Prevalence and perceived health effect of alcohol use among male undergraduate students in Owerri, South-East Nigeria: a descriptive cross-sectional study

Ebirim Ic Chikere
Morakinyo O Mayowa
Prevalence and perceived health effect of alcohol use among male undergraduate students in Owerri, South-East Nigeria: a descriptive cross-sectional study
R E S E A R C H A R T I C L E Open Access
Background: Alcohol use during adolescence and young adulthood remains a prominent public health problem. Despite growing problems of global alcohol abuse, accurate information on the prevalence and pattern of use in Nigeria remain sparse. This study examines the prevalence and perceived health effects of alcohol use among undergraduate students in Owerri, Nigeria. Method: The prevalence and perceived health effects of alcohol was estimated for 482 male undergraduates of four higher institutions in Owerri, South-East Nigeria between October 2008 and March 2009. Information was obtained using a semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire.Result: The mean age of the students was 24.7 years. Majority of the respondents confirmed they were current users of alcohol given a prevalence of 78.4%, with twenty-seven percent of them being heavy drinkers (≥4 drinks per day). Reasons given by respondents for alcohol drinking include: makes them feel high (24.4%); makes them belong to the group of "most happening guys" on campus (6.6%); makes them feel relaxed (52.6%) while (16.4%) drinks it because their best friends do. Perceived health impacts of alcohol use among current users include: it enhances pleasure during moment of sex (51.1%), causes drowsiness and weakness (63.8%), may precipitate defective memory and impaired perception (64.3%) and serves as risk factor for most chronic diseases (68.5%).Conclusion: High prevalence of alcohol use was established among study groups. Evaluation of full-scale community-level intervention, including community mobilisation and media advocacy aimed at supporting changes in policies on drinking, access and sales of alcohol to young people, could be helpful in reducing the trend.

Background

Alcohol consumption has occurred for thousands of years. In many parts of the world, drinking alcoholic beverages is a common feature of social gatherings [1]. While alcohol use is deeply embedded in many societies, recent years have seen changes in drinking patterns across the globe: rates of consumption, drinking to excess among the general population and heavy episodic drinking among young people are on the rise in many countries. Nevertheless, the consumption of alcohol carries a risk of adverse health and social consequences related to its intoxicating, toxic and dependence-producing properties [1].

Alcohol consumption has health and social consequences via intoxication (drunkenness), dependence (habitual, compulsive and long-term drinking), and other biochemical effects. In addition to chronic diseases that may affect drinkers after many years of heavy use, alcohol contributes to traumatic outcomes that kill or disable one at a relatively young age, resulting in the loss of many years of life to death or disability. Alcohol is estimated to cause about 20-30% worldwide disease of oesophageal cancer, liver cancer, cirrhosis of the liver, homicide, epilepsy, and motor vehicle accidents [1].

Globally, alcohol consumption has increased in recent decades, with all or most of that increase in developing countries. World-wide, five percent of all deaths of people between the ages of 5 and 29 in 1990 were attributable to alcohol use. The Global Burden of Disease Study found that alcohol was responsible in 1990 for 3.5 percent of all disability-adjusted life years (more than tobacco or illegal drugs). While adverse health outcomes from long-term chronic alcohol use may not cause death or disability until late in life, acute health consequences of alcohol use, including intentional and unintentional injuries, are far more common among younger people [2].

In Nigeria, psychoactive substance misuse especially alcohol has for many years been an issue of increasing health and social importance. This is especially so for the critical adolescent period marked by several changes including the psychological phenomenon of experimentation. Studies carried out in the last decade in Nigeria have identified adolescents as a major group involved in the use of alcohol. This study describes the prevalence of alcohol use among male undergraduate students in Owerri, South-East, Nigeria. It also documents the perceived health effects of alcohol use among the study group.

Methods

From October 2008 to March 2009 a descriptive crosssectional survey was conducted among Undergraduate students from four tertiary institutions in Owerri. These institutions include Federal University of Technology (FUTO), Imo State University (IMSU), Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education (AIFCE) and Federal Polytechnic Nekede (FPN), all in Owerri South-east, Nigeria.

Owerri is a city in South-Eastern Nigeria. It is the capital of Imo State and is set in the heart of the Igbo land. Owerri consists of three LGAs (Owerri Municipal, Owerri North and Owerri West). It currently has a population of about 400,000 and is approximately 40 square miles (100 km 2 ) in area. It is bordered by the Otamiri River to the east and the Nworie River to the south. It occupies the area lying between coordinates 5.484°N and 7.035°E.

A multi stage sampling design was used to select participants. Interviews using structured questionnaires were conducted with randomly selected respondents in six faculties from four institutions. The questions focused on various sub-themes like socio-demographic information, prevalence of alcohol use, reasons for alcohol use, number of bottles drank per day and perceived impact of alcohol use among the respondents. A copy of the questionnaire containing the variables of interest is contained in additional file 1.

Questionnaire was prepared in English and was selfadministered. It was administered after explaining the purpose of the study and criteria used in selecting each respondent. Permission to conduct the survey was requested and obtained from the university ethical review board. Informed verbal and written consent was obtained from participants. Confidentiality of information was maintained throughout the study.

The data collected was manually sorted out, edited and coded. It was thereafter imputed into the computer for analysis using SPSS version 15.0 statistical package. Frequency tables were generated for demographic characteristics of the respondents. Qualitative variables were summarized by proportions. Students who drank four bottles or more per day were classified as heavy drinkers while those dinking less were classified as non-heavy drinkers. Statistical significance for association was tested using chi-square, with p-value less than 0.05 considered statistically significant. The commonest alcoholic drink among the study population was 'Star'. A bottle of Star is 60centiliters in volume with an alcohol content of 5.1% per volume.

Results

A total of 482 records of male tertiary undergraduates from four higher institutions in Owerri were available and analysed. Majority of the respondents, 42.5% compared to 16.6% who were in the 16 -20 years age group. Most of the respondents (79.0%) were unmarried whereas only 21.0% were married as shown in Table 1. The sample studied includes 24.5% of IMSU students, 23.9% of FUTO students, 26.6% of FPN students and 25.1% of AIFCE students. The percentage of individuals who were Christians is higher than those that were Muslims.

The prevalence of alcohol consumption among respondents vis-a-vis their demographic information is shown in Table 2. Prevalence of alcohol use is high with 78.4% among all respondents and 92.2% among students aged 26 years and above (p-value < 0.001). The percentage of single students that use alcoholic drink was significantly higher than those that are married (p-value < 0.001). Table 3 present reasons why respondents use alcohol and other important parameter. About 24.4% of the respondents said it makes them feel high (on top of the world); 6.6% claimed that it makes them belong to the group of "most happening guys" on campus; 52.6% said it makes them feel relaxed, helps in cooling off stress; while the remaining 16.4% respondents said they indulged in the act of using alcohol because their best friends drink it.

Discussion

Valid information on prevalence of alcohol is important input for public health policy. The results of this investigation indicate that alcohol consumption has a prevalence of 78.4% among the respondents. Survey and anecdotal data from countries around the globe suggest that a culture of sporadic heavy or "binge" drinking among young people may be spreading from the developed to the developing countries [3].

A number of school and college surveys in Nigeria have found alcohol use to be common among students, with many drinking students having had their first drink in family settings [4]. In June 1988 a questionnaire survey of 636 undergraduate students at the University of Ilorin in Kwara State found that 77% reported lifetime alcohol use (81 per cent of men and 68 per cent of women) [5]. In response to a 1988 survey of 1,041 senior secondary school students in Ilorin, 12% reported current use of alcohol [6].

Findings from this study show that majority of the respondents were initiated into the use of alcohol at a tender age of 16 to 20 years. Previous studies have shown that age of initiation of alcohol use is important. Research in the US has found that the earlier the age at which people begin drinking, the more likely they are to become alcohol dependent later in life [7]. Those who begin drinking in their teenage years are also more likely to experience alcohol-related unintentional injuries (such as motor vehicle injuries, falls, burns, drowning) than those who begin drinking at a later age [8]. Adverse effects of early onset of drinking may be shorter term as well: prospective research has found a younger age of initiation to be strongly related to a higher level of alcohol misuse at ages 17 and 18 [9].

Moreover, certain individuals (26.7%) vividly reported that they were introduced to alcohol by their family members. This is consistent with a collaborative report from WHO's European Regional Office which estimated that 4.5 million young people lived in families adversely affected by alcohol [10]. Problems for the young people  in such homes may include instability or collapse of marriages and family structures, increased risk of physical or sexual abuse, neglect, and strain on family finances. Such family problems may in turn put young people at greater risk of developing anti-social behaviours, emotional problems and problems in the school environment [11]. Documentation of quantity of alcohol consumed revealed that 26.7% were heavy drinkers and at risk of most of the health complication associated with alcohol consumption. Harmful use of alcohol encompasses several aspects of drinking; one is the volume drunk over time. The strongest drinking-related predictor of many chronic illnesses is the cumulated amount of alcohol consumed over a period of a year. Also, the risks of intentional and unintentional injuries and of transmission of certain infectious diseases are predicted by the pattern of drinking, occasional or regular drinking, drinking to intoxication and the drink context.

The range of adverse physical consequences stemming from heavy use of alcohol on a single occasion is well documented. The most obvious of these is alcohol  poisoning, which although relatively rare is often emblematic of young drinkers' inexperience with alcohol. Alcohol may have a more immediate and severe effect on young people because their muscle mass is smaller than that of adults (WHO, 2009). While evidence is inconclusive regarding the direct impact of alcohol use on the physical development of young people, there are indications that heavy alcohol use at a young age is predictive of a range of psychological and physical problems. Protracted and continuous abuse of alcohol may be predictive of more severe health problems in general for boys and girls [12]. Alcohol may cause physical harm to children, although the evidence remains preliminary. Studies in laboratory animals have found that high doses of alcohol may delay the onset of puberty, retard bone growth and result in weaker bones [13][14][15].

Surveys of young people in European countries have looked at a wide range of behavioural consequences of alcohol use. These include individual problems, defined by self-reports on young people's reduced performance at school or at work, damage to objects or clothing, loss of money or other valuable items, and accident or injury as a result of alcohol use. Relationship problems cover selfreported quarrels or arguments, and problems in relationships with friends, teachers or parents as a result of drinking alcohol. Young people also reported on whether they had engaged in unwanted sexual experiences or unprotected sex. Finally, delinquency problems included selfreports of alcohol-related scuffles or fights, victimisation by robbery, or trouble with the police, as well as driving a motorcycle or a car under the influence of alcohol.

When related to their health status, 68.5% accepted that it forms high risk factor for most health problems like ling cancer, liver, sexually transmitted disease, HIV/AIDS, low birth weight in women, stroke and sudden death.

Even though majority (83.4%) accepted the establishment of awareness programmes in their institution on alcohol abuse with seminars, workshops, crusades and conferences held at their school premises, these actions were still not enough to combat the use of alcohol and in the institutions. More effort should be put to strengthen these existing programmes and new line of action developed that can help combat this epidemic.

Among the shortcomings of this study is the fact that there were no previous validated measure for alcohol consumption and alcohol related problems, thus making comparison difficult.

Conclusions

In conclusion, the prevalence of alcohol consumption (78.4%) is quite high among undergraduates in Owerri and 26.7% of them are at risk of health complications of alcohol consumption. A lot of factors such as peer group pressure, influence of family members, role model, and wrong perception portrayed in advertisement contribute immensely to its use. These factors if checked on time will reduce the prevalence of alcohol consumption among undergraduates and the country at large.

Health implications have proved to be a good reason for non-alcohol use. This means that health education in tertiary institutions will to a reasonable extent reduce the prevalence. Also, since our media stations (especially foreign stations) remain the major media for alcohol advertisement, these media can serve to campaign against their use in the society.

Though, alcohol use is voluntary and is the right of an individual to take alcohol or not, it is equally important and advisable for the government to enforce ban on the sale of alcohol to adolescence so as to protect the health of the future work force of the nation. The government whose ultimate aim is to see to the health of its citizens should allocate adequate resources for campaigns against alcohol use, just as HIV/AIDS awareness has received adequate attention on the part of government.

Numerous evaluation research studies have found that changing certain public policies results in significant effects both on young people's behaviour and on negative outcomes of alcohol consumption. Evaluation of full-scale community-level intervention, including community mobilisation and media advocacy aimed at supporting changes in policies on drinking and driving, access and sales of alcohol to young people, have shown very promising results.

Additional material

Additional file 1: Questionnaire on Prevalence and Perceived Health Effect of Alcohol Use among Male Undergraduate Students in Owerri, South-East Nigeria. It is a semi-structured questionnaire containing questions on the following sections; demographic characteristics, prevalence of alcohol use, knowledge of health effects of alcohol abuse and perceived health effects of alcohol abuse.

Authors' contributions CICE conceived the study, designed the questionnaire, performed the statistical analysis, and also contributed in drafting of the manuscript. MOM participated in drafting and critical review of the manuscript.

Table 4
4documents the impact/effects of alcohol use on the respondents. The table shows that 45.5% of the 378 alcohol users admitted that it makes them feel bad, while 55.5% said it gives them good feeling. Majority said it enhances pleasure during moment of sex; 46.3% usually have residual depressive feeling of remorse hours after use; while 63.8% reported it causes drowsiness, weakness, hangovers, dangerous driving speed and may lead to accident. The respondents when classified according to the number of bottles of alcohol drunk per day revealed that 101 (26.7%) of 378 respondents that have ever used alcohol were heavy drinkers.

Table 1
1Demographic Characteristics of RespondentsAge Group
Frequency
(N = 482)

Percentage

16 -20
80
16.6

21 -25
197
40.9
26 & above
205
42.5

Marital Status

Married
101
21.0

Single
381
79.0

Institution

IMSU
118
24.5

FUTO
115
23.9
FED POLYTECH
128
26.6

AICE
121
25.1

Faculty

Engineering
143
29.7

Medical
51
10.6

Business College
122
25.3

Science
94
19.5
Law School
3
0.6

Humanities
66
13.7

Others
3
0.6

Religion

Christian
460
95.4

Islam
22
4.6

Year of Study

1 st Year
53
11.0

2 nd Year
90
18.7

3 rd Year
151
31.3

4 th Year
188
39.0

Ethnicity

Igbo
444
92.1

Hausa
22
4.6

Igbo
16
3.3

Table 2
2Prevalence of Alcohol Use among RespondentsCategory
Total Number
(N = 482)

Alcohol users
(N = 378)

Prevalence
(%)

P value

Age (years)

16 -20
80
56
70.0%
< 0.001
21 -25
197
133
67.5%
≥26
205
189
92.2%

Marital Status

Married
101
92
91.1%

Single
381
286
75.1%
< 0.001

Religion

Christian
460
367
79.8%
Islam
22
11
50.0%
0.001

Year of Study

1 st Year
53
27
50.9%

2 nd Year
90
77
85.6%
< 0.001

3 rd Year
151
130
86.1%

4 th Year
188
144
76.6%

Ethnicity

Igbo
444
351
79.1%

Hausa
22
11
50.0%
0.001

Yoruba
16
16
100.0%

Table 3
3Distribution of Reasons for Alcohol Use and related parameters among RespondentsVariables
Frequency
(N = 378)

Percentage

Reason for alcohol use

It makes me to belong
25
6.6

All my friends are alcoholics
62
16.4

It makes me feel high
92
24.3
Other reasons
199
52.6

Age at alcohol Initiation

11 -15
44
11.6

16 -20
170
45.0

21 -25
144
38.1

26 & above
20
5.3

Source of alcohol

School cafe
61
46.1

Night club
90
23.8

Anywhere
147
38.9

Roadside joints
52
13.8

Others
28
7.8

Introduction to alcohol Use

Family member
101
26.7
Friend
177
46.8

Fellow student
9
2.4

Neighbour
30
7.9

Others
61
16.1

No of bottles Per Day

1 -3
277
73.3

4 -6
73
19.3

7-10
25
6.6
11 & above
3
0.8

Intent to Quit

Yes
181
47.9

No
197
52.1

Reason for Intent

Religious reasons
14
7.8

Advice from superior
14
7.7
Medical reasons
113
62.4

Other
40
22.1

Table 4
4Impacts/Effects of Alcohol use Among RespondentsEffect
Frequency
(N = 378)

Percentage

Gives good feeling

Agree
206
54.5

Disagree
172
45.5

Serves as risk factor for most diseases

Agree
259
68.5

Disagree
119
31.5

It enhances moment of sex

Agree
193
51.1

Disagree
185
38.9

It gives sense of warmth

Agree
89
23.5

Disagree
289
76.5

Completes social gathering and
celebration

Agree
265
70.1

Disagree
113
29.9

Used for checking weight

Agree
92
24.3

Disagree
286
75.7

Leads to strained relationship

Agree
97
25.7

Disagree
281
74.3

Cause residual depressive feeling of
remorse

Agree
175
46.3

Disagree
203
53.7

Causes absenteeism and poor
performance in school

Agree
220
58.2

Disagree
158
41.8

It precipitates mental symptoms

Agree
243
64.3

Disagree
135
35.7

Cause drowsiness, weakness, hangover
and accident

Agree
241
63.8

Disagree
137
36.2

Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.Submit your next manuscript to BioMed Central and take full advantage of:
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Pre-publication history The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here. 10.1186/1471-2458-11-118Pre-publication history The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/11/118/prepub doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-118

Cite this article as: Chikere and Mayowa: Prevalence and perceived health effect of alcohol use among male undergraduate students in Owerri, South-East Nigeria: a descriptive cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 11118Cite this article as: Chikere and Mayowa: Prevalence and perceived health effect of alcohol use among male undergraduate students in Owerri, South-East Nigeria: a descriptive cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2011 11:118.


A Theoretical Framework to Guide the Re-Engineering of A Theoretical Framework to Guide the Re-Engineering of Technology Education Technology Education A Theoretical Framework to Guide the Re- Engineering of Technology Education
Spring 2009 -37

Todd R Kelley
Utah State University
Utah State University DigitalCommons@USU DigitalCommons@USU
Purdue University
University of Georgia

Nadia Kellam
Utah State University
Utah State University DigitalCommons@USU DigitalCommons@USU
Purdue University
University of Georgia

Todd Kelley
Utah State University
Utah State University DigitalCommons@USU DigitalCommons@USU
Purdue University
University of Georgia

Nadia Kellam
Utah State University
Utah State University DigitalCommons@USU DigitalCommons@USU
Purdue University
University of Georgia

A Theoretical Framework to Guide the Re-Engineering of A Theoretical Framework to Guide the Re-Engineering of Technology Education Technology Education A Theoretical Framework to Guide the Re- Engineering of Technology Education

Journal of Technology Education
202Spring 2009 -37Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/ncete_publications Part of the Engineering Education Commons Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Kelley, T. R., & Kellam, N. (2009). A theoretical framework to guide the re-engineering of technology education. Journal of Technology Education, 20(2), 37-49. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Research at DigitalCommons@USU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Publications by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@USU. For more information, please contact email@example.com.
IntroductionBefore leaders in technology education are able to identify a theoretical framework upon which a curriculum is to stand, they must first grapple with two opposing views of the purpose of technology education -education for all learners or career/technical education.Dakers (2006)identifies two opposing philosophies that can serve as a framework for technology education, both inspired by ancient Greece, with the works of Descartes and the birth of positivism. Later reappearing in Pascal's writings of the mathematical mind, and finally with Rousseau in the mid 1700s, the theoretical arguments of academic verses vocational were established in education, and thus concluded that the overall purpose of education was to make a man (human being) or a citizen. This dichotomy of views is referenced here to make explicit the underpinnings of a theoretical framework for technology education. The position that the authors take in this dichotomy of views is one that embraces the best of both views by teaching technology education to all students to foster technological literacy while at the same time addressing the needs of a workforce seeking to compete in a global economy. This rationale will be presented throughout the article.

The special 1992 issue of JTE featured five authors from the field of technology education (Erekson, Herschbach, Johnson, Petrina, and Zuga) with each author discussing one of the five theoretical frameworks as they relate to technology education. Today, with the field of technology education on the verge of a new shift in focus, it is appropriate to consider a new theoretical perspective for technology education based upon the needs of today's learners and upon new knowledge of teaching and learning obtained through recent research.

The Archway of Meaningful Learning: A Proposed Theoretical Framework

The graphic in Figure 1 illustrates an archway to meaningful learning in technology education. The archway begins with a constructivist approach to learning through a pragmatist or experimental over-arching philosophy as the theoretical foundation upon which all the other learning theories and approaches to learning rest upon. Contextual learning/problem-based instruction and project-based instruction create columns of support for engineering design and systems thinking to provide meaningful learning through a real-world context. Both engineering design and systems thinking become the "drivers" of the learning experience. Systems thinking is above project-based instruction because systems thinking is required for solving open-ended and ill-structured problems that society faces today and such problems are prevalent in engineering design projects. At the top of this archway of meaningful learning is student learning, forming the keystone of the arch, at the heart of why we need to teach from a constructivist approach. Student learning is supported by all other "building blocks." Throughout the rest of this article, the authors will present their rationale for why technology education should adopt this theoretical framework and describe the benefits of adopting this approach to technology education.

Pragmatism or Experimentalism

The conceptual underpinning of the proposed philosophy of technology education is founded on the ideas supported by the works of Woodward (1894), Dewey (1916), and Warner, Gray, Gekbracht, Gilbert, Lisack, Kleintjes, et al. (1947), each of whom proposed that technology education is for all learners. That is, they believed that technology education should equip the learner with necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities in the context of technology, and to live, function, and work in today's technological society. Furthermore, the authors embrace a pragmatist view, also known as experimentalism, which has been promoted through the progressive and reconstruction movement of the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries. Pragmatism supports the notion that knowledge is gained through problem solving, it places great emphasis on critical thinking and reasoning, and it seeks to solve the world's problems with an open mind (Scott & Sarkees-Wircenski, 2001). Moreover, the authors support technology education with an engineering design focus as a vehicle for fostering technological literacy while simultaneously developing the skills needed to work in a global economy. A review of some of the recent commissioned reports on preparing a workforce ready to compete in a global economy uncovers lists of necessary job skills that are also technological literacy skills (Committee on Prospering in the Global Economy of the 21 st Century, 2007; National Center on Education and the Economy, 2006). Developing technological literacy goes far beyond providing vocational skills and making students "technologically savvy"; it is focused on understanding how technology has changed our world and how we live in it. Michael (2006, p. 56) adds that technology education should prepare young people to cope in a rapidly changing technological world; enable them to think and intervene creatively to improve that world; develop skills required to participate responsibly in home, school and community life (citizenship); help them become discriminating consumers and users of products; help them become autonomous, creative problem-solvers; …encourage the ability to consider critically the use, effect, and value dimensions of design and technology (technological awareness or literacy).

It is our belief that technology education, with a focus on engineering design, is as beneficial for students who want to become attorneys, physicians, accountants, business managers, clergy, and writers as it is for future engineers. One very important component of each of these occupations is that people working within them function in an environment comprised of ill-structured problems. Educators agree that problem-solving skills are critical for a -40-successful person in today's world; however, it is important to note that illstructured problem-solving helps to better prepare students to cope with realworld problems (Jonassen, 1997). Well-structured problems are constrained and usually have one correct answer, while ill-structured problems are not constrained and have multiple possible solution trajectories and final solutions (Jonassen, 1997). Whether a student selects the field of law, business, or medicine to study, they will encounter many ill-structured problems that are domain or context dependent (Bransford, 1994). Engineers have developed an excellent systematic approach to ill-structured problems known as the engineering design process. Engineers have an excellent record of taking a complex and often chaotic problem and using the engineering design process to consider multiple perspectives, and oftentimes break the problem down into manageable sub-problems that can be solved with a set of possible solutions. The skill of managing chaotic and ill-structured problems is useful to all occupations.

A Constructivist Approach to Engineering Design and Systems Thinking

Dewey captured the general philosophy of a constructivist view of learning when he made the statement:

We are given to associating creative mind with persons regarded as rare and unique, like geniuses. But every individual is in his own way unique. Each one experiences life from a different angle than anybody else, and consequently has something distinctive to give others if he can turn his experiences into ideas and pass them on to others (1930, p. 3). Jacobson and Wilensky (2006) suggest that young learners can handle complex systems thinking even at the middle school level. They suggest using a constructivist approach to learning, a philosophy of learning based upon foundational works of Dewey (1930), Piaget (1985), and Vygotsky (1998). Jacobson and Wilensky wrote: "A central tenet of the constructivist or constructionist learning approach is that a learner is actively constructing new understandings, rather than passively receiving and absorbing 'facts'" (p.22). They believe that this method of learning can increase students' understanding of complex systems as well as be more interesting, engaging, and motivating for students when assigned authentic problems studied within cooperative learning environments. Blikstein and Wilensky (2004) have conducted research in this area of systems thinking with results suggesting pedagogical approaches that involve students generating questions, hypotheses, and theories about a particular phenomenon. Students then develop experiments or create conceptual models using multi-agent or qualitative modeling software to confirm or refute their theories. Jacobson and Wilensky (2006) recommended a constructivist approach to teaching systems thinking within a team or group-learning environment. Wankat (2002) and Becker (2002) agree that a constructivist approach is critical to improving the teaching of engineering and technology education. Reflecting on the work in How People Learn (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, -41-2000), Wankat believes that the student, not the teacher, must be in the "driver seat" of learning. Bransford et al. described four critical perspectives of learning environments:

1. Learner centered -"Teachers must pay close attention to the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that learners bring into the classroom" (p. 23). 2. Knowledge centered -"Attention must be given to what is taught (information, subject matter), why it is taught (understanding), and what competence or mastery looks like" (p. 24). 3. Assessment centered -"Formative assessments -ongoing assessments designed to make students' thinking visible to both teachers and students are essential" (p. 24). 4. Community centered -"A community-centered approach requires the development of norms for the classroom and school, as well as connections to the outside world, that support core learning values" (p. 25).

Becker (2002) explained that a constructivist approach is inherent in the Standards for Technological Literacy, and that a shift from behaviorism to constructivism is critical to educate and assess today's students so that they are prepared for today's global economy. Wankat warned against the content tyrant, a phenomenon that takes place when the teacher lets the need to cover certain content control the teaching and learning that takes place in the classroom, something that has plagued engineering education for years (National Academy of Engineering, 2004). Crawford (2001) suggested that there are five key strategies to actively engaging students in a constructivist approach to teaching. These five strategies are:

Relating -learning in the context of one's life experiences or preexisting knowledge Experiencing -learning by doing, or through exploration, discovery, and invention Applying -learning by putting the concepts to use Cooperating -learning in the context of sharing, responding, and communicating with others Transferring -using knowledge in a new context or novel situation, one that has not been covered in class.

Contextual Learning

Notice that the constructivist teaching strategies suggested by Crawford, Wankat, Becker, and Bransford et al. emphasize the critical importance of context for effective teaching and learning. Contextual learning as described by Borko and Putnam (2000) is situated, distributed, and authentic. They suggest that all learning should take place, or be situated, in a specific physical and social context to acquire knowledge that is intimately associated -42-with those settings. Borko and Putnam also advocate that for transfer of learning to occur, students must be provided with multiple similar experiences allowing an abstract mental model to form. Hanson, Burton, and Guam (2006) proposed contextual learning as a key strength for technology and engineering education programs, allowing for transfer of knowledge from core subjects. Additionally, they suggested that contextual learning is a key concept in helping technology education align with No Child Left Behind and providing learning opportunities for students to become prepared to work in a global economy. The context of learning is also essential in designing a solution to an ill-structured problem. Glegg (1972) suggested that the context in which a solution will be applied is not only an important design consideration but also critical to learning design. Teaching engineering design must be done within a context that is authentic. Newmann and Wehlage (1993) suggested that authentic activities have the following dimensions:

Involve higher order thinking where students manipulate information and ideas Require a depth of knowledge so students apply what they know and are connected to the world in such a way that they take on personal meaning Require substantial communication among students Support achievement of all through communication and high expectations of everyone contributing to the success of the group. Hutchinson (2002) suggested that problem-based learning is an additional field of inquiry worthy of consideration. Problem-based learning presents students with a problem situation and then they are asked to determine what is happening. "Problem solving, in this approach, involves a process of a) engagement; b) inquiry and investigation; c) performance; and d) debriefing" (Hutchinson, 2002, p. 4). Pierce and Jones (2000) suggested that the worlds of contextual learning theory and problem-based instruction can converge to produce highly conceptualized learning focused on questions and problems relating to real-world issues. Problem-based instruction is self-directed and collaborative. Authenticity of problem-based instruction is accomplished by encouraging dialogue with practicing experts and the manipulation of real data. Hutchinson also suggested formative assessments and performance of students before a panel of experts. These methods have been used successfully in engineering to develop critical thinking skills in students (Woods, Felder, Rugarcia, & Stice, 2000). Wicklein (2006) and Daugherty (2005) endorsed engineering design as an ideal platform for addressing the standards for technological literacy (ITEA 2000(ITEA /2002, while also creating an instructional model that attracts and motivates students from all academic levels. Today's workforce requires job -43-skills that move beyond excelling in the basic core subjects (Grasso & Martinelli, 2007). A national employer survey identified desired job skills needed in today's workforce. Today's jobs "…require a portfolio of skills in addition to academic and technical skills. These include communication skills, analytical skills, problem-solving and creative thinking, interpersonal skills, the ability to negotiate and influence, and self-management (The National Center on the Educational Quality of the Workforce, 1995, p. 3). Dearing and Daugherty (2004) conducted a study to identify the core engineering-related concepts that also support a standards-based technology education curriculum by surveying 123 professionals in technology education, technology teacher education, and engineering education. The top five ranked concepts were:

Engineering Design and Systems Thinking: The Ideal Context for Problem and Project Based Instruction

1. Interpersonal skills: teamwork, group skills, attitude, and work ethic 2. Ability to communicate ideas: verbally, physically, and visually 3. Ability to work within constraints/ parameters 4. Experience in brainstorming and generating ideas 5. Product design assessment: Does a design perform its intended function? (p. 9).

The researchers surmised that these concepts, based upon the standards for technological literacy, were ranked high due to the nature of the work environment in today's society and the need for a growing diverse workforce. Hill (2006) recanted Richard Miller's words at a University of Georgia engineering conference about the need for engineers who have excellent communication skills, ability to work in teams, skills in social interactions, and good business ethics. Hill suggested that technology education is an ideal program to team up with engineering education to help young people develop these attributes. Roman (2004) considered the needs of an American workforce struggling to survive in a global economy. He wrote: "Thinking globally requires individuals who can think multi-dimensionally, integrating the technical and economic aspects of problem solving with the social, political, environmental, and safety concerns" (p. 22).

The Engineer of 2020 indicated that the engineer of the future will need to work in teams to study social issues central to engineering (National Academy of Engineering, 2004). McAlister (2003) observed that four of the twenty Technological Literacy Standards address technology and society, so teaching the social/cultural impacts of design is appropriate. We suggest using a systems thinking approach to engineering design to study technology-related social problems because this platform is an excellent way to foster technological literacy and promote the attitudes, thinking skills, and job skills listed above. However, this approach should not be applied to social engineering (Weinberg, 2003).

What is Systems Thinking and Why is it Important for

Complex systems approaches, in conjunction with rapid advances in computational technologies, enable researchers to study aspects of the real world for which events and actions have multiple causes and consequences, and where order and structure coexist at many different scales of time, space, and organization (Jacobson & Wilensky, p. 12.).

Kay and Foster added: "In short, systems thinking is about synthesizing together all the relevant information we have about an object so that we have a sense of it as a whole" (Kay & Foster, 1999, p. 2). Mapping out the complex issues of a system by reducing the system down to its parts and studying the relationships within those various parts is a process that leads to a better understanding of the system. Furthermore, tensions may be identified that will likely emerge when a new approach to the system is taken. Failing to understand that these tensions exist and that the system contains these complex relationships, will likely result in a poor, inappropriate design. It is critical to understand that these relationships impact the entire system and the manipulation of one relationship, in turn, affects the entire system. Biologist Lewis Thomas wrote: When you are confronted by any complex social system, such as an urban center or a hamster, with things about it that you're dissatisfied with and anxious to fix, you cannot just step in and set about fixing with the hope of helping. This realization is one of the sore discouragements of our century…You cannot meddle with one part of a complex system from the outside without almost certain risk of setting off disastrous events that you hadn't counted on in other, remote parts. If you want to fix something you are first obliged to understand…the whole system (Thomas, 1974, p. 90). Bar-Yam (2002) confirmed this dogma by making the case that the ability of science and technology to expand human performance through design is dependant upon the understanding of systems and not just the components that lie within that system.

The insights of complex systems research and its methodologies may become pervasive in guiding what we build, how we build it, and how we use and live with it. Possibly the most visible outcome of these developments will be an improved ability of human beings aided by technology to address complex global social and environmental problems, third world development, poverty in developing countries, war and natural disasters (Bar-Yam, 2002, pp.381-382). Frank (2005) makes a strong case for a systems approach for technology education. He pointed out that, traditionally, engineering and technology education used a bottom-up instructional approach, one that attempts to determine and deliver all the knowledge and skills needed by compartmentalizing the subjects: a separate math course, a physics course, statistics, etc. Frank proposed a different approach.

-45-Based on the systems thinking approach, what follows is a proposal for a way to teach technology and instill technological literacy without first teaching the details (for instance, electricity basics and linear circuits for electronics, or calculus and dynamics basics for mechanical engineering) (p. 20).

The premise to this approach is that complete systems can be studied conceptually and functionally without needing to know the details, a top-down approach. A top-down approach focuses on characteristics and functionality of the entire system and the interrelating subsystems. This approach to teaching engineering design addresses issues raised by some that suggest teaching engineering design in technology education excludes some students who have not had, or lack, an aptitude for upper level math or science. A top-down approach also provides a feasible solution to high school courses with students enrolled at various stages of learning, for example, freshmen and seniors in the same class. These issues are of great concern when suggesting that technology education with an engineering design focus is for all learners.

Frank also shares the benefits of project-based learning for technology education that include student engagement, increased motivation, and increased multidisciplinary knowledge, to name a few. Shepherd (1998) found through research that students who experienced project-based learning in a real world setting had significantly higher scores on the Cornell Critical Thinking Test compared to students in traditional instruction. Project-based learning requires students to work in teams to build a product. A misnomer in technology education is that the product created must be tangible, but Frank brings clarity to this issue. He writes:

The product may be something tangible (such as a model/prototype, a system or a robot), a computerized product (such as software, a presentation, or a multimedia product), or a written product (such as a report, an evaluation summary or a summary of experimental findings (p.21).

A common concern in moving technology education toward engineering design is what will happen to the traditional hands-on projects that produce a physical product? We believe that the best answer to that question is to identify and understand appropriate engineering related problems to be explored in technology education. Some problems will lend themselves to tangible products while others will not. Technology educators will need to accept the idea that not every problem solving activity will or should require a physical prototype or artifact.

Why Systems Thinking and Engineering Design for Technology Education?

If technology education is to be successful in implementing a new program with an engineering design focus, it must be able to articulate the idea that learning engineering design can generate a type of thinking that can be applied to many occupations. With the application of engineering design and systems thinking, students learn how to use critical thinking skills to solve complex, illstructured problems that are necessary to live and function in the 21 st century, -46-regardless of whether the student plans to work in a factory, on a farm, or in a courtroom. No matter what occupation students select, they will encounter many ill-structured problems, none of which can be solved with a single textbook answer. Engineering design and systems thinking provides a systematic approach to solving ill-structured problems which is a vital, universal skill that can transcend all vocations.

Conclusion

In an educational field such as technology education that has been accused of poorly communicating a clear mission (Wicklein, 2006); it appears appropriate to consider a new theoretical foundation for the field. Moreover, as new demands arise for educational programs that will equip the next generation of workers who are trained to survive and thrive in a global economy, a new philosophical framework for technology education may be needed. In this article, the authors have attempted to provide a philosophical framework for technology education that holds true to some pedagogical approaches that are at the heart of the success of technology education (contextual learning, problembased instruction, and project-based instruction), while at the same time embracing new philosophies of learning and thinking (constructivism, engineering design, and systems thinking). The current literature is clear about the type of workers needed for today's global economy (Pink, 2005;Friedman, 2005; National Academy of Engineering, 2004; National Academy of Engineering, 2005;Woods et al., 2000). If technology educators determine that their purpose is to help prepare students to live and work in this global society, then these educators should consider carefully defining a philosophical framework upon which to build a new curriculum. The authors wish for technology educators to consider the proposed framework as a foundation for technology education as it has much promise in preparing students to function in today's technological society.

Figure 1 .
1The Archway to Meaningful Learning in Technology Education.

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