design, denied by natural law and linked to legal positivism, can easily generate totalitarianism: "If law is wholly the product of deliberate design, whatever the designer decrees to be law is just by definition and unjust law becomes a contradiction in terms. The will of the duly authorized legislator is then wholly unfettered and guided solely by his concrete interests".BOOK,weblink The Constitution of Liberty, Hayek, Friedrich, The University of Chicago Press, 1978, 238â39, dead,weblink" title="web.archive.org/web/20160926153103weblink">weblink 2016-09-26, This idea is wrong because law cannot be just a product of "reason": "no system of articulated law can be applied except within a framework of generally recognized but often unarticulated rules of justice".BOOK,weblink Studies In Philosophy, Politics And Economics, Hayek, Friedrich, 102, dead,weblink 2016-10-11, However, a secular critique of the natural law doctrine was stated by Pierre Charron in his De la sagesse (1601): "The sign of a natural law must be the universal respect in which it is held, for if there was anything that nature had truly commanded us to do, we would undoubtedly obey it universally: not only would every nation respect it, but every individual. Instead there is nothing in the world that is not subject to contradiction and dispute, nothing that is not rejected, not just by one nation, but by many; equally, there is nothing that is strange and (in the opinion of many) unnatural that is not approved in many countries, and authorized by their customs."
Contemporary jurisprudenceIn jurisprudence, natural law can refer to the several doctrines:
- That just laws are immanent in nature; that is, they can be "discovered" or "found" but not "created" by such things as a bill of rights;
- That they can emerge by the natural process of resolving conflicts, as embodied by the evolutionary process of the common law; or
- That the meaning of law is such that its content cannot be determined except by reference to moral principles. These meanings can either oppose or complement each other, although they share the common trait that they rely on inherence as opposed to design in finding just laws.
See also{{Too many see alsos|date=July 2017}}{{columns-list|colwidth=18em|
- Antigone
- Hadley Arkes
- Jean Barbeyrac
- J. Budziszewski
- Classical liberalism
- Francisco ElÃas de Tejada y SpÃnola
- Henry George
- Enrique Gil Robles
- International legal theories
- Land value tax
- Law of the jungle
- Liberalism
- Libertarianism
- Moral realism
- Natural order
- Naturalistic fallacy
- Neo-scholasticism
- Non-aggression principle
- Norm of reciprocity
- Objectivism (philosophy)
- Orders of creation
- Philosophy of law
- Purposive approach
- Rule of law
- Rule according to higher law
- Spontaneous order
- Substantive due process
- Tit for tat
- Unenumerated rights
- Universality (philosophy)
- Emerich de Vattel
- Xeer
- Adams, John. 1797. A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America. 3rd edition. Philadelphia; repr. Darmstadt, Germany: Scientia Verlag Aalen, 1979.
- Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics.
- Aristotle. Rhetoric.
- Aristotle. Politics.
- Aquinas. Summa Theologica.
- Barham, Francis.Introduction to The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero.
- Blackstone, William. 1765â9. Commentaries on the Laws of England.
- Botein, Stephen. 1978. "Cicero as Role Model for Early American Lawyers: A Case Study in Classical 'Influence'". The Classical Journal 73, no. 4 (AprilâMay).
- Boyer, Allen D. 2004. "Sir Edward Coke, Ciceronianus: Classical Rhetoric and the Common Law Tradition." in Law, Liberty, and Parliament: Selected Essays on the Writings of Sir Edward Coke, ed. Allen D. Boyer. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund.
- Burlamaqui, Jean Jacques. 1763. The Principles of Natural and Politic Law. Trans. Thomas Nugent. Repr., Indianapolis: The Liberty Fund, 2006.
- Burns, Tony. 2000. "Aquinas's Two Doctrines of Natural Law." Political Studies 48. pp. 929â46.
- Carlyle, A. J. 1903. A History of Medieval Political Theory in the West. vol. 1. Edinburgh.
- Cicero. De Legibus.
- Cochrane, Charles Norris. 1957. Christianity and Classical Culture: A Study of Thought and Action from Augustus to Augustine. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Corbett, R. J. 2009. "The Question of Natural Law in Aristotle." History of Political Thought 30, no. 2 (Summer): 229â50
- Corwin, Edward S. 1955. The "Higher Law" Background of American Constitutional Law. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
- Edlin, Douglas E. 2006. "Judicial Review Without a Constitution." Polity 38, no. 3 (July): 345â68.
- Farrell, James M. 1989. "John Adams's Autobiography: The Ciceronian Paradigm and the Quest for Fame." The New England Quarterly 62, no. 4 (Dec. ).
- Haakonssen, Knud. 1996. Natural Law and Moral Philosophy: From Grotius to the Scottish Enlightenment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- Haakonssen, Knud. 2000. "The Character and Obligation of Natural Law according to Richard Cumberland." In English Philosophy in the Age of Locke, ed. M.A. Stewart. Oxford.
- Heinze, Eric, 2013. The Concept of Injustice (Routledge)
- Jaffa, Harry V. 1952. Thomism and Aristotelianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Jefferson's Literary Commonplace Book. Trans. and ed. Douglas L. Wilson. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989.
- Laing, Jacqueline A & Wilcox, Russell eds., 2013. The Natural Law Reader, Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2013.
- McIlwain, Charles Howard. 1932. The Growth of Political Thought in the West: From the Greeks to the End of the Middle Ages. New York: The Macmillan Company.
- "Natural Law." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. New York, 1968.
- Reinhold, Meyer. 1984. Classica Americana: The Greek and Roman Heritage in the United States. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
- Rommen, Heinrich A. 1947. The Natural Law: A Study in Legal and Social History and Philosophy. Trans. and rev. Thomas R. Hanley. B. Herder Book Co.; repr. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1998.
- Scott, William Robert. 1900. Francis Hutcheson: His Life, Teaching, and Position in the History of Philosophy Cambridge; repr. New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1966.
- Shellens, Max Salomon. 1959. "Aristotle on Natural Law." Natural Law Forum 4, no. 1. pp. 72â100.
- Skinner, Quentin. 1978. The Foundations of Modern Political Thought. Cambridge.
- Waldron, Jeremy. 2002. God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK). {{ISBN|978-0-521-89057-1}}.
- Wijngaards, John, AMRUTHA. What the Pope's man found out about the Law of Nature, Author House 2011.
- Wilson, James. 1967. The Works of James Wilson. Ed. Robert Green McCloskey. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
- Woo, B. Hoon. 2012. "Pannenberg's Understanding of the Natural Law." Studies in Christian Ethics 25, no. 3: 288â90.
- Zippelius, Reinhold. Rechtsphilosophie, 6th edition, § 12. C.H. Beck, Munich, 2011. {{ISBN|978-3-406-61191-9}}.
External links
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
- The Natural Law Tradition in Ethics, by Mark Murphy, 2002.
- Aquinas' Moral, Political, and Legal Philosophy, by John Finnis, 2005.
- Natural Law Theories, by John Finnis, 2007.
- Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry 'Natural Law' by Kenneth Einar Himma
- Aquinas on natural law
- Natural Law explained, evaluated and applied A clear introduction to Natural Law
- Jonathan Dolhenty, Ph.D., "An Overview of Natural Law"
- Catholic Encyclopedia "Natural Law"
- McElroy, Wendy "The Non-Absurdity of Natural Law", The Freeman, February 1998, Vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 108â11
- John Wijngaards, "The controversy of Natural Law".
- Lex Naturalis, Ius Naturalis: Law as Positive Reasoning and Natural Rationality by Eric Engle, (Elias Clarke, 2010).
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text:
Saturday, February 4, 2012
Advice to my un-created son
But below is just a little of what I hope to teach my son one day..
- Don't trust anyone who cant be kind to small children or animals.
- If you ask a girl out, always pay.
-If it is right, it happens—The main thing is not to hurry. Nothing good gets away.
-If a street performer makes you stop walking, you owe him a buck.
-Never cancel dinner plans by text message. Especially with your Mama!
-More times than not, you will be judged by your shoes.
-There is just no good reason to look into a woman's handbag.
-The best way to ruin an apology is with an explanation.
-Women are crazy, irrational, needy and amazingly wonderful creatures.
-Don't ever get drunker than your boss
-Return a borrowed car with a full tank.
-Life shrinks or expands in proportion to one's courage.
-On occasion, unplug.
-If you are lucky enough to be invited into a woman's life.. this is a privialge, not a right and you will be there only as long as you deserve to be. Always woo. Always respect. Always cherish.
-Dont ever let your woman/mother mow the lawn.
-If you cant see your shirt cuff, your jacket doesn't fit.
- Never shake someone's hand sitting down. Your grandad always told me this, and since he is wise, you should listen.
-Walk tall, kick ass, learn to speak arabic, love music, and never forget you come from a long line of truth seekers, lovers, and warriors.Hunter S. Thompson
-And like I told your sister, Be generous. with your time, your money, your heart. If there was a single lesson I could hope on my best day to impart to you, this would be it.
2 comments:
- catrinasworld said...
re: 'if it is right it happens- The main thing is not to hurry. Nothing good gets away.'
I mostly really like what you write however this got under my skin. I think that good things do get away. I think about lost opportunities in my own life that I let go because I didn't 'seize the day'. I believe the majority of regrets are in relation to inaction. There is times where you should stand back and let it happen, but then there's times that you must do all you can to make it happen. Maybe what you should be teaching this uncreated son is to use wisdom regarding his actions. There's a time to plant and a time to harvest as well as a time to rest.
- February 5, 2012 at 2:25 AM
- Brittany said...
Thank you for your opinion. Although, through my experience, everything that has happened or not happened to me.. led me to exactly where I am now. Every relationship that has failed, every job that hasn't worked out, every delayed flight, every single thing both good and bad, has brought me to where I stand now. I do understand that life doesn't just happen if you sit on your ass but- we create our fate... but EVERYTHING has a purpose, and if its right, if it's meant to be, if it will teach you something or grow you a little... trust in knowing that it will happen.
- February 5, 2012 at 2:45 AM


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Turns out the vaginal orgasm -- and even the G-spot, to get more specific -- have never existed, according to a new study.
New research published in the Clinical Anatomy journal On Monday has found the majority of women around the world do not orgasm internally during sexual intercourse, and the "vaginal orgasm" does not exist altogether. The G-spot, which has long been reported to be a highly sensitive area inside the vagina that can also lead to orgasm, is also apparently a myth.
The point of the study was specifically to ensure going forward, sexual medicine experts, sexologists and even psychologists use the scientific term "female orgasm" (as opposed to "vaginal orgasm"), so women who are not able to have vaginal orgasms do not feel abnormal or inferior. They also took issue with the term "female ejaculation" for similar reasons.
Orgasms, said the study, come from the clitoris, a small, highly sensitive and erect part of the female genitals that sits right at the top of the vulva. "The 'vaginal' orgasm that some women report is always caused by the surrounding erectile organs (triggers of female orgasm)," researchers Vincenzo Puppo and Giulia Puppo said in the abstract.
"The clitoris was always thought to be pivotal to any kind of female orgasm and I'm not at all surprised that that, and the two 'legs' of erectile tissue, turn out to influence all orgasms," sex expert Tracey Cox told the Huffington Post U.K..
However, other studies still conclude the vaginal orgasm does in fact exist for some women, and one study notes women who experience vaginal orgasms had lower resting heart rates than ones who didn't, according to Live Science.
But as researchers Puppo and Puppo in this new study have concluded, just because these types of orgasms don't exist as we've previously understood them, it doesn't mean women (alone or with their partners) can't enjoy an orgasm.
"Female orgasm is possible in all women, always with effective stimulation of the female erectile organs, e.g. the female penis, during masturbation, cunnilingus (oral sex), partner masturbation, and also during vaginal/anal intercourse simply by stimulating the clitoris with a finger."


text:
Denby Linen Dinner Plate
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