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Housing and Meal Plans
The USC/GWU Washington Semester program is located on the George Washington University Foggy Bottom Campus, located in downtown Washington, D.C. The Foggy Bottom campus is the university's main campus, consisting of dormitories, classrooms, labs, gyms, libraries, student lounges and numerous dining options.
USC requires Washington Semester students live in dormitories on the Foggy Bottom campus with other GWU Semester in Washington students. Accommodations range from doubles in traditional dorms to two-bedroom/two-bath apartment style quads, complete with kitchen and living room. If students wish to room together, that request will be accommodated as long as each of the students notifies GWU staff of their request.
Housing costs vary depending on location and availability but are typically apartment-style triples and quads in newer dorms such as City Hall and Ivory Tower.
Dining Services/GWorld Card
Though the university does not provide meal plans, there are numerous dining options on campus. Students are encouraged but not required to deposit money on their GW ID card (GWorld Card). The GWorld Card is used for a variety of purposes at GW including building, residence hall and parking access, library privileges, dining services and debit dollars. All on-campus dining facilities accept the GWorld Card for meal purchases.
With the Debit Dollars feature, purchases can be made in place of cash, checks or credit cards at select on- and off-campus locations. Using Debit Dollars allows students to purchase all the necessities of campus life — books, postage, photocopies, prescriptions, health and beauty aids, and food on- and off-campus.
Over 70 locations now accept the GWorld Card. For a complete listing of organizations accepting GWorld, click here: http://www.gwu.edu/dining.
Getting Around Town
The Foggy Bottom campus is within walking distance of many downtown locations and trendy neighborhoods including Georgetown and Dupont Circle. The campus is serviced by the Foggy Bottom/GWU metro station, which is less than two blocks from most student accommodations. It is very easy to get around the District of Columbia on the metro or via bus. Weekly and monthly metro passes are available.
The temperature in Washington, D.C. in January, February, and March is approximately 20 degrees cooler than in Los Angeles. Students should take warm clothes for the cold weather.
Computer and Email Accounts
Students bringing their own computers will receive free Ethernet cords to connect to the university network. All Semester In Washington students will receive a GW email account.


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Found 22 hotels in Jaipur
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Erythema multiforme
What is erythema multiforme?
Erythema multiforme is a hypersensitivity reaction usually triggered by infections, most commonly herpes simplex virus (HSV). It presents with a skin eruption characterised by a typical target lesion. There may be mucous membrane involvement. It is acute and self-limiting, usually resolving without complications.
Erythema multiforme is divided into major and minor forms and is now regarded as distinct from Stevens Johnson Syndrome (SJS) and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis (TEN).
Who gets erythema multiforme?
Erythema multiforme most commonly affects young adults (20–40 years of age), however all age groups can be affected. There is a male predominance but no racial bias.
There is a genetic tendency to erythema multiforme. Certain tissue types are more often found in people with herpes-associated erythema multiforme (HLA-DQw3) and recurrent erythema multiforme (HLA-B15, -B35, -A33, -DR53, -DQB1*0301).
What triggers erythema multiforme?
Infections are probably associated with at least 90% of cases of erythema multiforme.
The single most common trigger for developing erythema multiforme is herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection, usually herpes labialis (cold sore on the lip) and less often genital herpes. HSV type 1 is more commonly associated than type 2. The herpes infection usually precedes the skin eruption by 3–14 days.
Mycoplasma pneumonia (a lung infection caused by the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae) is the next most common trigger.
Many different virus infections have been reported to trigger erythema multiforme including:
- Parapoxvirus (orf and milkers' nodules)
- Herpes varicella zoster (chickenpox, shingles)
- Adenovirus
- Hepatitis viruses
- Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
- Cytomegalovirus
- Viral vaccines
Dermatophyte fungal infections (tinea) have also been reported in association with erythema multiforme.
Medications are probably an uncommon cause (<10%) of erythema multiforme. If this diagnosis is being seriously considered then alternative drug eruptions should be excluded, such as SJS/TEN, generalised fixed drug eruption, polymorphic exanthematous drug eruption and urticaria.
Many drugs have been reported to trigger erythema multiforme, including barbiturates, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, penicillins, sulphonamides, phenothiazines and anticonvulsants.
Clinical features of erythema multiforme
General symptoms
There are usually no prodromal symptoms in erythema multiforme minor. However, erythema multiforme major may be preceded by mild symptoms such as fever or chills, weakness or painful joints.
Skin lesions
Typically in erythema multiforme, few to hundreds of skin lesions erupt within a 24-hour period. The lesions are first seen on the backs of hands and/or tops of feet, and then spread along the limbs towards the trunk. The upper limbs are more commonly affected than the lower. Palms and soles may be involved. The face, neck and trunk are common sites. Skin lesions are often grouped on elbows and knees. There may be an associated mild itch or burning sensation.
The initial lesions are sharply demarcated, round, red/pink and flat (macules), which become raised (papules/palpable) and gradually enlarge to form plaques (flat raised patches) up to several centimetres in diameter. The centre of the papule/plaque darkens in colour and develops surface (epidermal) changes such as blistering or crusting. Lesions usually evolve over 72 hours.
The typical target lesion (also called iris lesion) of erythema multiforme has a sharp margin, regular round shape and three concentric colour zones:
- Centre is dusky or dark red with a blister or crust
- Next ring is a paler pink and is raised due to oedema (fluid swelling)
- Outermost ring is bright red.
Atypical target lesions show just 2 zones and/or an indistinct border.
The eruption is polymorphous (many forms), hence the 'multiforme' in the name. Lesions may be at various stages of development with both typical and atypical targets present at the same time. A full skin examination may be required to find typical targets, as these may be few in number.
Lesions show the Köbner (isomorphic) phenomenon, meaning they can develop at sites of preceding (but not concurrent or subsequent) skin trauma.
There is no associated swelling of face, hands or feet, despite these being common sites of rash distribution. However the lips are often swollen, especially in erythema multiforme major.
More images of erythema multiforme ...
Mucous membrane involvement
Mucosal lesions, if present, typically develop a few days after the skin rash begins.
In erythema multiforme minor, mucous membrane involvement is absent or mild. Mucosal changes, if present, consist initially of redness of the lips and inside cheek. Sometimes blisters develop and quickly break to form erosions and ulcers.
In erythema multiforme major, one or more mucous membranes are typically affected, most often the oral mucosa:
- Most commonly lips, inside the cheeks, tongue
- Less commonly floor of the mouth, palate, gums.
Other mucosal sites affected may include:
- Eye
- Anus and genitals
- Trachea/bronchi
- Gastrointestinal tract.
Mucosal lesions consist of swelling and redness with blister formation. The blisters break quickly to leave large, shallow, irregular shaped, painful ulcers that are covered by a whitish pseudomembrane. Typically the lips are swollen with haemorrhagic crusts. The patient may have difficulty speaking or swallowing due to pain.
With mycoplasma pneumonia, the mucous membranes may be the only affected sites (mucositis). This can be severe and require hospitalisation due to difficulty eating and drinking. Whether this is a limited form of erythema multiforme has not been determined.
Recurrent erythema multiforme
Erythema multiforme can be recurrent, with multiple episodes per year for many years. This is believed to be nearly always due to HSV-1 infection.
How is the diagnosis of erythema multiforme made?
Erythema multiforme is a clinical diagnosis, although skin biopsy may be required to exclude other conditions. The histology of erythema multiforme is characteristic but not diagnostic. It varies with the age of the lesion, its appearance, and which part is biopsied.
Other tests may be done looking for infections commonly seen in association with erythema multiforme, such as mycoplasma.
For more detail, see: Erythema multiforme: histology and mechanisms.
Treatment of erythema multiforme
For the majority of cases, no treatment is required, as the rash settles by itself over several weeks without complications.
Treatment directed to any possible cause may be required such as oral aciclovir (not topical) for HSV or antibiotics (eg erythromycin) for Mycoplasma pneumoniae. If a drug cause is suspected then the possible offending drug should be ceased.
Supportive/symptomatic treatment may be necessary.
- Itch – oral antihistamines and/or topical corticosteroids may help.
- Oral pain – mouthwashes containing local anaesthetic and antiseptic reduce pain and secondary infection.
- Eye involvement should be assessed and treated by an ophthalmologist.
- Erythema multiforme major may require hospital admission for supportive care, particularly if severe oral involvement restricts drinking.
The role of oral corticosteroids remains controversial, as no controlled studies have shown any benefit. However for severe disease 0.5–1 mg/kg/d prednis(ol)one is often used early in the disease process.
Recurrent erythema multiforme is usually treated initially with continuous oral aciclovir for 6 months at a dose of 10 mg/kg/d in divided doses (eg 400 mg twice daily), even if HSV has not been an obvious trigger for the patient's erythema multiforme. This has been shown to be effective in placebo-controlled double blind studies. However, erythema multiforme may recur when the aciclovir is ceased. Other antiviral drugs such as valciclovir (500–1000 mg/d) and famciclovir (250 mg twice daily) should be tried if aciclovir has not helped; these drugs are not readily available in New Zealand.
Other treatments (used continuously) that have been reported to help suppress recurrent erythema multiforme include:
- Dapsone 100–150 mg/d
- Antimalarial drugs, eg hydroxychloroquine
- Azathioprine 100–150 mg/d
- Others: thalidomide, ciclosporin, mycophenolate mofetil, photochemotherapy (PUVA)
What is the outlook for erythema multiforme?
Erythema multiforme minor usually resolves spontaneously without scarring over 2 to 3 weeks. Erythema multiforme major can take up to 6 weeks to resolve. Erythema multiforme does not progress to SJS/TEN.
There may be residual mottled skin discolouration. Significant eye involvement in erythema multiforme major may rarely result in serious problems, including blindness.


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BBC News
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About the village (Chapelton)


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I can't understend why the Kuwait speculations...Also , they did went to Doha? How do we know that? Standing on the Qatar Airways doesn't necesseraly means they are going to Doha...
Remember that team was only seen at the counter, they're not checking-in, they could though bought a ticket, or looking for a stand-by list,...
I strongly doubt that TAR23 will visit Singapore (Haze just subsided from Singapore, but light haze still persist), Indonesia (Haze still going on), Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur and Muar haze reached over 750 points), and maybe Thailand
I don't think the tweet posted belongs to us as you can see from her tweets that she's from Kentucky and is visiting Mexico and I guess it's Asia's or Africa's turn in the race now. Maybe she is talking about a local race
I think the race went somewhere remote? no live sightings for long time
I really.hope they're going to Nepal , this week forecast is good. And a little precipitation won't hurt the contestants
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Journal of the South African Veterinary Association
On-line version ISSN 2224-9435
Print version ISSN 1019-9128
J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. vol.82 n.1 Pretoria Jan. 2011
The effect of unrestricted milk feeding on the growth and health of Jersey calves
J L UysI,II; D C LourensI,*; P N ThompsonI
IDepartment of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, 0110 South Africa
IIPresent address: Weideland Dairy Farm, PO Box 150, Heidelberg, 6665 South Africa
This study was conducted to determine the effect of feeding high milk volumes on the growth rate, health and cross-sucking behaviour in group-fed Jersey calves. Three-day-old heifers (n = 120) in a seasonal calving dairy herd were randomly assigned to one of 6 treatment groups. Three groups received high milk volumes (HMV), consisting of ad libitum milk or milk replacer feeding twice a day, while 3 groups received restricted milk volumes (RMV), consisting of 2ℓ twice daily, during the pre-weaning period. After a pre-weaning period during which feeding was reduced to once daily, all calves were weaned at 42 days and monitored until 60 days of age. Adjusting for birth mass, birth date, dam parity and sire, average daily mass gain (ADG), both pre-weaning (days 0-42) and overall (days 0-60), was higher in HMV than in RMV calves (P < 0.001). After weaning, growth rates showed no differences and at 60 days of age the HMV calves maintained a 6.74 kg advantage in mean body mass (P < 0.001). The mean intake of dry starter feed was higher in RMV than in HMV calves. Overall feed conversion rate of HMV calves was 9.6 % better than RMV calves. However, the variable cost per kg mass gain was 12 % higher for HMV calves. In the RMV groups 75 % of calves showed cross-sucking behaviour pre-weaning and 18 % post-weaning, whereas in HMV calves the proportions were 2 % and 7 %, respectively. There was no significant effect of milk volume on the incidence of diarrhoea. We conclude that the feeding of high volumes of milk to Jersey calves has a positive effect on growth rate, without compromising health or reducing solid feed intake after weaning. However, the higher cost of such a feeding system may limit its implementation.
Keywords: cross-sucking, dairy calves, growth rate, health, unrestricted milk feeding.
Most dairy producers feed restricted quantities of milk to calves because of cost and the perception that increased milk intake may lead to a higher incidence of diarrhoea, reduced calf starter feed intake and reduced mass gain. Studies have shown that high milk intake may reduce consumption of solid feed during the milk-feeding period17. However, restricted milk feeding does not take into account the energy levels required for growth and development9,33. Increased milk or milk replacer feeding programmes have resulted in greater growth rates1,17, but with variable effects on calf health25,26. Results from several studies indicate that feeding more milk or high-quality milk replacer does not necessarily cause diarrhoea17,28,34, the occurrence of which depends more on the pathogen load in the environment, the degree of stress, and the calves' immune status.
From economic, management and welfare perspectives, group housing is in many ways preferable to housing in single pens. The larger accessible area per animal improves the calf's opportunities to satisfy the needs for motion and play2,18. Some studies suggest that calves housed individually have lower disease incidence13, a reduction in behavioural problems such as cross-sucking21and higher mass gains36.
The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that the feeding of high volumes of milk will increase growth rate and reduce cross-sucking behaviour in group fed calves without compromising their health.
Calf selection and randomisation
The calves used were from a well-managed Jersey herd in the Western Cape Province of South Africa, with seasonal calving in large open paddocks during January and February. The hot and dry conditions during this time of the year help to ensure a dry and hygienic calving area. Calves were removed from their dams within 8 h of calving and 2ℓ of fresh, 1st-day colostrum was hand-fed to all calves that did not show obvious physical signs of sufficient intake through natural sucking from their dams. For the 1st 3 days calves were housed indoors in single calf pens and 2ℓ of 1st-day colostrum was fed twice daily. During this time any calf showing signs of clinical disease or not drinking sufficient colostrum was excluded from the trial. Whole venous blood from each calf was tested with the Quick Test Calf IgG Kit (Midland Bioproducts, Boone, IA, USA) between 48 and 72 h after birth, to ensure that no calf with failure of passive transfer of immunity (FPT) was included in the trial.
Using block randomisation (blocks of 8 consecutively born female calves fulfilling the above inclusion criteria), 120 heifer calves were randomly assigned to one of 3 high milk volume (HMV) or 3 restricted milk volume (RMV) groups as follows:
HL (high milk volume, large group size): 1 group of 30 calves.
HS (high milk volume, small group size): 2 groups of 15 calves each.
RL (restricted milk volume, large group size): 1 group of 30 calves.
RS (restricted milk volume, small group size): 2 groups of 15 calves each.
Calf housing and feeding
Calves were housed in dry, clean paddocks which, because of the seasonal calving pattern, had housed no other calves during the previous 8 months. The surface area of each small paddock (15 calves) was 400 m2, while that of large paddocks (30 calves) was 800 m2, providing a surface area of 26.7 m2per calf in all groups. Calves were fed individually according to the liquid feeding schedule in Table 1. Within each group, calves were fed simultaneously at a central milk feeding station using plastic buckets each fitted with a teat. Unrestricted intake was defined as all the milk or milk replacer the calf was able to drink during one feeding, culminating in a 2-min period during which no further milk was consumed. Individual milk intake of every calf at every feeding was measured to the nearest 100 mℓ. After 14 days, calves were adapted from fresh milk to a commercially available milk replacer (Meadow Milk Replacer®; 25 % protein, 20 % fat) over a 3-day period. Shade with straw bedding was provided and water and calf starter pellets were available ad libitum at all times. Dry matter (DM) content was 13 % for milk and milk replacer and 90 % for starter pellets. The mass of calf starter consumed by each group was recorded daily. All calves were weaned at 42 days of age after gradual weaning (change to once a day milk-feeding and the reduction of milk intake 1 week before weaning, as detailed in Table 1).
Growth and health recording
Calves were weighed and wither height was measured immediately after birth, once weekly throughout the trial, at day 42 (weaning) and at day 60. The health of each calf was appraised visually twice daily by a veterinarian and any calf with severe illness was removed from the study and treated. The number of calves in each group showing cross-sucking behaviour was recorded for 30 min immediately after milk feeding every evening and during the post-weaning period for 30 min each morning. Cross-sucking was defined as any sucking action of a calf directed toward another calf 's head or body.
Data analysis
The primary outcome variables were average daily mass gain (ADG) pre-and post-weaning, mortality, morbidity (cumulative incidence and treatment days), cross-sucking behaviour and feed intake (liquid feed and calf starter). With the exception of calf starter intake, all outcomes were measured at the individual animal level. The mean DM intake per calf was calculated, and the gain to feed ratio (G:F) was calculated as the kg mass gained per kg DM intake over the whole trial period. For initial, univariable analysis, continuous outcomes were compared between groups using 1-way ANOVA and binary outcomes were compared using Fisher's exact test. The effect of milk volume on ADG was then estimated using multiple linear regression, adjusting for group size, birth mass, birth date, dam parity and sire. The 1-way interaction between milk volume and group size was also tested. The effect of milk volume on morbidity was estimated using exact logistic regression to model occurrence of disease (yes/no) and negative binomial regression to model treatment days, both methods adjusting for group size and dam parity. The proportions of calves showing cross-sucking behaviour were compared between groups using Fisher's exact test. Statistical analyses were done using Stata 11.1 (StataCorp, College Station, TX, USA). The significance level was set at α = 0.05.
Cost analysis
A cost analysis was done using a spreadsheet programme (Excel, Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA, USA). Costs were calculated on a per head basis over the whole trial period. Only variable costs (liquid and solid feed costs and cost of treatments) were included. Because of the low mortalities, mortality costs were ignored, but other variable costs were averaged over surviving calves.
A total of 114 calves finished the trial, 1 having died due to foreign body pneumonia during the pre-weaning period. During the post-weaning period, 1 calf died and another 4 calves from the RMV groups were removed from the trial due to an outbreak of meningoencephalitis of unknown aetiology.
Milk intake and growth
The pattern of milk intake for the various groups is shown in Fig. 1. During the 1st 35 days HMV calves consumed approximately 3ℓ(75 %) more milk per day than RMV calves. Within the HMV groups, intake did not differ significantly between group sizes (P = 0.245). However, the variation in individual daily milk intake amongst calves within the HMV groups was high, ranging between 2.5 and 12.1ℓ, with the average daily milk intake varying between 4.8 and 9.2ℓ/calf.
Mean body mass, wither height and ADG of calves are summarised in Table 2. Weaning mass, day 60 mass, pre-weaning ADG and overall ADG were higher in the HMV groups than the RMV groups (P < 0.05), but differences in wither height were not significant. Post-weaning growth rates and changes in wither height did not differ significantly between groups.
Adjusted for birth mass, birth date, dam parity and sire, ADG (d0-42 and d0-60) was higher in HMV than RMV calves (P <0.001) (Table 3). There was no significant effect of group size on ADG. The interaction between milk volume and group size was not significant in any of the 3 models.
Mean body mass of calves in the 4 groups, from birth to 60 days, is shown in Fig. 2. The mass advantage of the HMV groups was maintained throughout the trial period, although it was less pronounced for groupHLthan for group HS. At weaning the mean body mass advantage for the HMV calves versus the RMV calves was 6.53 kg (P < 0.0001) and at 60 d it was 6.74 kg (P < 0.0001).
Disease incidence and treatments
The cumulative incidence of diseases is shown in Table 4. The incidence of pre-weaning diarrhoea ranged between 27%(group RL) and 64%(group HS), but with no mortalities due to diarrhoea, whereas the incidence of diarrhoea during the post-weaning period was low. Most cases of diarrhoea were mild, without systemic signs of weakness or dehydration and with the faecal consistency varying from soft to semi-watery. Adjusted for group size and dam parity, the incidence of diarrhoea was not significantly greater in theHMVgroups than in the RMV groups, either pre-weaning (P = 0.240) or post-weaning (P = 0.291), although the number of treatment days was slightly greater pre-weaning (count ratio = 1.71, P = 0.029) and overall (CR = 1.80,P = 0.013).
Except for keratoconjunctivitis, the incidence of disease was low throughout the trial period. Although the pre-weaning incidence of keratoconjunctivitis was not significantly greater in the HMV groups than in the RMV groups (P = 0.213), the number of treatment days was greater (CR = 1.65, P = 0.003). The incidence of other disease (gastrointestinal disturbances other than diarrhoea, arthritis, septicaemia and pneumonia) did not differ between groups either pre-weaning or overall. However, it was significantly higher post-weaning in the RMV groups (OR = 15.4, P = 0.002), mainly due to a small outbreak of meningoencephalitis.
Dry feed and weaning
Differences in solid feed intake between groups were negligible until the 4th week of the trial. However, up to the 7th week of the trial, mean intake of starter pellets was more than 50 % higher in the RMV groups than in the HMV groups. During the last 3 weeks of the trial, the differences in average consumption of solid feed between the groups were less than 0.1 kg/calf/day. Over the whole trial period, the mean intake of starter pellets was 61.0 kg for RMV calves and 55.2 kg for HMV calves.
Feed conversion and cost
Average gain-to-feed ratio (G:F) and cost of rearing over the whole trial period are given in Table 5. Because starter ration intake was not measured at the individual animal level, it was not possible to compare these between groups. There was approximately a 10 % better G:F of calves in HMV groups compared with calves in the RMV groups. However, the average feed and treatment costs were about R250 (almost 35 %) more for calves in the HMV groups. The cost per kg of live mass gain was on average just over 10 % higher for calves in the HMV groups.
The proportion of calves showing cross-sucking behaviour during the pre-weaning period was 75 % in RMV groups vs 2 % in HMV groups (P < 0.001). During the post-weaning period this decreased to 18.4 % in the RMV groups and increased to 7.3 % in the HMV groups, the difference remaining significant (P < 0.001).
General observations
Subjectively, the rate of ingestion was higher, butting during drinking was more aggressive and attempts at milk stealing were more frequent in RMV than in HMV calves. Calves in the HMV groups spent far more time in social behaviour, including locomotor play such as pushing and butting each other and running around in the paddocks. This was especially noticeable in the 30 min after milk feeding, while calves in the RMV groups were largely busy with cross-sucking.
The 1st objective of this study was to determine the effect of high liquid intake in dairy calves on growth performance, starter intake, weaning transition and post-weaning growth. The results confirmed that the milk intake of calves with unrestricted milk allowance (as defined in our protocol) was far greater than in standard dairy management programmes. This is consistent with several studies showing that calves have the ability to consume large volumes of liquid feeds of approximately 16 % to 24 % of body mass9,11,20. The considerable between-calf variation in milk intake among HMV calves is consistent with previous reports1,30.
The faster pre-weaning growth of the HMV calves compared with the RMV calves confirmed that the growth of milk-fed calves is proportional to the amount of milk provided15,20. As might be expected, starter intake was negatively influenced by higher milk intake, which is in agreement with other studies17,35. The pre-weaning ADG of the HMV calves in this study compared well with expected growth rates of between 0.6 and 0.8 kg/day for Holstein calves on enhanced early nutrition programmes11. This was surprising for Jersey calves, but may partly be explained by differences in study design. It is also possible that lower maintenance requirements in Jerseys may have compensated for any genetic disadvantage in growth rate. The effect of milk volume on pre-weaning ADG was less than in some other studies. Work on calves of similar ages showed larger differences in rates of gain for ad libitum vs calves fed restricted milk volumes: 0.85 kg/day vs 0.36 kg/day1, 0.78 kg/day vs 0.48 kg/day17and 0.53 kg/day vs 0.11 kg/day34. This might partly be explained by higher milk allowances (more than 10 % of body mass) to the RMV calves in our study, the relatively short period (days 4-35) of unrestricted milk allowance, the change to once daily feeding at day 21, and the fact that in some studies milk was offered ad libitum throughout the day with no concentrate consumption.
Although restricted rates of liquid feeding do not support maximum mass gains, they do encourage earlier intake of starter feeds, which promotes rumen development, a smoother weaning transition and earlier weaning6. Post-weaning growth and weaning stress are mainly determined by starter intake23. Some studies report that the transition from milk to solid feed may cause a lag in growth and lower post-weaning gain when the pre-weaning milk allowance is high16,29. However, this study showed no difference in the smoothness of weaning between groups and no evidence of lower intakes after weaning. These results concur with other studies that the growth advantage of calves on enhanced early nutrition programmes can be maintained after weaning17. In this study, calf starter intake was stimulated by the change to once a day milk-feeding and the reduction of milk intake 1 week before weaning. Milk volume reduction over a period is considered to be the preferable weaning method because of the higher concentrate intake during and after weaning and because of the lower activity shown by these calves during the weaning period24.
Another important objective of this study was to investigate the possible effects of high volumes of a liquid diet on dairy calf health. In general, the results indicated that the incidence of important health disorders was similar across treatment groups and that the health of the calves was not affected by the volume of liquid feed intake. The mortality rate was very low (<1 %) during the pre-weaning period. Reported mortality risk of neonatal calves varies between 15 and 30 %22,32, with diarrhoea accounting for between 21 % and 62 % of calf losses in the USA32.
Recommendations to restrict liquid intake are based on the belief that feeding greater volumes will cause a nutritional diarrhoea6. However, in this study there was no significant effect of milk volume on the incidence of diarrhoea. This is consistent with other studies showing that merely feeding more milk does not necessarily result in diarrhoea15,17,25. The level of microbial contamination in a calf-raising environment appears to be more important than the amounts of high quality liquid feeds consumed in altering the delicate balance of intestinal tract microbes and conditions of increased bacterial challenge, such as poor calving management, sanitation or calf housing, will increase the risk of calf diseases6,10. In this study, good management practices, including colostrum management and favourable environmental conditions on the farm (outside calving paddocks and dry warm weather), were likely responsible for the low incidence of important diseases such as diarrhoea, pneumonia and septicaemia. The results from this study therefore indicate that, under conditions of good management and sanitation, high milk volume intake does not necessarily lead to diarrhoea.
The incidence of diseases other than diarrhoea and keratoconjunctivitis was very low in all the groups. The 2 cases of pneumonia during the trial are in contrast with the general trend in the USA, where pneumonia is responsible for 21.3 % and 50.4 % of pre-weaned and weaned heifer deaths, respectively32.
The high incidence of keratoconjunctivitis throughout the trial was probably due to well known risk factors such as dry dusty conditions, ultraviolet exposure, flies and Moraxella bovis which was isolated on the farm. The diagnosis was made in the very early stages of the disease and intra-ocular antibiotic treatment was successful.
Our results confirm those of a previous study that hunger during the milk-fed stage stimulates cross-sucking behaviour1. Calves fed restricted quantities of milk were more likely to have consumed their entire milk ration before negative feedback mechanisms associated with satiety took effect, so the cross-sucking performed immediately after a milk meal is likely related to hunger27,34. The sucking under the belly and especially on the udder observed in this trial was of special concern as it may result in cross-sucking amongst heifers and cows, with subsequent negative effects on udder health and milk production19,21. The slight increase in the incidence of cross-sucking by the HMV calves around weaning is consistent with the findings of a previous study7, i.e . that calves that perform cross-sucking are often underfed at weaning, and it is possible that more gradual weaning could have prevented this24. The large reduction in cross-sucking behaviour of the RMV calves just after weaning may be explained by the fact that there was no longer any stimulation by the ingestion of milk and consequently no redirection of the natural sucking behaviour, as suggested by de Passillé & Rushen8. Furthermore, the increased intake of solid feeds after weaning would also have reduced cross-sucking behaviour19,29. It appeared that social facilitation also played a role in the occurrence of cross-sucking behaviour. When 1 animal performed cross-sucking, the likelihood (subjectively assessed) that nearby calves would start cross-sucking increased. Nevertheless, our results show that unrestricted milk feeding allows calves to be housed in groups with only a very low incidence of cross-sucking.
Group housing of neonatal calves may provide more calf-to-calf contact and enrichment stimulus compared with individual housing2,14. Play behaviour has been suggested to be an indicator of good welfare in calves18. The greater tendency to perform locomotor play in the HMV calves may therefore be an indication of better welfare conditions of calves receiving higher milk volumes.
Results from this study are consistent with previous research that showed better feed conversion rates of HMV calves4,9,20 . These studies observed feed to live mass efficiencies of 0.75 to 0.80 for pre-ruminant calves fed for ad libitum consumption, which is marginally better than the G:F found in HMV calves in our study (0.69). The slight tendency toward a better G:F in the smaller groups during the trial can perhaps be explained by less locomotor activity in the smaller paddocks.
In the USA, accelerated growth programmes generally cost $35 to $50 more per calf than conventional programmes5, similar to the difference observed in our study (approximately R250). The 35 % greater cost of raising the HMV calves could largely be attributed to their 72 % greater milk consumption. However, the return on this investment is more difficult to define. Previous work has shown that early body mass advantages can result in lower age at 1st calving, reduction in the costs of production31, increased mature body mass and higher 1st lactation milk production3,12. It appears that the biology of the calf allows for rapid growth during the first few weeks of life. If this early opportunity for rapid gains is not met, high levels of intake later in life may not allow for compensatory growth. From a biological perspective it would be difficult to argue that improving nutritional status of the young calf during the first few weeks of life should be anything but positive for subsequent productivity. However, follow-up studies measuring long-term production and reproductive performance are required to determine the return on investment of HMV feeding in dairy calves.
The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to the staff of Weideland Dairy Farm for their help and wonderful spirit during the trial, and to Meadow Feeds for sponsoring a large proportion of the milk replacer used in the trial.
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Received: September 2010.
Accepted: February 2011.
* Author for correspondence. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com


text:
Teaching Climate Controversies: Lessons Learned from the CLEAN Climate Communications Workshop
Summary written by Karin Kirk, based on presentations at the 2012 workshop, Communicating Climate Science in the Classroom.
Controversial scientific issues are often closely tied to public policy, thus it is essential that educators respond with effective pedagogy for teaching controversy and strive to create a scientifically literate population. Climate change can be particularly challenging to teach and educators face several challenges:
- Complex science that spans multiple disciplines and is rapidly evolving
- Widespread public misunderstanding of basic climate science (Leiserowitz et al., 2010)
- Deliberate misinformation campaigns (Hoggan and Littlemore, 2009; Oreskes and Conway, 2010)
- Close ties between public policy and climate science; climate-related policy can have negative perceptions such as economic ramifications or emissions caps
- Conflicts between students' worldviews and ability to accurately understand the science.
Know your Audience
Public opinion research conducted by Anthony Lieserowitz and others has revealed that individuals perceive climate change in different ways. Their research identified 6 distinct types, termed "Global Warming's Six Americas" by Lieserowitz et al. (2009). The percentage of Americans in each of the Six Americas categories evolves over time and can reflect economic and political environment of the country.
The Alarmed are fully convinced of the reality and seriousness of climate change and are already taking individual, consumer, and political action to address it.
The Concerned – the largest of the six Americas – are also convinced that global warming is happening and a serious problem, but have not yet engaged the issue personally.
The Cautious are somewhat convinced that global warming is happening, but this belief is relatively weak, with many saying they could change their minds.
The Disengaged have hardly thought about global warming at all.They are not at all sure that global warming is happening and are the group most likely to say they could easily change their minds.
The Doubtfulhave thought only a little about global warming, say they are informed only a little about the causes, consequences, and potential solutions, yet say they are somewhat unlikely to change their minds about the issue.
The Dismissive are sure that global warming is not happening. They are very certain about their views, saying they are very unlikely to change their minds about the issue and are actively involved as opponents of a national effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Which type do you fit into? Take the quiz.
See the full report: Global Warming's Six Americas
This means that when you present material about climate change to your class, it may be interpreted differently by different students. Thus it is worthwhile to know your audience and seek a pathway that encourages cognitive change.
- Students who are already familiar with climate change but are concerned or upset about the negative impacts would benefit from focusing on solutions and adaptation measures.
- Students who are disengaged with climate science would need to understand how climate change is relevant to their own lives, such as by using local examples of climate records or climate impacts.
- Students who are confused about the divergent opinions about climate science would benefit from an activity that allows them to construct their own knowledge, such as by working with datasets.
- People who fall into the "dissmissive" category can be the most reluctant to change their minds. This is partly because of the worldview backfire effect (discussed further below) and because the substantial accumulation of climate data can all be viewed as part of a conspiracy. Hence the more educators rely on data from government agencies and reports by the IPCC, the more this reinforces the perceived conspiracy (Leiserowitz, 2009).
Misconceptions are a fact of life in teaching, and play a significant role in teaching climate change because of the widespread occurrence of climate misconceptions (Leiserowitz et al., 2010). These misconceptions "lead some people to doubt that global warming is happening or that human activities are a major contributor, to misunderstand the cause and therefore the solutions, and to be unaware of the risks" (Leiserowitz, 2009).
Uncovering misconceptions
Sometimes misconceptions make themselves apparent without any special prompting from the instructor, but there may well be more misconceptions than you realize. Many techniques can be used to uncover misconceptions, including:
- Multiple choice quizzes
- Prior conception probes
- Concept maps (see A Concept Mapping Assessment of Climate Change Concepts)
- Class discussion (either face to face discussion or an online discussion board)
To learn more about about techniques to understand student knowledge, see the On the Cutting Edge website about assessing student learning or the book Classroom Assessment Techniques by Angelo and Cross (1993) .
Seven students argued about what they thought were major human causes of global warming. The following is what they identified as causes that could be attributed to humans:
Maria: acid rainCircle the name(s) of the student(s) you agree with. Explain why you agree.
Natalia: burning coal
Tessa: the fuel we use in our cars
Blaine: using leaded gasoline instead of unleaded
Raul: the thinning of the Earth's ozone layer
From Keeley, P. and Tugel, J. Uncovering Student Ideas in Science Vol 4: 25 New Formative Assessment Probes
Types of misconceptions
Some misconceptions are largely cognitive such as a misunderstanding of the role of the ozone layer. But misconceptions can be intertwined with one's worldview, such as the degree of anthropogenic forcing in the climate system. There is likely to be some overlap between both types of misconceptions.
- CO2 makes up most of the atmosphere.
- Ozone thinning is causing climate warming.
- Earth's climate is stable.
- Today's climate is 'normal' or optimal.
- Effects of climate change are in the distant future.
- Climate may be changing, but humans are not the cause.
- Humans are too small to affect nature.
- Humans are killing the planet.
- Taking action on climate change will cripple the economy.
- It's China's fault.
Addressing misconceptions
Suggestions from Susan Buhr include:
- Raise student metacognition (Learn more from the On the Cutting Edge website about metacognition)
- Cause cognitive conflict
- Understand the nature of science and the quality of research (learn more about Teaching the Process of Science
- Help students "self-repair" misconceptions and work through problems that require a new understanding
- Engage students in argumentation techniques to strengthen and articulate new knowledge. Note that scientific argumentation is not the same thing as arguing. For example, using Structured Academic Controversy.
For explanations of these strategies and more information about misconceptions, see How Do I Get My Students Over Their Alternative Conceptions (Misconceptions) for Learning? by Joan Lucariello.
As has been described above, misconceptions are common, stem from multiple sources and are hard to correct. Some well-intentioned attempts to correct misinformation may actually serve to strengthen it. The Myth Debunking Handbook , by John Cook and Stephan Lewandowsky, provides insights and strategies for correcting misconceptions.
The familiarity backfire effect
Repeating a misconception can unintentionally reinforce it. Instead, focus on the key scientific facts you wish to communicate. The fact sheet pictured at right was produced by the Centers for Disease Control and was intended to correct misconceptions about the flu vaccine. An experimental study found that some people had a diminished understanding about the vaccine 30 minutes after reading the flyer (Skurnik et al., 2005). The headlines in the flyer repeat common myths and therefore reinforced them. In a classroom setting, emphasize and underscore the key facts. Repeat these concepts often enough so that you increase your students' familiarity with them.
The overkill backfire effect
Deliberate misinformation can be packaged into tidy headlines, but scientists tend to respond with lengthy paragraphs. A simple myth is more cognitively attractive than an over-complicated correction (Schwarz et al., 2007).
As you prepare for teaching climate topics in class, think about the areas that are complex to explain. Strive to streamline your explanations while still keeping the science accurate.
Tips from Skeptical Science:
- Use simple language, short sentences, subheadings and paragraphs.
- Avoid dramatic language and derogatory comments that alienate people.
- Stick to the facts.
- Use graphics wherever possible to illustrate your points.
- End on a strong and simple message that people will remember.
The Skeptical Science website has a list of climate science "headlines" that present concise corrections for common myths.
The worldview backfire effect
When an issue is strongly tied to an individual's values, they are very reluctant to change their mind about it. Setting aside the matter of climate change for a moment, think about a philosophy with which you closely identify. Now, consider what it would take to reverse your opinion of that closely-held belief. More than likely, it would be difficult for you to change your mind, and rightfully so since this belief is related to your overall sense of values.
That is the worldview effect. The more you identify personally with an issue, the more resolute you are about it. In the case of climate change, there are several opportunities for worldview backfire effects. Where potential climate policy overlaps with worldviews on the role of government regulation, the economic impacts of steps to protect the environment, and the concept of cooperation among nations in an otherwise competitive economy.
Research has shown that attempts to correct misinformation that is in conflict with one's worldview can actually serve to reinforce it (Nyhan and Reifler, 2010). So where does that leave educators? Cook and Lewandowsky advise framing the topics in a way that it will not conflict with people's worldview. For example, a conservative audience was more accepting of climate science when nuclear power was presented as part of the solution (Kahan et al., 2007). In another example, the Global Warming's Six Americas study reveals considerable alignment between the dismissive group and the concerned group when asked about energy-saving measures (Leiserowitz, 2009).
Affective Domain and Teaching Controversy
Good practices when teaching controversy, from Susan Buhr, include:
- Simple tactics like acknowledging the value in a person's question can help prevent a breakdown in communication.
- Separate students' political beliefs from their scientific understanding.
- Do stay personable and maintain a professional affect.
Suggested Pedagogies
- Be concise whenever possible. Work on simple, direct explanations, even for complex processes.
- Use evidence or reason.
- Don't rely on appealing to authority, such as "the IPCC says...." Use clear and logical explanations for processes and projections.
- Generate curiosity in students, then fill their "curiosity gap" with new information. "Fight sticky ideas with stickier ideas" (Heath and Heath, 'Made to Stick')
- Analogies can be powerful teaching tools and can translate complex ideas in a memorable way.
- Compelling visuals can portray volumes of information at a glance.
Specific Pedagogic Strategies
- Active learning (students construct knowledge)
- Role-playing
- Case studies
- Working with data
- Using local representations of global problems
- Deliberate use of misinformation (agnotology)
- Beware of preachy lectures, jargon, excessive appeals to authority
Examples from the CLEAN collection
These three examples were used at the Climate Communication workshop as demonstrations of teaching activities that encompass active learning and deliberate communication about climate change.
- Greenhouse Emissions Reduction Role-Play Exercise, Kevin Theissen, University of St. Thomas
- Stabilization Wedges Game, Daniel Steinberg, Princeton University Center for Complex Materials
- Teaching Climate Science by Studying Misinformation, Dan Bedford, Weber State University
Related materials from the Climate Communication workshop
- Workshop program, with links to presentations and webcast recordings.
- Workshop products, including activities specifically selected for successful communications and examples of myth debunking written by workshop participants.
Angelo and Cross (1993) Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers . San Francisco : Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Cook, J., Lewandowsky, S. (2011), The Debunking Handbook. St. Lucia, Australia: University of Queensland. November 5. ISBN 978-0-646-56812-6.Leiserowitz, A., Smith, N. & Marlon, J.R. (2010) Americans' Knowledge of Climate Change . Yale University. New Haven, CT: Yale Project on Climate Change Communication.
Leiserowitz, A., Smith, N. & Marlon, J.R. (2009) Global Warming's Six Americas. Yale University. New Haven, CT: Yale Project on Climate Change Communication.
Leiserowitz, A., Maibach, E., Roser-Renouf, C., Feinberg, G., & Howe, P. (2012) Climate change in the American mind: Americans' global warming beliefs and attitudes in September, 2012. Yale University and George Mason University. New Haven, CT: Yale Project on Climate Change Communication.
Lucariello, J. How Do I Get My Students Over Their Alternative Conceptions (Misconceptions) for Learning? City University of New York.
Kahan, D. Braman, D., Gastil, J., Slovic, P., Mertz, C.K. (2007) Culture and identity-protective cognition: explaining the white male effect in risk perception. Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, 4 (3) (2007), pp. 465–505.
Keeley, P. and Tugel, J. Uncovering Student Ideas in Science, Vol 4: 25 New Formative Assessment Probes, (2009) NSTA Press Book, 208p.
Nyhan, B., and Reifler, J. (2010). When Corrections Fail: The Persistence of Political Misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32, 303-330.
Schwarz, N., Sanna, L., Skurnik, I., & Yoon, C. (2007). Metacognitive experiences and the intricacies of setting people straight: Implications for debiasing and public information campaigns. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 127-161.
Skurnik, I., Yoon, C., Park, D., & Schwarz, N. (2005). How warnings about false claims become recommendations. Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 713-724.