text: FOURTH AMENDMENT SEARCH AND SEIZURE CONTENTS Page Search and Seizure .................................................................................................................... 1199 History and Scope of the Amendment .............................................................................. 1199 History .......................................................................................................................... 1199 Scope of the Amendment ............................................................................................ 1200 The Interest Protected ................................................................................................ 1205 Arrests and Other Detentions .................................................................................... 1209 Searches and Inspections in Noncriminal Cases ...................................................... 1211 Searches and Seizures Pursuant to Warrant ................................................................... 1215 Issuance by Neutral Magistrate ................................................................................. 1216 Probable Cause ............................................................................................................ 1217 Particularity ................................................................................................................. 1220 First Amendment Bearing on Probable Cause and Particularity ........................... 1221 Property Subject to Seizure ........................................................................................ 1223 Execution of Warrants ................................................................................................ 1226 Valid Searches and Seizures Without Warrants ............................................................. 1228 Detention Short of Arrest: Stop-and-Frisk ................................................................ 1229 Search Incident to Arrest ........................................................................................... 1234 Vehicular Searches ...................................................................................................... 1238 Vessel Searches ........................................................................................................... 1241 Consent Searches ........................................................................................................ 1242 Border Searches ........................................................................................................... 1243 ''Open Fields'' ............................................................................................................... 1245 ''Plain View'' ................................................................................................................. 1246 Public Schools .............................................................................................................. 1246 Government Offices ..................................................................................................... 1247 Prisons and Regulation of Probation ......................................................................... 1247 Drug Testing ................................................................................................................ 1248 Electronic Surveillance and the Fourth Amendment ...................................................... 1250 The Olmstead Case ..................................................................................................... 1250 Federal Communications Act ..................................................................................... 1251 Nontelephonic Electronic Surveillance ...................................................................... 1251 The Berger and Katz Cases ........................................................................................ 1252 Warrantless ''National Security'' Electronic Surveillance ........................................ 1255 Enforcing the Fourth Amendment: The Exclusionary Rule ............................................ 1257 Alternatives to the Exclusionary Rule ....................................................................... 1257 Development of the Exclusionary Rule ...................................................................... 1258 The Foundations of the Exclusionary Rule ............................................................... 1262 Narrowing Application of the Exclusionary Rule ..................................................... 1264 Operation of the Rule: Standing ................................................................................ 1269 1197 SEARCH AND SEIZURE FOURTH AMENDMENT The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; and no Warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the per- sons or things to be seized. SEARCH AND SEIZURE History and Scope of the Amendment History.—Few provisions of the Bill of Rights grew so directly out of the experience of the colonials as the Fourth Amendment, embodying as it did the protection against the utilization of the ''writs of assistance.'' But while the insistence on freedom from un- reasonable searches and seizures as a fundamental right gained ex- pression in the Colonies late and as a result of experience, 1 there was also a rich English experience to draw on. ''Every man's house is his castle'' was a maxim much celebrated in England, as was demonstrated in Semayne's Case, decided in 1603. 2 A civil case of execution of process, Semayne's Case nonetheless recognized the right of the homeowner to defend his house against unlawful entry even by the King's agents, but at the same time recognized the au- thority of the appropriate officers to break and enter upon notice in order to arrest or to execute the King's process. Most famous of the English cases was Entick v. Carrington, 3 one of a series of civil actions against state officers who, pursuant to general warrants, had raided many homes and other places in search of materials 1 Apparently the first statement of freedom from unreasonable searches and sei- zures appeared in The Rights of the Colonists and a List of Infringements and Vio- lations of Rights, 1772, in the drafting of which Samuel Adams took the lead. 1 B. SCHWARTZ, THE BILL OF RIGHTS: A DOCUMENTARY HISTORY 199, 205–06 (1971). 2 5 Coke's Rep. 91a, 77 Eng. Rep. 194 (K.B. 1604). One of the most forceful ex- pressions of the maxim was that of William Pitt in Parliament in 1763: ''The poorest man may in his cottage bid defiance to all the force of the crown. It may be frail— its roof may shake—the wind may blow through it—the storm may enter, the rain may enter—but the King of England cannot enter—all his force dares not cross the threshold of the ruined tenement.'' 3 19 Howell's State Trials 1029, 95 Eng. 807 (1705). 1199 1200 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES connected with John Wilkes' polemical pamphlets attacking not only governmental policies but the King himself. 4 Entick, an associate of Wilkes, sued because agents had forc- ibly broken into his house, broken into locked desks and boxes, and seized many printed charts, pamphlets and the like. In an opinion sweeping in terms, the court declared the warrant and the behavior it authorized subversive ''of all the comforts of society,'' and the is- suance of a warrant for the seizure of all of a person's papers rath- er than only those alleged to be criminal in nature ''contrary to the genius of the law of England.'' 5 Besides its general character, said the court, the warrant was bad because it was not issued on a showing of probable cause and no record was required to be made of what had been seized. Entick v. Carrington, the Supreme Court has said, is a ''great judgment,'' ''one of the landmarks of English liberty,'' ''one of the permanent monuments of the British Constitu- tion,'' and a guide to an understanding of what the Framers meant in writing the Fourth Amendment. 6 In the colonies, smuggling rather than seditious libel afforded the leading examples of the necessity for protection against unrea- sonable searches and seizures. In order to enforce the revenue laws, English authorities made use of writs of assistance, which were general warrants authorizing the bearer to enter any house or other place to search for and seize ''prohibited and uncustomed'' goods, and commanding all subjects to assist in these endeavors. The writs once issued remained in force throughout the lifetime of the sovereign and six months thereafter. When, upon the death of George II in 1760, the authorities were required to obtain the issu- ance of new writs, opposition was led by James Otis, who attacked such writs on libertarian grounds and who asserted the invalidity of the authorizing statutes because they conflicted with English constitutionalism. 7 Otis lost and the writs were issued and uti- lized, but his arguments were much cited in the colonies not only on the immediate subject but also with regard to judicial review. Scope of the Amendment.—The language of the provision which became the Fourth Amendment underwent some modest 4 See also Wilkes v. Wood, 98 Eng. 489 (C.P. 1763); Huckle v. Money, 95 Eng. Rep. 768 (K.B. 1763), aff'd 19 Howell's State Trials 1002, 1028; 97 Eng. Rep. 1075 (K.B. 1765). 5 5 Eng. Rep. 817, 818. 6 Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616, 626 (1886). 7 The arguments of Otis and others as well as much background material are contained in Quincy's MASSACHUSETTS REPORTS, 1761–1772, App. I, pp. 395–540, and in 2 LEGAL PAPERS OF JOHN ADAMS 106–47 (Wroth & Zobel eds., 1965). See also Dickerson, Writs of Assistance as a Cause of the American Revolution, in THE ERA OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: STUDIES INSCRIBED TO EVARTS BOUTELL GREENE 40 (R. Morris, ed., 1939). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1201 changes on its passage through the Congress, and it is possible that the changes reflected more than a modest significance in the interpretation of the relationship of the two clauses. Madison's in- troduced version provided ''The rights to be secured in their per- sons, their houses, their papers, and their other property, from all unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated by war- rants issued without probable cause, supported by oath or affirma- tion, or not particularly describing the places to be searched, or the persons or things to be seized.'' 8 As reported from committee, with an inadvertent omission corrected on the floor, 9 the section was al- most identical to the introduced version, and the House defeated a motion to substitute ''and no warrant shall issue'' for ''by warrants issuing'' in the committee draft. In some fashion, the rejected amendment was inserted in the language before passage by the House and is the language of the ratified constitutional provi- sion. 10 As noted above, the noteworthy disputes over search and sei- zure in England and the colonies revolved about the character of warrants. There were, however, lawful warrantless searches, pri- marily searches incident to arrest, and these apparently gave rise to no disputes. Thus, the question arises whether the Fourth Amendment's two clauses must be read together to mean that the only searches and seizures which are ''reasonable'' are those which meet the requirements of the second clause, that is, are pursuant to warrants issued under the prescribed safeguards, or whether the two clauses are independent, so that searches under warrant must comply with the second clause but that there are ''reasonable'' searches under the first clause which need not comply with the sec- ond clause. 11 This issue has divided the Court for some time, has 81 ANNALS OF CONGRESS 434–35 (June 8, 1789). 9 The word ''secured'' was changed to ''secure'' and the phrase ''against unrea- sonable searches and seizures'' was reinstated. Id. at 754 (August 17, 1789). 10 Id. It has been theorized that the author of the defeated revision, who was chairman of the committee appointed to arrange the amendments prior to House passage, simply inserted his provision and that it passed unnoticed. N. LASSON, THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOURTH AMENDMENT TO THE UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION 101–03 (1937). 11 The amendment was originally in one clause as quoted above; it was the in- sertion of the defeated amendment to the language which changed the text into two clauses and arguably had the effect of extending the protection against unreason- able searches and seizures beyond the requirements imposed on the issuance of war- rants. It is also possible to read the two clauses together to mean that some seizures even under warrants would be unreasonable, and this reading has indeed been ef- fectuated in certain cases, although for independent reasons. Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616 (1886); Gouled v. United States, 255 U.S. 298 (1921), overruled by Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294 (1967); but see id. at 303 (reserving the question whether ''there are items of evidential value whose very nature precludes them from being the object of a reasonable search and seizure.'') 1202 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES seen several reversals of precedents, and is important for the reso- lution of many cases. It is a dispute which has run most consist- ently throughout the cases involving the scope of the right to search incident to arrest. 12 While the right to search the person of the arrestee without a warrant is unquestioned, how far afield into areas within and without the control of the arrestee a search may range is an interesting and crucial matter. The Court has drawn a wavering line. 13 In Harris v. United States, 14 it approved as ''reasonable'' the warrantless search of a four-room apartment pursuant to the arrest of the man found there. A year later, however, a reconstituted Court majority set aside a conviction based on evidence seized by a warrantless search pursuant to an arrest and adopted the ''cardinal rule that, in seiz- ing goods and articles, law enforcement agents must secure and use search warrants wherever reasonably practicable.'' 15 This rule was set aside two years later by another reconstituted majority which adopted the premise that the test ''is not whether it is rea- sonable to procure a search warrant, but whether the search was reasonable.'' Whether a search is reasonable, the Court said, ''must find resolution in the facts and circumstances of each case.'' 16 How- ever, the Court soon returned to its emphasis upon the warrant. ''The [Fourth] Amendment was in large part a reaction to the gen- eral warrants and warrantless searches that had so alienated the colonists and had helped speed the movement for independence. In the scheme of the Amendment, therefore, the requirement that 'no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause,' plays a crucial part.'' 17 Therefore, ''the police must, whenever practicable, obtain advance judicial approval of searches and seizures through a war- rant procedure.'' 18 Exceptions to searches under warrants were to 12 Approval of warrantless searches pursuant to arrest first appeared in dicta in several cases. Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383, 392 (1914); Carroll v. United States, 267 U.S. 132, 158 (1925); Agnello v. United States, 269 U.S. 20, 30 (1925). Whether or not there is to be a rule or a principle generally preferring or requiring searches pursuant to warrant to warrantless searches, however, has ramifications far beyond the issue of searches pursuant to arrest. United States v. United States District Court, 407 U.S. 297, 320 (1972). 13 Compare Marron v. United States, 275 U.S. 192 (1927), with Go-Bart Import- ing Co. v. United States, 282 U.S. 344 (1931), and United States v. Lefkowitz, 285 U.S. 452 (1932). 14 331 U.S. 145 (1947). 15 Trupiano v. United States, 334 U.S. 699, 705 (1948). See also McDonald v. United States, 335 U.S. 451 (1948). 16 United States v. Rabinowitz, 339 U.S. 56, 66 (1950). 17 Chimel v. California, 395 U.S. 752, 761 (1969). 18 Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 20 (1968). In United States v. United States Dis- trict Court, 407 U.S. 297, 321 (1972), Justice Powell explained that the ''very heart'' of the Amendment's mandate is ''that where practical, a governmental search and seizure should represent both the efforts of the officer to gather evidence of wrongful AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1203 be closely contained by the rationale undergirding the necessity for the exception, and the scope of a search under one of the exceptions was similarly limited. 19 During the 1970s the Court was closely divided on which standard to apply. 20 For a while, the balance tipped in favor of the view that warrantless searches are per se unreasonable, with a few carefully prescribed exceptions. 21 Gradually, guided by the variable expectation of privacy approach to coverage of the Fourth Amend- ment, the Court broadened its view of permissible exceptions and of the scope of those exceptions. 22 By 1992, it was no longer the case that the ''warrants-with- narrow-exceptions'' standard normally prevails over a ''reasonable- ness'' approach. 23 Exceptions to the warrant requirement have acts and the judgment of the magistrate that the collected evidence is sufficient to justify invasion of a citizen's private premises or conversation.'' Thus, what is ''rea- sonable'' in terms of a search and seizure derives content and meaning through ref- erence to the warrant clause. Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 473–84 (1971). See also Davis v. Mississippi, 394 U.S. 721, 728 (1969); Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 356–58 (1967); Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294, 299 (1967). 19 Chimel v. California, 395 U.S. 752, 762–64 (1969) (limiting scope of search incident to arrest). See also United States v. United States District Court, 407 U.S. 297 (1972) (rejecting argument that it was ''reasonable'' to allow President through Attorney General to authorize warrantless electronic surveillance of persons thought to be endangering the national security); Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347 (1967) (although officers acted with great self-restraint and reasonably in engaging in elec- tronic seizures of conversations from telephone booth, self-imposition was not enough and magistrate's judgment required); Preston v. United States, 376 U.S. 364 (1964) (warrantless search of seized automobile not justified because not within ra- tionale of exceptions to warrant clause). There were exceptions, e.g., Cooper v. Cali- fornia, 386 U.S. 58 (1967) (warrantless search of impounded car was reasonable); United States v. Harris, 390 U.S. 234 (1968) (warrantless inventory search of auto- mobile). 20 See, e.g., Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 413 U.S. 266 (1973), Justices Stewart, Douglas, Brennan, and Marshall adhered to the warrant-based rule, while Justices White, Blackmun, and Rehnquist, and Chief Justice Burger placed greater emphasis upon the question of reasonableness without necessary regard to the war- rant requirement. Id. at 285. Justice Powell generally agreed with the former group of Justices, id. at 275 (concurring). 21 E.g., G.M. Leasing Corp. v. United States, 429 U.S. 338, 352–53 (1977) (unan- imous); Marshall v. Barlow's, Inc., 436 U.S. 307, 312 (1978); Michigan v. Tyler, 436 U.S. 499, 506 (1978); Mincey v. Arizona, 437 U.S. 385, 390 (1978) (unanimous); Ar- kansas v. Sanders, 442 U.S. 743, 758 (1979); United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 824–25 (1982). 22 E.g., Chambers v. Maroney, 399 U.S. 42 (1970) (warrantless search of auto- mobile taken to police station); Texas v. White, 423 U.S. 67 (1975) (same); New York v. Belton, 453 U.S. 454 (1981) (search incident to arrest); United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798 (1982) (automobile search at scene). On the other hand, the warrant-based standard did preclude a number of warrantless searches. E.g., Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 413 U.S. 266 (1973) (warrantless stop and search of auto by roving patrol near border); Marshall v. Barlow's, Inc., 436 U.S. 307 (1978) (warrantless ad- ministrative inspection of business premises); Mincey v. Arizona, 437 U.S. 385 (1978) (warrantless search of home that was ''homicide scene''). 23 Of the 1992 Justices, only Justice Stevens has frequently sided with the war- rants-with-narrow-exceptions approach. See, e.g., Illinois v. Rodriguez, 497 U.S. 177, 1204 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES multiplied, tending to confine application of the requirement to cases that are exclusively ''criminal'' in nature. And even within that core area of ''criminal'' cases, some exceptions have been broadened. The most important category of exception is that of ad- ministrative searches justified by ''special needs beyond the normal need for law enforcement.'' Under this general rubric the Court has upheld warrantless searches by administrative authorities in public schools, government offices, and prisons, and has upheld drug test- ing of public and transportation employees. 24 In all of these in- stances the warrant and probable cause requirements are dis- pensed with in favor of a reasonableness standard that balances the government's regulatory interest against the individual's pri- vacy interest; in all of these instances the government's interest has been found to outweigh the individual's. The broad scope of the administrative search exception is evidenced by the fact that an overlap between law enforcement objectives and administrative ''special needs'' does not result in application of the warrant re- quirement; instead, the Court has upheld warrantless inspection of automobile junkyards and dismantling operations in spite of the strong law enforcement component of the regulation. 25 In the law enforcement context, where search by warrant is still the general rule, there has also been some loosening of the requirement. For example, the Court has shifted focus from whether exigent cir- cumstances justified failure to obtain a warrant, to whether an offi- cer had a ''reasonable'' belief that an exception to the warrant re- quirement applied; 26 in another case the scope of a valid search ''incident to arrest,'' once limited to areas within the immediate reach of the arrested suspect, was expanded to a ''protective sweep'' of the entire home if arresting officers have a reasonable belief that the home harbors an individual who may pose a danger. 27 Another matter of scope recently addressed by the Court is the category of persons protected by the Fourth Amendment—who con- stitutes ''the people.'' This phrase, the Court determined, ''refers to a class of persons who are part of a national community or who have otherwise developed sufficient connection with [the United States] to be considered part of that community.'' 28 The Fourth Amendment therefore does not apply to the search and seizure by 189 (Justice Stevens joining Justice Marshall's dissent); New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325, 370 (1985) (Justice Stevens dissenting); California v. Acevedo, 500 U.S. 565, 585 (1991) (Justice Stevens dissenting). 24 See various headings infra under the general heading ''Valid Searches and Seizures Without Warrants.'' 25 New York v. Burger, 482 U.S. 691 (1987). 26 Illinois v. Rodriguez, 497 U.S. 177 (1990). 27 Maryland v. Buie, 494 U.S. 325 (1990). 28 United States v. Verdugo-Urquidez, 494 U.S. 259, 265 (1990). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1205 United States agents of property that is owned by a nonresident alien and located in a foreign country. The community of protected people includes U.S. citizens who go abroad, and aliens who have voluntarily entered U.S. territory and developed substantial con- nections with this country. There is no resulting broad principle, however, that the Fourth Amendment constrains federal officials wherever and against whomever they act. The Interest Protected.—For the Fourth Amendment to be applicable to a particular set of facts, there must be a ''search'' and a ''seizure,'' occurring typically in a criminal case, with a subse- quent attempt to use judicially what was seized. Whether there was a search and seizure within the meaning of the Amendment, whether a complainant's interests were constitutionally infringed, will often turn upon consideration of his interest and whether it was officially abused. What does the Amendment protect? Under the common law, there was no doubt. Said Lord Camden in Entick v. Carrington: 29 ''The great end for which men entered in society was to secure their property. That right is preserved sacred and in- communicable in all instances where it has not been taken away or abridged by some public law for the good of the whole. . . . By the laws of England, every invasion of private property, be it ever so minute, is a trespass. No man can set foot upon my ground with- out my license but he is liable to an action though the damage be nothing . . . .'' Protection of property interests as the basis of the Fourth Amendment found easy acceptance in the Supreme Court 30 and that acceptance controlled decision in numerous cases. 31 For example, in Olmstead v. United States, 32 one of the two premises underlying the holding that wiretapping was not covered by the Amendment was that there had been no actual physical invasion of the defendant's premises; where there had been an invasion, a technical trespass, electronic surveillance was deemed subject to 29 19 Howell's State Trials 1029, 1035, 95 Eng. Reg. 807, 817–18 (1765). 30 Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616, 627 (1886); Adams v. New York, 192 U.S. 585, 598 (1904). 31 Thus, the rule that ''mere evidence'' could not be seized but rather only the fruits of crime, its instrumentalities, or contraband, turned upon the question of the right of the public to possess the materials or the police power to make possession by the possessor unlawful. Gouled v. United States, 255 U.S. 298 (1921), overruled by Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294 (1967). See also Davis v. United States, 328 U.S. 582 (1946). Standing to contest unlawful searches and seizures was based upon property interests, United States v. Jeffers, 342 U.S. 48 (1951); Jones v. United States, 362 U.S. 257 (1960), as well as decision upon the validity of a consent to search. Chapman v. United States, 365 U.S. 610 (1961); Stoner v. California, 376 U.S. 483 (1964); Frazier v. Culp, 394 U.S. 731, 740 (1969). 32 277 U.S. 438 (1928). See also Goldman v. United States, 316 U.S. 129 (1942) (detectaphone placed against wall of adjoining room; no search and seizure). 1206 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES Fourth Amendment restrictions. 33 The Court later rejected this ap- proach, however. ''The premise that property interests control the right of the Government to search and seize has been discredited. . . . We have recognized that the principal object of the Fourth Amendment is the protection of privacy rather than property, and have increasingly discarded fictional and procedural barriers rested on property concepts.'' 34 Thus, because the Amendment ''protects people, not places,'' the requirement of actual physical trespass is dispensed with and electronic surveillance was made subject to the Amendment's requirements. 35 The test propounded in Katz is whether there is an expectation of privacy upon which one may ''justifiably'' rely. 36 ''What a person knowingly exposes to the public, even in his own home or office, is not a subject of Fourth Amendment protection. But what he seeks to preserve as private, even in an area accessible to the public, may be constitutionally protected.'' 37 That is, the ''capacity to claim the protection of the Amendment depends not upon a property right in the invaded place but upon whether the area was one in which there was reasonable expectation of freedom from governmental in- trusion.'' 38 The two-part test that Justice Harlan suggested in Katz 39 has purported to guide the Court in its deliberations, but its con- sequences are unclear. On the one hand, there is no difference in result between many of the old cases premised on property con- cepts and more recent cases in which the reasonable expectation of 33 Silverman v. United States, 365 U.S. 505 (1961) (spike mike pushed through a party wall until it hit a heating duct). 34 Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294, 304 (1967). 35 Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 353 (1967). But see California v. Hodari D., 499 U.S. 621, 626 (1991) (Fourth Amendment ''seizure'' of the person is the same as a common law arrest; there must be either application of physical force or sub- mission to the assertion of authority). 36 389 U.S. at 353. Justice Harlan, concurring, formulated a two pronged test for determining whether the privacy interest is paramount: ''first that a person have exhibited an actual (subjective) expectation of privacy and, second, that the expecta- tion be one that society is prepared to recognize as 'reasonable.''' Id. at 361. 37 Id. at 351–52. 38 Mancusi v. DeForte, 392 U.S. 364, 368 (1968) (official had a reasonable expec- tation of privacy in an office he shared with others, although he owned neither the premises nor the papers seized). Minnesota v. Olson, 495 U.S. 91 (1990) (overnight guest in home has a reasonable expectation of privacy). Cf. Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128 (1978). 39 Justice Harlan's opinion has been much relied upon. E.g., Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 19 (1968); Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128, 143–144 n.12 (1978); Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735, 740–41 (1979); United States v. Salvucci, 448 U.S. 83, 91– 92 (1980); Rawlings v. Kentucky, 448 U.S. 98, 105–06 (1980). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1207 privacy flows from ownership concepts. 40 On the other hand, many other cases have presented close questions that have sharply di- vided the Court. 41 The first element, the ''subjective expectation'' of privacy, has largely dwindled as a viable standard, because, as Justice Harlan noted in a subsequent case, ''our expectations, and the risks we assume, are in large part reflections of laws that translate into rules the customs and values of the past and present.'' 42 As for the second element, whether one has a ''legiti- mate'' expectation of privacy that society finds ''reasonable'' to rec- ognize, the Court has said that ''[l]egitimation of expectations of privacy by law must have a source outside of the Fourth Amend- ment, either by reference to concepts of real or personal property law or to understandings that are recognized and permitted by so- ciety.'' 43 Thus, protection of the home is at the apex of Fourth Amendment coverage because of the right associated with owner- ship to exclude others; 44 but ownership of other things, i.e., auto- mobiles, does not carry a similar high degree of protection. 45 That a person has taken normal precautions to maintain his privacy, that is, precautions customarily taken by those seeking to exclude others, is usually a significant factor in determining legitimacy of expectation. 46 Some expectations, the Court has held, are simply not those which society is prepared to accept. 47 While perhaps not 40 E.g., Alderman v. United States, 394 U.S. 165 (1969) (home owner could ob- ject to electronic surveillance of conversations emanating from his home, even though he was not party to the conversations). 41 E.g., Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128 (1978) (4–1–4 decision: passengers in automobile who own neither the car nor the property seized had no legitimate ex- pectation of privacy in areas searched). 42 United States v. White, 401 U.S. 745, 786 (1971). See Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735, 740 n.5 (1979) (government could not condition ''subjective expectations'' by, say, announcing that henceforth all homes would be subject to warrantless entry, and thus destroy the ''legitimate expectation of privacy''). 43 Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128, 144 n.12 (1978). 44 E.g., Alderman v. United States, 394 U.S. 165 (1969); Mincey v. Arizona, 437 U.S. 385 (1978); Payton v. New York, 445 U.S. 573 (1980). 45 E.g., United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798 (1982). See also Donovan v. Dewey, 452 U.S. 594 (1981) (commercial premises); Maryland v. Macon, 472 U.S. 463 (1985) (no legitimate expectation of privacy in denying to undercover officers allegedly ob- scene materials offered to public in bookstore). 46 E.g., United States v. Chadwick, 433 U.S. 1, 11 (1977); Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 352 (1967). But cf. South Dakota v. Opperman, 428 U.S. 364 (1976) (no legitimate expectation of privacy in automobile left with doors locked and win- dows rolled up). In Rawlings v. Kentucky, 448 U.S. 98 (1980), the fact that defend- ant had dumped a cache of drugs into his companion's purse, having known her for only a few days and knowing others had access to the purse, was taken to establish that he had no legitimate expectation the purse would be free from intrusion. 47 E.g., United States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435 (1976) (bank records); Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735 (1979) (numbers dialed from one's telephone); Hudson v. Palmer, 468 U.S. 517 (1984) (prison cell); Illinois v. Andreas, 463 U.S. 765 (1983) (shipping container opened and inspected by customs agents and resealed and deliv- 1208 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES clearly expressed in the opinions, what seems to have emerged is a balancing standard, which requires ''an assessing of the nature of a particular practice and the likely extent of its impact on the individual's sense of security balanced against the utility of the conduct as a technique of law enforcement.'' As the intrusions grow more extensive and significantly jeopardize the sense of security of the individual, greater restraint of police officers through the war- rant requirement may be deemed necessary. 48 On the other hand, the Court's solicitude for law enforcement objectives may tilt the balance in the other direction. Application of this balancing test, because of the Court's weigh- ing in of law enforcement investigative needs 49 and the Court's subjective evaluation of privacy needs, has led to the creation of a two-tier or sliding-tier scale of privacy interests. The privacy test was originally designed to permit a determination that a Fourth Amendment protected interest had been invaded. 50 If it had been, then ordinarily a warrant was required, subject only to the nar- rowly defined exceptions, and the scope of the search under those exceptions was ''strictly tied to and justified by the circumstances which rendered its initiation permissible.'' 51 But the Court now uses the test to determine whether the interest invaded is impor- tant or persuasive enough so that a warrant is required to justify it; 52 if the individual has a lesser expectation of privacy, then the invasion may be justified, absent a warrant, by the reasonableness of the intrusion. 53 Exceptions to the warrant requirement are no ered to the addressee); California v. Greenwood, 486 U.S. 35 (1988) (garbage in sealed plastic bags left at curb for collection). 48 United States v. White, 401 U.S. 745, 786–87 (1971) (Justice Harlan dissent- ing). 49 E.g., Robbins v. California, 453 U.S. 420, 429, 433–34 (1981) (Justice Powell concurring), quoted approvingly in United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 815–16 & n.21 (1982). 50 Katz v. United States, 389 U. S. 347, 351–52 (1967). 51 Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 19 (1968). 52 The prime example is the home, so that for entries either to search or to ar- rest, ''the Fourth Amendment has drawn a firm line at the entrance to the house. Absent exigent circumstances, that threshold may not reasonably be crossed without a warrant.'' Payton v. New York, 445 U.S. 573, 590 (1980); Steagald v. United States, 451 U.S. 204, 212 (1981). And see Mincey v. Arizona, 437 U.S. 385 (1978). 53 One has a diminished expectation of privacy in automobiles. Arkansas v. Sanders, 442 U.S. 753, 761 (1979) (collecting cases); United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 804–09 (1982). A person's expectation of privacy in personal luggage and other closed containers is substantially greater than in an automobile, United States v. Chadwick, 433 U.S. 1, 13 (1977); Arkansas v. Sanders, 442 U.S. 753 (1979), al- though if the luggage or container is found in an automobile as to which there exists probable cause to search, the legitimate expectancy diminishes accordingly. United States v. Ross, supra. There is also a diminished expectation of privacy in a mobile home parked in a parking lot and licensed for vehicular travel. California v. Carney, 471 U.S. 386 (1985) (leaving open the question of whether the automobile exception AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1209 longer evaluated solely by the justifications for the exception, e.g., exigent circumstances, and the scope of the search is no longer tied to and limited by the justification for the exception. 54 The result has been a considerable expansion, beyond what existed prior to Katz, of the power of police and other authorities to conduct searches. Arrests and Other Detentions.—That the Fourth Amend- ment was intended to protect against arbitrary arrests as well as against unreasonable searches was early assumed by Chief Justice Marshall 55 and is now established law. 56 At the common law, it was proper to arrest one who had committed a breach of the peace or a felony without a warrant, 57 and this history is reflected in the fact that the Fourth Amendment is satisfied if the arrest is made in a public place on probable cause, regardless of whether a war- rant has been obtained. 58 However, in order to effectuate an arrest in the home, absent consent or exigent circumstances, police offi- cers must have a warrant. 59 The Fourth Amendment applies to ''seizures'' and it is not necessary that a detention be a formal ar- rest in order to bring to bear the requirements of warrants or prob- able cause in instances in which warrants may be forgone. 60 Some also applies to a ''mobile'' home being used as a residence and not adapted for imme- diate vehicular use). 54 E.g., Texas v. White, 423 U.S. 67 (1975) (if probable cause to search auto- mobile existed at scene, it can be removed to station and searched without warrant); United States v. Robinson, 414 U.S. 218 (1973) (once an arrest has been validly made, search pursuant thereto is so minimally intrusive in addition that scope of search is not limited by necessity of security of officer); United States v. Edwards, 415 U.S. 800 (1974) (incarcerated suspect; officers need no warrant to take his clothes for test because little additional intrusion). But see Ybarra v. Illinois, 444 U.S. 85 (1979) (officers on premises to execute search warrant of premises may not without more search persons found on premises). 55 Ex parte Burford, 7 U.S. (3 Cr.) 448 (1806). 56 Giordenello v. United States, 357 U.S. 480, 485–86 (1958); United States v. Watson, 423 U.S. 411, 416–18 (1976); Payton v. New York, 445 U.S. 573, 583–86 (1980); Steagald v. United States, 451 U.S. 204, 211–13 (1981). 57 1 J. STEPHEN, A HISTORY OF THE CRIMINAL LAW OF ENGLAND 193 (1883). 58 United States v. Watson, 423 U.S. 411 (1976). See also United States v. Santana, 427 U.S. 38 (1976) (sustaining warrantless arrest of suspect in her home when she was initially approached in her doorway and then retreated into house). However, a suspect arrested on probable cause but without a warrant is entitled to a prompt, nonadversary hearing before a magistrate under procedures designed to provide a fair and reliable determination of probable cause in order to keep the ar- restee in custody. Gerstein v. Pugh, 420 U.S. 103 (1975). 59 Payton v. New York, 445 U.S. 573 (1980) (voiding state law authorizing police to enter private residence without a warrant to make an arrest); Steagald v. United States, 451 U.S. 204 (1981) (officers with arrest warrant for A entered B's home without search warrant and discovered incriminating evidence; violated Fourth Amendment in absence of warrant to search the home); Hayes v. Florida, 470 U.S. 811 (1985) (officers went to suspect's home and took him to police station for fingerprinting). 60 United States v. Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544, 554 (1980) (opinion of Justice Stewart) (''[A] person has been 'seized' within the meaning of the Fourth Amend- 1210 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES objective justification must be shown to validate all seizures of the person, including seizures that involve only a brief detention short of arrest, although the nature of the detention will determine whether probable cause or some reasonable and articulable sus- picion is necessary. 61 Until relatively recently, the legality of arrests was seldom liti- gated in the Supreme Court because of the rule that a person de- tained pursuant to an arbitrary seizure—unlike evidence obtained as a result of an unlawful search—remains subject to custody and presentation to court. 62 But the application of self-incrimination and other exclusionary rules to the States and the heightening of their scope in state and federal cases alike brought forth the rule that verbal evidence, confessions, and other admissions, like all de- rivative evidence obtained as a result of unlawful seizures, could be excluded. 63 Thus, a confession made by one illegally in custody must be suppressed, unless the causal connection between the ille- gal arrest and the confession had become so attenuated that the latter should not be deemed ''tainted'' by the former. 64 Similarly, fingerprints and other physical evidence obtained as a result of an unlawful arrest must be suppressed. 65 ment only if, in view of all the circumstances surrounding the incident, a reasonable person would have believed that he was not free to leave''). See also Reid v. Georgia, 448 U.S. 438 (1980); United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873, 878 (1975); Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 16–19 (1968). Apprehension by the use of deadly force is a seizure subject to the Fourth Amendment's reasonableness requirement. See, e.g., Tennessee v. Garner, 471 U.S. 1 (1985) (police officer's fatal shooting of a flee- ing suspect); Brower v. County of Inyo, 489 U.S. 593 (1989) (police roadblock de- signed to end car chase with fatal crash). 61 Adams v. Williams, 407 U.S. 143, 146–49 (1972); Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 661 (1979); Brown v. Texas, 443 U.S. 47, 51 (1979); Reid v. Georgia, 448 U.S. 438, 440 (1980); Michigan v. Summers, 452 U.S. 692 (1981). 62 Ker v. Illinois, 119 U.S. 436, 440 (1886); see also Albrecht v. United States, 273 U.S. 1 (1927); Frisbie v. Collins, 342 U.S. 519 (1952). 63 Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471 (1963). Such evidence is the ''fruit of the poisonous tree,'' Nardone v. United States, 308 U.S. 338, 341 (1939), that is, evidence derived from the original illegality. Previously, if confessions were vol- untary for purposes of the self-incrimination clause, they were admissible notwith- standing any prior official illegality. Colombe v. Connecticut, 367 U.S. 568 (1961). 64 Although there is a presumption that the illegal arrest is the cause of the subsequent confession, the presumption is rebuttable by a showing that the confes- sion is the result of ''an intervening . . . act of free will.'' Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471, 486 (1963). The factors used to determine whether the taint has been dissipated are the time between the illegal arrest and the confession, whether there were intervening circumstances (such as consultation with others, Miranda warnings, etc.), and the degree of flagrancy and purposefulness of the offi- cial conduct. Brown v. Illinois, 422 U.S. 590 (1975) (Miranda warnings alone insuffi- cient); Dunaway v. New York, 442 U.S. 200 (1979); Taylor v. Alabama, 457 U.S. 687 (1982). In Johnson v. Louisiana, 406 U.S. 356 (1972), the fact that the suspect had been taken before a magistrate who advised him of his rights and set bail, after which he confessed, established a sufficient intervening circumstance. 65 Davis v. Mississippi, 394 U.S. 721 (1969); Taylor v. Alabama, 457 U.S. 687 (1982). In United States v. Crews, 445 U.S. 463 (1980), the Court, unanimously but AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1211 Searches and Inspections in Noncriminal Cases.—Certain early cases held that the Fourth Amendment was applicable only when a search was undertaken for criminal investigatory pur- poses, 66 and the Supreme Court until recently employed a reason- ableness test for such searches without requiring either a warrant or probable cause in the absence of a warrant. 67 But in 1967, the Court held in two cases that administrative inspections to detect building code violations must be undertaken pursuant to warrant if the occupant objects. 68 ''We may agree that a routine inspection of the physical condition of private property is a less hostile intru- sion than the typical policeman's search for the fruits and instru- mentalities of crime. . . . But we cannot agree that the Fourth Amendment interests at stake in these inspection cases are merely 'peripheral.' It is surely anomalous to say that the individual and his private property are fully protected by the Fourth Amendment only when the individual is suspected of criminal behavior.'' 69 Cer- tain administrative inspections utilized to enforce regulatory schemes with regard to such items as alcohol and firearms are, however, exempt from the Fourth Amendment warrant require- ment and may be authorized simply by statute. 70 Camara and See were reaffirmed in Marshall v. Barlow's, Inc., 71 in which the Court held violative of the Fourth Amendment a provision of the Occupational Safety and Health Act which au- thorized federal inspectors to search the work area of any employ- ment facility covered by the Act for safety hazards and violations of regulations, without a warrant or other legal process. The liquor for a variety of reasons, held proper the identification in court of a defendant, who had been wrongly arrested without probable cause, by the crime victim. The court identification was not tainted by either the arrest or the subsequent in-custody iden- tification. See also Hayes v. Florida, 470 U.S. 811, 815 (1985), suggesting in dictum that a ''narrowly circumscribed procedure for fingerprinting detentions on less than probable cause'' may be permissible. 66 In re Strouse, 23 Fed. Cas. 261 (No. 13,548) (D. Nev. 1871); In re Meador, 16 Fed. Cas. 1294, 1299 (No. 9375) (N.D. Ga. 1869). 67 Abel v. United States, 362 U.S. 217 (1960); Frank v. Maryland, 359 U.S. 360 (1959); Oklahoma Press Pub. Co. v. Walling, 327 U.S. 186 (1946). 68 Camara v. Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523 (1967) (home); See v. City of Se- attle, 387 U.S. 541 (1967) (commercial warehouse). 69 Camara v. Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523, 530 (1967). 70 Colonnade Catering Corp. v. United States, 397 U.S. 72 (1970); United States v. Biswell, 406 U.S. 311 (1972). Colonnade, involving liquor, was based on the long history of close supervision of the industry. Biswell, involving firearms, introduced factors that were subsequently to prove significant. Thus, while the statute was of recent enactment, firearms constituted a pervasively regulated industry, so that dealers had no reasonable expectation of privacy, inasmuch as the law provides for regular inspections. Further, warrantless inspections were needed for effective en- forcement of the statute. 71 436 U.S. 307 (1978). Dissenting, Justice Stevens, with Justices Rehnquist and Blackmun, argued that not the warrant clause but the reasonableness clause should govern administrative inspections. Id. at 325. 1212 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES and firearms exceptions were distinguished on the basis that those industries had a long tradition of close government supervision, so that a person in those businesses gave up his privacy expectations. But OSHA was a relatively recent statute and it regulated prac- tically every business in or affecting interstate commerce; it was not open to a legislature to extend regulation and then follow it with warrantless inspections. Additionally, OSHA inspectors had unbounded discretion in choosing which businesses to inspect and when to do so, leaving businesses at the mercy of possibly arbitrary actions and certainly with no assurances as to limitation on scope and standards of inspections. Further, warrantless inspections were not necessary to serve an important governmental interest, inasmuch as most businesses would consent to inspection and it was not inconvenient to require OSHA to resort to an administra- tive warrant in order to inspect sites where consent was refused. 72 In Donovan v. Dewey, 73 however, Barlow's was substantially limited and a new standard emerged permitting extensive govern- mental inspection of commercial property, 74 absent warrants. Under the Federal Mine Safety and Health Act, governing under- ground and surface mines (including stone quarries), federal offi- cers are directed to inspect underground mines at least four times a year and surface mines at least twice a year, pursuant to exten- sive regulations as to standards of safety. The statute specifically provides for absence of advanced notice and requires the Secretary of Labor to institute court actions for injunctive and other relief in 72 Administrative warrants issued on the basis of less than probable cause but only on a showing that a specific business had been chosen for inspection on the basis of a general administrative plan would suffice. Even without a necessity for probable cause, the requirement would assure the interposition of a neutral officer to establish that the inspection was reasonable and was properly authorized. Id. at 321, 323. The dissenters objected that the warrant clause was being constitutionally diluted. Id. at 325. Administrative warrants were approved also in Camara v. Mu- nicipal Court, 387 U.S. 523, 538 (1967). Previously, one of the reasons given for find- ing administrative and noncriminal inspections not covered by the Fourth Amend- ment was the fact that the warrant clause would be as rigorously applied to them as to criminal searches and seizures. Frank v. Maryland, 359 U.S. 360, 373 (1959). See also Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 413 U.S. 266, 275 (1973) (Justice Powell concurring) (suggesting a similar administrative warrant procedure empowering po- lice and immigration officers to conduct roving searches of automobiles in areas near the Nation's borders); id. at 270 n.3 (indicating that majority Jusitces were divided on the validity of such area search warrants); id. at 288 (dissenting Justice White indicating approval); United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. 543, 547 n.2, 562 n.15 (1976). 73 452 U.S. 594 (1981). 74 There is no suggestion that warrantless inspections of homes is broadened. Id. at 598, or that warrantless entry under exigent circumstances is curtailed. See, e.g., Michigan v. Tyler, 436 U.S. 499 (1978) (no warrant required for entry by fire- fighters to fight fire; once there, firefighters may remain for reasonable time to in- vestigate the cause of the fire). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1213 cases in which inspectors are denied admission. Sustaining the statute, the Court proclaimed that government had a ''greater lati- tude'' to conduct warrantless inspections of commercial property than of homes, because of ''the fact that the expectation of privacy that the owner of commercial property enjoys in such property dif- fers significantly from the sanctity accorded an individual's home, and that this privacy interest may, in certain circumstances, be adequately protected by regulatory schemes authorizing warrantless inspections.'' 75 Dewey was distinguished from Barlow's in several ways. First, Dewey involved a single industry, unlike the broad coverage in Bar- low's. Second, the OSHA statute gave minimal direction to inspec- tors as to time, scope, and frequency of inspections, while FMSHA specified a regular number of inspections pursuant to standards. Third, deference was due Congress' determination that unan- nounced inspections were necessary if the safety laws were to be effectively enforced. Fourth, FMSHA provided businesses the op- portunity to contest the search by resisting in the civil proceeding the Secretary had to bring if consent was denied. 76 The standard of a long tradition of government supervision permitting warrantless inspections was dispensed with, because it would lead to ''absurd results,'' in that new and emerging industries posing great hazards would escape regulation. 77 Dewey suggests, there- fore, that warrantless inspections of commercial establishments are permissible so long as the legislature carefully drafts its statute. Dewey was applied in New York v. Burger 78 to inspection of automobile junkyards and vehicle dismantling operations, a situa- tion where there is considerable overlap between administrative and penal objectives. Applying the Dewey three-part test, the Court concluded that New York has a substantial interest in stemming the tide of automobile thefts, that regulation of vehicle dismantling reasonably serves that interest, and that statutory safeguards pro- vided adequate substitute for a warrant requirement. The Court re- jected the suggestion that the warrantless inspection provisions 75 Donovan v. Dewey, 452 U.S. 594, 598–99 (1981). 76 Id. at 596–97, 604–05. Pursuant to the statute, however, the Secretary has promulgated regulations providing for the assessment of civil penalties for denial of entry and Dewey had been assessed a penalty of $1,000. Id. at 597 n.3. It was also true in Barlow's that the Government resorted to civil process upon refusal to admit. 436 U.S. at 317 & n.12. 77 Donovan v. Dewey, 452 U.S. 594, 606 (1981). Duration of regulation will now be a factor in assessing the legitimate expectation of privacy of a business. Ibid. Ac- cord, New York v. Burger, 482 U.S. 691 (1987) (although duration of regulation of vehicle dismantling was relatively brief, history of regulation of junk business gen- erally was lengthy, and current regulation of dismantling was extensive). 78 482 U.S. 691 (1987). 1214 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES were designed as an expedient means of enforcing the penal laws, and instead saw narrower, valid regulatory purposes to be served: e.g., establishing a system for tracking stolen automobiles and parts, and enhancing the ability of legitimate businesses to com- pete. ''[A] State can address a major social problem both by way of an administrative scheme and through penal sanctions,'' the Court declared; in such circumstances warrantless administrative searches are permissible in spite of the fact that evidence of crimi- nal activity may well be uncovered in the process. 79 In other contexts, the Court has also elaborated the constitu- tional requirements affecting administrative inspections and searches. Thus, in Michigan v. Tyler, 80 it subdivided the process by which an investigation of the cause of a fire may be conducted. Entry to fight the fire is, of course, an exception based on exigent circumstances, and no warrant or consent is needed; firemen on the scene may seize evidence relating to the cause under the plain view doctrine. Additional entries to investigate the cause of the fire must be made pursuant to warrant procedures governing administrative searches. Evidence of arson discovered in the course of such an ad- ministrative inspection is admissible at trial, but if the investigator finds probable cause to believe that arson has occurred and re- quires further access to gather evidence for a possible prosecution, he must obtain a criminal search warrant. 81 One curious case has approved a system of ''home visits'' by welfare caseworkers, in which the recipients are required to admit the worker or lose eligibility for benefits. 82 In addition, there are now a number of situations, some of them analogous to administrative searches, where '''special needs' beyond normal law enforcement . . . justify departures from the usual warrant and probable cause requirements.'' 83 In one of these 79 482 U.S. at 712 (emphasis original). 80 436 U.S. 499 (1978). 81 The Court also held that, after the fire was extinguished, if fire investigators were unable to proceed at the moment, because of dark, steam, and smoke, it was proper for them to leave and return at daylight without any necessity of complying with its mandate for administrative or criminal warrants. Id. at 510–11. But cf. Michigan v. Clifford, 464 U.S. 287 (1984) (no such justification for search of private residence begun at 1:30 p.m. when fire had been extinguished at 7 a.m.). 82 Wyman v. James, 400 U.S. 309 (1971). It is not clear what rationale the ma- jority utilized. It appears to have proceeded on the assumption that a ''home visit'' was not a search and that the Fourth Amendment does not apply when criminal prosecution is not threatened. Neither premise is valid under Camara and its prog- eny, although Camara preceded Wyman. Presumably, the case would today be ana- lyzed under the expectation of privacy/need/structural protection theory of the more recent cases. 83 Griffin v. Wisconsin, 483 U.S. 868, 873 (1987) (administrative needs of proba- tion system justify warrantless searches of probationers' homes on less than prob- AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1215 cases the Court, without acknowledging the magnitude of the leap from one context to another, has taken the Dewey/Burger ration- ale—developed to justify warrantless searches of business estab- lishments—and applied it to justify the significant intrusion into personal privacy represented by urinalysis drug testing. Because of the history of pervasive regulation of the railroad industry, the Court reasoned, railroad employees have a diminished expectation of privacy that makes mandatory urinalysis less intrusive and more reasonable. 84 With respect to automobiles, the holdings are mixed. Random stops of automobiles to check drivers' licenses, vehicle registrations, and safety conditions were condemned as too intrusive; the degree to which random stops would advance the legitimate governmental interests involved did not outweigh the individual's legitimate ex- pectations of privacy. 85 On the other hand, in South Dakota v. Opperman, 86 the Court sustained the admission of evidence found when police impounded an automobile from a public street for mul- tiple parking violations and entered the car to secure and inventory valuables for safekeeping. Marijuana was discovered in the glove compartment. Searches and Seizures Pursuant to Warrant Emphasis upon the necessity of warrants places the judgment of an independent magistrate between law enforcement officers and the privacy of citizens, authorizes invasion of that privacy only upon a showing that constitutes probable cause, and limits that in- vasion by specification of the person to be seized, the place to be able cause); Hudson v. Palmer, 468 U.S. 517, 526 (1984) (no Fourth Amendment protection from search of prison cell); New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325 (1985) (simple reasonableness standard governs searches of students' persons and effects by public school authorities); O'Connor v. Ortega, 480 U.S. 709 (1987) (reasonable- ness test for work-related searches of employees' offices by government employer); Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives' Ass'n, 489 U.S. 602 (1989) (neither probable cause nor individualized suspicion is necessary for mandatory drug testing of rail- way employees involved in accidents or safety violations). All of these cases are dis- cussed infra under the general heading ''Valid Searches and Seizures Without War- rants.'' 84 Skinner, supra n.83, 489 U.S. at 627. 85 Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648 (1979). Standards applied in this case had been developed in the contexts of automobile stops at fixed points or by roving pa- trols in border situations. Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 413 U.S. 266 (1973); United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873 (1975); United States v. Ortiz, 422 U.S. 891 (1975); United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. 543 (1976). 86 428 U.S. 364 (1976). See also Cady v. Dombrowski, 413 U.S. 433 (1973) (sus- taining admission of criminal evidence found when police conducted a warrantless search of an out-of-state policeman's automobile following an accident, in order to find and safeguard his service revolver). The Court in both cases emphasized the reduced expectation of privacy in automobiles and the noncriminal purposes of the searches. 1216 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES searched, and the evidence to be sought. 87 While a warrant is is- sued ex parte, its validity may be contested in a subsequent sup- pression hearing if incriminating evidence is found and a prosecu- tion is brought. 88 Issuance by Neutral Magistrate.—In numerous cases, the Court has referred to the necessity that warrants be issued by a ''judicial officer'' or a ''magistrate.'' 89 ''The point of the Fourth Amendment, which often is not grasped by zealous officers, is not that it denies law enforcement the support of the usual inferences which reasonable men draw from evidence. Its protection consists in requiring that those inferences be drawn by a neutral and de- tached magistrate instead of being judged by the officer engaged in the often competitive enterprise of ferreting out crime. Any as- sumption that evidence sufficient to support a magistrate's disin- terested determination to issue a search warrant will justify the of- ficers in making a search without a warrant would reduce the Amendment to a nullity and leave the people's homes secure only in the discretion of police officers.'' 90 These cases do not mean that only a judge or an official who is a lawyer may issue warrants, but they do stand for two tests of the validity of the power of the issu- ing party to so act. ''He must be neutral and detached, and he must be capable of determining whether probable cause exists for the re- quested arrest or search.'' 91 The first test cannot be met when the issuing party is himself engaged in law enforcement activities, 92 87 While the exceptions may be different as between arrest warrants and search warrants, the requirements for the issuance of the two are the same. Aguilar v. Texas, 378 U.S. 108, 112 n.3 (1964). Also, the standards by which the validity of warrants are to be judged are the same, whether federal or state officers are in- volved. Ker v. California, 374 U.S. 23 (1963). 88 Most often, in the suppression hearings, the defendant will challenge the suf- ficiency of the evidence presented to the magistrate to constitute probable cause. Spinelli v. United States, 393 U.S. 410 (1969); United States v. Harris, 403 U.S. 573 (1971). He may challenge the veracity of the statements used by the police to pro- cure the warrant and otherwise contest the accuracy of the allegations going to es- tablish probable cause, but the Court has carefully hedged his ability to do so. Franks v. Delaware, 438 U.S. 154 (1978). He may also question the power of the official issuing the warrant, Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 449–53 (1971), or the specificity of the particularity required. Marron v. United States, 275 U.S. 192 (1927). 89 United States v. Lefkowitz, 285 U.S. 452, 464 (1932); Giordenello v. United States, 357 U.S. 480, 486 (1958); Jones v. United States, 362 U.S. 257, 270 (1960); Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 356 (1967); United States v. United States Dis- trict Court, 407 U.S. 297, 321 (1972); United States v. Chadwick, 433 U.S. 1, 9 (1977); Lo-Ji Sales v. New York, 442 U.S. 319, 326 (1979). 90 Johnson v. United States, 333 U.S. 10, 13–14 (1948). 91 Shadwick v. City of Tampa, 407 U.S. 345, 354 (1972). 92 Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 449–51 (1971) (warrant issued by state attorney general who was leading investigation and who as a justice of the peace was authorized to issue warrants); Mancusi v. DeForte, 392 U.S. 364, 370– 72 (1968) (subpoena issued by district attorney could not qualify as a valid search AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1217 but the Court has not required that an issuing party have that independence of tenure and guarantee of salary which character- izes federal judges. 93 And in passing on the second test, the Court has been essentially pragmatic in assessing whether the issuing party possesses the capacity to determine probable cause. 94 Probable Cause.—The concept of ''probable cause'' is central to the meaning of the warrant clause. Neither the Fourth Amend- ment nor the federal statutory provisions relevant to the area de- fine ''probable cause;'' the definition is entirely a judicial construct. An applicant for a warrant must present to the magistrate facts sufficient to enable the officer himself to make a determination of probable cause. ''In determining what is probable cause . . . [w]e are concerned only with the question whether the affiant had rea- sonable grounds at the time of his affidavit . . . for the belief that the law was being violated on the premises to be searched; and if the apparent facts set out in the affidavit are such that a reason- ably discreet and prudent man would be led to believe that there was a commission of the offense charged, there is probable cause justifying the issuance of a warrant.'' 95 Probable cause is to be de- termined according to ''the factual and practical considerations of everyday life on which reasonable and prudent men, not legal tech- nicians, act.'' 96 Warrants are favored in the law and utilization of them will not be thwarted by a hypertechnical reading of the sup- warrant); Lo-Ji Sales v. New York, 442 U.S. 319 (1979) (justice of the peace issued open-ended search warrant for obscene materials, accompanied police during its exe- cution, and made probable cause determinations at the scene as to particular items). 93 Jones v. United States, 362 U.S. 257, 270–71 (1960) (approving issuance of warrants by United States Commissioners, many of whom were not lawyers and none of whom had any guarantees of tenure and salary); Shadwick v. City of Tampa, 407 U.S. 345 (1972) (approving issuance of arrest warrants for violation of city ordinances by city clerks who were assigned to and supervised by municipal court judges). The Court reserved the question ''whether a State may lodge warrant authority in someone entirely outside the sphere of the judicial branch. Many per- sons may not qualify as the kind of 'public civil officers' we have come to associate with the term 'magistrate.' Had the Tampa clerk been entirely divorced from a judi- cial position, this case would have presented different considerations.'' Id. at 352. 94 Id. at 350–54 (placing on defendant the burden of demonstrating that the is- suing official lacks capacity to determine probable cause). See also Connally v. Geor- gia, 429 U.S. 245 (1977) (unsalaried justice of the peace who receives a sum of money for each warrant issued but nothing for reviewing and denying a warrant not sufficiently detached). 95 Dumbra v. United States, 268 U.S. 435, 439, 441 (1925). ''[T]he term 'probable cause'. . . means less than evidence which would justify condemnation.'' Lock v. United States, 11 U.S. (7 Cr.) 339, 348 (1813). See Steele v. United States, 267 U.S. 498, 504–05 (1925). It may rest upon evidence which is not legally competent in a criminal trial, Draper v. United States, 358 U.S. 307, 311 (1959), and it need not be sufficient to prove guilt in a criminal trial. Brinegar v. United States, 338 U.S. 160, 173 (1949). See United States v. Ventresca, 380 U.S. 102, 107–08 (1965). 96 Brinegar v. United States, 338 U.S. 160, 175 (1949). 1218 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES porting affidavit and supporting testimony. 97 For the same reason, reviewing courts will accept evidence of a less ''judicially competent or persuasive character than would have justified an officer in act- ing on his own without a warrant.'' 98 Courts will sustain the deter- mination of probable cause so long as ''there was substantial basis for [the magistrate] to conclude that'' there was probable cause. 99 Much litigation has concerned the sufficiency of the complaint to establish probable cause. Mere conclusory assertions are not enough. 100 In United States v. Ventresca, 101 however, an affidavit by a law enforcement officer asserting his belief that an illegal dis- tillery was being operated in a certain place, explaining that the belief was based upon his own observations and upon those of fel- low investigators, and detailing a substantial amount of these per- sonal observations clearly supporting the stated belief, was held to be sufficient to constitute probable cause. ''Recital of some of the underlying circumstances in the affidavit is essential,'' the Court said, observing that ''where these circumstances are detailed, where reason for crediting the source of the information is given, and when a magistrate has found probable cause,'' the reliance on the warrant process should not be deterred by insistence on too stringent a showing. 102 Requirements for establishing probable cause through reliance on information received from an informant has divided the Court in several cases. Although involving a warrantless arrest, Draper v. United States 103 may be said to have begun the line of cases. A previously reliable, named informant reported to an officer that the defendant would arrive with narcotics on a particular train, and described the clothes he would be wearing and the bag he 97 United States v. Ventresca, 380 U.S. 102, 108–09 (1965). 98 Jones v. United States, 362 U.S. 257, 270–71 (1960). 99 Aguilar v. Texas, 378 U.S. 108, 111 (1964). It must be emphasized that the issuing party ''must judge for himself the persuasiveness of the facts relied on by a [complainant] to show probable cause.'' Giordenello v. United States, 357 U.S. 480, 486 (1958). An insufficient affidavit cannot be rehabilitated by testimony after issu- ance concerning information possessed by the affiant but not disclosed to the mag- istrate. Whiteley v. Warden, 401 U.S. 560 (1971). 100 Byars v. United States, 273 U.S. 28 (1927) (affiant stated he ''has good rea- son to believe and does believe'' that defendant has contraband materials in his pos- session); Giordenello v. United States, 357 U.S. 480 (1958) (complainant merely stated his conclusion that defendant had committed a crime). See also Nathanson v. United States, 290 U.S. 41 (1933). 101 380 U.S. 102 (1965). 102 Id. at 109. 103 358 U.S. 307 (1959). For another case applying essentially the same probable cause standard to warrantless arrests as govern arrests by warrant, see McCray v. Illinois, 386 U.S. 300 (1967) (informant's statement to arresting officers met Aguilar probable cause standard). See also Whitely v. Warden, 401 U.S. 560, 566 (1971) (standards must be ''at least as stringent'' for warrantless arrest as for obtaining warrant). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1219 would be carrying; the informant, however, gave no basis for his in- formation. FBI agents met the train, observed that the defendant fully answered the description, and arrested him. The Court held that the corroboration of part of the informer's tip established prob- able cause to support the arrest. A case involving a search warrant, Jones v. United States, 104 apparently utilized a test of considering the affidavit as a whole to see whether the tip plus the corroborat- ing information provided a substantial basis for finding probable cause, but the affidavit also set forth the reliability of the informer and sufficient detail to indicate that the tip was based on the in- formant's personal observation. Aguilar v. Texas 105 held insuffi- cient an affidavit which merely asserted that the police had ''reli- able information from a credible person'' that narcotics were in a certain place, and held that when the affiant relies on an inform- ant's tip he must present two types of evidence to the magistrate. First, the affidavit must indicate the informant's basis of knowl- edge—the circumstances from which the informant concluded that evidence was present or that crimes had been committed—and, sec- ond, the affiant must present information which would permit the magistrate to decide whether or not the informant was trust- worthy. Then, in Spinelli v. United States, 106 the Court applied Aguilar in a situation in which the affidavit contained both an in- formant's tip and police information of a corroborating nature. The Court rejected the ''totality'' test derived from Jones and held that the informant's tip and the corroborating evidence must be separately considered. The tip was rejected because the affidavit contained neither any information which showed the basis of the tip nor any information which showed the informant's credibility. The corroborating evidence was rejected as insufficient because it did not establish any element of criminality but merely related to details which were innocent in themselves. No additional corrobo- rating weight was due as a result of the bald police assertion that defendant was a known gambler, although the tip related to gam- bling. Returning to the totality test, however, the Court in United States v. Harris 107 approved a warrant issued largely on an in- former's tip that over a two-year period he had purchased illegal whiskey from the defendant at the defendant's residence, most re- 104 362 U.S. 257 (1960). 105 378 U.S. 108 (1964). 106 393 U.S. 410 (1969). Both concurring and dissenting Justices recognized ten- sion between Draper and Aguilar. See id. at 423 (Justice White concurring), id. at 429 (Justice Black dissenting and advocating the overruling of Aguilar). 107 403 U.S. 573 (1971). See also Adams v. Williams, 407 U.S. 143, 147 (1972) (approving warrantless stop of motorist based on informant's tip that ''may have been insufficient'' under Aguilar and Spinelli as basis for warrant). 1220 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES cently within two weeks of the tip. The affidavit contained rather detailed information about the concealment of the whiskey, and as- serted that the informer was a ''prudent person,'' that defendant had a reputation as a bootlegger, that other persons had supplied similar information about him, and that he had been found in con- trol of illegal whiskey within the previous four years. The Court de- termined that the detailed nature of the tip, the personal observa- tion thus revealed, and the fact that the informer had admitted to criminal behavior by his purchase of whiskey were sufficient to en- able the magistrate to find him reliable, and that the supporting evidence, including defendant's reputation, could supplement this determination. The Court expressly abandoned the two-part Aguilar-Spinelli test and returned to the ''totality of the circumstances'' approach to evaluate probable cause based on an informant's tip in Illinois v. Gates. 108 The main defect of the two-part test, Justice Rehnquist concluded for the Court, was in treating an informant's reliability and his basis for knowledge as independent requirements. Instead, ''a deficiency in one may be compensated for, in determining the overall reliability of a tip, by a strong showing as to the other, or by some other indicia of reliability.'' 109 In evaluating probable cause, ''[t]he task of the issuing magistrate is simply to make a practical, commonsense decision whether, given all the cir- cumstances set forth in the affidavit before him, including the 've- racity' and 'basis of knowledge' of persons supplying hearsay infor- mation, there is a fair probability that contraband or evidence of a crime will be found in a particular place.'' 110 Particularity.—''The requirement that warrants shall particularily describe the things to be seized makes general searches under them impossible and prevents the seizure of one thing under a warrant describing another. As to what is to be taken, nothing is left to the discretion of the officer executing the warrant.'' 111 This requirement thus acts to limit the scope of the search, inasmuch as the executing officers should be limited to 108 462 U.S. 213 (1983) (Justice Rehnquist's opinion of the Court was joined by Chief Justice Burger and by Justices Blackmun, Powell, and O'Connor. Justices Brennan, Marshall, and Stevens dissented. 109 462 U.S. at 213. 110 462 U.S. at 238. 111 Marron v. United States, 275 U.S. 192, 196 (1927). See Stanford v. Texas, 379 U.S. 476 (1965). Of course, police who are lawfully on the premises pursuant to a warrant may seize evidence of crime in ''plain view'' even if that evidence is not described in the warrant. Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403, U.S. 443, 464–71 (1971). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1221 looking in places where the described object could be expected to be found. 112 First Amendment Bearing on Probable Cause and Par- ticularity.—Where the warrant process is used to authorize sei- zure of books and other items entitled either to First Amendment protection or to First Amendment consideration, the Court has re- quired government to observe more exacting standards than in other cases. 113 Seizure of materials arguably protected by the First Amendment is a form of prior restraint that requires strict observ- ance of the Fourth Amendment. At a minimum, a warrant is re- quired, and additional safeguards may be required for large-scale seizures. Thus, in Marcus v. Search Warrant, 114 the seizure of 11,000 copies of 280 publications pursuant to warrant issued ex parte by a magistrate who had not examined any of the publica- tions but who had relied on the conclusory affidavit of a policeman was voided. Failure to scrutinize the materials and to particularize the items to be seized was deemed inadequate, and it was further noted that police ''were provided with no guide to the exercise of informed discretion, because there was no step in the procedure be- fore seizure designed to focus searchingly on the question of ob- scenity.'' 115 A state procedure which was designed to comply with Marcus by the presentation of copies of books to be seized to the magistrate for his scrutiny prior to issuance of a warrant was none- theless found inadequate by a plurality of the Court, which con- cluded that ''since the warrant here authorized the sheriff to seize all copies of the specified titles, and since [appellant] was not af- forded a hearing on the question of the obscenity even of the seven novels [seven of 59 listed titles were reviewed by the magistrate] before the warrant issued, the procedure was . . . constitutionally 112 ''This Court has held in the past that a search which is reasonable at its in- ception may violate the Fourth Amendment by virtue of its intolerable intensity and scope. Kremen v. United States, 353 U.S. 346 (1957); Go-Bart Importing Co. v. Unit- ed States, 282 U.S. 344, 356–58 (1931); see United States v. Di Re, 332 U.S. 581, 586–87 (1948). The scope of the search must be 'strictly tied to and justified by' the circumstances which rendered its initiation permissible. Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294, 310 (1967) (Mr. Justice Fortas concurring); see, e.g., Preston v. United States, 376 U.S. 364, 367–368 (1964); Agnello v. United States, 296 U.S. 20, 30– 31 (1925).'' Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 18–19, (1968). See also Andresen v. Maryland, 427 U.S. 463, 470–82 (1976), and id. at 484, 492–93 (Justice Brennan dissenting). In Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U.S. 557, 569 (1969), Justices Stewart, Brennan, and White would have based decision on the principle that a valid warrant for gambling paraphernalia did not authorize police upon discovering motion picture films in the course of the search to project the films to learn their contents. 113 Marcus v. Search Warrant, 367 U.S. 717, 730–31 (1961); Stanford v. Texas, 379 U.S. 476, 485 (1965). 114 367 U.S. 717 (1961). See Kingsley Books v. Brown, 354 U.S. 436 (1957). 115 Marcus v. Search Warrant, 367 U.S. 717, 732 (1961). 1222 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES deficient.'' 116 Confusion remains, however, about the necessity for and the character of prior adversary hearings on the issue of ob- scenity. In a later decision the Court held that, with adequate safe- guards, no pre-seizure adversary hearing on the issue of obscenity is required if the film is seized not for the purpose of destruction as contraband (the purpose in Marcus and A Quantity of Books), but instead to preserve a copy for evidence. 117 It is constitutionally permissible to seize a copy of a film pursuant to a warrant as long as there is a prompt post-seizure adversary hearing on the obscen- ity issue. Until there is a judicial determination of obscenity, the Court advised, the film may continue to be exhibited; if no other copy is available either a copy of it must be made from the seized film or the film itself must be returned. 118 The seizure of a film without the authority of a constitutionally sufficient warrant is invalid; seizure cannot be justified as inciden- tal to arrest, inasmuch as the determination of obscenity may not be made by the officer himself. 119 Nor may a warrant issue based ''solely on the conclusory assertions of the police officer without any inquiry by the [magistrate] into the factual basis for the officer's conclusions.'' 120 Instead, a warrant must be ''supported by affida- vits setting forth specific facts in order that the issuing magistrate may 'focus searchingly on the question of obscenity.' '' 121 This does not mean, however, that a higher standard of probable cause is re- quired in order to obtain a warrant to seize materials protected by the First Amendment. ''Our reference in Roaden to a 'higher hurdle . . . of reasonableness' was not intended to establish a 'higher' standard of probable cause for the issuance of a warrant to seize books or films, but instead related to the more basic requirement, imposed by that decision, that the police not rely on the 'exigency' exception to the Fourth Amendment warrant requirement, but in- stead obtain a warrant from a magistrate . . . .' '' 122 116 A Quantity of Books v. Kansas, 378 U.S. 205, 210 (1964). 117 Heller v. New York, 413 U.S. 483 (1973). 118 Id. at 492–93. But cf. New York v. P.J. Video, Inc., 475 U.S. 868, 875 n.6 (1986), rejecting the defendant's assertion, based on Heller, that only a single copy rather than all copies of allegedly obscene movies should have been seized pursuant to warrant. 119 Roaden v. Kentucky, 413 U.S. 496 (1973). See also Lo-Ji Sales v. New York, 442 U.S. 319 (1979); Walter v. United States, 447 U.S. 649 (1980). These special constraints are inapplicable when obscene materials are purchased, and there is consequently no Fourth Amendment search or seizure. Maryland v. Macon, 472 U.S. 463 (1985). 120 Lee Art Theatre, Inc. v. Virginia, 392 U.S. 636, 637 (1968) (per curiam). 121 New York v. P.J. Video, Inc., 475 U.S. 868, 873–74 (1986) (quoting Marcus v. Search Warrant, 367 U.S. 717, 732 (1961)). 122 New York v. P.J. Video, Inc., 475 U.S. 868, 875 n.6 (1986). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1223 In Stanford v. Texas, 123 a seizure of more than 2,000 books, pamphlets, and other documents pursuant to a warrant which merely authorized the seizure of books, pamphlets, and other writ- ten instruments ''concerning the Communist Party of Texas'' was voided. ''[T]he constitutional requirement that warrants must par- ticularly describe the 'things to be seized' is to be accorded the most scrupulous exactitude when the 'things' are books, and the basis for their seizure is the ideas which they contain. . . . No less a stand- ard could be faithful to First Amendment freedoms.'' 124 However, the First Amendment does not bar the issuance or execution of a warrant to search a newsroom to obtain photographs of demonstrators who had injured several policemen, although the Court appeared to suggest that a magistrate asked to issue such a warrant should guard against interference with press freedoms through limits on type, scope, and intrusiveness of the search. 125 Property Subject to Seizure.—There has never been any doubt that search warrants could be issued for the seizure of con- traband and the fruits and instrumentalities of crime. 126 But in Gouled v. United States, 127 a unanimous Court limited the classes of property subject to seizures to these three and refused to permit a seizure of ''mere evidence,'' in this instance defendant's papers which were to be used as evidence against him at trial. The Court recognized that there was ''no special sanctity in papers, as distin- guished from other forms of property, to render them immune from search and seizure,'' 128 but their character as evidence rendered them immune. This immunity ''was based upon the dual, related premises that historically the right to search for and seize property depended upon the assertion by the Government of a valid claim of superior interest, and that it was not enough that the purpose of the search and seizure was to obtain evidence to use in appre- 123 379 U.S. 476 (1965). 124 Id. at 485–86. See also Marcus v. Search Warrant, 367 U.S. 717, 723 (1961). 125 Zurcher v. Stanford Daily, 436 U.S. 547 (1978). See id. at 566 (containing suggestion mentioned in text), and id. at 566 (Justice Powell concurring) (more ex- pressly adopting that position). In the Privacy Protection Act, Pub. L. No. 96–440, 94 Stat. 1879 (1980), 42 U.S.C. § 2000aa, Congress provided extensive protection against searches and seizures not only of the news media and news people but also of others engaged in disseminating communications to the public, unless there is probable cause to believe the person protecting the materials has committed or is committing the crime to which the materials relate. 126 United States v. Lefkowitz, 285 U.S. 452, 465–66 (1932). Of course, evidence seizable under warrant is subject to seizure without a warrant in circumstances in which warrantless searches are justified. 127 255 U.S. 298 (1921). United States v. Lefkowitz, 285 U.S. 452 (1932), applied the rule in a warrantless search of premises. The rule apparently never applied in case of a search of the person. Cf. Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757 (1966). 128 Gouled v. United States, 255 U.S. 298, 306 (1921). 1224 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES hending and convicting criminals.'' 129 More evaded than followed, the ''mere evidence'' rule was overturned in 1967. 130 It is now set- tled that such evidentiary items as fingerprints, 131 blood, 132 urine samples, 133 fingernail and skin scrapings, 134 voice and hand- writing exemplars, 135 conversations, 136 and other demonstrative evidence may be obtained through the warrant process or without a warrant where ''special needs'' of government are shown. 137 However, some medically assisted bodily intrusions have been held impermissible, e.g., forcible administration of an emetic to in- duce vomiting, 138 and surgery under general anesthetic to remove a bullet lodged in a suspect's chest. 139 Factors to be weighed in de- termining which medical tests and procedures are reasonable in- clude the extent to which the procedure threatens the individual's safety or health, ''the extent of the intrusion upon the individual's dignitary interests in personal privacy and bodily integrity,'' and the importance of the evidence to the prosecution's case. 140 129 Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294, 303 (1967). See Gouled v. United States, 255 U.S. 298, 309 (1921). The holding was derived from dicta in Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616, 624–29 (1886). 130 Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294 (1967). Justice Douglas dissented, wishing to retain the rule, id. at 312, and Justice Fortas with Chief Justice Warren con- curred in the result while apparently wishing to retain the rule in warrant cases. Id. at 310, 312. 131 Davis v. Mississippi, 394 U.S. 721 (1969). 132 Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757 (1966). Skinner v. Railway Labor Ex- ecutives' Ass'n, 489 U.S. 602 (1989) (warrantless blood testing for drug use by rail- road employee involved in accident). 133 Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives' Ass'n, 489 U.S. 602 (1989) (warrantless drug testing of railroad employee involved in accident). 134 Cupp v. Murphy, 412 U.S. 291 (1973) (sustaining warrantless taking of scrapings from defendant's fingernails at the stationhouse, on the basis that it was a very limited intrusion and necessary to preserve evanescent evidence). 135 United States v. Dionisio, 410 U.S. 1 (1973); United States v. Mara, 410 U.S. 19 (1973) (both sustaining grand jury subpoenas to produce voice and handwriting exemplars; no reasonable expectation of privacy with respect to those items). 136 Berger v. New York, 388 U.S. 41, 44 n.2 (1967). See also id. at 97 n.4, 107– 08 (Justices Harlan and White concurring), 67 (Justice Douglas concurring). 137 Another important result of Warden v. Hayden is that third parties not sus- pected of culpability in crime are subject to the issuance and execution of warrants for searches and seizures of evidence. Zurcher v. Stanford Daily, 436 U.S. 547, 553– 60 (1978). Justice Stevens argued for a stiffer standard for issuance of warrants to nonsuspects, requiring in order to invade their privacy a showing that they would not comply with a less intrusive method, such as a subpoena. Id. at 577 (dissenting). 138 Rochin v. California, 342 U.S. 165 (1952). 139 Winston v. Lee, 470 U.S. 753 (1985). 140 Winston v. Lee, 470 U.S. 753, 761–63 (1985). Chief Justice Burger concurred on the basis of his reading of the Court's opinion ''as not preventing detention of an individual if there are reasonable grounds to believe that natural bodily func- tions will disclose the presence of contraband materials secreted internally.'' id. at at 767. Cf. United States v. Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U.S. 531 (1985). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1225 In Warden v. Hayden, 141 Justice Brennan for the Court cau- tioned that the items there seized were not '''testimonial' or 'com- municative' in nature, and their introduction therefore did not com- pel respondent to become a witness against himself in violation of the Fifth Amendment. . . . This case thus does not require that we consider whether there are items of evidential value whose very nature precludes them from being the object of a reasonable search and seizure.'' This merging of Fourth and Fifth Amendment consid- erations derived from Boyd v. United States, 142 the first case in which the Supreme Court considered at length the meaning of the Fourth Amendment. Boyd was a quasi-criminal proceeding for the forfeiture of goods alleged to have been imported in violation of law, and concerned a statute which authorized court orders to re- quire defendants to produce any document which might ''tend to prove any allegation made by the United States.'' 143 That there was a self-incrimination problem the entire Court was in agree- ment, but Justice Bradley for a majority of the Justices also uti- lized the Fourth Amendment. While the statute did not authorize a search but instead com- pulsory production, the Justice concluded that the law was well within the restrictions of the search and seizure clause. 144 With this point established, the Justice relied on Lord Camden's opinion in Entick v. Carrington 145 for the proposition that seizure of items to be used as evidence only was impermissible. Justice Bradley an- nounced that the ''essence of the offence'' committed by the Govern- ment against Boyd ''is not the breaking of his doors, and the rum- maging of his drawers . . . but it is the invasion of his indefeasible right of personal security, personal liberty and private property. . . . Breaking into a house and opening boxes and drawers are cir- cumstances of aggravation; but any forcible and compulsory extor- tion of a man's own testimony or of his private papers to be used as evidence to convict him of crime or to forfeit his goods, is within the condemnation of that judgment. In this regard the Fourth and Fifth Amendments run almost into each other.'' 146 While it may be doubtful that the equation of search warrants with subpoenas and other compulsory process ever really amounted 141 387 U.S. 294, 302–03 (1967). Seizure of a diary was at issue in Hill v. Cali- fornia, 401 U.S. 797, 805 (1971), but it had not been raised in the state courts and was deemed waived. 142 116 U.S. 616 (1886). 143 Act of June 22, 1874, § 5, 18 Stat. 187. 144 Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616, 622 (1886). 145 Howell's State Trials 1029, 95 Eng. Rep. 807 (1765). 146 Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616, 630 (1886). 1226 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES to much of a limitation, 147 the present analysis of the Court dis- penses with any theory of ''convergence'' of the two Amend- ments. 148 Thus, in Andresen v. Maryland, 149 police executed a warrant to search defendant's offices for specified documents per- taining to a fraudulent sale of land, and the Court sustained the admission of the papers discovered as evidence at his trial. The Fifth Amendment was inapplicable, the Court held, because there had been no compulsion of defendant to produce or to authenticate the documents. 150 As for the Fourth Amendment, inasmuch as the ''business records'' seized were evidence of criminal acts, they were properly seizable under the rule of Warden v. Hayden; the fact that they were ''testimonial'' in nature, records in the defendant's hand- writing, was irrelevant. 151 Acknowledging that ''there are grave dangers inherent in executing a warrant authorizing a search and seizure of a person's papers,'' the Court's response was to observe that while some ''innocuous documents'' would have to be examined to ascertain which papers were to be seized, authorities, just as with electronic ''seizures'' of conversations, ''must take care to as- sure that they are conducted in a manner that minimizes unwar- ranted intrusions upon privacy.'' 152 Although Andresen was concerned with business records, its discussion seemed equally applicable to ''personal'' papers, such as diaries and letters, as to which a much greater interest in privacy most certainly exists. The question of the propriety of seizure of such papers continues to be the subject of reservation in opin- ions, 153 but it is far from clear that the Court would accept any such exception should the issue be presented. 154 Execution of Warrants.—The manner of execution of war- rants is generally governed by statute and rule, as to time of execu- tion, 155 method of entry, and the like. It was a rule at common law 147 E.g., Oklahoma Press Pub Co. v. Walling, 327 U.S. 186, 209–09 (1946). 148 Andresen v. Maryland, 427 U.S. 463 (1976); Fisher v. United States, 425 U.S. 391, 405–14 (1976). Fisher states that ''the precise claim sustained in Boyd would now be rejected for reasons not there considered.'' Id. at 408. 149 427 U.S. 463 (1976). 150 Id. at 470–77. 151 Id. at 478–84. 152 Id. at 482 n.11. Minimization, as required under federal law, has not proved to be a significant limitation. Scott v. United States, 425 U.S. 917 (1976). 153 E.g., United States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435, 440, 444 (1976); Fisher v. United States, 425 U.S. 391, 401 (1976); California Bankers Ass'n v. Shultz, 416 U.S. 21, 78–79 (1974) (Justice Powell concurring). 154 See Note, Formalism, Legal Realism, and Constitutionally Protected Privacy Under the Fourth and Fifth Amendments, 90 HARV. L. REV. 945 (1977). 155 Rule 41(c), Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, provides, inter alia, that the warrant shall command its execution in the daytime, unless the magistrate ''for reasonable cause shown'' directs in the warrant that it be served at some other time. AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1227 that before an officer could break and enter he must give notice of his office, authority, and purpose and must in effect be refused ad- mittance,156 and until recently this has been a statutory require- ment in the federal system 157 and generally in the States. In Ker v. California, 158 the Court considered the rule of announcement as a constitutional requirement, although a majority there found cir- cumstances justifying entry without announcement. Recent federal laws providing for the issuance of warrants authorizing in certain circumstances ''no-knock'' entries to execute warrants will no doubt present the Court with opportunities to explore the configurations of the rule of announcement. 159 A statute regulating the expiration of a warrant and issuance of another ''should be liberally construed in favor of the individual.'' 160 Similarly, inasmuch as the existence of probable cause must be established by fresh facts, so the execu- tion of the warrant should be done in timely fashion so as to ensure so far as possible the continued existence of probable cause. 161 In executing a warrant for a search of premises and of named persons on the premises, police officers may not automatically search someone else found on the premises. 162 If they can articu- late some reasonable basis for fearing for their safety they may conduct a ''patdown'' of the person, but in order to search they must have probable cause particularized with respect to that per- son. However, in Michigan v. Summers, 163 the Court held that offi- cers arriving to execute a warrant for the search of a house could detain, without being required to articulate any reasonable basis and necessarily therefore without probable cause, the owner or oc- cupant of the house, whom they encountered on the front porch See Jones v. United States, 357 U.S. 493, 498–500 (1958); Gooding v. United States, 416 U.S. 430 (1974). The rule is more relaxed for narcotics cases. 21 U.S.C. § 879(a). 156 Semayne's Case, 5 Coke's Rep. 91a, 77 Eng. Rep. 194 (K.B. 1604). 157 18 U.S.C. § 3109. See Miller v. United States, 357 U.S. 301 (1958); Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471 (1963). 158 374 U.S. 23 (1963). Ker was an arrest warrant case, but no reason appears for differentiating search warrants. Eight Justices agreed that federal standards should govern and that the rule of announcement was of constitutional stature, but they divided 4-to–4 whether entry in this case had been pursuant to a valid excep- tion. Justice Harlan who had dissented from the federal standards issue joined the four finding a justifiable exception to carry the result. 159 In narcotics cases, magistrates are authorized to issue ''no-knock'' warrants if they find there is probable cause to believe (1) the property sought may, and if notice is given, will be easily and quickly destroyed or (2) giving notice will endan- ger the life or safety of the executing officer or another person. 21 U.S.C. § 879(b). See also D.C. Code, § 23–591. 160 Sgro v. United States, 287 U.S. 206 (1932). 161 Id. 162 Ybarra v. Illinois, 444 U.S. 85 (1979) (patron in a bar), relying on and reaffirming United States v. Di Re, 332 U.S. 581 (1948) (occupant of vehicle may not be searched merely because there are grounds to search the automobile). 163 452 U.S. 692 (1981). 1228 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES leaving the premises. Applying its intrusiveness test, 164 the Court determined that such a detention, which was ''substantially less in- trusive'' than an arrest, was justified because of the law enforce- ment interests in minimizing the risk of harm to officers, facilitat- ing entry and conduct of the search, and preventing flight in the event incriminating evidence is found. 165 Also, under some cir- cumstances officers may search premises on the mistaken but rea- sonable belief that the premises are described in an otherwise valid warrant. 166 Although for purposes of execution, as for many other matters, there is little diffence between search warrants and arrest war- rants, one notable difference is that the possession of a valid arrest warrant cannot authorize authorities to enter the home of a third party looking for the person named in the warrant; in order to do that, they need a search warrant signifying that a magistrate has determined that there is probable cause to believe the person named is on the premises. 167 Valid Searches and Seizures Without Warrants While the Supreme Court stresses the importance of warrants and has repeatedly referred to searches without warrants as ''ex- ceptional,'' 1 it appears that the greater number of searches, as well as the vast number of arrests, take place without warrants. The Reporters of the American Law Institute Project on a Model Code of Pre-Arraignment Procedure have noted ''their conviction that, as a practical matter, searches without warrant and incidental to ar- rest have been up to this time, and may remain, of greater prac- tical importance'' than searches pursuant to warrants. ''[T]he evi- dence on hand . . . compel[s] the conclusion that searches under warrants have played a comparatively minor part in law enforce- ment, except in connection with narcotics and gambling laws.'' 2 164 Supra, p. 1208. See Michigan v. Summers, 452 U.S. 692, 696–701 (1981). 165 Id. at 701–06. Ybarra was distinguished on the basis of its greater intrusive- ness and the lack of sufficient connection with the premises. Id. at 695 n.4. By the time Summers was searched, police had probable cause to do so. Id. at 695. The warrant here was for contraband, id. at 701, and a different rule possibly may apply with respect to warrants for other evidence. 166 Maryland v. Garrison, 480 U.S. 79 (1987) (officers reasonably believed there was only one ''third floor apartment'' in city row house when in fact there were two). 167 Steagald v. United States, 451 U.S. 204 (1981). An arrest warrant is a nec- essary and sufficient authority to enter a suspect's home to arrest him. Payton v. New York, 445 U.S. 573 (1980). 1 E.g., Johnson v. United States, 333 U.S. 10, 14 (1948); McDonald v. United States, 335 U.S. 451, 453 (1948); Camara v. Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523, 528– 29 (1967); G.M. Leasing Corp. v. United States, 429 U.S. 338, 352–53, 355 (1977). 2 American Law Institute, A Model Code of Pre-Arraignment Procedure, Tent. Draft No. 3 (Philadelphia: 1970), xix. AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1229 Nevertheless, the Court frequently asserts that ''the most basic constitutional rule in this area is that 'searches conducted outside the judicial process, without prior approval by judge or magistrate, are per se unreasonable under the Fourth Amendment—subject only to a few specially established and well-delineated excep- tions.'' 3 The exceptions are said to be ''jealously and carefully drawn,'' 4 and there must be ''a showing by those who seek exemp- tion . . . that the exigencies of the situation made that course im- perative.'' 5 While the record does indicate an effort to categorize the exceptions, the number and breadth of those exceptions have been growing. Detention Short of Arrest: Stop-and-Frisk.—Arrests are subject to the requirements of the Fourth Amendment, but the courts have followed the common law in upholding the right of po- lice officers to take a person into custody without a warrant if they have probable cause to believe that the person to be arrested has committed a felony or has committed a misdemeanor in their pres- ence. 6 The probable cause is, of course, the same standard required to be met in the issuance of an arrest warrant, and must be satis- fied by conditions existing prior to the policeman's stop, what is discovered thereafter not sufficing to establish retroactively reason- able cause. 7 There are, however, instances when a policeman's sus- picions will have been aroused by someone's conduct or manner, but probable cause for placing such a person under arrest will be lacking. 8 In Terry v. Ohio, 9 the Court almost unanimously ap- proved an on-the-street investigation by a police officer which in- volved ''patting down'' the subject of the investigation for weapons. The case arose when a police officer observed three individuals engaging in conduct which appeared to him, on the basis of train- ing and experience, to be the ''casing'' of a store for a likely armed robbery; upon approaching the men, identifying himself, and not receiving prompt identification, the officer seized one of the men, 3 Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 454–55 (1971) (quoting Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 357 (1967)); G.M. Leasing Corp. v. United States, 429 U.S. 338, 352–53, 358 (1977). 4 Jones v. United States, 357 U.S. 493, 499 (1958). 5 McDonald v. United States, 335 U.S. 451, 456 (1948). In general, with regard to exceptions to the warrant clause, conduct must be tested by the reasonableness standard enunciated by the first clause of the Amendment, Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 20 (1968), and the Court's development of its privacy expectation tests, supra, pp. 1206–09, substantially changed the content of that standard. 6 United States v. Watson, 423 U.S. 411 (1976). See supra, p. 1209. 7 Henry v. United States, 361 U.S. 98 (1959); Johnson v. United States, 333 U.S. 10, 16–17 (1948); Sibron v. New York, 392 U.S. 40, 62–63 (1968). 8 ''The police may not arrest upon mere suspicion but only on 'probable cause.''' Mallory v. United States, 354 U.S. 449, 454 (1957). 9 392 U.S. 1 (1968). Only Justice Douglas dissented. Id. at 35. 1230 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES patted the exterior of his clothes, and discovered a gun. Chief Jus- tice Warren for the Court wrote that the Fourth Amendment was applicable to the situation, applicable ''whenever a police officer ac- costs an individual and restrains his freedom to walk away.'' 10 Since the warrant clause is necessarily and practically of no appli- cation to the type of on-the-street encounter present in Terry, the Chief Justice continued, the question was whether the policeman's actions were reasonable. The test of reasonableness in this sort of situation is whether the police officer can point to ''specific and articulable facts which, taken together with rational inferences from those facts,'' would lead a neutral magistrate on review to conclude that a man of reasonable caution would be warranted in believing that possible criminal behavior was at hand and that both an investigative stop and a ''frisk'' was required. 11 Inasmuch as the conduct witnessed by the policeman reasonably led him to believe that an armed robbery was in prospect, he was as reason- ably led to believe that the men were armed and probably dan- gerous and that his safety required a ''frisk.'' Because the object of the ''frisk'' is the discovery of dangerous weapons, ''it must there- fore be confined in scope to an intrusion reasonably designed to dis- cover guns, knives, clubs, or other hidden instruments for the as- sault of the police officer.'' 12 Terry did not pass on a host of problems, including the grounds that could permissibly lead an officer to momentarily stop a person on the street or elsewhere in order to ask questions rather than frisk for weapons, the right of the stopped individual to refuse to cooperate, and the permissible response of the police to that re- fusal. Following that decision, the standard for stops for investiga- tive purposes evolved into one of ''reasonable suspicion of criminal activity.'' That test permits some stops and questioning without probable cause in order to allow police officers to explore the foun- 10 Id. at 16. See id. at 16–20. 11 Id. at 20, 21, 22. 12 Id. at 23–27, 29. See also Sibron v. New York, 392 U.S. 40 (1968) (after police- man observed defendant speak with several known narcotics addicts, he approached him and placed his hand in defendant's pocket, thus discovering narcotics; imper- missible, because he lacked reasonable basis for frisk and in any event his search exceeded permissible scope of weapons frisk); Adams v. Williams, 407 U.S. 143 (1972) (acting on tip that defendant was sitting in his car with narcotics and fire- arm, police approached, asked defendant to step out, and initiated frisk and discov- ered weapon when he merely rolled window down; justifiable); Pennsylvania v. Mimms, 434 U.S. 106 (1977) (after validly stopping car, officer required defendant to get out of car, observed bulge under his jacket, and frisked him and seized weap- on; while officer did not suspect driver of crime or have an articulable basis for safe- ty fears, safety considerations justified his requiring driver to leave car). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1231 dations of their suspicions. 13 While not elaborating a set of rules governing the application of the tests, the Court was initially re- strictive in recognizing permissible bases for reasonable sus- picion. 14 Extensive instrusions on individual privacy, e.g., trans- portation to the stationhouse for interrogation and fingerprinting, were invalidated in the absence of probable cause. 15 More recently, however, the Court has taken less restrictive approaches. 16 It took the Court some time to settle on a test for when a ''sei- zure'' has occurred, and the Court has recently modified its ap- proach. The issue is of some importance, since it is at this point that Fourth Amendment protections take hold. The Terry Court recognized in dictum that ''not all personal intercourse between po- licemen and citizens involves 'seizures' of persons,'' and suggested that ''[o]nly when the officer, by means of physical force or show of authority, has in some way restrained the liberty of a citizen may we conclude that a 'seizure' has occurred.'' 17 Years later Jus- tice Stewart proposed a similar standard, that a person has been seized ''only if, in view of all of the circumstances surrounding the incident, a reasonable person would have believed that he was not free to leave.'' 18 This reasonable perception standard was subse- 13 In United States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411 (1981), a unanimous Court at- tempted to capture the ''elusive concept'' of the basis for permitting a stop. Officers must have ''articulable reasons'' or ''founded suspicions,'' derived from the totality of the circumstances. ''Based upon that whole picture the detaining officer must have a particularized and objective basis for suspecting the particular person stopped of criminal activity.'' Id. at 417–18. The inquiry is thus quite fact-specific. In the anonymous tip context, the same basic approach requiring some corroboration applies regardless of whether the standard is probable cause or reasonable sus- picion; the difference is that less information, or less reliable information, can sat- isfy the lower standard. Alabama v. White, 496 U.S. 325 (1990). 14 E.g., Brown v. Texas, 443 U.S. 47 (1979) (individual's presence in high crime area gave officer no articulable basis to suspect him of crime); Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648 (1979) (reasonable suspicion of a license or registration violation is necessary to authorize automobile stop; random stops impermissible); United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873 (1975) (officers could not justify random automobile stop solely on basis of Mexican appearance of occupants); Reid v. Georgia, 448 U.S. 438 (1980) (no reasonable suspicion for airport stop based on appearance that sus- pect and another passenger were trying to conceal the fact that they were travelling together). But cf. United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. 543 (1976) (halting ve- hicles at fixed checkpoints to question occupants as to citizenship and immigration status permissible, even if officers should act on basis of appearance of occupants). 15 Davis v. Mississippi, 394 U.S. 721 (1969); Dunaway v. New York, 442 U.S. 200 (1979). 16 See, e.g., United States v. Hensley, 469 U.S. 221 (1985) (reasonable suspicion to stop a motorist may be based on a ''wanted flyer'' as long as issuance of the flyer has been based on reasonable suspicion); United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, (1989) (airport stop based on drug courier profile may rely on a combination of fac- tors that individually may be ''quite consistent with innocent travel''). 17 392 U.S. at 19, n.16. 18 United States v. Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544, 554 (1980). 1232 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES quently endorsed by a majority of Justices, 19 and was applied in several cases in which admissibility of evidence turned on whether a seizure of the person not justified by probable cause or reason- able suspicion had occurred prior to the uncovering of the evidence. No seizure occurred, for example, when INS agents seeking to iden- tify illegal aliens conducted work force surveys within a garment factory; while some agents were positioned at exits, others system- atically moved through the factory and questioned employees. 20 This brief questioning, even with blocked exits, amounted to ''clas- sic consensual encounters rather than Fourth Amendment sei- zures.'' 21 The Court also ruled that no seizure had occurred when police in a squad car drove alongside a suspect who had turned and run down the sidewalk when he saw the squad car approach. Under the circumstances (no siren, flashing lights, display of a weapon, or blocking of the suspect's path), the Court concluded, the police conduct ''would not have communicated to the reasonable person an attempt to capture or otherwise intrude upon [one's] freedom of movement.'' 22 Soon thereafter, however, the Court departed from the Mendenhall reasonable perception standard and adopted a more formalistic approach, holding that an actual chase with evident in- tent to capture did not amount to a ''seizure'' because the suspect did not comply with the officer's order to halt. Mendenhall, said the Court in California v. Hodari D., stated a ''necessary'' but not a ''sufficient'' condition for a seizure of the person through show of authority. 23 A Fourth Amendment ''seizure'' of the person, the Court determined, is the same as a common law arrest; there must be either application of physical force (or the laying on of hands), or submission to the assertion of authority. 24 Indications are, how- ever, that Hodari D. does not signal the end of the reasonable per- ception standard, but merely carves an exception applicable to chases and perhaps other encounters between suspects and police. Later in the same term the Court ruled that the Mendenhall ''free-to-leave'' inquiry was misplaced in the context of a police 19 See, e.g., Florida v. Royer, 460 U.S. 491 (1983), in which there was no opinion of the Court, but in which the test was used by the plurality of four, id. at 502, and also endorsed by dissenting Justice Blackmun, id. at 514. 20 INS v. Delgado, 466 U.S. 210 (1984). 21 Id. at 221. 22 Michigan v. Chesternut, 486 U.S. 567, 575 (1988). 23 499 U.S. 621, 628 (1991). As in Michigan v. Chesternut, supra n.22, the sus- pect dropped incriminating evidence while being chased. 24 Adherence to this approach would effectively nullify the Court's earlier posi- tion that Fourth Amendment protections extend to ''seizures that involve only a brief detention short of traditional arrest.'' United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873, 878 (1975), quoted in INS v. Delgado, 466 U.S., 210, 215 (1984). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1233 sweep of a bus, but that a modified reasonable perception approach still governed. 25 In conducting a bus sweep, aimed at detecting ille- gal drugs and their couriers, police officers typically board a bus during a stopover at a terminal and ask to inspect tickets, identi- fication, and sometimes luggage of selected passengers. The Court did not focus on whether an ''arrest'' had taken place, as adherence to the Hodari D. approach would have required, but instead sug- gested that the appropriate inquiry is ''whether a reasonable per- son would feel free to decline the officers' requests or otherwise ter- minate the encounter.'' 26 ''When the person is seated on a bus and has no desire to leave,'' the Court explained, ''the degree to which a reasonable person would feel that he or she could leave is not an accurate measure of the coercive effect of the encounter.'' 27 A Terry search need not be limited to a stop and frisk of the person, but may extend as well to a protective search of the pas- senger compartment of a car if an officer possesses ''a reasonable belief, based on specific and articulable facts . . . that the suspect is dangerous and . . . may gain immediate control of weapons.'' 28 How lengthy a Terry detention may be varies with the cir- cumstances. In approving a 20-minute detention of a driver made necessary by the driver's own evasion of drug agents and a state police decision to hold the driver until the agents could arrive on the scene, the Court indicated that it is ''appropriate to examine whether the police diligently pursued a means of investigation that was likely to confirm or dispel their suspicions quickly, during which time it was necessary to detain the defendant.'' 29 Similar principles govern detention of luggage at airports in order to detect the presence of drugs; Terry ''limitations applicable to investigative detentions of the person should define the permis- sible scope of an investigative detention of the person's luggage on 25 Florida v. Bostick, (1991). 26 Id. at 2387. 27 Id. The Court asserted that the case was ''analytically indistinguishable from Delgado. Like the workers in that case [subjected to the INS ''survey'' at their work- place], Bostick's freedom of movement was restricted by a factor independent of po- lice conduct—i.e., by his being a passenger on a bus.'' Id. 28 Michigan v. Long, 463 U.S. 1032 (1983) (suspect appeared to be under the in- fluence of drugs, officer spied hunting knife exposed on floor of front seat and searched remainder of passenger compartment). Similar reasoning has been applied to uphold a ''protective sweep'' of a home in which an arrest is made if arresting officers have a reasonable belief that the area swept may harbor another individual posing a danger to the officers or to others. Maryland v. Buie, 494 U.S. 325 (1990). 29 United States v. Sharpe, 470 U.S. 675, 686 (1985). A more relaxed standard has been applied to detention of travelers at the border, the Court testing the rea- sonableness in terms of ''the period of time necessary to either verify or dispel the suspicion.'' United States v. Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U.S. 531, 544 (1985) (ap- proving warrantless detention for more than 24 hours of traveler suspected of ali- mentary canal drug smuggling). 1234 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES less than probable cause.'' 30 The general rule is that ''when an offi- cer's observations lead him reasonably to believe that a traveler is carrying luggage that contains narcotics, the principles of Terry . . . would permit the officer to detain the luggage briefly to inves- tigate the circumstances that aroused his suspicion, provided that the investigative detention is properly limited in scope.'' 31 Seizure of luggage for an expeditious ''canine sniff'' by a dog trained to de- tect narcotics can satisfy this test even though seizure of luggage is in effect detention of the traveler, since the procedure results in ''limited disclosure,'' impinges only slightly on a traveler's privacy interest in the contents of personal luggage, and does not constitute a search within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment. 32 By con- trast, taking a suspect to an interrogation room on grounds short of probable cause, retaining his air ticket, and retrieving his lug- gage without his permission taints consent given under such cir- cumstances to open the luggage, since by then the detention had exceeded the bounds of a permissible Terry investigative stop and amounted to an invalid arrest. 33 But the same requirements for brevity of detention and limited scope of investigation are appar- ently inapplicable to border searches of international travelers, the Court having approved a 24-hour detention of a traveler suspected of smuggling drugs in her alimentary canal. 34 Search Incident to Arrest.—The common-law rule permitting searches of the person of an arrestee as an incident to the arrest has occasioned little controversy in the Court. 35 The dispute has centered around the scope of the search. Since it was the stated general rule that the scope of a warrantless search must be strictly tied to and justified by the circumstances which rendered its jus- tification permissible, and since it was the rule that the justifica- tion of a search of the arrestee was to prevent destruction of evi- dence and to prevent access to a weapon, 36 it was argued to the court that a search of the person of the defendant arrested for a traffic offense, which discovered heroin in a crumpled cigarette package, was impermissible, inasmuch as there could have been no 30 United States v. Place, 462 U.S. 696, 709 (1983). 31 Id. at 706. 32 462 U.S. at 707. However, the search in Place was not expeditious, and hence exceeded Fourth Amendment bounds, when agents took 90 minutes to transport lug- gage to another airport for administration of the canine sniff. 33 Florida v. Royer, 460 U.S. 491 (1983). On this much the plurality opinion of Justice White (id. at 503), joined by three other Justices, and the concurring opinion of Justice Brennan (id. at 509) were in agreement. 34 United States v. Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U.S. 531 (1985). 35 Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383, 392 (1914); Carroll v. United States, 267 U.S. 132, 158 (1925); Agnello v. United States, 269 U.S. 20, 30 (1925). 36 Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 19 (1968); Chimel v. California, 395 U.S. 752, 762, 763 (1969). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1235 destructible evidence relating to the offense for which he was ar- rested and no weapon could have been concealed in the cigarette package. The Court rejected this argument, ruling that ''no addi- tional justification'' is required for a custodial arrest of a suspect based on probable cause. 37 However, the Justices have long found themselves embroiled in argument about the scope of the search incident to arrest as it ex- tends beyond the person to the area in which the person is ar- rested, most commonly either his premises or his vehicle. Certain early cases went both ways on the basis of some fine distinctions, 38 but in Harris v. United States, 39 the Court approved a search of a four-room apartment pursuant to an arrest under warrant for one crime and in which the search turned up evidence of another crime. A year later, in Trupiano v. United States, 40 a raid on a dis- tillery resulted in the arrest of a man found on the premises and a seizure of the equipment; the Court reversed the conviction be- cause the officers had had time to obtain a search warrant and had not done so. ''A search or seizure without a warrant as an incident to a lawful arrest has always been considered to be a strictly lim- ited right. It grows out of the inherent necessities of the situation at the time of the arrest. But there must be something more in the way of necessity than merely a lawful arrest.'' 41 This decision was overruled in United States v. Rabinowitz, 42 in which officers ar- rested defendant in his one-room office pursuant to an arrest war- rant and proceeded to search the room completely. The Court ob- served that the issue was not whether the officers had the time and opportunity to obtain a search warrant but whether the search incident to arrest was reasonable. Though Rabinowitz referred to searches of the area within the arrestee's ''immediate control,'' 43 it 37 United States v. Robinson, 414 U.S. 218, 235 (1973). See also id. at 237–38 (Justice Powell concurring). The Court applied the same rule in Gustafson v. Flor- ida, 414 U.S. 260 (1973), involving a search of a motorist's person following his cus- todial arrest for an offense for which a citation would normally have issued. Unlike the situation in Robinson, police regulations did not require the Gustafson officer to take the suspect into custody, nor did a departmental policy guide the officer as to when to conduct a full search. The Court found these differences inconsequential, and left for another day the problem of pretextual arrests in order to obtain basis to search. Soon thereafter, the Court upheld conduct of a similar search at the place of detention, even after a time lapse between the arrest and search. United States v. Edwards, 415 U.S. 800 (1974). 38 Compare Marron v. United States, 275 U.S. 192 (1927), with Go-Bart Import- ing Co. v. United States, 282 U.S. 344 (1931), and United States v. Lefkowitz, 285 U.S. 452 (1932). 39 331 U.S. 145 (1947). 40 334 U.S. 699 (1948). 41 Id. at 708. 42 339 U.S. 56 (1950). 43 Id. at 64. 1236 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES provided no standard by which this area was to be determined, and extensive searches were permitted under the rule. 44 In Chimel v. California, 45 however, a narrower view was as- serted, the primacy of warrants was again emphasized, and a standard by which the scope of searches pursuant to arrest could be ascertained was set out. ''When an arrest is made, it is reason- able for the arresting officer to search the person arrested in order to remove any weapons that the latter might seek to use in order to resist arrest or effect his escape. Otherwise, the officer's safety might well be endangered, and the arrest itself frustrated. In addi- tion, it is entirely reasonable for the arresting officer to search for and seize any evidence on the arrestee's person in order to prevent its concealment or destruction. And the area into which an arrestee might reach in order to grab a weapon or evidentiary items must, of course, be governed by a like rule. A gun on a table or in a draw- er in front of one who is arrested can be as dangerous to the arrest- ing officer as one concealed in the clothing of the person arrested. There is ample justification, therefore, for a search of the arrestee's person and the area 'within his immediate control'—construing that phrase to mean the area from within which he might gain pos- session of a weapon or destructible evidence. ''There is no comparable justification, however, for routinely searching any room other than that in which an arrest occurs—or, for that matter, for searching through all the desk drawers or other closed or concealed areas in that room itself. Such searches, in the absence of well-recognized exceptions, may be made only under the authority of a search warrant.'' 46 Although the viability of Chimel had been in doubt for some time as the Court refined and applied its analysis of reasonable 44 Cf. Chimel v. California, 395 U.S. 752, 764–65 & n.10 (1969). But in Kremen v. United States, 353 U.S. 346 (1957), the Court held that the seizure of the entire contents of a house and the removal to F.B.I. offices 200 miles away for examina- tion, pursuant to an arrest under warrant of one of the persons found in the house, was unreasonable. In decisions contemporaneous to and subsequent to Chimel, ap- plying pre-Chimel standards because that case was not retroactive, Williams v. United States, 401 U.S. 646 (1971), the Court has applied Rabinowitz somewhat re- strictively. See Von Cleef v. New Jersey, 395 U.S. 814 (1969), which followed Kremen; Shipley v. California, 395 U.S. 818 (1969), and Vale v. Louisiana, 399 U.S. 30 (1970) (both involving arrests outside the house with subsequent searches of the house); Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 455–57 (1971). Substantially ex- tensive searches were, however, approved in Williams v. United States, 401 U.S. 646 (1971), and Hill v. California, 401 U.S. 797 (1971). 45 395 U.S. 752 (1969). 46 Id. at 762–63. AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1237 and justifiable expectations of privacy, 47 it has in some but not all contexts survived the changed rationale. Thus, in Mincey v. Ari- zona, 48 the Court rejected a state effort to create a ''homicide- scene'' exception for a warrantless search of an entire apartment extending over four days. The occupant had been arrested and re- moved and it was true, the Court observed, that a person legally taken into custody has a lessened right of privacy in his person, but he does not have a lessened right of privacy in his entire house. And, in United States v. Chadwick, 49 emphasizing a person's rea- sonable expectation of privacy in his luggage or other baggage, the Court held that, once police have arrested and immobilized a sus- pect, validly seized bags are not subject to search without a war- rant. 50 Police may, however, in the course of jailing an arrested suspect conduct an inventory search of the individual's personal ef- fects, including the contents of a shoulder bag, since ''the scope of a station-house search may in some circumstances be even greater than those supporting a search immediately following arrest.'' 51 Still purporting to reaffirm Chimel, the Court in New York v. Belton 52 held that police officers who had made a valid arrest of the occupant of a vehicle could make a contemporaneous search of the entire passenger compartment of the automobile, including con- tainers found therein. Believing that a fairly simple rule under- standable to authorities in the field was desirable, the Court ruled ''that articles inside the relatively narrow compass of the passenger compartment of an automobile are in fact generally, if not inevi- tably, within 'the area into which an arrestee might reach in order to grab a weapon or evidentiary ite[m].' '' 53 47 Supra, pp. 1206–09. See, e.g., Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 492, 493, 510 (1971), in which the four dissenters advocated the reasonableness argu- ment rejected in Chimel. 48 437 U.S. 385 (1978). The expectancy distinction is at 391. 49 433 U.S. 1 (1977). Defendant and his luggage, a footlocker, had been removed to the police station, where the search took place. 50 If, on the other hand, a sealed shipping container had already been opened and resealed during a valid customs inspection, and officers had maintained surveil- lance through a ''controlled delivery'' to the suspect, there is no reasonable expecta- tion of privacy in the contents of the container and officers may search it, upon the arrest of the suspect, without having obtained a warrant. Illinois v. Andreas, 463 U.S. 765 (1983). 51 Illinois v. LaFayette, 462 U.S. 640, 645 (1983) (inventory search) (following South Dakota v. Opperman, 428 U.S. 364 (1976)). Similarly, an inventory search of an impounded vehicle may include the contents of a closed container. Colorado v. Bertine, 479 U.S. 367 (1987). Inventory searches of closed containers must, however, be guided by a police policy containing standardized criteria for exercise of discre- tion. Florida v. Wells, 495 U.S. 1 (1990). 52 453 U.S. 454 (1981). 53 Id. at 460 (quoting Chimel v. California, 395 U.S. 752, 763 (1969)). In this particular instance, Belton had been removed from the automobile and handcuffed, but the Court wished to create a general rule removed from the fact-specific nature 1238 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES Chimel has, however, been qualified by another consideration. Not only may officers search areas within the arrestee's immediate control in order to alleviate any threat posed by the arrestee, but they may extend that search if there may be a threat posed by ''un- seen third parties in the house.'' A ''protective sweep'' of the entire premises (including an arrestee's home) may be undertaken on less than probable cause if officers have a ''reasonable belief,'' based on ''articulable facts,'' that the area to be swept may harbor an indi- vidual posing a danger to those on the arrest scene. 54 Vehicular Searches.—In the early days of the automobile the Court created an exception for searches of vehicles, holding in Car- roll v. United States 55 that vehicles may be searched without war- rants if the officer undertaking the search has probable cause to believe that the vehicle contains contraband. The Court explained that the mobility of vehicles would allow them to be quickly moved from the jurisdiction if time were taken to obtain a warrant. 56 Initially the Court limited Carroll's reach, holding impermis- sible the warrantless seizure of a parked automobile merely be- cause it is movable, and indicating that vehicles may be stopped only while moving or reasonably contemporaneously with move- ment. 57 Also, the Court ruled that the search must be reasonably contemporaneous with the stop, so that it was not permissible to remove the vehicle to the stationhouse for a warrantless search at the convenience of the police. 58 The Court next developed a reduced privacy rationale to sup- plement the mobility rationale, explaining that ''the configuration, use, and regulation of automobiles often may dilute the reasonable of any one case. '''Container' here denotes any object capable of holding another ob- ject. It thus includes closed or open glove compartments, consoles, or other recep- tacles located anywhere within the passenger compartment, as well as luggage, boxes, bags, clothing, and the like. Our holding encompasses only the interior of the passenger compartment of an automobile and does not encompass the trunk.'' Id. at 460–61 n.4. 54 Maryland v. Buie, 494 U.S. 325, 334 (1990). This ''sweep'' is not to be a full- blown, ''top-to-bottom'' search, but only ''a cursory inspection of those spaces where a person may be found.'' Id. at 335–36. 55 267 U.S. 132 (1925). Carroll was a Prohibition-era liquor case, whereas a great number of modern automobile cases involve drugs. 56 Id. at 153. See also Husty v. United States, 282 U.S. 694 (1931); Scher v. United States, 305 U.S. 251 (1938); Brinegar v. United States, 338 U.S. 160 (1949). All of these cases involved contraband, but in Chambers v. Maroney, 399 U.S. 42 (1970), the Court, without discussion, and over Justice Harlan's dissent, id. at 55, 62, extended the rule to evidentiary searches. 57 Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 458–64 (1971). This portion of the opinion had the adherence of a plurality only, Justice Harlan concurring on other grounds, and there being four dissenters. Id. at 493, 504, 510, 523. 58 Preston v. United States, 376 U.S. 364 (1964); Dyke v. Taylor Implement Mfg. Co., 391 U.S. 216 (1968). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1239 expectation of privacy that exists with respect to differently situ- ated property.'' 59 '''One has a lesser expectation of privacy in a motor vehicle because its function is transportation and it seldom serves as one's residence or as the repository of personal effects. . . . It travels public thoroughfares where both its occupants and its contents are in plain view.' '' 60 While motor homes do serve as residences and as repositories for personal effects, and while their contents are often shielded from public view, the Court extended the automobile exception to them as well, holding that there is a diminished expectation of privacy in a mobile home parked in a parking lot and licensed for vehicular travel, hence ''readily mo- bile.'' 61 The reduced expectancy concept has broadened police powers to conduct automobile searches without warrants, but they still must have probable cause to search a vehicle 62 and they must have some ''articulable suspicion'' of criminal activity in order to make random stops of vehicles on the roads. 63 By contrast, fixed- checkpoint stops in the absence of any individualized suspicion have been upheld. 64 Once police have validly stopped a vehicle, they may also, based on articulable facts warranting a reasonable belief that weapons may be present, conduct a Terry-type protective search of those portions of the passenger compartment in which a weapon could be placed or hidden. 65 And, in the absence of such reasonable suspicion as to weapons, police may seize contraband 59 Arkansas v. Sanders, 442 U.S. 753, 761 (1979). 60 Cardwell v. Lewis, 417 U.S. 583, 590 (1974) (plurality opinion), quoted in United States v. Chadwick, 433 U.S. 1, 12 (1977). See also United States v. Ortiz, 422 U.S. 891, 896 (1975); United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. 543, 561 (1976); South Dakota v. Opperman, 428 U.S. 364, 367–68 (1976); Robbins v. Califor- nia, 453 U.S. 420, 424–25 (1981); United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 807 n.9 (1982). 61 California v. Carney, 471 U.S. 386, 393 (1985) (leaving open the question of whether the automobile exception also applies to a ''mobile'' home being used as a residence and not ''readily mobile''). 62 Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 413 U.S. 266 (1973) (roving patrols); Unit- ed States v. Ortiz, 422 U.S. 891 (1975). Cf. Colorado v. Bannister, 449 U.S. 1 (1980). 63 Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648 (1979) (random stops of motorists to check driver's license and registration papers and safety features of cars); United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873 (1975) (roving patrols in areas near international borders on look-out for illegal aliens). In Prouse, the Court cautioned that it was not precluding the States from developing methods for spot checks that involve less intrusion or that do not involve unconstrained exercise of discretion. 440 U.S. at 648. 64 Michigan Dep't of State Police v. Sitz, 496 U.S. 444 (1990) (upholding a sobri- ety checkpoint at which all motorists are briefly stopped for preliminary questioning and observation for signs of intoxication). See also United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. 543 (1976) (upholding border patrol checkpoint, over 60 miles from the bor- der, for questioning designed to apprehend illegal aliens). 65 Michigan v. Long, 463 U.S. 1032, 1049 (1983) (holding that contraband found in the course of such a search is admissible). 1240 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES and suspicious items ''in plain view'' inside the passenger compart- ment. 66 Once police have probable cause to believe there is contraband in a vehicle, they may remove it from the scene to the stationhouse in order to conduct a search, without thereby being required to ob- tain a warrant. ''[T]he justification to conduct such a warrantless search does not vanish once the car has been immobilized; nor does it depend upon a reviewing court's assessment of the likelihood in each particular case that the car would have been driven away, or that its contents would have been tampered with, during the period required for the police to obtain a warrant.'' 67 The Justices were evenly divided, however, on the propriety of warrantless seizure of an arrestee's automobile from a public parking lot several hours after his arrest, its transportation to a police impoundment lot, and the taking of tire casts and exterior paint scrapings. 68 Because of the lessened expectation of privacy, inventory searches of im- pounded automobiles are justifiable in order to protect public safety and the owner's property, and any evidence of criminal activity dis- covered in the course of the inventories is admissible in court. 69 It is not lawful for the police in undertaking a warrantless search of an automobile to extend the search to the passengers therein. 70 But because passengers in an automobile have no rea- sonable expectation of privacy in the interior area of the car, a warrantless search of the glove compartment and the spaces under the seats, which turned up evidence implicating the passengers, in- vaded no Fourth Amendment interest of the passengers. 71 Luggage and other closed containers found in automobiles may also be sub- jected to warrantless searches based on probable cause, the same rule now applying whether the police have probable cause to search 66 Texas v. Brown, 460 U.S. 730 (1983). Similarly, since there is no reasonable privacy interest in the vehicle identification number, required by law to be placed on the dashboard so as to be visible through the windshield, police may reach into the passenger compartment to remove items obscuring the number and may seize items in plain view while doing so. New York v. Class, 475 U.S. 106 (1986). 67 Michigan v. Thomas, 458 U.S. 259, 261 (1982). See also Chambers v. Maroney, 399 U.S. 42 (1970); Texas v. White, 423 U.S. 67 (1975); United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798, 807 n.9 (1982). 68 Cardwell v. Lewis, 417 U.S. 583 (1974). Justice Powell concurred on other grounds. 69 Cady v. Dombrowski, 413 U.S. 433 (1973); South Dakota v. Opperman, 428 U.S. 364 (1976). See also Cooper v. California, 386 U.S. 58 (1967); United States v. Harris, 390 U.S. 234 (1968). Police, in conducting an inventory search of a vehicle, may open closed containers in order to inventory contents. Colorado v. Bertine, 479 U.S. 367 (1987). 70 United States v. Di Re, 332 U.S. 581 (1948). While Di Re is now an old case, it appears still to control. See Ybarra v. Illinois, 444 U.S. 85, 94–96 (1979). 71 Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128 (1978). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1241 only the containers 72 or whether they have probable cause to search the automobile for something capable of being held in the container. 73 Vessel Searches.—Not only is the warrant requirement inap- plicable to brief stops of vessels, but also none of the safeguards ap- plicable to stops of automobiles on less than probable cause are necessary predicates to stops of vessels. In United States v. Villamonte-Marquez, 74 the Court upheld a random stop and board- ing of a vessel by customs agents, lacking any suspicion of wrong- doing, for purpose of inspecting documentation. The boarding was authorized by statute derived from an act of the First Congress, 75 and hence had ''an impressive historical pedigree'' carrying with it a presumption of constitutionality. Moreover, ''important factual differences between vessels located in waters offering ready access to the open sea and automobiles on principal thoroughfares in the border area'' justify application of a less restrictive rule for vessel searches. The reason why random stops of vehicles have been held impermissible under the Fourth Amendment, the Court explained, is that stops at fixed checkpoints or roadblocks are both feasible and less subject to abuse of discretion by authorities. ''But no rea- sonable claim can be made that permanent checkpoints would be practical on waters such as these where vessels can move in any direction at any time and need not follow established 'avenues' as automobiles must do.'' 76 Because there is a ''substantial'' govern- mental interest in enforcing documentation laws, ''especially in wa- ters where the need to deter or apprehend smugglers is great,'' the Court found the ''limited'' but not ''minimal'' intrusion occasioned by boarding for documentation inspection to be reasonable. 77 Dis- 72 California v. Acevedo, 500 U.S. 565 (1991) (overruling Arkansas v. Sanders, 442 U.S. 753 (1979). 73 United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798 (1982). A Ross search of a container found in an automobile need not occur soon after its seizure. United States v. Johns, 469 U.S. 478 (1985) (three-day time lapse). See also Florida v. Jimeno, 500 U.S. 248 (1991) (consent to search automobile for drugs constitutes consent to open contain- ers within the car that might contain drugs). 74 462 U.S. 579 (1983). The opinion of the Court, written by Justice Rehnquist, was joined by Chief Justice Burger and by Justices White, Blackmun, Powell, and O'Connor. Justice Brennan's dissent was joined by Justice Marshall and, on mootness but not on the merits, by Justice Stevens. 75 19 U.S.C. § 1581(a), derived from § 31 of the Act of Aug. 4, 1790, ch. 35, 1 Stat. 164. 76 462 U.S. at 589. Justice Brennan's dissent argued that a fixed checkpoint was feasible in this case, involving a ship channel in an inland waterway. id. at at 608 n.10. The fact that the Court's rationale was geared to the difficulties of law enforce- ment in the open seas suggests a reluctance to make exceptions to the general rule. Note as well the Court's later reference to this case as among those ''reflect[ing] longstanding concern for the protection of the integrity of the border.'' United States v. Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U.S. 531, 538 (1985). 77 462 U.S. at 593. 1242 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES senting Justice Brennan argued that the Court for the first time was approving ''a completely random seizure and detention of per- sons and an entry onto private, noncommercial premises by police officers, without any limitations whatever on the officers' discretion or any safeguards against abuse.'' 78 Consent Searches.—Fourth Amendment rights, like other constitutional rights, may be waived, and one may consent to search of his person or premises by officers who have not complied with the Amendment. 79 The Court, however, has insisted that the burden is on the prosecution to prove the voluntariness of the con- sent 80 and awareness of the right of choice. 81 Reviewing courts must determine on the basis of the totality of the circumstances whether consent has been freely given or has been coerced. Actual knowledge of the right to refuse consent is not essential to the issue of voluntariness, and therefore police are not required to ac- quaint a person with his rights, as through a Fourth Amendment version of Miranda warnings. 82 But consent will not be regarded as voluntary when the officer asserts his official status and claim of right and the occupant yields to these factors rather than makes his own determination to admit officers. 83 When consent is ob- tained through the deception of an undercover officer or an in- former gaining admission without, of course, advising a suspect who he is, the Court has held that the suspect has simply assumed the risk that an invitee would betray him, and evidence obtained through the deception is admissible. 84 Additional issues arise in determining the validity of consent to search when consent is given not by the suspect but by a third 78 462 U.S. at 598. Justice Brennan contended that all previous cases had re- quired some ''discretion-limiting'' feature such as a requirement of probable cause, reasonable suspicion, fixed checkpoints instead of roving patrols, and limitation of border searches to border areas, and that these principles set forth in Delaware v. Prouse (supra p. 1239, n.63) should govern. 462 U.S. at 599, 601. 79 Amos v. United States, 255 U.S. 313 (1921); Zap v. United States, 328 U.S. 624 (1946); Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218 (1973). 80 Bumper v. North Carolina, 391 U.S. 543 (1968). 81 Johnson v. United States, 333 U.S. 10, 13 (1948). 82 Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218, 231–33 (1973). 83 Amos v. United States, 255 U.S. 313 (1921); Johnson v. United States, 333 U.S. 10 (1948); Bumper v. North Carolina, 391 U.S. 543 (1968). 84 On Lee v. United States, 343 U.S. 747 (1952); Lopez v. United States, 373 U.S. 427 (1963); Hoffa v. United States, 385 U.S. 293 (1966); Lewis v. United States, 385 U.S. 206 (1966); United States v. White, 401 U.S. 745 (1971). Cf. Osborn v. United States, 385 U.S. 323 (1966) (prior judicial approval obtained before wired in- former sent into defendant's presence). Problems may be encountered by police, however, in special circumstances. See Messiah v. United States, 377 U.S. 201 (1964); United States v. Henry, 447 U.S. 264 (1980); United States v. Karo, 468 U.S. 705 (1984) (installation of beeper with consent of informer who sold container with beeper to suspect is permissible with prior judicial approval, but use of beeper to monitor private residence is not). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1243 party. In the earlier cases, third party consent was deemed suffi- cient if that party ''possessed common authority over or other suffi- cient relationship to the premises or effects sought to be in- spected.'' 85 Now, however, actual common authority over the prem- ises is no longer required; it is enough if the searching officer had a reasonable but mistaken belief that the third party had common authority and could consent to the search. 86 Border Searches.—''That searches made at the border, pursu- ant to the longstanding right of the sovereign to protect itself by stopping and examining persons and property crossing into this country, are reasonable simply by virtue of the fact that they occur at the border, should, by now, require no extended demonstra- tion.'' 87 Authorized by the First Congress, 88 the customs search in these circumstances requires no warrant, no probable cause, not even the showing of some degree of suspicion that accompanies even investigatory stops. 89 Moreover, while prolonged detention of travelers beyond the routine customs search and inspection must be justified by the Terry standard of reasonable suspicion having a particularized and objective basis, 90 Terry protections as to the length and intrusiveness of the search do not apply. 91 Inland stoppings and searches in areas away from the borders are a different matter altogether. Thus, in Almeida-Sanchez v. 85 United States v. Matlock, 415 U.S. 164, 171 (1974) (valid consent by woman with whom defendant was living and sharing the bedroom searched). See also Chap- man v. United States, 365 U.S. 610 (1961) (landlord's consent insufficient); Stoner v. California, 376 U.S. 483 (1964) (hotel desk clerk lacked authority to consent to search of guest's room); Frazier v. Culp, 394 U.S. 731 (1969) (joint user of duffel bag had authority to consent to search). 86 Illinois v. Rodriguez, 497 U.S. 177 (1990). See also Florida v. Jimeno, 500 U.S. 248, 251 (1991) (it was ''objectively reasonable'' for officer to believe that suspect's consent to search his car for narcotics included consent to search containers found within the car). 87 United States v. Ramsey, 431 U.S. 606, 616 (1977) (sustaining search of in- coming mail). See also Illinois v. Andreas, 463 U.S. 765 (1983) (opening by customs inspector of locked container shipped from abroad). 88 Act of July 31, 1789, ch. 5, §§ 23, § 24, 1 Stat. 43. See 19 U.S.C. §§ 507, 1581, 1582. 89 Carroll v. United States, 267 U.S. 132, 154 (1925); United States v. Thirty- Seven Photographs, 402 U.S. 363, 376 (1971); Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 413 U.S. 266, 272 (1973). 90 United States v. Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U.S. 531 (1985) (approving warrantless detention incommunicado for more than 24 hours of traveler suspected of alimentary canal drug smuggling). 91 Id. A traveler suspected of alimentary canal drug smuggling was strip searched, and then given a choice between an abdominal x-ray or monitored bowel movements. Because the suspect chose the latter option, the court disavowed deci- sion as to ''what level of suspicion, if any, is required for . . . strip, body cavity, or involuntary x-ray searches.'' Id. at 541 n.4. 1244 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES United States, 92 the Court held that a warrantless stop and search of defendant's automobile on a highway some 20 miles from the border by a roving patrol lacking probable cause to believe that the vehicle contained illegal aliens violated the Fourth Amendment. Similarly, the Court invalidated an automobile search at a fixed checkpoint well removed from the border; while agreeing that a fixed checkpoint probably gave motorists less cause for alarm than did roving patrols, the Court nonetheless held that the invasion of privacy entailed in a search was just as intrusive and must be jus- tified by a showing of probable cause or consent. 93 On the other hand, when motorists are briefly stopped, not for purposes of a search but in order that officers may inquire into their residence status, either by asking a few questions or by checking papers, dif- ferent results are achieved, so long as the stops are not truly ran- dom. Roving patrols may stop vehicles for purposes of a brief in- quiry, provided officers are ''aware of specific articulable facts, to- gether with rational inferences from those facts, that reasonably warrant suspicion'' that an automobile contains illegal aliens; in such a case the interference with Fourth Amendment rights is ''modest'' and the law enforcement interests served are signifi- cant. 94 Fixed checkpoints provide additional safeguards; here offi- cers may halt all vehicles briefly in order to question occupants even in the absence of any reasonable suspicion that the particular vehicle contains illegal aliens. 95 92 413 U.S. 266 (1973). Justices White, Blackmun, Rehnquist, and Chief Justice Burger would have found the search reasonable upon the congressional determina- tion that searches by such roving patrols were the only effective means to police bor- der smuggling. Id. at 285. Justice Powell, concurring, argued in favor of a general, administrative warrant authority not tied to particular vehicles, much like the type of warrant suggested for noncriminal administrative inspections of homes and com- mercial establishments for health and safety purposes, id. at 275, but the Court has not yet had occasion to pass on a specific case. See United States v. Martinez- Fuerte, 428 U.S. 543, 547 n.2, 562 n.15 (1976). 93 United States v. Ortiz, 422 U.S. 891 (1975). 94 United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873 (1975). However, stopping of defendant's car solely because the officers observed the Mexican appearance of the occupants was unjustified. Id. at 886. Contrast United States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411 (1981), where border agents did have grounds for reasonable suspicion that the vehi- cle they stopped contained illegal aliens. 95 United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. 543 (1976). The Court deemed the intrusion on Fourth Amendment interests to be quite limited, even if officers acted on the basis of the Mexican appearance of the occupants in referring motorists to a secondary inspection area for questioning, whereas the elimination of the practice would deny to the Government its only practicable way to apprehend smuggled aliens and to deter the practice. Similarly, outside of the border/aliens context, the Court has upheld use of fixed ''sobriety'' checkpoints at which all motorists are brief- ly stopped for preliminary questioning and observation for signs of intoxication. Michigan Dep't of State Police v. Sitz, 496 U.S. 444 (1990). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1245 ''Open Fields.''—In Hester v. United States, 96 the Court held that the Fourth Amendment did not protect ''open fields'' and that, therefore, police searches in such areas as pastures, wooded areas, open water, and vacant lots need not comply with the requirements of warrants and probable cause. The Court's announcement in Katz v. United States 97 that the Amendment protects ''people not places'' cast some doubt on the vitality of the open fields principle, but all such doubts were cast away in Oliver v. United States. 98 Invoking Hester's reliance on the literal wording of the Fourth Amendment (open fields are not ''effects'') and distinguishing Katz, the Court ruled that the open fields exception applies to fields that are fenced and posted. ''[A]n individual may not legitimately demand privacy for activities conducted out of doors in fields, except in the area im- mediately surrounding the home.'' 99 Nor may an individual de- mand privacy for activities conducted within outbuildings and visi- ble by trespassers peering into the buildings from just outside. 100 Even within the curtilage and notwithstanding that the owner has gone to the extreme of erecting a 10-foot high fence in order to screen the area from ground-level view, there is no reasonable ex- pectation of privacy from naked-eye inspection from fixed-wing air- craft flying in navigable airspace. 101 Similarly, naked-eye inspec- tion from helicopters flying even lower contravenes no reasonable expectation of privacy. 102 And aerial photography of commercial fa- cilities secured from ground-level public view is permissible, the 96 265 U.S. 57 (1924). See also Air Pollution Variance Bd. v. Western Alfalfa Corp., 416 U.S. 86 (1974). 97 389 U.S. 347, 353 (1967). Cf. Cady v. Dombrowski, 413 U.S. 433, 450 (1973) (citing Hester approvingly). 98 466 U.S. 170 (1984) (approving warrantless intrusion past no trespassing signs and around locked gate, to view field not visible from outside property). 99 Id. at 178. See also California v. Greenwood, 486 U.S. 35 (1988) (approving warrantless search of garbage left curbside ''readily accessible to animals, children, scavengers, snoops, and other members of the public''). 100 United States v. Dunn, 480 U.S. 294 (1987) (space immediately outside a barn, accessible only after crossing a series of ''ranch-style'' fences and situated one- half mile from the public road, constitutes unprotected ''open field''). 101 California v. Ciraolo, 476 U.S. 207 (1986). Activities within the curtilage are nonetheless still entitled to some Fourth Amendment protection. The Court has de- scribed four considerations for determining whether an area falls within the curtilage: proximity to the home, whether the area is included within an enclosure also surrounding the home, the nature of the uses to which the area is put, and the steps taken by the resident to shield the area from view of passersby. United States v. Dunn, 480 U.S. 294 (1987) (barn 50 yards outside fence surrounding home, used for processing chemicals, and separated from public access only by series of livestock fences, by chained and locked driveway, and by one-half mile's distance, is not within curtilage). 102 Florida v. Riley, 488 U.S. 445 (1989) (view through partially open roof of greenhouse). 1246 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES Court finding such spaces more analogous to open fields than to the curtilage of a dwelling. 103 ''Plain View.''—Somewhat similar in rationale is the rule that objects falling in the ''plain view'' of an officer who has a right to be in the position to have that view are subject to seizure without a warrant 104 or that if the officer needs a warrant or probable cause to search and seize his lawful observation will provide grounds therefor. 105 The plain view doctrine is limited, however, by the probable cause requirement: officers must have probable cause to believe that items in plain view are contraband before they may search or seize them. 106 The Court has analogized from the plain view doctrine to hold that once officers have lawfully observed contraband, ''the owner's privacy interest in that item is lost,'' and officers may reseal a con- tainer, trace its path through a controlled delivery, and seize and reopen the container without a warrant. 107 Public Schools.—In New Jersey v. T.L.O., 108 the Court set forth the principles governing searches by public school authorities. The Fourth Amendment applies to searches conducted by public school officials because ''school officials act as representatives of the 103 Dow Chemical Co. v. United States, 476 U.S. 227 (1986) (suggesting that aerial photography of the curtilage would be impermissible). 104 Washington v. Chrisman, 455 U.S. 1 (1982) (officer lawfully in dorm room may seize marijuana seeds and pipe in open view); United States v. Santana, 427 U.S. 38 (1976) (''plain view'' justification for officers to enter home to arrest after observing defendant standing in open doorway); Harris v. United States, 390 U.S. 234 (1968) (officer who opened door of impounded automobile and saw evidence in plain view properly seized it); Ker v. California, 374 U.S. 23 (1963) (officers entered premises without warrant to make arrest because of exigent circumstances seized evidence in plain sight). Cf. Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 464–73 (1971), and id. at 510 (Justice White dissenting). Maryland v. Buie, 494 U.S. 325 (1990) (items seized in plain view during protective sweep of home incident to ar- rest); Texas v. Brown, 460 U.S. 730 (1983) (contraband on car seat in plain view of officer who had stopped car and asked for driver's license); New York v. Class, 475 U.S. 106 (1986) (evidence seen while looking for vehicle identification number). There is no requirement that the discovery of evidence in plain view must be ''inad- vertent.'' See Horton v. California, 496 U.S. 128 (1990) (in spite of Amendment's par- ticularity requirement, officers with warrant to search for proceeds of robbery may seize weapons of robbery in plain view). 105 Steele v. United States, 267 U.S. 498 (1925) (officers observed contraband in view through open doorway; had probable cause to procure warrant). Cf. Taylor v. United States, 286 U.S. 1 (1932) (officers observed contraband in plain view in ga- rage, warrantless entry to seize was unconstitutional). 106 Arizona v. Hicks, 480 U.S. 321 (1987) (police lawfully in apartment to inves- tigate shooting lacked probable cause to inspect expensive stereo equipment to record serial numbers). 107 Illinois v. Andreas, 463 U.S. 765, 771 (1983) (locker customs agents had opened, and which was subsequently traced). Accord, United States v. Jacobsen, 466 U.S. 109 (1984) (inspection of package opened by private freight carrier who notified drug agents). 108 469 U.S. 325 (1985). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1247 State, not merely as surrogates for the parents.'' 109 However, ''the school setting requires some easing of the restrictions to which searches by public authorities are ordinarily subject.'' 110 Neither the warrant requirement nor the probable cause standard is appro- priate, the Court ruled. Instead, a simple reasonableness standard governs all searches of students' persons and effects by school au- thorities. 111 A search must be reasonable at its inception, i.e., there must be ''reasonable grounds for suspecting that the search will turn up evidence that the student has violated or is violating either the law or the rules of the school.'' 112 School searches must also be reasonably related in scope to the circumstances justifying the interference, and ''not excessively intrusive in light of the age and sex of the student and the nature of the infraction.'' 113 In ap- plying these rules, the Court upheld as reasonable the search of a student's purse to determine whether the student, accused of vio- lating a school rule by smoking in the lavatory, possessed ciga- rettes. The search for cigarettes uncovered evidence of drug activity held admissible in a prosecution under the juvenile laws. Government Offices.—Similar principles apply to a public employer's work-related search of its employees' offices, desks, or file cabinets, except that in this context the Court distinguished searches conducted for law enforcement purposes. In O'Connor v. Ortega, 114 a majority of Justices agreed, albeit on somewhat differ- ing rationales, that neither a warrant nor a probable cause require- ment should apply to employer searches ''for noninvestigatory, work-related purposes, as well as for investigations of work-related misconduct.'' 115 Four Justices would require a case-by-case inquiry into the reasonableness of such searches; 116 one would hold that such searches ''do not violate the Fourth Amendment.'' 117 Prisons and Regulation of Probation.—Searches of prison cells by prison administrators are not limited even by a reasonable- ness standard, the Court having held that ''the Fourth Amendment 109 Id. at 336 (1984). 110 Id. at 340. 111 This single rule, the Court explained, will permit school authorities ''to regu- late their conduct according to the dictates of reason and common sense.'' 469 U.S. at 343. Rejecting the suggestion of dissenting Justice Stevens, the Court was ''un- willing to adopt a standard under which the legality of a search is dependent upon a judge's evaluation of the relative importance of various school rules.'' Id. at n.9. 112 469 U.S. at 342. 113 Id. 114 480 U.S. 709 (1987). 115 480 U.S. at 725. Not at issue was whether there must be individualized sus- picion for investigations of work-related misconduct. 116 This position was stated in Justice O'Connor's plurality opinion, joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist and by Justices White and Powell. 117 480 U.S. at 732 (Scalia, J., concurring in judgment). 1248 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES proscription against unreasonable searches does not apply within the confines of the prison cell.'' 118 Thus, prison administrators may conduct random ''shakedown'' searches of inmates' cells without the need to adopt any established practice or plan, and inmates must look to the Eighth Amendment or to state tort law for redress against harassment, malicious property destruction, and the like. Neither a warrant nor probable cause is needed for an admin- istrative search of a probationer's home. It is enough, the Court ruled in Griffin v. Wisconsin, that such a search was conducted pursuant to a valid regulation that itself satisfies the Fourth Amendment's reasonableness standard (e.g., by requiring ''reason- able grounds'' for a search). 119 ''A State's operation of a probation system, like its operation of a school, government office or prison, or its supervision of a regulated industry, . . . presents 'special needs' beyond normal law enforcement that may justify departures from the usual warrant and probable cause requirements.'' 120 ''Pro- bation, like incarceration, is a form of criminal sanction,'' the Court noted, and a warrant or probable cause requirement would inter- fere with the ''ongoing [non-adversarial] supervisory relationship'' required for proper functioning of the system. 121 Drug Testing.—In two 1989 decisions the Court held that no warrant, probable cause, or even individualized suspicion is re- quired for mandatory drug testing of certain classes of railroad and public employees. In each case, ''special needs beyond the normal need for law enforcement'' were identified as justifying the drug testing. In Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives' Ass'n, 122 the Court upheld regulations requiring railroads to administer blood, urine, and breath tests to employees involved in certain train acci- dents or violating certain safety rules; upheld in National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab 123 was a Customs Service screening program requiring urinalysis testing of employees seeking transfer or promotion to positions having direct involvement with drug interdiction, or to positions requiring the incumbent to carry fire- arms. The Court in Skinner found a ''compelling'' governmental in- terest in testing the railroad employees without any showing of in- dividualized suspicion, since operation of trains by anyone impaired by drugs ''can cause great human loss before any signs of impair- 118 Hudson v. Palmer, 468 U.S. 517, 526 (1984). 119 483 U.S. 868 (1987) (search based on information from police detective that there was or might be contraband in probationer's apartment). 120 483 U.S. at 873–74. 121 Id. at 718, 721. 122 489 U.S. 602 (1989). 123 489 U.S. 656 (1989). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1249 ment become noticeable.'' 124 By contrast, the intrusions on privacy were termed ''limited.'' Blood and breath tests were passed off as routine; the urine test, while more intrusive, was deemed permis- sible because of the ''diminished expectation of privacy'' in employ- ees having some responsibility for safety in a pervasively regulated industry. 125 The lower court's emphasis on the limited effective- ness of the urine test (it detects past drug use but not necessarily the level of impairment) was misplaced, the Court ruled. It is enough that the test may provide some useful information for an accident investigation; in addition, the test may promote deterrence as well as detection of drug use. 126 In Von Raab the governmental interests underlying the Customs Service's screening program were also termed ''compelling'': to ensure that persons entrusted with a firearm and the possible use of deadly force not suffer from drug- induced impairment of perception and judgment, and that ''front- line [drug] interdiction personnel [be] physically fit, and have un- impeachable integrity and judgment.'' 127 The possibly ''substantial'' interference with privacy interests of these Customs employees was justified, the Court concluded, because, ''[u]nlike most private citi- zens or government employees generally, they have a ''diminished expectation of privacy.'' 128 So far the Court has not ruled on a random drug testing pro- gram, having since Skinner and Von Raab refused to hear other challenges to drug testing. 129 Answers to remaining questions, e.g., 124 489 U.S. at 628. 125 Id. at 628. 126 Id. at 631–32. 127 Von Raab, 489 U.S. at 670–71. Dissenting Justice Scalia discounted the ''fee- ble justifications'' relied upon by the Court, believing instead that the ''only plau- sible explanation'' for the drug testing program was the ''symbolism'' of a govern- ment agency setting an example for other employers to follow. 489 U.S. at 686–87. 128 Id. at 672. 129 See, e.g., Policemen's Benevolent Ass'n Local 318 v. Township of Washington, 850 F.2d 133 (3d Cir. 1988), cert. denied 490 U.S. 1004 (1989) (random urinalysis testing of police officers upheld); Copeland v. Philadelphia Police Dep't, 840 F.2d 1139 (3d Cir. 1988), cert. denied 490 U.S. 1004 (upholding testing of police officer based on ''reasonable suspicion''); Alverado v. WPPSS, 759 P.2d 427 (Wash. 1988), cert. denied 490 U.S. 1004 (upholding pre-employment drug screening for nuclear power plant workers); Harmon v. Thornburgh, 878 F.2d 484 (D.C. Cir. 1989), cert. denied sub nom. Bell v. Thornburgh, 493 U.S. 1056 (1990) (approving random test- ing of Department of Justice employees with top secret security clearances); Na- tional Fed'n of Fed. Employees v. Cheney, 892 F.2d 98 (D.C. Cir. 1989) cert. denied 493 U.S. 1056 (1990) (upholding random testing of U.S. Army civilian employees in ''critical'' jobs, e.g., aircraft crews and mechanics, security guards, and drug coun- selors); Guiney v. Roache, 873 F.2d 1557 (1st Cir. 1989), cert. denied 493 U.S. 963 (upholding random testing of Boston police officers who carry firearms or participate in drug interdiction); AFGE v. Skinner, 885 F.2d 884 (D.C. Cir. 1989), cert. denied 493 U.S. 923 (1990) (upholding random drug testing of three categories of DOT em- ployees: motor vehicle operators, hazardous material inspectors, and aircraft me- chanics); Jones v. McKenzie, 833 F.2d 335 (D.C. Cir. 1987), vacated and remanded 1250 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES whether other drug testing programs not so closely tied to safety and security concerns serve ''compelling'' governmental interests, whether other classes of employees have a diminished expectation of privacy, and whether more intrusive testing procedures are per- missible, 130 must therefore await future litigation. Electronic Surveillance and the Fourth Amendment The Olmstead Case.—With the invention of the microphone, the telephone, and the dictograph recorder, it became possible to ''eavesdrop'' with much greater secrecy and expediency. Inevitably, the use of electronic devices in law enforcement was challenged, and in 1928 the Court reviewed convictions obtained on the basis of evidence gained through taps on telephone wires in violation of state law. On a five-to-four vote, the Court held that wiretapping was not within the confines of the Fourth Amendment. 131 Chief Justice Taft, writing the opinion of the Court, relied on two lines of argument for the conclusion. First, inasmuch as the Amendment was designed to protect one's property interest in his premises, there was no search so long as there was no physical trespass on premises owned or controlled by a defendant. Second, all the evi- dence obtained had been secured by hearing, and the interception of a conversation could not qualify as a seizure, for the Amendment referred only to the seizure of tangible items. Furthermore, the vio- lation of state law did not render the evidence excludible, since the exclusionary rule operated only on evidence seized in violation of the Constitution. 132 sub nom. Jenkins v. Jones, 490 U.S. 1001 (1989) (court of appeals had upheld test- ing of school bus drivers only in the context of a routine medical exam). 130 In Skinner the Court emphasized that the FRA regulations ''do not require'' direct observation by a monitor (although, as the dissent pointed out, 489 U.S. at 646, the FRA Field Manual did so require) and that the sample is collected ''in a medical environment'' (id. at 626); the Customs screening program at issue in Von Raab similarly did not require direct observation of urination, and in addition gave job applicants advance notice of testing. 131 Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928). 132 Among the dissenters were Justice Holmes, who characterized ''illegal'' wire- tapping as ''dirty business,'' id. at 470, and Justice Brandeis, who contributed to his opinion the famous peroration about government as ''the potent, the omnipresent, teacher'' which ''breeds contempt for law'' among the people by its example. Id. at 485. More relevant here was his lengthy argument rejecting the premises of the ma- jority, an argument which later became the law of the land. (1) ''To protect [the right to be left alone], every unjustifiable intrusion by the Government upon the pri- vacy of the individual, whatever the means employed, must be deemed a violation of the Fourth Amendment.'' Id. at 478. (2) ''There is, in essence, no difference be- tween the sealed letter and the private telephone message. . . . The evil incident to invasion of the privacy of the telephone is far greater than that involved in tam- pering with the mails. Whenever a telephone line is tapped, the privacy of the per- sons at both ends of the line is invaded and all conversations between them upon any subject . . . may be overheard.'' Id. at 475–76. AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1251 Federal Communications Act.—Six years after the decision in the Olmstead case, Congress enacted the Federal Communica- tions Act and included in § 605 of the Act a broadly worded pro- scription on which the Court seized to place some limitation upon governmental wiretapping. 133 Thus, in Nardone v. United States, 134 the Court held that wiretapping by federal officers could violate § 605 if the officers both intercepted and divulged the con- tents of the conversation they overheard, and that testimony in court would constitute a form of prohibited divulgence. Such evi- dence was therefore excluded, although wiretapping was not illegal under the Court's interpretation if the information was not used outside the governmental agency. Because § 605 applied to intra- state as well as interstate transmissions, 135 there was no question about the applicability of the ban to state police officers, but the Court declined to apply either the statute or the due process clause to require the exclusion of such evidence from state criminal trials. 136 State efforts to legalize wiretapping pursuant to court or- ders were held by the Court to be precluded by the fact that Con- gress in § 605 had intended to occupy the field completely to the exclusion of the States. 137 Nontelephonic Electronic Surveillance.—The trespass ra- tionale of Olmstead was utilized in cases dealing with ''bugging'' of premises rather than with tapping of telephones. Thus, in Goldman v. United States, 138 the Court found no Fourth Amendment viola- tion when a listening device was placed against a party wall so 133 Ch. 652, 48 Stat. 1103 (1934), providing, inter alia, that ''. . . no person not being authorized by the sender shall intercept any communication and divulge or publish the existence, contents, purport, effect, or meaning of such intercepted com- munication to any person.'' Nothing in the legislative history indicated what Con- gress had in mind in including this language. The section, which appeared at 47 U.S.C. § 605, was rewritten by Title III of the Omnibus Crime Act of 1968, 82 Stat. 22, § 803, so that the ''regulation of the interception of wire or oral communications in the future is to be governed by'' the provisions of Title III. S. REP. NO. 1097, 90th Cong., 2d Sess. 107–08 (1968). 134 302 U.S. 379 (1937). Derivative evidence, that is, evidence discovered as a result of information obtained through a wiretap, was similarly inadmissible, Nardone v. United States, 308 U.S. 338 (1939), although the testimony of witnesses might be obtained through the exploitation of wiretap information. Goldstein v. United States, 316 U.S. 114 (1942). Eavesdropping on a conversation on an exten- sion telephone with the consent of one of the parties did not violate the statute. Rathbun v. United States, 355 U.S. 107 (1957). 135 Weiss v. United States, 308 U.S. 321 (1939). 136 Schwartz v. Texas, 344 U.S. 199 (1952). At this time, evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment could be admitted in state courts. Wolf v. Colo- rado, 338 U.S. 25 (1949). Although Wolf was overruled by Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643 (1961), it was some seven years later and after wiretapping itself had been made subject to the Fourth Amendment that Schwartz was overruled in Lee v. Flor- ida, 392 U.S. 378 (1968). 137 Bananti v. United States, 355 U.S. 96 (1957). 138 316 U.S. 129 (1942). 1252 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES that conversations were overheard on the other side. But when offi- cers drove a ''spike mike'' into a party wall until it came into con- tact with a heating duct and thus broadcast defendant's conversa- tions, the Court determined that the trespass brought the case within the Amendment. 139 In so holding, the Court, without allud- ing to the matter, overruled in effect the second rationale of Olmstead, the premise that conversations could not be seized. The Berger and Katz Cases.—In Berger v. New York, 140 the Court confirmed the obsolesence of the alternative holding in Olmstead that conversations could not be seized in the Fourth Amendment sense. 141 Berger held unconstitutional on its face a state eavesdropping statute under which judges were authorized to issue warrants permitting police officers to trespass on private premises to install listening devices. The warrants were to be is- sued upon a showing of ''reasonable ground to believe that evidence of crime may be thus obtained, and particularly describing the per- son or persons whose communications, conversations or discussions are to be overheard or recorded.'' For the five-Justice majority, Jus- tice Clark discerned several constitutional defects in the law. ''First, . . . eavesdropping is authorized without requiring belief that any particular offense has been or is being committed; nor that the 'property' sought, the conversations, be particularly de- scribed. ''The purpose of the probable-cause requirement of the Fourth Amendment to keep the state out of constitutionally protected areas until it has reason to believe that a specific crime has been or is being committed is thereby wholly aborted. Likewise the stat- ute's failure to describe with particularity the conversations sought gives the officer a roving commission to 'seize' any and all con- versations. It is true that the statute requires the naming of 'the person or persons whose communications, conversations or discus- sions are to be overheard or recorded. . . .' But this does no more than identify the person whose constitutionally protected area is to be invaded rather than 'particularly describing' the communica- tions, conversations, or discussions to be seized. . . . Secondly, au- thorization of eavesdropping for a two-month period is the equiva- lent of a series of intrusions, searches, and seizures pursuant to a single showing of probable cause. Prompt execution is also avoided. During such a long and continuous (24 hours a day) period the con- 139 Silverman v. United States, 365 U.S. 505 (1961). See also Clinton v. Virginia, 377 U.S. 158 (1964) (physical trespass found with regard to amplifying device stuck in a partition wall with a thumb tack). 140 388 U.S. 41 (1967). 141 Id. at 50–53. AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1253 versations of any and all persons coming into the area covered by the device will be seized indiscriminately and without regard to their connection with the crime under investigation. Moreover, the statute permits. . . extensions of the original two-month period— presumably for two months each—on a mere showing that such ex- tension is 'in the public interest.'. . . Third, the statute places no termination date on the eavesdrop once the conversation sought is seized. . . . Finally, the statute's procedure, necessarily because its success depends on secrecy, has no requirement for notice as do conventional warrants, nor does it overcome this defect by requir- ing some showing of special facts. On the contrary, it permits unconsented entry without any showing of exigent circumstances. Such a showing of exigency, in order to avoid notice, would appear more important in eavesdropping, with its inherent dangers, than that required when conventional procedures of search and seizure are utilized. Nor does the statute provide for a return on the war- rant thereby leaving full discretion in the officer as to the use of seized conversations of innocent as well as guilty parties. In short, the statute's blanket grant of permission to eavesdrop is without adequate judicial supervision or protective procedures.'' 142 Both Justices Black and White in dissent accused the Berger majority of so construing the Fourth Amendment that no wire- tapping-eavesdropping statute could pass constitutional scru- tiny, 143 and in Katz v. United States, 144 the Court in an opinion by one of the Berger dissenters, Justice Stewart, modified some of its language and pointed to Court approval of some types of statu- torily-authorized electronic surveillance. Just as Berger had con- firmed that one rationale of the Olmstead decision, the inapplicabil- ity of ''seizure'' to conversations, was no longer valid, Katz disposed of the other rationale. In the latter case, officers had affixed a lis- tening device to the outside wall of a telephone booth regularly used by Katz and activated it each time he entered; since there had been no physical trespass into the booth, the lower courts held the Fourth Amendment not relevant. The Court disagreed, saying that ''once it is recognized that the Fourth Amendment protects peo- 142 Id. at 58–60. Justice Stewart concurred because he thought that the affida- vits in this case had not been sufficient to show probable cause, but he thought the statute constitutional in compliance with the Fourth Amendment. Id. at 68. Justice Black dissented, arguing that the Fourth Amendment was not applicable to elec- tronic eavesdropping but that in any event the ''search'' authorized by the statute was reasonable. Id. at 70. Justice Harlan dissented, arguing that the statute with its judicial gloss was in compliance with the Fourth Amendment. Id. 89. Justice White thought both the statute and its application in this case were constitutional. Id. at 107. 143 Id. at 71, 113. 144 389 U.S. 347 (1967). 1254 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES ple—and not simply 'areas'—against unreasonable searches and seizures, it becomes clear that the reach of that Amendment cannot turn upon the presence or absence of a physical intrusion into any given enclosure.'' 145 Because the surveillance of Katz's telephone calls had not been authorized by a magistrate, it was invalid; how- ever, the Court thought that ''it is clear that this surveillance was so narrowly circumscribed that a duly authorized magistrate, prop- erly notified of the need for such investigation, specifically in- formed of the basis on which it was to proceed, and clearly ap- prised of the precise intrusion it would entail, could constitu- tionally have authorized, with appropriate safeguards, the very limited search and seizure that the Government asserts in fact took place.'' 146 The notice requirement, which had loomed in Berger as an obstacle to successful electronic surveillance, was summarily disposed of. 147 Finally, Justice Stewart observed that it was un- likely that electronic surveillance would ever come under any of the established exceptions so that it could be conducted without prior judicial approval. 148 145 Id. at 353. ''We conclude that the underpinnings of Olmstead and Goldman have been so eroded by our subsequent decisions that the 'trespass' doctrine there enunciated can no longer be regarded as controlling. The Government's activities in electronically listening to and recording the petitioner's words violated the privacy upon which he justifiably relied while using the telephone booth and thus con- stituted a 'search and seizure' within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment.'' Id. 146 Id. at 354. The ''narrowly circumscribed'' nature of the surveillance was made clear by the Court in the immediately preceding passage. ''[The Government agents] did not begin their electronic surveillance until investigation of the petition- er's activities had established a strong probability that he was using the telephone in question to transmit gambling information to persons in other States, in violation of federal law. Moreover, the surveillance was limited, both in scope and in dura- tion, to the specific purpose of establishing the contents of the petitioner's unlawful telephonic communications. The agents confined their surveillance to the brief peri- ods during which he used the telephone booth, and they took great care to overhear only the conversations of the petitioner himself.'' Id. For similar emphasis upon pre- cision and narrow circumscription, see Osborn v. United States, 385 U.S. 323, 329– 30 (1966). 147 ''A conventional warrant ordinarily serves to notify the suspect of an in- tended search . . . . In omitting any requirement of advance notice, the federal court . . . simply recognized, as has this Court, that officers need not announce their pur- pose before conducting an otherwise authorized search if such an announcement would provoke the escape of the suspect or the destruction of critical evidence.'' 389 U.S. at 355 n.16. 148 Id. at 357–58. Justice Black dissented, feeling that the Fourth Amendment applied only to searches for and seizures of tangible things and not conversations. Id. at 364. Two ''beeper'' decisions support the general applicability of the warrant requirement if electronic surveillance will impair legitimate privacy interests. Com- pare United States v. Knotts, 460 U.S. 276 (1983) (no Fourth Amendment violation in relying on a beeper, installed without warrant, to aid in monitoring progress of a car on the public roads, since there is no legitimate expectation of privacy in des- tination of travel on the public roads), with United States v. Karo, 468 U.S. 705 (1984) (beeper installed without a warrant may not be used to obtain information as to the continuing presence of an item within a private residence). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1255 Following Katz, Congress enacted in 1968 a comprehensive statute authorizing federal officers and permitting state officers pursuant to state legislation complying with the federal law to seek warrants for electronic surveillance to investigate violations of pre- scribed classes of criminal legislation. 149 The Court has not yet had occasion to pass on the federal statute and to determine whether its procedures and authorizations comport with the stand- ards sketched in Osborn, Berger, and Katz or whether those stand- ards are somewhat more flexible than they appear to be on the faces of the opinions. 150 Warrantless ''National Security'' Electronic Surveil- lance.—In Katz v. United States, 151 Justice White sought to pre- serve for a future case the possibility that in ''national security cases'' electronic surveillance upon the authorization of the Presi- dent or the Attorney General could be permissible without prior ju- dicial approval. The Executive Branch then asserted the power to wiretap and to ''bug'' in two types of national security situations, against domestic subversion and against foreign intelligence oper- ations, first basing its authority on a theory of ''inherent'' presi- dential power and then in the Supreme Court withdrawing to the argument that such surveillance was a ''reasonable'' search and sei- zure and therefore valid under the Fourth Amendment. Unani- mously, the Court held that at least in cases of domestic subversive investigations, compliance with the warrant provisions of the Fourth Amendment was required. 152 Whether or not a search was 149 Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, 82 Stat. 211, 18 U.S.C. §§ 2510–20. 150 The Court has interpreted the statute several times without reaching the constitutional questions. United States v. Kahn, 415 U.S. 143 (1974); United States v. Giordano, 416 U.S. 505 (1974); United States v. Chavez, 416 U.S. 562 (1974); United States v. Donovan, 429 U.S. 413 (1977); Scott v. United States, 436 U.S. 128 (1978); Dalia v. United States, 441 U.S. 238 (1979); United States v. New York Tele- phone Co., 434 U.S. 159 (1977); United States v. Caceres, 440 U.S. 741 (1979). Dalia supra, did pass on one constitutional issue, whether the Fourth Amendment man- dated specific warrant authorization for a surreptitious entry to install an author- ized ''bug.'' See also Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735 (1979) (no reasonable expecta- tion of privacy in numbers dialed on one's telephone, so Fourth Amendment does not require a warrant to install ''pen register'' to record those numbers). 151 389 U.S. 347, 363–64 (1967) (concurring opinion). Justices Douglas and Brennan rejected the suggestion. Id. at 359–60 (concurring opinion). When it en- acted its 1968 electronic surveillance statute, Congress alluded to the problem in ambiguous fashion, 18 U.S.C. § 2511(3), which the Court subsequently interpreted as having expressed no congressional position at all. United States v. United States District Court, 407 U.S. 297, 302–08 (1972). 152 United States v. United States District Court, 407 U.S. 297 (1972). Chief Justice Burger concurred in the result and Justice White concurred on the ground that the 1968 law required a warrant in this case, and therefore did not reach the constitutional issue. Id. at 340. Justice Rehnquist did not participate. Justice Powell carefully noted that the case required ''no judgment on the scope of the President's 1256 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES reasonable, wrote Justice Powell for the Court, was a question which derived much of its answer from the warrant clause; except in a few narrowly circumscribed classes of situations, only those searches conducted pursuant to warrants were reasonable. The Government's duty to preserve the national security did not over- ride the gurarantee that before government could invade the pri- vacy of its citizens it must present to a neutral magistrate evidence sufficient to support issuance of a warrant authorizing that inva- sion of privacy. 153 This protection was even more needed in ''na- tional security cases'' than in cases of ''ordinary'' crime, the Justice continued, inasmuch as the tendency of government so often is to regard opponents of its policies as a threat and hence to tread in areas protected by the First Amendment as well as by the Fourth. 154 Rejected also was the argument that courts could not appreciate the intricacies of investigations in the area of national security nor preserve the secrecy which is required. 155 The question of the scope of the President's constitutional pow- ers, if any, remains judicially unsettled. 156 Congress has acted, however, providing for a special court to hear requests for warrants for electronic surveillance in foreign intelligence situations, and permitting the President to authorize warrantless surveillance to surveillance power with respect to the activities of foreign powers, within or without this country.'' Id. at 308. 153 The case contains a clear suggestion that the Court would approve a congres- sional provision for a different standard of probable cause in national security cases. ''We recognize that domestic security surveillance may involve different policy and practical considerations from the surveillance of 'ordinary crime.' The gathering of security intelligence is often long range and involves the interrelation of various sources and types of information. The exact targets of such surveillance may be more difficult to identify than in surveillance operations against many types of crimes specified in Title III. Often, too, the emphasis of domestic intelligence gather- ing is on the prevention of unlawful activity or the enhancement of the Govern- ment's preparedness for some future crisis or emergency. . . . Different standards may be compatible with the Fourth Amendment if they are reasonable both in rela- tion to the legitimate need of Government for intelligence information and the pro- tected rights of our citizens. For the warrant application may vary according to the governmental interest to be enforced and the nature of citizen rights deserving pro- tection. . . . It may be that Congress, for example, would judge that the application and affidavit showing probable cause need not follow the exact requirements of § 2518 but should allege other circumstances more appropriate to domestic security cases. . . .'' Id. at 322–23. 154 Id. at 313–24. 155 Id. at 320. 156 See United States v. Butenko, 494 F.2d 593 (3d Cir.), cert. denied, 419 U.S. 881 (1974); Zweibon v. Mitchell, 516 F.2d 594 (D.C. Cir. 1975), cert. denied, 425 U.S. 944 (1976), appeal after remand 565 F.2d 742 (D.C. Cir. 1977), on remand, 444 F. Supp. 1296 (D.D.C. 1978), aff'd. in part, rev'd. in part, 606 F.2d 1172 (D.C. Cir. 1979), cert. denied, 453 U.S. 912 (1981); Smith v. Nixon, 606 F.2d 1183 (D.C. Cir. 1979), cert. denied, 453 U.S. 912 (1981); United States v. Truong Dinh Hung, 629 F.2d 908 (4th Cir. 1980), after remand, 667 F.2d 1105 (4th Cir. 1981); Halkin v. Helms, 690 F.2d 977 (D.C. Cir. 1982). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1257 acquire foreign intelligence information provided that the commu- nications to be monitored are exclusively between or among foreign powers and there is no substantial likelihood any ''United States person'' will be overheard. 157 Enforcing the Fourth Amendment: The Exclusionary Rule A right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures is declared by the Fourth Amendment, but how one is to translate the guarantee into concrete terms is not specified. Several possible methods of enforcement have been suggested over time; however, the Supreme Court has settled, not without dissent, on only one as an effective means to make real the right. Alternatives to the Exclusionary Rule.—Theoretically, there are several alternatives to the exclusionary rule. An illegal search and seizure may be criminally actionable and officers undertaking one thus subject to prosecution, but the examples when officers are criminally prosecuted for overzealous law enforcement are ex- tremely rare. 158 A policeman who makes an illegal search and sei- zure is subject to internal departmental discipline which may be backed up in the few jurisdictions which have adopted them by the oversight of and participation of police review boards, but again the examples of disciplinary actions are exceedingly rare. 159 Persons who have been illegally arrested or who have had their privacy in- vaded will usually have a tort action available under state statu- tory or common law. Moreover, police officers acting under color of state law who violate a person's Fourth Amendment rights are subject to a suit for damages and other remedies 160 under a civil rights statute in federal courts. 161 While federal officers and others acting under color of federal law are not subject jurisdictionally to this statute, 157 Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, Pub. L. No. 95–511, 92 Stat. 1797, 50 U.S.C. §§ 1801–1811. See United States v. Belfield, 692 F.2d 141 (D.C. Cir. 1982) (upholding constitutionality of disclosure restrictions in Act). 158 Edwards, Criminal Liability for Unreasonable Searches and Seizures, 41 VA. L. REV. 621 (1955). 159 Goldstein, Police Policy Formulation: A Proposal for Improving Police Per- formance, 65 MICH. L. REV. 1123 (1967). 160 If there are continuing and recurrent violations, federal injunctive relief would be available. Cf. Lankford v. Gelston, 364 F.2d 197 (4th Cir. 1966); Wheeler v. Goodman, 298 F. Supp. 935 (preliminary injunction), 306 F. Supp. 58 (permanent injunction) (W.D.N.C. 1969), vacated on jurisdictional grounds, 401 U.S. 987 (1971). 161 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (1964). See Monroe v. Pape, 365 U.S. 167 (1961). In some circumstances, the officer's liability may be attributed to the municipality. Monell v. New York City Dep't of Social Services, 436 U.S. 658 (1978). These claims that officers have used excessive force in the course of an arrest or investigatory stop are to be analyzed under the Fourth Amendment, not under substantive due process. The test is ''whether the officers' actions are 'objectively reasonable' under the facts and circumstances confronting them.'' Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386, 397 (1989). 1258 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES the Supreme Court has recently held that a right to damages for violation of Fourth Amendment rights arises by implication out of the guarantees secured and that this right is enforceable in federal courts. 162 While a damage remedy might be made more effec- tual, 163 a number of legal and practical problems stand in the way. 164 Police officers have available to them the usual common- law defenses, most important of which is the claim of good faith. 165 Federal officers are entitled to qualified immunity based on an ob- jectively reasonable belief that a warrantless search later deter- mined to violate the Fourth Amendment was supported by probable cause or exigent circumstances. 166 And on the practical side, per- sons subjected to illegal arrests and searches and seizures are often disreputable persons toward whom juries are unsympathetic, or they are indigent and unable to bring suit. The result, therefore, is that the Court has emphasized exclusion of unconstitutionally seized evidence in subsequent criminal trials as the only effective enforcement method. Development of the Exclusionary Rule.—Exclusion of evi- dence as a remedy for Fourth Amendment violations found its be- ginning in Boyd v. United States, 167 which, as was noted above, in- volved not a search and seizure but a compulsory production of business papers which the Court likened to a search and seizure. Further, the Court analogized the Fifth Amendment's self-incrimi- nation provision to the Fourth Amendment's protections to derive a rule which required exclusion of the compelled evidence because the defendant had been compelled to incriminate himself by pro- ducing it. 168 The Boyd case was closely limited to its facts and an 162 Bivens v. Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 U.S. 388 (1971). The pos- sibility had been hinted at in Bell v. Hood, 327 U.S. 678 (1946). 163 See, e.g., Chief Justice Burger's dissent in Bivens v. Six Unknown Fed. Nar- cotics Agents, 403 U.S. 388, 411, 422–24 (1971), which suggests suit against the Government in a special tribunal and the abolition of the exclusionary rule. 164 Foote, Tort Remedies for Police Violations of Individual Rights, 39 MINN. L. REV. 493 (1955). 165 This is the rule in actions under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, Pierson v. Ray, 386 U.S. 547 (1967), and on remand in Bivens the Court of Appeals promulgated the same rule to govern trial of the action. Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents of the Fed- eral Bureau of Narcotics, 456 F.2d 1339 (2d Cir. 1972). 166 Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635 (1987). The dissenting Justices argued, inter alia, that such a principle is more appropriately applied as an affirmative de- fense, thereby allowing resolution of factual disputes prior to determining objective reasonableness of an officer's actions. 483 U.S. at 655 (Stevens, J.). See also Malley v. Briggs, 475 U.S. 335, 345 (1986) (qualified immunity protects police officers who applied for a warrant unless ''a reasonably well-trained officer in [the same] position would have known that his affidavit failed to establish probable cause and that he should not have applied for a warrant''). 167 116 U.S. 616 (1886). 168 ''We have already noticed the intimate relation between the two Amend- ments. They throw great light on each other. For the 'unreasonable searches and AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1259 exclusionary rule based on Fourth Amendment violations was re- jected by the Court a few years later, with the Justices adhering to the common-law rule that evidence was admissible however ac- quired. 169 Nevertheless, ten years later the common-law view was itself rejected and an exclusionary rule propounded in Weeks v. United States. 170 Weeks had been convicted on the basis of evidence seized from his home in the course of two warrantless searches; some of the evidence consisted of private papers like those sought to be compelled in the Boyd case. Unanimously, the Court held that the evidence should have been excluded by the trial court. The Fourth Amendment, Justice Day said, placed on the courts as well as on law enforcement officers restraints on the exercise of power com- patible with its guarantees. ''The tendency of those who execute the criminal laws of the country to obtain convictions by means of un- lawful searches and enforced confessions . . . should find no sanc- tion in the judgment of the courts which are charged at all times with the support of the Constitution and to which people of all con- ditions have a right to appeal for the maintenance of such fun- damental rights.'' 171 The ruling is ambiguously based but seems to have had as its foundation an assumption that admission of ille- gally-seized evidence would itself violate the Amendment. ''If let- ters and private documents can thus be seized and held and used in evidence against a citizen accused of an offense, the protection of the Fourth Amendment declaring his right to be secured against such searches and seizures is of no value, and, so far as those thus placed are concerned, might as well be stricken from the Constitu- seizures' condemned in the Fourth Amendment are almost always made for the pur- pose of compelling a man to give evidence against himself, which in criminal cases is condemned in the Fifth Amendment; and compelling a man in a criminal case to be a witness against himself, which is condemned in the Fifth Amendment, throws light on the question as to what is an 'unreasonable search and seizure' within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment. And we have been unable to perceive that the seizure of a man's private books and papers to be used in evidence against him is substantially different from compelling him to be a witness against himself. We think it is within the clear intent and meaning of those terms.'' Id. at 633. It was this utilization of the Fifth Amendment's clearly required exclusionary rule, rather than one implied from the Fourth, on which Justice Black relied and absent a Fifth Amendment self-incrimination violation he did not apply such a rule. Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 661 (1961) (concurring opinion); Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 493, 496–500 (1971) (dissenting opinion). The theory of a ''conver- gence'' of the two Amendments has now been disavowed by the Court. Supra, pp. 1225–26. 169 Adams v. New York, 192 U.S. 585 (1904). Since the case arose from a state court and concerned a search by state officers, it could have been decided simply by holding that the Fourth Amendment was inapplicable. See National Safe Deposit Co. v. Stead, 232 U.S. 58, 71 (1914). 170 232 U.S. 383 (1914). 171 Id. at 392. 1260 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES tion. The efforts of the courts and their officials to bring the guilty to punishment, praiseworthy as they are, are not to be aided by the sacrifice of those great principles established by years of endeavor and suffering which have resulted in their embodiment in the fun- damental law of the land.'' 172 Because the Fourth Amendment did not restrict the actions of state officers, 173 there was no question about the application of an exclusionary rule in state courts 174 as a mandate of federal consitutional policy. 175 But in Wolf v. Colorado, 176 a unanimous Court held that freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures was such a fundamental right as to be protected against state vio- lations by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. 177 However, the Court held that the right thus guaranteed did not re- quire that the exclusionary rule be applied in the state courts, since there were other means to observe and enforce the right. ''Granting that in practice the exclusion of evidence may be an ef- fective way of deterring unreasonable searches, it is not for this Court to condemn as falling below the minimal standards assured 172 Id. at 393. 173 Smith v. Maryland, 59 U.S. (18 How.) 71, 76 (1855); National Safe Deposit Co. v. Stead, 232 U.S. 58, 71 (1914). See supra, p. 957. 174 The history of the exclusionary rule in the state courts was surveyed by Jus- tice Frankfurter in Wolf v. Colorado, 338 U.S. 25, 29, 33–38 (1949). The matter was canvassed again in Elkins v. United States, 364 U.S. 206, 224–32 (1960). 175 During the period in which the Constitution did not impose any restrictions on state searches and seizures, the Court permitted the introduction in evidence in federal courts of items seized by state officers which had they been seized by federal officers would have been inadmissible, Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383, 398 (1914), so long as no federal officer participated in the search, Byars v. United States, 273 U.S. 28 (1927), or the search was not made on behalf of federal law en- forcement purposes. Gambino v. United States, 275 U.S. 310 (1927). This rule be- came known as the ''silver platter doctrine'' after the phrase coined by Justice Frankfurter in Lustig v. United States, 338 U.S. 74, 78–79 (1949): ''The crux of that doctrine is that a search is a search by a federal official if he had a hand in it; it is not a search by a federal official if evidence secured by state authorities is turned over to the federal authorities on a silver platter.'' In Elkins v. United States, 364 U.S. 206 (1960), the doctrine was discarded by a five-to-four majority which held that inasmuch as Wolf v. Colorado, 338 U.S. 25 (1949), had made state searches and seizures subject to federal constitutional restrictions through the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause, the ''silver platter doctrine'' was no longer con- stitutionally viable. During this same period, since state courts were free to admit any evidence no matter how obtained, evidence illegally seized by federal officers could be used in state courts, Wilson v. Schnettler, 365 U.S. 381 (1961), although the Supreme Court ruled out such a course if the evidence had first been offered in a federal trial and had been suppressed. Rea v. United States, 350 U.S. 214 (1956). 176 338 U.S. 25 (1949). 177 ''The security of one's privacy against arbitrary intrusion by the police— which is at the core of the Fourth Amendment—is basic to a free society. It is there- fore implicit in 'the concept of ordered liberty' and as such enforceable against the States through the Due Process Clause.'' Id. at 27–28. AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1261 by the Due Process Clause a State's reliance upon other methods which, if consistently enforced, would be equally effective.'' 178 It developed, however, that the Court had not vested in the States total discretion in regard to the admissibility of evidence, as the Court proceeded to evaluate under the due process clause the methods by which the evidence had been obtained. Thus, in Rochin v. California, 179 evidence of narcotics possession had been obtained by forcible administration of an emetic to defendant at a hospital after officers had been unsuccessful in preventing him from swal- lowing certain capsules. The evidence, said Justice Frankfurter for the Court, should have been excluded because the police methods were too objectionable. ''This is conduct that shocks the conscience. Illegally breaking into the privacy of the petitioner, the struggle to open his mouth and remove what was there, the forcible extraction of his stomach's contents . . . is bound to offend even hardened sen- sibilities. They are methods too close to the rack and screw.'' 180 The Rochin standard was limited in Irvine v. California, 181 in which defendant was convicted of bookmaking activities on the basis of evidence secured by police who repeatedly broke into his house and concealed electronic gear to broadcast every conversation in the house. Justice Jackson's plurality opinion asserted that Rochin had been occasioned by the element of brutality, and that while the police conduct in Irvine was blatantly illegal the admissi- bility of the evidence was governed by Wolf, which should be con- sistently applied for purposes of guidance to state courts. The Jus- tice also entertained considerable doubts about the efficacy of the exclusionary rule. 182 Rochin emerged as the standard, however, in a later case in which the Court sustained the admissibility of the results of a blood test administered while defendant was uncon- scious in a hospital following a traffic accident, the Court observing the routine nature of the test and the minimal intrusion into bodily privacy. 183 178 Id. at 31. Justices Douglas, Murphy, and Rutledge dissented with regard to the issue of the exclusionary rule and Justice Black concurred. 179 342 U.S. 165 (1952). The police had initially entered defendant's house with- out a warrant. Justices Black and Douglas concurred in the result on self-incrimina- tion grounds. 180 Id. at 172. 181 347 U.S. 128 (1954). 182 Id. at 134–38. Justice Clark, concurring, announced his intention to vote to apply the exclusionary rule to the States when the votes were available. Id. at 138. Justices Black and Douglas dissented on self-incrimination grounds, id. at 139, and Justice Douglas continued to urge the application of the exclusionary rule to the States. Id. at 149. Justices Frankfurter and Burton dissented on due process grounds, arguing the relevance of Rochin. Id. at 142. 183 Breithaupt v. Abram, 352 U.S. 432 (1957). Chief Justice Warren and Justices Black and Douglas dissented. Though a due process case, the results of the case 1262 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES Then, in Mapp v. Ohio, 184 the Court held that the exclusionary rule should and did apply to the States. It was ''logically and con- stitutionally necessary,'' wrote Justice Clark for the majority, ''that the exclusion doctrine—an essential part of the right to privacy— be also insisted upon as an essential ingredient of the right'' to be secure from unreasonable searches and seizures. ''To hold other- wise is to grant the right but in reality to withhold its privilege and enjoyment.'' 185 Further, the Court then held that since ille- gally-seized evidence was to be excluded from both federal and state courts, the standards by which the question of legality was to be determined should be the same, regardless of whether the court in which the evidence was offered was state or federal. 186 The Foundations of the Exclusionary Rule.—Important to determination of such questions as the application of the exclusion- ary rule to the States and the ability of Congress to abolish or to limit it is the fixing of the constitutional source and the basis of the rule. For some time, it was not clear whether the exclusionary rule was derived from the Fourth Amendment, from some union of the Fourth and Fifth Amendments, or from the Court's supervisory power over the lower federal courts. It will be recalled that in Boyd 187 the Court fused the search and seizure clause with the provision of the Fifth Amendment protecting against compelled self-incrimination. Weeks v. United States, 188 though the Fifth Amendment was mentioned, seemed to be clearly based on the Fourth Amendment. Nevertheless, in opinions following Weeks the Court clearly identified the basis for the exclusionary rule as the self-incrimination clause of the Fifth Amendment. 189 Then in have been reaffirmed directly in a Fourth Amendment case. Schmerber v. Califor- nia, 384 U.S. 757 (1966). 184 367 U.S. 643 (1961). 185 Id. at 655–56. Justice Black concurred, doubting that the Fourth Amend- ment itself compelled adoption of an exclusionary rule but relying on the Fifth Amendment for authority. Id. at 661. Justice Stewart would not have reached the issue but would have reversed on other grounds, id. at 672, while Justices Harlan, Frankfurter, and Whittaker dissented, preferring to adhere to Wolf. Id. at 672. Jus- tice Harlan advocated the overruling of Mapp down to the conclusion of his service on the Court. See Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 490 (1971) (concurring opinion). 186 Ker v. California, 374 U.S. 23 (1963). 187 Boyd v. United States, 116 U.S. 616 (1886). 188 232 U.S. 383 (1914). Defendant's room had been searched and papers seized by officers acting without a warrant. ''If letters and private documents can thus be seized and held and used in evidence against a citizen accused of an offense, the protection of the Fourth Amendment declaring his right to be secure against such searches and seizures is of no value, and, so far as those thus placed are concerned, might as well be stricken from the Constitution.'' Id. at 393. 189 E.g., Gouled v. United States, 255 U.S. 298, 306, 307 (1921); Amos v. United States, 255 U.S. 313, 316 (1921); Agnello v. United States, 269 U.S. 20, 33–34 (1925); McGuire v. United States, 273 U.S. 95, 99 (1927). In Olmstead v. United AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1263 Mapp v. Ohio, 190 the Court tied the rule strictly to the Fourth Amendment, finding exclusion of evidence seized in violation of the Amendment to be the ''most important constitutional privilege'' of the right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures, find- ing that the rule was ''an essential part of the right of privacy'' pro- tected by the Amendment. ''This Court has ever since [Weeks was decided in 1914] re- quired of federal law officers a strict adherence to that command which this Court has held to be a clear, specific, and constitu- tionally required—even if judicially implied—deterrent safeguard without insistence upon which the Fourth Amendment would have been reduced to a 'form of words.''' 191 It was a necessary step in the application of the rule to the States to find that the rule was of constitutional origin rather than a result of an exercise of the Court's supervisory power over the lower federal courts, inasmuch as the latter could not constitutionally be extended to the state courts. 192 In fact, Justice Frankfurter seemed to find the exclusion- ary rule to be based on the Court's supervisory powers in Wolf v. Colorado 193 in declining to extend the rule to the States. That the States, 277 U.S. 438, 462 (1928), Chief Justice Taft ascribed the rule both to the Fourth and the Fifth Amendments, while in dissent Justices Holmes and Brandeis took the view that the Fifth Amendment was violated by the admission of evidence seized in violation of the Fourth. Id. at 469, 478–79. Justice Black was the only modern proponent of this view. Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 661 (1961) (concurring opinion); Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 493, 496–500 (1971) (dissenting opinion). See, however, Justice Clark's plurality opinion in Ker v. California, 374 U.S. 23, 30 (1963), in which he brought up the self-incrimination clause as a supple- mentary source of the rule, a position which he had discarded in Mapp. 190 367 U.S. 643, 656 (1961). Wolf v. Colorado, 338 U.S. 25, 28 (1949), also as- cribed the rule to the Fourth Amendment exclusively. 191 Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 648 (1961) (emphasis supplied). 192 An example of an exclusionary rule not based on constitutional grounds may be found in McNabb v. United States, 318 U.S. 332 (1943), and Mallory v. United States, 354 U.S. 449 (1957), in which the Court enforced a requirement that arrestees be promptly presented to a magistrate by holding that incriminating ad- missions obtained during the period beyond a reasonable time for presentation would be inadmissible. The rule was not extended to the States, cf. Culombe v. Con- necticut, 367 U.S. 568, 598–602 (1961), but the Court's resort to the self-incrimina- tion clause in reviewing confessions made such application irrelevant in most cases in any event. For an example of a transmutation of a supervisory rule into a con- stitutional rule, see McCarthy v. United States, 394 U.S. 459 (1969), and Boykin v. Alabama, 395 U.S. 238 (1969). 193 Weeks ''was not derived from the explicit requirements of the Fourth Amend- ment; . . . The decision was a matter of judicial implication.'' 338 U.S. 25, 28 (1949). Justice Black was more explicit. ''I agree with what appears to be a plain implica- tion of the Court's opinion that the federal exclusionary rule is not a command of the Fourth Amendment but is a judicially created rule of evidence which Congress might negate.'' Id. at 39–40. He continued to adhere to the supervisory power basis in strictly search-and-seizure cases, Berger v. New York, 388 U.S. 41, 76 (1967) (dis- senting), except where self-incrimination values were present. Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 661 (1961) (concurring). And see id. at 678 (Justice Harlan dissenting); Elkins v. United States, 364 U.S. 206, 216 (1960) (Justice Stewart for the Court). 1264 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES rule is of constitutional origin Mapp establishes, but this does not necessarily establish that it is immune to statutory revision. Suggestions appear in a number of cases, including Weeks, to the effect that admission of illegally-seized evidence is itself uncon- stitutional. 194 These were often combined with a rationale empha- sizing ''judicial integrity'' as a reason to reject the proffer of such evidence. 195 Yet the Court permitted such evidence to be intro- duced into trial courts, when the defendant lacked ''standing'' to ob- ject to the search and seizure which produced the evidence 196 or when the search took place before the announcement of the deci- sion extending the exclusionary rule to the States. 197 At these times, the Court turned to the ''basic postulate of the exclusionary rule itself. The rule is calculated to prevent, not to repair. Its pur- pose is to deter—to compel respect for the constitutional guaranty in the only effectively available way—by removing the incentive to disregard it.'' 198 ''Mapp had as its prime purpose the enforcement of the Fourth Amendment through the inclusion of the exclusionary rule within its rights. This, it was found, was the only effective de- terrent to lawless police action. Indeed, all of the cases since Wolf requiring the exclusion of illegal evidence have been based on the necessity for an effective deterrent to illegal police action.'' 199 Narrowing Application of the Exclusionary Rule.—For as long as we have had the exclusionary rule, critics have attacked it, challenged its premises, disputed its morality. 200 By the early 194 ''The tendency of those who execute the criminal laws of the country to ob- tain convictions by means of unlawful searches and enforced confessions . . . should find no sanction in the judgment of the courts which are charged at all times with the support of the Constitution . . . .'' Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383, 392 (1914). In Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 655, 657 (1961), Justice Clark maintained that ''the Fourth Amendment include[s] the exclusion of the evidence seized in viola- tion of its provisions'' and that it, and the Fifth Amendment with regard to confes- sions ''assures . . . that no man is to be convicted on unconstitutional evidence.'' In Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 12, 13 (1968), Chief Justice Warren wrote: ''Courts which sit under our Constitution cannot and will not be made party to lawless invasions of the constitutional rights of citizens by permitting unhindered governmental use of the fruits of such invasions. . . . A ruling admitting evidence in a criminal trial . . . has the necessary effect of legitimizing the conduct which produced the evi- dence.'' 195 Elkins v. United States, 364 U.S. 206, 222–23 (1960); Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 660 (1961). See McNabb v. United States, 318 U.S. 332, 339–40 (1943). 196 Infra, pp. 1269–70. 197 Linkletter v. Walker, 381 U.S. 618 (1965). 198 Elkins v. United States, 364 U.S. 206, 217 (1960). 199 Linkletter v. Walker, 381 U.S. 618, 636–37 (1965). The Court advanced other reasons for its decision as well. Id. at 636–40. 200 Among the early critics were Judge Cardozo, People v. Defore, 242 N.Y. 13, 21, 150 N.E. 585, 587 (1926) (the criminal will go free ''because the constable has blundered''); and Dean Wigmore. 8 J. WIGMORE, A TREATISE ON THE ANGLO-AMER- ICAN SYSTEM OF EVIDENCE 2183–84 (3d ed. 1940). For extensive discussion of criti- AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1265 1980s a majority of Justices had stated a desire either to abolish the rule or to sharply curtail its operation, 201 and numerous opin- ions had rejected all doctrinal bases save that of deterrence. 202 At the same time, these opinions voiced strong doubts about the effi- cacy of the rule as a deterrent, and advanced public interest values in effective law enforcement and public safety as reasons to discard the rule altogether or curtail its application. 203 Thus, the Court emphasized the high costs of enforcing the rule to exclude reliable and trustworthy evidence, even when violations have been tech- nical or in good faith, and suggested that such use of the rule may well ''generat[e] disrespect for the law and administration of jus- tice,'' 204 as well as free guilty defendants. 205 No longer does the Court declare that ''[t]he essence of a provision forbidding the ac- quisition of evidence in a certain way is that not merely evidence so acquired shall not be used before the Court but that it shall not be used at all.'' 206 Although the exclusionary rule has not been completely repudi- ated, its utilization has been substantially curbed. Initial decisions chipped away at the rule's application. Defendants who themselves cism and support, with citation to the literature, see 1 WAYNE R. LAFAVE, SEARCH AND SEIZURE—A TREATISE ON THE FOURTH AMENDMENT § 1.2 (2d ed. 1987). 201 E.g., Stone v. Powell, 428 U.S. 465, 496 (1976) (Chief Justice Burger: rule ought to be discarded now, rather than wait for a replacement as he argued earlier); id. at 536 (Justice White: modify rule to admit evidence seized illegally, but in good faith); Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218, 261 (1973) (Justice Powell); Brown v. Illinois, 422 U.S. 590, 609 (1975) (Justice Powell); Robbins v. California, 453 U.S. 420, 437 (1981) (Justice Rehnquist); California v. Minjares, 443 U.S. 916 (1979) (Justice Rehnquist joined by Chief Justice Burger); Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 510 (1971) (Justice Blackmun joining Justice Black's dissent that ''the Fourth Amendment supports no exclusionary rule''). 202 E.g., United States v. Janis, 428 U.S. 433, 446 (1976) (deterrence is the ''prime purpose'' of the rule, ''if not the sole one.''); United States v. Calandra, 414 U.S. 338, 347–48 (1974); United States v. Peltier, 422 U.S. 531, 536–39 (1975); Stone v. Powell, 428 U.S. 465, 486 (1976); Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128, 134 n.3, 137–38 (1978); Michigan v. DeFillippo, 443 U.S. 31, 38 n.3 (1979). Thus, admission of the fruits of an unlawful search or seizure ''work[s] no new Fourth Amendment wrong,'' the wrong being ''fully accomplished by the unlawful search or seizure it- self,'' United States v. Calandara, supra, 354, and the exclusionary rule does not ''cure the invasion of the defendant's rights which he has already suffered.'' Stone v. Powell, supra, 540 (Justice White dissenting). ''Judicial integrity'' is not infringed by the mere admission of evidence seized wrongfully. ''[T]he courts must not commit or encourage violations of the Constitution,'' and the integrity issue is answered by whether exclusion would deter violations by others. United States v. Janis, supra, at 458 n.35; United States v. Calandra, supra, at 347, 354; United States v. Peltier, supra, at 538; Michigan v. Tucker, 417 U.S. 433, 450 n.25 (1974). 203 United States v. Janis, 428 U.S. 433, 448–54 (1976), contains a lengthy re- view of the literature on the deterrent effect of the rule and doubts about that effect. See also Stone v. Powell, 428 U.S. 465, 492 n.32 (1976). 204 Stone v. Powell, 428 U.S. at 490, 491. 205 Bivens v. Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 U.S. 388, 416 (1971) (Chief Justice Burger dissenting). 206 Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States 251 U.S. 385, 392 (1920). 1266 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES were not subjected to illegal searches and seizures may not object to the introduction against themselves of evidence illegally ob- tained from co-conspirators or codefendants, 207 and even a defend- ant whose rights have been infringed may find the evidence coming in, not as proof of guilt, but to impeach his testimony. 208 Defend- ants who have been convicted after trials in which they were given a full and fair opportunity to raise claims of Fourth Amendment violations may not subsequently raise those claims on federal ha- beas corpus because of the costs overweighing the minimal deter- rent effect. 209 Evidence obtained through a wrongful search and seizure may sometimes be used in the criminal trial, if the prosecu- tion can show a sufficient attenuation of the link between police misconduct and obtaining of the evidence. 210 If an arrest or a search which was valid at the time it was effectuated becomes bad through the subsequent invalidation of the statute under which the arrest or search was made, evidence obtained thereby is nonethe- less admissible. 211 A grand jury witness was not permitted to 207 E.g., Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128 (1978); United States v. Salvucci, 448 U.S. 83 (1980); Rawlings v. Kentucky, 448 U.S. 98 (1980). In United States v. Payner, 447 U.S. 727 (1980), the Court held it impermissible for a federal court to exercise its supervisory power to police the administration of justice in the federal system to suppress otherwise admissible evidence on the ground that federal agents had flagrantly violated the Fourth Amendment rights of third parties in order to obtain evidence to use against others when the agents knew that the defendant would be unable to challenge their conduct under the Fourth Amendment. 208 United States v. Havens, 446 U.S. 620 (1980); Walder v. United States, 347 U.S. 62 (1954). Cf. Agnello v. United States, 269 U.S. 20 (1925) (now vitiated by Havens). The impeachment exception applies only to the defendant's own testimony, and may not be extended to use illegally obtained evidence to impeach the testi- mony of other defense witnesses. James v. Illinois, 493 U.S. 307 (1990). 209 Stone v. Powell, 428 U.S. 465 (1976). 210 Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471, 487–88 (1963); Alderman v. Unit- ed States, 394 U.S. 165, 180–85 (1969); Brown v. Illinois, 422 U.S. 590 (1975); Tay- lor v. Alabama, 457 U.S. 687 (1982). United States v. Ceccolini, 435 U.S. 268 (1978), refused to exclude the testimony of a witness discovered through an illegal search. Because a witness was freely willing to testify and therefore more likely to come forward, the application of the exclusionary rule was not to be tested by the stand- ard applied to exclusion of inanimate objects. Deterrence would be little served and relevant and material evidence would be lost to the prosecution. In New York v. Harris, 495 U.S. 14 (1990), the Court refused to exclude a station-house confession made by a suspect whose arrest at his home had violated the Fourth Amendment because, even though probable cause had existed, no warrant had been obtained. And in Segura v. United States, 468 U.S. 796 (1984), evidence seized pursuant to warrant obtained after an illegal entry was admitted because there had been an independent basis for issuance of a warrant. This rule applies as well to evidence observed in plain view during the initial illegal search. Murray v. United States, 487 U.S. 533 (1988). See also United States v. Karo, 468 U.S. 705 (1984) (excluding consideration of tainted evidence, there was sufficient untainted evidence in affida- vit to justify finding of probable cause and issuance of search warrant). 211 Michigan v. DeFillippo, 443 U.S. 31 (1979) (statute creating substantive criminal offense). Statutes that authorize unconstitutional searches and seizures but which have not yet been voided at the time of the search or seizure may not create AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1267 refuse to answer questions on the ground that they were based on evidence obtained from an unlawful search and seizure, 212 and fed- eral tax authorities were permitted to use in a civil proceeding evi- dence found to have been unconstitutionally seized from defendant by state authorities. 213 The most severe curtailment of the rule came in 1984 with adoption of a ''good faith'' exception. In United States v. Leon, 214 the Court created an exception for evidence obtained as a result of officers' objective, good-faith reliance on a warrant, later found to be defective, issued by a detached and neutral magistrate. Justice White's opinion for the Court 215 could find little benefit in applying the exclusionary rule where there has been good-faith reliance on an invalid warrant. Thus, there was nothing to offset the ''substan- tial social costs exacted by the [rule].'' 216 ''The exclusionary rule is designed to deter police misconduct rather than to punish the er- rors of judges and magistrates,'' and in any event the Court consid- ered it unlikely that the rule could have much deterrent effect on the actions of truly neutral magistrates. 217 Moreover, the Court thought that the rule should not be applied ''to deter objectively reasonable law enforcement activity,'' and that ''[p]enalizing the of- ficer for the magistrate's error . . . cannot logically contribute to the deterrence of Fourth Amendment violations.'' 218 The Court also suggested some circumstances in which courts would be unable to find that officers' reliance on a warrant was objectively reasonable: if the officers have been ''dishonest or reckless in preparing their affidavit,'' if it should have been obvious that the magistrate had ''wholly abandoned'' his neutral role, or if the warrant was obvi- ously deficient on its face (e.g., lacking in particularity). The Court this effect, however, Torres v. Puerto Rico, 442 U.S. 465 (1979); Ybarra v. Illinois, 444 U.S. 85 (1979). This aspect of Torres and Ybarra was to a large degree nullified by Illinois v. Krull, 480 U.S. 340 (1987), rejecting a distinction between substantive and procedural statutes and holding the exclusionary rule inapplicable in the case of a police officer's objectively reasonable reliance on a statute later held to violate the Fourth Amendment. 212 United States v. Calandra, 414 U.S. 338 (1974). 213 United States v. Janis, 428 U.S. 433 (1976). Similarly, the rule is inapplica- ble in civil proceedings for deportation of aliens. INS v. Lopez-Mendoza, 468 U.S. 1032 (1984). 214 468 U.S. 897 (1984). The same objectively reasonable ''good-faith'' rule now applies in determining whether officers obtaining warrants are entitled to qualified immunity from suit. Malley v. Briggs, 475 U.S. 335 (1986). 215 The opinion was joined by Chief Justice Burger, and by Justices Blackmun, Powell, Rehnquist, and O'Connor. Justice Blackmun also added a separate concur- ring opinion. Dissents were filed by Justice Brennan, joined by Justice Marshall, and by Justice Stevens. 216 468 U.S. at 907. 217 468 U.S. at 916–17. 218 468 U.S. at 919, 921. 1268 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES applied the Leon standard in Massachusetts v. Sheppard, 219 hold- ing that an officer possessed an objectively reasonable belief that he had a valid warrant after he had pointed out to the magistrate that he had not used the standard form, and the magistrate had indicated that the necessary changes had been incorporated in the issued warrant. The Court then extended Leon to hold that the exclusionary rule is inapplicable to evidence obtained by an officer acting in ob- jectively reasonable reliance on a statute later held violative of the Fourth Amendment. 220 Justice Blackmun's opinion for the Court reasoned that application of the exclusionary rule in such cir- cumstances would have no more deterrent effect on officers than it would when officers reasonably rely on an invalid warrant, and no more deterrent effect on legislators who enact invalid statutes than on magistrates who issue invalid warrants. 221 It is unclear from the Court's analysis in Leon and its progeny whether a majority of the Justices would also support a good-faith exception for evidence seized without a warrant, although there is some language broad enough to apply to warrantless seizures. 222 It is also unclear what a good-faith exception would mean in the context of a warrantless search, since the objective reasonableness of an officer's action in proceeding without a warrant is already taken into account in determining whether there has been a Fourth Amendment violation. 223 The Court's increasing willingness to up- hold warrantless searches as not ''unreasonable'' under the Fourth 219 468 U.S. 981 (1984). 220 Illinois v. Krull, 480 U.S. 340 (1987). The same difficult-to-establish quali- fications apply: there can be no objectively reasonable reliance ''if, in passing the statute, the legislature wholly abandoned its responsibility to enact constitutional laws,'' or if ''a reasonable officer should have known that the statute was unconstitu- tional.'' 480 U.S. at 355. 221 Dissenting Justice O'Connor disagreed with this second conclusion, suggest- ing that the grace period ''during which the police may freely perform unreasonable searches . . . creates a positive incentive [for legislatures] to promulgate unconstitu- tional laws,'' and that the Court's ruling ''destroys all incentive on the part of indi- vidual criminal defendants to litigate the violation of their Fourth Amendment rights'' and thereby obtain a ruling on the validity of the statute. 480 U.S. at 366, 369. 222 The whole thrust of analysis in Leon dealt with reasonableness of reliance on a warrant. The Court several times, however, used language broad enough to apply to warrantless searches as well. See, e.g., 468 U.S. at 909 (quoting Justice White's concurrence in Illinois v. Gates): ''the balancing approach that has evolved . . . 'forcefully suggest[s] that the exclusionary rule be more generally modified to permit the introduction of evidence obtained in the reasonable good-faith belief that a search or seizure was in accord with the Fourth Amendment' ''; and id. at at 919: ''[the rule] cannot be expected, and should not be applied, to deter objectively rea- sonable law enforcement activity.'' 223 See Yale Kamisar, Gates, ''Probable Cause,'' ''Good Faith,'' and Beyond, 69 IOWA L. REV. 551, 589 (1984) (imposition of a good-faith exception on top of the ''al- ready diluted'' standard for validity of a warrant ''would amount to double dilution''). AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES 1269 Amendment, however, may reduce the frequency with which the good-faith issue arises in the context of the exclusionary rule. 224 Operation of the Rule: Standing.—The Court for a long pe- riod followed a rule of ''standing'' by which it determined whether a party was the appropriate person to move to suppress allegedly illegal evidence. Akin to Article III justiciability principles, which emphasize that one may ordinarily contest only those government actions that harm him, the standing principle in Fourth Amend- ment cases ''require[d] of one who seeks to challenge the legality of a search as the basis for suppressing relevant evidence that he allege, and if the allegation be disputed that he establish, that he himself was the victim of an invasion of privacy.'' 225 The Court re- cently has departed from the concept of ''standing'' to telescope the inquiry into one inquiry rather than two. Finding that ''standing'' served no useful analytical purpose, the Court has held that the issue of exclusion is to be determined solely upon a resolution of the substantive question whether the claimant's Fourth Amend- ment rights have been violated. ''We can think of no decided cases of this Court that would have come out differently had we con- cluded . . . that the type of standing requirement . . . reaffirmed today is more properly subsumed under substantive Fourth Amendment doctrine. Rigorous application of the principle that the rights secured by this Amendment are personal, in place of a no- tion of 'standing,' will produce no additional situations in which evidence must be excluded. The inquiry under either approach is the same.'' 226 One must therefore show that ''the disputed search and seizure has infringed an interest of the defendant which the Fourth Amendment was designed to protect.'' 227 The Katz reasonable expectation of privacy rationale has now displaced property-ownership concepts which previously might have supported either standing to suppress or the establishment of an interest that has been invaded. Thus, it is no longer sufficient 224 See, e.g., Illinois v. Rodriguez, 497 U.S. 177 (1990) (upholding search pre- mised on officer's reasonable but mistaken belief that a third party had common au- thority over premises and could consent to search); Schneckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218 (1973) (no requirement of knowing and intelligent waiver in consenting to warrantless search); New York v. Belton, 453 U.S. 454 (1981) (upholding warrantless search of entire interior of passenger car, including closed containers, as incident to arrest of driver); United States v. Ross, 456 U.S. 798 (1982) (uphold- ing warrrantless search of movable container found in a locked car trunk). 225 Jones v. United States, 362 U.S. 257, 261 (1960). That is, the movant must show that he was ''a victim of search or seizure, one against whom the search was directed, as distinguished from one who claims prejudice only through the use of evidence gathered as a consequence of search or seizure directed at someone else.'' Id. See Alderman v. United States, 394 U.S. 165, 174 (1969). 226 Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128, 139 (1978). 227 Id. at 140. 1270 AMENDMENT 4—SEARCHES AND SEIZURES to allege possession or ownership of seized goods to establish the interest, if a justifiable expectation of privacy of the defendant was not violated in the seizure. 228 Also, it is no longer sufficient that one merely be lawfully on the premises in order to be able to object to an illegal search; rather, one must show some legitimate interest in the premises that the search invaded. 229 The same illegal search might, therefore, invade the rights of one person and not of an- other. 230 Again, the effect of the application of the privacy ration- ale has been to narrow considerably the number of people who can complain of an unconstitutional search. 228 Previously, when ownership or possession was the issue, such as a charge of possessing contraband, the Court accorded ''automatic standing'' to one on the basis, first, that to require him to assert ownership or possession at the suppression hearing would be to cause him to incriminate himself with testimony that could later be used against him, and, second, that the government could not simulta- neously assert that defendant was in possession of the items and deny that it had invaded his interests. Jones v. United States, 362 U.S. 257, 261–265 (1960). See also United States v. Jeffers, 342 U.S. 48 (1951). But in Simmons v. United States, 390 U.S. 377 (1968), the Court held inadmissible at the subsequent trial admissions made in suppression hearings. When it then held that possession alone was insuffi- cient to give a defendant the interest to move to suppress, because he must show that the search itself invaded his interest, the second consideration was mooted as well, and thus the ''automatic standing'' rule was overturned. United States v. Salvucci, 448 U.S. 83 (1980) (stolen checks found in illegal search of apartment of the mother in defendant, in which he had no interest; defendant could not move to suppress on the basis of the illegal search); Rawlings v. Kentucky, 448 U.S. 98 (1980) (drugs belonging to defendant discovered in illegal search of friend's purse, in which he had no privacy interest; admission of ownership insufficient to enable him to move to suppress). 229 Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128 (1978) (passengers in automobile had no pri- vacy interest in interior of the car; could not object to illegal search). Jones v. Unit- ed States, 362 U.S. 257 (1960), had established rule that anyone legitimately on the premises could object; the rationale was discarded but the result in Jones was main- tained because he was there with permission, he had his own key, his luggage was there, he had the right to exclude and therefore a legitimate expectation of privacy. Similarly maintained were the results in United States v. Jeffers, 342 U.S. 48 (1951) (hotel room rented by defendant's aunts to which he had a key and permis- sion to store things); Mancusi v. DeForte, 392 U.S. 364 (1968) (defendant shared of- fice with several others; though he had no reasonable expectation of absolute pri- vacy, he could reasonably expect to be intruded on only by other occupants and not by police). 230 E.g., Rawlings v. Kentucky, 448 U.S. 98 (1980) (fearing imminent police search, defendant deposited drugs in companion's purse where they were discovered in course of illegal search; defendant had no legitimate expectation of privacy in her purse, so that his Fourth Amendment rights were not violated, although hers were).