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Ting, Lena H., Christine C. Raasch, David A. Brown, Steven A. Kautz, and Felix E. Zajac. Sensorimotor state of the contralateral leg affects ipsilateral muscle coordination of pedaling. J. Neurophysiol. 80: 1341-1351, 1998. The objective of this study was to determine if independent central pattern generating elements controlling the legs in bipedal and unipedal locomotion is a viable theory for locomotor propulsion in humans. Coordinative coupling of the limbs could then be accomplished through mechanical interactions and ipsilateral feedback control rather than through central interlimb neural pathways. Pedaling was chosen as the locomotor task to study because interlimb mechanics can be significantly altered, as pedaling can be executed with the use of either one leg or two legs (cf. walking) and because the load on the limb can be well-controlled. Subjects pedaled a modified bicycle ergometer in a two-legged (bilateral) and a one-legged (unilateral) pedaling condition. The loading on the leg during unilateral pedaling was designed to be identical to the loading experienced by the leg during bilateral pedaling. This loading was achieved by having a trained human "motor" pedal along with the subject and exert on the opposite crank the torque that the subject's contralateral leg generated in bilateral pedaling. The human "motor" was successful at reproducing each subject's one-leg crank torque. The shape of the motor's torque trajectory was similar to that of subjects, and the amount of work done during extension and flexion was not significantly different. Thus the same muscle coordination pattern would allow subjects to pedal successfully in both the bilateral and unilateral conditions, and the afferent signals from the pedaling leg could be the same for both conditions. Although the overall work done by each leg did not change, an 86% decrease in retarding (negative) crank torque during limb flexion was measured in all 11 subjects during the unilateral condition. This corresponded to an increase in integrated electromyography of tibialis anterior (70%), rectus femoris (43%), and biceps femoris (59%) during flexion. Even given visual torque feedback in the unilateral condition, subjects still showed a 33% decrease in negative torque during flexion. These results are consistent with the existence of an inhibitory pathway from elements controlling extension onto contralateral flexion elements, with the pathway operating during two-legged pedaling but not during one-legged pedaling, in which case flexor activity increases. However, this centrally mediated coupling can be overcome with practice, as the human "motor" was able to effectively match the bilateral crank torque after a longer practice regimen. We conclude that the sensorimotor control of a unipedal task is affected by interlimb neural pathways. Thus a task performed unilaterally is not performed with the same muscle coordination utilized in a bipedal condition, even if such coordination would be equally effective in the execution of the unilateral task.
Spinalized vertebrates and invertebrates use pattern generators and central interlimb coupling mechanisms to coordinate their limbs [for reviews, see Getting (1988), Grillner and Wallén (1985), and Pearson (1993)]. Some evidence exists that humans with spinal cord injuries may also have locomotor pattern-generating capabilities (Calancie et al. 1994; Rossignol et al. 1996). Although studies investigating central interlimb coupling during human lower limb movements showed that perturbations to one leg invoke a coordinated response of the same latency in both legs during stance (Dietz et al. 1989) and locomotion (Berger et al. 1984), the response measured in the contralateral leg may be mediated by changes in sensory input in that leg as a consequence of task mechanics. Because bipedal balance must be maintained, changing the kinematics or kinetics of one leg by perturbation requires a change in loading on the other leg. For example, an antiphase relationship between the legs occurs in human walking even when the left and right belt speeds differ (Dietz et al. 1994). In this situation, lifting one leg because the belt speed is faster on that side will necessarily shift the weight of the subject to the contralateral stance leg or the subject risks falling. Although there may be central interlimb coupling that produces a bilateral response, sensory signals from both legs are also changed from the perturbation itself. Thus interlimb coupling during human walking may arise not only from central interlimb coupling but also from mechanical interlimb coupling that produces bilateral sensory input. In human walking, it is difficult to impossible to separate the two effects.
Clear evidence for central interlimb coupling has nevertheless been demonstrated when the legs participate in a static isometric leg extension task. Force generation by a leg was found to decrease when both legs participated (Howard and Enoka 1991; Schantz et al. 1989; Secher et al. 1988). Because the mechanical conditions imposed on a leg are the same in the unilateral and bilateral isometric tasks, lowered excitation of the muscles during the bilateral task is thought to be centrally mediated.
Ergometer pedaling is ideal for the study of locomotor propulsion because task mechanics can be controlled and manipulated. The alternating flexion and extension of the limbs, characteristic of many modes of locomotion, can be studied without the confounding influence of balance. Because the subject is seated, neither balance nor body weight support is required, and the kinetics and kinematics of the legs can be analyzed in isolation of the head, arms, and trunk. Biomechanical functions and phasing of the muscles appear to be similar during pedaling and walking despite differences in kinematics (Ting 1998). In both, significant forces are generated and applied to the environment during leg extension phase, whereas in flexion phase much lower forces are applied to the environment, which flex the limb. Although the number of degrees of freedom of movement is greatly reduced because the motion of the feet is constrained to follow the path of the crank in pedaling, simulations show that many different excitation patterns could be used to achieve steady-state pedaling (Raasch 1996). Many biomechanical parameters, such as the load applied to the crank and the phasing between the limbs, can be manipulated as well. Pedaling is therefore an ideal task for studying locomotor mechanisms in humans.
We examined whether the muscle coordination pattern used by one leg during normal two-legged (bilateral) pedaling would also be used in one-legged (unilateral) pedaling, if the loading on the legs were the same in each task. Because the mechanical loading on the legs is the same in both tasks, pedaling coordination can be considered similar if both the net propulsive effect on the crank by muscles during limb extension and flexion (work output) and the excitation pattern of muscles (phasing and amplitude of excitation in extension and flexion) are the same in the two tasks. A previous study of maximum-speed start-up pedaling showed that the excitations of muscles match those predicted by their mechanical function in pedaling (Raasch et al. 1997). Boylls et al. (1984) suggested that muscle coordination in pedaling could be generated independently in each leg, as electomyographic (EMG) patterns remained coupled with the phase of the ipsilateral leg when interlimb phasing was continuously varied during cranking. Further, studies in insect locomotion showed that coordinated action between the limbs can result through mechanical interactions in the environment alone (Cruse et al. 1998). Thus we hypothesized that pedaling coordination of one leg would be the same in the unilateral and bilateral pedaling conditions.
Normally during pedaling, as in gait, a change in coordination of one limb changes the loading on the other limb (i.e., the load at the crank encountered by the contralateral foot, Fig. 1 A). In the experiments to be described, however, a human "motor" assured that the load encountered by the subjects pedaling with one or two legs was the same (Fig. 1 B). Because the crank load or environmental influence on pedaling coordination was the same, no mechanical reason existed for subjects to alter their muscle coordination pattern. Thus any change found in coordination pattern would have to be attributed to central rather than mechanical interlimb coupling.
Experimental description
A bicycle ergometer was modified such that subjects could pedal with either both legs, as on a standard bicycle ergometer (Fig. 2 A), or with only one leg while a human "motor" pedaled the opposite crank (Fig. 2 B), emulating the mechanical contribution to the crank normally supplied by the subject's contralateral leg during two-legged (bilateral) pedaling (see data processing for more information about motor training). The motor reliably reproduced the torque trajectory of the contralateral leg of each subject (see Results). Thus the motor generated a large propulsive torque that accelerated the flywheel and assisted leg flexion of the subject's pedaling leg during the recovery phase, and a small retarding torque that resisted leg extension of the subject's pedaling leg during the propulsive phase. Thus the resistive and propulsive loads external to the ipsilateral pedaling leg were the same in both the unilateral and bilateral conditions.
The following four conditions were presented in the following order.
Condition 1: bilateral pedaling (Fig. 2 A). Subject pedaled normally on the ergometer with both legs.
Condition 2: unilateral pedaling (Fig. 2 B). Subjects pedaled with each leg (right and left presented in random order) while the human motor pedaled the opposite crank. The motor used visual torque feedback to match the nominal crank torque trajectory that was generated by the subject's contralateral leg during bilateral pedaling (condition 1). No feedback was given to the subjects.
Condition 3: unilateral pedaling with feedback (Fig. 2 C). Similar to condition 2 (right and left presented in random order), but subjects were also asked to produce, via real-time visual torque feedback, the same one-leg crank torque generated during bilateral pedaling (condition 1).
Condition 4: bilateral pedaling with feedback (Fig. 2 D). Subjects pedaled with two legs but were asked to produce, via real-time visual feedback of either the right or left leg crank torque (presented in random order), the same one-leg crank torque generated during bilateral pedaling (condition 1).
The visual torque feedback used by the subjects (conditions 3 and 4) and the motor (conditions 2 and 3) consisted of a monitor with a template delimiting ±2 SDs from each subject's mean one-leg crank torque trajectory (left-right averaged) during bilateral pedaling (condition 1). Because only subtle differences between left and right torque trajectories were found, the left-right average was used so the same template could be used throughout each session. A filled circle moved horizontally across the screen as a function of crank angle and vertically in proportion to the crank torque generated by the leg. The subjects were asked to perform a visual tracking task, keeping the circle within the boundaries of the template.
In each trial, subjects pedaled at 60 rpm with the use of a metronome. The ergometer seat tube was inclined 73° from horizontal (Fig. 3, inset) and was set to a workload of 120 J/cycle. Subjects wore cleated cycling shoes and pedaled while leaning forward and grasping the handlebars. Subjects were instructed to remain seated during all trials to minimize movement of the arms and trunk. Subjects were asked to pedal "consistently" for a 40-s trial, with data collected during the last 20 s.
Eleven healthy subjects (8 male, 3 female; age 24 ± 3 yr, mean ± SD; height 1.77 ± 0.07 m; weight 69 ± 6 kg) took part in this study. Subjects were not experienced cyclists. None ever rode a bicycle more than 50 miles/wk. Subjects were naive to the experimental goals. All subjects were right dominant for both hand and foot tasks (writing and kicking a ball). This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (Medical Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects in Research) at Stanford University. Each subject signed a consent form before participating in the study.
Data processing
Normal and shear pedal reaction force, crank and pedal angles, and EMGs from five muscles per leg were collected (see Brown et al. 1996; Raasch et al. 1997). Surface EMGs were measured from the rectus femoris (RF), vastus medialis (VM), biceps femoris long head (BF), tibialis anterior (TA), and medial gastrocnemius (MG) of each leg.
Crank torque produced by each leg, (i.e., the product of the perpendicular component of pedal force that accelerates the crank and crank arm length) was calculated from force and angle data. In any region in the crank cycle, the work done by the leg is directly proportional to the average crank torque. Because the crank torque typically consists of a large positive (propulsive) peak during extension and a negative (resistive) peak during recovery (e.g., Fig. 3), work done in two distinct regions was calculated. Work done by each leg during propulsion (Wp) was calculated between crank angles of 17 and 187° (Fig. 5, inset, Wp), a region in which all subjects generated only positive torque during bilateral pedaling. Work done during recovery (Wr) was calculated in a smaller region between crank angles of 242 and 332° (Fig. 5, inset, Wr), a region in which all subjects generated only negative work during bilateral pedaling. Because timing of transitions from positive to negative torque generation varied among subjects during bilateral pedaling, asymmetry in the regions, with each region defined to be <180°, was chosen so errors introduced by including transition regions would be reduced. In general, the amount of work done during the excluded transition regions was <1% of the total workload and was not different across conditions. The total workload of each trial was calculated by summing the total work done by both legs over the whole cycle (including transition regions). For each trial, all values were calculated by ensemble averaging over 15 crank cycles.
EMG signals were sampled at 1,000 Hz, demeaned, and rectified. As in other pedaling studies, each muscle exhibited one major burst of excitation per cycle (Jorge and Hull 1986; Ryan and Gregor 1992). Thus EMG bursts were characterized by onset angle and offset angle. Muscle bursts were identified by an analysis program that used a threshold activity level of at least +3 SD above mean resting EMG levels, a minimum burst duration of 30 ms, and a minimum off period of 40 ms. Each record was visually inspected and edited by hand if necessary to remove spurious bursts and to ensure that the representative burst in each cycle was properly recorded. For each trial, average EMG onset and offset angles from each muscle were found. Mean EMG amplitude over each burst was also calculated.
EMGs were smoothed with a 10-ms moving average, interpolated to 1° crank intervals, and ensemble averaged over 15 crank cycles. The crank cycle was divided into quadrants (Brown et al. 1997) starting from 0°, when the crank is in the upper position aligned with the seatpost (Fig. 7). Thus a crank angle of 0° always corresponds to maximum leg flexion, regardless of seatpost angle (cf. recumbent pedaling), and 180° to maximum leg extension (Brown et al. 1996; Raasch 1996). EMG integrated (iEMG) over each of the four crank cycle quadrants was calculated.
Work, EMG onset, EMG offset, EMG burst amplitude, and quadrant iEMGs were analyzed as a function of pedaling condition with the use of a two-way analysis of variance with subject and leg (nested within subject) as blocking factors. The StudentNeuman-Keuls post hoc test was applied at a significance level of P < 0.01 to test multiple pairwise comparisons between the four conditions.
Human motor training
The human motor was trained over several weeks to match the crank torque trajectories of both the right and left legs of various individuals. The motor practiced daily for ∼2 wk in 15- to 30-min sessions, pedaling with lab personnel who purposely tried to vary their pedaling performance. The motor initially had difficulty matching the recovery torque trajectory, but easily matched the propulsive torque trajectory. By the end of the first session, the motor was able to match the negative crank torque in recovery but "with considerable mental effort." Next, during pilot experiments over 4 wk and involving seven individuals, the motor's ability to generate negative recovery torque after a few practice cycles when given visual torque feedback increased. For the 11 subjects of this study, the motor was able to generate negative crank torque without practice, although it was necessary to use the feedback to precisely match each subject's trajectory.
Equivalency of task mechanics
The task mechanics did not change significantly across the trial conditions. The average cadence over all subjects and all trials was 60 ± 2 rpm. The standard deviation in cadence for each subject ranged from 0.1 to 2 rpm, and cadence was not significantly different in any of the pedaling conditions (P > 0.05 for all pairwise comparisons). The average frictional workload was 121 ± 5 (SD) J and did not vary by >5% of mean within each subject's set of trials. However, a time-dependent drift in friction level occurred, such that the workload in the first trial was significantly lower than the last trial by an average of 5 J (<4% of total workload). Thus work values presented above were normalized for statistical analysis to control for the variation in workload. Subjects remained seated in all conditions, and no difference in pelvis movement in any of the trials was visible in videotapes.
The human motor was able to adequately match the crank torque template (Fig. 3) of each subject as measured by trajectory shape and work done. In the propulsive and recovery regions, the torque trajectories did not deviate from the subject's mean trajectory by more than 10%, indicating that the shape was similar throughout the cycle. Correspondingly, the work done by the motor during either the propulsive or recovery phase in unilateral pedaling was not significantly different from that generated by the subject during the bilateral condition (P > 0.05 for both). Additionally, the total work done by the motor was not significantly different from the work done by one leg of the subject during bilateral pedaling (P > 0.05).
Bilateral and unilateral pedaling
During bilateral pedaling, the crank torque and EMGs from one leg were similar to those reported in the literature (Gregor et al. 1991; Ryan and Gregor 1992). The crank torque was negative during recovery (see Fig. 4 A, shaded area), as the weight of the leg is propelled by the crank torque generated by the contralateral leg (Kautz and Hull 1993). Thus the large crank torque generated during limb extension, or propulsion (Fig. 4 A), serves not only to accelerate the flywheel and overcome the frictional workload but also to raise the contralateral leg in recovery. No differences between the right and left legs were found.
During unilateral pedaling, the crank torque generated by subjects was increased during the recovery phase (e.g., Fig. 4 A, Table 1). As a group, subjects generated only 14 ± 30% (SD, P < 0.01) of the negative work done by that same leg in bilateral pedaling (Fig. 5 A). Some subjects (3/11, Table 1) generated positive work during recovery, indicating muscular effort great enough to overcome the weight of the leg.
Consistent with this increase in crank torque, increased EMG activity in muscles that contribute to flexion was also measured during recovery in unilateral pedaling when compared with bilateral pedaling (e.g., Fig. 6 A). In RF and TA, an advance in burst onset during the unilateral condition [by 35 ± 10° (SE) and 54 ± 20° (SE), respectively, P < 0.01] corresponds to earlier excitation during the recovery phase (e.g., RF and TA traces in Fig. 6 A). BF offset was delayed [45 ± 18° (SE), P < 0.01], corresponding to extended excitation in recovery during unilateral pedaling (e.g., BF trace in Fig. 6 A). Correspondingly, iEMG over all subjects was increased during limb flexion in RF, TA, and BF (Fig. 7, quadrants 3 and 4). No significant difference in mean EMG amplitude over the whole burst duration was measured in any of these muscles. No other muscles were found to increase activity during flexion phase (see VM and MG in Fig. 7). It is known from simulations that RF, TA, and BF can each contribute to crank propulsion during flexion phase (Raasch 1996).
A slight decrease in propulsion phase torque during unilateral pedaling compared with bilateral pedaling was found (Fig. 5 B). This decrease was not consistent over all subjects (3 subjects generated higher peak forces; 8 generated lower forces). On average, work done in the propulsion phase was 11 ± 7% (SD) lower in unilateral pedaling than in bilateral pedaling (P < 0.01). MG onset was delayed by 17 ± 6° (SE, P < 0.01) and VM onset by 11 ± 6° (SE, P < 0.01). The only change in iEMG found across all subjects during extension phase was a decrease in MG activity (Fig. 7), which may correspond with the decrease in extensor torque during unilateral pedaling (Fig. 5 B).
Pedaling with feedback
When given visual feedback in unilateral pedaling, none of the subjects was able to consistently generate enough negative crank torque during recovery to match the torque trajectory generated in bilateral pedaling (e.g., Fig. 4 B and Table 1). The average work done during recovery in unilateral pedaling with feedback [i.e., 67 ± 36% (SD) of the work during bilateral pedaling, Fig. 5 A] was intermediate to that of bilateral and unilateral pedaling and significantly different from both (P < 0.01). Although the crank torque trajectories during recovery were more variable during unilateral pedaling with feedback (SD of work done during recovery ranged from 1 to 3.5 times that of bilateral pedaling), they were not statistically different (P > 0.05). EMG timing in these trials was also highly variable with no consistent trends across subjects with respect to unilateral pedaling (without feedback). During unilateral pedaling with feedback, work during recovery was not significantly different from the two bilateral pedaling conditions (P > 0.6).
In bilateral pedaling with feedback, subjects had little difficulty matching the torque trajectories measured during the original bilateral condition (Fig. 4 C). The amount of work during the recovery (Table 1) and propulsion phases were not significantly different from the first bilateral pedaling case (P > 0.8 and P > 0.9, respectively; Fig. 5). EMG measures were also not significantly different from bilateral pedaling (all P > 0.05).
Importance of central interlimb coupling
The muscle excitation pattern of a leg during a locomotor task was found to be subject to significant central interlimb coupling because the patterns used in bilateral and unilateral pedaling differed even when the propulsive and resistive forces generated external to the pedaling legs (i.e., the mechanical loading on the legs) remained the same. Ipsilateral muscle coordination during the recovery phase in unilateral pedaling differed from that in bilateral pedaling because retarding crank torque decreased and flexor EMG activity increased. This difference is caused by interlimb neuronal coupling effects, as no change in muscle coordination was warranted by changes in mechanical loading of the legs. Furthermore, the interlimb coupling is substantial because subjects were unable to adequately match the crank torque they generated during bilateral pedaling when they performed unilateral pedaling with feedback. Finally, this centrally mediated coupling can be overcome with practice, as the human motor was able to effectively match the bilateral crank torque after a longer practice regimen.
Constraints on muscle coordination from central interlimb coupling during a human locomotor task have not been previously demonstrated. In fact, muscle activity in each pedaling leg was hypothesized to be generated independently, based on EMG patterns during varying interleg crank-phasing pedaling (Boylls et al. 1984) and H-reflex responses during bilateral pedaling (for review see Brooke et al. 1997). H-reflex modulation in one-legged pedaling indicated that pattern generation of one leg is independent of the other (Brooke et al. 1995; McIlroy et al. 1992).
Equivalency of task mechanics
As in the isometric leg extension experiments (Howard and Enoka 1991; Schantz et al. 1989; Secher et al. 1988), the differences measured here between the bilateral and unilateral pedaling conditions probably cannot be attributed to mechanical factors. The task mechanics for the test leg were tightly controlled to be the same. In each condition, the pedaling leg experienced the same environmental interactions at the seat, or pelvis, and at the pedal. Although some power transfer can occur from linear translation of the hip during pedaling (Ingen Schenau et al. 1992; Neptune and Hull 1995), this amount is rather small (for 60 rpm, 150 W, total work from hip forces = 4.1 J, with ∼0.4 J transmitted during recovery phase) (Neptune and Hull 1995) and could only account for ∼5% of the total change in work during recovery (∼10 J). Further, videotapes indicated no visible differences in pelvis motion among the conditions, although hip translation was not measured directly. The other environmental interaction was at the crank and consisted of the frictional load as well as the crank torque input provided by the human motor (unilateral pedaling) or the subject's contralateral leg (bilateral pedaling). Because the motor was able to track the crank torque profiles of the subjects, the resistance encountered by the pedaling leg at the crank was the same in all conditions. In fact, the difference observed between unilateral and bilateral pedaling occurred during the recovery phase, which is the phase when the human motor is best able to match the torque that the subjects' contralateral leg would produce had it been pedaling also. Thus the greatest difference in crank torque and EMG activity was observed in a phase where mechanical loading conditions of the task were most similar to those of bilateral pedaling. Finally, impedance properties caused by the inertia of the leg were similar in the bilateral and unilateral conditions, as the supplemental crank torque was supplied by a human leg. We conclude that the mechanics of the pedaling task are the same in all conditions.
Differences between flexion and extension
The increase in TA, RF, and BF activities during limb flexion is consistent with an increased muscle contribution to flexion during recovery. TA is an ankle dorsiflexor that, by preventing the ankle from collapsing, can help in transmitting to the crank the power generated by hip uniarticular flexors (Fregly and Zajac 1996). Computer simulations also show that higher excitation of TA, RF, and BF (along with iliacus and psoas) during limb flexion increases crank torque in recovery (unpublished observations).
The bias toward increased flexor activity is strong, as subjects cannot reduce it to the level attained in the bilateral condition, even given crank torque feedback. TA, RF, and BF activities during the unilateral condition with feedback were highly variable from subject to subject and often were more active than in all other conditions, indicating that the central bias to excite the flexors is difficult to modify. Subjects often tried to generate negative crank torque by inappropriately exciting other muscles rather than reducing excitation of the flexors, accounting for the inconsistent patterns of muscle excitation observed in unilateral pedaling with feedback.
In contrast, the decrease in crank torque during limb extension in the unilateral condition was probably a compensation for the decrease in negative torque during limb flexion. Because the workload per cycle is constant and the motor performed one-half of the work per cycle, the subject's leg must do one-half of the total workload in each trial. A net increase in recovery phase torque must be compensated by a net decrease in propulsion phase torque, and vice versa, or constant cadence cannot be maintained. Because subjects demonstrated that they could adjust propulsion phase torque easily when given feedback, the decrease in propulsion phase torque is probably not caused by a centrally encoded inhibition of extensors during the unilateral condition. The muscle excitation patterns used in extension seem more modifiable than those of flexion in lower limb tasks (for review see Dietz 1992). Similarly, such differences in reflex responses of extensors and flexors have been observed in several motor tasks (Dietz 1992). Extensor excitation tends to be modulated continuously by peripheral afferent activity, and flexor excitation tends to be triggered by peripheral input and controlled more by central mechanisms.
Organization of the locomotor central pattern generator (CPG)
Conceptually, the spinal locomotor pattern generator has often been hypothesized to be comprised of "half-centers" that control flexors and extensors of each leg (Brown 1914). Because of the flexibility observed in the locomotor pattern, separate locomotor-generating elements for each limb have been hypothesized with interneuronal connections that create coordinated alternation between the limbs [Fig. 8; in humans (Prokop et al. 1995) and in cats (Forssberg et al. 1980); for review see Grillner 1981]. Afferent information has also been shown to be important in modifying and reinforcing spinal pattern generation (for reviews see Andersson and Grillner 1981; Rossignol et al. 1988). Assuming the same interneuronal elements are used in both the unilateral and bilateral conditions, our study examined the nature of the interlimb coupling pathways during pedaling (pathways residing in the CNS of Fig. 1).
One hypothesis compatible with these general concepts of locomotor pattern generation is that the gain of the interneuronal connections between the ipsilateral and contralateral elements is low (Fig. 8, interconnections C). In this case, to pedal in the unilateral condition, the descending command would have to excite only the locomotor elements associated with the pedaling leg (Fig. 8, descending command A). If the muscle excitation pattern should be the same in the two conditions, the afferent feedback signals from the pedaling legs would also be the same because the external loading conditions on the pedaling legs, or task mechanics, are the same. Independent sensorimotor control of each leg could account for the results of Boylls et al. (1984), where muscle excitation in each leg was found to remain phase locked to the ipsilateral leg when interlimb phasing was continuously and predictably varied via a mechanical linkage. However, in our study here, subjects produced active flexion more during the unilateral condition and could not overcome this tendency even when given visual torque feedback. This result is inconsistent with the muscle coordination pattern of a leg being generated without significant contribution from contralateral neural signals.
Thus interconnections between left and right pattern-generating elements must be important to the generation of the pedaling coordination pattern. Perhaps an inhibition of flexor muscles from the sensorimotor control of contralateral limb extension during bilateral pedaling exists (Fig. 8, interconnections C). Because extensor muscles in the nonpedaling leg during unilateral pedaling are inactive, the inhibition would be released. Such interlimb coupling could be mediated by the flexor reflex pathways (Lundberg 1966; see reviews by Baldissera et al. 1981; McCrea 1992) and is consistent with the mechanics of bilateral pedaling. During bilateral pedaling, flexors contribute little power and do not generate enough crank torque to overcome the weight of the leg in flexion (Hull and Hawkins 1990; Kautz and Hull 1993). Instead, because of mechanical coupling through the crank, the weight of the leg is pushed up by contralateral leg extension. The proposed inhibition of flexors from the sensorimotor control of the contralateral extensors would mean that the power generation in bilateral pedaling would be primarily from extensor muscles, consistent with previous analyses of pedaling (Hull and Hawkins 1990; Raasch et al. 1997).
Gain modulation of afferent pathways
The default strategy during locomotor tasks, such as pedaling and walking, may be to modulate the gain of afferent pathways such that they are strongly effective during limb extension, or the power phase, and ineffective during flexion, or the recovery phase. Prochazka (1989) suggests sensorimotor gain control to be a fundamental strategy employed by the motor system. Also, phase-dependent modulation of reflexes occurs during locomotor tasks. For example, H-reflexes are strongly suppressed during limb flexion in pedaling (Brooke et al. 1992), during the swing phase of walking (Yang and Stein 1990), and in corresponding phases of stepping and passive rotation of the limbs (Brooke et al. 1993, 1995; McIlroy et al. 1992). Similar modulation patterns appear in flexor reflexes (Brown and Kukulka 1993), cutaneous reflexes (Duysens et al. 1990, 1992), and somatosensory evoked potentials during locomotion (for review see Brooke et al. 1997).
Contralateral effects in reflex modulation have also been measured, although H-reflex modulation in a pedaling leg is the same during one- and two-legged pedaling or stepping. H-reflex modulation in the stationary leg during a one-legged pedaling task was demonstrated by McIlroy et al. (1992). Collins et al. (1993) and McIlroy et al. (1992) suggested that contralateral components are not necessary for the single limb to continue undisturbed. However, because the reflex response is already so low during flexion, it may be impossible to measure what appear to be redundant ipsilateral and contralateral sources of reflex inhibition, although both effects can be measured in isolation.
Shared bilateral neuronal circuitry significantly shapes the unilateral pattern
We believe that subjects used the same ipsilateral descending command (Fig. 8, descending command A) to pedal unipedally as bipedally, but the change in sensorimotor state of the nonpedaling leg (e.g., Fig. 1 B, right leg) resulted in different motor outputs to the pedaling leg (e.g., Fig. 1 B, left leg) because the neuronal circuitry responsible for pedaling is inherently bilateral (cf. "shared bilateral core") (Stein and Smith 1997; Stein et al. 1995). For example, the excitation of an ipsilateral muscle may be strongly influenced by either the excitation of muscles in the contralateral leg or contralateral sensory feedback in addition to ipsilateral commands and sensory feedback. Rossignol (1996) states, "Although each limb can be regarded as an autonomous walking unit, when coupled to the fellow limb, the cycle of the limb is influenced by the cycle of the contralateral limb." We showed that, even when the contralateral sensorimotor state is changed from pedaling to static, muscle coordination of the pedaling leg is altered. Because the control of the legs may be inherently neuronally coupled (e.g., shared bilateral core), muscle coordination of a pedaling leg changes when the other leg no longer pedals. Thus even if the same central command to pedal is used for unilateral and bilateral pedaling, the motor output of a pedaling leg will be appreciably different because contralateral influences on the shared neuronal circuitry are functionally significant. With practice, however, just as interlimb coupling effects can be reduced in the upper limbs (Cohen 1970; Summers and Pressing 1994; Swinnen et al. 1993), our study suggests that coupling effects can be compensated for in the lower limbs because the human motor was able to modify its one-leg crank torque trajectories to match the subjects' when given feedback and extended practice. However, we cannot differentiate whether interlimb coupling gains were modulated with practice with the descending command unaltered or vice versa.
Subjects may use a different strategy to perform the unilateral tasks, which would also account for the differences observed. However, tasks as different as pawshake and locomotion in the cat are probably generated by common neuronal elements (for review see Rossignol 1996). Given the high similarity in unilateral and bilateral pedaling, common neuronal elements are likely utilized to control different pedaling tasks. This is even more likely, given that subjects use the same basic pattern, although computer simulations indicate multiple coordination strategies are possible (Raasch 1996). Nevertheless, even if different elements are used, we would still be able to conclude that a coordination strategy based on knowledge of the mechanics of the ipsilateral pedaling task and ipsilateral afferent feedback information is insufficient to predict muscle coordination. Therefore a strategy based on independent pattern-generating elements for each leg is likewise insufficient to explain pedaling, and probably walking as well, because muscle function and phasing in extensors and flexors during pedaling and walking are similar (Ting 1998).
Our study demonstrates that muscle coordination during pedaling depends on the sensorimotor state of the contralateral leg. Although mechanical cues from the pedaling leg during the unilateral conditions would indicate that the leg could pedal as in the bilateral condition, subjects pedaled as if insufficient crank torque was being generated by the human motor. Thus ipsilateral proprioceptive signals from the leg are insufficient to determine the muscle coordination pattern. In fact, gain modulation of sensory afferent pathways may reduce sensitivity to ipsilateral feedback during limb flexion, which is the phase of the locomotor task found to be most susceptible. These results are consistent with the existence of an inhibitory pathway from elements controlling extension onto contralateral flexion elements, with the pathway operating during two-legged pedaling but not during one-legged pedaling, in which case flexor activity increases.
We thank D. Schwandt for building the apparatus; C. Dairaghi, F. Sheehan, and P. Stevenson for technical assistance; and S. Dunn-Gabrielli and F. Valero for help programming the torque feedback.
This work was supported by National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Grant NS-17662, the Rehabilitation Research and Development Service of the Department of Veterans Affairs, and a National Science Foundation Predoctoral Fellowship to L. H. Ting.
Address for reprint requests: F. E. Zajac, Rehabilitation R&D Center (153), VA Palo Alto Health Care System, 3801 Miranda Ave., Palo Alto, CA 94304-1200.


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BURGETTSTOWN – Coming off a second-place finish in the WPIAL Class AA Team Wrestling Tournament last season, South Fayette High School is looking to take the next step with its program.
But first, the Lions had to take care of business at the Section 1 tournament at Burgettstown High School Wednesday night.
Consider that mission accomplished, and in impressive fashion.
The Lions captured their second consecutive Section 1-AA title, rolling through Ellwood City, 64-18, then handling Burgettstown, 65-10, in the championship, practically pinning their way through the dual meets.
"We expected Burgettstown to come at us in their home gym," said South Fayette coach Rick Chaussard, whose team qualified for the tournament by finishing first in subsection 1-B. "They have a good, rich tradition and we expected a battle."
Burgettstown, the subsection 1-A champion, expected a closer match as well. To get to the finals, the Blue Devils, who came into the night with a perfect 6-0 record in dual meets, had to face longtime rival Avella.
"We got off to a kind of a slow start and never really recovered from it," said Burgettstown coach Terry Havelka. "I think our kids were still feeling the emotion of beating Avella. It's a big win. It's a big rivalry. I think they were still floating a little bit. They didn't come back and focus for South Fayette."
The Lions, who ran their record to a perfect 17-0, took immediate advantage.
Jack Previte got a hard-earned 7-1 win over Brad Hucik at 182, where the match began, before Rausaun Culbertson and Bryce Christoff followed with pins. When the Lions picked up forfeits at heavyweight and 106 pounds, they already owned a 27-0 lead.
"I wasn't really trying to get a pin," said Culbertson. "I was just going out and trying to score some points for our team. But I saw the chance for the pin and took it. The coaches showed a lot of faith in me to send me out there."
It was that kind of night for Chaussard and the Lions. Seemingly whatever matchup the South Fayette coach came up with turned to gold.
Austin McDermitt slowed the South Fayette momentum with a pin at 113 pounds and John Dennis followed that with a major decision at 120 that gave the Blue Devils a bit of life.
But it was short-lived, as Scott Rzepecki, trailing 2-1 late in the second period, caught Darrell Bails and reversed him onto his back, recording a pin at 3:49.
It was all South Fayette from there, with the Lions closing the match out with pins by Shane Ging, Ben Previte, Grant Fetchet and Jared Walker. Michael Carr got a hard-fought 6-5 decision over Stephen Kotouch at 138 pounds that actually was clinched the match.
None of the team involved in next Wednesday night's section tournament was eliminated. All advance to next week's WPIAL Class AA Team Tournament, with South Fayette as section champion, Burgettstown second, Ellwood City third, thanks to a 42-33 win over fourth-place Avella.
And if Chaussard has things his way, this latest section championship will be looked upon as a stepping stone to something bigger for his program.
"That's the goal. If we continued to be successful, it will carry over to next year and the kids will know what we expect every year," Chaussard said. "When I first came here a few years ago, they didn't know how to win. It happened in this gym. We lost a match here in a dual meet to a team I thought we should have beaten. We lost. Burgettstown wanted it, and we didn't know how to win it. I think we've changed that mentality the past two years."
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Study: More Thoughtful, Expensive Gifts May Not Be Those Most Appreciated
Two weeks from today is a VERY big day in the gift world. That's because 14 days from now is December 26th, the day AFTER Christmas. Why is that such a big deal? If you screw up and get that special someone on your list the wrong thing, it WILL be going back to the store two weeks from today!
So what's your strategy when it comes to gift giving? Do you simply go with the list someone gives you or do you try to do a little detective work and figure out what they want by sneaking around and doing some research?
Which one makes you feel better? The one you did all on your own right? Of course it does, but it may have the exact opposite effect on your gift's recipient.
A new study says thoughtful gifts don't necessarily lead to greater appreciation. Instead, it's the giver who actually benefits, getting a feeling of closeness to the other person, the study found. Similar research last year found that people are actually more appreciative when they receive a gift they have explicitly requested.
According to the co-author of the University of Chicago study:
It turns out it's not the thought that counts, it's the gift that counts.
When in doubt, remember one simple thing: give the people what they want.


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It is with great sadness that our family announces the passing of Harriet Denby (nee Sanderson) on Saturday, June 18, 2011 at the Dauphin Regional Health Centre after a lengthy battle with diabetes.
Harriet was born in Winnipegosis on July 8, 1928. She married John Henry Denby on March 28, 1951 and together they had seven children.
She will be lovingly remembered by her children, Clifford (Darlene), Joyce (Brian), Jack (Rosa), Sarah (Martin), Mary (Dave), Ralph (Yvette) and Roger; 14 grandchildren and 11 great-grandchildren. She will also be missed by her sisters Daisy and Mae and brother Charles and her extended family, bingo buddies and friends.
Harriet was predeceased by her husband Jack, her parents Charles and Ellen Sanderson, brothers William, Ralph and Gifford and sisters Mable and Violet and grandson Greg Denby.
She cherished the time she spent with her children and grandchildren and would spend hours with them playing a variety of games. The grandkids loved coming to Grandma's summer resort. She looked forward to family gatherings which were always busy and boisterous and never tired of having everyone home.
When her health was good she loved to garden, pick berries, and produced many jars of preserves ready to share with family when they came home for visits. In her later years, she turned her interest to knitting and crocheting and provided slippers, mitts, toques, and blankets for all her grandchildren and great-grandchildren. She always had extras on hand to donate to the different community groups.
Her favourite pastime was socializing with her friends at the New Horizons Senior Centre, which included bingo, playing cards, and puzzles. While her health was good, she looked forward to her turn to provide lunch for the Centre.
Funeral service was held on Saturday, June 25, 2011 at 1:00 p.m. from the Knox Presbyterian Church in Winnipegosis with Dennis Howard officiating. Music was provided by the Winnipegosis Community Choir, accompanied by organist Audrey Erickson. Brian Boyechko delivered the eulogy. Interment followed in the Winnipegosis District Cemetery. Pallbearers were Derek Brightnose, Matthew Bowen-Colthurst, Dale Pascal, Dariel Denby, Jarvis Tirk and Phyllip Thorne.
Memorial donations in memory of Harriet can be made to the Canadian Diabetes Association or to a charity of one's choice.
Arrangements were entrusted to Sneath-Strilchuk Funeral Services with funeral homes in Dauphin, Roblin and Ste. Rose du Lac.Print This Obituary & Condolences
Offer Condolence for the family of Harriet Denby (nee Sanderson)


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Drug discovery spin-out company Onco-NX and Kanichi Research Services, which develops a bespoke range of sensors for the healthcare market, have each received £50K Pathfinder Investments.
The North West Fund for Biomedical is managed by early-stage venture capital firm SPARK Impact and is part of the £185m evergreen fund provided jointly by the European Investment Bank (EIB) and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), to supply debt and equity funding to small and medium sized enterprises in the North West.
Onco-NX's main activity is dedicated to drug discovery and development in the field of Oncology. The company has an emerging pipeline of opportunities, the £50K investment will allow Onco-NX to begin to assess its opportunities in more depth and continue to gather data on its lead compounds.
Pawel Zolnierczyk, IP Manager at the University of Salford and key commercial support for Onco-NX, said: "We are really excited to be working with SPARK Impact on this project and would like to thank all the team for helping to get our first drug development spin-out company up and running. The Onco-NX team has worked very hard to make this a reality and we are looking forward to continuing to develop products in what is a very important and hopefully valuable market."
Founded in 2008, Kanichi develops novel electrochemical sensors for the rapidly growing point of care healthcare market. There are a number of disease states which result in chemical or biomarkers being present in breath and Kanichi's technology allows rapid detection and measurement of these markers with a view to aiding diagnosis.
The investment will allow Kanichi to grow its team, particularly on the commercial side, enabling it to engage further with existing customers and licensees. The company will increase its knowledge of point of care diagnostic opportunities through market research to facilitate taking forward its in-house products. Part of the investment will be used to continue to prosecute its existing patent portfolio, and file new patents to further protect the IP being developed by Kanichi.
Founder of Kanichi, Professor David Walton said: "We are extremely pleased to receive this initial investment from SPARK Impact and the Biomedical fund. This will allow us to grow our team, delivering on existing commercial projects, and develop and patent our in house diagnostic products."
Dr Penny Attridge, Senior Investment Director at SPARK Impact and manager of The North West Fund for Biomedical, said: "With Onco-NX, we're pleased to be able to work with such a highly regarded team from Salford Universities Molecular Drug Design Centre headed up by Prof. Alan McGown and Dr John Hadfield, and thrilled to be able to invest in Salford's first spin-out company.
"In Kanichi Research Services, we are delighted to make an investment into what we feel is an exciting, promising and what could be a world beating technology platform for point of care sensors. Kanichi has an excellent, experienced team of well respected technical and commercial developers, and had demonstrated the value of its technology through the sale and license of its sensors into biomedical applications.
"SPARK Impact is continuing to invest in exciting and interesting opportunities, over the last few months we have completed six Pathfinder investments across the very wide and diverse Biomedical sector."
The North West Fund for Biomedical is accessible to a broad range of companies including those developing pharmaceuticals; new diagnostics and medical devices, and those working in the fields of clinical research, contract manufacturing and analytical services. It is open to the biomedical companies based in, or prepared to relocate, to the North West of England.
For more information about the fund and how to apply visit www.thenorthwestfund.co.uk.
SPARK Impact is located within Liverpool Science Park.
Media contacts
SPARK Impact
Louise Clancy, firstname.lastname@example.com, 0151 705 3416
The North West Fund
Alastair Henry, MC2 – email@example.com 0161 236 1352
The North West Fund for Biomedical and SPARK Impact:
The £25m North West Fund for Biomedical, which is managed by SPARK Impact, is part of the £185m evergreen fund provided by the European Investment Bank (EIB) and European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), to supply debt and equity funding to small and medium sized enterprises in the North West of England.
The North West Fund for Biomedical, which was launched in February 2011, is accessible to a broad range of companies including those developing pharmaceuticals, new diagnostics and medical devices, and those working in the fields of clinical research, contract manufacturing and analytical services. It is open to companies based in, or prepared to relocate to, the North West of England, with 40% of the fund to be invested on Merseyside. It is expected that the fund will invest in over 50 businesses. It has already received over 100 applications and made six investments to date. For more information about the fund and how to apply please visit www.thenorthwestfund.co.uk
The North West Fund is a £185m evergreen investment fund established to provide debt and equity funding (from £50,000 to £2 million) to small and medium sized enterprises based in, or relocating to, the North West of England. The Fund addresses an identified gap in the lending, venture capital and private equity markets. It one of the largest public sector funds of its kind in Europe and the largest in the UK.
The North West Fund is financed by the European Regional Development Fund and the European Investment Bank (EIB) under the European Commission's Joint European Resources for Micro to Medium Enterprises Initiative – otherwise known as the JEREMIE programme.
The North West Fund is the umbrella name for the six funds that are available to businesses in the form of debt, equity and quasi-equity. These funds are managed by six fund managers under contract with North West Business Finance Limited (NWBF), which has been established to oversee the delivery of the Fund
Initially, £170m of The North West Fund has been allocated to the six fund managers.
Each fund manager now has a mandate to invest their allocation into the specific product or sector they manage, until 31st December 2015. The remaining £15m will be available for further allocation and investment through to the end of 2015. Such further allocations will be made as investment needs become more apparent.
North West Business Finance Ltd (NWBF) is a private, not for profit company, established to oversee the delivery of The North West Fund.
European structure, JEREMIE
The JEREMIE initiative offers EU Member States, through their national or regional Managing Authorities, the opportunity to use part of their European Union (EU) Structural Funds to finance small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) by means of equity, loans or guarantees, through a revolving umbrella fund. The initiative was developed by the European Commission (EC) and the European Investment Fund (EIF), which is part of the European Investment Bank (EIB) Group.
JEREMIE provides for a range of debt and equity financial tools to obtain the most appropriate allocation of funds according to national, regional or local requirements.
ERDF in the Northwest
The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) is making a real difference to people and businesses in the North West. With €755 million to invest between 2007 and 2013, ERDF is enhancing the competitiveness of the region's economy by supporting growth in enterprise and employment.
ERDF in the North West is managed by the Department for Communities and Local Government – for further information visit www.communities.gov.uk/erdf.
The European Investment Bank (EIB)
The EIB is the European Union's long-term financing institution and, provides long-term finance for capital projects promoting European economic objectives. The EIB made its first loan in the UK in 1973 and since then has lent around €75bn for investment in the UK economy. In the years from 2004 to 2009, the EIB financed investment in the UK totalling some € 23.5bn - GBP 17.5 billion.
The Northwest Regional Development Agency (NWDA)
The NWDA works to deliver economic success in England's North West by building the competitiveness of its businesses, people and places. Utilising technical expertise and strategic influence, it helps the region's 250,000+ businesses to develop and grow, as well as supporting international trade and encouraging inward investment.
For further information on the NWDA please visit www.nwda.co.uk.


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Punch Excision + Mole Removal
Indent After Punch Biopsy - Will It Fill In? (photo)
I had a punch biopsy on the end of my nose 10 days ago to have a mole removed. Had stitches out after 7 days and healing ok but I am upset to see that... READ MORE
Normal Healing After Punch Biopsy?
I had a benign mole removed by punch biopsy from the sole of my foot three weeks ago, just below my 2nd and 3rd toes. The wound seems to have mostly... READ MORE
Is a Punch Biopsy Enough for a Severe Dysplastic Mole?
I had a mole shave biopsied and the result stated severely abnormal - recommend removing slightly more. Dermatologist said I needed to set up a punch... READ MORE
Remaining Mole After Punch Biopsy - Can It Turn Cancerous?
Hello. The punch biopsy removed a small peice of the mole and left the rest behind. The report on the biopsy says: "There are solitary and nested... READ MORE
Punch Biopsy Healing. Scar is Bigger Than the Mole Itself, 2 Months Post Op?
Had a punch biopsy 2mths ago everything normal. i now have a scar that is bigger than the mole it's self and is purple. I just purchased silicone not... READ MORE
Is a Punch Biopsy Enough for a Dysplastic Nervus with Moderate Atypia?
I had a punch biopsy done to remove a mole from my leg. The diagnosis was: "lentiginous junctional dysplastic nervus with moderate atypia,... READ MORE
Should I be concerned with a mole regrowing to previous size after punch biopsy?
I have a mole on my areola, which I've had my entire life. A few months ago, I got it checked for melanoma since it began to change. The dermatologist... READ MORE
Does Completely Excised Mean Clear Margins?
I initially had a punch biopsy done for a mole. Because the diagnosis was "Lentiginous Junctional dysplastic nervus with moderate atypia, focally... READ MORE
Is this normal after stitches removed after punch hole biopsy? (Photo)
I had my stitches removed yesterday seven days after a punch hole biopsy on my toe. I thought it would be completely closed?? My toe is also quite... READ MORE
I Had a Mole Removed a Week Ago Using the Punch Method?
The pathology report came back benign with clear margins - but it did contain some atypical cells. What's the next step? READ MORE
How long does bruising last after local anaesthetic in the toe?
Hiya I have quite a lot of bruising to the posterior of my toe and a little on the opposite side from my punch biopsy. It has been a week and a half... READ MORE
What is the best treatment for dog ear incision after mole removal? (photos)
I had a large mole removed on my face- above my lips 6 months ago. The PS removed the mole using a punch biopsy. I was assured by the PS that they... READ MORE
I had 3 biopsies on one site on my cheek near my nose. the last being a punch biopsy. All came back clean. How do I correct the
It was stitched but did not heal. I have a deep hole in my face with epidermis rolling inward. What is best procedure to correct this? READ MORE
Punch Biopsy for Atypical Nevus. Why Did I Get 2 Different Responses With the Same Results?
I had a punch biopsy which came back saying that I had an atypical mole with worrying features. I was told to have it excised, so went in and had an... READ MORE
Removal of slightly raised and non raised moles on the scalp. Is a punch biopsy the best way to remove them?
So I went to the dermatologist today to get the moles on my head/face/scalp checked out. The moles in question are all regular shape and color but... READ MORE
Other Options for Mole Removal?
I have had a shave biopsy three times for a large mole on my cheek (larger than a pencil eraser). Every time, it grows back darker, but the dr. thinks... READ MORE
dog ears after mole removal via punch excision ? (photos)
I had a punch excision performed on one of cheek my moles on April 6. Right after the surgery I noticed the typical appearance of "dog ears" on both... READ MORE
I got my mole removed. Is it healing normally? And can I get my stitches off earlier? (photos)
I got a mole removed 7 days ago with a Punch Biopsy procedure. Still have my stitches. My doctor said that the stitches would be off in two weeks from... READ MORE
I had 2 moles removed from my stomach today for biopsy. 1 of the spots hurts badly, the other is fine. (Photo)
I had 2 moles removed today from my stomach. One was punched out and the other scraped off(nearest my belly button). The one that was punched bled a... READ MORE
Punch excision for mole removal, how to minimize scarring?
Hi I recently had a punch excision done to remove a mole from my face. After the procedure I had two stitches given to me in order to close the wound.... READ MORE


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Let me introduce myself. My name is Mark Sisson. I'm 63 years young. I live and work in Malibu, California. In a past life I was a professional marathoner and triathlete. Now my life goal is to help 100 million people get healthy. I started this blog in 2006 to empower people to take full responsibility for their own health and enjoyment of life by investigating, discussing, and critically rethinking everything we've assumed to be true about health and wellness...Tell Me More
The holiday season for many people, my family included, has a simple pattern about it. We're relatively understated about the whole affair, but there are certain things we do because, well, we do them every year. December, for example, wouldn't be the same without the small, casual solstice gathering we host. In the midst of the greater hoopla (and maybe as an antidote to it), I always look forward to that evening. Fill in your own holiday and routines, but the principle applies for most people. Let's consider the "royal we" here. We put up certain decorations and bring out certain dishes. We cook a specific slate of recipes. We gather at these houses for these particular parties. We might take the kids to this museum or go to this play. We attend the same services and concerts. We volunteer time or resources to these charities. We read a particular set of books and listen to the same music. Maybe we watch a certain movie every year. We send holiday cards. It's an elaborate dance that both inspires and exhausts. We can't imagine celebrating the holidays without this standard lineup, but most of us are somehow glad when it's all done and taken down. (I know it's kind of sacrilege to mention that part this early in the month.) Whatever the efforts required, we tend to organize our lives and society around ritual. And there's a reason we gravitate toward these common, recurring practices.
For our ancient ancestors of course, ritual was key to social cohesion. The tighter knit the group, after all, the better chance they had at surviving. Ritual helped define kinship for our hunter-gatherer ancestors. It imposed an agreed upon order to life. It established common ground and constructed a group identity for our ancestors. It kindled a sense of meaningful participation and collective investment.
Not surprisingly, evidence suggests that the first rituals centered on meat sharing. Archeologists have compared knife marks in recovered bones of animals at different ancient sites and observed that the number of marks decreased over time and became more standard. The shift, researchers explain, suggests that meat sharing moved from a kind of collective free for all in which many people took what they could to a formal activity performed by one person who then distributed meat according to a preset arrangement.
As our species continued to evolve, ritual became more elaborate and moved beyond meat sharing to other functions that enhanced social ties like initiation rites and spiritual ceremony. During the Upper Paleolithic age as easily habitable land shrunk with the ice age just as human population grew, groups likely had more contact with one another. To keep a relative peace, ritual further evolved in terms of scope and detail. Experts have even found evidence of what appeared to be a massive burial feast for an ancient shaman. Never underestimate the power of a good party, I guess.
When we talk about ritual today, we refer to both collective traditions like holiday customs or religious conventions as well as individual practices like prayer or meditation. It speaks to the power of ritual for the human mind, I think, that we've internalized the social bonding element within these kinds of individual practices. Although we might think of them as personal activities, they also reinforce an investment in something beyond ourselves – whether it be family tradition, spiritual community, or a generalized but still shared ethos like that guiding a meditation practice. Our society has become so complex that ritual has become even more symbolic and in some cases subtle. In short, we're performing a personal ritual but still participating in something that extends beyond our own experience.
In some regard, of course, a ritual can be any repeated activity to which we bring a positive and intentional mindfulness. (Humor me here as I clearly push the original context of the term.) Some people have self-care rituals they do at home for the purpose of relaxation. Others create a particular rhythm to meaningful hobbies like the careful laying out of tools in preparation for wood carving or the set up of paints and canvas for painting.
Although we may not be thinking of it at the time, even ritual in this alternative sense may connect us to some bigger association or emotional story. Maybe we're laying out the tools like our father did. Maybe setting up the painting supplies this way is a kind of homage to the well of creativity we hope to tap. Our efforts don't have to be big or bold to contain an element of ceremony.
Beyond any sense of reverence, the simple repetition of an activity can somehow invoke positive feelings. Researchers have shown that simple routine enhances "feelings of safety, confidence, and well-being." Go ahead and do ten sun salutations (yes, right now) and see how you feel. More relaxed? Of course you are. That's a little more complex than rote routine, but you get the point. The simple repetition of movements or words has figured into spiritual and meditative arts for millennia as a centering practice to focus the mind and let go of peripheral distractions. It's a soothing, physical dimension that's always played a role in ritual.
As full to the brim as the holidays are, it's a fitting time of year to think about ritual. Even if you don't celebrate any particular occasion this month, maybe the slower, more inward mood of winter is enough to elicit the question. What rituals populate your life right now? Put them under the light of assessment if that makes sense. Which enhance your sense of community and connection? Which are comforting, life-giving, or otherwise positive influences? Which, if any, have lost their core of meaning and now just take up mental and logistical space in hollow forms? Is it time for redefining old rituals or creating new ones?
This kind of theme is less traveled territory for MDA, but I've had these ideas on the brain since Thanksgiving. (Maybe it's the work I've been doing on my next book.) Chalk it up to this. Each of us in our own way uses the Primal Blueprint to consider how our ancestral roots create the obvious (and less obvious) needs and desires we have today. For some of us, we're happy applying it to the primary physical areas of diet and exercise, maybe with sleep and sun thrown in for good measure.
For others, the journey goes further. We use the Primal context to examine subtler, less acknowledged dimensions of our ancestral design. Understanding these primal inclinations, we can prioritize sources of nourishment often lacking in our modern society like nature, play, for meaningful ritual – for example.
Some years ago researchers from the University of Syracuse published study results illustrating a relationship between couples' participation in spiritual holiday rituals and their marital satisfaction. Subjects of varying religious backgrounds who shared holiday customs like lighting the menorah or decorating for Christmas reported better overall relationship happiness. Significantly, the connection didn't depend on degree of spiritual devoutness but on the active experience of sharing in the ritual itself. In the words of the researchers, "couples embrace the symbolic aspects of celebrations and value the opportunity to reaffirm their beliefs and relationship."
No matter what your religious stripes (or lack thereof) themselves, I think the findings underscore the original impact of meaningful ritual: to bond us together in common story and experience. It's a harder thing to come by these days. However, I think of our ancestors and their pivotal reverence for a ceremony that fed a community or a ritual that honored the timeless transitions that define our individual humanity or those that movingly recreated their extraordinary cosmological narratives. There's something about digging down to the elemental – the raw and vital center of our inclinations. In a bigger, faster, virtual society, doing so brings me back to what originally mattered.
What role does ritual have in a post-modern world? It depends on whether you consider yourself post-modern, I guess, or how you even interpret what that begins to mean. Beyond the scope of the present holidays (and certainly beyond their rampant commercialization), there are legitimate, primitive forces at work. I'll enjoy observing the holidays in the most Primal way possible.
Thanks for reading today, everybody. Let me know your take on ritual in a Primal lifestyle.
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53 Comments on "The Power of Ritual"
Hi Mark,
Great post (again. I can really appreciate what you say above. Look forward to more great things.
As a father to a 5 and 6 year old, rituals are a great bonding experience and it's great to see my girls recognize the insight of the occasions. Whether it's cooking a special meal together or seeing a special Christmas decoration area like Kansas City's Plaza, the ritual of attending, together, makes many special memories hold greater significance.
Agreed. "Rituals" seem way more important to me this holiday season than ever before. I have a 2 year old who is starting to "get" things. I find myself doing things with him that are the same things I did with my parents when I was a kid. I definitely have emotions attached to those things… I have been noticing how emotional I feel about Christmas this year! Strange!
We are also as a family (still) trying to creat a tradition that is meaningful for us… something to deviate from all of the commercialism.
Also, one of the biggest rituals I remember is holiday baking. This involved creating lots & lots of holiday treats & delivering to friends/family.
Obviously this is a challenge while eating primally. I've caved some, but have tried to keep it healthier than usual… dark chocolate bark, etc.
here is a good article by zen habits about a gift free christmas http://zenhabits.net/giftless/
One of the interesting things about family or holiday rituals is how the rituals from my childhood differed from my wife's. When we got married, we suddenly realized we had different rituals, some of which were competing. Looking back, we navigated them to select from both of our sides as well as creating new ones.
With younger kids, I completely agree that ritual provides some security and confidence, whether its day to day or year over year.
Great post mark!!
Yes, I decided to make candy for everyone this year as I don't really want to deal with the expense and hassle of gifts. Everyone loves the candy I make, but it is decidedly not primal.
Like any good idea, I want to share it; sugar and grains are bad. But then I turn around and give people this candy. No, the disconnect is not lost on me.
And with the number of overweight/obese/diabetic people who might indulge in my gifts, the morality of this is making me feel quite a bit ambivalent about my decision.
I decided to do spiced pecans for everyone…has some brown sugar but minimal (Alton Brown's recipe)
dark chocolate covered nuts. that's a kinda primal treat.
Beautiful sentiment. We call our tree a Solstice Tree (you don't have to be a pagan to want to celebrate the return of longer days!). I love the lights, the music, the gathering of family and friends, and the giving. It gives me warm fuzzies even in below freezing temps!
I've never wondered why atheists particpate — it's the spirit of the season, after all. But, with all due respect, I do wonder why one would call it an "Atheist christmas tree" considering the root of the word "Christmas." Now, Solstice tree, I can get behind!
It's okay – I confuse people. My house has a large Christmas tree (that's what it's called, so I call it that too – with "Atheist" added), a large Buddha fountain in the guest bathroom and another smiling Buddha in the garden. Oh, and just to add to some peoples' WTF? – my husband is Jewish.
I'm the crazy lady who feeds her dog raw bones and doesn't eat grains, so the tree just adds to the mystique!
I feel the same way. Lovely.
You're totally right. Not only did our ancestors bond together more often but they lived in communities more where they interacted every day with other people in their tribe.
Nowadays we don't even know our neighbors. My intention is that will change one day.
Your post and some of the comments make me miss my family, who are spread across the west coast. As a child, I always enjoyed holidays together with our aunts, uncles and cousins. I wish that I could continue that with my kids. In this global, scattered society, I wonder how I can convey to my kids the importance of staying close to family, especially after they have kids!
We are starting a new tradition this year, made up over dinner one night as a reaction to the tired old corporate options. It's the Terrifical Ambiguous Winter Day Of Glee (TAWDOG) Which will gather friends and family from near and far too share joy, mirth, and an aromatic roast pork shoulder (with cracklin).
Yes, I love this!
I think it's about time we invented a primal holiday. Perhaps going out camping, reading passages from The Origin of Species, simulating a hunt or tribal war with a strategic water gun fight then settling around a campfire to unveil a large hunk of slow-cooked animal to eat of course without cutlery. How would one( in a relatively simple way) go about cooking a big hunk of meat beneath or alongside a campfire?
Spit roast! and one could be rigged with sticks/branches found on site. It's not too late for this year!
Reading Mark's Daily Apple during my lunch break is one of my daily rituals =)
As I read the article, I thought, "One of my rituals is sitting down in front of the computer and clicking on MDA."
Another ritual is making, doctoring and drinking my morning coffee.
Rituals mean a lot to me on a day-to-day basis. I've come to realize that if I follow my routines, my day will be more enjoyable and I'll get more accomplished.
Part of my routine/ritual includes some "me" time, as I seem to get energy from being alone. The holidays for me erase a lot of the "me" time with all the visits and events. Although hectic and often stressful, I love seeing family and celebrating the holidays…in short bursts! 8)
Nice post, Mark, and one that really resonates with me.
when I was younger my family had many Christmas rituals that centered around church. I've since eschewed organized religion. Now thanksgiving is my favorite holiday. My SO and I have a ritual "get a way" following the feast.
Perhaps if we teach this to the young the traditions will have more meaning.
I can see how rituals help relationships; this is our first Christmas together and already we're super excited to spend time together setting up a tree, etc. Maybe it's just the act of doing something together that's seperate from the norm that, while may seem largely useless, still has a special meaning because of it's difference from that norm.
The smaller the world gets the more our rituals evolve. One of my favorites is to create a greeting card to mail out to special friends and relatives. The other is to prepare a couple of old recipes that bring back warm memories.
Not all rituals are warm and fuzzy, but those that are certainly do evoke the comfort factor — no mater what the season.
i think things get too comercial/material when we take the "holy" out of our "holidays"…as great as getting together with family and friends is, all the food, the time off of work/school – one of the best things about holidays is telling your children what they are celebrating! what event/s does the day commemorate? even the solstice is cause for appreciating the reliable, regular miracle of the changing seasons. passing on the memory of a significant event is truly the best ritual of all. our children carry on after we are gone.
New book?!?!?!? When can we expect it?
My daily ritual is handwashing dishes. It's one of those mindless-but-productive activities, which is a nice reprieve from doing anything related to college (engineering majors will know what I'm talking about).
And since moving in with my boyfriend, I've been doing A LOT of dishwashing!
Great subject! Rituals are a very important part of who we are, and how intelligent we are. I could sit here all day and talk about this stuff, but the most important thing I will say is we exist. Can you imagine that? We EXIST and we survived long enough and evolved long enough to form beliefs and rituals to deal with that existence. It's causality at work.
I really like christmas time and the family-gatherings that go along with it.
Having certain rituals (lets even call them habits) and – since most of them are created uncounsciously – questioning their effect on our lives from time to time, is very important.
I would go so far and call simple things like for example ,,cooking my food for school" a personal ritual, cause I experience positive emotions everytime I do it.
It's important to differentiate between ritual and ceremony. Having just finished reading Robert L. Moore's essays on sacred space, ritual process and personal transformation, I believe very few of us have ever participated in a "ritual." It's a word whose profound meaning has become lost to modern humans over the millenia, but one that the archtype Grok would have known intimately.
I really related to this post…I find myself looking more and more to ancestral links, ritual among them. At the moment I am in an ancient land where people lived for many hundreds of years, hunting, gathering, making their mark, leaving their art that recorded their rituals. Seeing petroglyphs will help you to feel that connection in a very visceral way…I can imagine their hunt and their food sharing, and I KNOW many of these people were aware of Solstice and the other natural turnings.
Thanks, Mark, another winner.
Most of our early ancestors celebrated the earth. They had a spiritual connection with everything around them, and that is how I celebrate my life. My rituals are all centered on nature and I love it! talk about getting back to your roots… Check out Power of the Witch by Lauri Cabot. Good info!
One thing I love about rituals is that it removed the requirement to make a decision.
Take exercising first thing in the morning for example. Once it becomes a ritual, it just happens. You're doing it before you even start a dialog with yourself.
My husband and I are new to this (10 months).
Thank you for MDA. It's a constant that keeps me focused and leads to more useful information. A daily ritual of sorts! 😉
I'm a bit late on commenting, but I wanted to point out that simplistic rituals just made me so happy. Walking to work is one of them, including crossfit in my day after work is another, drinking my thyroid pill with water in the mornings is another :o)
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text:
All my life I have been behind the times. I wore my bell-bottoms for years after the fashion had died, and in fact only abandoned them after they had shrunk up and become sort of bell-knickers.
I kept listening to Elvis for long after he had left more than just the building, and I voted for George McGovern — even in the recent U.S. election.
Yet, there is one way I can say I'm really with it: I hit my midlife crisis years ahead of most people. In truth, I think I hit it back in junior high. And I have continued to hit it with fair regularity ever since.
"Did you know," says my wife at breakfast, with her nose sunk deep in the morning paper, "that studies show most murders in Japan are committed by people in their late 40s? It's like — after years of working hard — they just suddenly snap!"
As she says this I calculate her age and slide a bit farther from her, at least till she puts away her knife and fork. And I think: So what? Why is pressure in your 40s tougher than pressure at any other time?
Gosh, my whole life has been a crisis — from the days when I used to wash with Clearasil to the time I discovered my fly undone in the midst of my first job interview and up to just today when my son pushed his algebra book before me. Tests, bills, jobs, deadlines, dating, marriage, kids . . . I can't think of any noncrisis time. And, in my case, this unceasing joy buzzer has been wired with extra voltage from a life lived largely apart from my own culture.
"And . . . did you hear that Jack and Betty filed for divorce?"
Now my wife has shifted from front-page headlines to back-porch gossip, "Jack and Betty" being friends we used to see almost every week and these days virtually never.
Startling news, for sure. Yet not as startling as their actual marriage — she a lovely and talented woman and he a sofa cushion with a mouth. In Betty's case, love was more than blind, it was decapitated. For the life of me, I could never figure out why a knockout like her ever fell for a goon like . . . "And people used to say Jack and you were so similar."
I freeze and take a slow look at my lovely and talented wife. Followed by an even slower slurp of coffee, coffee that tastes like it has been percolated to sludge during its own midlife crisis. "I guess they just wore down," my wife continues. "They hit middle age and ran out of gas. Maybe they should have called it quits years ago."
Maybe. Yet, I myself suffer from a case of the "maybes" everyday, maybes that echo louder and louder as I age. As in: Maybe I should have lived my life someplace else. Maybe I should have married sooner, later or never. Or maybe I should have changed the dang filter in the coffee maker.
"People can be divided into two general groups," spouts an artist friend of mine. "Those who have always known what they're after and those who can never settle on anything, no matter how old they get. Then there are those who think they've got things figured out, but in midlife discover they were wrong."
"Um . . .," I tell him, "that's three groups."
He ignores me and plows on, artists being much better at imagery than math.
"They are the ones who hit the wall, kick the cat, eat the spoon, pluck the turkey, kiss the cabbage . . ."
He is starting to froth, so I seize my own image and plug the dam.
"So . . . people like me are better off?"
He bends his brows. "You mean people who — after all this time — still don't know what they want to be when they grow up?"
"No, I mean people who don't want to grow up."
"You're as young as you feel," he preaches. "Though you yourself look rather numb.
"But the important thing as you grow older," he tacks on, "is to live each day like it's your last."
Hmm. While such gluttony sounds attractive, it also sounds expensive. In my case, I have enough savings to live to my heart's desire for approximately one week. Then I would either have to die or become a Puritan.
The memory fades and once again I sit with my wife at breakfast. Gossip over Jack and Betty has now been swapped for scientific commentary.
"Did you know that researchers have isolated the gene that determines aging? In the future, people may reap life spans 40 years longer or even more!"
What?! Forty more years of crises!? With those who don't smack theirs till midlife having to wait till age 80!
"Maybe that's time we need," my wife philosophizes. "Time to really understand what it is to live. Time to better know and care for others. Time for all the world's Jacks and Bettys to make amends. Time to at last get things right."
"I don't need to get things right," I yap, breaking my breakfast silence. "I've got this crisis experience down pat!"
But I suppose — if I must choose — I'd rather face prolonged life than the alternative. For in the end, being either behind or with the times doesn't matter.
What matters is that the times keep coming.
And who knows? Tomorrow's crisis might finally be one that I can handle.