text:
Minutes of the Open A11y Expert Handlers SIG Call 2008/08/11
- Neil Soiffer (NS/chair)
- Pete Brunet (PB)
- Vladmir Bulatov (VB)
- Glenn Gordon (Freedom Scientific)
- Gregory J. Rosmaita (GJR/scribe)
- Janina Sajka (JS)
- regrets: Alexander Surkov
Agenda Review
Approval of Last Meeting's Minutes
Minutes of Expert Handlers Conference Call 2008/08/11
Resources for Review:
- Unified Use Cases for Expert Handlers, 1.0
GG: chief technical officer for Freedom Scientific; worked on JAWS for a long' time; wanted to join call to talk about philosophy - perhaps can come up with model that is appropriate for all
Brainstorming Session with Glenn Gordon of Freedom Scientific
NS: (summarizes Expert Handlers)
NS: haven't decided yet where Expert Handlers lives: application such as FireFox (modify DOM) or an accessibility call; intermediary between AT and DOM, or something called off on side -
NS: issues that have arisen are: info that Expert Handlers needs to know in order to give user an appropriate string (speech or braille); for braille, might be dimensions of display, for speech, need to know TTS standards supported so pauses, etc. can be embedded in text returned to AT
VB: for braille and TTS matter of language and localization of special knowledge domain markup
NS: for math, between 20 and 60 different braille math codes; many natural languages also have localized codes within them
NS: 1 idea - callback interface: the Expert Handlers passes a generic interface to AT then can query AT for particulars (braille display dimensions, what language tables are supported), TTS (what standards SAPI4 SAPI5 SSML Java Speech API; competing idea: when AT says "give me your braille string" then passes all info about braille display as part of original call - need to ensure that there is a state model for interface
JS: levels of expert markup that AT doesn't handle in generic way, but end users need to have access to specialized knowledge domain languages; mechanism for hand-off, so user gets higher quality braille, speech, or magnification; too arcane and too small for AT to implement Expert Handlers
GG: this is where i came in; PeteB laid out 2 options: push info about AT or pull info; reaction, don't like either model; want to talk through to see if another layover of indirection; rather not be a black box
NS: what would allow AT to stand out is can have own proprietary black box; start with open source notation for musical notation, could modify and ship as part of JAWS; or write own from scratch; how to talk to Expert Handlers? how to discover Expert Handlers?
GG: can Expert Handlers take these domain specific markups and turn them into economical form oriented towards speech and braille, providing clues on what to do with it
NS: in some sense, yes; if talking about speech you want a textual string
GG: with semantic information
NS: semantics for math - could leave unicode characters untranslated to speech and hope AT does it; problem with unicode translation support, but could have a multi-level app
JS: structural markup important for navigation -- DAISY Model
GG: if say "here is all info to provide speech and braille so can format accordingly" does that mean need to delegate navigation to Expert Handlers, because AT knows nothing about it
NS: how much can one know about navigation; if return long string and user wants to change, how?
NS: our notion is that you again delegate to Expert Handlers to understand navigation; for music by note, by phrase, by bar, etc.
NS: in math - might want to navigate via a tree - expose tree view
NS: Expert Handlers really knows how to navigate; might be generic navigation, but would be limited
GG: for Expert Handlers to work with us, has to be generic
NS: would you give up focus to Expert Handlers which would pass to AT or do you have keys that perform specific functions according to the markup language of the document; if keys remapped, remapping should be extended to Expert Handlers
GG: who remaps?
NS: end user
GG: in browser mode without visible caret?
NS: my answer would be no
VB: user interaction should be familiar to user of specific AT; how to communicate graphics - don't understand GG question about coarser and
GG: if application has focus, and respond to cursor keys, fine; if AT mediator, we need to translate our keymappiungs to the functions to be performed
VB: go up, go down, go left, go right -- may have to go down into fraction, to next expression, containers and sub-containers;
GG: are Expert Handlers open source?
VB: general Expert Handlers framework is open source
NS: trying to define standard by which anyone can develop expert handler
VB: language localization -- Expert Handlers for small language groups; AT can't handle; what knows the ontology can perform the task - that is Expert Handlers, should be global markup; ability to extend functionality essential
JS: within document concept - beginning and end - application layer and AT knows for handling this can use this handler or that handler or go out on web and get handler; alternative input navigation also a concern
NS: IE7 has a registry key - this thing belongs to this namespace, here is app to launch for it
GG: not using
OBJECT or
EMBED tag
NS: IE specific "behaviors"
NS: need some way to register object in namespace here is Expert Handlers that handles it
GJR: AT should be cognizant of its capabilities and user preferences
GG: can only speak for FreeSci - browser not place maintain info about TTS or braille device
GG: Expert Handlers living in browser not going to be clean
NS: more generic - should handle any DOM
JS: browser example useful, but far more extended
GJR: all Document Object Models - XML stands out because most specialized markup tends to use XML
JS: not just navigation and read only, but editable content
GG: could there be a way that AT gathers domain specific ML and passes that to Expert Handlers; interface for Expert Handlers of form next, previous, etc.
NS: 2 ways to look at it: if AT gathers up ML and passes it off or points Expert Handlers at ML
NS: navigation trickier - if have graphics object and want to move out to next graphical item how to say to AT if Expert Handlers not communicating with DOM;
NS: DOM can tell where one is and what state things are in
GG: forced to do cross-process work or bi-lateral communication
NS: from implementation point of view: if passing ML and Expert Handlers returning something to AT, doesn't care about app - generic handler works for everything
GG: doesn't matter if application in sync if navigating, but if interacting, have to keep everything synced
NS: Expert Handlers work directly with app DOM takes onus off AT, but for each app need to rewrite Expert Handlers; architectural trade-offs
GG: philosophy - architecturally better to push an XML format to user with all properties about braille and speech; formatted as string, not interface, if want to add another attribute, can just add
GG: if want to be in browser/app, have to pass info to you
JS: string say braille engine x, speech module y, etc.
GG: if dealing with multiple processes, want to wait to get info across easily
JS: does need to be tweakable
NS: navigation the hard one -- getting speech or braille static
GG: no strong opinion, concept of model has changed a bit
GJR: depends upon native navigation support in underlying ML ; some will be sequential, some will be stacked (like SVG)
JS: VB dealing with an extreme case - math text not linear; harder than tables
GG: using
TABLE as example; able to say generically move to next cell previous cell, etc. can we break navigation down to primatives and ask for primatives
NS: like that example -- common enough to make work, work wasn't easy, but other navigational features - table header query, automatic announcement
GJR: should be users' choice - should be able to set client-side within AT; can also control repetition through aural CSS, as defined in the CSS3-Speech module, which is what FireVox and Opera+Voice key off of
GG: turning SML into generic one; if could change to generic container with speech or braille commands (text formatted for TTS or Braille) can you then add enough attributes to container so AT can determine navigation based on those elements; character container within a word container within a line container, within a sentence container, etc. -- AT can then say given way this is divided, can move through them and dive down into them
GG: if moving by expression, and one marked expressions, could move to next expression regardless of where is in tree; could move to outermost, innermost, etc.
NS: graphics aren't a tree
GG: could you mark it up so that have an order by which one can walk -
GJR: have to use @order from Access Module - can designate order of traversal by IDREF or
targetrole (cycle between all objects with role="foo")
VB: we are using special input and output devices - can reinforce navigation through sound
NS: input not usually coming form keyboard, but touch-pad
VB: graphics themselves handled with different input device -- would like integrated state
GG: would you like keystrokes passed to you from AT
VB: need to speak through and display through braille
GG: hard for our model: user at some level used to press one key to hear current line, current char, etc. if don't map all of that, to move focus to something and speak it of, but moving focus to new element, and want to hear first char of element, can pose problems
VB: develop that communication
JS: at what point does it move from points to lines?
VB: example: speech and tactile graphics, screen reader synchronization with braille display, or use one to do review and other to keep static point
GG: if all of this comes to fruition, to what degree do we envision diff Expert Handlers for different UAs; to what degree do screen readers need to do something special
VB: instead of hard coded commands, send XML strings back and forth; Expert Handlers
NS: pass both pieces of info - here is key that was pressed, and here is what i'd like it to mean; if doesn't make sense, ignore; if does make sense, (mixture of text and non-text) way to get AT native key-binding used by Expert Handlers
GG: could go with that except for giving Expert Handlers the key
GG: like idea better that offer navigation that user wants; Expert Handlers gets mapped to something close; if say previous word in case of math, where would go?
NS: words and letters often same in math - typically word and letter means same thing in math case; line - vertically displayed line like numerator or beginning of expression
JS: or previous equation on page
NS: leave equation to AT
GG: add additional parameters; navigation commands that work in special domains, but work in bunch of them
NS: real challenge; possibility is to have fixed set of ones, (generic1, generic2, generic3)
GG: concern about passing keys is takes away SR ability to remap keys
NS: suggesting pass both: key and meaning, Expert Handlers should say "don i have something that maps to this meaning?" - if does, reuse that/map to that; if meaningless in graphic, then free to choose whatever meaning one wants
NS: like idea of passing both pieces of info
GG: can see advantage
NS: gives ability for user mappings to have meaning in SML; should always be able to take standard stuff and make app work properly with it; in case of Expert Handlers, should be able to write Expert Handlers for "regular text document", but if don't have functionality to make work smoothly, problem; embedded object is an example - how to align with baseline?
NS: notion of passing both would work for text - all textual info available from Expert Handlers
NS: give me the speech for this - state for what one is doing
NS: math issue - if say move to next char, what will happen -- what will be spoken or displayed on braille display
NS: user initiated, but if script initiated?
VB: for graphics, next subsequent,
NS: if done navigation command and by level (word or line); should speak line or word in text, but not necessarily applicable to other MLs
JS: if navigate note by note, want next note; if measure by measure, then want next measure; similar to heading navigation
GG: have to answer "what is unit AT can move in", then AT allows to move within movements
NS: at top of hour - incredibly useful - could GG come back next week?
GG: can come back on 18 august; appreciate enthusiasm
NS: very useful conversation to have with actual implementors; solidifies thoughts
GG: would be happy if ponder this: more incentive to put time into this if put value-add on top of this -- don't want to parse when Expert Handlers can handle
NS: for math in braille, AT could be ones that provide nice UI for user to select what braille code to choose
GG: would be nice if have features that can be put on top and genericized and implemented in short period of time; any/every company wants competitive advantage
NS: support for notation; if write Expert Handlers should be able to simply plug in
GJR: expert handlers should be agnostic; the level of granularity necessary to provide meaningful interaction between the user of an AT and a specific markup language is highly dependent upon the type of specialized content being described, as well as the parameters and structures inherent to the specialized knowledge domain for which the specialized markup language has been designed; Expert Handlers, therefore, need the ability to cache ontologies specific to each type of specialized content, in order to enable full interactivity with the specialized content; ontologies can be provided through Web Ontology Language (OWL), Resource Description Framework (RDF), and/or Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS) in order to provide an assistive technology with meaningful, and appropriately structured, API calls and mappings; XML communication and state control could be handled by State Chart XML (SCXML): State Machine Notation for Control Abstraction
GG: each AT does different things with MSAA and IA2 than the others even though there is a standard; would like this to be the same sort of framework
JS: speaking as chair, i don't have problem with that
GJR: would prefer an AT agnostic ARIA-type approach - extensible, yes, but proprietary no - built on common framework; State Chart XML (SCXML): State Machine Notation for Control Abstraction and Element Traversal could be leveraged for this, as well as ARIA, of course; there are also the new revision of XML Events 2 to consider, as well as the XHTML2 WG's plans to modularize XML Events into Handler Module, Listener Module, and Script Module (note: script module has an
implements attribute that can point to a local script or to the namespace in which the SML resides
GG: not being handled everything on silver platter; added level - what needs to be spoken and context let user choose different voice or a sound cue (earcon)
PB: interface gives access to object; what you do with it is something else
GG: differentiation helps case for working on Expert Handlers
NS: next meeting on 18 august 2008 - GG can you join?
GG: yes, will be able to join next week;
- adjourned: 1905h UTC
- Agenda for 2008/08/18 Expert Handlers Call


text:
WASHINGTON (May. 11)
Defense Secretary Robert McNamara told the Senate Foreign Relations Committee today that the Middle East situation was "tinder dry and difficult," and "must be watched carefully."
He said that judicious allocation of limited United States arms aid, both grants and sales, was useful in acting as a "ceiling" to hold down the Arab-Israel arms race. He stressed that Soviet military shipments to the region were a factor that must be considered. He added that the United States uses its aid program to maintain a "delicate balance."
The Defense Secretary told the committee also that he would not describe Egypt as a part of the Communist world. Sen. Burke Hickenlooper, ranking Republican on the committee, said Nasser "violates all agreements" and "calls us venomous names. Sen. Wayne Morse, Oregon Democrat, expressed concern about United States arms shipments to the Middle East.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
~Silver and Gold~
As you know, I'm working on my home office and I found this great fabric for my curtains. I love the look of metals in home decor and I have really been going back and forth on whether to do silver or gold in my office. With the curtain fabric, I could really do either…and I like both…so I decided to do both!
I found this great wooden divided tray at a flea market over spring break. It was only $2.00…so why not. I decided to create a metallic painted desk tray.
I chose Americana Gloss Enamels Metallic paint in Glorious Gold and Shimmering Silver. At first I thought about doing a layered effect, like I did on the legs of this footstool. I decided against that, preferring to do something a little different.
I decided to do the gold on the inside and the silver on the outside.
I love it! I get the best of both metallics and I love the depth that the two colors give the tray.
The different sizes of the divided compartments are great. I filled it with note paper, pens, markers, scissors and some fun things too.
It's a great little desk organizer. It has style and function!
I found the great initial stamps at Michael's and the vintage Pins tin is from England. I found it at a great flea market there.
A desk should be functional and beautiful. My little $2.00 desk tray does the trick!
Have you scored any cool organizational items for your desk? Share!
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A Night Owl Blog, The Everyday Home, Alderberry Hill, The Inspired Room, Uncommon Designs, Setting for Four


text:
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text: I'm not going to lie to you: I've been feeling pretty down this week. For one thing, my dog died, and it has hit me harder than I ever expected. There are moments when my chest aches from the heartbreak, and I've come to realize that it may take more than a few days to completely work through the grief. But rather than listening to my head - which is telling me to curl up in my cozy bed with a jar of peanut butter, a bag of dark chocolate chunks, a spoon, and a movie - I've been listening to the sage advice of my body. My body is the smart one; it knows what I really need to heal and feel good again. So when it tells me to get my ass out of bed for a 6:00 a.m. workout in the park with my friends, I listen... even though that bed idea sounds really good.


text:
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text:
Trends Sponsored by
The Wilson Center's Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies has reported that products making nanotechnology claims have more than doubled, from 212 to 475, since March 2006. (The group launched its online inventory of nanotech goods at that time.) According to the Center, "nanotechnology was incorporated into more than $50 billion in manufactured goods." And, "since fiscal year 2001, the US has invested over $8 billion in nanotechnology research. In 2006 alone, over $12 billion was spent worldwide on nanotechnology research and development by governments and industry." According to the group, the United States leads the nanotechnology pack, with 52% of the reported products. In second place was East Asia. The group maintains that the nanotech boom is just the beginning, and expects the number to grow rapidly over the next few years. To date, the flavor and fragrance industry has represented a tiny sliver of this boom.
Though definitions of what is—and is not—"nano" vary, the US Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) uses three criteria:a
This is only an excerpt of the full article that appeared in P&F Magazine. The full content is not currently available online.


text:
- Admissions
- Academics
- Research
- University Life
- Alumni
- About
Though students may pick courses from five schools at American University, some courses require students to have already completed previous classes in the subject before they can enroll in the course. Like other American University students, Abroad at AU students must be able to provide proof of completing and meeting any prerequisites listed for a course when required.
Additionally, not all courses are open to Abroad at AU students. Restrictions to course enrollment are outlined below.
Abroad at AU students can only enroll in undergraduate level courses (100-500 level). Student cannot take graduate level courses (600 and above). There are no exceptions to this.
Abroad at AU students cannot enroll in courses that are within University Honors Program, University College Program, Washington Mentorship Program, or Washington Semester Program. These are special programs that students have been admitted into and are only for students in those programs.
Some schools do not allow Abroad at AU to enroll in all of their classes. Certain courses, or sections of courses, can be restricted to students receiving their degree from that school.
School of International Service
Abroad at AU students are not allowed to register for the following courses in SIS:
Kogod School of Business
Abroad at AU students are not allowed to register for the following courses in Kogod:
SOC only allows Abroad at AU students to enroll in some of their courses, not all of them. Here is the list of the allowable SOC courses Abroad at AU students can register for.


text:
The latest PTV xServer versions are now available. The software components provide many new features for routing and logistical optimisation methods. They include updated maps with toll tables and environmental zones which are taken into account during the routing process. PTV xServers are based on SOAP/XML. They enable developers to easily embed geographical and logistical functions in service-orientated system architectures.
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The PTV xRoute Server now considers driving and rest times during the routing process. The road editor function is of particular interest to customers who use the route planning software map&guide: in map&guide professional, users can edit and close road segments for all vehicles or a specific vehicle type by modifying the vehicle clearance height, for example. The PTV xRoute Server then selects only suitable routes by taking account of the user-defined vehicle parameters and information. Another highlight is the ability to determine emission values in advance when calculating the route.
Learn more about PTV's xServers here.


text:
A ruthless court baliff is found dead, and a young legal assistant is the prime suspect. As he is interrogated, he explains his life in flashback
Each year, the least predictable category when the Oscars are handed out is the Best Foreign Film. This is largely because many of the Academy's august membership don't know one end of a subtitle from the other. But this year they had their choice made easy for them by the fact that Character is the most American film to have been nominated in decades.
Although adapted from a classic of modern Dutch literature, Mike Van Diem's debut feature could have been made by any number of Golden Age craftsmen, although William Wyler and Orson Welles most readily spring to mind. Told as a flashback from a crime, the action takes place mostly in 1920s Rotterdam. Katadreuffe (Van Huet) is determined to overcome his bailiff father (Decleir) who persecutes the boy in revenge for his refusal to marry. Having failed to make a go of a small tobacconist's, Katadreuffe becomes a legal clerk (supervised by the splendidly eccentric Victor Low), only to discover that he is indebted to his father, who aims to ruin him through bankruptcy.
While occasionally feeling like Dickens on a Sunday afternoon, this is compelling. Resisting the flourishes that tempt many first-timers, Van Diem tells his story succinctly and cinematically, thanks to some Zola-esque art direction and handsomely grim photography. A romantic subplot involving Tamar Van Den Dop somewhat diminishes Van Huet's impact, but even a stronger presence would have been overshadowed by the ferociously dour Decleir, who is every bit as forbidding when confronting his nightmares as he is extolling the virtues of self-help.
Whether it should have pipped The Thief to the Oscar is debatable, but on its own terms this is dark, demanding and very Dutch.


text:
The Stagnation of Household Consumption in Japan
In this paper, I consider the extent to which the stagnation of household consumption is responsible for the decade-long recession in Japan during the 1990s and early 2000s and the reasons for the stagnation of household consumption during this period and find that the stagnation of private investment (and inventory investment) rather than that of household consumption was the major cause of the decade-long recession, that household consumption was nonetheless relatively stagnant during this decade, and that the stagnation of household consumption was due primarily to the stagnation of household disposable income, the decline in household wealth (which in turn was due primarily to the collapse of land and equity prices), and to a lesser extent, increased uncertainty about the future (especially about old age in general and public old-age pensions in particular), the deterioration of future prospects, and deflationary expectations concerning consumer prices.
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|Date of creation:
|Jan 2004
|Date of revision:
|Jun 2004
|Contact details of provider:
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References listed on IDEAS
Please report citation or reference errors to , or , if you are the registered author of the cited work, log in to your RePEc Author Service profile, click on "citations" and make appropriate adjustments.:
- Saito, Makoto & Shiratsuka, Shigenori, 2003. "Precautionary Motives versus Waiting Options: Evidence from Aggregate Household Saving in Japan," Monetary and Economic Studies, Institute for Monetary and Economic Studies, Bank of Japan, vol. 21(3), pages 1-20, October.
- C. Y. Horioka & H. Fujisaki & W. Watanabe & T. Kouno, 2000.
"Are Americans More Altruistic than the Japanese? A U.S.-Japan Comparison of Saving and Bequest Motives,"
International Economic Journal,
Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 14(1), pages 1-31.
- Charles Yuji Horioka & Hideki Fujisaki & Wako Watanabe & Takatsugu Kouno, 2000. "Are Americans More Altruistic than the Japanese? A U.S.-Japan Comparison of Saving and Bequest Motives," NBER Working Papers 7463, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
- Horioka, Charles Yuji & Watanabe, Wako, 1997. "Why Do People Save? A Micro-Analysis of Motives for Household Saving in Japan," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 107(442), pages 537-552, May.
- Horioka, C.Y. & Watanabe, W., 1996. "Why Do People Save? A Micro-Analysis of Motives for Household Saving in Japan," ISER Discussion Paper 0412, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Osaka University.
- Horioka, C.Y., 1999. "Japan's Public Pension System in the Twenty-First Century," ISER Discussion Paper 0482, Institute of Social and Economic Research, Osaka University.
- Zhou, Yanfei, 2003. "Precautionary saving and earnings uncertainty in Japan: A household-level analysis," Journal of the Japanese and International Economies, Elsevier, vol. 17(2), pages 192-212, June.
- Murata, Keiko, 2003. "Precautionary Savings and Income Uncertainty: Evidence from Japanese Micro Data," Monetary and Economic Studies, Institute for Monetary and Economic Studies, Bank of Japan, vol. 21(3), pages 21-52, October. Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)
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text:
The Cleveland Browns coaches had to be encouraged by the team's performance in last week's 27-19 win over the St. Louis Rams.
However, the coaches need to see more progress, and four players who didn't play against the Rams need to show what they can do against the Lions.
If the coaches could wrap Richardson up in bubble wrap until the regular season opener, they would. Unfortunately, they have to give him some playing time this week and next week in games that don't really count.
Richardson is the star of the show on offense, and the Browns need a healthy season from him if they are going to make any noise in the AFC North this year.
Montario Hardesty
He has been plagued by injuries in camp, just like in his entire career, and Hardesty is running out of time to make the team. He returned from a hamstring injury, only to leave yesterday's practice with an injured thumb.
Dion Lewis and Brandon Jackson have been strong in camp, and Chris Ogbonnaya is staking his claim to the fullback spot. Hardesty has to get out on the field and make the most of his playing time.
TJ Ward and Jamoris Slaughter
These two safeties returned to practice after missing the Rams game with injuries. Ward is one of the defensive leaders at strong safety, and the Browns are looking forward to seeing if the rookie Slaughter can make things happen on defense and special teams.
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- COST: Free - APP STORE STARS: 4-1/2
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iOS 7 users must allow microphone access or Talking Tom will not be able to hear you and talk back.
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Tom Loves Angela for iPad
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Worters, H. L., Rushton, M. T., Eyres, S. P. S., Geballe, T. R. and Evans, A. (2009) Sakurai's Object: characterizing the near-infrared CO ejecta between 2003 and 2007. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 393 (1). pp. 108-112. ISSN 00358711
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- Published Version
Official URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14135.x
We present observations of Sakurai's Object obtained at 1–5 μm between 2003 and 2007. By fitting a radiative transfer model to an echelle spectrum of CO fundamental absorption features around 4.7 μm, we determine the excitation conditions in the line-forming region. We find 12C/13C = 3.5+2.0−1.5, consistent with CO originating in ejecta processed by the very late thermal pulse, rather than in the pre-existing planetary nebula. We demonstrate the existence of 2.2 × 10−6≤MCO≤ 2.7 × 10−6 M⊙ of CO ejecta outside the dust, forming a high-velocity wind of 500 ± 80 km s−1. We find evidence for significant weakening of the CO band and cooling of the dust around the central star between 2003 and 2005. The gas and dust temperatures are implausibly high for stellar radiation to be the sole contributor.
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|Uncontrolled Keywords (separate with ;):
|stars: abundances; stars: AGB and post-AGB; circumstellar matter; stars: individual: V4334 Sgr; stars: individual: Sakurai's Object; stars: winds, outflows
|Physical sciences > Physics
|Faculty of Science and Technology > School of Physical Sciences and Computing > Jeremiah Horrocks Institute
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|Helen Cooper
|Deposited On:
|23 Mar 2012 17:13
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|10 Jun 2017 17:24
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Beethoven and His World
Chapter 1IN THE TIME OF THE EROICA
Reinhold Brinkmann; translated by Irene Zedlacher
... the lava of revolution flows ... --Georg Büchner, Dantons Tod
At last, in France in the years 1788 and 1789, the volcanic movement broke forth whose fiery and bloody convulsions are yet to be subdued. Whoever knows what I have professed before, or who know me and what I profess today, will scarcely accuse me of ever having been an advocate of the French and their Revolution, or of sanctioning or acknowledging the tenets on which its leaders and advocates intended to build constitutions and nations. But I would prove myself an extremely ungrateful hypocrite were I not to acknowledge openly how infinitely much we owe this wild and fantastic revolution. It has unleashed a flowing ocean of fire for the spirit from which everyone who is not afraid of the light is free to draw; it has planted into heads and hearts essential ideas for the foundation of the future, which only twenty or thirty years ago most people would have been too afraid to conceive; it has accelerated that process of fermentation through which we had to pass as our purgatory if we wished to reach the heavenly gates of a new condition. It has shown how much the human spirit may dare to desire and risk in earthly things for the eternal call of reason within.
These sentences, written in 1814 by German nationalist author and politician Ernst Moritz Arndt, took a retrospective look at the impact of nearly twenty years of the French Revolution in German lands. In content and political assessment Arndt's comments hold firmly a middle ground between conservative and liberal positions, but the shape of the ideas and the vocabulary used to express them can be considered exemplary for representations of the Revolution by German intellectuals around 1800. Three aspects of this text seem typical and noteworthy.
The Revolution's spiritual dimension is emphasized over any political meaning: it has planted "ideas" in the "heads and hearts" of the people; the "fermenting process" it has promoted has been a "spiritual" one. It has pointed its contemporaries toward an "eternal call of reason." Even more striking is the form of linguistic expression, primarily the elevated style, which reveals in word choice and linguistic gesture the emotional empathy if not enthusiasm of a writer who was, as he himself declares, no supporter of the Revolution. The conspicuous use of nature metaphors to describe the revolutionary events is representative; natural events of a grand scale are summoned as comparative imagery of extraordinary force. Third and last, Arndt refers to a specific experience of time: the Revolution has "movement"; it has "accelerated" processes; it deals with an emphatically-awaited "future."
Let me first briefly discuss these three aspects as viewed against a broader documentary basis, then approach my central topic with this perspective.
After the democratic failure of the political revolutionhowever that failure be identified, with Jacobean rule or with Napoleon's self-coronationthe Revolution was increasingly viewed as a spiritual force in the history of ideas, as a historical turning point in modern consciousness. Friedrich Gentz, the constitutional conservative and German translator of Edmund Burke's treatise against the revolution, wrote as early as 1790: "[The revolution] is the first practical triumph of philosophy, the first example of a government based on principles and a coherent and consistent system." And in the work of Georg Christoph Lichtenberg we find this 1790 aphorism: "The French Revolution is the work of philosophy, but what a leap from Cogito ergo sum to the first sound of à la Bastille at the Palais Royal!" Such an interpretation is in line with the typical German interpretation of the revolution as it was first, and in essence, defined by Kant in the famous paragraph from his 1798 Contest of Faculties:
The Revolution which we have seen taking place in our own times in a nation of gifted people may succeed, or it may fail ... but I maintain that this Revolution has aroused in the hearts and desires of all spectators who are not themselves caught up in it a sympathy which borders almost on enthusiasm, although the very utterance of this sympathy was fraught with danger. It cannot therefore have been caused by anything other than a moral disposition within the human race.
In seemingly contemporary terms, the reception of the Revolution "in the souls of all spectators" is understood here as the realization of a philosophy of morals, as the expression of every human being's right to a civil constitution andfollowing from itfreedom. A quarter of a century later Georg Friedrich Hegel would argue this point forcefully. In his Philosophy of History we read:
The French Revolution has its beginning and origin in thought. Thought, which takes the general good as its ultimate goal and seeks out all which may oppose it, has risen against existing conditions. The ultimate purpose of thought is the freedom of will.... The freedom of the Will per se is the principal and substantial basis of all Rightis itself absolute, inherently eternal Right; and the Supreme Right in comparison with other specific Rights: nay, it is, even that by which man becomes man, and therefore the fundamental principle of the spirit.... It may however be remarked that the same principle obtained speculative recognition in Germany, in the Kantian philosophy.... Among the Germans this view assumed no other form than that of tranquil theory; but the French wished to give it practical effect.
In his Lectures on the History of Philosophy Hegel expresses this self-consciously idealistic concept with a nationalist bent that contrasts even more sharply the thinking German with the acting Frenchman:
In the Republic of Plato we have met with the idea that the philosophers are those who ought to reign. Now is the time in which it is said that the spiritual are to govern.... Thus in the French Revolution we see that abstract thought is made to rule; in accordance with it, constitutions and laws are determined, it forms the bond between man and man; and men come to have the consciousness that what is esteemed amongst them is abstract thought, and that liberty and equality are what ought to be regarded; in this the subject also has his true value, even in relation to actuality.... In the philosophy of Kant, Fichte, and Schelling, the revolution to which in Germany the mind has advanced in these latter days, was formally thought out and expressed; the sequence of these philosophies shows the course which thought has taken. In this great epoch of the world's history two nations only have played a part, the German and the French, and this in spite of their absolute oppositions, or rather because they are so opposite.... In Germany this principle has burst forth as thought, spirit, Notion; in France in the form of actuality. In Germany what there is of actuality comes to us as a force of external circumstances, and as a reaction against the same.
The equation of real and spiritual events, especially the extension of the term "revolution" to include spiritual phenomena and the idealist glorification of the latter, are also the background for Friedrich Schlegel's famous "Athenäums Fragment" of 1798. The dramatic events of the "great" French Revolution, which aimed at a change of reality and a radical new beginning, here come to serve as models for the assessment and representation of trends in other fields that are directed toward the new, the futureespecially in the sciences and the arts. The almost defensive elaboration of the programmatic opening thesis in Schlegel's aphorism (which is frequently quoted in truncated form) makes this clear:
The French Revolution, Fichte's philosophy, and Goethe's Meister are the greatest tendencies of this era. Whoever is offended by this juxtaposition, whoever cannot take any revolution seriously that isn't noisy and materialistic, hasn't yet achieved a lofty, broad perspective on the history of mankind. Even in our shabby histories of civilization ... many a little book, almost unnoticed by the noisy rabble at the time, plays a greater role than anything they did.
In Schlegel's aphorism, a philosophical treatise and a novel are called upon not only as historical witnesses, but as historical agents whose meaning for the era is equated with the French Revolution. I will pursue this mode of thought and will later take it as an occasion to consider musical worksBeethoven's symphonies in general, and his Third Symphony in particular, composed a good half decade after the "Athenäums Fragment"as additional representatives of those "greatest tendencies" of the age, directly linked to the French Revolution.
Even Friedrich Gentz had to admit in 1790 that a possible "failure of this revolution" may have to be considered "one of the severest accidents ever to befall humanity.... It is hope and comfort for many of the old evils under which humanity suffers. Should this Revolution die away, all those evils will be ten times harder to cure." If even Gentz thought this, then it should not come as a surprise that German advocates of the Revolution often expressed their enthusiasm in somewhat dithyrambic tones. In 1790 Johann Heinrich Campe, elected honorary citizen of Paris by its revolutionaries, wrote from that city:
Before long an electric and luminous stream of concepts and insights will pour forth from here to all nations of this earth; from this place where the exalted human spirit rises free and brave like an eagle from the low and dark spheres toward the sunlit ocean of truth! No, it is not delusion, it is an incontrovertible fact, ... when I declare that human reason never before has appeared as now in a condition of such nobility, full power, activity, and promise, at least not so universally.... Soon this torrential and overflowing stream of ideas gushing forth from the pure spring of freedom will flood all of Europe.
All the important components of contemporary German representations of the Revolution are subsumed here in one grand metaphor. The "torrential and overflowing stream of ideas" refers to the conception of revolution as an inner experience, as a philosophical idea. Campe's image of the flowing stream suggests an overwhelming natural event, defining its power in temporal terms, as "torrential" time. Campe uses the imagery of flowing again in other writings, for example when he describes, in a letter of August 4, 1789, his direct and overwhelming experience of the Parisian revolutionary public:
I have freed myself from the surging flood of people that more than ever rushes through the streets toward the public squares, and I sit down now at the shore, that is: in my room, to try to sort and bring into order the innumerable new images, ideas, and emotions enveloping the spectator at every step like a swarm of young bees. In vain! The roar of the human flood breaks into my remote little room through windows and doors and walls.
Georg Forster, who was labeled a German Jacobin, used the analogous image of an "avalanche" that "gains in mass as it hurls downward and destroys any obstacle in its way" to illustrate the dangerous and inescapable forces of the revolution. Elsewhere Forster has the Revolution "flood all of Europe like sacred lava." The image of a flaming volcanic eruption, as that of blazing fire generally, is also typical for descriptions of the Revolution. Ernst Moritz Arndt even talks about the "volcanoes of revolution," thus seeking to convey its force and suddenness as well as its dangers. Other images evoked are high mountains (especially the Alps), deep abysses, oceans, thunderstorms, and hurricanes, but also the sun; dawn was the symbol for an enlightened new beginning. It is an image used very emphatically by Hegel in a late and retrospective text: "It was a glorious dawn. All thinking creatures celebrated this era. A sublime sensibility reigned in those times, a spiritual enthusiasm pervaded the world." The identical arsenal of powerful natural images is employed in writings by opponents of the Revolution to communicate its horrors and dangers. Consider the poem "Die Revolution. Ein Gedicht im asklepiadischen Silbenmaße" (The Revolution. A Poem in Asclepiadic Meter) written in December 1789 by the Bonn amateur poet Apollinar (alias Bertram Maria Altstätten). Here are a few verses:
God, what is this terrible fate that pours with heavy hand such destiny on us! What storm lies above those mountains, brewing at the horizon! Clouds like soot exhaled from Hell approach, black and heavy, and move toward south and midnight, And, where ripped apart, the sky looks red, Red like blood. From deep in the east Thunder sounds ...
And see now, everywhere flare streams of sparks Thrown into the land by rage's flame, Burning bright.Save us, you eternal ones! You alone can help. Human power Cannot control the flood which breaks the dams.
And finally there is the image of fermentation, representing the idea of a natural evolutionary process. This image found in the passage by Ernst Moritz Arndt quoted above, is also used by Johannes Weitzel: "The stuff of revolution lies brewing amidst the nations."
These nature metaphors are significant in that they help to stress the aspect of process in the Revolution. Above all though, they endow all political events with the force of destiny: a law that often is beyond the individual's grasp nevertheless breaks in on him/her with elemental force and nature-like consequences. The Revolution thus becomes the inevitable result of a human disposition toward reason, of the development of politics and the state, of actual conditions. Such nature imagery further suggests a radical new beginning, a beginning on a prehistorical if not on a pre-worldly basis. Franz Dautzenberg, publicist in Aachen, recognized this when he wrote in 1792 that a "nation destroys the entire ancient foundation of its constitutional structure, nearly throwing itself into Nature's arms to start afresh." In contrast to the rational claims of philosophical-idealist interpretations, this kind of metaphor contains a potent irrational element, making it possible for Edmund Burke to use identical metaphors to denounce the Revolution as evil and dangerous. That this kind of metaphor is quite inconsistent and problematic shall be mentioned only in passing: nowhere is it thoughtor at least openly discussedthat the emphatically invoked dawn is necessarily followed by a sunset. Reinhart Koselleck has interpreted the phenomenon of a partial contradiction in the metaphors as an indication of the inherent failure of the Revolution in both character and process.
But this rhetoric of reception also builds a bridge from the French Revolution to the arts. These metaphors, images of great and overwhelming natural phenomena, are also characteristic of definitions of the sublime in contemporary aesthetic theories. By distinguishing beauty from the sublime, Edmund Burke's early treatise A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful of 1757, Kant's Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime of 1764, his 1790 Critique of Judgement, and Schiller's On the Sublime of 1801 (which followed Kant's ideas) furnish a descriptive paradigm of the sublime which is then used to define genres and works of art. I will later return to these linkages in the descriptions of real and artistic phenomena under the rubric of the sublime, as well as to internal aesthetic parallels between theories of the ode and of the large symphonic form from around 1800, to determine the specific content of Beethoven's Eroica in a comparative manner.
Prior to that I want to discuss a third issue. It concerns a new mode of temporal experience. Again I turn to a text by Ernst Moritz Arndt, this time dating from 1804-1805, the years when the Eroica received its finishing touches and its first performances:
It is regularly asserted ...: whoever has lived through the last twenty years has lived centuries. But that just expresses mere amazement about the period.... The era is in flight. Its representative images pass in such quick succession that contemporaries stare and wonder, stand frozen and understand nothing. The fast succession gives them the impression of an endless period of time unfolding before their eyes, all the more so because in their ossified state they do not participate and thus have lost any measure of time itself.
Time is fleeing; the wiser ones have long known it. Unimaginable things have happened; the world has suffered great transformations calmly and noisily, in the gentle passing of days as well as during the hurricanes and volcanoes of revolutions....
The most overwhelming effect the Revolution had on its contemporaries was indeed an entirely new mode of experiencing "time." This experience was based on the recognition that far-reaching and profound social changes were taking place, changes as extraordinary in speed as they were unforeseen. Contemporaries noted the tempo of change, the acceleration in the passage of time itself, and the "contemporaneity of the non-contemporary," the latter a result of differing levels of acceleration in disparate fields. Such experiences were frequently expressed in the wake of the Revolution. A quote from Konrad Engelbert Oelsner exemplifies the first aspect. He wrote in 1797: "The revolution has accelerated the progress of the human spirit in most extraordinary ways." Georg Forster's statements regarding the "Revolution as a new and inescapable force" and the characterization of the Revolution as "an avalanche with accelerated speed" which "gains in mass as it proceeds," quoted above in a different context, belong here as well. In 1791 Karl Friedrich Reinhard, also quoted above, wrote: "The French form of government developed fast and without warning. There were moments in those past two years when it was well-nigh possible to say that the sun shone upon an entirely different nation after only one single turn around the earth." And Friedrich Schlegel, in his Viennese lectures on the philosophy of history of 1828, also considered acceleration the defining quality of the "transitional period from the age of Enlightenment to the time of revolution," though now he assessed it more critically and more conservatively: "Before long a tempo too rapid and passionate will affect the course of this event and the progress of time ..." The acceleration in temporal experience is seen as a special feature of historical progress, an intensification if not radicalization of the idea of progress.
To illustrate the other phenomenon referred to abovethe contemporaneity of the noncontemporaryI call upon the publisher Friedrich Perthes as witness. His diagnosis from the early nineteenth century is already distinctly inspired by historicist thought:
In previous eras, spiritual trends and the entire world of thought and will were separated by centuries in difference; but our age has reconciled the irreconcilable within the lifetime of the last three generations alive today. The immense contrasts between the years 1750, 1789, and 1815 lack any transition and do not appear as sequences. Rather, today they exist side-by-side among all living human beings, depending on whether they are grandfather, father, or grandchild.
In one brief sentence, Johanna Schopenhauer expressed the intensification of the historical moment through the experience of a compression of time: "Ten years are now so much more than a hundred used to be."
Modern historians such as Reinhart Koselleck and Hans-Ulrich Wehler have pointed out the various consequences resulting from this generational experience during the decades around 1800. First of all, this change in temporal structure gave rise to the modern notion of history. Johann Gottfried Herder made this clear already at the end of the eighteenth century: "The word history as we understand it does not derive from compiling and epically organizing and weaving pragmatically, but from the multifaceted and powerful term `to happen'; I do not want anyone to be unaware of this fact." "History" here clearly denotes a sequence of linear events and actions, with the idea of a movement from something to something as fundamental. The category of progress thus appears inherently accounted for. Second, after the transformations effected by the revolution, this new and radicalized experience of time helped to advance the notion of a qualitative rupture between the old and the new era.
"In the real as well as the figurative sense," wrote Johanna Schopenhauer in her 1839 memoirs, "how different, how so very different everything has become in these recent years that encompass the greater part of my existence! In express carriages and steamships, life and travel move forward at triple and quadruple speed; even the hours gallop more rapidly. What will become of arms and legs, but especially of the head, once railroads cover the earth like a net, or Mr. Green carries out his plan to reach America in his balloon in three days' time, or circles the world in only one week? This is indeed a bewildering question, and only time will tell." The author explicitly compares this new experience to the "old and honest times whose customs and lifestyles seem so distant now, as if separated from us by centuries even though scarcely fifty years have elapsed since their passing." She registers the momentous experience of accelerated historical time as well as the distance contemporaries perceived between the old and the new era. At the same time, the historical progression into the nineteenth century clearly was seen as tied to a process of "denaturalization" (Koselleck) of temporal experience. The technological revolution (represented by steamship, railroad, and hot-air balloon) further added to the acceleration in life's processes, thus leading into the industrial and technological era, into modernity. But that is already beyond the scope of my topic.
At this point I would like to depart from my topic for a moment and interpolate a few thoughts on methodology and subject matter. First of all, the picture I have painted of the events of the 1789 revolution, its suddenness and the accompanying drastic changes, aspires to be neither a scientifically accurate representation nor an objective assessment of the actual events and their early history. Current historiography emphasizes the interdependence of the outbreak of the revolution and the historical events leading up to it rather than the notion of a radical break with the preceding past. Moreover, the development of a new notion of time is considered the result of a much longer historical development. But a scientifically accurate historical assessment of events is not the object of my investigation. What I wish to discuss instead are the contemporary modes of experiencing the Revolution, i.e., the subjective views handed down to us by those living under its immediate influence. Consequently, my investigation is concerned exclusively with the reception of the Revolution, particularly with the reception of the Revolution in Germany. Furthermore, the radical temporalization of historical perception as it is presented here cannot be explained by the Revolution alone. Experience of the Revolution was not the only factor creating this new way of thinking, even though it had the most impact. Last, the principle of temporalization is not restricted to history alone, but is germane to other fields as well, including the sciences and the arts, andif one considers delays, overlaps, and retrogressions as they happen well into the nineteenth centuryaffects the entire interconnected character of the life of each individual.
We owe much of this more comprehensive, complex, and chronologically expanded view of trends toward temporalization in the eighteenth and nineteenth century to the work of Wolf Lepenies. Lepenies shows why an accurate "chronology of transformed temporal experience is difficult to establish." Particularly in the natural sciences, the "primacy of experience" and the enormous quantitative growth of knowledgethe exponentially growing accumulation of knowledge as well as the "empirical imperative" (i.e., a new understanding of science that promoted evidentiary proof and pushed toward the accumulation of a plethora of data as well as the study of the complexity of data relations that no longer could be mastered with methods of spatial categorical classification)motivated the trend toward temporalization. Organizational structures and institutions also played an important part in this. From the academic disciplinesbotany, chemistry, medicine, but also jurisprudence and philosophy, philology (with the transition from systematic grammar to historical philology), to name only somewe obtain a wide range of evidence of trends toward temporalization. A pivotal aspect of this trend is a transformation in the concept of Nature, the turn away from timeless systematic notions toward a thinking about Nature in temporal terms. Parallel with the establishment of the concept of history comes the discovery of a directed development in Nature: a "history" of Nature. A particularly interesting piece of formal evidence is Chateaubriand's disavowal, in the 1826 revision of his "Essai historique, politique et moral sur les révolutions" of 1797, of "the cyclical notion of history." In descriptions of developmental stages, the image of the spiral generally begins to replace the cyclical metaphor. Lepenies, following Jauss, correctly observes, the spiral is a "metaphor of compromise," symbolizing the Janus-headed ambivalence of the nineteenth century. On the one hand it radicalizes temporalization and historization, but simultaneously creates a "re-naturalization" to counteract temporalization.
We can cite two opposites from the world of art to highlight this. When the railroad line Paris-Rouen-Orléans was opened in 1843, Heinrich Heine wrote: "What changes will influence our way of seeing and our concepts! Even the basic notions of space and time have been cast into doubt. The railroad has murdered space, all that is left us is time alone." In contrast, Richard Wagner's late work Parsifal includes the line: "Here time becomes space."
Important to my discussion of aesthetic issues within the context of a change in temporal consciousness are (1) radical temporalization itself and its intensification through acceleration; (2) the direction of the temporal axis toward progress, i.e., the moment of finality within this mode of thought; and (3) the belief in the beginning of a new, superior age as the result of both. This concept, as well as the metaphors of finality with their open references to the French Revolution, will serve the analysis of a musical work of the early nineteenth centuryBeethoven's Third Symphonyin its historical context. I will look both for the unique and the historically exemplary aspect of the symphony, as well as its links to the energies unleashed by the French Revolution. I chose not to look for personal allegoriesthe "hero" or his concrete manifestation as "Prometheus" or "Napoleon"but rather to see the historical content as sediments within the work's form and structure.
* * *
In 1807 the secretary of the Gewandhaus, Friedrich Rochlitz, had short explanations printed on the program leaflets to prepare his Leipzig audience for the extraordinary in Beethoven's new symphony, using the following words: "Fiery, magnificent Allegro/sublime, solemn Funeral March/impetuous Scherzando/grand Finale, partially in strict style." The epithets "fiery," "magnificent," "sublime," "solemn," "grand" are identical with the adjectives used in treatises and encyclopedia articles on aesthetics that seek to define the sublime. The two principal genres defined in art as thoroughly "sublime" are, in literature, the ode, which dates back to antiquity, and in music, the more recent genre of the instrumental symphony as it was developed around 1800.
"The symphony is excellently suited for the expression of grandeur, passion, and the sublime. Its ultimate purpose in a chamber concert is to offer all the splendor of instrumental music ... The chamber symphony ... achieves this aim with a sonorous, polished, and brilliant style" writes Johann Georg Sulzer in his 1794 encyclopedic theory of the arts, that compendium which disseminated the contemporary communis opinio in all things aesthetic. The first movement of the symphony is equated explicitly with the sublime effects of the ode:
The allegros of all the best chamber symphonies contain profound and clever ideas, a somewhat free treatment of the parts [freye Behandlung des Satzes], an apparent disorder in the melody and harmony, strongly marked rhythms of different types, robust melodies and unison passages, concerting middle voices, free imitations of a theme (often in fugal style), sudden modulations and digressions from one key to another that are all the more striking the more distant their relation, distinct gradations of loud and soft, and especially the crescendo, which when used in conjunction with an ascending and swelling expressive melody, is of the greatest effect.... Such an allegro is to the symphony what a Pindaric ode is to poetry: it elevates the soul of the listener, and to be successful, demands the same spirit, the same sublime imagination, and the same knowledge of art.
Certainly, Rochlitz's use of the terminology of the sublime from the encyclopedia in the concert program of the Eroica has strategic reasons: the Eroica, which was criticized by the press, particularly the Viennese press, as a problematic work, ought to be presented to the Leipzig audienceand establishedas the paradigm of the symphonic genre. Obviously, the naturalistic revolutionary metaphors described earlier cannot as easily be applied to music as, for example, to painting, particularly the flourishing contemporary genre of landscape painting. But in form as well as in intensity (the grand, extraordinary, overwhelming effects; the uplifting and stirring emotions evoked; the suddenness of events etc.), the rhetoric used to describe the symphony follows the same principles as the rhetoric of the Revolution. A corresponding element is also the moment of ardor, the emotional and spiritual shock created by a new and unprecedented experience. In an 1805 article for the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, the most important nonregional German music journal of the time, Rochlitz described the affective power of symphonic music from the perspective of the performer:
You burn like fire, ... you are frightened and uneasy! You play and you play well, and stillyou hardly know what and how you are playing! You have to contain yourself with all your might so as not to tear into the instrument, or to rush the tempo and carry the others with you. Everything has to come out right, be it ever so terribly difficult! And you succeedyet, without fail you feel as if you should have rushed forward ever more magnificently, more forcefully.
Around 1800 musically interested contemporaries considered the pure instrumental symphony the pinnacle of music. A Musical Diary for the Year 1803 contains the following sentences:
Purely instrumental music is the only musical genre that satisfies itself. In it alone does the art of music appear in absolute purity. Unconcerned with poetry or sculpture, this music follows its own path; it speaks solely for itself, independently and free; alone and autonomously does it reach and fulfill the highest goal. Symphonies are the triumph of this art. Unconstrained and free, the artist can conjure the entire world of emotions ...
Three years later, an anonymous author in the Leipzig Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung praised the symphony as the quintessence of modern music, and as the model for all other genres (vocal music included). In such texts, the ascent of the symphonic principle is described in metaphors evoking a phenomenon in Nature (also interesting is how the nationalist element comes into play):
It is generally known and quite evident, thus nobody will disclaim it: the world owes to the Germans the grand, fullvoiced orchestral symphonyfirst to Haydn and Mozart. It is the embodiment of the supreme and most brilliant pinnacle of modern instrumental music. It rightfully rules not only its own genre, but also exercises its influence on all other genres of instrumental music, though with less justification there. Like those blessed with protean talents to reach the utmost pinnacle, the symphony reaches beyond its boundaries and gradually takes possession of all around it by right of the stronger.
As a consequence of the dominant position of the new symphonic genre, the author formulates what can be considered the claim of the symphony as instrument of culturation:
No composer who desires to keep up with the times [progress!], who does not want to become rigid, clumsy, or irritating writing pieces nobody but he himself wants to hear (at least for now); no student of music who strives after the highest, desires to educate himself with the finest models, seeks entry into the world of music and to create an audience for himself; no true if only halfway serious music loverwill be able to make do without studying or at least slightly knowing these ultimate masterworks [the symphonies].
Owing to the complexity of the new symphony, the author concludes with a demand for the printing of scores "for a twofold reason: for adequate study and comprehensive guidance" (and because of the "poverty of most musicians," the scores have to be cheap!). In a final enthusiastic salvo, he declares the almost complete dependency of present musical institutions on the new symphony:
The symphony has assumed a more and more decisive role in all public institutions of musicespecially in concertsin direct response to its overtaking of all other musical genres. The more it was perfected to the highest degree by the greatest geniuses among composers, the more it was able to please a mixed audience. Yes, the way an orchestra now performs one of the new great symphonies is consideredgenerally not without reasonthe measure of its ability to perform modern music at all; just as the manner of the audience's attention to and behavior toward this musical genre is takenalso largely for good reasonas an indication of the audience's ability to understand, listen to, and enjoy important new music.... Every manager of an orchestra who desires to achieve the best for his art, or only the best for his institution (even those who have only their reputation and their pocketbook at heart), must consider it of highest importance to own the best of all existing symphonies and to perform them well.
After 1800 the historical, artistic, and social status of the symphony was defined on the one hand by new artistic claims and the enlightened ideas of bourgeois society, and a new public realm and economic structure on the other. The canonization of the symphony as the dominant musical genre went hand-in-hand with the canonization of the sublime, the new, and progressive as principal aesthetic categories. Beethoven's canonization took place in the context of this new orientation in artistic production and reception. Revered initially as a member of the Viennese classical triad, he eventually was considered its most influential composer. Whereas early Beethoven reception had criticized the "breaking of the ode" ("Odenriß") in his work as "bizarre," as a disruption of the harmony of the classical ideal of beauty, this category from the arsenal of the sublime now became a positive and enthusiastically embraced factor in the representation of progress in musical works of art. The extreme readiness of post-Revolution generations to experience the new, the extraordinary, and the progressive made this shift possible.
I do not regard Beethoven's music as music of the Revolution, just as I avoid the metaphor of a Beethovenian revolution in music. But his works, particularly those composed after 1800, mirror a shift in consciousness. They mirror the emphatic embrace of the new, of a new time, of a new century, one generally described by historians as a consequence of the French Revolution. The advocacy of a new man, a new social order, and a new mode of governmentI have cited evidence for all aboveled to the sensitizing of the contemporaries in other fields as well, particularly in the arts. A sensibility magnified by the experience of the Revolution entered into the rhetoric used in emphatic discussions of "the new" in texts and treatises on the arts. Even Beethoven's declaration of a "new way," of a "wholly new manner" of composition, now "sounds" different from Haydn's use of the same formula only a few decades earlier. Of course, the word is used in a letter to a publisher and refers also to the nascent market for music in bourgeois society, but that is part of the universal social changes and in no way minimizes its aesthetic-political thrust. Again, the enthusiasm for the new in symphonic music, for the possibility to experience something new and unheard of, as well as the subjective intensity of such experiences, are marked by a general readiness for change, by the enthusiasm for the principle of progress for which the Revolution had prepared the way. It even may be possible to argue that at the point when the failure of the Revolution had become indisputable, art began to assume the role of a surrogate. Since reality did not bring fulfillment, the sensitized individual threw him/ herself into art, simulating in art what was denied by reality. And in the temporal art of music, the experience of time, of a newin this contextrevolutionary structural use of time, assumed a central role.
The historically decisive work in this regard is Beethoven's Third Symphony. Contemporaries already attested a qualitative leap beyond historical precedents in the Eroica. On February 13, 1805, Haydn biographer Georg August Griesinger wrote to the Leipzig publisher Härtel:
This much I can assure you: the symphony was received to great acclaim at two academies, one at Prince Lobkowitz's and the other at the house of an active music lover named Wirth. I hear it praised as a work of genius by admirers and opponents alike. The former say: it transcends anything Haydn and Mozart have created; symphonic composition has been elevated to a higher level! But the latter miss a balanced unity, and criticize the amassing of colossal ideas. In such cases everybody is right.
Indeed, the historical leap that the Eroica realized through sound has to do with its usage of temporal structure. It is the temporalization of musical form. It seems somewhat paradoxical to use the concept of temporalization in the context of music, an art form that extends over time as time. The term does not refer to accelerando, increase in tempo (though this can be a means of temporalization, albeit a rather superficial external one), but rather to the simulation of acceleration by the compositional fleshing out of the process. A differentiation between the two polarities "form as architecture" and "form as process" will clarify the case. Form as architecture is constructed symmetry, reference to a center, the figure of the circle, being-in-itself. Form as process is directedness, dynamic forward motion, the metaphor of the arrow, and an emphasis of the finality and goal orientedness of the musical form.
Compositions of the form-as-process variety address both path and goal. As for the path the usual descriptive models refer to composing thematically and quasi-logical extension, i.e. "developing variation." More important still seems the concept of form as a chain of events which invariably refers beyond itself, a chain of events that does not conclude but progresses, continually pressing forward, in which the processes create a dynamic experience of time. The goal of a form oriented in this way lies at the end of the work, or even beyond the work itself. Finality is its organizing principle; all symphonies organized as processes are "finale symphonies." In the radically constructed process form, repetition becomes problematic. In sonata form the repetition of the exposition and the beginning of the recapitulation counteract the processual character. The Eroica offers specific solutions for such problematic aspects: identical thematic configurations at the beginning of exposition, recapitulation, and coda are developed differently, drawing different conclusions from analogous situations that are organized in relationship to one another in terms of intensification. Added to this in specific moments on the local plane is a simulated acceleration, achieved through the unfolding of the orchestral apparatus. This creates the experience of "torrential time," of a "torrential and overflowing stream of ideas" (to cite again the metaphors Johann Heinrich Campe used to illustrate the experience of the Revolution), and the immense agitation of movement (transporting player and listener alike in the manner described by Rochlitz). In musical experience "history" is thus realized as "action" (Herder). The engaged listener understands "the nearly universal yearning for a new existence" (Dautzenberg on the effects of the revolution, 1792) as the "defining moment" of his era. What Friedrich Schlegel formulated in 1828 as a diagnosis of the early nineteenth century here can be heard symbolically transformed into musical language: "Never before was there a time so deeply, so directly, and so exclusively and universally directed toward the future as ours."
Concrete musical analysis becomes indispensable at this point. I will primarily focus on four striking formal moments in the first movement: the opening (mm. 1-45); the end of the development and the start of the recapitulation (mm. 382ff.), the end of the recapitulation and the beginning of the coda (mm. 551ff.); and finally the end of the movement itself (mm. 631ff.). Transitional sections, so for example the additional appearances of the chromatic degree C#/Db during the development (compare mm. 178ff. with C-C#-D; mm. 346ff. with C-Db-D-Eb), are not considered in the somewhat condensed presentation below.
1. Two chords are played by the full orchestra at the beginning: harsh, almost undomesticated, thoroughly violent in sound. They define tonality, meter, tempo, orchestra, musical space, the intense "tone" of the whole. The thematic entry follows, from below, building the orchestral texture from the cellos up and creating musical space. The thematic idea, a simple broken triad over a spirited pulsating eight-note figure, appears in three configurations without ever achieving classical unity, i.e. without being fully realized in the sense of periods. In its first appearance, the idea is unexpectedly interrupted by the foreign chromatic note C# (m. 7), a note which suggests an objection, effecting syncopated crescendos (first violins) and sforzati, orchestral restlessness, indications of a breakup of the movement, which then returns to the native key of E-flat major. Only the strings are involved in the central event. Then the woodwinds join in. (As always in classical movements, the horns are considered part of the woodwind section, functioning as a link to the strings.) At the second entry, now with thematically employed woodwinds, analogous chromatic steps (Db and E in m. 18, later A and Cb in m. 22) lead to harmonic shifts (m. 19, F minor), and in conjunction with the strings, to the splitting off of motifs. Once again, no complete theme is developed. The F-minor key (the relative to A-flat major) pulls the movement "down" into the subdominant region, opening the harmonic ambitus and producing more pronouncedly than before a pressure toward new regions. Orchestral space and dynamics expand, the sforzati intensify to hemiolic accumulations within the entire movement, which "gains in mass as it proceeds" (to use Forster's rhetoric); then the third thematic entry breaks forth, again with a crescendo, in the full orchestra, fortissimo, with timpani and trumpets (m. 37). Again, no complete theme appears. The modulating transition of sonata convention follows immediately. But from the start the entire main part of the exposition was itself a "transition"exemplary proof of a radical strategy of development, driven by a "new irrevocable propulsive force" (again citing Forster).
2. An adequate compositional means to emphasize focal points of interest within their context is to precede them with unusual or extraordinary elements. The first movement of the Eroica does so to an extreme degree at the entry of the recapitulation. This important formal caesura is given additional meaning through the so-called cumulus, the superimposition of tonic (horn) and dominant (strings) in mm. 390ff. Following Rochlitz's review, this extraordinary and rule-breaking moment was considered a misprint and wasas existing orchestra materials provesmoothed over in the early nineteenth century. And it is the horn that is emphasized here. The recapitulation with the thematic configuration of the beginning follows. The foreign chromatic: tone interferes again, but it is reinterpreted here: as Db it leads over to C, opening up the harmonic space, C major, then F major, and not F minor as in the beginning. That is, the subdominant shift is replaced by a rise to a double dominant, just as if (to use revolution rhetoric again, this time by Ernst Moritz Arndt) after passing through "purgatory," the "heavenly gates of a new condition" were opening up. And the thematic idea is now (m. 408) played by the horn (sic), marking a half-step upward from the sustained and repeated C to Db (sic!). The basic form of the mirroring (Goethe's "wiederholte Spiegelung"!) is identical, its partial reformulation opens up new waysan equally simple and subtle procedure, the hurdle of the repeated caesura is used to drive the formal process emphatically forward. The recurring color of the horn, its prolonged standing on the fifth and the pronounced Db, form a strategic bill of exchange drawing on the future. The D-flat major step is played out in the lyrically intermittent combination of flute and violin color, before the main theme appears once again in E-flat (in m. 430) and in fact displays a "state of nobility, full power, activity" (Campe), while powerfully augmenting the orchestral tutti of m. 37 and anticipating the coda (m. 655).
3. The coda (mm. 551ff.) once again takes up the thematic configuration, but now almost didactically and directly, and separating the individual elements. This configuration is reduced to its harmonic essence. Unconnected but thematically penetrated E-flat major, D-flat major and C major sound fields are juxtaposed, each four measures long and with a decrescendo after a loud entry; the C major with the tremolo of the strings appears plebeian, crude even, and can be experienced almost physically. The important final phase of the formal process develops out of it. And now, in the coda, the function of the horns reaches its fulfillment. At first the horn calls appear seemingly from behind the stage (mm. 615ff.), but ultimately (from m. 631 on) the horn takes over, as a solo instrument, the thematic figure in its final form. The disruptive function of the chromatic halftone C#Db, is spent with the confrontation of the three harmonic levels E-flat-D-flat-C and the key of C major, accentuated by the orchestra. In the solo horn call, the melodic fragment now not only stops on the fifth (compare the introduction of this element after the recapitulation, also in the horn!) but the chromatic disruption fails to appear. However, this cleansing does not result in a rounded structural theme. Scott Burnham has shown correctly that this "last version" of the so-called main theme remains "harmonically open-ended" and that its direction is derived exclusively from the enormous increase in orchestral dynamics. The conclusion drawn from this position is that the first movement of the Eroica lacks a "theme" in the classical sense; there is no theme that first appears in incomplete form and then, in the coda, comes into its own. Rather, as Carl Dahlhaus has correctly stated, the thematic figure remains at the end of the movement what it was from the beginning: a function of the formal process, a sign of the passage of time, a vehicle of temporality. Toward the point of culmination of those processes, thematic four-bar phrases oscillating between tonic and dominant, resting on the fifth and the octave, respectively, as highest notes, are strung together, "propelling each other," while the orchestral apparatus becomes "productive" through a steadily increasing expansion (Gülke's description of Beethoven's Fifth). Thus the tendency to intensification increasingly takes over the entire orchestral collective and creates the apex of the movement, which far exceeds the third orchestral moment of intensity at the beginning of the exposition and the analogous section in the recapitulation (mm. 430ff.) This is followed now by the formulaic ending of the movement. The movement virtually could go on forever. Its telos is the future.
4. But beyond that, this passageintroduced by the solo horn and providing the goal and fulfillment of the formal processspeaks a clear language. It is the musical image of a certain and concretely identifiable situation. There, in m. 631, the first horn enters, in a challenging fashion, with oboe and second horn joining in. Added is a rhythmically contoured counter-subject in the first violins that traverses back and forth across the tonal spacea swift counterpoint while the second violins accompany with typical chordal figurations. This constellation lasts for four measurestwo times twosupplying first the tonic, then the dominant. This eight-measure model is repeated with an increasing orchestral apparatus (mm. 639ff): the thematic figure in the first violins and the three horns, a rapid counterpoint in the second violins, dissolved chordal accompaniment in the cellos (distinct from the bass line) and the second clarinet, harmonically filled out by the oboes, the first clarinet, then the flutes. The process is continued in a third eight-measure section (mm. 647ff.) using an expanded apparatus. The thematic figure now is played by all lower strings, from violas to bass, the counter subject by the entire woodwind section, supplemented by the horns and the syncopated first violins, the trumpets and timpani supply the rhythmic impulse with upbeat triads. All this is played in continuous crescendo. Finally, with m. 655, the intensification process leads into the fourth eight-measure section: full orchestra with expressive violin tremolos, the thematic figure shatteringly played above the timpani roll in the trumpets and horns, partially including the woodwinds, the running counterpoint in the heavy basses, everything now forte, with sforzato accents. It is noteworthy that the figurative aspect in the measures on the dominant (mm. 659ff.) recedes behind the sound of the full orchestral tutti. It is the orchestra as such, the collectivity and its unfolding, that functions as the agent and goal over 800 measures of this gigantic movement. In those four times eight measures and their concrete content, the "radical developmental form" reaches its first fulfillment.
What functions here as the sound language of a symphonic orchestra can be described as revolutionary rhetoric, as a process of a collective coming together. After a long journey through many transitional stations, one important individual voice (the horn, m. 631) steps to the fore, as if challenging and pronouncing a thesis. Gradually, more and more voices and groups join in, agreeing, amalgamating, becoming part of a universal overarching whole. The idea of a grand, emphatic departure, of a "spiritual enthusiasm" (Hegel), seizes the orchestral collective. It is as if the music were speaking with a thousand tongues and, by doing so, becomes one single voice. The orchestra as allegory of the Revolution is what this symphony aims for at the end of the first movement; "the lava of revolution flows" here too, but as an idea, as a musical idea. From our perspective, looking back into history, it is no "delusion" to claim for the symphony, and especially for this one, that an "electrical and luminous flood of concepts and insights will pour forth from here to all nations of this earth, from here where the exalted human spirit rises free and brave like an eagle from the low and dark spheres toward the sunlit ocean of truth" (Campe). And so I add to Friedrich Schlegel's Athenäum Fragment and declare Beethoven's Third Symphony one of the "great tendencies of the era." The symphony is this great tendency in its time and through its time: in the time that entered into it as its era and whose historical example it represents as Sinfonia Eroica; and through the time which forms this work of art in a processual manner as (to use again Campe's words) a "torrential and overflowing stream of ideas."
File created: 8/7/2007
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Thank Goodness for Google Calendar, because if I hadn't given myself the reminder, I just might have forgotten to post the winner of my first contest! Thanks for all who commented to enter! Our lucky Wedding Paper Diva Contest winner, as decided by Random.org random integer generator, is comment #22 by Elana!
"If I was having a destination wedding, it absolutely for sure be somewhere in California in the midst of the Redwoods. I would LOVE to get married surrounded by trees that I think are so incredibly awe-inspiring. I think it would make an already perfect and special day that much more memorable and wonderful. Oh I could go on about this but I'll stop… My favorite "matching" design from Wedding Paper Divas is the Wood Grain Ecru"


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The Dana Scully depicter on the sci-fi series will make her return to TV with her recurring role on the NBC new drama.
Gillian Anderson is making her way back on to television with "Hannibal". The actress best known for her portrayal as Special Agent Dana Scully on "The X-Files" has signed up to take a recurring role of Dr. Bedelia Du Maurier, Dr. Hannibal Lecter's therapist, on the upcoming drama series.
"Every therapist needs their own head examined and we are ecstatic that Gillian Anderson has chosen Hannibal to mark her return to American television after 10 years to portray Dr. Lecter's personal psychiatrist," executive producer Bryan Fuller says in a statement.
The writer continues singing praise for the Emmy-winning actress, "Her intelligence and sophistication, not to mention her pedigree of ground-breaking TV, make her the perfect actress to match wits and psychological manipulations with one of the greatest villains of pop culture. I couldn't be more excited."
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Based on characters in Thomas Harris' novel "Red Dragon", "Hannibal" will focus on the early relationship between FBI agent Will Graham and his mentor Dr. Hannibal Lecter. Mads Mikkelsen will tackle the titular role, with Hugh Dancy playing Graham.


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Crochet Openwork Top 02 by Mary Beth Temple
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© Mary Beth Temple
© Plymouth Yarn Company, Inc
Crochet Openwork Top 02
Approx. Finished Size:
36 (44, 52)".
Alpaca Prima—4 (5, 6)-50g balls. Shown in color 2020.
Gauge: 20 sts and 12 rows = 4" in trellis stitch, after blocking.
Hook: Size H/8/5.00mm, split ring markers.
I have received many emails asking about the availability of this pattern - thanks! If your local Plymouth retailer does not have one available, you can try The Knitters Edge,
1601 W. Broad St. Bethlehem PA 18018
Booklet 646 is available at your local yarn shop
For more information, see: http://www.plymouthyarn.com/index.php?nav=cYarn.yarn...


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This photo, taken on November 3rd 2009, shows villagers returning on foot from cardamom plantations near B--- village, Tantabin Township. Forced labour and movement restrictions severely undermine such labour and travel intensive livelihoods. [Photo: KHRG]
This photo, taken on January 15th 2010, shows villagers from Ya Lo, Plaw Baw Der, and Play Hsa Loh returning from duty as forced porters. They were ordered to transport food from Lay Day to the SPDC Army camp at Play Hsa Loh. [Photo: KHRG]
This photo, taken on October 31st 2009, shows the headman of Yer Lo village, Tantabin Township, receiving treatment after stepping on a landmine. [Photo: KHRG]
This photo, taken on October 24th 2009, shows a rocky hillside near S--- village, Tantabin Township, where villagers were attempting to cultivate rice. As the terrain in many parts of Toungoo District is not conducive to rice production, villagers raise a variety of other crops to take to other villages and trade for essential items. [Photo: KHRG]
This photo, also taken on October 24th 2009 near S--- shows villagers trading cardamom. Cardamom is a favoured crop for villagers keeping hill fields in Toungoo because it is durable and can be carried long distances. [Photo: KHRG]
This photo, taken on September 18th 2009, shows Buh Kee village months after villagers seeking to avoid SPDC patrols had abandoned it. The exploitative abuse that comes with militarization has led many Toungoo villagers to choose life in hiding over relocation or remaining in villages under SPDC control. [Photo: KHRG]
This photo, taken on August 2nd 2009, shows a six-year-old child from Gkaw Thay Der, Tantabin Township, who cannot walk because he has polio, Stringent travel and trade restrictions enforced across Toungoo District have significantly reduced access to health care and medicines both for villagers in areas under SPDC control and in hiding. [Photo: KHRG]
Villagers rest before crossing a road near L---, Tantabin Township, on October 22nd 2009. Villagers frequently resist movement restrictions by covertly violating them to pursue vital livelihoods activities like farming and trading for food items. [Photo: KHRG]
This photo, taken on October 22nd 2009, shows children near L---, Tantabin Township, as they miss school to help their parents complete the harvest. L--- villagers must harvest quickly after the rainy season and be wary of attack by SPDC patrols. [Photo: KHRG]
This photo, taken on October 23rd 2009, shows a child standing in a rice field near L---. The photo was taken after the field had been damaged by a patrol of soldiers from LIB #547. [Photo: KHRG]
- 10 total of photos.
- Last update: 16 January 2014
- Toungoo (Taw Oo) District
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