text:
Max Ashton swims from Alcatraz to shore
SAN FRANCISCO (AP) - Max Ashton had one goal before heading off to college: swim from Alcatraz Island to Aquatic Park in San Francisco.
The blind, 17-year-old high school senior in Phoenix, Ariz., completed the trek on Sunday along with two other sightless swimmers.
"It's just good to show people I can do everything, really," Ashton told the San Francisco Chronicle after he made the 1.25-mile swim across San Francisco Bay.
Ashton has previously climbed Mount Kilimanjaro, crossed the Grand Canyon and thrown out the first pitch at a major league ball game. He was accompanied on the swim by 24-year-old Tanner Robinson, who works in state government in Arizona, and 19-year-old Katie Cuppy, a freshman at Northern Arizona University.
The three blind athletes were guided by sighted swimmers Mike and Paul Tiffany, both of Phoenix.
The challenge when swimming blind is staying on course. But Robinson said there's also an advantage "The nice thing about being blind is you don't know where the finish line is," he said. "It was just like another training."


text:
Masterclass 1
The Great British Bake Off, Series 4 Episode 12 of 15
Mary and Paul take over the tent for the ultimate baking masterclass. The Great British Bake Off judges take on the same challenges which they set the bakers, showing us what they would have done had they been in their shoes. Tackling signature bakes, technical bakes and, for the first time, showstopper bakes, Mary and Paul share all their tips and tricks to get the perfect results at home. They make Mary's whole orange cake and angel food cake, Paul's breakfast muffins and olive bread sticks, and together, their chocolate cake showstopper.
Last on
Mon 26 Oct 2015 14:30
More episodes
|Paul Hollywood
|Mary Berry
|Series Editor
|Amanda Westwood
|Series Producer
|Samantha Beddoes

subset: commoncrawl


text:
R. Bergen
Before 1850, no one gave too much thought to the black and glassy "coal" that ran in veins under the ground in New Brunswick's Albert County. First found in the hollow left by an uprooted tree, locals burned it for heat, though its quality was dubious; it tended to melt at high temperatures, gumming up stoves and making a mess. Only when chemists began to recognize its potential for lighting did interest in the material catch fire.
Once albertite, as it was dubbed, was distilled to a waxy oil, it burned cleanly and brightly, and offered a potential source of relatively cheap and efficient lighting for homes and factories. Scientific renown and an assured fortune awaited those who could meet the challenge of practical interior lighting. Not surprisingly, competition was fierce.
One booster of the deposit near Hillsborough (believed by some to be Abraham Gesner, who would patent kerosene) wrote: "It has been traced along the surface several miles and the bituminous mineral appears at numerous points along a line of thickly wooded country sixty miles in length, and perhaps ten in breadth." Gesner may have stoked too much interest in the resource. After his marketing blitz, when he went to purchase the mining rights in the fall of 1850, someone else had beaten him to it.
Undeterred, Gesner leased the land where the mining claim was and began extracting the albertite with his own work crew within shouting distance of the mine. When officials at the Albert Mining Company realized their claim was being jumped, they scrambled an armed militia to chase Gesner and his men away.
The fight moved to the court where Gesner insisted that the hydrocarbon was his for the taking because the Albert Mining Company only had rights to coal, not albertite. Gesner compiled a team of geologists to support his case. The mining company matched his panel by hiring one of its own.
At the time, enterprising geologists had ample opportunities to collect consulting fees from companies within the growing mining industry. One such consultant hired by the mining company was Robert Foulis, a central figure in Saint John's small scientific community. He testified in court that the glassy, brittle, pitch black material was coal. Though he and Gesner both lectured at the city's Mechanic's Institute there was no love lost between them. In a series of handbills, Foulis and Gesner fought a public relations battle over albertite, each trying to undermine the other's character and claims. Tracts signed by Foulis jeered Gesner and his assertion that he was the first to harness the potential of albertite. Foulis, also deeply involved in the development of illuminating gas, insisted he had made use of the local product first. Gesner responded with venom of his own. Foulis, he wrote, was nothing but a corporate shill.
The jury's verdict came down on the wrong side of science, and Gesner lost access to the ready supply of bitumen he needed for the production of kerosene. In the end, neither man gleaned much profit from the albertite deposit. Foulis had a stake in the mine but, over time, he alienated his business partners and was cut off from their partnership.
Gesner's opportunities in the British provinces all but exhausted, he moved to New York City in 1853 and for a short time, he enjoyed success as the chief chemist for the North American Kerosene Gas Light Company. Once again, Gesner was a step behind — James Young, a Scot, had patented a similar process that produced what he called paraffin oil from the distillation of torbanite coal. Despite the insistence by Gesner that "the oils produced by Mr. Young's method are inferior in colour, odour, and illumination," North American Kersone had to honour Young's existing patents and pay him royalties.
Gesner did not find his fortune in the United States. He returned to the Maritimes in 1861, the year he published "A practical treatise on coal, petroleum and other distilled oils," which would soon become essential reading for those in the nascent petroleum industry. Nevertheless, the following year he was thrown into debtor's prison in Saint John. His fortunes turned soon after when the newly established Dalhousie College in Halifax invited him to be professor of natural history. Gesner, unfortunately, died before he had the chance to begin lecturing.
The albertite mine in Hillsborough operated from 1849 to the mid-1880s, but, though it was elemental in the development of what Gesner patented as kerosene, its product was little used in its commercial production.
Copyright 2011 - Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All Rights Reserved


text:
LOUISVILLE, Ky. – The Cultural Landscape Foundation (TCLF) has announced Landslide 2011. Landslide, first issued in 2003, is TCLF's annual compendium of significant at-risk parks, gardens, horticultural features and working landscapes. The theme of Landslide 2011 is The Landscape I Love and calls attention to both the threatened sites and the people working to save them. This year's diverse group ranges from 90,000 acres of cliffs and gorges to a small residential lot by the maverick landscape architect James Rose, and includes Fallingwater (Mill Run, Pa.), the Civil War-era Wilderness Battlefield (Locust Grove, Va.), Ladd's Addition (Portland, Ore.), the first planned community in the state of Oregon, and nine other sites. The Davey Tree Expert Co. is presenting sponsor and Land Trust Alliance is a partner. Photographs of each of the sites by noteworthy photographers will be featured in the Davey Tree Expert Co.'s 2012 calendar and illustrate the site profiles on TCLF's website (www.tclf.org).
The announcement was made at the American Life Building with one of this year's honorees in attendance, Meme Sweets Runyon, the long time director of River Fields, one of the nation's oldest river conservancies. River Fields is the steward of the 50-mile long Ohio River corridor between Westport and West Point, Ky., currently threatened by unbridled sprawl and inappropriate transportation projects. Under Runyon's leadership, River Fields has purchased 11 properties outright, secured protective conservation easements on an additional 2,200 acres, embarked on ambitious educational and outreach efforts, and created strategic partnerships aimed at developing comprehensive planning for the region.
The complete list of sites is as follows (alphabetical by state):
Sonoran Desert, Ariz. – Jane Rau, Photography by Tom Brownold
Spanning parts of Arizona, California and Mexico and host to the expansive Colorado and Gila Rivers, the Sonoran Desert has one of the most diverse habitats of any desert worldwide. Steward Jane Rau, co-founder of the McDowell Sonoran Conservancy, has educated public officials, local citizens, and the private sector, helping to establish a system of open spaces throughout the desert landscape.
McMillan Park, Washington, D.C. – Tony Norman, Photography by Roger Foley
The 25-acre civic monument and memorial to Sen. James McMillan was laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. and conceived with City Beautiful planning principles as a large reserve of open green space. This unique example of industrial landscape history is threatened by unsympathetic development. Steward Tony Norman, a founding member of the McMillan Park Committee has been instrumental in working toward the site's preservation and adaptive reuse.
Yarbrough Residence, Columbus, Ga. – Becky and Sidney Yarbrough, Photography by Allison Barnes
Constructed in 1959, this private house and garden were designed by architect Rozier Dedwylder and Modernist landscape architect James Rose. With strong connections between the interior spaces and exterior garden rooms, the landscape includes Rose's signature zig-zag terraces and seamless integration with the surrounding woodland context. It is a rare extant James Rose design in the Southeastern U.S.
Ohio River Corridor, Ky. – Meme Sweets Runyon, Photography by Ross Gordon
One of America's oldest river conservancies, River Fields has worked for more than 50 years toward the protection and preservation of a 50-mile stretch of the Ohio River between Westport and West Point, Ky. Steward Meme Sweets Runyon has been the executive director of River Fields for 25 years, during which time she expanded the organization to advocate for the natural, scenic, and cultural amenities of the Ohio River corridor.
Afton Villa Gardens, St. Francisville, La. – Genevieve Trimble, Photography by Jeannie Frey Rhodes
Once the site of a Gothic Revival style mansion that burned in 1963, Afton Villa Gardens boasts over 25 acres of European style gardens. Steward Genevieve Trimble has worked for more than 30 years to restore and preserve the gardens, endeavoring to maintain the original footprint and character of this antebellum landscape.
Saugatuck Dunes, Mich. – David Swan, Photography by Michael Carroll Mettler
A remarkable range of historic, cultural, artistic, social, environmental, archeological, and architectural assets across an area of more than 2,000 acres, the dunes have been a convergence of early settlements, artistic inspiration and spiritual exploration. Steward David Swan has spent the last decade coordinating support from regional organizations, public officials, and citizens in the form of the Saugatuck Dunes Coastal Alliance.
Weequahic Park, Newark, N.J. – Wilbur J. McNeil
The 311-acre park was designed by the Olmsted Brothers firm and continues to provide an irreplaceable urban retreat for residents and visitors alike. Steward, Wilbur McNeil, president of the Weequahic Park Association has worked to educate and involve the public and officials in the care and preservation of the park's intricate paths, rolling hills, and 80-acre lake.
Union Chapel, South Newbury, Ohio – Beverly Ash, Michael Fath, and Sandra Woolf, Photography by Charles J. Mintz
Dedicated in 1856 by future President James A. Garfield, the chapel has been the meeting place for those addressing social issues such as women's suffrage and workers' rights. The white oak located adjacent to the chapel was planted by members of the Newbury Women's Political Suffrage Club to commemorate the nation's Centennial. Today, these South Newbury Union Chapel trustees are working closely with the Geauga Park District to make the site more accessible to the public.
Ladd's Addition Elm Grove, Portland, Ore. – David Kaplan, Photography by C. Bruce Forster
Ladd's Addition was the first planned residential community in the state of Oregon. Its distinctive design, layout and mature tree canopy all contribute to its unique community character. More than 250 mature American elm trees lining the streets are now at risk of Dutch elm disease, a significant and incurable threat to their survival. Steward David Kaplan the president of Save Our Elms, has helped lead efforts to protect these graceful giants.
Fallingwater, Mill Run, Pa. – Ann Talarek, Photography by Thomas A. Heinz
Located in Millcreek, Pa., Fallingwater is one of Frank Lloyds Wright's most acclaimed works of organic architecture. Horticultural Specialist Ann Talarek's work ensures that the National Historic Landmark property's landscape retains the naturalistic look and feel originally intended in its celebrated design.
Blue Ridge Escarpment, Greenville, S.C. – C. Thomas Wyche, Photography by Craig Grant
With an elevation drop of more than 2,000 feet in less than half a mile, the escarpment's dramatic cliffs, gorges and waterfalls are home to more than 400 rare plants and more species of trees than in all of Europe. In 1972, C. Thomas Wyche established Naturaland Trust, which continues to spearhead the effort to preserve the Blue Wall in North and South Carolina – an area of over 90,000 acres.
Wilderness Battlefield, Locust Grove, Va. – Robert D. Rosenbaum, Photography by Allen Russ
This battlefield landscape was the site of the initial conflict in the 1864 Overland Campaign, the first time Union General Ulysses S. Grant and Confederate General Robert E. Lee met in battle. Under threat from encroaching development, most recently by a proposed 138,000-square-foot Walmart superstore, attorney Robert D. Rosenbaum worked tirelessly to build a decisive case for the historical significance of the site.
"Landslide 2011 recognizes both unique landscapes and the visionaries who support them and inspire us all," said Charles A. Birnbaum, TCLF founder and president. "It takes the strength and dedication of the Meme Sweets Runyons of America to insure the future integrity of nationally significant treasures like Kentucky's Ohio River corridor."


text:
Artist description:
No description entered.
Flash Draw Created Jul 11, 2013 460 x 640px Unless noted Copyright 2013 wisherkid.
We encourage you to submit a comment and let the artist know what you think of this drawing. Please log in or join to post a comment.
Post a comment
Very nice drawing! Great style 5/5h
Very cool!!
WOW awesome draw the butterfly coming out from her arm like she is being raptured and the hair looks very nice that hair remind me of lelouch and also i think he wearing a lovely hoody XD
This is really amazing~! I like the style~! 5/5
Fantastic job!


text:
Southern California High Tech Event Calendar
|View By:
|View By:
|Digital LA - Vampires Go Viral
|Date: October 28, 2010
|Location:Los Angeles
|Digital LA - Vampires Go Viral. If you dare: Join us for an evening of mystery, magic, and intimate discussion about viral campaigns of vampires, the original viral marketers. See http://digitallavampire.eventbrite.com/
|More information: http://digitallavampire.eventbrite.com/
|Download to Calendar


text:
Matching: = X
- Sort by:
- Date ▼
- Title
- Likes/Votes
- Comments
- Views
Smarter Energy and Utilities = smarter cities = a smarter planet
southworth Tags: cities for focal the planet smarter and a rational utilities point sector = energy 5,558 Views
Don't we love to see real world scenarios where software products help reduce costs and improve productivity. In the energy and utilities sector, rising energy costs and technology advances are leading to more informed and involved utility customers. They...
from Blog: Video Junkie
IBM Support Portal - updated in May based on your feedback
Pat_OC Tags: = website portal esupport electronic_support web electronic support electronic_support_tools site updates ibm 10,220 Views
IBM Support Portal - updated in May based on your feedback Earlier this week, IBM significantly updated the IBM Support Portal with improvements to make this worldwide one-stop site for technical resources for all IBM products even more effective and useful...
from Blog: IBM Electronic Support Community
Jazz and Rational Team Concert = collaboration!
southworth Tags: rational jazz collaboration! concert and team = 3,434 Views
Today I'm going to talk a bit about the Jazz Architecture. Jazz is a platform based on a client-server architecture. The Jazz server, normally running on a secured server-class machine, hosts a set of services and houses data in its repository. Remote...
from Blog: Video Junkie
100 Tech Tips, #42 DB2JAVIT : RC = 9505 upon opening a DB2 GUI tool
Adam Koile Tags: = rc db2javit 9505 : 6 Comments 19,280 Views
Hello All, Looking for some help on how to resolve the error DB2JAVIT : RC = 9505. Then you're in luck because we have put together the following tech doc to help you with that: Error DB2JAVIT : RC = 9505 upon opening a DB2 GUI tool Still seeing the...
from Blog: Thoughts from Support


text:
When Disagreements Lead to Disunity
In my previous post, I concluded that "Disagreement is not Disunity." Primarily, I stepped through Romans 14-15 to show that Paul expected disagreements among the church, but he also expected them to maintain unity in spite of those disagreements.
In that passage, Paul exhorts his readers to maintain unity 1) by each person being convinced in their own conscience, 2) by not passing judgment on others because of the disagreements, 3) by never causing a brother or sister to stumble against their own conscience, and 4) by seeking to please others and not yourself. (Note that this last one is also written in the context of dealing with disagreements.)
Finally, and most importantly, Paul said that his readers must continually make sure that their focus is on God. As Paul says, God is the source of both endurance and encouragement (Romans 15:5) – both of which they will need to live in unity with those with whom they disagree. But, notice that it is this endurance and encouragement from God that leads to living in harmony with one another and in harmony with Jesus Christ. Harmony (unity) with one another and with Jesus Christ does not come through agreement, but through reliance on God and the endurance and encouragement that he provides.
But, if we are honest with ourselves and with one another, we have to admit that disagreements often do lead to disunity. Why is this? Well, from the passage above, disunity occurs because we are not focusing on God and because we are not reacting to one another correctly.
What do Christians focus on instead of God? Many, many things. The most obvious one is doctrinal statements. Our doctrinal statements about God are not God himself. Paul does not say to accept someone if that person understands God in the same way that you do. Instead, Paul says that if God accepts someone, then we are to accept someone. (Romans 15:7)
Along with our doctrinal statements, churches also tend to focus on their own organizational memberships. Again, whether or not someone shares membership in a certain church organization is not related to whether or not God has accepted someone in Jesus Christ, which, as I said before, is the only requirement for us to accept someone as a brother or sister in Christ. For some, organizational membership is also related to denomination. When we focus on a person's denomination instead of their relationship with God in Christ, our disagreements lead to disunity.
Focusing on personal giftedness, service opportunities, or passions/concerns can also cause our disagreements to lead to disunity. All of us are gifted differently. All have different opportunities to serve and different passions and concerns. Paul continually warned his readers to consider others as more important than themselves, but in these areas, Christians often think their own giftedness, opportunities, or passions are more important. (This is often a problem with leaders who set a "vision" or "mission" for people who do not share their giftedness, opportunities, or passions.) When we focus on these differences, instead of focusing on God who gifts us differently and gives us different opportunities or passions, we tend to separate from one another.
So, disagreements can lead to disunity when we are not focused on God together. Even focusing on good things can lead to disunity. Good things are not God. We must learn to accept one another because God has accepted us in Jesus Christ. There is no other reason. Any other reason will lead to disunity.
15 Comments
Comments are closed. If you would like to discuss this post, send an email to alan [at] alanknox [dot] net.
I disagree! Just kidding… 🙂 Excellent words, Alan.
Good stuffz. I can find no end of ways to be separate from my brothers and sisters but it takes real humility and effort to be unified with those I disagree with.
(FYI, I still find the font hard to read, the light gray on the white background thing)
appreciate the article brother, so true.
Hey Alan
How powerful is this God given thought.
Holy Spirit is inspiring many great words in these last days.These words inspire one's heart and mind.
As we all know, Jesus had issues with Church leaders and their viepoints but just look at what happenede through His Words and the Holy Spirit led Words of such as Paul.
If it was not for disunity and doctrinal issues…..the Church would be in a place of true Worship and relationship with Daddy God.
More of these encouraging words are needed to help this world of ours to know true peace.
Blessings in Christ Jesus
Once again you hit the nail on the head. What happens when a pastor does not accept a church member simply based on disagreement? Should the member be shunned from the church?
I don't think it as has much to do with focus as it does with fellowship.
Our universal experience of disunity on a daily basis leaves most of us
not really sharing the chemistry of relational bonding that occurs naturally in a healthy family.
We share our lives with one anther in an event centered and shallow or sporadic way. Knowing one another in Christ means we trust each others motives and interpret their methods accordingly, because we have grown close enough to one another to finally give up being afraid or judging them. Its the daily one anothering that will get us back on the biblical road to wholeness, healing and unity.
I liked that you focused on who/what we are focused on. Really is all about who our heart is set on.
If we are focused on God 1st….and then focused on others and how we can bless/build them up….
Then, we can be a unifier… and build unity….cuz we are following the greatest 2 commandments.
Yes unity in the love and fellowship of God and because of it is a wonderful thing. Psalm 133, for where there is unity God commands a blessing. But one cannot retain unity where there is serious error in doctrine and continual acts of favoritism and and blatant self promotion and enrichment. Jesus in His word at times says to have nothing to do with those people who are wolves in sheep's clothing, manipulators of the word of God and who are self centered and abuse the congregation. We look at how Jesus dealt with the Pharisees of His day and the sharp rebukes He often gave them, He would not hang in their circles either. There are many such modern day Pharisees who love the money, power and prestige of leading a congregation and keep people poor in wealth and in spiritual matters, one has no reason to remain in such an environment, seek a true fellowship of believers where one can grow and mature in the word and love of God, where the will and word of the Lord are held in high esteem and fear.
- Even more on disagreement and disunity | The Assembling of the Church - [...] to my post "When Disagreement Lead to Disunity," Brant writes: Question: Â Where does it leave us, if people who…
- Agreement Equals Unity? | RaVae Erickson - [...] This is part two to his blog. I don't think this is a good conclusion for it though, so…


text:
SEE PRESS RELEASES FOR NEWER QUOTES - This page has not been updated in long while
"A higher minimum wage makes good long term business sense. We already pay well above the current Maryland minimum wage because it's right for our business and our people. It helps increase employee retention and productivity, which gives us a dedicated workforce that helps our business prosper. An increased minimum wage would not hurt small businesses. Rather, increasing the Maryland minimum wage will boost our regional economy by giving a much-needed raise to the many people most likely to spend it at local small businesses. - John Shepley, Co-Owner of Emory Knoll Farms Inc., Maryland
"It is but equity...that they who feed, clothe and lodge the whole body of the people, should have such a share of the produce of their own labor as to be themselves tolerably well fed, clothed and lodged."-Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776
"A minimum wage increase makes straightforward economic sense. It means more money in the hands of people who are going to spend it. Low minimum wages do NOT help small business. Small business owners know that keeping workers is easier and cheaper than finding and training new workers. And small business owners know that the longer an employee stays with you -- the more they know about your business and your customers, and the higher their productivity." -Lew Prince, Managing Partner, Vintage Vinyl, St. Louis, MO
"Solutions that depend on driving down costs by reducing wages and social benefits -- in advanced countries or in emerging economies -- are always dead ends… Strategies based on exploiting low-wage labor end up in competitive jungles, where victories are vanishingly thin and each day brings a new competitor… The activities that succeed over time are, in contrast, those that build on continuous learning and innovation."-Suzanne Berger, How We Compete: What Companies Around the World Are Doing To Make It in Today's Global Economy (based on MIT Industrial Performance Center study of more than 500 companies)
"Overall most low-wage workers pump every dollar of their paychecks directly into the local economy by spending their money in their neighborhood stores, local pharmacies and corner markets."-Dan Gardner, then Commissioner, Labor and Industries for Oregon, which has the second-highest state minimum wage
"We all lose when American workers are underpaid. It's a myth that small businesses can't pay a higher minimum wage, as proven already in the states that have raised theirs. When businesses don't pay a living wage all society pays. We pay through poverty and needless disease, disability and death from inadequate health care. We pay as women struggle to put food on the table. We pay as businesses and communities suffer economic decline."-Margot Dorfman, CEO, U.S. Women's Chamber of Commerce
Quotes in Support of Last Federal Minimum Wage Increase (not current proposed raise)
"Paying your employees well is not only the right thing to do but it makes for good business." -Jim Sinegal, CEO, Costco
"As a small business owner who has always paid well above the minimum wage, it has been my experience that paying living wages makes good business sense. It is good for business, workers and the community." -Gary Theilen, Owner, Theilen Farm and Cattle, Enid, OK
"In Georgia, one of the reddest of the 'Red States,' one might expect an almost universal denouncement of the raise in the minimum wage. In fact, the opposite is true. Business owners and managers I've spoken with aren't concerned. They're glad the wage is going up because workers deserve it, and they believe it will help our local economy."-Lya Sorano, Founder, Atlanta Women in Business
"The increase in the minimum wage is long overdue, yet even the increased rate of $7.25 is an insult to workers and employers. Yes, small business owners must spend wisely, but this means paying our workforce a fair wage if we expect quality work. I want the federal government to recognize hard work and raise the minimum wage so everyone who works can support themselves and their families." -Amy Ventura, Co-President, Storm Graphic Arts, the 2006 Business of the Year, Prince William Regional Chamber of Commerce, Virginia
"Raising the minimum wage is the right thing to do, and not just because it's the fair thing to do. Raising the minimum wage is good for small business, the backbone of the American economy. In states with minimum wages higher than the federal minimum, the number of small businesses and the number of small business employees grew more than other states." -Steve Fernlund, founder and president, Generation Three Logistics, Las Vegas, NV
"As a business owner, I believe we need to pay higher wages so that people can support their families. In Kansas, we have the lowest state minimum wage in the country, $2.65 an hour. With the cost of living constantly going up, even making ends meet at the new $5.85 federal minimum will be a struggle. How do we expect people to survive?" -Helen Norman, Co-Owner, Garnett Dairy Queen, Kansas
"Investing in employees is the single most important investment that a company can make." -Brian Smith, Managing Partner, Blackfoot River Brewing Company, Helena, MT
"I have owned and managed two businesses for the past 20 years and I have never paid anyone the minimum wage. My businesses have not suffered from that. In fact, my businesses have benefited from employees who have been paid more fairly. I cannot imagine, in 2007, looking someone in the eye and paying them just $5.15 for an hour of their labor -- or $41.20 for a whole day." -Debi Starnes, Innkeeper, Sugar Magnolia Bed & Breakfast, Atlanta, GA
"It is a sound business decision to increase the minimum wage. It increases sales. It increases employment. I have found that without exception in the successful ventures we've backed, providing sustainable living wages yielded direct increases in productivity, job satisfaction and brand loyalty from customers, all contributing to higher returns for investors and employers." -Adnan Durrani, President, Condor Ventures; Venture Partner, Blue Chip Venture Capital
"I know firsthand how raising entry-level wages is good for business as well as workers. The White Dog Cafe pays a minimum of $9 an hour within three months, plus health and retirement benefits. With higher pay and benefits and therefore lower turnover, the staff is more experienced and committed to their work, which is key to the restaurant's success. Today's minimum wage shortchanges workers and undermines the long-term health of businesses, communities and the economy." -Judy Wicks, Owner, White Dog Café, Philadelphia, PA
"Nothing is more important to providing high-quality patient and resident-centered care than making sure our caregivers are paid a fair wage." -Edward Kuntz, Executive Chairman of the Board, Kindred Healthcare Inc.
"In my business, we know people work hard, and we want to pay people enough to keep them. The minimum wage is about respecting the dignity of working people and paying people a decent wage. Raising the minimum wage to $7.25 would only be a start." -Stephen Zorn, Managing Partner, Castle Village Farm, Florida and New York
"We're overdue for a minimum-wage increase. It's a sign of respect for our employees and the work they do for us as business owners." -Shalon Hastings, Co-Owner, Taco del Sol, Helena, MT
"As an owner of a large bed & breakfast inn for ten years, I paid above minimum wage because it was good for my business and it was good for my employees. Housekeepers earned every penny of the $10 to $12 per hour they were paid during 1996-2005. We also provided them with health insurance. Paying workers above $5.15 an hour makes sense in any business -- the money spent filters down and gets circulated back into the economy." -Rose Marie Ray, Owner, Pamian Inc.; Innkeeper (ret), Seminole, FL
"Paying people a fair wage is a sign of respect and acknowledgement of the value of people's contributions to the business. When people are treated fairly and with respect, they will provide unparalleled levels of support and commitment inside the business, and to clients and customers. Everyone is more successful when people are paid a living wage." -Amy Lyman, Co-Founder and Chair of Board of Directors, Great Place to Work Institute, a global research and management consultancy


text:
The method used for the control of your singing voice is referred to as voice culture for singing. It involves scientific and traditional methods to enhance voice quality.
Each person has a unique voice by nature, and has its own traits and limitations as well. Since you use it everyday for communications, you should take care of it. One of the best ways is to nourish and culture it to make your voice powerful. Voice culture is a way of training your voice to reduce the shortcomings and enhance its impressive traits.
Is vocal and musical study the same? It's absolutely not; they are 2 different concepts in the same channel. Musical study revolves around the music compositions, training of rhythm pattern, variety of ragas, and science of music. On the other hand, vocal study pertains to the presentation of different styles in singing, and the correct way of voice production.
Table of Contents
Voice Culture Techniques in Singing
Singing Voice culture integrates several other features in which voice fields would need to be trained. For instance the mouth shape, good word pronunciation, voice adjustment for various speeds, tempos. In addition there is the control of amplitude and volume depending on the background that is being used for presentation, vowel pronunciation as well as improvising which is a very important aspect.
Voice culture for singing is supposed to be trained in accordance with the category of singing that a person chooses, for instance semi-classical, classical, rock, pop and folk among others. The reason for this is that every kind of music has its own demands in terms of voice production and style. Males and females have got distinctively different organs for producing organs. Therefore the training techniques are bound to be different.
The voice could be the only natural instrument for music. Everyone has their special techniques therefore; all voices vary from one person to another. It is vital to establish that it is only this instrument that cultured, improved and cultivated though pitches variation, tonal quality (timbre), intensity as well as the features mentioned above.
4 Fundamental Guidelines To Develop Your Unique Voice Culture
- Hearing
- Breath Control
- Practice
- Mental and Physical Fitness
Simulation happens to be the initial step to learning and the same applies to vocal training. A key requirement is to involve listen keenly and by doing this, one's brain makes up and maintains a mental picture of music. This includes the tunes, notes, speed, rhythm, volume, lyrics, voice tonal quality instruments and many others.
Breathe Control
This aspect is imperative when moving towards your singing styles. If we could control out breath then we could simply master our singing voices. Control of breath offers steadiness clarity as well as good voice phonation.
Every person knows that practice makes perfect therefore the practice should be separated into 2 types:
- Attempting what we are unable to do but wish to sing
- Going over what we know and ensuring that it is perfected.
By continuously exercising the related group of muscles and also the entire system of your singing voice projection are physically trained. These types of exercises vary depending on the genre of music that is sung. Voice factors including articulation, pitch control, and phonation also differ with all the style of music. The amount of time to practice your vocal is not identical and is mainly determined by the singers' performance. With classical music there is certainly lots of improvisation integrated within the singing performance. That is why additional time needs to be devoted for that. In this instance, the voice culture practice sessions could possibly require 3 hours per session.
If you think that your voice can train itself, it cannot. By merely using your voice does not mean that it could be helpful in enhancing it. You may find it continuously getting worse if you don't use it correctly through natural means. Don't expect any miracle in boosting the power of your voice, but just train it naturally.
Mental and Physical Fitness
If you declare that you're having a poor voice that is why you are hesitant to train, then training is not really for you because you have easily surrendered. Therefore, your confidence and physically-readiness must be strong enough to go through these hard changes. Actually, you're in greater need. I have been in the teaching profession of voice culture for many years, and I haven't come across any voice that could not be trained to be pleasant to the ear.
If the owner of the voice has strong determination to make his/her voice beautiful, then it's always possible. It's a matter of working hard for some time to produce an improved, powerful and pleasing voice that you can be proud of. But if you neglect it now, it could be the worst thing that you could have done to your voice.


text:
This property has been removed by the agent. It may be sold or temporarily removed from the market
Terraced house for saleBow Road, Bow, London, E3 2SJ
Offers in Excess of £999,950
Property Description
Key features
- Great Location
- Development Potential
- Four Storey Victorian Property
- 1 Unit has established Use
- Bow Road DLR
- Olympic Village within walking distance
- All Local Amentites close by
Full description
We are pleased to offer this great opportunity to acquire this large four storey Victorian Property currently split into:
1 x 4 bed, 1 x 2 bed, 1 x 1 bed, 2 x studio apartments.
Currently rented as 2 large units names upper and lower. We understand that established use has been granted for one of the units.
Annual rent achieved:
Lower: £1802 PCM
Upper: £2123.33 PCM
Total.: £3925.23 PCM
Possible development opportunity, subject to permission.
Properties in locations like this rent very well, with the Olympics being a stone throw away and a variety of stations near by, such as Bow road DLR, mile end station, Stratford International Station and Pudding Mill lane DLR to name just a few.
More information from this agent
To view this media, please visit the on-line version of this page at www.rightmove.co.uk/property-for-sale/property-37792520.html
Listing History
Map & Street View
View in fullscreenView in fullscreen
Street View is unavailable in this location
Market Info
Disclaimer - Property reference 207299. The information displayed about this property comprises a property advertisement. Rightmove.co.uk makes no warranty as to the accuracy or completeness of the advertisement or any linked or associated information, and Rightmove has no control over the content. This property advertisement does not constitute property particulars. The information is provided and maintained by Hunters, Bow. Please contact the selling agent or developer directly to obtain any information which may be available under the terms of The Energy Performance of Buildings (Certificates and Inspections) (England and Wales) Regulations 2007 or the Home Report if in relation to a residential property in Scotland.
Map data ©OpenStreetMap contributors.


text:
When it comes to calling an upcoming season as a redemptive one for a player there is usually a reason behind the claim. In most cases the player had failed to live up to expectations the season before and must redeem himself in order to restore balance, either by exceeding the new expectations or recapturing the old ones.
I don't necessarily like calling 2012-2013 a redemption season for Evander Kane. It insinuates that his 2011-2012 campaign that consisted of 30 goals and 27 assists was a decline from previous years. Obviously that's not the case.
Instead his redemption is an unusual one, stemming from his life outside of the arena and the controversies that have caused a rift between Kane and the people of Winnipeg.
Whether you believe the rift is justifiable or not (it's not), it's easy to see how Kane lost favor in a city desperate for hockey success. Instead of reading about Kane's on ice talents they've been bombarded with reports of trade demands, dine and dash accusations and rumored bar room brawl induced concussions.
With every story that emerged, valid or not, the rift grew larger to the point where his achievements on the ice were being overlooked due to his incidents off of it. The best example of this is the fact that a single twitter picture of Kane using a stack of money as an imaginary phone gained more media attention than the six year, $31.5 million contract he signed months prior.
It's that type of perception that Kane is going up against. Whether he likes it or not he is a polarizing athlete in Winnipeg and that comes with a certain amount of scrutiny. That scrutiny builds the proverbial rift and there is only way to close it; win.
If there is one thing that cures the tension between players and fans it's winning. Just ask Patrick Kane and TJ Oshie, two players whose personal problems were wiped from their fandom's collective memory because of their team's success. Win and all the problems become a distant memory.
So far Kane is doing his best to accomplish just that in 2013. In five games he has tallied six points (3 goals, 3 assists), 17 hits and leads the Winnipeg forwards in ice time with an average of 19:09 minutes per game. But most importantly he has propelled them to a 3-1-1 start.
A lot of that success has stemmed from Kane's growth as a player. He still has the dynamic combination of speed and size but another year of NHL experience has dramatically helped his hockey IQ. He has a better understanding of the games idiosyncrasies and he is playing at a much more consistent level which was his downfall last season.
Another noticeable addition to Kane's game is his impeccable chemistry with Blake Wheeler. The two have a great understanding of where to be when the other person has the puck, proven by the fact that Kane has assisted on both of Wheeler's goals and Wheeler has assisted on two of Kane's three goals. If the duo can continue to gel it gives the Jets the all important prolific first line that all contending teams need.
We may just be five games into the season but the building blocks for an Evander Kane redemption season are there. If he can lead the Jets into the playoffs the memories of Las Vegas twitter pictures will be forgotten like they should have been a week after they occurred.


text:
Habitat for Humanity of Evansville offers multiple ways for individuals and groups to join us in our mission of eliminating poverty housing. Whether it's swinging a hammer, answering phones, providing a snack to our workers, or serving on one of our volunteer teams, there is a place for individuals from all walks of life to volunteer at Habitat.
As a volunteer, you can choose to volunteer as little or as often as you would like. Some volunteers dedicate every day of the week to Habitat for Humanity of Evansville while others spend just a few hours each month.
Current Opportunities
Core Crew
Front Desk
Meal and Snack Provider
Volunteer Host
Workshop Leader
Have more questions? Please contact Andrea Ward, Habitat's Volunteer Workforce Manager, at (812) 423-5623 ext. 33.
Volunteer Waivers


text:
Rita Ora, 'Roc the Life' – Song Review
Rita Ora employs roaring electric guitars and loud drums on the new song 'Roc the Life,' which she released on her YouTube page this week. It's a big departure from her debut dance hit 'How We Do (Party).'
The title of 'Roc the Life' seems to be a reference to the rock style of the song and to Ora's Roc Nation family. With a bit of swagger and youthful enthusiasm, Ora shows that she can pull off the style quite well. Lyrically, she brags that her life is rocking because she's living a carefree life and ignoring the haters:
"Kick the motherf—er to the cizzurb / You think you're crazy, I'm bizzurb / I'm off the chain, you gotta love it / I can't express enough how bad I want it / Baby one day I wanna be there / Beyond the stars like a zillionaire / I got my clique up in here, put them diamonds in the air / You can hate this all you want but we gon' take this everywhere / Don't pay them no never mind, you just a waste of time / Baby, watch it from the sideline / While I rock the life."
Comparisons to Rihanna's rock-tinged 'Shut Up and Drive' may be inevitable, but Ora's song feels fresh and comes across as a lively pop song even as it incorporates the power of rock and roll and the self-confidence typically found in hip-hop.
It's not clear if 'Roc the Life' will be her third single, or if Ora merely wanted us to see a different side of her musical personality, but we love where this one is coming from. Her self-titled album 'Ora' is expected to hit U.S. retailers in September, with a tentative Aug. 27 release date set for the U.K.
Listen to Rita Ora, 'Roc the Life'
Subscribe to PopCrush on


text:
NYTimes: A look at Oakland LDS Temple
hairypatches Hurricane, UTSept. 10, 2011 11:26 p.m.
Lighting is really not really an issue at the Oakland Temple. Its probably one of the dimmest lit temples anywhere. The view of the San Francisco Bay is extraordinary on clear nights. It's interesting that many people who have grown up in Oakland have never been up to it. I have talked to people who grew up there and used to ride their bikes up to the temple as children and when they are told that they are welcome to come to visitors center they say REALLY, I never knew that.
Richard and Nan Hunter oversee the Temple. Wonderful people! This facility and the people that are called to serve there are the best.
Osgrath Provo, UTSept. 9, 2011 10:34 p.m.
I really do not understand the broad labeling that some people like to apply - maybe it makes complex issues easier to understand for those lacking understanding. "Liberal" seems to be an automatic negative, but is it an improvement over extreme on the other side of the spectrum? Extremism carries things in the direction they are going until they circle around and meet on the other side of the circle.
How is a totalitarian liberal regime any more or less oppressive than a totalitarian conservative regime? Who was worse, Hitler or Stalin? We should not forget that the governments of Iran and Syria seek to conserve what they interpret as age-old values and insist that everybody go along with it, like it or not.
Say what you want about George Soros, but he has never told me I have to do as he says. Instead of political labels, wouldn't it be good if people could look at things in a pragmatic, logical fashion. I want to vote for the candidate that seems to be willing and able to effectively do what needs to be done, not the one whose ideology matches a set requirement.
DistantThunder Vincentown, NJSept. 9, 2011 9:52 p.m.
These "non-profit" media groups are liberal leaning soros-funded groups. The hit about the light bill proves the point - and why the odd reference to Chamberlain? The press had demonized the LDS faith for years, so now Perry is ahead in the polls, and the media is doing some repair work.


text:
At Thinkery's Imaginarium gala, held in Austin in September, staff wore necklaces with Scrabble pieces that spelled out their names. These were used in lieu of traditional name tags.
Photo: Nadia Chaudhury/BizBash
At Stella McCartney's store opening at St. Regis Bal Harbour Resort in South Florida, Scrabble sets served as name plates. The event took place in 2012.
Photo: Courtesy of Stella McCartney
The Pacific-12 Football Championship Game took place at Levi's Stadium in Santa Clara, California, on December 5. The day-of tailgate party, organized by staffers of the Pacific-12 Conference, took place at the new Great America Pavilion adjacent to the venue. Mascots from each of the college football teams represented by the Pacific-12 Conference attended the event and played "Giant Jenga" with guests.
Photo: Douglas Taylor
At a Svedka vodka promotion in Los Angeles in 2013, guests played "life-size Jenga" using huge game pieces stamped with the name of the vodka brand.
Photo: Michael Simon/StarTraksPhoto.com
One of the largest installations at the 2013 Maker Faire at the New York Hall of Science was a life-size version of the board game Mouse Trap. Maker Faire is put on by Make magazine, and it's a place to sample what the magazine calls "the Maker Movement": a tech-focused D.I.Y. community of hobbyists and students who profess to be more concerned with creating than consuming.
Photo: Carolyn Curtis/BizBash
In 2012, the designer gathered a crowd at the New York restaurant One if by Land, Two if by Sea for a fashion presentation that included game-playing models staged in intimate vignettes.The mezzanine of the restaurant was converted into a games room for the soirée, and included a table where models clad in the pre-fall collection played Scrabble.
Photo: Joe Schildhorn/BFAnyc.com
A modified Twister board replaced the game's classic colored circles with Havaianas flip-flops at a promotion for the brand at Miami's Shore Club in 2009.
Photo: Seth Browarnik/Red Eye Productions
A different type of Twister board—this one inflatable—beckoned guests at a 2009 celebration for The Simpsons 20th anniversary. The event took place at Barker Hangar in Los Angeles.
Photo: André Maier Photography
In Chicago, the Joffrey Ballet's annual Nutcracker Family Dinner in Chicago offers activities for children and adults alike. At the 2011 event, young guests played Twister on the ballroom floor at the Palmer House Hilton.
Photo: Robert Carl
Born in Miami, Sunglass Hut returned to its roots in 2011 for the opening of its largest outpost to date, located on Lincoln Road. At the game-filled gathering, adults and celebrities played chess with life-size pieces set up in the 11 11 Lincoln Road parking structure.
Photo: WorldRedEye.com
At the July 2014 music festival in Chicago, V.I.P. guests could play checkers at staggered tables or rest on colorful hammocks.
Photo: Barry Brecheisen for BizBash
Starbucks hosted its first Lollapalooza activation in 2013 at the It's so Miami Lounge at the Hard Rock Hotel Chicago. The suite offered oversize chess and Connect Four games, plus small café tables stocked with buckets of bottled iced coffee.
In October, New Yorkers gathered in Times Square to play a life-size version of Monopoly to celebrate the launch of Monopoly Millionaires' Club, a multi-state lottery game and TV show. The gathering featured appearances from actor Billy Gardell, New York Lottery personality Yolanda Vega, and a costumed "Rich Uncle Moneybags" character.
Photo: Anders Krusberg
The top-hat-wearing character also made an appearance at the 2012 Chicago Auto Show, where Toyota Hybrid teamed up with Hasbro to create a 30,160-square-foot "Monopoly Ride Experience." The closed course let guests test out the Prius, Pruis V, Camry Hybrid, and Highlander Hybrid. Attended by costumed staffers, the course was inspired by the popular board game and had S-curves, tight roundabouts, a bridge, and train tracks based on Reading Railroad.
Photo: Jenny Berg/BizBash
New restaurants, bars, hotel event spaces, and more to consider for corporate holiday entertaining this season.
Location Scout
Posted about 2 hours ago
How to use the ubiquitous flavor in desserts, savory dishes, cocktails, and more for fall events.
Idea File
Posted about 2 hours ago
Planners for the symphony's opening-night gala transformed a traditional arrivals area and dinner tent into a festive after-party space—in less than two hours.
Event Report
Posted about 2 hours ago
Here's a look at 10 steal-worthy ideas we spotted this week.
Posted 3 days ago
Check out the latest apps and software to help planners promote their events, gather data, and improve the attendee experience.
Event Intelligence
Posted 4 days ago


text:
Precisely timed behaviors are central to the survival of almost all organisms. Song is an example of a learned behavior under exquisite temporal control. Song tempo in zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) is systematically modified depending on social context. When male zebra finches sing to females (directed), it is produced with a faster motor pattern compared with when they sing in isolation (undirected). We measured heart rate and air sac pressure during directed and undirected singing to quantify motivation levels and respiratory timing. Heart rate was significantly higher when male birds sang to females and was negatively correlated with song duration. The change in song tempo between directed and undirected song was accounted for by varying the duration of vocal expiratory events, whereas the duration of silent inspirations was unchanged. Song duration increased with repeated singing during directed song bouts, which was caused by a uniform increase in the duration of both expirations and inspirations. These results illustrate the importance of motivational state in regulating song tempo and demonstrate that multiple timing oscillators are necessary to control the rhythm of song. At least two different neural oscillators are required to control context-dependent changes in song tempo. One oscillator controlling expiratory duration varies as function of social context and another controlling inspiratory duration is fixed. In contrast, the song tempo change affecting expiratory and inspiratory duration within a directed bout of song could be achieved by slowing the output of a single oscillator.
Precise timing underlies many learned motor behaviors. Song in songbirds is an example of a highly stereotyped, learned behavior. In zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata), song is reproduced with remarkable stereotypy. However, slight temporal variation occurs depending on the social context in which a bird sings (Jarvis et al. 1998; Sossinka and Böhner 1980; Zann 1996). Zebra finches sing faster when they sing to a female (directed song) than when they sing in isolation (undirected song). It has been suggested that temporal and acoustic variation allows for exploration of motor space, and such variability provides feedback necessary for reinforcement learning (Kao et al. 2005; Ölveczky et al. 2005). However, a physiological basis for the timing change has not been studied, and the precise nature of the timing change at the level of individual song elements has not been identified.
Song is a precopulatory behavior that is thought to signal male fitness (Nowicki et al. 2002). In zebra finches, song tempo and stereotypy could function to indicate male quality, and the speed of song delivery may also be related to motivational state of the male (Jarvis et al. 1998). The coarse control of song tempo is dictated by the respiratory motor system. Sounds are produced during expiration and silent periods of the song typically correspond to inspirations (Suthers et al. 1999). The detailed acoustic structure of the song is controlled by the bird's syrinx (avian vocal organ). Sound production is controlled by a discrete set of nuclei, which are collectively referred to as the motor pathway (Wild 1993, 1997). Song development, but not production, requires an intact anterior forebrain pathway (Bottjer et al. 1986; Scharff and Nottebohm 1991), which receives afferents from, and sends efferents to, the motor pathway (Iyenegar and Bottjer 2002; Johnson et al. 1995; Luo et al. 2001).
Neural activity in the anterior forebrain pathway increases and is more variable when birds sing undirected songs compared with when they sing directed songs (Hessler and Doupe 1999; Jarvis et al. 1998; Kao et al. 2005). Additionally, removal of the output nucleus of the anterior forebrain pathway, the lateral magnocellular nucleus of the nidopallium (LMAN), abolishes context-dependent variability in the fundamental frequency of song syllables (Kao et al. 2005). It is likely that song tempo changes mediated by social context are controlled by the anterior forebrain connection from LMAN to the nucleus robustus archipallialis (RA) (Kao et al. 2005). Neural activity in RA controls the timing and acoustic structure of the song (Chi and Margoliash 2001). Neural projections from dorsal RA innervate respiratory centers and ventral RA innervates the syrinx via the tracheosyringeal branch of the hypoglossal nerve (Vicario 1991; Wild 1997). This distributed neural system controls sound production by timing and coordinating the activity of vocal and respiratory effectors, which in turn leads to the generation of the bird's song.
What is the physiological mechanism for context-dependent modifications of song tempo? If motivational state is related to song tempo, then autonomic responses should correlate with the timing of song. Neural changes in the anterior forebrain may then be induced by the autonomic response thereby leading to changes in song timing (Doupe et al. 2005). Motivational state, in this context, refers to the sexually motivated behavior of singing. To measure a physiological correlate of such a motivational state, we recorded heart rate in spontaneously singing zebra finches. Respiratory pressure patterns were recorded simultaneously to quantify duration of vocal expirations and silent inspiratory minibreaths during song. We found that motivational state was correlated with song tempo. Furthermore, a uniform duration change in all song elements was not observed. Context-dependent temporal variation occurred during vocal expirations but not during inspirations. These results link motivational systems with song tempo and illustrate the need for multiple timing patterns to control the different respiratory rhythms of song.
Animals and recording procedures
Eight male zebra finches were used in this study and varied in age between 150 and 250 days. They were given seed and water ad libitum and vegetables mixed with vitamins every other day. Animals were bred and housed in a flight aviary and maintained on a 14:10 h light:dark cycle. While birds were undergoing experimental manipulations, they were housed individually in small cages (32 × 23 × 30 cm) contained in a sound-attenuating box (61 × 49.5 × 49.5 cm). The back wall and two sides of a box were lined with acoustic foam. The front of the box remained open for presentation of female zebra finches. A Plexiglass top covered the box and it contained a small opening that allowed wires from the bird to be routed to amplifiers and recording equipment adjacent to the bird's cage. A small elastic band was placed around the bird's thorax, and birds were tethered with a wire leading up and out of the box. The wire was attached to a counter-weighted balance arm positioned above the box, which allowed for free movement within the cage (Cooper and Goller 2004; Franz and Goller 2002). After birds were accustomed to being tethered and repeatedly sang directed song to a female presented in a separate cage, surgical procedures were initiated.
Surgical procedures
After a 1-h period of food and water deprivation, birds were anesthetized with isoflurane. Heart rate was recorded with custom constructed circular electrodes. One electrode was sutured to the bird's chest and one on the bird's back. These wires were routed subcutaneously to the center of the bird's back and then soldered to stronger wires that led up from the backpack on the bird and out of the bird's cage. Signals were amplified (500–1,000 times) and band-pass filtered (50 Hz high-pass and 3 kHz low-pass; Brownlee, Model 440; San Jose, CA). Air sac pressure was recorded by inserting one end of a small flexible cannula (silastic tubing, OD 1.65 mm, 6 cm in length) into a thoracic air sac through an opening in the body wall. The cannula was sutured to the rib cage, and glue (Nexaband) was applied to adhere the cannula to the skin and to seal the opening in the body wall. The opposite end of the cannula was attached to a pressure transducer (Fujikura FPM-02PG; Santa Clara, CA), which was mounted on the bird's back. The voltage output from the pressure transducer was amplified prior to recording (50 times, Hector Engineering). Song was recorded with an Audiotechnica AT8356 microphone placed ∼30 cm from the perch and centered in front of the bird's cage. The output from the microphone was amplified 100 times and high-pass filtered at 300 Hz (Brownlee, Model 440).
Experimental procedures
Heart rate, air sac pressure, and song were recorded simultaneously in three of the eight birds, and air sac pressure and the acoustic data were recorded from three additional birds. Data from the remaining two birds were excluded from the study because the voltage level of ambient pressure shifted between directed and undirected singing conditions. This shift in the DC voltage level can occur when fluid begins to fill the cannula or if the cannula moves in the body during singing. In these cases, the voltage readings become unstable and are not suitable for detailed analyses. All data presented were collected from the six birds. In three of the six birds, data were recorded onto tape using a multichannel digital recorder (20 kHz bandwidth, TEAC-135T), and later digitized (Data Translation 2821G, 40 kHz sample rate; Marlboro, MA) using Signal v 3.0 software (Engineering Design, Berkeley, CA). The data from the remaining three birds were recorded directly onto computer (PCI-MIO 6056E, 16 bit, 25-kHz sample rate; National Instruments, Austin, TX) using Avisoft Recorder software (Avisoft Bioacoustics, Germany). Data were saved to disk whenever air sac pressure exceeded a user-defined threshold for longer than 15 ms.
Birds sang 1–3 days after the cannula was inserted. At this time, birds were recorded for 2 h during directed singing and 3 h during undirected singing episodes. Because birds sing more bouts when in the directed song condition, we recorded undirected song for an additional hour to equalize the number of song bouts recorded in both conditions. Birds were tested between 10:00 and 15:00 h, with recording commencing 1 h after the morning feeding. In some birds, directed song bouts were recorded prior to the undirected session, and in other birds, this order was reversed. This procedure ensured that circadian changes did not influence song tempo. Further, previous work has also shown that song tempo can be modified independently of circadian factors (Botas et al. 2001). Directed song was defined as a song that occurred when a female bird was present in the front of the male bird's cage. We observed birds during segments of the recording session and confirmed that directed singing occurred. Directed song bouts were characterized by dance-like movements toward the female, erected feathers, as well as more frequent occurrences of beak wiping at the perch between song bouts (Williams 2001; Zann 1996). Directed songs are usually sung with a faster tempo than those recorded in the undirected condition (see Fig. 1). Undirected song occurred during the same day as the directed song, but with no females present in the room. In the undirected singing condition, the acoustic environment included other male zebra finches. Distinct differences in heart rate provided further confirmation of the differences between directed and undirected singing conditions (Fig. 2).
Twenty to 30 bouts of directed and undirected song were typically collected during each recording session. Bouts of song were visually identified from all of the files collected during the recording session and were selected for data analyses.
Data analysis
Heart rate.
Each heart beat was identified by the peak of the voltage change recorded on the electrodes. Heart rate (beats/s) was quantified during a 1-s period prior to the onset of introductory notes (presong heart rate) and during the first motif of the song bout (song heart rate). Heart rate during the subsequent motifs was not analyzed because motivational state might be confounded with respiratory demands of singing for an extended period of time (Franz and Goller 2003).
Quantification of all expiratory and inspiratory pulses (EPs and IPs) during song bouts.
Air sac pressure provides a distinctive signature for each syllable in the bird's motif; accordingly, we used air sac pressure to identify both bouts of song and the motifs within a song (Fig. 1). Each EP was defined as a continuous period of supra-atmospheric pressure. IPs were defined as a continuous period of subatmospheric pressurization. The IP preceding the first syllable of the song was omitted from analysis because it frequently was not as deep or as structured as the IPs occurring during song. Similarly, the last IP of the bout was omitted because this inspiration is highly variable, ranging from a typical minibreath, to quiet respiratory inspiration, or a period of apnea (Franz and Goller 2003). Thus in all analyses there are fewer IPs than EPs. The DC level of the voltage output of the transducer was shifted such that ambient pressure corresponded to 0 volts. In the data output and graphical display, all EPs are represented as positive voltage values and IPs are negative voltage values.
The onset and offset of every bout of song during directed and undirected conditions was visually identified and all of the EPs and IPs within the bout were automatically identified by a custom-written software program (LabView; Austin, TX). Prior to analysis, air sac pressure data were low-pass filtered (400 Hz). This filter removed acoustic oscillations that are transmitted through the body and recorded as pressure oscillations by the transducer. After filtering the pressure signal, each EP and IP within the song bout was segmented from the data stream, and four parameters were measured to quantify the pattern of EP pressurization: duration, average voltage, peak voltage, and coefficient of variation of amplitude (CV = SD * 100/mean). After birds reach phonatory pressure levels, each EP has a characteristic pattern of temporal modulation, which corresponds to the unique acoustic properties of the syllable. CV of amplitude was calculated to quantify this temporal variation in the pressure waveform. The first and last 5 ms of the EP were omitted from the calculation because the rising and falling phase of the EP are common across all EPs. CV, rather than SD, was used because the mean amplitude of air sac pressure changed as a function of directed/undirected singing conditions in some birds. For all IPs in the song, three parameters were measured: duration, average voltage, and peak voltage (maximally negative voltage value). CV of amplitude was not calculated for IPs because the temporal pattern of pressurization is similar across almost all IPs (Fig. 1B). All of the repetitions of the EPs and IPs that were recorded in the experiment are displayed in a single plot (hundreds of repetitions of individual EPs and IPs are displayed in Figs. 1B, 3, and 4). This method for display and analysis was inspired by the procedures used by Tchernichovski et al. (2000) to analyze acoustic data.
Motif duration within bouts of song.
A song bout was defined as being preceded by one or more introductory notes and followed by one or more repetitions of the bird's motif. A new song bout was defined by an interval of ≥2 s between the end of a motif and the onset of introductory notes in the next song bout (Sossinka and Böhner 1980). If a new song bout was initiated with less than a 2-s interval, these songs were not analyzed to quantify changes in motif duration within song bouts. The duration of each motif during each repetition within the bout was calculated by identifying the motif onset and offset from the pressure trace. The motif onset was identified by the first supra-atmospheric pressurization during the first EP of the motif. The end of the motif was identified as the return to ambient pressure after the last EP of the bird's motif. Three zebra finches had a consistent motif. The motif of the remaining three birds was more variable; one bird sang a different first syllable when the first motif of the bout was sung, the remaining two birds, one or two syllables were not always sung at the end of the motif (Fig. 1A). In these three birds, the "canonical" motif was used to measure motif duration. The canonical motif was defined as the EPs and IPs that were always present at each of the motif repetitions within a song bout (Fig. 1A).
Duration of individual EPs and IPs.
During directed song, motif duration varies as a function of motif sequence within the bout, such that motifs sung later in the sequence tend to be longer in duration than earlier motifs (Chi and Margoliash 2001). To control for changes in duration as a function of motif sequence, the mean duration for each of the EPs and IPs in the first motif in the bout of undirected song was divided by the corresponding mean duration of the EP/IP in the first motif of directed song. This process was repeated for the second and, when possible, for the third motif of the bout. This ratio is referred to as the context-dependent ratio. A score >1.0 corresponds to a longer duration EP/IP during undirected song; a score <1.0 corresponds to a shorter duration EP/IP during undirected song.
How do individual EPs and IPs change in duration during the course of a song bout? For both directed and undirected song bouts, the average duration of an EP/IP in the second motif was divided by the duration of the same EP/IP in the first motif. This process was repeated for the third motif in the bout. This ratio is referred to as the within bout ratio score. Scores >1.0 indicate an increase in duration for an EP/IP during the second and third repetitions of the motif in a bout; conversely, scores <1.0 indicate a decrease in EP/IP duration.
Statistical procedures
Heart Rate.
To determine if motivational state is related to song tempo change, the mean heart rate during presong was correlated with the duration of the first motif in a bout using a Pearson's linear correlation (SPSS, v.11.0, Chicago, IL). Additionally, the mean heart rate during the first motif was correlated with the duration of the first motif. Motif duration varied substantially among the birds in this study. To allow comparisons between birds, the motif duration and heart rate from both directed and undirected songs for an individual bird were normalized using Z scores ([xi-mean]/SD). The Z score transforms all the values such that the mean = 0, and a score of ±1 corresponds to ±1 SD above or below the mean. All correlation analyses were performed on these transformed scores. The number of introductory notes was counted for each directed and undirected song bout, and the heart rate was calculated during the first motif of directed and undirected song bouts. Between groups t-test were calculated to determine if the number of introductory notes and average heart rate changed significantly between directed and undirected singing bouts, with α ≤ 0.05 for all statistical comparisons.
Quantification of all EPs/IPs.
For all of the EPs in the data set, the mean for each parameter measured (duration, amplitude, peak amplitude, CV) for each bird was determined. The means of the three parameters measured for IPs were also calculated (duration, amplitude, peak amplitude). A paired t-test was calculated using the mean score from each bird for each parameter to determine if there was a significant change between directed and undirected song types.
Duration of Individual EP/IP.
A ratio of the EP and IP duration between undirected and directed song was calculated, or context-dependent ratio (see preceding text). A score of 1.0 indicates no change in duration for the EP/IP between directed and undirected singing conditions. Similarly, a within bout ratio score was calculated. A score of 1.0 indicates that the EP/IP is the same duration in the second and third repetition of the motif as it is during the first motif. Values >1.0 indicate an increase in duration during undirected song (context-dependent ratio) or during subsequent repetitions of the motif (within bout ratio). A one-sample t-test with an expected score of 1.0 was calculated to determine if either the context-dependent ratio or the within bout ratio changed significantly.
Are the context-dependent changes in song tempo related to the within bout changes in song tempo? The context-dependent ratio and the within bout ratio score are not directly comparable because the context-dependent ratio compares the EPs/IPs of the first motif of directed songs to the same EPs/IPs of the first motif of undirected songs. In contrast, the within bout ratio compares the duration of EPs/IPs in the first motif to the same EP/IPs produced during the second and third motifs of a bout. To account for this difference, an average context-dependent ratio was calculated for each EP/IP in the first and second motifs of directed and undirected song. This average context-dependent ratio was correlated with the within bout ratio score using a linear correlation analysis.
To determine if EPs/IPs within a bout changed duration similarly within directed and undirected song bouts, the within bout ratio for the EPs/IPs in the directed condition was correlated with the within bout ratio from the same EPs/IPs during the undirected condition. A linear correlation analysis was used for these comparisons.
Motivational state is correlated with song duration
Acoustic output, respiratory pressure, and heart rate were recorded simultaneously in three birds during directed and undirected song (Fig. 1A). The number of introductory notes was higher in directed song bouts (t(99) = −9.28, P < 0.001; Fig. 2A), and the mean presong heart rate was higher during the directed singing condition than it was during the undirected condition (t(99) = −7.72, P < 0.001; Fig. 2B). The mean presong heart rate in the directed condition was 12.66 beats/s (means for each bird: 13.80, 12.68, 11.58) and in the undirected condition it was 10.23 beats/s (means for each bird: 10.98, 9.55, 10.18). Presong heart rate was negatively correlated with the duration of the first motif (r = −0.46, n = 101, P < 0.001, Fig. 2C). Mean heart rate during the first motif was also negatively correlated with motif duration (r = −0.59, n = 101, P < 0.001, Fig. 2D). In sum, there are clear physiological differences between the directed and undirected singing conditions used in this study and level of motivation is associated with song tempo.
Social context selectively modifies the duration of vocal expirations
EPs produce one or more acoustic syllables and IPs typically correspond to intersyllable intervals. The EPs and IPs were analyzed for changes in duration, average amplitude, peak amplitude, and CV of amplitude between directed and undirected conditions (see methods). All EPs from the motifs of songs recorded during directed and undirected song for all birds are displayed in Fig. 3 (black squares, directed; red squares, undirected). The only consistent change across birds was a decrease in EP duration during directed song bouts (black squares shifted to the left, Fig. 3; Table 1 t(5) = −4.74, P < 0.005). Figure 3 also suggests that the duration decrease in EPs does not necessarily occur in every EP of a bird's motif (see individual EP/IP analysis in the following text).
The duration change between directed and undirected song was the only parameter that changed in every bird (Table 1). In some birds, average amplitude, peak amplitude, or CV of amplitude changed between the two conditions. Because these changes were not consistent for every bird, more detailed analyses were only performed for EP and IP changes in duration.
In contrast to the EPs, consistent changes were not observed for the duration of IPs when social context was manipulated (Fig. 4). Visual examination of the cluster plots for IPs does not reveal a similar duration shift to that observed for EPs (Fig. 4), and the mean duration for the IPs did not change consistently across all birds in the study (Table 2). Additionally, social context did not consistently affect the amplitude or peak voltage of the IPs (Table 2). Thus unlike expirations, temporal characteristics of inspirations are not systematically modified by social context.
Individual EPs, but not IPs, increase in duration
Consistent with previous work (Chi and Margoliash 2001), the duration of a bird's motif increased with motif sequence (Fig. 5A). The increase in motif duration as a function of motif order in the bout was evident for both directed and undirected songs. How does an individual EP/IP change between directed and undirected song? The mean duration of each EP and IP for the first motif of undirected song was divided by the mean duration of the corresponding EP/IP produced during the first motif of directed song. This process was repeated for the second and third motif in the sequence of the song bout. The ratio ensured that EPs and IPs were matched for motif sequence in the bout before comparing duration changes between undirected and directed song. An example of the waveforms from an EP of the first motif in the bout of directed and undirected song is displayed in Fig. 5B. The duration of the EP decreased during directed song. An example of IP waveforms that did not change in mean duration between conditions is also displayed (Fig. 5B).
The mean context-dependent ratio for EPs was 1.036 (t(62) = 10.50, P < 0.001; Fig. 5C, top). The line in the histograms indicates the bin encompassing a mean of 1.0. The EPs falling within a bin with the mean of 1.0 came from multiple birds, confirming that not all EPs were longer during undirected song than they were during directed song bouts. Thus a global timing change that equally affects the entire motif is not observed. In contrast to the EPs, the individual IPs did not systematically increase in duration. The mean context-dependent ratio for IPs was 1.0 (t(47) = −0.31, P = 0.76; Fig. 5C, bottom).
How do EPs and IPs change as a function of repeated singing in the bout? Both EPs and IPs increased in duration during the subsequent repetition of the motif within bouts of directed song (EPs: t(47) = 7.18, P < 0.001; Fig. 6, A and B, top. IPs: t(36) = 2.80, P < 0.01; Fig. 6A, bottom). This same pattern was largely true for motif repetition during undirected song bouts. However, only the duration of EPs increased significantly in duration (t(35) = 7.59, P < 0.001; Fig. 6B, top). The duration of individual IPs did not change significantly during the course of an undirected song bout (t(25) = 0.88, n.s.; Fig. 6B, bottom).
During the course of a song bout, both EPs and IPs increase in duration. In contrast, only EPs change duration between directed and undirected singing conditions. This suggests that there are different mechanisms underlying these two types of timing change. To further examine this issue, a mean context-dependent ratio was calculated for the EPs and IPs in the first two motifs of directed and undirected songs. This mean context-dependent ratio was correlated with the within bout ratio score for the same EP/IP (see methods for further description of the procedures). For EPs and IPs, there was no relationship between the context-dependent ratio and the within bout ratio for directed or undirected song bouts (directed song bouts, EPs: r = 0.13, n.s., n = 26; IPs: r = −0.01, n.s., n = 20; undirected song bouts, EPs: r = 0.09, n = 26, n.s. IPs: r = 0.27, n = 20, n.s.). This pattern suggests that the context-dependent tempo change for an EP/IP is unrelated to the tempo change within a song bout.
Is the tempo change of an EP/IP during directed song related to the tempo change during undirected song? There was a significant relationship between the within bout ratio score for directed and undirected songs (EPs: r = 0.60, n = 26, P = 0.001; IPs: r = 0.79, n = 20, P < 0.001, Fig. 6, C and D). This relationship shows that the duration change within a bout of directed song for an EP/IP is similar to the duration change observed within a bout of undirected song.
Motor production is less stereotyped during undirected song
Neural activity in the anterior forebrain is more variable during undirected song than it is during directed song (Hessler and Doupe 1999; Kao et al. 2005). Context-dependent variability in the peripheral motor system was quantified by calculating CV of duration of each EP/IP in directed and undirected conditions. The mean CV of duration was 1.90 for the EPs during undirected song and during directed song it decreased to 1.49 (t(133) = −2.54, P = 0.012). Similarly, for IPs the mean CV of duration was 4.65 during undirected song and this decreased to 2.91 during directed song bouts (t(101) = −4.28, P < 0.001). Thus the duration of EPs and IPs is more variable during undirected song than it is during directed song (Fig. 6, E and F).
EP duration and sequence are not correlated with changes in song tempo
Why does social context change the duration of some EPs more than others? A Pearson's correlation was calculated between the duration of the EP and the context-dependent ratio score. Additionally, EP sequence in the motif was correlated with the context-dependent ratio score. Only EPs from the first motif were used in the analysis. The context-dependent ratio for an EP did not correlate with duration of the EP (r = −0.01, n = 26, n.s.), and it was not related to the sequence of the EP in the motif (r = 0.09, n = 26, n.s.). Thus a simple relationship between EP duration or EP sequence in the motif does not explain the variable tempo change for individual EPs.
The results of this study demonstrate that social contexts differentially affect the duration of EPs, but not the duration of IPs, during song bouts. Furthermore, the heart-rate data reveal an increased level of motivation that accompanies singing in the presence of a female zebra finch and show that motivational state is correlated with song tempo. The neural correlates of directed and undirected song, combined with the well-described neuroanatomical network for singing, make song production an ideal system for developing biologically plausible neural models of a precisely timed behavior. Our data suggest that social context-dependent changes in song timing require at least two neural oscillators. One oscillator that controls expiratory duration varies systematically with changing social context, and a second oscillator that controls inspiratory duration is not modified by social context. A conceptual model is proposed in the following text that describes the proposed inter-relationships between motivation, neuromodulation, neuroanatomical connections in the song nuclei, and mechanisms for selective changes in respiratory timing. In contrast to the context-dependent change in song tempo, changes in song tempo within a directed song bout similarly changed EP and IP duration. Thus directed song can be modeled using a simpler mechanism of a single oscillator controlling both expiratory and inspiratory duration.
Motivational state, as measured by heart rate, is inherently linked to movement and respiration. The dance of the zebra finch during directed song bouts likely increases heart rate. Furthermore, heart rate is influenced by the motor act of dancing. We sought to avoid the confound of both respiratory- and movement-induced increases in heart rate by using a 1-s period prior to singing (presong heart rate), during which time period movement patterns should be similar between directed and undirected conditions. Heart rate could be elevated by the anticipation of movement, as it is in humans during motor imagery tasks (Decety et al. 1993; Oishi et al. 2000). Because anticipation of movement and singing are interwoven with the motivational state of the bird, changes in heart rate resulting from anticipating the upcoming dance are likely to be tightly linked to the motivational state of the bird.
Function of directed and undirected song
Why do zebra finches change song tempo? Context-dependent changes in motif duration and variability may function as a form of motor practice; varying motor patterns allow birds to receive and monitor feedback necessary for acquiring and maintaining the song (Kao et al. 2005; Ölveczky et al. 2005). There is emerging evidence that the anterior forebrain pathway contributes to motor variability. First, LMAN lesions in juvenile birds lead to premature song crystallization (Bottjer et al. 1986; Scharff and Nottebohm 1991). Second, LMAN activity during song is critical for normal song variability in juvenile and adult birds (Kao et al. 2005; Ölveczky et al. 2005). The neural mechanisms of motor variability have recently been studied, but the underlying physiological mechanisms have not been addressed. Our data suggest that motivational state of the singing male affects song tempo. There was a negative correlation between heart rate and motif duration, consistent with the interpretation that faster songs are sung when the motivational state is high. Therefore song timing may communicate the motivational state of the singing bird. Perhaps faster songs signal copulatory readiness and quality of the male. Indeed, castration leads to a slowing of song tempo in adult zebra finches (Arnold 1975).
Links between motivation, neuromodulators, and song tempo
Motivation levels were higher during directed singing events, and this enhanced motivational state may influence the release of neuromodulators within the nuclei of the anterior forebrain pathway of the song control system (Doupe et al. 2005; Jarvis et al. 1998). The anterior forebrain pathway shares homologies with the mammalian basal ganglia (Doupe et al. 2005). In mammals, dopamine is released in the striatum during sexual behaviors (Becker et al. 2001). In addition, dopamine has been hypothesized to establish a "teaching signal" within the mammalian basal ganglia in a computational model of sequential learning (Suri and Schultz 1998). Last, dopamine is thought to modulate interval timing behaviors (Matell and Meck 2000). Directed song is a precopulatory behavior, which is an example of a precisely timed sequential learning task. Dopaminergic projections to the anterior forebrain in birds may play a critical role in mediating the timing changes observed in the current study and may have a more general role in song learning and song plasticity in adulthood (Abarbanel et al. 2004a,b; Bottjer 1993; Doupe et al. 2005).
In house sparrows (Passer domesticus), neural activity in a variety of areas indirectly associated with song learning and production correlates with sexually motivated singing. These brain areas include the medial preoptic nucleus and the ventral tegmental area (Riters et al. 2004). The medial preoptic nucleus projects to the ventral tegmental area (Riters and Alger 2004). The ventral tegmental area sends dopaminergic projections to the anterior forebrain, particularly Area X (Bottjer 1993). Thus in combination with activity in the medial preoptic nucleus the ventral tegmental area likely functions as part of the neural system signaling motivational state during singing. Perhaps, dopamine input to the anterior forebrain pathway has the net effect of reducing the overall activity level of the neurons in this neural system.
Although other neuromodulators could change the timing of song, dopamine may be the dominant neuromodulator for regulating song timing because norephinephrine levels are low in Area X, and acetylcholine does not interact with dopamine receptors in Area X as it does in the mammalian basal ganglia (Gale and Perkel 2005). Acetycholine could contribute to timing in the motor pathway. This possibility is discussed in the following text.
Neural control underlying changes in song tempo
How do changes in neural activity levels in the anterior forebrain lead to selective timing changes in vocal production? The projection of RA neurons onto brain stem respiratory and vocal premotor neurons makes it ideally situated to directly control the timing of vocal production. Control of RA neurons is derived from two inputs, HVC (acronym used as proper name) and LMAN, the latter providing the neural output from the anterior forebrain pathway. RA projecting neurons in HVC are active for ∼6 ms during an individual acoustic segment of the song (Hahnloser et al. 2002). This sparse code is relayed to RA neurons, which are active for ∼10 ms during specific periods of the song and correlate with the timing of acoustic production (Chi and Margoliash 2001; Leonardo and Fee 2005).
Song tempo of vocal respiratory elements could be controlled in part by the duration of RA bursts or overall activity level of RA projection neurons (Chi and Margoliash 2001). LMAN projection neurons provide excitatory input to RA neurons and synapse on the same neurons as HVC projection neurons (Mooney and Konishi 1991; Spiro et al. 1999; Stark and Perkel 1999). We speculate that the increase in song tempo during directed song may be caused by the decreased activity of LMAN projection neurons (Hessler and Doupe 1999; Jarvis et al. 1998; Kao et al. 2005). The decrease in excitatory input to RA decreases the activation of RA projection neurons, and the reduced activation of RA projection neurons functions to decrease the duration of vocal song elements. Consistent with this hypothesis, LMAN and RA activity levels vary depending on the social context in which song is produced (Jarvis et al. 1998).
Separate timing of vocal EPs and silent IPs and functional significance
How is the duration of an EP selectively modified? The topographic connections between the anterior forebrain and the motor pathway may contribute importantly to the selective timing changes observed in the current study. Medial LMAN projects to dorsal RA and lateral LMAN sends efferents to ventral RA (Iyenegar and Bottjer 2002; Johnson et al. 1995). Dorsal RA projections innervate respiratory centers for expiration and inspiration, nucleus retroambigualis (RAm) and nucleus paraambigualis (PAm), respectively (Reinke and Wild 1998; Wild 1993). Perhaps medial LMAN plays a particularly important role in modulating the timing of song during directed singing. Decreased activation of medial LMAN neurons, which project to dorsal RA, may function to decrease the activation of neurons that innervate RAm.
RA interneurons may regulate the timing of vocalizations by synchronizing the activity of dorsal and ventral RA projection neurons (Spiro et al. 1999), and RA interneurons are critical for normal song (Vicario and Raskin 2000). Synchrony between dorsal and ventral RA is essential to ensure that the decreased respiratory duration of the EP corresponds with a temporal change in syringeal motor control of air flow and acoustic structure of the syllable.
The hypothesized increase in activity of dorsal RA, which may lead to increased song tempo could also be modulated by acetylcholine input to HVC. Infusion of cholinergic agonists in HVC leads to an overall increase in activity of RA neurons (Shea and Margoliash 2003). Thus interactions among several neuromodulators in multiple brain areas could modify neural activity patterns controlling song timing.
It has been suggested that RAm may play a critical role in sensorimotor learning because of its bilateral projections, connections with brain areas involved in controlling the motor systems of the upper vocal tract, and its feedback connections to the song system (Wild 2004). Our data are consistent with this idea because they show that the duration of vocal expiratory events can be modified without a corresponding change in inspiratory duration. Inspirations largely serve the purpose of replenishing the air supply to sustain song, which suggests that the duration of IPs may be controlled by more reflexive motor programs. We suggest that RAm and PAm are mutually inhibitory and that this mutual inhibition ensures that inspiratory muscles are activated precisely out of phase with expiratory muscles (Wild et al. 1998). Brain stem inspiratory motor neurons could be released from inhibition at the conclusion of the expiratory-mediated vocalization, and then reflexive brain stem inspiratory circuits control the duration of inspiration.
Learning and maintenance of vocal song elements requires coordination of multiple vocal motor systems (Suthers et al. 1999), combined with monitoring auditory feedback (Brainard and Doupe 2000). Thus temporal modifications to vocal respiratory events may be a result of the need for motor practice to maintain the EP motor program to produce the intended vocalizations. Such precise coordination and feedback may not be necessary to maintain silent inspirations. It is interesting that at the level of an individual inspiration, the average duration is more variable during undirected song than it is during directed song. This may be a reflection of the more variable motor commands because the duration of expirations is also more variable during undirected song. Thus some modulation of inspiratory networks from the song motor program must be occurring. However, the modulation is not sufficient to systematically shift the duration of these inspiratory periods of song production as a function of changing social contexts.
Separate timing patterns for social context and within bout tempo change
Although social context selectively changed the duration of vocal expirations, both expirations and inspirations became longer as the bird repeated its motif within a directed song bout. The timing change of an EP/IP caused by manipulating social context was not correlated with the timing change of the EP/IP within a song bout. This suggests that these timing mechanisms are unrelated. There was a strong correlation between the within bout tempo change for an EP/IP during directed song bouts and the within bout tempo change for the EP/IP within undirected song bouts. This provides further evidence that tempo changes within a song bout are a distinct timing process. The within bout tempo change could be mediated by intrinsic network properties of HVC (Solis and Perkel 2005) or by respiratory demands of singing extended bouts of song (Franz and Goller 2003).
Implications for neural models of song
Neural models of song have largely focused on mechanisms of song learning (Troyer and Doupe 2000a,b) and how the syrinx produces sound (Gardner et al. 2001; Laje et al. 2002). Recent efforts to model the neural system for song learning and production have been based on the increasing knowledge of the electrophysiological properties of cells in the motor pathway, and the anatomical connections between the motor pathway and the anterior forebrain pathway (Abrabanel et al. 2004a,b; Fiete et al. 2004). However, computational models do not yet encompass the complexity of mediating separate, and selectively modifiable, timing patterns for controlling expiratory and inspiratory events during song. There is an emerging view that brain stem respiratory centers are critical for timing and maintaining the neural song motor program (Ashmore et al. 2005; Schmidt 2003; Wild 2004). The data from the current study indicate that separate neural oscillators for expiratory and inspiratory respiratory events are required to accurately model the context-dependent changes in song tempo. The finding that only EP duration changes systematically, and that not all EPs change equally, provides strong evidence against a single "clock" controlling song tempo. Instead, at least two simultaneously operating and independently modifiable oscillators are required to control the respiratory timing of song under differing social contexts. In contrast, song tempo changes within a directed song bout can be modeled using a single timing pattern that similarly changes expiratory and inspiratory duration.
This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Ruth R. Kirschstein Postdoctoral Fellowship 05722 to B. G. Cooper and Grant R01 04390 to F. Goller.
The authors thank S. Torti, J. Whittington, and C. Elemans for helpful comments on the manuscript. We also thank S. Torti, J. Langeland, and M. Franz for their contribution to data collection and analysis and L. Greene for animal care.
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. The article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
- Copyright © 2006 by the American Physiological Society


text:
Pictures of Gwen Stefani, Gavin, Zuma, and Kingston Rossdale at a Party
Gwen Spends the Weekend With Her Favorite Characters
Gwen Stefani had her hands full Friday afternoon bringing Zuma and Kingston to a superhero birthday party in LA. The threesome were greeted by life-sized Star Wars characters for the fun, playful afternoon of exploring the bouncy house and testing out the inflatable slide. Zuma and Kingston both dressed as Batman, and the little brother made lots of his usual funny expressions before taking off his costume and getting his face painted. Kingston's celebrating his fourth birthday later this month but he's still a momma's boy, snuggling up in Gwen's lap toward the end of the party.
The weekend fun didn't stop there, as yesterday Gavin and the boys snuck out of the house on an early morning shopping trip to pick up balloons, food, wine, and flowers for Gwen on Mother's Day! Gwen and Gavin are back in LA with the boys after joining other sexy couples at the Costume Institute Gala last week. Gwen was a knockout in her ivory and black L.A.M.B. dress while Gavin kept his look classic in a black tuxedo.
To see more photos of Gwen, Gavin, and the boys just