text:
Moments and power generated by the horse (Equus caballus) hind limb during jumping.
ABSTRACT The ability to jump over an obstacle depends upon the generation of work across the joints of the propelling limb(s). The total work generated by one hind limb of a horse and the contribution to the total work by four joints of the hind limb were determined for a jump. It was hypothesized that the hip and ankle joints would have extensor moments performing positive work, while the knee would have a flexor moment and perform negative work during the jump. Ground reaction forces and sagittal plane kinematics were simultaneously recorded during each jumping trial. Joint moment, power and work were determined for the metatarsophalangeal (MP), tarsal (ankle), tibiofemoral (knee) and coxofemoral (hip) joints. The hip, knee and ankle all flexed and then extended and the MP extended and then flexed during ground contact. Consistent with our hypothesis, large extensor moments were observed at the hip and ankle joints and large flexor moments at the knee and MP joints throughout ground contact of the hind limb. Peak moments tended to occur earlier in stance in the proximal joints but peak power generation of the hind limb joints occurred at similar times except for the MP joint, with the hip and ankle peaking first followed by the MP joint. During the first portion of ground contact (approximately 40%), the net result of the joint powers was the absorption of power. During the remainder of the contact period, the hind limb generated power. This pattern of power absorption followed by power generation paralleled the power profiles of the hip, ankle and MP joints. The total work performed by one hind limb was 0.71 J kg(-1). Surprisingly, the knee produced 85% of the work (0.60 J kg(-1)) done by the hind limb, and the positive work performed by the knee occurred during the first 40% of the take-off. There is little net work generated by the other three joints over the entire take-off. Velocity of the tuber coxae (a landmark on the pelvis of the animal) was negative (downward) during the first 40% of stance, which perhaps reflects the negative work performed to decrease the potential energy during the first 40% of contact. During the final 60% of contact, the hip, ankle and MP joints generate positive work, which is reflected in the increase of the animal's potential energy.
- SourceAvailable from: Donald F Hoyt
Article: In vivo muscle function vs speed. I. Muscle strain in relation to length change of the muscle-tendon unit.[Show abstract] [Hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: The activity of muscles can be concentric (shortening), eccentric (lengthening) or isometric (constant length). When studying muscle function it is important to know what the muscle fascicles are actually doing because the performance of muscle is strongly influenced by the type of activity: force decreases as a function of shortening velocity during concentric contractions; force produced during eccentric contractions can be stronger than maximum isometric force, and force production is enhanced if a concentric contraction follows an eccentric phase. It is well known that length changes of muscle fascicles may be different from length changes of the overall muscle-tendon unit because of the compliance of the series elasticity. Consequently, fascicles of joint extensor muscles may not undergo eccentric activity even when the joint flexes, but the extent to which this occurs may vary with the compliance of the series elasticity and may differ between species: the vastus lateralis, a knee extensor, shortens when active during trotting in dogs and lengthens in rats. Previous studies of kinematics of trotting in horses have shown that during stance, the elbow extends nearly continuously with a brief period of flexion near mid-stance and the knee exhibits two phases of flexion followed by extension. The lateral triceps (an elbow extensor) has no external tendon but the vastus lateralis has a relatively long external tendon and the fascicles insert on an aponeurosis. Thus, one might expect the relation between fascicle strain and overall length change of the muscle-tendon units to be quite different in these two muscles. In the present study in horses, fascicle length changes of the lateral triceps and vastus lateralis were measured with sonomicrometry and length changes of the muscle-tendon units were estimated from muscle architecture and joint kinematics for four horses trotting on a treadmill at nine speeds. Because the focus of this study was the relation between length changes of the muscle-tendon unit (estimated from kinematics) and length changes in the muscle fascicles, we divided the stance-phase sonomicrometry records into phases that corresponded to the alternating flexion and extension of the joint as indicated by the kinematic records. During its one eccentric phase, the triceps shortened by 0.7+/-0.4% despite a predicted lengthening of 1%. Similarly, the vastus shortened by 3.7+/-1.9% when kinematics predicted 3.2% lengthening. During their concentric phases the triceps shortened by 10.6% and the vastus shortened by 8.1%. Strain in the triceps did not change with speed but it did in the vastus. Strain rate increased with speed in both muscles as did the integrated EMG, indicating an increase in the volume of muscle recruited. Thus, despite differences in their architecture and the kinematic patterns of the associated joints, these two joint extensors exhibited similar activity.Journal of Experimental Biology 04/2005; 208(Pt 6):1175-90. · 3.24 Impact Factor
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ABSTRACT: Functional recovery in animal models of nervous system disorders commonly involves behavioural compensation, in which animals alter the use of their limbs after injury, making it difficult to distinguish 'true' recovery from substitution of novel movements. The purpose of this study is to investigate how abnormal movements are produced by using biomechanical assessment of limb joint motion, an approach commonly used to diagnose human pathological gait. Rats were trained to cross a runway whilst kinetic (ground reaction forces) and kinematic (limb segment positions) data were synchronously recorded. Inverse dynamic analysis was used to calculate limb joint moments, or torques, and joint mechanical power throughout the stride for major joints of the forelimbs and hindlimbs, both before and after denervation of a major ankle extensor muscle. Before surgery, rats moved with joint moment and power profiles comparable to other quadrupeds, with differences attributable to species variation in limb posture. After surgery, rats trotted asymmetrically, with a near plantigrade stance of the left hindlimb. Surprisingly, ankle joint moments and power were largely preserved, with dramatic reductions in range of motion and joint moments at the proximal joints of the affected limb. Stiffening of the proximal limb compensated for increased compliance at the ankle but decreased the total mechanical work done by the injured limb. In turn, more work was done by the opposite, i.e. uninjured, hindlimb. This is the first study to quantify the biomechanical adjustments made within and between limbs in laboratory rodents after nervous system injury.Behavioural brain research 04/2012; 229(2):391-400. · 3.22 Impact Factor
Article: The effect of gait and digital flexor muscle activation on limb compliance in the forelimb of the horse Equus caballus.[Show abstract] [Hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: A horse's legs are compressed during the stance phase, storing and then returning elastic strain energy in spring-like muscle-tendon units. The arrangement of the muscle-tendon units around the lever-like joints means that as the leg shortens the muscle-tendon units are stretched. The forelimb anatomy means that the leg can be conceptually divided into two springs: the proximal spring, from the scapula to the elbow, and the distal spring, from the elbow to the foot. In this paper we report the results of a series of experiments testing the hypothesis that there is minimal scope for muscle contraction in either spring to adjust limb compliance. Firstly, we demonstrate that the distal, passive leg spring changes length by 127 mm (range 106-128 mm) at gallop and the proximal spring by 12 mm (9-15 mm). Secondly, we demonstrate that there is a linear relationship between limb force and metacarpo-phalangeal (MCP) joint angle that is minimally influenced by digital flexor muscle activation in vitro or as a function of gait in vivo. Finally, we determined the relationship between MCP joint angle and vertical ground-reaction force at trot and then predicted the forelimb peak vertical ground-reaction force during a 12 m s(-1) gallop on a treadmill. These were 12.79 N kg(-1) body mass (BM) (range 12.07-13.73 N kg(-1) BM) for the lead forelimb and 15.23 N kg(-1) BM (13.51-17.10 N kg(-1) BM) for the non-lead forelimb.Journal of Experimental Biology 05/2003; 206(Pt 8):1325-36. · 3.24 Impact Factor
Page 1
The total work generated by a quadruped necessary to clear
an obstacle during jumping would be generated by both the
fore and hind limbs. For the horse, the forelimb has been found
to create a greater ground impulse, but one of the primary
determinants of success of a jump is the final push-off by the
hind limbs (van den Bogert et al., 1994; Barrey and Galloux,
1997). The purpose of the present study was to determine the
total work generated by the hind limb during the take-off
of a jump. Further, it was our intention to determine
thecontribution of the hip, knee, ankle and MP
(metatarsophalangeal) joints to the total work generated by the
hind limb.
During a jump that requires both horizontal and vertical
displacement of the center of mass, it has been hypothesized
that, for a quadruped, the resulting ground reaction force
(GRF) generated by the hind limb would be anterior (or
cranial) to the limb, implying that this force vector would be
in front of the knee, which is the most anterior joint of the limb
(van Ingen Schenau and Bobbert, 1993). A GRF vector cranial
to the knee has been observed experimentally in a horse
jumping over a 0.75·m barrier (Biewener et al., 1988). If the
GRF vector is anterior to the knee, a net flexor moment is
generated at the knee, while extensor moments would be
observed at the hip and ankle (the hip, knee and ankle are joints
with muscle able to produce significant work in the hind limb;
Biewener, 1998).
The Journal of Experimental Biology 207, 667-674
Published by The Company of Biologists 2004
The ability to jump over an obstacle depends upon the
generation of work across the joints of the propelling
limb(s). The total work generated by one hind limb of a
horse and the contribution to the total work by four joints
of the hind limb were determined for a jump. It was
hypothesized that the hip and ankle joints would have
extensor moments performing positive work, while the
knee would have a flexor moment and perform negative
work during the jump. Ground reaction forces and
sagittal plane kinematics were simultaneously recorded
during each jumping trial. Joint moment, power and work
were determined for the metatarsophalangeal (MP), tarsal
(ankle), tibiofemoral (knee) and coxofemoral (hip) joints.
The hip, knee and ankle all flexed and then extended and
the MP extended and then flexed during ground contact.
Consistent with our hypothesis, large extensor moments
were observed at the hip and ankle joints and large flexor
moments at the knee and MP joints throughout ground
contact of the hind limb. Peak moments tended to occur
earlier in stance in the proximal joints but peak power
generation of the hind limb joints occurred at similar
times except for the MP joint, with the hip and ankle
peaking first followed by the MP joint. During the first
portion of ground contact (≈40%), the net result of the
joint powers was the absorption of power. During the
remainder of the contact period, the hind limb generated
power. This pattern of power absorption followed by
power generation paralleled the power profiles of the hip,
ankle and MP joints. The total work performed by one
hind limb was 0.71·J·kg–1. Surprisingly, the knee produced
85% of the work (0.60·J·kg–1) done by the hind limb, and
the positive work performed by the knee occurred during
the first 40% of the take-off. There is little net work
generated by the other three joints over the entire take-
off. Velocity of the tuber coxae (a landmark on the pelvis
of the animal) was negative (downward) during the first
40% of stance, which perhaps reflects the negative work
performed to decrease the potential energy during the first
40% of contact. During the final 60% of contact, the hip,
ankle and MP joints generate positive work, which is
reflected in the increase of the animal's potential energy.
Key words: horse, jumping, hind limb, knee joint, work, power,
moment, ground reaction force, sagittal plane kinematics.
Moments and power generated by the horse (Equus caballus) hind limb during
Darren J. Dutto1,*, Donald F. Hoyt2, Hilary M. Clayton3, Edward A. Cogger4and
Steven J. Wickler4
1Department of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91768,
USA,2Department of Biological Sciences, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91768, USA,
3College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA and 4Department of
Animal and Veterinary Science, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA 91768, USA
*Author for correspondence (e-mail: email@example.com)
Accepted 17 November 2003
Page 2
It might be expected that the more proximal joints, with
muscles able to generate work, would contribute the most to
total work. This would certainly be true of the hip and ankle
of the horse, since they should have net extensor muscle
moments as hypothesized by van Ingen Schenau and Bobbert
(1993) and as shown from the observed force vector by
Biewener et al. (1988). In order to produce a GRF vector in
front of the knee, a net flexor moment would be generated at
the knee such that negative work would be done (due to knee
extension during the take-off). The MP should contribute little
to the total work as it is primarily controlled by small muscles
and connective tissue (ligaments and long tendons). We test
these ideas here by determining the work generated by the total
hind limb in relation to the joint moments and powers produced
at the hip, knee, ankle and MP joints for horses jumping over
a barrier of moderate height (0.63·m).
Materials and methods
Animals and experimental protocol
Five horses (three Arabians and two Thoroughbreds; mean
age, 8±4·years) with a mean body mass of 491±52·kg
performed the experimental protocol, approved by the
University's Animal Care and Use Committee. Each horse was
exercised regularly and was free from injury that might affect
jumping performance. Subject animals were trained to perform
a jump for this study but were not bred specifically or
conditioned for jumping over a long period of time. After a
brief warm-up, each horse was prepared for data collection
by placing retroreflective markers on appropriate hind limb
landmarks using a cyanoacrylate adhesive. Markers were
placed so that the hip, knee, ankle and metatarsophalangeal
(MP) joints of the right hind limb could be identified (Fig.·1).
Prior to the recording of any jumps, a video record was made
of the horse in a 'standing square' position, defined when the
metatarsal was in a perpendicular plane to the substrate and
situated approximately in the middle of the force platform.
Coordinate data developed from this control position were used
to develop a segment model of the hind limb, which was
important for determination of the location of the femorotibial
and hip joints (see 'Determination of coordinates for the knee
and hip joints' below).
A jumping barrier of modest height (0.63·m) was placed
next to a force-measuring platform located in a runway. For
each jumping trial, an animal trainer led the horse at a speed
that produced a trot during the approach to the barrier. The
animal trainer used a combination of a long tether and forward
motion to allow the horse freedom of movement during and
after the jump so as to not alter the horse's jumping behavior.
Both force and video records were made of each jumping trial.
Data for each trial were considered viable if only the right hind
limb was on the force plate during the jump.
Determination of coordinates for the knee and hip joints
A significant amount of soft tissue is located over both the
knee and hip joints of the hind limb and, while retroreflective
markers can be used to identify these joints, the soft tissue
between the markers and the joint has been shown to impair
the ability to determine joint location during movement (van
Weeren et al., 1992; Back et al., 1995). In an attempt to reduce
the error in determination of joint center location, the positions
of these two joints were mathematically derived using
additional markers placed over relatively stable anatomical
locations (stable locations are defined as points where there is
little intervening soft tissue between the skin surface and
underlying bony structure).
The assumption was made that the segments that articulate
in these joints maintain a constant length during the jump. The
Cartesian coordinates for the knee joint were determined by
using the geometric relationship between the shaft of the tibia,
ankle joint and knee joint. Markers along the shaft of the tibia
(ankle joint and tibial midshaft) formed a straight line
representing the tibia. A polar coordinate relationship was
determined (angle and radius) relative to the tibial markers
using the ankle joint as the vertex of the angle representing the
D. J. Dutto and others
Fig.·1. The picture shows the reflective marker set-up with four joints
of the hind limb. The locations of the knee and hip joints were
mathematically determined using the geometrical relationships of the
limb segments. Digitized coordinates were used to determine the
knee, and the mathematically derived coordinates of the knee and the
digitized coordinates of the tuber coxae were used to calculate the
hip coordinate (see Materials and methods). The location of the hip
(xh, yh) was determined using the coordinates of the knee (xk, yk) and
tuber coxae (xt, yt), and the lengths of the pelvis (lpelvis) and thigh
(lthigh) segments. If two circles are drawn with the tuber coxae and
knee joint as origins and radius equivalent to the length of the
appropriate segments, there will be two places where the
circumferences of the circles overlap (or one if the segments are
oriented in a straight line). The rearmost of these two intersections
was taken as the location of the hip joint.
Page 3
Jumping horses
tibia and an imaginary line from the ankle joint to the knee
joint. Knowing the distance and angle of the knee point relative
to the tibial markers allowed for the calculation of the
Cartesian coordinates of a corrected knee joint location,
regardless of the orientation of the tibia.
The hip joint was located by using the calculated Cartesian
coordinates for the knee joint, the Cartesian coordinates for the
pelvic marker and the lengths of the thigh and pelvic segments
determined from the standing-square recordings. It was
assumed that the length of each segment described a radius of
a circle centered upon the segment end farthest from the hip
joint (the knee and the tuber coxae; Fig.·1). The circumferences
of the two circles intersect at two places, the rearmost of which
was the location of the hip joint center. The Cartesian
coordinates for the position where the two circles intersect
were then calculated using the equations that described the two
Experimental apparatus
A 0.6·m×0.9·m force plate (model 9287BA; Kistler
Instruments, Winterthur, Switzerland) was used for all data
collection. The force plate was situated lengthwise in the
middle of a runway. The runway consisted of a cement base
covered with a 10·mm-thick, high-density, black rubberized
mat. The rubberized mat was also placed on the surface of the
force plate. Covering the surface of the force plate with the
rubberized mat created a continuous visual field for the horse,
avoiding any reluctance on the part of the animal to approach
and perform the jump. Force data were sampled at a rate of
1000·Hz for all tests. Force data were synchronized with high-
speed video recording using LabView®(v5.1, National
Instruments Inc., Austin, TX, USA), which generated a pulse
to initiate simultaneous recording of both the force and video
data. Center of pressure was calculated from the force data with
a correction for the addition of the rubber matting
to the surface of the force plate. To ensure the
validity of calculated center
coordinates, manual tests were performed by
applying point loads to the surface of the force
plate at a variety of angles and positions. Center of
pressure was determined within 0.5·cm regardless
of the direction that the load was applied to the
surface of the force plate.
Video records of all jumping trials were obtained
using a high-speed (250·Hz) digital camera (PCI
250; Redlake Imaging Corp., San Diego, CA,
USA). The camera was situated orthogonal to the
plane of movement, at a distance of 8·m, so that
approximately 3.5·m of the runway were recorded,
including the force platform and the jump barrier.
Prior to experimental testing, a 48-point, two-
dimensional calibration frame, located in the plane
of movement over the force plate, was recorded.
Video records of two-dimensional (sagittal plane)
motion for kinematic analysis were recorded and
stored directly to a computer. Limb segment
of pressure
markers were digitized using the automatic point-tracking
module of the Peak Motus®software (Peak Performance
Technologies, Inc., Denver, CO, USA). Digitized coordinates
were scaled to represent real-world Cartesian values using a
two-dimensional Direct Linear Transformation constructed
with the recorded calibration parameters. Kinematic coordinate
data were smoothed with a dual pass fourth order Butterworth
digital filter using a cut-off frequency of 20·Hz.
Data calculations
Angular positions for each joint were determined from the
Cartesian coordinates of the hind limb joints. Linear position
and velocity of the tuber coxae were determined from
kinematic data. Moments and powers for each joint were
determined using inverse dynamic analysis (Winter, 1990).
Inertial properties of the hind limb segments were estimated
using published equations (Buchner et al., 1997). The
equations presented by Buchner et al. represent data for Dutch
Warmblood horses. Using these equations, the assumption is
made that the proportional relationship between the mass of
the animal and the mass of the segments is similar between the
Dutch Warmblood horses and the horses used in this study.
While this relationship may not necessarily hold true, the effect
of inertial properties of the limb segments relative to ground
contact forces are relatively small; thus, discrepancies due to
breed of horse on inertial properties of the hind limb segments
should have a negligible influence on measured results during
the stance phase of the jump. Fig.·2 displays both the total joint
moment and the inertial moment due to the mass and moment
of inertia of each segment for one jumping trial (which is
representative of all trials). It is readily apparent that the
contribution of the inertial properties to the total joint moment
is rather small; thus, errors due to the estimation of these
properties will not greatly influence the results of this study.
52 . 002 . 0
1 . 0
1 . 05
0 . 00
Time (s)
Moment (Nm kg–1)
Fig.·2. Representation of the inertial moment relative to the joint moments for
one jumping trial. The solid symbols are the total joint moment for each
identified joint. The open symbols represent the inertial moments. Notice that
the inertial moments are clustered near zero throughout the trial. MP,
metatarsophalangeal joint.
Page 4
Total power generated by the hind limb was determined by
summing the power of the four joints at each relative time
point. Finally, work performed by the joint was determined by
integrating the power curves.
Collected data are descriptive; therefore, results are
presented as means ± S.D. Moment and power values are
presented relative to body mass. Ensemble averaging was
used to combine trial results across the five test animals
for the purposes of presenting results (the number of jumps
used in this analysis ranged from five to eight jumps per
horse, all for the same barrier height, for a total of 29 jumping
trials). Reported peak values represent an average of the peak
values taken from each individual trial for the particular
Calculated joint moment patterns for all five animals tended
to follow similar patterns, as illustrated by the observed
averaged moments at the hip for each animal (Fig.·3A).
Because the patterns were similar across animals, joint
moments were averaged together and presented as means ± S.D.
(Fig.·3B). The GRF generated by the hind limb was in front of
(anterior to) the limb for a majority of stance. The force would
be generated by net extensor moments of the
musculature of the hip and ankle joints and
flexor moments by the musculature of the knee
and MP joints. Peak extensor moments of
the hip and ankle joints (2.6·Nm·kg–1and
2.2·Nm·kg–1, respectively) were generally
larger than the peak flexor moments of the knee
and MP joints (1.9·Nm·kg–1and 1.0·Nm·kg–1,
respectively; Table·1). Peak moments tended to
progress temporally over the time of contact in
a proximal-to-distal fashion across the joints
(hip – 36%, knee – 30%, ankle – 43%, MP –
57% of contact time).
All four joints had relatively large changes
in angular position during ground contact
(Fig.·4). The hip, knee and ankle joints all had
a similar pattern of flexion followed by
extension of the joint, whereas the MP joint
behaved oppositely (hyperextension followed
by flexion). For the MP joint, the effect of
hyperextension during the early portion of
stance is similar to the flexion that is occurring
in the other joints, and this motion contributes
to the overall shortening of the hind limb
during this portion of stance. Subsequent
flexion of the MP would then contribute to the
lengthening of the limb during the latter part of
stance. The average range of motion (ROM)
was largest for the MP (41.3±9.1°), followed
by the knee (33.8±11.9°), ankle (29.4±7.2°)
and hip (24.9±6.3°). Maximal flexion was
reached first in the hip and ankle joints, then by
the MP joint (or maximum hyper-extension)
and finally the knee joint (Table·1). These
values appear consistent with kinematic results
presented by van den Bogert et al. (1994).
The hip and ankle joints exhibited early
power absorption
generation (Fig.·5). Both of these joints became
power generators for take-off, beginning
around 45% of ground contact. For both the hip
and ankle joints, average power absorption
peaked at approximately 7·W·kg–1(Table·1), at
22% (ankle) and 28% (hip) of ground contact.
followed by power
D. J. Dutto and others
0 . 1–
0 . 1
0 . 2
0 . 3
0 . 4
Moment (Nm kg–1)
Time of contact (%)
Fig.·3. Joint moments (relative to body mass) are presented. (A) Observed moments at
the hip for each of the test animals. Each curve represents the mean of the trials for
that animal, with the number of trials ranging between five and eight for the different
animals. The five curves are very similar across animals. (B) Moments for the MP
(metatarsophalangeal), ankle, knee and hip joints of the hind limb. Each curve
represents the mean of 29 trials (solid line) ± S.D. (shaded area) across all horses. For
both plots, positive values represent extensor moments and negative values represent
flexor moments for each joint.
Page 5
Jumping horses
The MP joint also had slight power absorption for the initial
65% of ground contact and then became a power generator
during the last 35% of ground contact. The amount of power
absorption by the MP was relatively small compared with that
of the ankle and hip joints. Mean peak power generation of
7.4·W·kg–1and 5.7·W·kg–1(Table·1) by the ankle and hip
joints, respectively, occurred at 69% of ground contact for both
joints. Peak power generation of 5.6·W·kg–1(Table·1) by the
MP joint occurred later (at 82% of ground contact) than that
of the hip and ankle joints. The knee joint generated power
during initial contact until 57% of ground contact and then
absorbed energy. Power generation across the knee peaked at
8.2·W·kg–1(Table·1) at 27% of ground contact time. During
the latter portion of ground contact, the amount of power
absorbed by the knee remained relatively small. During some
trials, the knee joint behaved as a power generator during the
latter portion of ground contact, as evidenced by the S.D. of the
presented curve (Fig.·5).
On average, there was net negative power (or absorption of
power) by the hind limb during the first 40% of ground contact,
and net positive power (or power generation) for the remainder
of ground contact (Fig.·6). Mean peak power generation of the
hind limb was 13.2·W·kg–1at 74% of ground contact. On
average, one hind limb generated 0.71·J·kg–1of work during
ground contact. Over the entire ground contact, all four joints
had a net contribution of positive work, with most of the work
produced by the knee joint (0.60·W·kg–1). When averaged
across all trials, the knee was responsible for 85% of the
observed work of the hind limb, followed in order by the MP,
ankle and the hip joints, with the hip joint producing an average
of 2% of the work of the hind limb.
During the first 40% of ground contact, the horizontal
velocity of the tuber coxae first decreased and then increased
to a value ~0.15·m·s–1faster than at contact, and the vertical
velocity went from a negative (downward) velocity to zero
(Fig.·7). During this portion of ground contact, the knee
produced a mean of 0.60·J·kg–1of positive work, while the
other three joints all produced negative work, with the net
result being negative work (Table·1). During the last 60% of
contact, the vertical velocity increased dramatically, while the
horizontal velocity increased slightly at the beginning and end
of this time period. The knee produced essentially no work (on
Table 1. Summary of joint kinematics and kinetics
time (%)
Peak moments
Peak power (W·kg–1)
Total work
Work 40%
Work 60%
(J·kg–1) JointROM (deg.) AbsorptionGenerationWork (%)
The highest peak power generation was observed at the knee. The knee also did the most work on the center of mass over the entire ground
contact, and all of that work was performed during the first 40% of ground contact. Additionally, range of motion (ROM) during ground
contact in degrees and the time to the minimum (maximum for the ankle) as a percentage of ground contact are presented. Peak moments are
presented for each joint, with the ankle and hip joints having predominantly extensor (positive value) moments and the MP
(metatarsophalangeal) and knee joints having predominantly flexor (negative value) moments. All values are means ± S.D.
Joint angle (deg.)
Time of contact (%)
Fig.·4. Mean angular position data for all trials of the hind limb joints
are presented (29 trials included in the mean). Each curve represents
a mean (solid line) ± S.D. (crossbars) for the respective joint.
Decreasing angles represent joint flexion and increasing angles
represent joint extension. MP, metatarsophalangeal joint.
Page 6
average) while the other three joints produced positive work
during this time period.
Our initial hypothesis of the direction of joint moments (hip
and ankle – extensor moment; knee – flexor moment) based
upon the work of van Ingen Schenau and Bobbert (1993) and
the observations of Biewener et al. (1988) was confirmed.
Furthermore, during ground contact of the hind limb for the
take-off of a jump, the hip, knee and ankle joints underwent
flexion followed by extension, while the MP extended and then
flexed. Due to the moments generated at each joint and their
angular movement, work was performed primarily at
the knee early in the ground contact and at the hip,
ankle and MP joints during the latter part of contact.
However, the knee produced a majority (85%) of the
positive work, which was not necessarily expected
from the hypothesis of van Ingen Schenau and
Bobbert (1993).
For jumping horses in the present study, one hind
limb generated an average of 0.71·J·kg–1of work
(work was normalized to body mass). This is
approximately 4.5 times the work of walking in
horses (0.16·J·kg–1of work; Clayton et al., 2001).
Peak extensor moments at the hip were five times
higher during jumping (2.64·Nm·kg–1) than during
walking (Clayton et al., 2001). Unexpectedly,
positive work associated with the jump was done by
the musculature of the knee rather than the hip or
ankle joints. By contrast, during walking most of the
work was performed by the hip (0.23·J·kg–1), which
is greater than the total work done by the hind limb
during walking, as the knee absorbs energy (produces
negative work) during walking (Clayton et al., 2001).
The observed behavior of the knee joint was
consistent with our hypothesis that the muscles acting
at the knee would generate a flexor moment during
jumping. This results in the GRF vector passing
anterior to the knee during ground contact, similar to
the observations of jumping horses made by Biewener
et al. (1988). More interestingly, the knee generated
positive work during the jump (rather than producing
negative work, which we had hypothesized) and was
the major (85%) contributor to the total work
produced by the hind limb. Most of the power
generation (positive work) at the knee occurred early
(first 40%) in the contact period (Fig.·6), since this is
when the knee was flexing and generating a flexor
moment. How might the work generated by the knee
contribute to the jump?
During the first 40% of stance, the knee
musculature performed a majority of the positive
work done during the entire contact period. Muscles
of the other three joints were absorbing energy
(performing negative work) during this same time
period. From initial hoof contact to 40% of stance, the mean
change in the resultant velocity of the tuber coxae was
0.04·m·s–1(Fig.·7), requiring 0.13·J·kg–1of work. During this
time period, the work performed by the hind limb was
–0.40·J·kg–1. The animals did increase the horizontal velocity
of the tuber coxae by ~0.15·m·s–1over the first 40% of stance
(Fig. 7) despite producing a braking force for the first 28% of
stance (Fig.·8). The observed increase in horizontal velocity of
the tuber coxae therefore is probably due to the positive work
performed by the knee joint muscles during this time, because
the muscles of the knee were the only muscles producing
positive work. Furthermore, it is clear that during jumping a
positive (propulsive) horizontal impulse is required, resulting
D. J. Dutto and others
Time of contact (%)
Power (W kg–1)
Fig.·5. Joint power (relative to body mass) for the MP (metatarsophalangeal),
ankle, knee and hip joints of the hind limb during ground contact. Each curve is
the mean of 29 trials (solid line) ± S.D. (shaded area) of the power. Positive
values represent power generation and negative values represent power
Time of contact (%)
Power (W kg–1)
Fig.·6. Net power created by the hind limb during the jump. The curve
represents the mean of 29 trials (solid line) ± S.D. (shaded area) of the summed
power from the four joints of the hind limb.
Page 7
Jumping horses
in half as much braking impulse as is generated during
trotting [0.06·Ns·kg–1(trotting) vs 0.03·Ns·kg–1(jumping);
Fig.·8]. As the braking period is very short during jumping,
the force vector must be in front of the leg due to the joint
moments generated during stance. The remaining joints were
responsible for slowing the downward motion of the hips,
resulting in the observed negative work performed by these
joints. Without knowing the movement of the center of mass
or the fore limbs, it is unclear exactly how the net negative
work (–0.40·J·kg–1) performed by the hind limbs relates to
the motion of the horse.
Another explanation for the relatively short braking period
during the jump and the excess amount of work that appears
at the knee during the first 40% of contact relates to the
position of the torso of the horse (forelimbs off the ground)
during the take-off. Since the tuber coxae is located on the
pelvis, the horizontal velocity of this marker should provide
a fairly good estimate of the horizontal velocity of the
animal. There was a small discrepancy between the
relationship of the early and large horizontal GRF and
horizontal velocity. It is plausible that the extension moment
of the hip acts primarily to provide propulsion for the jump
and secondarily to assist in resisting the rotational inertia of
the torso. During approximately 55–75% of contact, the
hip was extending (Fig.·4) and the angular velocity was
increasing, while the horizontal velocity of the tuber coxae
was not increasing and there was a large, propulsive
horizontal force. It appears that a small portion of the hip
extension moment generated was required to resist the
influence of gravity on the torso that would tend to flex the
During the last 60% of contact, vertical velocity increased
almost continually. The hip, ankle and MP joint all generated
positive work during this time period that most likely acted
to increase vertical velocity, while the knee musculature did
not directly contribute to accelerating the animal. The
positive work performed by the musculature of hip, ankle
and MP joints was slightly greater than the amount of work
absorbed during the initial portion of contact, an indication
that the observed work was due to a combination of stored
elastic energy recovery and active muscle contraction, as
observed by Seyfarth et al. (2000) in human long jumping.
It seems possible that power produced by knee extensors
was transferred to the hip and ankle by the action of
the biarticular knee flexor muscles (e.g. hamstrings and
gastrocnemius) that also act to extend the hip and ankle.
Support for this idea is found in the similarity between the
last 40% of the stance in equine jumping and part of the
downstroke in human cycling, where, in both cases, a net
flexor moment was generated at the knee while the hip, knee
and ankle were all extending. When these conditions occur
during human cycling there is co-activation of knee
extensors and flexors and this has been interpreted as
resulting in the transfer of work performed by the knee
extensors to the hip and ankle (van Ingen Schenau, 1990; van
Ingen Schenau et al., 1992, 1995). The fact that the knee
extended during the later part of jumping suggests that knee
extensors were active, and the very low power output of the
knee during this phase of the jump, with concomitant increased
Time of contact (%)
Velocity (m s–1)
Fig.·7. During the first 40% of contact (when the total power is
primarily negative), the mean horizontal velocity of the tuber coxae
increased and the mean vertical velocity changed from negative to
approximately 0. The resultant velocity remains essentially constant
(the same value at the beginning and end of the time period) during the
first 40% of contact. During the last 60% of contact, the horizontal
velocity remains essentially constant until near the end, and the vertical
velocity substantially increases; thus, the resultant velocity increases
almost continuously over the final 60% of contact. 40% of contact is
indicated by the vertical line. Velocity values represent the mean across
all trials.
Time of contact (%)
Force (N kg–1)
Trotting at 3.25 m s–1
Fig.·8. The horizontal ground reaction force is only negative for the
first 25% of ground contact, which means that the force vector stays
anterior to the knee (the leg) throughout ground contact. Horizontal
velocity decreases slightly during the first 25% of contact, which
coincides with the negative (braking) horizontal force. For comparison,
the mean horizontal force during trotting at 3.25·m·s–1(which is a
speed very similar to mean speed during the jump) is shown. The
amount of braking that occurs during trotting is greater (larger area)
than during jumping. The braking impulse during trotting is roughly
twice that of jumping (0.06·Ns·kg–1vs 0.03·Ns·kg–1). The curve
represents the mean horizontal force for all trials.
Page 8
power production at the hip and ankle (Fig.·5), is consistent
with the idea that power produced by knee extensors is
transported to the hip and ankle. However, further investigation
of the activity of the knee musculature (biarticular knee flexors
and monoarticular knee extensors) during the jump is required
to test this idea.
Towards the end of the take-off, positive work by the hind
limb was maintained due to an increase in power generated by
the MP joint. Positive work was not performed until 65% of
contact in the MP joint, which acted to maintain the total
positive power created by the hind limb. The MP joint does
not have a large muscle mass acting across it but is primarily
controlled by tendons attached to highly pinnate muscles with
short fibers and by ligaments in the limb, similar to that
described for the forelimb metacarpalphalangeal joint
(McGuigan and Wilson, 2003). Perhaps it is the late release of
stored elastic energy that is responsible for some of the work
observed in the MP joint during the final third of the take-off.
Late release of the energy in the MP joint may also be part
of the proximal-to-distal flow of energy during take-off.
During maximal vertical jumps, the extensor muscles of the
hind limb in cats were found to activate in a proximal-to-distal
order, and the kinematics of the hind limb joints followed the
same proximal-to-distal pattern (Zajac et al., 1981). Also, the
peak moments about these joints occurred earliest in the
proximal joints during the jump. A similar pattern was
observed in the peak moments generated by the hind limb
joints of the horse during the jump, particularly when
observing the relationship of the hip, ankle and MP joints.
Additionally, the power generated by these joints tended to
follow a similar pattern, with the peak power generation of the
MP joint occurring later in stance than the hip and ankle joints.
This proximal-to-distal sequencing of peak power would be
indicative of energy transfer between the proximal joints
(relatively large muscle mass) and the more distal joints. The
tendinous nature of the MP joint is ideally designed for a late
release of energy. As the force upon the joint decreases, this
could allow tendon recoil and recovery of stored elastic energy.
This is apparent in the late positive power burst observed at
the MP joint.
Because the work done by the hind limb produced a large
propulsive force during take-off, it can be argued that the hind
limb performs a majority of the work required for the jump.
The total proportion of work performed by the hind limb will
not be known until the work performed by the forelimb and
movement of the center of mass are determined. Most of the
work was performed early during the stance phase by the
musculature of the knee, as determined through inverse
dynamic analysis. The hip, ankle and MP joint did a large
amount of positive work later in stance but this was balanced
by negative work early in stance. Further investigation is
required to determine how the positive work of the knee
musculature contributes to the overall movement of the
jumping animal and the proportion of the work produced by
the hind limb relative to the total work required.
This study was funded by NIH grant # S06 GM53933 to
D.F.H. and S.J.W. Horses were trained by Deborah Mead
with the help of Shannon Garcia. We would also like to
acknowledge Holly M. Greene, MS, Equine Research
Technician, for providing technical support. We are grateful
to an anonymous reviewer for suggestions that significantly
strengthened this analysis.
Back, W., Schamhardt, H. C., Savelberg, H. H. C. M., van den Bogert, A.
J., Bruin, G., Hartman, W. and Barneveld, A. (1995). How the horse
moves: 2. Significance of graphical representations of equine hind limb
kinematics. Equine Vet. J. 27, 39-45.
Barrey, E. and Galloux, P. (1997). Analysis of the equine jumping technique
by accelerometry. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. 23, 45-49.
Biewener, A. A., Thomason, J. J. and Lanyon, L. E. (1988). Mechanics of
locomotion and jumping in the horse (Equus): in vivo stress in the tibia and
metatarsus. J. Zool. Lond. 214, 547-565.
Biewener, A. A. (1998). Muscle function in vivo: a comparison of muscles
used for elastic energy savings versus muscles used to generate mechanical
power. Am. Zool. 38, 703-717.
Buchner, H. H. F., Savelberg, H. H. C. M., Schamhardt, H. C. and
Barneveld, A. (1997). Inertial properties of Dutch Warmblood horses. J.
Biomech. 30, 653-658.
Clayton, H. M., Hodson, E., Lanovaz, J. L. and Colborne, G. R. (2001).
The hind limb in walking horses: 2. Net joint moments and joint powers.
Equine Vet. J. 33, 44-48.
McGuigan, M. P. and Wilson, A. M. (2003). The effect of gait and digital
muscle activation on limb compliance in the forelimb of the horse Equus
caballus. J. Exp. Biol. 206, 1325-1336.
Seyfarth, A., Blickhan, R. and van Leeuwen, J. L. (2000). Optimum take-
off techniques and muscle design for the long jump. J. Exp. Biol. 203, 741-
van den Bogert, A. J., Janssen, M. O. and Deuel, N. R. (1994). Kinematics
of the hind limb push-off in elite show jumping horses. Equine Vet. J. Suppl.
17, 80-86.
van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1990). On the action of biarticular muscles, a
review. Neth. J. Zool. 40, 521-540.
van Ingen Schenau, G. J., Boots, P. J. M., Degroot, G., Snackers, R. J. and
Vanwoensel, W. W. L. M. (1992). The constrained control of force and
position in multijoint movements. Neuroscience 46, 197-207.
van Ingen Schenau, G. J. and Bobbert, M. F. (1993). The global design of
the hind limb in quadrupeds. Acta. Anat. 146, 103-108.
van Ingen Schenau, G. J., Dorssers, W. M. M., Welter, T. G., Beelen, A.,
Degroot, G. and Jacobs, R. (1995). The control of mono-articular muscles
in multijoint leg extensions in man. J. Physiol. 484, 247-254.
van Weeren, P. R., van den Bogart, A. and Barneveld, A. (1992).
Correction models for skin displacement in equine kinematic gait analysis.
J. Equine Vet. Sci. 12, 178-192.
Winter, D. A. (1990). Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement.
2nd edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Zajac, F. E., Zomlefer, M. R. and Levine, W. S. (1981). Hind limb muscular
activity, kinetics, and kinematics of cats jumping to their maximum
achievable heights. J. Exp. Biol. 91, 73-86.
D. J. Dutto and others


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Brett Anderson Rumors
NL Notes: Brewers, Thornton, Cuddyer, Anderson
The Brewers' recent struggles could lead to firings in Milwaukee, Tom Haudricourt of the Journal Sentinel writes. The Brewers fired Ned Yost after an ugly two-week stretch in the midst of a contending season in 2008. Now, after spending the majority of the season in first place, the Brewers run the risk of missing the playoffs — they would just miss the second Wild Card if the season ended today. It's not clear if the Brewers' skid might cause owner Mark Attanasio to want to make moves involving GM Doug Melvin or manager Ron Roenicke. Here's more from the National League.
- Matt Thornton has come up big in the Nationals' bullpen since the Nats claimed him from the Yankees, Tom Schad of the Washington Times writes. Thornton has pitched 9 1/3 innings for the Nats so far, striking out eight batters, walking one and allowing no runs in his first stint as a National Leaguer. "Haven't faced a lot of these guys, so it's kind of all new," Thornton says. "But at the same time, they haven't faced me. So I'm using that to my advantage." MLBTR readers recently ranked Thornton the fifth most impactful August addition of any team, behind Adam Dunn, Jacob Turner, Jonathan Broxton and Josh Willingham.
- Rockies manager Walt Weiss would like to see the team re-sign Michael Cuddyer, Patrick Saunders of the Denver Post writes. "I would like to see him back here," says Weiss. "I just think he means so much to our club, in ways that go beyond the stat sheet." Cuddyer has suffered through an injury-plagued season and will be 36 by the time next season starts, but he's hit very well with the Rockies, posting a .331/.380/.546 line in 142 plate appearances in 2014 that's similar to his output over a full season last year.
- It's unclear whether the Rockies will pick up Brett Anderson's $12MM option, Saunders writes. The option contains a $1.5MM buyout. Anderson has been effective this season, but injuries have limited him to just 43 1/3 innings so far, and he hasn't topped 100 innings in a season in 2010. The Rockies need to try to figure out if Anderson's injury troubles are likely to continue, and whether they might be able to lure a better pitcher to Coors — never easy to do — with that $12MM.
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NL West Notes: Lincecum, Petit, Colon, D'Backs, Rockies
The Giants are weighing whether or not to continue with beleaguered right-hander Tim Lincecum in their rotation, writes John Shea of the San Francisco Chronicle. Lincecum himself offered a frank, expletive-laced assessment of his recent performance and sounded aware that he may not make his next start. Shea spoke with manager Bruce Bochy about rotation candidate Yusmeiro Petit's struggles as a starter and excellence in the bullpen this year, with Bochy calling Petit's rotation work too small of sample to judge. Petit's recent bullpen work, however, has been nothing short of incredible, if not historic. He's retired 38 consecutive batters, striking out 16. As Andrew Baggarly of CSNBayArea.com points out (on Twitter), Petit is seven batters shy of matching the Major League record for most consecutive hitters retired. Lincecum, who is in the first season of a two-year, $35MM extension, has a 9.49 ERA over his past six starts and has totaled just 24 2/3 innings in that time. Baggarly tweets that for now, the team's Thursday starter is listed as "TBA."
Here's more from the NL West…
- While the most commonly linked team to Bartolo Colon (who is currently on revocable waivers) has been the Angels, ESPN's Buster Olney writes in his daily blog that the injury-plagued Dodgers are a candidate to place a claim as well (ESPN Insider required). Olney points out that Colon's start against the Dodgers tonight could serve as an audition.
- Diamondbacks chief baseball officer Tony La Russa feels that his team can post a winning record in 2015, he tells Rick Hummel of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch. La Russa feels that the D'Backs can make improvements with their current roster solely by improving their approach at the plate and improving their baserunning, but he also cites the desire to make "two or three impactful moves" in the offseason, including the addition of at least one hitter and at least one pitcher.
- Zach Buchanan of the Arizona Republic writes that the D'Backs are in evaluation mode with middle infielders Chris Owings, Didi Gregorius, and Nick Ahmed. Additionally, the club is trying to determine how to mix in veterans Aaron Hill and Cliff Pennington. For the time being, GM Kevin Towers tells Buchanan that Owings will see more time at second base with Gregorius getting a look at short, but that doesn't mean Owings is being converted to a second baseman full-time. Hill, meanwhile, will see action at third, though a full-time transition there would block prospect Jake Lamb, Buchanan notes. In my view, Pennington is a non-tender candidate following the season and Ahmed could use more work at Triple-A, leaving three infielders for two spots. Hill is guaranteed $12MM in 2015 and again in 2016, making him difficult to trade, but any number of clubs would likely be interested in Owings, Gregorius or Ahmed in trades.
- The Rockies are further away from contending now than they were at the beginning of the season, opines Patrick Saunders of the Denver Post. Saunders looks at Colorado's pitching predicament, noting that Tyler Chatwood will miss the 2015 season due to Tommy John surgery and Jhoulys Chacin's shoulder cannot be relied upon. Brett Anderson's injuries make it difficult to exercise his $12MM option, and Jorge De La Rosa could end up pitching elsewhere, as several sources with whom Saunders has conversed feel that there's only a 50-50 chance he returns. Add in the persistent trade rumors regarding Troy Tulowitzki and Carlos Gonzalez — Saunders feels the latter is more likely to go — and the offseason is rife with question marks and uncertainty.
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Injury Notes: Verlander, Machado, Rios, Anderson
Let's take a look at a few injury situations from around the game that could have hot stove implications:
- Tigers starter Justin Verlander lasted only one rough inning today, leaving with right shoulder soreness. The veteran will undergo an MRI tomorrow, reports Chris Iott of MLive.com (Twitter links). "I'd be lying if I said I wasn't a little bit nervous," said Verlander. "I've never been through this before." Indeed, the 31-year-old righty has never been on the disabled list in his excellent career. But there have been signs of trouble this season, as Verlander has worked to an uncharacteristic 4.57 ERA and seen his strikeout numbers plummet (6.6 K/9). Eno Sarris of Fangraphs wrote recently that some indicators suggested Verlander may have been playing hurt, and the hurler confirmed today that the issue "has been lingering for a while," as John Lowe of the Detroit Free Press reports on Twitter. In the immediate term, Verlander's situation — combined with a DL stint for Anibal Sanchez — creates significant rotation difficulties for the club, which just dropped out of first in the AL Central. Detroit will call up youngsters Robbie Ray and Buck Farmer (who has just two Double-A appearances to his name) to take upcoming starts, but another addition cannot be ruled out at this point. In the long run, of course, questions continue to pile up regarding the outlook for the Tigers' remaining $140MM commitment to a player who was once considered by many to be the game's best pitcher.
- Orioles third baseman Manny Machado also left early today after twisting his right knee awkwardly at the plate. A severe injury seemed possible based on replays, but the team has expressed hope that it dodged a bullet after initial X-rays did not reveal any ligament damage, as MLB.com's Britt Ghiroli tweets. But an MRI will be needed for a full assessment, and Machado will have a scan tomorrow morning, Roch Kubatko of MASNsports.com reports on Twitter. Machado missed the early portion of the season due to surgery on his left knee. With Baltimore still fending off competitors from atop the AL East, any significant absence for Machado would be a big blow. Though the team could scan the trade market (with all the usual August complications) for a replacement, if it became necessary, the O's would perhaps be more likely to turn to in-house options such as Ryan Flaherty and Jimmy Paredes.
- Outfielder Alex Rios of the Rangers received positive news from an MRI on his left ankle, which revealed only a sprain, as Anthony Andro of FOX Sports Southwest reports on Twitter. Rios, who has cleared waivers, may be ready to return to action as soon as tomorrow. He could still hold appeal for clubs looking to add a right-handed-hitting, corner outfield bat to the mix, though one possible suitor likely dissipated today when the Royals acquired Josh Willingham.
- Rockies starter Brett Anderson will undergo surgery to repair a disc in his lower back, reports Thomas Harding of MLB.com. The procedure is expected to come with a five-month recovery period, which would set Anderson on track for Spring Training but will certainly make it difficult for Colorado to justify exercising its $12MM club option over the lefty. While Anderson was strong in limited action this year, and is still just 26 years old, he has not stayed healthy enough to throw over 100 innings since 2010.
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Full Story | Comments | Categories: Alex Rios | Baltimore Orioles | Brett Anderson | Colorado Rockies | Detroit Tigers | Justin Verlander | Manny Machado | Texas Rangers
NL Notes: Preller, Byrd, Cubs, Beckett, Anderson
We read many reports about who was being considered and moved forward in the Padres' search for a new general manager, but MLB.com's Corey Brock provides some more details on what was happening behind the scenes. Give his piece a read to see what led San Diego to choose A.J. Preller to take the helms of the club's baseball decisionmaking. In other executive chatter, Nick Piecoro of the Arizona Republic profiles Diamondbacks scouting director Ray Montgomery, who was one of the candidates for the game's latest GM opening.
Here's more from the National League:
- Phillies outfielder Marlon Byrd has apparently been pulled back from revocable waivers after being claimed by an as-yet-unidentified team, as he played tonight for Philadelphia. Reports suggested Byrd was claimed on or before Wednesday, and the 48.5 hour window to complete a transaction (or withdraw the claimed player) would have expired by now.
- The Cubs, meanwhile, were unable to work out a deal for Phillies starter Cole Hamels, who was also withdrawn from waivers by Philadelphia. But, as Paul Sullivan of the Chicago Tribune writes, the move to claim Hamels showed a new willingness to spend that could tell in the coming months. And missing on the veteran lefty did not stop the club from adding an arm, with Jacob Turner coming in from Miami in exchange for a pair of relievers who have yet to advance past High-A and are both his elder. President Theo Epstein's comments indicated what many expected he was thinking: "We've had some success with talented pitchers who were going through tough periods. Getting them here, let them re-set a little. … We're hopeful that will happen with Jacob. … Between now and next spring training there are things we can work on."
- Dodgers starter Josh Beckett could be out for the year, writes Ken Gurnick of MLB.com, though manager Don Mattingly expressed optimism that the righty would make his way back. Either way, his uncertain contribution going forward would appear to support GM Ned Colletti's statement from earlier today that the team was still looking to add an arm.
- The Rockies are awaiting word on the severity of a back injury to oft-DL'ed starter Brett Anderson, reports Patrick Saunders of the Denver Post. Colorado is worried that Anderson will be out the rest of the year. Though he's been out with a variety of other issues in the past, the back problem is a new one. The 26-year-old lefty has been effective when healthy, but his 2.91 ERA this year has come over just 43 1/3 innings. The Rockies face a tough call on whether to exercise a $12MM option for Anderson for 2015.
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Full Story | Comments | Categories: Arizona Diamondbacks | Brett Anderson | Chicago Cubs | Colorado Rockies | Josh Beckett | Los Angeles Dodgers | Marlon Byrd | Philadelphia Phillies | San Diego Padres
NL West Links: Miller, Sabean, Rockies
Here's the latest from around the NL West…
- The Dodgers were the runner-up for Andrew Miller, Nick Cafardo of the Boston Globe tweets. This seems to run counter to an item from earlier today when Ken Rosenthal reported that it was the Brewers and Tigers who were the other finalists to obtain Miller from the Red Sox. The Orioles, of course, were the ones who actually landed the left-hander.
- Giants GM Brian Sabean didn't make any last moves before the deadline and felt good about keeping his team's prospects, Sabean told reporters (including Henry Schulman of the San Francisco Chronicle). The Giants felt it didn't make sense to meet the high asking prices of some teams, though Sabean said he was pleased that a number of clubs were interested in his pitching prospects.
- Sabean said he was "homing in on two" second basemen in possible deals, though a source says that these weren't necessarily Asdrubal Cabrera or Emilio Bonifacio, two middle infielders who changed teams yesterday.
- The Rockies also had a quiet deadline day, which assistant GM Bill Geivett told reporters (including Patrick Saunders of the Denver Post) was due to a lack of offers that would've helped Colorado reload for next year. "I think the big thing was — our posture — is probably one that we would entertain a deal as far as making us better in 2015. Although we were active and had some talks, we really weren't moved to the point where we had anything that would significantly affect us next season," Geivett said.
- Jorge De La Rosa and Brett Anderson drew some trade interest, and though De La Rosa is a free agent and Anderson has a $12MM club option to be exercised, it seems as if the Rockies have an interest in retaining both. "If we didn't feel like they would potentially be part of our future, we would have traded them," Geivett said.
- In other NL West news from earlier today, Matt Cain seems likely to undergo elbow surgery and the Giants designated Dan Uggla and Tyler Colvin for assignment.
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Full Story | Comments | Categories: Andrew Miller | Brett Anderson | Colorado Rockies | Jorge de la Rosa | Los Angeles Dodgers | San Francisco Giants
Rockies Unlikely To Trade Anderson, De La Rosa
3:53pm: The Rockies aren't likely to trade Anderson or De La Rosa, reports Patrick Saunders of the Denver Post (on Twitter).
9:23am: The Yankees are looking at the second tier of starting pitchers rather than focusing on front-line arms, reports ESPN's Buster Olney, and one player they've discussed is Rockies left-hander Brett Anderson (Twitter link).
The 26-year-old has been injury plagued over the last several seasons and has totaled just 33 1/3 frames this year, though the results have been favorable: a 3.24 ERA with a ground-ball percentage just north of 60 percent. Anderson's 18-to-13 K/BB ratio in that same time isn't as encouraging, of course.
Acquired from the A's in an offseason deal that sent fellow hurlers Drew Pomeranz and Chris Jensen to the Rockies, Anderson is earning $8MM in 2014, $2MM of which is being paid by the A's. His contract also contains a $12MM club option ($1.5MM buyout) for the 2015 season.
Anderson was once looked at as one of the game's most promising young pitchers, but injuries have derailed some of that shine. He still sports a career ERA of 3.77 (with identical FIP and xFIP marks of 3.57) to go along with 7.0 K/9, 2.5 BB/9 and a 55.3 percent ground-ball rate, but he's totaled just 196 1/3 innings since Opening Day of 2011.
It remains to be seen, however, if the Rockies will be willing to move Anderson at all. Ken Rosenthal of FOX Sports reported this morning (Twitter link) that the Rockies don't consider Anderson a trade candidate. The team is planning to pick up his $12MM option or sign him to a longer-term deal. It would seem that Anderson's ground-ball arsenal is appealing to the Rockies, who play in the hitter-friendly Coors Field. Colorado has shown an unwillingness to move any of its starting pitchers, as reports have indicated that they're unlikely to move Jorge De La Rosa as well, despite his status as an impending free agent.
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Full Story | Comments | Categories: Brett Anderson | Colorado Rockies | New York Yankees | Newsstand
Quick Hits: Gillies, Anderson
Which is the better strategy for building a good team — a "stars and scrubs" approach, or a balanced roster with few stars? Jonah Keri and Neil Paine recently tackled that question for FiveThirtyEight.com, and their answer is a complex one. One can build a good team with either approach, although the "stars and scrubs" strategy might not be financially feasible for many small-market teams. And based on fWAR, the most balanced rosters (such as that of the 1976 Pirates) tend to be much better teams than the most unbalanced rosters (such as that of the 2004 Diamondbacks, which featured Randy Johnson, Brandon Webb and little else). Johnson finished second in Cy Young balloting that year and led the league with 290 strikeouts, and yet the Diamondbacks still finished 51-111, proving pretty clearly that it's almost impossible for one player to carry an entire 25-man roster. Here are more notes from around baseball.
- The Phillies have suspended outfielder Tyson Gillies for three games for doing damage to a bat rack and wall after striking out four times in a Triple-A game, Matt Gelb of the Inquirer reports. Gillies was one of three players the Phillies acquired when they shipped Cliff Lee to the Mariners in 2009. At 25, he continues to struggle at the Triple-A level and still hasn't made it to the big leagues.
- The Rockies have placed pitcher Brett Anderson on the 60-day disabled list, Patrick Saunders of the Denver Post tweets. Anderson had surgery on a fractured finger. The Rockies acquired Anderson from the Athletics in December for Drew Pomeranz and Chris Jensen, and it looks like they're going to get very little out of him in the first half of the season.
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Full Story | Comments | Categories: Brett Anderson | Colorado Rockies | Philadelphia Phillies
Injury Notes: Anderson, Moore, Phillies, Yankees, Red Sox
Needless to say, the season has gotten of to a rough start in terms of injury news. Offering some hope, perhaps, Baseball America's J.J. Cooper writes (answering a reader question) that two-time Tommy John patients have a better track record of recovery than is perhaps commonly thought. Here's the latest on a few situations around the league that have (or could have had) hot stove implications:
- Rockies starter Brett Anderson is expected to be out for a lengthy stretch with a broken index finger, as he will need four to six weeks to recover before rehabbing, according to Thomas Harding of MLB.com (via Twitter). The 26-year-old, who has had more than his share of injury troubles in recent campaigns, will undergo surgery to have pins inserted in the finger, according to Patrick Saunders of the Denver Post (via Twitter). Anderson was a major offseason acquisition for the Rockies, coming over in exchange for one-time top prospect Drew Pomeranz, who has been working out of the pen for the Athletics this year. Fortunately for Colorado, the team appears to have enough in-house options to cover in the meantime.
- Rays starter Matt Moore played catch today as he and the team assess whether the young lefty can avoid Tommy John surgery, according to a report from Marc Topkin of the Tampa Bay Times. "Actually [trainer Ron Porterfield] said he threw okay," said manager Joe Maddon, "but I'm waiting to hear back from him what the final analysis is. Nothing yet. [Porterfield] said he turned it loose a little bit too, so we'll see. That was probably a good test for him. The word pain was not used. [Porterfield] told me he actually threw the ball pretty good."
- For the Phillies, starter A.J. Burnett intends to pitch through a hernia, and the team will finally welcome back reliever Mike Adams from the DL in the coming days, Jim Salisbury of CSNPhilly.com reports. Adams was a major free agent addition last year, but threw only 25 innings of 3.96 ERA ball last year before going down to a labrum and rotator cuff tear. Adams' contract contains a $6MM club option for 2015 that would vest if he throws 60 innings this year, but that provision will be voided if he is not available on Opening Day next year because of the shoulder issues (since they arose before the end of the 2014 season).
- With the Yankees dealing with multiple injuries and uncertainty in the infield, the obvious question is whether the team will revisit the possibility of signing Stephen Drew. John Harper of the New York Daily News argues that the team should do just that, noting that Drew can upgrade up the middle this year while providing value in any future years he signs on for. But Wallace Mathews of ESPNNewYork.com reports cites a source who says that there is "no way" the team will sign Drew or fellow free agent Kendrys Morales.
- Red Sox second baseman Dustin Pedroia got good news today, as he learned that his left wrist issues do not appear to be serious, Pete Abraham of the Boston Globe reported on Twitter. As fellow Herald reporter Scott Lauber reported later this afternoon, an MRI showed no structural damage that would warrant concern. The team has confirmed the reports while adding that closer Koji Uehara has no structural damage in his shoulder, Tim Britton of the Providence Journal tweets.
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Full Story | Comments | Categories: Boston Red Sox | Brett Anderson | Colorado Rockies | Matt Moore | New York Yankees | Philadelphia Phillies | Tampa Bay Rays
Blue Jays Pursued Trades For Kinsler, Anderson
The Blue Jays almost finalized trades that would've seen them acquire Ian Kinsler from the Rangers and Brett Anderson from the Athletics earlier this winter, but both deals ended up as "near-misses," Sportsnet's Shi Davidi reports.
Kinsler, of course, was part of the offseason's biggest blockbuster to date, when he was traded to the Tigers in exchange for Prince Fielder and $30MM. Before that deal occurred, however, the Jays' proposed swap for the second baseman fell through due to Kinsler's partial no-trade clause that allowed him to block deals to up to 10 teams. It's unknown what the Jays would have given up for Kinsler, though I would guess it would've been on a much lesser scale than Fielder; it wouldn't have made much sense for Toronto create another hole in the lineup by dealing the likes of Jose Bautista or Edwin Encarnacion.
The Jays had long been rumored to be suitors for Anderson and they discussed a trade with the A's that would've sent Sergio Santos to Oakland in return for the southpaw. Anderson's extensive injury history, however, ended up dimming Toronto's interest and Anderson was instead traded to the Rockies in December. Interestingly, the Jays also had Santos tabbed to go to the Rangers as part of a potential three-team deal in November that was scuttled when another player in the deal failed his physical.
Second base and the starting rotation were the Blue Jays' two biggest areas of need going into the offseason, so had these two would-be deals gone through, GM Alex Anthopoulos' winter shopping could have essentially been complete. With January almost over, however, the Jays are still looking for rotation upgrades and a Ryan Goins/Maicer Izturis platoon is still penciled into the keystone position.
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Full Story | Comments | Categories: Brett Anderson | Ian Kinsler | Oakland Athletics | Sergio Santos | Texas Rangers | Toronto Blue Jays
AL West Notes: Wilson, Young, Angels, Morrison
The Rangers made headlines today by selecting Seattle Seahawks quarterback Russell Wilson in the minor league portion of the Rule 5 Draft. Before going on to NFL stardom, Wilson was selected by the Rockies as a second baseman in the fourth round of the 2010 draft, and Colorado retained its rights to Wilson until this morning. Wilson will report to Spring Training and talk to the Rangers' minor leaguers in a motivational capacity. "We decided if he ever wanted to play again, he'd be a guy that we'd want with us," Texas assistant GM A.J. Preller told reporters, including MLB.com's Richard Justice. The Wilson selection isn't a gimmick, ESPN's Richard Durrett writes, and Jon Daniels is excited to have Wilson's winning qualities in the organization, though Daniels stressed that the club isn't trying to distract Wilson from his NFL goals. Here's more out of the AL West…
- Shin-Soo Choo and Nelson Cruz remain unsigned, which is good news for the Rangers, ESPN Dallas' Richard Durrett writes. The Rangers like both players and are hoping that their asking prices drop the longer they stay on the market. Daniels said that his team's pursuit of Choo was "unchanged" from yesterday.
- There is a chance that Michael Young could rejoin the Rangers if both parties see a fit, MLB.com's Jesse Sanchez tweets. Texas dealt its longtime franchise staple to the Phillies last offseason and Young was subsequently dealt to the Dodgers in August.
- Despite recent rumors linking the Angels to Matt Garza and Raul Ibanez, general manager Jerry Dipoto told reporters (including Bill Shaikin of the L.A. Times) that his team doesn't have any outstanding offers to free agents.
- In a special piece for FOX Sports, new Mariners first baseman/outfielder Logan Morrison wrote about the experience of being traded to a new team. Morrison's piece is particularly fascinating in that it was written prior to the trade that sent him to Seattle. LoMo says he doesn't have any ill feelings toward the Marlins organization, adding that contrary to public opinion, owner Jeffrey Loria was "great and generous" to Morrison and his family. Loria allowed Morrison and his family to use his personal plane to get to Kansas City for the funeral of Morrison's father.
- The Astros spoke to the Marlins about Morrison and also pursued Corey Hart and Mike Morse, MLB.com's Brian McTaggart reports. Jose Veras rejected the Astros' initial contract offer but the two sides still share a mutual interest in a reunion.
- The Yankees, Indians, Braves, Phillies, Blue Jays, Twins and Indians were all involved in trade talks for Brett Anderson before the Athletics sent the right-hander to the Rockies, writes Susan Slusser of the San Francisco Chronicle.
MLBTR's Mark Polishuk also contributed to this post
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Full Story | Comments | Categories: Brett Anderson | Corey Hart | Houston Astros | Jose Veras | Logan Morrison | Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim | Matt Garza | Miami Marlins | Michael Morse | Michael Young | Nelson Cruz | Oakland Athletics | Raul Ibanez | Seattle Mariners | Shin-Soo Choo | Texas Rangers


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With its traditional business lines flagging, the Postal Service is actively exploring digital products and services. (Photo by AndyC, Wikimedia Commons)
Few government agencies interact with the public quite as directly and frequently as the U.S. Postal Service does -- and that high-touch relationship brings with it opportunities. The USPS Office of the Inspector General (OIG) on Jan. 7 released a new whitepaper detailing e-government possibilities for the agency tasked with physical mail delivery. The report is the latest in an ongoing research effort by the OIG into Postal's digital future.
The new paper explains the evolutionary stages of e-government, which include the interaction and integration of digital services for citizens and other agencies. Serious obstacles remain, however -- the report cites the lack of universal standards and the understandable privacy concerns involving passwords and home addresses. Yet if the Postal Service could provide solutions to these issues, it would both drastically improve government services and secure a future mission for itself. The OIG report suggests that such changes are possible, and cites international examples of how the digital strategy can succeed.
Other agencies would also benefit from a postal service e-government offering, the report argues. The Department of Defense, for example, began a program last summer to digitize incoming mail for Pentagon staff, but does not do the same for outgoing mail, so "the Postal Service could offer hybrid mail services with legal standing and force of law to complete the physical-digital cycle for DOD and other agencies," according to the report. It also notes ways the e-government strategy will help agencies such as the IRS, FCC, Treasury and FEMA, among others, to cut costs and increase efficiency.
The full report can be found at http://www.uspsoig.gov/foia_files/RARC-WP-13-003.pdf.
About the Author
Emily Cole is an editorial intern for FCW.
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1 Where Are They Now: Hall of Fame Icons
Being a member of the Interior...
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3 Andrée Putman, Hall of Fame Legend, Dies at 87
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Deborah Wilk | March 01, 2012
The true homecoming occurred when Lake Flato Architects, building a new Cranbrook Kingswood Middle School for Girls, asked his firm, Nosanchuk, to develop a torchère based on one from the original building. In terms of geometry and detail, the lamp combines the stepped form of the new structure with the arts and crafts ornamentation of the original. That symbolism wasn't lost at the opening ceremony, when an illuminated mock-up of the torchère symbolized the transfer of "living light" from one building to the next. Since then, he has focused on developing a lighting line in addition to producing a rug and furniture for his old school.
Photography by Justin MaconochieNosanchuk.


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Food Flashes
Food Flashes focuses on what's happening in the dining community, from restaurant openings and closings, to chef changes, to heart-healthy menus to kids' specials.
Della Casa continues his quest for 'Star Salvation'
The third week for Luca Della Casa on the web series "Star Salvation" brought a new challenger, Aryen Moore-Alston, who was cut from "Food Network Star" because the judges found her communication skills lacking. Moore-Alston, Della Casa and previous season fan favorite Chad Rosenthal received a new challenge: to conduct an interview and answer questions […] [Read More]
On the Rocks Pub to open downtown
Slated to open downtown later this summer, On the Rocks Pub aims to be a traditional bar without the fancy cocktails. Targeting an opening date of mid-August, co-owner Justin Vitek said the bar won't follow the craft cocktail movement that's become popular in San Antonio. Rather, his place will offer basic cocktails, bottled and canned […] [Read More]
Wing Zone set to open North Side location
The San Antonio area's third Wing Zone restaurant is set to open July 5 at 11019 Culebra, Suite 122, on the city's North Side, franchise owner Irfan Mohammed said Thursday. The Culebra location joins Wing Zone restaurants at Fort Sam Houston and on Callaghan Road. Wing Zone specializes in wings, and also delivers. [Read More]
Culinaria's Restaurant Week set for Aug. 16-23
Culinaria has announced details for San Antonio Restaurant Week. Scheduled for Aug. 16-23, Restaurant Week benefits the community outreach programs of Culinaria, a not-for-profit organization that works to promote San Antonio as a premier wine and food destination. For each meal ordered during Restaurant Week, restaurants will donate $1 for lunch and $2 for dinner […] [Read More]
Sea Island Shrimp House introduces summer dish
Sea Island Shrimp House, multiple locations, is offering a new summer dish. Fish Isabel is a wild-caught Atlantic whitefish in a fresh lemon butter sauce with artichokes, mushrooms, tomatoes and a touch of garlic, served with steamed vegetables, rice pilaf and a toasted baguette for $11.99. Fish Isabel can also be ordered with wild-caught Texas […] [Read More]
Retail center in River North lands tenants, Bakery Lorraine
A small shopping center in Mahncke Park is trying to build on the growing community vibe in the area, landing tenants such as Bakery Lorraine's production facility. The retail center is located about a mile east of Broadway at the corner of Eleanor and North New Braunfels avenues. Bakery Lorraine, which is moving its shop into former […] [Read More]
Taste section welcomes new writer
Valentino Lucio will join the Taste team Monday. He has covered real estate, technology and the local beer industry for Business for the past few years, many times breaking news about restaurants, breweries and distilleries. Valentino will build on that experience as a food and drink writer for Taste, covering a variety of topics for […] [Read More]
Bavarian Brauhaus opening soon
Bavarian Brauhaus, 300 W Bitters Road, will open June 30. The authentic German menu will feature dishes such as rinderrouladen, thinly sliced beef filled with Dijon mustard, onions, bacon and pickle covered in a rosemary rouladen gravy; veal or pork wienerschnitzel; and homemade bratwurst, currywurst and Nürnberger sausages. It will be open 11 a.m.-10 p.m. […] [Read More]


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Town Square
Mixed-Media Collage Exhibition at CSMA's Mohr Gallery
Original post made by csma, another community, on Jun 3, 2008
The show includes more than 20 works by Inge Infante and 8 of her adult students: Heidi Archdeacon, Wileta Burch, Dorit Elisha, Jeanne Mankinen, Linda Powers, Conni Rizzuto, Lea Schnipper and Linda Tapscott. Inge's students come from diverse backgrounds, some with extensive art training. Others have professional careers as doctors, therapists, and photographers who have found collage to be an art form offering the opportunity to experiment, explore and discover through combining random ideas in a visual form.
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November 29, 2014
MADISON, Wis. (AP) -- The Wisconsin Assembly is set to approve a bill that would expand cities and villages' powers to enforce marijuana ordinances after district attorneys decline to prosecute.
Right now municipalities can enact and enforce ordinances prohibiting possession of 25 grams or less of marijuana or synthetic marijuana. But they can't prosecute anyone who possesses more than 25 grams or for second-offense possession of any amount.
The Republican bill would let municipalities to enact ordinances prohibiting possession of any amount of marijuana and give them authority to prosecute second offenses, giving them more options if prosecutors decide not to file criminal charges.
The Senate passed the bill in September. The Assembly is set to vote on the proposal Tuesday afternoon. Approval would send the measure on to Gov. Scott Walker.
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We use cookies to give you the best experience on our website. By using our website we'll assume that you are happy to receive cookies from the Open Farm Sunday website. Click here to learn how to change your settings and see our privacy policy.
From 1st December 2014 you will be able to Register your event online here. By registering, details of your event will go live on this website in the 'find a farm' database so that people can search for and find your event - but don't worry if you want to keep it private, you can do this too!
If you have any questions you would like answered do contact your Open Farm Sunday Regional Co-ordinator or ring the LEAF office.
See you on 7th June 2015!
Quick Links - Home | About | Visit a Farm | Shop | Open my Farm | Media | LEAF | Contact Us | Sponsors | Search for a farm | Health and safety information | @OpenFarmSunday on twitter | Open Farm Sunday on facebook | The Open Farm Sunday blog
All content © LEAF 2014 unless otherwise stated. Open Farm Sunday is run by LEAF, a registered charity (no. 1045781)


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Stereo Skyline! Pro
Powerpop / Pop / Rock
Long Island, NY
Indie / Rock
Beverly Hills, CA
3OH!3 Pro
Rock / Electronic
Boulder, CO
Indie / Rock / Alternative
Greece, NY
The Killers Pro
Rock / Pop
Las Vegas, NV
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hey whats up? I'm matt. This is a profile for my clothing company "Nomad Threads". Comment back and Lemme know what u think of my clothes if you're bored? Also if you might be interested we are organizing a modeling contest where you could win a bunch of free clothes and other prizes. if you're interested just MSG me I'll send u all the details May 01


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Listen to free music played by BostonWriter
Blip.fm is internet radio made social. It's easy to search for, play, and discover free music recommended by real people. Join today to create your own free station and start listening to @BostonWriter.
English Beat – end of the party| play
Sep 25, 2012 at 10:10 pm via YouTube | AMAZON | ITUNES
What other DJs are saying about English Beat - end of the party
DaddyCrocodile Speaking of parties, do it now.
Dec 8, 2011 at 12:31 am via YouTube | AMAZON | ITUNES
dnguns in maintaining my dork status i may see these guys in december.