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A method of making a homogeneous sintered body, which can exhibit non-linear V-I characteristics, comprises the steps of: (1) forming a single phase, chemically homogeneous glass, from a mixture of oxides containing at least Bi2 O3, which is effective to cause non-linearity within a ZnO ceramic body, (2) mixing 2.5 wt.% to 40 wt.% of the single phase, chemically homogeneous Bi2 O3 type glass, with 60 wt.% to 97.5 wt.% of ZnO particles, to form a uniform mixture, (3) pressing the glass-ZnO mixture, to form a consolidated body, and (4) sintering the pressed body, to form a ceramic body consisting of ZnO particles and a chemically homogeneous insulating layer formed from the Bi2 O3 type glass coating the ZnO particles and bonding the ZnO particles together.
1. A method of making a homogeneous, sintered, resistor body, having a substantially uniform density, which can exhibit non-linear V-I characteristics, comprising the steps of:
(A) mixing metallic oxide powders comprising about 10 mole % to about 60 mole % of Bi2 O3, about 5 mole % to about 15 mole % of ZnO, about 2 mole % to about 15 mole % of MnO2, about 2 mole % to about 10 mole % of Co3 O4, about 5 mole % to about 40 mole % of SiO2, about 1 to about 15 mole % of B2 O3 and 0 to about 30 mole % of Sb2 O3, and melting the mixture at a temperature of between about 1,100� and 1,600� C for a time effective to form a single phase, chemically homogeneous glass melt, and then
(B) quenching the glass melt to form a single phase, chemically homogeneous porous glass, and then
(C) grinding the glass to form fine glass particles, and then
(D) mixing:
(1) 2.5 weight % to 40 weight % of the single phase, chemically homogeneous glass particles with
(2) 60 weight % to 97.5 weight % of ZnO particles, by a spray drying technique to form a two component mixture, and then
(E) pressing the glass and ZnO mixture at pressures of between about 500 psi. to about 40,000 psi. to form a consolidated body having a substantially uniform density, and then
(F) sintering the pressed body, at a temperature of between about 900� and 1,400� C, at a temperature rate increase of between about 75� C/hr. to about 150� C/hr., for 1 to 4 hours, to form a ceramic body consisting of ZnO particles, and a single phase, chemically homogeneous coating formed from the glass and binding the ZnO particles together, wherein the density throughout the mass will vary no more than about 10%, said sintered body exhibiting non-linear V-I characteristics.
2. The method of claim 1, wherein metallic oxide powders mixed in step (A) can also include CoO, MnO, Cr2 O3, TiO2, Ta2 O5, FeO, In2 O3, Al2 O3, SnO2, Sn3 O4, Mo2 O, BaO, SrO, PbO, NiO, CaO, MgO, CeF3 and their mixture, and density through the consolidated body, after pressing in step (E) is between about 50 to about 60% of theoretical density.
3. The method of claim 2, wherein the density at the ends of the sintered body, after sintering in step (F) is between about 85% to about 98% of theoretical density.
4. The method of claim 3, wherein the glass melt is quenched in an ice water bath.
5. The method of claim 3, wherein the glass particles and the ZnO particles mixed in step (D) have an average particle size of between about 0.5 micron to about 125 microns diameter.
6. A sintered body made by the method of claim 3.
Unwanted voltage surges have long been a critical problem to circuit designers of industrial and home electrical systems. Surges generated by load switching are often repetitive and range as high as 2,500 V. Lightning generated surges can range up to or over 6,000 V.
Surge protective devices have been made from SiC. It is also known that ZnO when mixed with certain oxide additives and sintered into pellets, can exhibit non-linear V-I characteristics superior to SiC. These additive modified ZnO compositions are, therefore, candidate materials for non-linear lightning arrester and similar type components.
In the sintered body, the sintered ZnO grains will be coated and bound with the oxide additives. These oxide additives are effective to produce electrical non-linearity completely within the bulk of the body. The voltage limiting characteristic of these surge protective materials is believed to be due to the character of the oxide additive within the grain boundary of the body of the material, which is near-insulating at low voltage and conducting at a high voltage.
ZnO non-linear devices have been made by mixing additive oxides, as individual powders, with ZnO powder, and then pressing and sintering, as taught by Matsuoka et al, in U.S. Pat. No. 3,663,458. In that patent, ZnO powder is mixed in a wet mill for 5 hours with additive materials such as Bi2 O3, Sb2 O3, CoO and MnO, as individual powders, to produce a homogeneous mixture. A binder such as water or polyvinyl alcohol can be added. The mixture was then molded at about 340 kg./sq. cm. (4,800 psi.) and sintered at 1,000� C to 1,450� C for 1 to 3 hours, providing 1.3 cm. diameter by 0.05 to 0.25 cm. thick discs. Matsuoka et al, in U.S. Pat. No. 3,838,378, more thoroughly mixed ZnO powder in a wet mill for 24 hours with individual additive oxide powders and CeF3 powder, to produce a mixture to which a binder could be added. The mixture was then molded at 250 kg./sq. cm. (3,500 psi.) and sintered at 1,000� C to 1,450� C for 1 to 10 hours, to provide bulk voltage non-linear bodies for lightning arresters, with dimensions as large as 3.5 to 4 cm. diameter and 2 cm. thickness.
We have found that mixing the materials is one of the most important operations in making non-linear lightning arrester components and non-linear resistors, because the physical homogeneity of the product, and the reproducibility of the electrical characteristics, will depend on thorough mixing of the component powders. By merely milling or blend-mixing the ingredients, even for 24 hours, only a marginally acceptable product is produced, resulting in a large percentage of lightning arrester components and resistors being rejected due to varying electrical properties caused by lack of homogeneity.
The grain boundary phase has been formed, in the prior art, by chemical reaction between the individual oxide additives in the sintering step of the process to form the resistor bodies. We have found that it is essential that the grain boundary phase be completely chemically homogeneous, and represent the equilibrium condition of the oxide additive reactant products. This means that the chemical reactions of the oxide additives must go to completion during the time that a single phase glass is being formed. Conventional fabrication methods of mixing component ZnO powder with 7 or 8 individual oxide additives, and then sintering in an attempt to reduce the mixture to a 2 component system, does not achieve the desired completely homogeneous grain boundary layer.
In the method of this invention, the above problems are solved by forming an additive glass composition from a mixture of oxides containing at least Bi2 O3 prior to mixing with ZnO particles. The oxides that can be used to make the glass, include metallic oxides such as: TiO2, Ta2 O5, FeO, In2 O3, Al2 O3, SnO2, Sn3 O4, Mo2 O, BaO, SrO, PbO, NiO, CaO, MgO and CeF3, and preferably Bi2 O3, Sb2 O3, Co3 O4, CoO, MnO, MnO2, B2 O3, ZnO, SiO2, and Cr2 O3, their equivalents and their mixtures. Glass made from these oxides can be effective to cause electrical non-linearity within a ZnO ceramic body.
A single phase glass is first made from a mixture of these additive oxides. The oxides are mill-mixed and then melted in a crucible at a temperature of between about 1,100� to about 1,600� C, for a time effective to provide a single phase, chemically homogenous glass melt. The glass melt is then quenched in ice water. The glass is then milled and mixed with ZnO, in the ratio of 2.5 to 40 weight % glass to 60 to 97.5 weight % ZnO. After mill-mixing the ZnO and the oxide glass, the powder mixture is pressed into a consolidated body of substantially uniform density.
The pressed body is then heated to form a sintered pellet, at a temperature of between about 900� C to about 1,400� C, for a time effective to sinter the pressed body. This process provides pellets having a microstructure consisting of a bulk phase of ZnO particles, and a boundary phase containing the oxide insulating layer binding the ZnO grains together. By this pre-glassing process, an extremely homogeneous, well-defined, and reproducible boundary layer is formed between the ZnO grains during the final sintering step, and sharp, non-linear V-I characteristics are obtained.
For a better understanding of the invention, reference may be made to the preferred embodiment, exemplary of the invention, shown in the accompanying drawings, in which:
FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view through a pellet made by the method of this invention, showing the ZnO grains and the grain boundary of oxide additives;
FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view through a lightning arrester; and
FIG. 3 is a graph of the V-I characteristics of the sintered pellets of this invention.
According to the invention, there is provided a homogeneous sintered body, useful as voltage-non-linear resistors, comprising a major portion of from 60 weight % to 97.5 weight %, preferably about 65 weight to about 85 weight % of ZnO, and an effective minor amount of any oxide insulation that will cause electrical non-linearity completely within the bulk of the body, generally between 2.5 weight % to 40 weight %.
The additive glass is selected from metal oxides including TiO2, Ta2 O5, FeO, In2 O3, Al2 O3, SnO2, Sn3 O4, Mo2 O, BaO, SrO, PbO, NiO, CaO, MgO and CeF3, and preferably Bi2 O3, Sb2 O3, Co3 O4, CoO, MnO, MnO2, B2 O3, ZnO and Cr2 O3, their equivalents and their mixtures. Less than 2.5 weight percent additive oxide insulating glass and the sintered body will remain a conductor. Greater than 40 weight percent additive oxide insulating glass and the sintered body will remain an insulator.
As an initial step, a single phase, chemically homogeneous glass is made from a mixture of these metal oxides. The oxide additive powder mixture, preferably containing about 10 mole % to about 60 mole % of Bi2 O3 and about 15 mole % to about 75 mole % of other oxides, including good glass formers such as SiO2, B2 O3, are grind-mixed in a ball mill for about 18 hours to about 30 hours.
The oxide powder mixture is placed in a refractory crucible or other suitable high temperature container, and is then heated at a temperature effective to provide a single phase, chemically homogeneous liquid glass melt. Melting is carried out, generally in a furnace containing silicon carbide resistive heating elements, for about 2 hours to about 4 hours at a temperature of between about 1,100� C to about 1,600� C.
The admixture of the preferred glass will consist of: about 10 to about 60 mole % of Bi2 O3 ; about 5 to about 15 mole % of ZnO; about 2 to about 15 mole % of MnO2 ; about 2 to about 10 mole % of Co3 O4 ; about 5 to about 40 mole % of SiO2 ; about 1 to about 15 mole % of B2 O3 and from 0 to about 30 mole % of Sb2 O3. The B2 O3 and SiO2 are generally included to insure that the glass will not devitrify during quenching. The Bi2 O3, ZnO, MnO2 and Co3 O4 are believed to be the main components which provide non-linear characteristics in the sintered pellet. The final glass composition may differ somewhat from the powder mixture due to evaporation of some oxides above 1,200� C and corrosion of crucible materials such as silica.
The molten glass is then cooled by quenching, i.e., pouring the molten glass into ice water to form a solid, porous glass. The quenched glass may then be broken up by any suitable means and ball-milled in acetone or other organic solvents for about 10 hours to about 30 hours. The fine glass powder is then air-dried to remove the solvent, and screened to provide an average particle size of between about 0.5 micron to about 125 microns diameter.
This glass powder is then added to ZnO powder, in the proportions described hereinabove, and grind-mixed in acetone or other organic solvent in a ball mill, for about 10 hours to about 30 hours, to provide a homogeneous mixture. The wet mixture is then air-dried to remove the solvent, and screened to provide an average particle size of between about 0.5 micron to about 125 microns in diameter. The ZnO and glass can be mixed by other suitable methods, such as spray-drying techniques.
The powder mixture is poured into a suitable steel die and then made into thin discs or other suitable shapes in a single or double action uni-axial press. These discs are then preferably placed in an isostatic or hydrostatic press, in which the single or double action uni-axially pressed body is placed in a flexible evacuated container, and the container placed in a pressure transmitting fluid such as a water-oil mixture, which mixture is then subjected to equal pressure on all sides.
The pressure used in the standard uni-axial press is between about 500 psi. to about 15,000 psi. (36 kg./sq. cm. -- 1,080 kg./sq. cm.) and the pressure used in the isostatic press is between about 15,000 psi. to about 40,000 psi. (1,080 kg./sq. cm. -- 2,880 kg./sq. cm.). The use of isostatic pressing insures that the density through the sample is substantially uniform at between about 50 to 60% of theoretical density. This helps to eliminate the problems of varying bulk density and varying electrical properties in the final product.
The pressed powder body is then heated at a temperature and for a time effective to completely sinter the powder masses to form a ZnO ceramic. Sintering will generally be carried out at a sintering temperature of between about 900� C to about 1,400� C preferably between about 1,000� C to about 1,200� C, for about 1 to 4 hours. In this step, the rate of increasing temperature is between about 75� C/hr. to about 150� C/hr.
During sintering the additive glass will soften and flow to completely surround, coat and bond the ZnO ceramic particles together. The ZnO will remain in discrete grains. The final product will generally shrink substantially and have a density at the ends of a disc of between about 85 to about 98% of the theoretical density of the single phase pure ZnO. The density will be substantially uniform throughout the mass, i.e., one that will vary no more than about 10%, and preferably no more than about 5%, throughout the pressed sintered body. If the density at the end of the body is 95%, then the density in the middle of the body will be between about 95 and 85%, but usually between about 95 to 92%. Using the method of this invention, sintered bodies having diameters about 1 to 3 in. and thicknesses of about 1/8 to 1/2 in. can be fabricated and are particularly useful in lightning arresters.
FIG. 1 shows a cross-section of the sintered pellet 10, showing the ZnO ceramic grains 11, and the grain boundary of oxide insulation 12, formed from the glass, which forms a thin layer surrounding each ZnO grains. In the sintered body, the ZnO grains will be coated and bound together by the oxide additive insulation. This additive oxide layer is effective to produce the electrical non-linearity characteristics of the ZnO ceramics.
The voltage limiting characteristic of these surge protective materials is believed to be due to the character of the grain boundary within the bulk or body of the material, which is near-insulating at low voltage and conducting at a high voltage. On impressing a voltage, the resistance changes from a linear function of I (current) and V (voltage) -Ohm's Law, to a power function of IαVα , where α, the non-ohmic exponent, is a measure of non-linearity, and has a value greater than one. The final product of this invention can exhibit a high degree of non-linearity, α greater than 65, when subjected to a voltage surge. The voltage at the onset of non-linearity may be defined as the breakdown voltage (BOV).
FIG. 2 shows one embodiment of an arrester 20 comprising as a characteristic element at least one voltage-nonlinear surge protective resistor body of this invention as lightning arrester component 21, enveloped in a porcelain insulator 22 with associated line terminal 23. As a non-linear resistor, sintered bodies made in accordance with this invention can be lapped at opposite surfaces by abrasive powder and provided with electrodes applied by any suitable method such as silver painting, vacuum evaporation or flame spraying of a metal such as Al or Sn.
A glass was made from a mixture of oxides consisting of 30 mole % (58 wt.%) Bi2 O3 ; 20 mole % (24 wt.%) Sb2 O3 ; 5 mole % (5 wt.%) Co3 O4 ; 10 mole % (3.6 wt. %) MnO2 ; 5 mole % (1.4 wt.%) B2 O3 ; 10 mole % (3.4 wt.%) ZnO and 20 mole % (4.5 wt.%) SiO2. These oxides, in analytic grade powder form, were weighed out and grind-mixed in a dry ball mill, containing zirconia media, for 24 hours.
The additive oxide powder mixture was poured into a silica crucible and placed in a furnace, brought to an operating temperature of about 1,450� C to form a molten, chemically homogeneous, single phase glass. The furnace contained silicon carbide resistive heating elements. The melt was stirred at about 1/2 hour intervals and left in the furnace for about 2 hours.
The molten glass from the crucible was then poured into an ice water bath to quench and solidfy the molten material, and form a porous, homogeneous, single phase glass. The porous, quenched glass was then ball-milled with acetone in a ball mill, containing zirconia media, for about 12 hours. The mixture, after drying in an oven at about 50� C was passed through a 149 micron screen (100 mesh U.S. Screen No.). This homogeneous glass powder was then ready as an additive to form ZnO non-linear ceramics.
A mix was then made by adding 25 parts by weight of the glass powder to 75 parts by weight of analytic grade ZnO powder. This provided a two phase system of ZnO and glass. The two components were grind-mixed with acetone in a ball mill, containing zirconia media, for about 12 hours to homogeneously mix the ZnO and glass. The wet admixture was then air dried in a drying oven, at about 50� C, to completely evaporate the acetone. The admixture was then passed through a 100 mesh screen. This homogeneously mixed ZnO-glass was then ready to be pressed into pellets and sintered to form non-linear V-I devices.
The powder was poured into a hollow steel die having about a 2.5 cm. diameter. Thin cylindrical discs were pre-pressed in a standard double action press at 10,000 psi. (720 kg./sq. cm.). The disc was then pressed in a standard isostatic press at about 30,000 psi. (2,140 kg./sq. cm.). The cylindrical pressed disc was removed from the isostatic press. It was strongly consolidated and easily handled, demonstrating excellent "green" strength. The "green" density of the disc was measured. The disc was of about 55% relative density and appeared to be substantially uniform in density through its thickness.
The pressed cylindrical disc was then placed in a Burrell tube furnace, with a heating zone of about 15.24 cm. (6 in.). The pressed disc was placed on 50 to 100 mesh zirconia in a zircon refractory boat. The furnace was raised to 1,200� C at a temperature increase of about 120� C/hr. and held at that sintering temperature for 2 hours to allow complete sintering of the ceramic body. The pellet was then cooled to provide a mass having ZnO ceramic particles bonded together by and coated with a boundary layer of a chemically homogeneous, single phase glass.
After the heat treatment, the pellet was given a light surface grinding, weighed and its dimensions measured. The diameter was about 2.0 cm., showing approximately 25% diametral shrinkage. The thickness was about 0.13 cm. and the density was about 5.4 grams/cu. cm. The sample was of about 95% relative density and appeared to be completely homogeneous and almost completely uniform in density through its thickness, with an apparent variation of approximately 5%. This provided an extremely uniformly dense voltage-nonlinear resistor useful for lightning arrester component application.
The ground disc was coated with an air-drying silver film and then subjected to low current AC testing which consisted of recording the voltage-current characteristics on an oscilloscope (Tektronix Type 576) with the current being limited to 10 ma. A 60 Hz. half-wave voltage source and a two-point probe technique were employed to sense the current flow. The V-I curve is shown in FIG. 3. At the beginning, there was a slow rise of current indicating the ZnO body was acting as a near insulator, but at a breakover voltage (a) the current increased suddenly, indicating the ZnO body was then acting as a conductor. The non-linear coefficient α was estimated to be about 70, making it particularly suitable for lightning arrester application.
Additional pellets were made using the same glass forming, pressing and sintering techniques, and using the same additive glass composition, but different amounts of ZnO powder. At 1.0 wt.% additive glass and 99 wt.% ZnO, the pellet showed linear characteristics as a conductor. At 2.5 wt.% additive glass and 97.5 wt.% ZnO, the non-linear coefficient was 3.1. At 20 wt.% additive glass and 80 wt.% ZnO, the non-linear coefficient was 24.1. At 30 wt.% additive glass and 70 wt.% ZnO, the non-linear coefficient was 52. At 40 wt.% additive glass and 60 wt.% ZnO, the non-linear coefficient was 3.0 and at 50 wt.% additive glass and 50 wt.% ZnO, the pellet again showed linear characteristics, but as an insulator. The mole ratio of additive oxides could be varied, and other oxide additives heretofore described could be used to produce useful non-linear devices.
The 25 wt.% additive glass and 75 wt.% ZnO powder material was also sintered at varying temperatures and times. At 1,100� C for 2 hours, the non-linear coefficient was 64. At 1,200� C for 4 hours, the non-linear coefficient was 39 (a drop from 70 for 1,200� C for 2 hours). At 1,300� C for 1 hour, the non-linear coefficient was 44.
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The Civil War This Week: May 4-10, 1865
Thursday, May 4
General Richard Taylor surrendered all Confederate forces in Alabama and Mississippi to Federal General E.R.S. Canby at Citronelle, Alabama.
Confederate President Jefferson Davis and his party continued their southward flight toward Georgia.
Federal President Abraham Lincoln was laid to rest at Springfield, Illinois.
A Federal expedition began from Pine Bluff, Arkansas. Skirmishing occurred in Alabama and Missouri.
Friday, May 5
The Connecticut legislature ratified the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery.
Jefferson Davis and his party reached Sandersville, Georgia.
A Federal expedition began from Pulaski, Tennessee. Skirmishing occurred in Georgia and Missouri.
Saturday, May 6
The War Department issued orders setting up the military commission to try the alleged conspirators to Abraham Lincoln's assassination.
Jefferson Davis and his group continued moving southward as Federals scoured the countryside searching for them.
Federal expeditions began from Richmond, Virginia and Little Rock, Arkansas.
Sunday, May 7
Jefferson Davis and his party continued avoiding Federal troops.
Monday, May 8
E.R.S. Canby accepted the paroles of Richard Taylor's troops and began preparing to move against the Confederate army west of the Mississippi River.
Federal expeditions began from various points in Missouri; Plum Creek in the Nebraska Territory; and Spring Hill, Alabama. Skirmishing occurred in Missouri.
Tuesday, May 9
Negotiations took place for the surrender of Brig Gen M. Jeff Thompson's Confederates at Chalk Bluff on the St. Francis River in Arkansas.
President Andrew Johnson recognized Francis H. Pierpont as governor of Virginia.
The trial of the eight alleged conspirators to Abraham Lincoln's assassination began in Washington.
Jefferson Davis and his wife Varina met near Dublin on the Oconee River in Georgia. Federal cavalry closed in on them this evening.
Wednesday, May 10
Federal cavalry captured Jefferson Davis and his group near Irwinville, Georgia.
President Johnson issued a proclamation that "armed resistance to the authority of this Government in the said insurrectionary States may be regarded as virtually at an end…" Therefore the Navy should arrest the crews of commerce raiders still on the high seas and bring them in. He also warned against continued hospitality by foreign powers toward Confederate ships. The naval blockade east of the Mississippi was partially lifted.
Major General Samuel Jones surrendered his Confederate forces at Tallahassee, Florida.
Federal irregulars mortally wounded William Clarke Quantrill near Taylorsville in Spencer County, Kentucky. Quantrill died on 6 June in Louisville.
Primary Sources:
- Foote, Shelby, The Civil War: A Narrative: Volume 3: Red River to Appomattox (Vintage Civil War Library, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, Kindle Edition, 2011)
- Long, E.B. and Long, Barbara, The Civil War Day by Day (New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971), p. 685-87
The Civil War This Week: Apr 27-May 3, 1865
Thursday, April 27
The steamboat Sultana exploded and sank in the Mississippi River, killing up to 1,800 recently released Federal prisoners of war in the worst maritime disaster in American history.
Early this morning, the steamship carrying the body of John Wilkes Booth arrived at Washington. At least 10 people who had known Booth identified the body as his. Federal officials imprisoned eight people accused of conspiring with Booth to kill Abraham Lincoln in Washington's Old Penitentiary.
Federal Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton warned Major General George Thomas, commanding troops at Nashville, that Confederate President Jefferson Davis was moving toward Texas with $6 to $13 million. Stanton ordered Thomas to "use all possible means to prevent the escape of Davis."
Meanwhile, Davis held a cabinet meeting at Fort Mill, where he expressed dismay that General Joseph E. Johnston had surrendered without even being surrounded or threatened with destruction. Treasury Secretary G.A. Trenholm submitted his resignation, too ill to continue the southward journey.
The Lincoln funeral train paused at Rochester and Buffalo, New York. Former President Millard Fillmore and future President Grover Cleveland paid tribute to Lincoln in Buffalo.
Federal General-in-Chief Ulysses S. Grant left Raleigh, North Carolina after conferring with Major General William T. Sherman.
Skirmishing occurred in Missouri.
Friday, April 28
Jefferson Davis continued moving into South Carolina. He accepted G.A. Trenholm's resignation, thanking him for his "lofty patriotism and personal sacrifice," and replaced him with Postmaster General John Reagan.
Some 50,000 people viewed Abraham Lincoln's coffin in Cleveland. Workers hastily built an outdoor pavilion to accommodate the crowd, as 10,000 people filed past the coffin each hour in driving rain.
Rescuers collected survivors and debris from the Sultana explosion.
William T. Sherman left his officers to handle the dissolution of Joseph E. Johnston's Confederate army and headed to Savannah, Georgia.
Saturday, April 29
President Andrew Johnson removed trade restrictions in former Confederate territory east of the Mississippi River.
People viewed Abraham Lincoln's coffin at Columbus, Ohio.
Jefferson Davis and his party reached Yorkville, South Carolina.
Skirmishing occurred in Kentucky.
Sunday, April 30
North of Mobile, Federal General E.R.S. Canby and Confederate General Richard Taylor agreed to a truce prior to Taylor surrendering all Confederates in Alabama and Mississippi.
The Lincoln funeral train arrived at Indianapolis.
A Federal expedition began from Brashear City, Louisiana.
Monday, May 1
President Johnson appointed officers to form a commission and try the eight people accused of conspiring to assassinate Abraham Lincoln.
In Chicago, a procession of about 50,000 people for Abraham Lincoln began at 12th Street and Michigan Avenue. Escorting Lincoln's hearse were 36 girls in white representing the 36 states. The procession ended with Lincoln lying in state in the Cook County courthouse. A sign over the courthouse read: "Illinois Clasps to Her Bosom Her Slain, but Glorified Son."
Jefferson Davis and his party arrived at Cokesbury, South Carolina.
Missouri Governor Thomas Fletcher replaced members of the state government in accordance with a resolution passed by a constitutional convention that vacated the state supreme court and about 800 jobs.
A Federal expedition began from Ojo de Anaya in the New Mexico Territory.
Tuesday, May 2
E.R.S. Canby telegraphed Ulysses S. Grant that Richard Taylor had agreed to surrender based on the same terms that Grant had given Robert E. Lee.
President Johnson issued a proclamation accusing Jefferson Davis and others of conspiring to assassinate Abraham Lincoln and offering a $100,000 reward for Davis's capture.
Lincoln's coffin continued lying in state in Chicago's Cook County courthouse. An estimated 125,000 mourners paid respects before the procession left town this evening, passing through Joliet around midnight on its way to Springfield.
The Davis party reached Abbeville, South Carolina. Davis held a council of war with his cabinet members and expressed his desire to continue the war. However, the others unanimously agreed that they would not conduct a guerrilla war to support a government-in-exile. They agreed to help Davis reach Mexico but nothing more. Shocked by his advisors' resolve, Davis said, "All is lost indeed," and the meeting adjourned. Navy Secretary Stephen R. Mallory resigned, and the remaining members of the Davis party left Abbeville before midnight.
Wednesday, May 3
Jefferson Davis and his party crossed the Savannah River and reached Washington, Georgia. Davis accepted Stephen Mallory's resignation. Secretary of State Judah Benjamin also left the party and eventually escaped to Great Britain in a desperate attempt to garner foreign aid.
The Lincoln funeral train reached its final destination at Springfield, with Lincoln lying in state in the Illinois Statehouse. The mayor of St. Louis loaned Springfield a hearse valued at $6,000. A delegation of Illinoisans gathered in front of Lincoln's home at 8th and Jackson streets.
President Johnson met with a Pennsylvania delegation and declared his intention to punish Confederate leaders for the war. However, Johnson asserted he would be lenient toward Confederate soldiers who had simply followed draft laws and served in the military.
A Federal expedition began from Fort Adams and Rodney in Mississippi. Skirmishing occurred in Missouri.
Primary Sources:
- Foote, Shelby, The Civil War: A Narrative: Volume 3: Red River to Appomattox (Vintage Civil War Library, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, Kindle Edition, 2011)
- Long, E.B. and Long, Barbara, The Civil War Day by Day (New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971), p. 683-85
The Civil War This Week: Apr 20-26, 1865
Thursday, April 20
The Arkansas state legislature ratified the Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery.
Former Confederate General-in-Chief Robert E. Lee wrote from Richmond to President Jefferson Davis, "I believe an army cannot be organized or supported in Virginia," or anywhere else east of the Mississippi River. Lee opposed a partisan war and recommended suspending hostilities to restore peace.
General James Harrison Wilson's Federal troops occupied Macon, Georgia. Skirmishing occurred in Georgia and Alabama.
Friday, April 21
The body of President Abraham Lincoln left Washington en route to its final resting place in Springfield, Illinois.
John S. Mosby disbanded his Confederate partisans at Millwood, Virginia.
President Andrew Johnson told an Indiana delegation that he believed the southern states had never left the Union. This contrasted with the views of the Radical Republicans in Congress, who asserted that the southern states committed political "suicide" by seceding and must thus be treated as conquered provinces, not as equals to the northern "loyal" states.
Federal expeditions began from Donaldsonville, Louisiana and Rolla, Missouri.
Saturday, April 22
James H. Wilson's Federal cavalry occupied Talladega, Alabama.
President Lincoln's assassin John Wilkes Booth and accomplice David Herold crossed the Potomac River into Virginia.
The Lincoln funeral train reached Philadelphia from Harrisburg.
President Davis met with his cabinet at Charlotte to consider the surrender agreement between Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston and Federal Major General William T. Sherman.
General Henry W. Halleck assumed command of the Federal Military Division of the James, and Nathaniel P. Banks resumed command of the Department of the Gulf.
A Federal expedition began from Deer Creek in the Dakota Territory. Skirmishing occurred in North Carolina, Georgia, and Missouri.
Sunday, April 23
James H. Wilson's Federals skirmished at Munford's Station, Alabama while General George Stoneman's Federal cavalry fought near Hendersonville, North Carolina.
President Davis's cabinet unanimously approved the surrender agreement between Joseph E. Johnston and William T. Sherman. Davis wrote to his wife Varina.
Federal expeditions began near Fort Zarah, Kansas and Pulaski, Tennessee.
Monday, April 24
Federal General-in-Chief Ulysses S. Grant arrived at the headquarters of Major General William T. Sherman to inform him that the Johnson administration had rejected the surrender document signed by Sherman and Joseph E. Johnston last week. Sherman notified Johnston that the truce was suspended until a new agreement could be reached.
John Wilkes Booth and David Herold crossed the Rappahannock River at Port Conway, Virginia.
Tuesday, April 25
Joseph E. Johnston requested a new meeting with William T. Sherman to avoid renewing hostilities. Sherman accepted.
The Lincoln funeral train began moving toward Albany, New York.
A Federal expedition began from Pine Bluff, Arkansas. Skirmishing occurred in Missouri.
Wednesday, April 26
Around 2 a.m., Federal cavalry caught up to John Wilkes Booth and David Herold in a tobacco barn on the farm of Richard H. Garrett. Herold surrendered but Booth refused and was shot to death.
Joseph E. Johnston agreed to surrender all Confederate troops under his command to William T. Sherman according to the same surrender terms that Ulysses S. Grant had given to Robert E. Lee.
President Davis met with his cabinet at Charlotte and agreed to head southwest to get across the Mississippi River. Attorney General George Davis resigned.
A Federal expedition began from Little Rock, Arkansas.
Primary Sources:
- Foote, Shelby, The Civil War: A Narrative: Volume 3: Red River to Appomattox (Vintage Civil War Library, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, Kindle Edition, 2011)
- Long, E.B. and Long, Barbara, The Civil War Day by Day (New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971), p. 680-83
The Civil War This Week: Apr 13-19, 1865
Thursday, April 13
Major General William T. Sherman's Federal army entered the North Carolina capital of Raleigh. Confederates under General Joseph E. Johnston moved from Greensboro to Hillsboro, North Carolina.
U.S. Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton ordered an end to the military draft and cut military appropriations.
President Abraham Lincoln conferred with General-in-Chief Ulysses S. Grant, Navy Secretary Gideon Welles, Stanton, and others.
A Federal expedition began from Lexington, Kentucky. Skirmishing occurred at Whistler or Eight Mile Creek Bridge and at Wetumpka, Alabama.
Friday, April 14
Northern officers and dignitaries attended a flag-raising ceremony at Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. Henry Ward Beecher delivered an oration; President Lincoln had declined an invitation to attend.
William T. Sherman accepted the surrender of Raleigh, North Carolina, as his Federals advanced from Raleigh to Durham Station. Joseph E. Johnston received permission from President Jefferson Davis to ask Sherman if he was "willing to make a temporary suspension of active operations."
President Lincoln was shot in the head by prominent actor John Wilkes Booth while attending a play at Ford's Theatre in Washington.
Skirmishing occurred in North Carolina, Tennessee, and Alabama.
Saturday, April 15
President Abraham Lincoln died of his gunshot wound at 7:22 a.m. Andrew Johnson became the 17th U.S. president; to the horror of many northerners, Johnson was a southern Democrat.
Fugitives John Wilkes Booth and accomplice David Herold escaped from Washington and stayed at the home of Dr. Samuel Mudd, who set Booth's broken leg.
Jefferson Davis left Greensboro, North Carolina with a cavalry escort.
Federal expeditions began from Randolph and Pocahontas counties, West Virginia and Bath and Highland, Virginia. Skirmishing occurred in North Carolina and Missouri.
Sunday, April 16
Northerners deeply mourned the death of Abraham Lincoln, and southerners knew that Lincoln's death would result in vengeance against them.
Federal troops pursued John Wilkes Booth and David Herold, who reached the home of Samuel Cox in Rich Hill, Maryland.
The fleeing Confederate government reached Lexington, North Carolina.
Federal cavalry under General James Wilson captured West Point and Columbus in Georgia.
Skirmishing occurred in Alabama.
Monday, April 17
William T. Sherman and Joseph E. Johnston met at the Bennett House near Durham Station, North Carolina.
Jefferson Davis and his party reached Salisbury, North Carolina en route to Charlotte.
John Wilkes Booth and David Herold hid in a cluster of trees while trying to gain transport across the Potomac River south of Port Tobacco, Maryland.
This evening, the body of President Lincoln was taken from the guest chamber of the White House to the East Room, where it lay in state until the funeral on the 19th.
James Wilson's Federal cavalry destroyed Columbus, Georgia and the ironclad gunboat C.S.S. Muscogee or Jackson.
A Federal expedition began from Blakely, Alabama. Skirmishing occurred in North Carolina.
Tuesday, April 18
William T. Sherman and Joseph E. Johnston signed a "Memorandum, or Basis of Agreement," which proved highly controversial.
Jefferson Davis and his party continued southward to Concord, North Carolina.
The body of Abraham Lincoln lay in state in the East Room of the White House.
James Wilson's Federal cavalry skirmished in Georgia. Other skirmishing occurred in Kentucky and Tennessee.
Wednesday, April 19
Funeral services took place for Abraham Lincoln in the White House and later at the U.S. Capitol.
Major General John Pope, commanding the Federal Military Division of the Missouri, wrote to Lieutenant General E. Kirby Smith, commanding the Confederate Trans-Mississippi Department, requesting Smith's surrender based on the terms that Ulysses S. Grant had given to Robert E. Lee.
Major General Henry W. Halleck became commander of the Federal Military Division of the James, which included Virginia and parts of North Carolina not occupied by Sherman's forces.
Jefferson Davis and his party arrived at Charlotte, North Carolina, where Davis first heard of Lincoln's assassination. Confederate General Wade Hampton wrote to Davis proposing to cross the Mississippi River and continue the fight.
A Federal expedition began from Memphis, Tennessee and Terre Bonne, Louisiana. Skirmishing occurred in Georgia.
Primary Sources:
- Foote, Shelby, The Civil War: A Narrative: Volume 3: Red River to Appomattox (Vintage Civil War Library, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, Kindle Edition, 2011)
- Long, E.B. and Long, Barbara, The Civil War Day by Day (New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971), p. 675-80
The Civil War This Week: Apr 6-12, 1865
Thursday, April 6
The Battle of Sayler's Creek occurred, in which Federals routed Confederate General-in-Chief Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia as it fled west from Petersburg and Richmond.
Federal cavalry under General James H. Wilson and General Nathan Bedford Forrest's Confederates clashed near Lanier's Mills, Sipsey Creek, and King's Store in Alabama. Skirmishing occurred in southwest Virginia and West Virginia.
Friday, April 7
Federal General-in-Chief Ulysses S. Grant sent Robert E. Lee a message "asking of you the surrender of that portion of the C.S Army known as the Army of Northern Virginia." Lee responded by asking "the terms you will offer on condition of its surrender."
Tennessee ratified the Thirteenth Amendment and inaugurated abolitionist W.G. "Parson" Brownlow as governor.
Officials of the U.S. and Great Britain opened correspondence over claims arising from depredations of the Confederate commerce raider Alabama.
James H. Wilson and Nathan Bedford Forrest clashed at Fike's Ferry on the Cahawba River in Alabama. A Federal expedition began from Blakely, Alabama.
Saturday, April 8
Ulysses S. Grant answered Robert E. Lee's query of yesterday by stating that "the men and officers surrendered shall be disqualified from taking up arms again against the Government of the United States until properly exchanged."
Confederate defenders evacuated Spanish Fort guarding Mobile, Alabama during the night.
A Federal expedition began from Vienna and Fairfax Court House, Virginia. Skirmishing occurred in North Carolina and Missouri.
Sunday, April 9
Robert E. Lee surrendered the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia. This virtually sealed the Confederacy's defeat.
Monday, April 10
Robert E. Lee issued General Order No. 9, his last official order as commander of the Army of Northern Virginia: "After four years of arduous service, marked by unsurpassed courage and fortitude, the Army of Northern Virginia has been compelled to yield to overwhelming numbers and resources…"
Confederate President Jefferson Davis, upon learning of Lee's surrender, left Danville, Virginia to relocate at Greensboro, North Carolina.
James H. Wilson's Federals clashed the Nathan Bedford Forrest's Confederates at Lowndesborough and Benton, Alabama. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia and North Carolina.
Tuesday, April 11
Major General William T. Sherman's Federal Army of the West entered Smithfield, North Carolina, where they learned of Lee's surrender two days ago.
President Abraham Lincoln delivered a speech to a joyous crowd from a second floor window in the White House. His legalistic explanation of what could be expected in the upcoming reconstruction period dampened spirits a bit.
Wednesday, April 12
James H. Wilson's Federals occupied the Alabama state capital of Montgomery, which had also been the first Confederate capital.
Jefferson Davis and his cabinet arrived at Greensboro to a cold reception. Davis consulted with General P.G.T. Beauregard on how to continue the fight.
A formal surrender ceremony took place as the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia relinquished its arms.
President Lincoln revoked permission for the pro-Confederate Virginia legislature to assemble at Richmond.
William T. Sherman's Federals approached Raleigh, North Carolina.
Federal expeditions began from Port Hudson, Louisiana; Tallahassa Mission in the Indian Territory; Dakota City in the Nebraska Territory; and Fort Stanton in the New Mexico Territory.
Primary Sources:
- Foote, Shelby, The Civil War: A Narrative: Volume 3: Red River to Appomattox (Vintage Civil War Library, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, Kindle Edition, 2011)
- Long, E.B. and Long, Barbara, The Civil War Day by Day (New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971), p. 667-75
The Civil War This Week: Mar 30-Apr 5, 1865
Thursday, March 30
U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, still visiting the Federal supply base at City Point, Virginia, said he should return to Washington, "and yet I dislike to leave without seeing nearer to the end of General (Ulysses S.) Grant's present movement."
Confederate President Jefferson Davis wrote to a friend: "Faction has done much to cloud our prospects and impair my power to serve the country."
A Federal expedition began from Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Skirmishing occurred in Alabama and West Virginia.
Friday, March 31
General James H. Wilson's Federal cavalry destroyed iron furnaces and collieries around Montevallo, Alabama.
In Virginia, Major General Philip Sheridan's Federals and Confederates under Major General George Pickett clashed at Dinwiddie Court House. Pickett withdrew to Five Forks this evening.
Federal operations took place around Agua Fria in the New Mexico Territory. Skirmishing occurred in North Carolina and Tennessee.
Saturday, April 1
The Battle of Five Forks occurred, in which Federals routed George Pickett's Confederates and compelled General Robert E. Lee to abandon Petersburg and Richmond.
In a letter to Lee, President Davis noted he had "been laboring without much progress to advance the raising of negro troops." Davis admitted: "The distrust is increasing and embarrasses in many ways."
C.S.S. Shenandoah captured four U.S. whalers in Lea Harbor, Ascension Island (now Ponape Island, Eastern Carolines) in the Pacific.
James H. Wilson's Federal cavalry skirmished with Confederates under General Nathan Bedford Forrest at various points in northern Alabama.
Federal expeditions began from Dalton, Georgia; Licking, Missouri; and Pine Bluff, Arkansas. Federals operated against Native Americans west of Fort Laramie in the Dakota Territory. Skirmishing occurred in Tennessee.
Sunday, April 2
President Davis received a message from Robert E. Lee while attending church services that Petersburg and Richmond must be abandoned. Later today, Petersburg fell to Federal forces.
James H. Wilson's Federal cavalry captured Selma, Alabama. Also in Alabama, Federal forces began laying siege to Fort Blakely in their attempt to capture Mobile.
Federal expeditions began from Thibodeaux, Bayou City, Brashear City, and The Hermitage, Louisiana. Skirmishing occurred in North Carolina and Arkansas.
Monday, April 3
The Confederate capital of Richmond fell to Federal forces after four years of brutal warfare in Virginia.
James H. Wilson's cavalry clashed with Nathan Bedford Forrest at Northport near Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Federal expeditions began from Huntsville, Alabama and Asheville, North Carolina. Skirmishing occurred in Virginia and Tennessee.
Tuesday, April 4
President Lincoln visited the ruins of Richmond. He also conferred with John A. Campbell, the highest ranking Confederate official still in Richmond, about restoring Virginia to the U.S.
James H. Wilson's Federals entered Tuscaloosa.
From the temporary Confederate capital of Danville, Virginia, President Davis issued a proclamation "To the People of the Confederate States of America":
It would be unwise, even if it were possible, to conceal the great moral, as well as material injury to our cause that must result from the occupation of Richmond by the enemy. It is equally unwise and unworthy of us, as patriots engaged in a most sacred cause, to allow our energies to falter, our spirits to grow faint, or our efforts to become relaxed, under reverses however calamitous… Relieved from the necessity of guarding cities, nothing is now needed to render our triumph certain but… our own unquenchable resolve…
Wednesday, April 5
Robert E. Lee's Confederates arrived at Amelia Court House with no supplies waiting for them as Lee had requested.
President Lincoln conferred with John A. Campbell again and issued a statement about restoring Virginia to the U.S. At 6 p.m., Lincoln received news that Secretary of State William H. Seward had been critically injured in a carriage accident in Washington that afternoon.
Two Federal expeditions began from Charleston and Georgetown, South Carolina, and another began from Huntsville, Alabama. Federals operated against Natives from Camp Bidwell to Antelope Creek, California.
Primary Sources:
- Foote, Shelby, The Civil War: A Narrative: Volume 3: Red River to Appomattox (Vintage Civil War Library, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, Kindle Edition, 2011)
- Long, E.B. and Long, Barbara, The Civil War Day by Day (New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971), p. 660-67
The Civil War This Week: Mar 23-29, 1865
Thursday, March 23
U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, First Lady Mary Lincoln, son Tad, and aides left Washington to visit the headquarters of General-in-Chief Ulysses S. Grant at City Point, Virginia. The Lincoln party boarded River Queen and departed from the Sixth Street Arsenal Wharf at 1 p.m.
Federal Major General William T. Sherman met with Major General John M. Schofield at Goldsboro, North Carolina. This completed the junction of Federal forces in the state, as Sherman now had six corps totaling 88,948 men. In contrast, Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston had barely 20,000 troops as he withdrew across the Neuse River. Johnston wrote to Confederate General-in-Chief Robert E. Lee: "Sherman's course cannot be hindered by the small force I have. I can do no more than annoy him…"
A Federal expedition began from Donaldsonville, Louisiana. Skirmishing occurred in North Carolina and Alabama.
Friday, March 24
The Lincoln party arrived at City Point late this evening. The Lincolns' son Robert, serving on Ulysses S. Grant's staff, reported his family's arrival to Grant.
Troops from the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia prepared to break out of the siege lines at Petersburg, Virginia. They had chosen Fort Stedman as the best breakout site because it could cut Grant's supply line at City Point and enable to Confederates to join Joseph E. Johnston in Virginia.
William T. Sherman wrote to Grant, "I think I see pretty clearly how, in one more move, we can checkmate Lee, forcing him to unite Johnston with him in defense of Richmond, or, by leaving Richmond, to abandon the cause. I feel certain if he leaves Richmond, Virginia leaves the Confederacy."
A Federal expedition began from Bayou Boeuf, Louisiana. Skirmishing occurred in North Carolina, Alabama, and Missouri.
Saturday, March 25
The Battle of Fort Stedman occurred as Confederates surprised the Federals and quickly captured the fort. However, Federal reinforcements soon arrived, and the overwhelming numbers drove the Confederates back. By 7:45 a.m., the Federals had regained the fort and all other positions, and the Confederate breakout attempt ended in failure.
Later this morning, President Lincoln accompanied Ulysses S. Grant on a horseback inspection of Federal troops at Petersburg, which included reviewing the Fort Stedman battle site.
Confederate President Jefferson Davis received a warning from Robert E. Lee that Richmond may have to be abandoned after the defeat at Fort Stedman. Davis told his wife Varina: "My headquarters for the future may be in the field, and your presence would embarrass and grieve me instead of giving comfort." Mrs. Davis pleaded to stay with her husband, but Davis said: "You can do this in but one way: by going yourself and taking the children to a place of safety. If I live, you can come to me when the struggle is ended," but he did not "expect to survive the destruction of constitutional liberty." Davis prohibited her from taking any food with her because "the people need it."
Federal forces under Major General E.R.S. Canby reached Spanish Fort, nine miles east of Mobile, Alabama through hard rain. Despite Mobile's formidable defenses, the Confederates were hopelessly outnumbered.
William T. Sherman left his Federal army at Goldsboro under John M. Schofield's command and headed to City Point to confer with Grant. Meanwhile, Federals repaired the railroad from Goldsboro to New Bern, allowing troops to begin receiving food, supplies, and mail from the North.
Two Federal expeditions began from Brashear City, Louisiana. Skirmishing occurred in Alabama, Florida, Kentucky, and Virginia.
Sunday, March 26
President Lincoln reviewed troops at Petersburg and met with Federal Major General Philip Sheridan. An incident occurred in which Mrs. Lincoln became enraged upon seeing the wife of a Federal general sitting horseback beside the president during the troop review. The first lady vented her wrath on both the general's wife and the wife of Ulysses S. Grant.
Robert E. Lee wrote to President Davis: "I fear now it will be impossible to prevent a junction between Grant and Sherman, nor do I deem it prudent that this army should maintain its position until the latter shall approach too near." Lee prepared to abandon Petersburg and Richmond and move west to join Johnston in North Carolina.
Ulysses S. Grant issued false orders for Philip Sheridan's Federals to join William T. Sherman in North Carolina. Sheridan's true orders, issued in secret, were to lead the upcoming Federal drive to destroy Lee's army.
Sherman boarded the steamer Russia this morning en route to City Point. He said, "I'm going up to see Grant for five minutes and have it all chalked out for me, and then come back and pitch in."
Confederate envoy James Mason conferred with the Earl of Donoughmore about the Confederacy's offer to free the slaves in exchange for British recognition. The earl stated that had the proposal been made before the Battle of Gettysburg, it would have been accepted. But now, Mason said, "He replied that the time had gone by."
Federals began firing on Spanish Fort outside Mobile, Alabama. A Federal expedition began from Bonnet Carre, Louisiana. Skirmishing occurred in Alabama and Kentucky.
Monday, March 27
William T. Sherman arrived at City Point to meet with President Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, and Rear Admiral David D. Porter. The men gathered aboard River Queen in the first meeting between the president and his field commanders. Today's talks were mainly social, as Sherman shared stories from the Carolinas Campaign. The commanders agreed that "one more bloody battle was likely to occur before the close of the war."
E.R.S. Canby's 32,000 Federals began laying siege to Spanish Fort outside Mobile, Alabama. Ironclads in the Gulf of Mexico backed the Federal siege.
Philip Sheridan's Federals crossed the James and joined the Army of the Potomac. Sheridan had hurried out of fear that Sherman would persuade Grant to send him to North Carolina instead of joining the final drive against Robert E. Lee.
A Federal expedition began from Winchester, Virginia.
Tuesday, March 28
The Federal high command continued talks aboard River Queen this morning. President Lincoln expressed hope that high-ranking Confederates, including Jefferson Davis, would flee the country. Regarding surrender, Lincoln said: "Let them once surrender and reach their homes, they won't take up arms again. Let them go, officers and all. I want submission and no more bloodshed." When the fighting stopped, southerners "would at once be guaranteed all their rights as citizens of a common country." Lincoln said, "I want no one punished, treat them liberally all around. We want those people to return to their allegiance to the Union and submit to the laws."
The City Point conference set the tone for how the Federal commanders would handle the Confederates in upcoming engagements. Following the talks, William T. Sherman returned to Goldsboro.
Federal troops shifted positions in front of Petersburg in preparation for a scheduled advance tomorrow. Robert E. Lee wrote to his daughter: "Genl Grant is evidently preparing for something & is marshalling & preparing his troops for some movement, which is not yet disclosed…"
Federal expeditions began from Deep Bottom, Virginia and Fort Pike, Louisiana. Skirmishing occurred in North Carolina, Alabama, and Tennessee.
Wednesday, March 29
Robert E. Lee shifted Confederate forces to the right of his Petersburg line to counter the growing Federal threat to the Five Forks area. Philip Sheridan began moving forces in that direction to cut the two railroads supplying Confederates in Petersburg and Richmond. Sheridan reached Dinwiddie Court House this afternoon in a movement toward the Southside Railroad.
A Confederate torpedo sunk U.S.S. Osage in the Blakely River, Alabama. Federal expeditions began from Waynesville, Missouri and Stephenson's Depot, Virginia. Skirmishing occurred in North Carolina, Kentucky, and Missouri.
Primary Sources:
- Foote, Shelby, The Civil War: A Narrative: Volume 3: Red River to Appomattox (Vintage Civil War Library, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, Kindle Edition, 2011)
- Long, E.B. and Long, Barbara, The Civil War Day by Day (New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1971), p. 656-59

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Gopinath Munde`s Rs 8 cr poll expenditure remark under EC scanner
New Delhi: The remarks of senior BJP leader Gopinath Munde that he had spent around Rs 8 crore in the last Lok Sabha elections, which is much above the prescribed limit, came under the Election Commission`s scanner on Friday which initiated a probe into the matter.
The Election Commission started verifying the facts of the statement made by Munde in Mumbai yesterday and said it would take "appropriate action" as per law after verifying the facts.
The full Election Commission in its meeting chaired by Chief Election Commissioner VS Sampath discussed the issue today and decided to procure a CD of the speech and transcribe the same before initiating further action.
Asked about any action on Munde`s statement, a senior EC official said, "Yes, we have come across such reports. The Commission is in the process of ascertaining and verifying the facts about it. After verifying the facts, it will take suitable action as appropriate under the law."
Munde, who is an MP from Beed and BJP`s deputy leader in the Lok Sabha, had yesterday said that he had spent a whopping Rs eight crore during his 2009 Lok Sabha election campaign. He made his statement at a book launch function in Mumbai where Gujarat Chief Minister Narendra Modi and former BJP chief Nitin Gadkari were also present.
The prescribed limit for expenditure on poll campaign by a candidate in a Parliamentary constituency under the law is Rs 25 lakh.
In his speech in Mumbai yesterday, Munde while talking about his long electioneering career and bemoaning the increasing cost of contesting elections, had said, "I spent Rs 29,000 when I contested my first Assembly poll in 1980. Rs 8 crore were spent for my last (2009 Lok Sabha) election."
Earlier in the day, Information and Broadcasting Minister Manish Tewari had sought EC action on Munde`s statement, saying the Commission should take cognizance of it. "If Munde has said he has spent Rs 7 to 8 crores, it would be proper the EC asks him. It is in the nation`s interest, and the responsibility of the EC," Tewari said.
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Closed draw transfer system with gaseous pressure direction of web
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A paper making apparatus and process of the type wherein the paper is processed from a starting condition of a slurry of pulp fiber to a later condition of a continuous self-sustaining paper sheet. The paper is carried continuously along a preselected path of travel extending from the starting condition to the later condition and for processing the paper as it is being carried. The path of travel normally includes a plurality of pairs of contacting members, including a forming wire and a pick-up felt, a pick-up felt and a bottom felt, and a pick-up felt and Yankee dryer, such contacting members processing the paper. The paper is passed through each nip defined by each of the contacting members and continues along its desired path of travel. Air pressure is applied on the discharge side or outgoing side of one or more of the nips defined between the sets of contacting members. The air pressure is applied in a direction which causes the paper to remain in the desired path of travel and to avoid deviation thereof from the desired path of travel.
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Showing reviews 1-50 of 302 | Next
Posted by Unknown on 28th May 2015
My rabbits eat all of these pellets so there is no waste. My orders arrive promptly usually 3 or 4 days after I place an order. The pellets are always fresh and carefully packaged for shipment.
Posted by robyn on 25th May 2015
My rabbit loves it so much and knows when I come in with a new box!
Posted by Unknown on 21st May 2015
I have ordered from Sherwood Forest Farm since 2012 and I am never disappointed. I am very thankful for their existence and recommend any one who loves their bunny to buy their product!!! My bunny is absolutely in love, he can't even wait for me to open the package up. Everytime I fill his bowl up and thumps and bolts towards me within microseconds
Posted by Bunny Feathers Rabbit Rescue on 12th May 2015
We totally trust David Sherwood's meta research & scientific analysis. He has taken all of the guess work out of feeding our rabbits. We are saving money as well, with fewer vet visits and no more shopping trips attempting to meet our rabbits' nutritional needs on our own. Thank you, Sherwood Forest, for peace of mind, convenience, savings, and science!
Posted by Patti Brant on 5th May 2015
I love how fresh Sherwood Forest is and my bunnies gobble it up. As a rescue with many rabbits, I do wish that it was offered in larger quantity. I can go through the 19 pound box in a heartbeat! Great food!!!!
Posted by Bridgett on 28th Apr 2015
I started using Sherwood Naturals... and she loved it. Her coat is always shiny and soft and I love knowing when her batch was made. It's always fresh and have never had a problem with that. I won't feed her anything else.
Posted by Fiona on 24th Apr 2015
My bunnies love it and I love the ingredients. The best rabbit food by far.
Posted by Bees On Earth on 8th Apr 2015
My bunnies have eaten this food all of their lives. They have beautiful coats, shiny bright eyes and are full of life. I wouldn't feed them any other commercial food. I live in western NY state and always have my fingers crossed that it will be available locally soon. One of the best local chains who might be interested in carrying your product is Country Max. Thank you so much for producing this awesome nutrition for our bunnies!
Posted by Unknown on 6th Apr 2015
My two rabbits and my fosters love Adult Rabbit Food. I love the fact that I can free feed! It's shipped fast and always gets here in great condition. We are sold and look no where else!
Posted by Eunice on 30th Mar 2015
Sherwood's Adult Rabbit Food is a fantastic find. All you need to do is open the bag to discover the difference. Sherwood's looks fresher, smells amazingly "green" and fresh, and our rabbits LOVE it. They race across the pen as soon as we put the bowl of Sherwood's down, and there's never a morsel left. I'm thrilled with Sherwood's and I'm sure you will be too!
Posted by Unknown on 29th Mar 2015
This is the best rabbit food! Our rabbit, Thumper, loves this rabbit food. We love that it is all natural ingredients. This is the only rabbit food that we will feed our rabbit.
Posted by K. Hoy on 20th Mar 2015
The Sherwood Forest adult rabbit food is an affordable quality product that my 2 rabbits love! I can smell the nourishment even in the last scoop and it's firm texture does not crumble in the bottom of the box. I feel confident serving the pellets and I have 2 happy bunnies!
Posted by Unknown on 11th Mar 2015
My baby angora had a hard start with the food...He wouldn't touch it! But I stuck it out with him for a few weeks and when he decided to actually 'try' it, he ate it like a pig! I am pleased with the food. It smells very fresh and I do like the ingredients. Good customer service too! One thing that I noticed right away was the smell of his litter box greatly reduced...even when he was already on a no corn, no soy pellet before, the Sherwood forest still reduced the odor greatly. I love this food! Thanks for a great product and God bless!
Posted by Silvia Mojica on 4th Mar 2015
I only buy food for my gunther off Sherwood. He loves and enjoys eating his pallets. Thank you for the great, fast, and amazing service.
Posted by Cynthia on 2nd Mar 2015
I didn't realize how much my buns love Sherwood until recently, when I ran out and bought a wee bag of their old brand (a respected & widely recommended brand, that nonetheless has fillers) to hold them over.
Well that "designer/vet recommended" stuff smelled like sweetened chalk to me (comes with a "designer" price too) and my buns refused to eat it! They would only eat hay until their Sherwood was delivered!
Posted by Unknown on 24th Feb 2015
My bunny loves this food and just devours it. At first her didn't like it and would actually try to bite me when I tried to feed it to him. LOL! But after awhile, it grew on him. Now he devours it and smooshes his face against the walls of his house begging for more when he's ready to eat again. I also loves how quickly it ships, how wonderfully it's packaged and the customer service is really great.
Posted by Julie on 14th Feb 2015
My bunnies love these pellets! We lived in Germany for several years where you can easily find nutritious rabbit pellets in pet stores. Upon moving back to the States, I could not find any commercial rabbit food in pet stores that had the right balance of minerals, nutrients and ingredients. It was a great relief to find Sherwood Forest. The Sherwood Forest pellets are high quality, correctly balanced food,easily ordered and delivered quickly. Thanks!
Posted by Lynn on 12th Feb 2015
My holland lop and mini Rex has used this product for a year. They love it!!! They are beautiful healthy rabbits because of these pellets. Also, every order has been on time and delivered within 3-5 days. The pellets has always been fresh and clean. The reliable service is a plus. I feel I don't have to worry about going to the store for other food.
Posted by Unknown on 11th Feb 2015
I have 2 French Angora rabbits that I raise for fiber. I used to use just regular pellets but decided to switch when the older one started losing weight and his hair turned so bad it wasn't even harvestable. Both bunnies now love Sherwood Forest Pellets and eat it all down as soon as I give it to them, sometimes they even knock down the bowl in the process because they get so excited! Thank you Sherwood!
Posted by Sandra on 11th Feb 2015
I did a search on Google to find the best rabbit food out there. This was one of the brands that was mentioned the most. No nasty ingredients added. He's very shiny, uber soft and he goes nuts for the food.
Posted by Lisa N. on 6th Feb 2015
Love the food; the bunnies love it too. It's good knowing how fresh it is. Wish that I received some sort of lowered price for buying in bulk, and being a rabbit foster mom.
Posted by Christine Pizzutello on 30th Jan 2015
This food is obviously fresh. It is a beautiful color green and has a very fresh, grassy smell to it. I feel much better about feeding this food to our bunnies!
Posted by Hayley on 27th Jan 2015
Navigating the world of rabbit kibble can be daunting. It's incredible to come across a brand that is actually SAFE & promotes health rather than hooks them on things that are a detriment to their longevity. I feel confident offering SHERWOOD to my bun, as it is free of every bad filler most (if not all) companies sneak into their pellets. Thank you SHERWOOD for helping me keep my bun in excellent condition!
Posted by Unknown on 24th Jan 2015
My buns love this food! Always excellent quality! Each time I open a package, the food smells amazing. I just sit there and sniff it for a minute before I feed the bunnies! Very fast shipping and reasonable prices too! :-)
Posted by Frosty on 22nd Jan 2015
Frosty has been on Sherwood since he was 8 weeks old. He is now 3 and comes running when he hears the sound of fresh pellets in his bowl. I recently took him to the vet for a nail trim and a general check up. He is the perfect weight and his coat is amazing! Although my vet discouraged me from only feeding pellets and must include hay, I am confident that Frosty is getting the best food out there. He has never had diarrhea or blockage and his teeth are perfect! Sherwood also provides excellent customer service and available to answer questions about rabbit nutrition. We love Sherwood!
Posted by Karen on 20th Jan 2015
My rabbit gobbles this food up! She is so happy she can eat to her hearts content. She is a rescue that was found starved in an abandoned house. We are looking forward to the organic version. GMOs are nasty.
Posted by Lorraine on 15th Jan 2015
I love the quality of this pellet.
Ingrediants, and the great green color make this a must have for your bunny
My one suggestion would be that the pellet was thicker in shape..my very flat faced netherland dwarf bunny has a problem picking them up to eat them !!LOL
Posted by Unknown on 12th Jan 2015
Smells so fresh and the color is vivid green. Our rabbits love the food and are as healthy as can be!
Posted by Unknown on 9th Jan 2015
I have two lionheads who are both about a year or two old and they love these pellets (I feed them the adult formula). They are both a healthy weight and size and binky everyday. One of my buns has only been with us for three months and she's trimmed down noticeably and she becomes more active all the time.
Posted by Robin S on 8th Jan 2015
Top notch food. Our English Lop Luna can't get enough. Such a shiny coat.
Posted by Unknown on 6th Jan 2015
I chose this rabbit food after coming back from Germany. It was easy to find good food for rabbits, that meet the best guideline specifications, in any pet supply store there. Finding commercial rabbit food, that you should feed to a house rabbit, in retail stores in the States is almost impossible. I was grateful to find good quality food for my bunnies through Sherwood.
Posted by Lisa N on 6th Jan 2015
Their coats have never been shinier. Our older bun (10years) seems more active
Posted by Elizabeth Hopkins on 2nd Jan 2015
Very pleased that a company looks at a rabbits needs and works to give them that. Love that the food is fresh and comes quickly. Thanks for everything!
Posted by Brenda Mealey on 30th Dec 2014
Sherwood Forest is the best rabbit food there is! All six of my bunnies love it. Their fur looks so much better and they are all healthier. My vet also thinks it is the best!
Posted by Miriam on 22nd Dec 2014
I am so very happy I found Sherwood Forest Feed and this wonderful company. More importantly, my little cream and white Netherland is very happy (:3 She is just so pretty; her coat is full and soft, and she is lively, alert and frisky. I started her on the Baby Bunny feed at four weeks, continuing with the Adult Rabbit Feed at 13 weeks. I am ordering 6 pounds at a time. It arrives in two days. It is wonderfully fresh and the bunny eats it with no problems. I will not even think about any other feed.
Posted by Unknown on 18th Dec 2014
I love this company! The food is always SUPER fresh. Shipping is quick and easy.
Posted by Unknown on 18th Dec 2014
I wanted healthy pallets made with grass for my two adult rabbits and was happy to find these! Luckily my rabbits like them too. These are all they eat, except for a small portion of veggie or fruits per day. I am glad to say my rabbits are healthy and happy!
Posted by Patti on 14th Dec 2014
I am just finishing up my first 19 pound box of pellets. The bunnies love it and there is barely and dust in the bottom!
Posted by Sherry on 9th Dec 2014
I started out with the juvenile version but then moved on to the adult version and the result is the same. She comes running when I take her bowl to fill. Let me say, she is a Flemish Giant rabbit and eats a fair amount but it's way worth it to me as she loves it and is very healthy. Keep up the good work!!
Posted by EAG on 3rd Dec 2014
From the moment you open the box, you know something is different (and better). You can see the difference and you can smell the difference. This is the greenest, freshest smelling food you'll ever feed your rabbits. You'll feel good about what you're feeding your little buddies, and they'll feel great about what they're eating.
Posted by Unknown on 3rd Dec 2014
You can really tell the difference with the high quality bunny food you get when you first open the package. The grains are bright green and not a dull gray-ish tan like in other food pellets you see in most pet stores. I would highly recommend this to anyone who wants maintain a healthy rabbit diet for their pet.
Posted by Marie A on 29th Nov 2014
my Daisy absolutely loves her new food ! always looking for more. She only gets a small amount at a time with her hay. Now the trick is to always have some on hand. That's why I got 19 pounds ! packed it way in airtight containers so it will last a while . Thank-you so much !!
Posted by Holly on 19th Nov 2014
I have 7 Buns and all but one went crazy on just the smell alone. Rosie, the Flemish Giant mix tired to rip open the box for me. All the others were just as excited to eat it & gobbled it up. Except for Lucky. He wouldn't touch it. The problem is he is the one who needs it. I usually don't feed pellets. I don't like what is in all the other pellets in the stores, so I only feed hay and greens. Except Lucky. He is a rescue who only ate junk. He also has misaligned teeth, so he has trouble eating hay. He has to have his teeth trimmed every 3 weeks and does better with pellets. He snubbed the new food. I would say regular pellets are like eating McDonalds everyday, so I am sure he is addicted to junk food. I'll keep trying.
Posted by Stephanie on 15th Nov 2014
It smells so good and the bunnies love it!
Posted by ccbunny on 15th Nov 2014
Unfortunately, just because I think food looks and smells great for my buns - and truly is better for them, this DID NOT work. They will not touch it. I've tried for well over a month, mixing with their old food and even giving them only this. I was even sent a sample bag of the baby formula to give them, or mix with it to get them started. All to no avail :( They won't touch it or eat everything but. They are very small dwarf bunnies and barely get a tablespoon twice a day between the two of them. Kudos to Sherwood Forest for trying to work with me, but it appears that what I have will be a donation to the Rescue that I volunteer for.
Posted by JustJen on 14th Nov 2014
When I brought my flemish giant home, his urine smelled so strongly I had to completely empty and refill his LARGE litter box everyday. (He had been eating farm store rabbit chow) Two weeks after finishing the transition to sherwood, I'm confident I could go three or four days without changing his litter and there would be no smell. His coat is looking so much better and he LOVES to eat his pellets.
Posted by william toth on 12th Nov 2014
Bunny loves the food. Great prices and fresh food.
Posted by Varner on 12th Nov 2014
I wouldn't buy anything else. This is all natural.
Posted by Unknown on 11th Nov 2014
I am so happy to have found this bunny food! The pellets are rich, beautiful green and the bunnies love them! Their coats are thick and beautiful. Their urine is much, much less strong smelling. They just look great. We free feed Timothy hay and they get daily greens as well. I was really worried about feeding them right, but not now after finding this high quality food.
Oh, and I can't say enough good things about how easy it is to order and how fast the processing and shipping times are.
Posted by Unknown on 8th Nov 2014
My bunny was having terrible troubles with fecal. That's all gone now ! He's noticeably happier with lots of spunk and dance! His fur is growing like crazy and his coat is nice and soft. And he loves his food! His appetite has tripled too!!! Enjoys being hand fed as well !
Showing reviews 1-50 of 302 | Next


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Sylvan Thirty's Developer Chimes in About Tonight's Town Hall Meeting
Anna's attending tonight's town hall concerning the proposed zoning for the Sylvan Thirty development at Sylvan and Fort Worth Avenue; should be a good one, given the makeup of the panel that includes Brent Brown from the CityDesign Studio and Keith Manoy, head of transportation planning for the city. Till today, The Big Question was: Would Brent Jackson, the developer behind the proposed mixed-use'r, attend the event? Yes, yes he will.
Moments ago, Jackson posted an item to the I Heart Sylvan Thirty blog in which he confirms "we plan to attend the event." But: He takes issue with Fort Worth Avenue Development Group president David Lyles's assertion that he was invited. And he reminds that the zoning plan that'll no doubt be rated and debated tonight isn't the final version, which Sustainable Development's still vetting before it goes before the City Plan Commission next month.
1. We were not invited to be part of the event. In a telephone conversation last Thursday, FWADG expressed interest in Sylvan|Thirty representatives being present at the meeting. However, we were told specifically that we will not be provided an opportunity to take an active role in the presentation. We will simply have the same opportunity to ask the panelists questions that anyone else in attendance will.
2. The zoning change application that's being discussed tonight is outdated. As we've said before, the zoning process is exactly that - a process. It requires a lot of back and forth between developers, all interested community members and the city. The zoning request being discussed this evening was an early request to get that process started. Since then, we've met with community groups and the City Design Studio to get their input, resulting in a number of changes based on their recommendations. The latest zoning request is currently being processed by the City and will ultimately be sent to City Design Studio for review and approval or further modification. Since the City has not yet released the updated request and City Design Studio has not reviewed it, there's frankly not much more to discuss at this point.
Read the whole thing here .
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Posted 15 October 2012 - 03:59
Nice. I paid of 8k on my car in the last year. 20k to go. Will be nice to have it paid off. The $410 a month would go a long way.
Just paid off my car in 3 years. I am so happy. 480$ I get to save. I kept my .last car for 11 years and plan to keep this one for at least 7-8. With that extra money I can invest in my business more. Car is a 2009 Altima Coupe bought Jan 2010


text: Buy a ticket (on-line or in person at Grand Parade on Friday) and it could be you on Friday, May 15, at 12:15pm at Grand Parade, to Pie A Guy -Mayor Mike Savage, Councillor Darren Fisher, Councillor Matt Whitman or businessman Rodney Habib of Planet Paws! This could be your once in a lifetime opportunity to have your name drawn to "pie" on of these awesome guys all in support of Caledonia's Destination Imagination team "Drops of Hope" who will be one of only two teams to head to DI Global Finals to represent Nova Scotia in Tennessee. Please see their FC and website for more info and follow the buzz on Twitterverse.


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7916 Pebble Beach Dr
Ste 206
Citrus Heights, CA 95610 Phone number & directions
Ste 206
Citrus Heights, CA 95610 Phone number & directions
License & Identifications
A medical license is required for a doctor to practice medicine in a particular state. Requirements vary by state but most require, at a minimum, post-graduate training in the doctor's specific specialty. An NPI number is a national identifier unique to an individual health care provider and is managed by the Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS).
Learn more about Dr. Michael Atherly:
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Home > Find a Dentist > CA > Citrus Heights Dentists > Dr. Michael Atherly, DDS, DMD
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- Additional Information
- Dr. Michael Scott Atherly DDS and DMD is a male dentist and practices in Family Dentistry.
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- Dr. Michael Atherly has 1 office location.
Dr. Michael Atherly practices Family Dentistry near Citrus Heights, CA.
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Your chances of finding me in an isolated mountain meadow with my dogs and a telephoto lens are actually quite good. If you bring your sense of adventure, and promise not to talk too much, you are more than welcome to join us. (UID 16053, 8/2/2004)
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Hyatt Place Charleston Airport and Convention Center
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... clothes over again and again. Thank goodness for drip dry! And for being two people who don't need fashion although do enjoy looking nice. Richard and I will be the casual Americans traveling from CHS to LAX to MEL. We then drive to Sydney fly to Cairns where we will stay in the Canopy Tree Houses. We will fly to Auckland from there and then on to Tahiti for a few days before returning through LAX to CHS. Stay tuned for ...
Arrival in Charleston
... nearly everybody knows. :-)
I also get known to Mortimer and his girlfriend Morgan, which where just arriving home with us.
Just getting ready for bed, checking Facebook/Emails and get some sleep, as it was a very long day..
Good night Germany!
Another Fort
Yesterday we went to see Fort Sumter where the first shot of the Civil War took place. We had to take a ferry out to the fort as it is on a little island in the Charleston Bay. It was used during the Civil War and the Spanish-American War. After we got back from there we toured the USS Yorktown Aircraft Carrier which is docked ...
Universal Studios: activity to queuing 1:100000
... inside in the warmth. Andreas said he had outgrown theme parks but that he had enjoyed it but no more! Fewer people and sunny warm weather would have made a huge difference because one could have strolled around and looked at all the amazing creations and displays. Like when we walked back to the exit and had to go through the Dr Seuss area. It would have been really enjoyable to look at all the clever things reproduced from the so famous books that the four of us still remember ...
The Warmth of Charleston
... port in the colonies, after Boston, New York, and Philadelphia; with a population of 11,000—slightly more than half of them slaves.
By the start of the Revolutionary War, Charles Towne was a prize sought after by the British Forces. Twice they attacked the city with no success. They had hoped that Loyalist would join in on the attacks and help them succeed in their plans. But this did not happen. Fort Sullivan was constructed to protect the city from British ...


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My experience with Indee Home began with a call to Mr.Kapoor to find out if he could give us a twin room. Right from that moment till the time we left for the airport a few days later, there was not a single detail that Mrs. and Mr.Kapoor got wrong. They were there when we needed them and were invisible... More
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Ready To Defend - Californiaa Div. of Cogent Consulting Group, Inc.
2029 Century Park East, Suite 1400
Los Angeles, California, 90067
Hours - 9:00 am - 4:00 pm M-F / Pacific Time
Ready To Defend - TexasP.O. Box 460032San Antonio, Texas 78246Phone - 800 . 496 . 0157
Fax - 310 . 362 . 8980 - (NOTE - this is NOT a San Antonio Area Code)Hours - 9:00 am - 5:30 pm Central Standard Time
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This site and all products © 2008 - 2014 - All Rights Reserved - Cogent Consulting Group, Inc. RTD Products are protected under U.S. Design Patent No. D625,759 and No. 613,800 - Nothing Inside Is Worth Dying For® is a registered Trademark # 3,773,795 of Cogent Consulting Group and used by permission. We vigorously protect our intellectual property and offer rewards for helpful information about companies, individuals who infringe on our rights.


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