text:
Highly efficient Cu(In,Ga)Se2 solar cells grown on flexible polymer films.
ABSTRACT Solar cells based on polycrystalline Cu(In,Ga)Se(2) absorber layers have yielded the highest conversion efficiency among all thin-film technologies, and the use of flexible polymer films as substrates offers several advantages in lowering manufacturing costs. However, given that conversion efficiency is crucial for cost-competitiveness, it is necessary to develop devices on flexible substrates that perform as well as those obtained on rigid substrates. Such comparable performance has not previously been achieved, primarily because polymer films require much lower substrate temperatures during absorber deposition, generally resulting in much lower efficiencies. Here we identify a strong composition gradient in the absorber layer as the main reason for inferior performance and show that, by adjusting it appropriately, very high efficiencies can be obtained. This implies that future manufacturing of highly efficient flexible solar cells could lower the cost of solar electricity and thus become a significant branch of the photovoltaic industry.
- SourceAvailable from: Christoph Huber[Show abstract] [Hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Aims: Today's cardiac pacemakers are powered by batteries with limited energy capacity. As the battery's lifetime ends, the pacemaker needs to be replaced. This surgical re-intervention is costly and bears the risk of complications. Thus, a pacemaker without primary batteries is desirable. The goal of this study was to test whether transcutaneous solar light could power a pacemaker. Methods and results: We used a three-step approach to investigate the feasibility of sunlight-powered cardiac pacing. First, the harvestable power was estimated. Theoretically, a subcutaneously implanted 1 cm2 solar module may harvest ∼2500 µW from sunlight (3 mm implantation depth). Secondly, ex vivo measurements were performed with solar cells placed under pig skin flaps exposed to a solar simulator and real sunlight. Ex vivo measurements under real sunlight resulted in a median output power of 4941 µW/cm2 [interquartile range (IQR) 3767–5598 µW/cm2, median skin flap thickness 3.0 mm (IQR 2.7–3.3 mm)]. The output power strongly depended on implantation depth (ρSpearman = −0.86, P < 0.001). Finally, a batteryless single-chamber pacemaker powered by a 3.24 cm2 solar module was implanted in vivo in a pig to measure output power and to pace. In vivo measurements showed a median output power of >3500 µW/cm2 (skin flap thickness 2.8–3.84 mm). Successful batteryless VVI pacing using a subcutaneously implanted solar module was performed. Conclusion: Based on our results, we estimate that a few minutes of direct sunlight (irradiating an implanted solar module) allow powering a pacemaker for 24 h using a suitable energy storage. Thus, powering a pacemaker by sunlight is feasible and may be an alternative energy supply for tomorrow's pacemakers.Europace 01/2014; · 2.77 Impact Factor
Article: A comparison between thin film solar cells made from co-evaporated CuIn1-xGaxSe2 using a one-stage process versus a three-stage process[Show abstract] [Hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: Until this day, the most efficient Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin film solar cells have been prepared using a rather complex growth process often referred to as three-stage or multistage. This family of processes is mainly characterized by a first step deposited with only In, Ga and Se flux to form a first layer. Cu is added in a second step until the film becomes slightly Cu-rich, where-after the film is converted to its final Cu-poor composition by a third stage, again with no or very little addition of Cu. In this paper, a comparison between solar cells prepared with the three-stage process and a one-stage/in-line process with the same composition, thickness, and solar cell stack is made. The one-stage process is easier to be used in an industrial scale and do not have Cu-rich transitions. The samples were analyzed using glow discharge optical emission spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, current–voltage-temperature, capacitance-voltage, external quantum efficiency, transmission/reflection, and photoluminescence. It was concluded that in spite of differences in the texturing, morphology and Ga gradient, the electrical performance of the two types of samples is quite similar as demonstrated by the similar J–V behavior, quantum spectral response, and the estimated recombination losses. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.Progress in Photovoltaics Research and Applications 01/2014; · 7.71 Impact Factor
- [Show abstract] [Hide abstract]
ABSTRACT: An all-solid-state, lightweight, flexible, and wearable polymer solar cell (PSC) textile with reasonable photovoltaic performance has been developed. A metal textile electrode made from micrometer-sized metal wires is used as the cathode, and the surfaces of the metal wires are dip-coated with the photoactive layers. Two ultrathin, transparent, and aligned carbon nanotube sheets that exhibit remarkable electronic and mechanical properties were coated onto the modified metal textile at both sides as the anode to produce the desired PSC textile. Because of the designed sandwich structure, the PSC textile displays the same energy conversion efficiencies regardless of which side it is irradiated from. As expected, the PSC textiles are highly flexible, and their energy conversion efficiencies varied by less than 3 % after bending for more than 200 cycles. The PSC textile shows an areal density (5.9 mg cm−2) that is lower than that of flexible film-based PSCs (31.3 mg cm−2).Angewandte Chemie 08/2014;
Page 1
Highly efficient Cu(In,Ga)Se2solar cells grown on
flexible polymer films
Adrian Chiril˘ a1*†, Stephan Buecheler1, Fabian Pianezzi1, Patrick Bloesch1, Christina Gretener1,
Alexander R. Uhl1, Carolin Fella1, Lukas Kranz1, Julian Perrenoud1, Sieghard Seyrling1,
Rajneesh Verma1, Shiro Nishiwaki1, Yaroslav E. Romanyuk1, Gerhard Bilger2and Ayodhya N. Tiwari1
Solar cells based on polycrystalline Cu(In,Ga)Se2 absorber
layers have yielded the highest conversion efficiency among
all thin-film technologies1–3, and the use of flexible polymer
films as substrates offers several advantages in lowering man-
ufacturing costs. However, given that conversion efficiency is
crucial for cost-competitiveness, it is necessary to develop
tained on rigid substrates. Such comparable performance has
not previously been achieved, primarily because polymer films
require much lower substrate temperatures during absorber
deposition, generally resulting in much lower efficiencies4.
Here we identify a strong composition gradient in the ab-
sorber layer as the main reason for inferior performance and
show that, by adjusting it appropriately, very high efficiencies
can be obtained. This implies that future manufacturing of
highly efficient flexible solar cells could lower the cost of
solar electricity and thus become a significant branch of the
photovoltaic industry.
Renewable energies are gaining considerable interest as an
alternative to other sources of energy such as fossil fuels and
nuclear energy. Photovoltaic (PV) devices used for the direct
conversion of light into electricity are a viable option for a safe
and sustainable future. Nowadays, the Si wafer-based technology
has attained industrial maturity, but several other new emerging
technologies based on thin-film5, dye-sensitized6, and organic
materials7have attracted the attention of researchers. The current
focus of R&D in the field of PV is directed towards highly
efficient low-cost devices that produce solar electricity at a
price meeting grid parity. One of the most promising thin-
film technologies is based on the polycrystalline chalcopyrite
Cu(In,Ga)Se2(CIGS), where conversion efficiencies of up to 20.3%
have been demonstrated on rigid glass substrates3. Manufacturing
solar cells on flexible substrates is highly attractive because it
enables implementation of roll-to-roll deposition methods that
compared to conventional batch-to-batch or in-line methods used
for rigid glass substrates.
The most promising flexible substrates are metal and polyimide
(PI) films. The stability under mechanical stress of CIGS solar cells
on PI has been tested, proving a high degree of flexibility (see
Methods). In comparison with metal foils, PI has the advantage of
being electrically insulating and thus enabling direct monolithical
costs in contrast to conventional methods where finished cells are
1Laboratory for Thin Films and Photovoltaics, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Ueberlandstrasse 129, CH-8600
Duebendorf, Switzerland,2Institut für Physikalische Elektronik IPE, Universität Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 47, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.†Present address:
Empa, Photovoltaics (130), Ueberlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland. *e-mail:email@example.com.
interconnectedtomodulesbywiringindividualcells. Furthermore,
PI is free of metallic impurities that could diffuse into the
CIGS layer during processing and adversely affect the electronic
properties. However, the maximum applicable temperature for
PI is significantly lower—typically below 500◦C—than for metal
foils and glass substrates, which can withstand temperatures of
up to 600◦C or even higher. This restriction of lower maximum
substrate temperatures on PI has for a long time constrained the
maximum demonstrated conversion efficiencies of CIGS solar cells
on PI to below 16% (refs 9–12). It was previously unknown which
fundamental issues of low-temperature grown CIGS restrict the
Figure 1a shows a schematic band diagram of a CIGS solar cell
under zero-bias voltage condition. Molybdenum is the preferred
electrical back contact because, during the growth of the CIGS
absorber, a thin interface layer of MoSe2is formed, resulting in
a quasi-ohmic contact13. The p–n junction is formed between the
p-type CIGS absorber layer and the n-type CdS and ZnO layers,
which causes bending of the valence and conduction bands. The
CIGS layer divides into a majority charge carrier depleted space
charge region (SCR) and a quasi-neutral region (QNR). Incoming
light with higher energy than the CIGS bandgap is mostly absorbed
within the first micrometre of the absorber layer, where it creates
electron–hole pairs that are spatially separated by the internal
charge carriers (electrons) from the CIGS absorber layer is essential
for achieving maximum conversion efficiencies. Figure 1b depicts a
Fig. 1cisaphotographofasamplewithCIGSsolarcellsonPI.
The first chalcopyrite I–III–VI2solar cells were developed in the
1970s and were based on Ga-free absorbers14. It was only after 1990
that alloying of Ga into the compound was found to significantly
improve the device efficiency because of the potential to engineer
the bandgap of CIGS continuously from around 1.0eV for pure
CIS (Ga-free) to 1.7eV for pure CGS (In-free). The addition of
Ga primarily increases the conduction band minimum EC, whereas
the valence band maximum EVis only slightly affected15. State-of-
the-art CIGS devices generally have an average bandgap energy of
around 1.2eV, corresponding to a relative gallium content of x =
[Ga]/([Ga]+[In])=0.3–0.4. Devices with the highest efficiencies
are obtained with CIGS grown by elemental co-evaporation, where
three-stage process was developed, which is now regarded by many
as a landmark in the fabrication of CIGS devices16. In brief, the
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1.2 eV
2.4 eV
2 µm
Mo ZnOCdS CIGS
Figure 1|Electronic and optical structure of CIGS solar cells. a, Schematic
band diagram of a CIGS solar cell under zero-bias voltage condition. The
Mo back contact is covered with a CIGS absorber layer which optimally has
an average bandgap energy of about 1.2eV. The p–n junction is formed with
a n-type CdS buffer layer that has a bandgap energy of around 2.4eV. The
front contact consists of a bilayer of intrinsic and aluminium-doped ZnO
layers that have a wide bandgap over 3eV. Indicated as well are the
conduction band energy EC, valence band energy EV, Fermi level EF, space
charge region (SCR), and quasi-neutral region (QNR). b, Scanning electron
micrograph of a cross-section obtained from a complete CIGS device on PI
with an efficiency greater than 18%. To minimize reflection losses a top
layer of MgF2is used. c, Photograph of a sample on PI with single cells.
three-stage process consists of a deposition stage of In, Ga, and Se
first, followed by the deposition of Cu and Se in the second stage.
In the third stage, the growth is terminated by again depositing
In, Ga and Se. Owing to a preferred reaction of In with Cu over
Ga with Cu during film growth17, this deposition sequence results
in a double-graded composition profile with a higher Ga content
is a key parameter that determines the grading profile22. To study
the effect of different Ga gradients, we developed several processes
for CIGS growth on flexible PI substrates and investigated the
properties of layers and solar cells23.
In the present work, we analyse three devices on PI of
significantly different performance levels and correlate their
electronic properties to the grading profile. A first sample was
grownwithaconventionalthree-stageprocess(Fig. 2a)andyielded
an efficiency of about 16% (Sample A), as measured in-house. A
second sample with a certified 17.6% efficiency device (Sample B)
was obtained by a modified growth recipe23(Fig. 2b). The novel
growth process24(Fig. 2c) resulted in a certified 18.7% efficiency
device (Sample C). To the best of our knowledge, this is the
first time a solar cell grown on a flexible substrate with an
efficiency exceeding 18% has been demonstrated. The parameters
of the cell, with a total area of 0.582cm2, are open-circuit voltage
VOC= 712mV, short-circuit current density JSC= 34.8mAcm−2,
fill factor FF = 75.7%, and efficiency η = 18.7%. Figure 2d shows
the measured current–voltage and power–voltage curves of this
solar cell. Figure 2e presents the corresponding external quantum
efficiency (EQE) measurement.
To analyse the composition profiles, the CIGS layers were
investigated with secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and the
resulting Ga profiles of the three samples are shown in Fig. 2f. The
heights of the front grading part ?xf and the back grading part
?xbare indicated. A significant reduction of ?xf from 0.38 for
sample A to 0.16 for sample C is observed. The height of the back
surface grading ?xbis also reduced, but we believe that this has
only a minor influence on device performance in the present case.
The relatively wide and flat part of low gallium content, in the case
of sample C, was achieved using an appropriately timed dosage
of Ga supply throughout film growth. These observations were
confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), and the diffraction patterns
ofthedominantreflectionsareshowninFig. 2g.Theincorporation
of Ga into CIS results in a smaller lattice constant and thus a
higher diffraction angle. Therefore, a graded Ga profile results in
a characteristic peak profile25. In the case of sample A, a shoulder
towards lower diffraction angle indicates a relatively wide region
of Ga-poor composition in the film. For sample B this shoulder is
higher and closer to the main peak, indicating a less pronounced
grading profile. Sample C clearly has the narrowest peak width and,
The influence of a more pronounced front grading profile
and experimentally by various groups26,27. Generally, it is assumed
that electrons generated within the SCR are efficiently collected
owing to the presence of a strong electric field. However, the
application of forward bias voltage, which corresponds to the
case when a solar cell is under operation, reduces the SCR width
significantly, and thus a larger ?xfvalue can result in a barrier for
electrons. The effect of this barrier is not directly apparent from
because the thermal energy is sufficient for most of the electrons
to overcome it. Nevertheless, it can be expected to act as a source
of increased recombination, mainly reducing VOCand FF of the
To investigate the possibility of such a barrier induced by a
?xf value that is too high, we performed temperature-dependent
current–voltage measurements on devices from all three samples;
the resulting measured curves are shown in Fig. 3a,c, and e for
barely visible in the case of sample B, and is not detectable in the
case of sample C, at least not in the measured temperature range.
This behaviour is explained as a barrier that reflects electrons and
results in a double diode curve, as measured in the case of sample A
at the lowest temperature. To further corroborate this correlation
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Intensity (a.u.)
x = [Ga]/([Ga]+[In])
x = [Ga]/([Ga]+[In])
Sample A
Sample B
Sample C
Approximate sputter depth (μm)
2θ (°)
Sample A
Sample B
Sample C
Dep. rates (a.u.)
Sample A
Time (min)
In, Ga
Sample B
In, Ga
Sample C
Wavelength (nm)
JSC (mA cm¬2)
Power (mW)
0 10 20 30405060
Dep. rates (a.u.)
Time (min)
0 10 20 30405060
Dep. rates (a.u.)
Time (min)
0 10 20 30405060
0 0.1 0.2 0.30.40.5 0.6 0.7
300 500 700 900 1,100
00.51.01.5 2.0
Figure 2|Deposition processes, optoelectronic properties, and
composition profile analysis. a–c, Metal deposition rates of the three CIGS
evaporation processes for the three samples (A–C). For the sake of clarity,
the profiles are normalized to yield the same area for each metal. The newly
developed process for sample C includes many features that enable
fine-tuning of the Ga grading profile. Most important is the decoupling of
the In versus Ga rate throughout the process as well as the introduction of a
significant amount of Ga in the middle of the deposition process.
d, Current–voltage and power–voltage curves of the certified 18.7%
efficiency device. e, Corresponding external quantum efficiency
measurement (EQE). f, Depth profiles of the three samples (A–C) showing
the relative Ga content x along the CIGS film depth as assessed by SIMS
measurements. Indicated are the front grading heights ?xfand back
grading heights ?xb. g, Corresponding XRD spectra of the dominant
(204)/(220) reflections obtained from the three samples (A–C). Indicated
on the left axis is the approximate corresponding relative Ga content x
assuming a linear dependence between the diffraction angle and x.
between the grading profiles and the observed electronic behaviour
of the devices, we carried out simulations using the program
SCAPS (refs 29,30)—an analytical tool developed to investigate the
dependence of the properties of thin-film polycrystalline solar cells
on the properties of all involved layers and interfaces. For that
purpose, a parameter set typical for CIGS devices was chosen and
kept constant for all three devices, except for the bandgap grading
profile of the CIGS layer and the SCR width, which was adapted
according to values that have been determined from capacitance–
voltage measurements (see Methods). The resulting simulated
temperature-dependent current–voltage curves are shown in
Fig. 3b, d, and f, and correspond to the measured data shown in
Fig. 3a, c, and e, respectively. The fact that measured and simulated
curves are in good correlation strongly indicates that the observed
Voltage (V)
Sample A
Sample C
Sample B
Current density (a.u.)
Depth (µm)
x = [Ga]/([Ga] + [In])
x = [Ga]/([Ga] + [In])
x = [Ga]/([Ga] + [In])
00.20.40.6 0.81.0
Voltage (V)
Current density (a.u.)
00.2 0.40.60.81.0
Voltage (V)
Current density (a.u.)
Voltage (V)
Current density (a.u.)
0 0.20.40.6 0.81.0
Voltage (V)
Current density (a.u.)
00.20.40.6 0.81.0
Voltage (V)
Current density (a.u.)
00.2 0.4 0.60.81.0
Depth (µm)
Depth (µm)
Figure 3|Temperature-dependent current–voltage measurements and
simulations. a,c,e, Current density versus voltage measurements of the
three samples (A–C) at different temperatures ranging from room
temperature (RT) to 123K, respectively. b,d,f, SCAPS simulations at the
same temperatures with approximated grading profiles of the three
samples (A–C), respectively. Grading profiles used for the simulation as
well as profiles obtained by SIMS are shown in the insets. The short-circuit
currents are normalized in all curves for better comparison.
To illustrate the observed blocking behaviour, Fig. 4 shows
(Fig. 4a) and an optimized grading profile (Fig. 4b) under forward
bias condition. Applying a forward bias voltage VBiasnecessitates
the definition of two quasi-Fermi levels EF,nand EF,pwithin the
SCR. A grading profile that is too pronounced (Fig. 4a) can result
in a notch in the conduction band edge ECwhich acts as a drain
that traps electrons and leads to enhanced recombination with
holes from the valence band EV. Measured current–voltage curves
at lower temperatures (Fig. 3) manifest the blocking behaviour,
as electrons generated within the notch and deeper inside the
absorber layer have insufficient thermal energy to overcome this
barrier. Adjusting the bandgap grading profile (Fig. 4b) of CIGS
grown at low temperature on PI is therefore essential to reduce
In summary, the growth of CIGS absorber layers on flexible PI
or glass substrates—has been investigated. The lower temperature
results in a more pronounced bandgap grading profile when
conventional evaporation processes are applied. Under a forward
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MoZnO CdSCIGS
Figure 4|Illustration of the electronic barrier. a, Schematic band diagram
of the p–n junction under a forward bias voltage VBiaswhich splits the
Fermi-level within the SCR into two quasi-Fermi levels EF,nand EF,pas the
thermodynamic equilibrium is disturbed. In the case of a too strong Ga
grading profile this results in a notch behind the SCR which increases the
probability of electrons recombining with holes in the QNR and thus
reduces the performance of the solar cell. b, The same for an optimized
grading condition where electrons are efficiently collected and the
recombination minimized.
side induces a strong barrier for electrons generated in the absorber
layer, leading to enhanced recombination losses, and thus results in
lower conversion efficiencies. This finding has been corroborated
by temperature-dependent current–voltage measurements and
simulations. Hence, we have shown that adapting the grading
profile is crucial for low-temperature grown CIGS solar cells on PI
films, which has limited efficiencies to much lower values for a long
time. The demonstration of a flexible solar cell grown on PI film
with a conversion efficiency of 18.7% indicates that flexible solar
cells with efficiencies comparable to those on rigid substrates can
be developed. This efficiency value is now on a par with the highest
value of 18.8% obtained on glass at a high substrate temperature
of 600◦C in our laboratory19. Thus we believe that the PI substrate
itself is not the limiting factor in achieving even higher efficiencies,
possibly beyond 20%. However, such a further improvement
requires extensive systematic investigations to optimize all the
Solar cell processing. All devices were grown on 25µm thick PI films (UPILEX
S-25). 600nm thick Mo back contacts were deposited by DC sputtering
(sheet resistance 0.2–0.3?/square). The CIGS absorber layers were grown
in a high-vacuum evaporation chamber (base pressure ∼10−8hPa) equipped
with five effusion cells for the deposition of Cu, In, Ga, Se, and NaF. The
sodium incorporation, necessary for sodium-free substrates, was carried out
by a post-deposition treatment that had been developed previously10. All
CIGS layers were of comparable thickness. The average composition of the
layers was determined by means of X-ray fluorescence measurements (XRF)
carried out at 45kV. Kα lines together with calibrated standards were used to
calculate the concentrations, yielding [Ga]/([Ga]+[In]) values in the range of
0.31–0.36, and [Cu]/([Ga]+[In]) values in the range of 0.82–0.91. The CIGS
films were then covered with CdS of a thickness in the range of 40–100nm
by chemical bath deposition. The i-ZnO layers, with thicknesses in the range
of 50–100 nm, and ZnO:Al layers, with thicknesses of 200–400nm and sheet
resistances of approximately 50?/square, were deposited by RF sputtering.
50nm/4,000nm/50nm thick Ni/Al/Ni grids followed by 105nm thick MgF2
anti-reflection coatings were then deposited by e-beam evaporation. In the last
Scanning electron microscopy. The cross-section image (Fig. 1b) was obtained
with a Nova NanoSem230 FEI using an in-lens detector, 2kV voltage, a working
Secondary ion mass spectrometry. Depth profiling data (Fig. 2f) were obtained
with an Atomika 6500 ion microprobe system using O+
size, and a monitored area of 4% of the crater centre, corresponding to 20%×20%
blanking of each crater coordinate. The obtained x=[Ga]/([Ga]+[In]) ratios were
2primary ions. The
X-raydiffraction. The system used is a Siemens D-5000 set in the Bragg–Brentano
geometry with a step size of 0.02◦, step time of 30s, slit width of 1mm, voltage of
of 1.54060Å and 1.54439Å, respectively. The background of the spectra was
removed and the intensities normalized to their areas. The spectra (Fig. 2g) were
corrected according to composition values obtained by XRF measurements and
to the JCPDS#87-2265 standard for CIS and the JCPDS#75-104 standard for
CGS. Typically, XRD patterns obtained from CIGS films have two predominant
reflections, which correspond to different grain orientations within the film. One
is the (112) reflection, and the other the (204)/(220) reflection, which includes two
distinct orientations that generally cannot be resolved for polycrystalline films,
as their separation for bulk material is only about 0.2◦for the film compositions
analysed here20. As the CIGS layers in this work are highly (204)/(220) oriented,
with intensity ratios I(204)/(220)/I(112)≥4, the (204)/(220) reflections were used to
Solar cell performance measurements. The three devices of samples A–C were
measured under standard test conditions (1,000Wm−2, 25◦C, AM1.5G). The
independently certified measurements of sample B and sample C were performed
by the Fraunhofer Institute ISE, Freiburg, Germany. For calibrating the in-house
measurement of the solar cell on sample A, a certified solar cell was used.
Generally, the efficiencies of solar cells measured in-house in our laboratory
do not deviate by more than 3% relative to the certified measurements, which
is comparable to the experimental relative error range of 3% that is typical for
certified measurements.
Flexibility stress test. The stability under mechanical stress of solar cells which
were prepared similarly to the device of sample C has been investigated. The stress
test comprised of more than 1,000 cycles of rolling and unrolling on a cylinder with
a 2cm radius of curvature. The tests were performed on an automated industrial
stress test facility at an external laboratory. The average efficiency degradation
measured after the stress test was about 4% relative to the initial efficiency values.
To our understanding this value is satisfactory for most practical applications. The
main reason for the degradation was found to be an increase in the series resistance
of all the devices, which is explained by damage occurring in the contacting layers.
However, it must be noted that processing of such laboratory-scale devices leads to
much more severe conditions of local stress than expected in industrial large-scale
modules. The samples for research purposes are processed in frames to provide
the necessary support, causing a strong local stress and slight deformations of
the initially flat substrate. Furthermore, industrial modules require appropriate
encapsulation for protection as well as different contacting layers. As we did not
Temperature dependent current–voltage measurement. A
liquid-nitrogen-cooled cryostat was used for current–voltage measurements
in the temperature range from 123K up to room temperature. Data (Fig. 3a,c,e)
was recorded using a Keithley 2400 sourcemeter in a four-wire connection
Current–voltagesimulation. Version3.0ofSCAPS(refs29,30),aone-dimensional
at temperatures in the range from 123K up to room temperature. A stack of
ZnO:Al (200nm), i-ZnO (80nm), CdS (50nm), and CIGS (2,000nm) was used.
For the simulation of the three samples (A–C) the properties of ZnO:Al, i-ZnO,
and CdS were kept constant. The dielectric constant of the ZnO layers was set
to ε =9, and for CdS and CIGS to ε =10. For all layers, the electron and hole
mobilities were set to 100cm2(Vs)−1and 25cm2(Vs)−1, respectively. Moreover,
the effective density of states in the conduction band, NC, and in the valence band,
NV, was set to 1×1018cm-3and 1×1019cm−3for all layers. The shallow donor
concentration NDwas set to 1×1018cm−3for ZnO:Al, to 1×1017cm−3for i-ZnO,
and to 1×1018cm−3for CdS. For CIGS the shallow acceptor concentrations, NA,
were extracted from capacitance–voltage measurements at a temperature of 123K
and a frequency of 300kHz, which yielded values of 4×1015cm−3, 3×1015cm−3,
and 6×1015cm−3for samples A, B and C, respectively. For samples (A–C) the
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Page 5
absorption coefficient in the CIGS layer was set to 2×104cm−1(eV)(1/2), whereas
for ZnO and CdS layers 1×105cm−1(eV)(1/2)was used. To simplify the model,
only one neutral mid-gap defect was introduced in the CIGS layer, but no charged
defects were added. An acceptor-like mid-gap defect of NDef=1×1018cm−3was
introduced in CdS, such that the net carrier concentration of CdS is 2×1016cm−3.
The electron affinity χ of the ZnO layers was set to χ =4.6eV and for CdS to
χ =4.45eV. A parabolic bandgap grading dependence on the Ga composition
given by EgCIGS(x)=EgCIS(1−x)+xEgCGS−bx(1−x) (ref. 15) was assumed,
with EgCIS=1.01eV, EgCGS=1.65eV, and b=0.2eV. A constant valence band
energy was implemented by changing the electron affinity χ depending on x, such
that for x =0.4: EgCIGS=1.22eV and χ =4.5eV. Therefore, only the conduction
band energy ECwas affected by the composition grading. Four linearly graded
CIGS layers, with adjusted thickness, were used to reproduce the grading profiles
obtained by SIMS measurements.
Carrier concentration and space charge region width. A liquid-nitrogen-cooled
cryostat was used for capacitance–voltage measurements in the temperature range
from 123K up to room temperature. Before cooling, the samples were stored in
dark at room temperature for at least 1h to assure a relaxed state. The capacitance
was measured with an Agilent E4980A precision LCR meter at a frequency of
f =300kHz. The bias voltage was varied from −1.5V to 0.5V to calculate the
carrier concentration profile. The space charge region width W was calculated
assumingaplatecapacitorC =εA/W withdielectricconstantε=10.
Received 17 June 2011; accepted 17 August 2011; published online
18 September 2011
1. Green, M. A., Emery, K., Hishikawa, Y. & Warta, W. Solar cell efficiency table
(version 37). Prog. Photovolt. 19, 84–92 (2011).
2. Repins, I. et al. 19.9%-efficient ZnO/CdS/CuInGaSe2solar cell with 81.2% fill
factor. Prog. Photovolt. 16, 235–239 (2008).
3. Jackson, P. et al. New world record efficiency for Cu(In,Ga)Se2thin-film solar
cells beyond 20%. Prog. Photovolt. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pip.1078 (2011).
4. Shafarman, W. N. & Zhu, J. Effect of substrate temperature and deposition
473–477 (2000).
5. Chopra, K. L., Paulson, P. D. & Dutta, V. Thin film solar cells: An overview.
Prog. Photovolt. 12, 69–92 (2004).
6. Grätzel, M. Photoelectrochemical cells. Nature 414, 338–344 (2001).
7. Bernede, J. C. Organic photovoltaic cells: History, principles and techniques.
J. Chilean Chem. Soc. 53, 1549–1564 (2008).
8. Kessler, F. & Rudmann, D. Technological aspects of flexible CIGS solar cells
and modules. Sol. Energy 77, 685–695 (2004).
9. Niki,S.etal.CIGSabsorbersandprocesses.Prog.Photovolt.18,453–466 (2010).
10. Rudmann, D., Brémaud, D. G., Zogg, H. & Tiwari, A. N. Na incorporation into
Cu(In,Ga)Se2for high-efficiency solar cells on polymer foils. J. Appl. Phys. 97,
084903 (2005).
11. Caballero, R. et al. High efficiency low temperature grown Cu(In,Ga)Se2thin
19, 547–551 (2011).
12. Nakada, T. et al. Proc. 24th Eur. PV Solar Energy Conf. (EUPVSEC), 3DO.4.3
(WIP—Renewable Energies, 2010).
13. Bär, M. et al. Electronic level alignment at the deeply buried absorber/Mo
interface in chalcopyrite-based thin film solar cells. Appl. Phys. Lett. 93,
042110 (2008).
14. Shay, J. L., Wagner, S. & Kasper, H. M. Efficient CuInSe2/CdS solar cells.
Appl. Phys. Lett. 27, 89–99 (1975).
15. Wei, S-H., Zhang, S. B. & Zunger, A. Effects of Ga addition to CuInSe2
on its electronic, structural, and defect properties. Appl. Phys. Lett. 72,
3199–3201 (1998).
16. Gabor, A. M. et al. High-efficiency CuInxGa1−xSe2solar cells made from
(Inx,Ga1−x)2Se3precursor films. Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 198–200 (1994).
17. Marudachalam, M. et al. Phases, morphology, and diffusion in CuInxGa1−xSe2
thin films. J. Appl. Phys. 82, 2896–2905 (1997).
18. Contreras, M. A. et al. Graded band-gap Cu(In,Ga)Se2thin film solar
cell absorber with enhanced open-circuit voltage. Appl. Phys. Lett. 63,
1824–1826 (1993).
19. Seyrling, S. et al. Modification of the three-stage evaporation process
for CuIn1−xGaxSe2 absorber deposition. Thin Solid Films 519,
7232–7236 (2011).
20. Chirilă, A. et al. Influence of high growth rates on
evaporated Cu(In,Ga)Se2layers and solar cells. Prog. Photovolt.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pip.1122 (2011).
21. Rudmann, D. et al. Effects of NaF coevaporation on structural properties of
Cu(In,Ga)Se2thin films. Thin Solid Films 431–432, 37–40 (2003).
22. Rudmann, D. et al. Sodium incorporation strategies for CIGS growth at
different temperatures. Thin Solid Films 480–481, 55–60 (2005).
23. Chirilă,A.etal.Proc.35thIEEEPhot.Spec.Conf.(PVSC)656–660(IEEE,2010).
24. Patent pending No. PCT/IB2011/000857.
25. Bodegård, M., Lundberg, O., Lu, J. & Stolt, L. Re-crystallisation and
interdiffusion in CGS/CIS bilayers. Thin Solid Films 431–432, 46–52 (2003).
26. Lundberg,O.Band-GapProfilingandHighSpeedDepositionofCu(In,Ga)Se2for
Thin Film Solar Cells. PhD thesis, Uppsala Univ. (2003).
27. Gloeckler, M. Device Physics of Cu(In,Ga)Se2Thin-Film Solar Cells. PhD thesis,
Colorado State Univ. (2005).
28. Rau, U. & Schock, H. W. Electronic properties of Cu(In,Ga)Se2heterojunction
solar cells recent achievements, current understanding, and future challenges.
Appl. Phys. A 69, 131–147 (1999).
29. Burgelman, M., Nollet, P. & Degrave, S. Modelling polycrystalline
semiconductor solar cells. Thin Solid Films 361–362, 527–532 (2000).
30. Burgelman, M., Verschraegen, J., Degrave, S. & Nollet, P. Modeling thin-film
PV devices. Prog. Photovolt. 12, 143–153 (2004).
31. Jackson, P. et al. High quality baseline for high efficiency, Cu(In1−x,Gax)Se2
solar cells. Prog. Photovolt. 15, 507–519 (2007).
This work was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation, the Swiss Federal
Office of Energy, the European FP7 Project 'hipo-CIGS', and the Commission for
Technology and Innovation, Switzerland.
Author contributions
A.C., S.B., F.P., P.B., S.S., S.N., Y.E.R. and A.N.T. designed the research and experiments.
A.C. and P.B. fabricated the solar cells. A.C., S.B., F.P., C.G., A.R.U., C.F., L.K., J.P., R.V.,
G.B. and A.N.T. performed the characterization, simulation and analysis. A.C., S.B., C.G.
Additional information
The authors declare no competing financial interests. Reprints and permissions
information is available online at http://www.nature.com/reprints. Correspondence and
requests for materials should be addressed to A.C.
NATURE MATERIALS | VOL 10 | NOVEMBER 2011 | www.nature.com/naturematerials
© 2011 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved


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Elektrobit's Android Phone Tailored for Security; Could Win Ugliest Android Award
Discussion in 'Android News' started by dgstorm, Aug 9, 2011.
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Use the form below to get customized Kailua group hotel quotes from lodging in Kailua that welcome groups going to Kailua, HI. The avg. 3-star Kailua group hotel discount in the last year was $186.02 USD. You can also call a hotel planner to begin the process of getting Kailua group hotel rates.
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The new administrator of Haryana Urban Development Authority (HUDA) Anita Yadav on Friday ordered that excess enhancement charges levied upon allottees of plots in Sector 52 Gurgaon be returned, an official said.
The new administrator of Haryana Urban Development Authority (HUDA) Anita Yadav on Friday ordered that excess enhancement charges levied upon allottees of plots in Sector 52 Gurgaon be returned, an official said.
A team of Haryana police has arrived in Madhya Pradesh's Betul district to conduct a search at an under-construction ashram of arrested 'self-styled' godman Rampal, where his commandos were reportedly recruited, trained and sent to Hisar in Haryana.
The massive operation to locate and arrest controversial 'godman' Rampal cost the exchequer over Rs 26 crore, the Punjab and Haryana High Court was today told.
Self-styled 'godman' Sant Rampal was produced before the Punjab and Haryana High Court on Friday.
The Special Investigation Team (SIT) of Haryana Police has recovered chilli powder, lathis, helmets and small marbles during the ongoing search of Satlok ashram in Barwala town in the district.
Tight security arrangements have been made here as self-styled godman Rampal is scheduled to be produced before Punjab and Haryana High Court on Thursday here in a contempt case.
Newly-appointed Haryana BJP chief Subhash Barala on Thursday said he would act as a bridge between the party and the government and ensure that benefits of all the government schemes reaches the grassroots level.
Subhash Barala, a Haryana BJP MLA, was on Wednesday appointed as the new president of the party in Haryana.
Two Gurgaon judges inspected the working women's hostel here and found many irregularities, an official said on Wednesday.
A day after Manohar Lal Khattar-led Haryana government raised VAT on diesel, members of Socialist Unity Centre of India (SUCI-Communist) on Wednesday protested the move and burnt an effigy of the Chief Minister here.
A dharna led by BSP continued at a civil hospital here for the second day on Wednesday over the alleged murder of a dalit youth from Bagla village.
Haryana Chief Minister Manohar Lal Khattar on Wednesday directed the officers to lay special emphasis on maintaining proper law and order situation in the state and adopt zero tolerance towards crime.
Pulling up Haryana government, the Delhi High Court on Wednesday questioned its refusal to supply water to Munak canal and said it will not allow any more wastage of water.
An eight standard student on Wednesday attempted suicide by immolating himself in the premises of the Holy Child school in Faridabad's sector 29.
The Supreme Court Wednesday said it would hear a plea on police attack on mediapersons outside controversial sect leader Rampal's ashram in Haryana on November 19.
The BJP government in Haryana on Tuesday decided to lower the retirement age of state government employees from 60 to 58 years and hike VAT on diesel from the present 9.24 percent to 12.07 percent.
The Special Investigation Team (SIT) of Haryana Police on Tuesday continued its search on the premises of Satlok Ashram in Barwala town and recovered more articles including burnt JCB machine and a large quantity of material used for manufacturing of "petrol bomb".
A court in Haryana's Hisar town Tuesday extended the police remand of controversial sect leader Rampal by six days.
Chandigarh: Union Ministers Birender Singh and Suresh Prabhu, who have been nominated by BJP for by-elections to two Rajya Sabha seats in Haryana, filed their nominations here Tuesday.
Union Railway Minister Suresh Prabhu and Union Rural Development Minister Birender Singh on Tuesday filed their nominations for the two Rajya Sabha seats from Haryana.
A group of journalists on Monday moved the Supreme Court seeking a direction to the Centre and Haryana for ordering a judicial probe into alleged assault on them and other media persons during recent police operation to arrest self-styled 'godman' Rampal at Barwala in Hisar.
As part of the ongoing search of arrested godman Rampal's Satlok Ashram, the Special Investigation Team (SIT) of Haryana Police on Monday recovered more arms and ammunition from the premises.
Chief Minister Manohar Lal Khattar on Monday announced a fresh survey of the areas in Haryana declared as 'dark zone', regions with depleting groundwater, to find out the exact underground water availability in the state.
Union Ministers Birender Singh and Suresh Prabhu, who have been nominated by the BJP for bye-elections to two Rajya Sabha seats in Haryana, will file their nominations on Tuesday.
The Broadcast Editors' Association (BEA) has set up a three-member committee to look into allegations of assault on mediapersons during the recent stand-off between police and supporters of self-styled godman Rampal at Hisar in Haryana.
Barwala: Just before his run-in with the law that landed him behind bars with serious charges such as murder, sedition and other cases slapped on him, self-styled godman Rampal had embarked on well-thought plans for expansion of his sect.
The Haryana Police's ongoing search operation inside the Satlok Ashram of self-styled godman Rampal has led to the recovery of two bulletproof jackets, more weapons and over 4,200 sticks among other things, officials said Sunday.
Police on Sunday recovered a bullet-proof vehicle among other items from the Ashram of "godman" Rampal in Barwala town of Hisar district.
Three FIRs have been registered in connection with the attack on media persons by police personnel in Hisar district during clashes that erupted at the ashram of controversial 'godman' Rampal in Barwala, police said on Saturday.
Union Ministers Birender Singh and Suresh Prabhu have been nominated by BJP for Rajya Sabha seats from Haryana.


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Rockford Sweetheart Splash Feb 12, 2011
Last year at the 15th annual Rockford Sweetheart Splash I battled the "cold, icy" Rogue River, and despite the bone-chilling temperatures, I believe I won. This year I seem to be losing my nerve.
Who will be the Royal Wedding Singer?
Among tabloid speculations: Paul McCartney, Kings of Leon, even Elton John. Who will play the royal wedding? People Magazine gives some insight.
Who Says The Snow Is All Bad
There are two things you can do in the Midwest during winter; and since it's cold everywhere else, moving is no longer a good option. The second choice is much more fun. Get outside and get moving. Lamoreaux Park on Coit Avenue in Grand Rapids is a beautiful spot to go Cross-Country Skiing. It's relatively flat and takes you right near the Grand River.
Fun Pics From Today's Live Broadcast At The Grand Re-Opening Of The Jenison Goodwill
Didn't really know when I woke up this morning if anyone would venture out into the wintery weather, it looked worse than it was. I don't make it out much to that side of town but Jenison and Georgetown township is a nice area
2011 London Ice Sculpting Festival
It's pretty much winter all over America (well, at least in 49 out of 50 states) but London is really rocking the ice right now. Check out these cool -- make that cold -- photos from the 2011 London Ice Sculpting Festival.
Toning Shoes: Fitness or Fiction?
I won't lie, I'm ready to jump on the toning shoe bandwagon. Not the chunky ones that look mildly corrective, but the ones that get the hot guy to check you out because he's not distracted by your ugly shoes. Yeah, those. The ads are persuasive: get in shape without going to gym, get a workout while you walk, get the butt of your dreams. So, do they work at all? A study by the American Council on Exercise (ACE) says maybe not:
We're not very healthy!
On our show this morning, Chuck and I talked about the "healthy states" ranking just out and that Michigan is 30th out of 50 states, and in the top 10 for most obese states. UGH! What can we do? GET MORE SLEEP!
What Was The Best Thing About Meeting Charles Spencer Last Night At The GRAM?
I had so many people ask me in the office, on Facebook, and on the air today, "What was it like to meet Princess Diana's brother? What was the most memorable thing? Were you nervous? I was doing just fine, watching everyone else react
Ice Chess Battle At Rosa Parks Circle
A thinking persons game on Ice? Rosa Parks Circle hosted the Ice Chess Battle Tuesday afternoon. The Ice pieces were made by Randy Finch and Ice Sculptures, LTD of Grand Rapids. The Food Network was on hand to film the icy battle
Kim and Ginger Met Lord Spencer at GRAM!
Last night Kim Carson and Ginger, a very special winner in the River's Royal January, headed to a cocktail reception at the Grand Rapids Art Museum. They got to meet Diana's brother, Charles Spencer!
Drive the Future @ Detroit Auto Show
The North American International Auto Show in Detroit has always been about the future. Click here and see what cars you'll be driving soon. The Show runs from January 15 - 23 at Cobo Hall in Detroit.


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SAN FRANCISCO – So we have a 'Conner', a 'Josh', and a guy in a 'Rhode Island Wanderers' shirt reserving a soccer field that probably has never been reserved in its' existence. Hysterical! You can't make it up. These entitled suburban wuss transplants simply don't know the unwritten rules of urban settings yet are so desperate to be "urban". They don't know that you just have to call next and wait your turn. Just like Mommy used to reserve Chuck E Cheese for their 3rd through 21st birthdays back in Michigan and Rhode Island, they don't know any better.
As sad as this might sound – and I really hate to say it – but these guys are pioneers. They are currently taking beatings – both verbal and physical in some cases – as they swoop into places you'd never thought you'd see them and pave the way for the little Colbys, Calebs, Tanners, Gwynns, Astors, and Zanes of the future.
Not only have these artisanal dildos hijacked our once affordable apartments; our roadways with their stupid fucking bicycles; our coffee; our groceries; our bars; they are now trying to take away little soccer fields and school yards from kids and working-class people. Too bad this video didn't end with Conner and Josh's head being used for penalty kicks. I love at the very end: "What's up Conner, I'm Josh". LOLLLL. The names! The names! And, it shows that they don't even know each other. One of them probably found a field on Google Maps and then set up a play date through a site like meetup.com for recent arrivals to SF. Fucking bitches!!!


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Video on Demand Report: Better Late to the Zero Dark Thirty Debate Than Never
The Headliner
Zero Dark Thirty
Director Kathryn Bigelow and co-screenwriter Mark Boal's follow-up to The Hurt Locker — an Oscar winner in the categories of Best Screenplay, Best Director, and Best Picture, among others — is, depending on your interpretation, a gritty, almost journalistic dramatization of the hunt for Osama bin Laden, or a propagandistic endorsement of torturing detainees. One thing is for sure: Zero Dark Thirty is the only movie newly available On Demand this week to have elicited criticism from actual lawmakers. (Better luck next time, Bilbo.)
Zero Dark Thirty is worth seeing not only so you can decide whether you agree with Senators Feinstein et al., but also for the performances of Jessica Ehle, Jason Clarke, and a super-cut Chris Pratt, who barely seems to be from the same species as the role that made him famous, Parks & Recreation's Andy Dwyer. Above all, though, the film is a showcase for Jessica Chastain, the agent who found bin Laden (though she has a more colorful way of describing the achievement in the film). If you haven't seen Chastain since her last Oscar-nominated performance, you … will be very surprised that The Help's sweet housewife from Sugar Ditch could be a total badass.
New and Notable
Les Misérables
Watch the film that won Anne Hathaway her first Oscar and rightly earned Russell Crowe the disgust of musical fans the world over.
The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey
If you've spent your life wishing you could watch Hobbit dinner parties in real time, this movie is for you.
This Is 40
Paul Rudd and Leslie Mann reprise their Knocked Up roles for this sort-of spinoff about middle age.
Rust & Bone
Marion Cotillard plays a woman who works with a killer whale at an aquatic theme park, and then something just terrible happens to her.
The Collection
Christopher McDonald hires some guys to rescue his daughter, who's being held by a sadist in a booby-trapped hotel.
When a young woman finds cash in a garage-sale Thermos, she strikes up a friendship with the old lady she bought it from.
Shadow People
A radio host and a CDC public health agent join forces to determine the truth about sudden unexplained nocturnal death syndrome, and why not?
About Sunny
Single mother Lauren Ambrose, barely getting by in Las Vegas, has to make hard choices about improving her situation.
The Big Picture
A successful French businessman abandons his life after … well, killing someone, is what I would surmise from the trailer.
4 Minutes
Two buddies attend a speed-dating event. "Hilarity ensues."
Deep Dark Canyon
A small-town sheriff's sons accidentally kill the mayor, which is bad news for obvious reasons, but also because the mayor was crooked and his family's pretty mad.
True Nature
The daughter of a wealthy family disappears for a year and, when she returns, seems pretty screwed up.
Polish Bar
An aspiring DJ (Boardwalk Empire's Vincent Piazza) gets into some trouble because of an expensive watch from his uncle's jewelry store.
Horrid Henry the Movie
This seems to be Britain's answer to the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series, only crappy. For some reason, Anjelica Huston, Richard E. Grant, and Parminder Nagra are involved.
24-Hour Love
Former '90s sitcom kids Tatyana Ali and Darius McCrary are among the cast of this anthology about relationships.
Neighboring Sounds
Private security guards start patrolling a middle-class Brazilian neighborhood where all kinds of crazy stuff seems to go down.
The Other Son
Imagine how much more awkward Switched at Birth would be if one kid were Jewish and the other Palestinian! Actually, you don't have to imagine it; that's the premise of this movie.
Opportunistic Backlist Revival Theme of the Week: March Madness
In honor of the NCAA basketball tournament, TWC has assembled this list of basketball movies, of which there are way more than I would have thought: Blue Chips, Space Jam, Love & Basketball, White Men Can't Jump, More Than a Game, Like Mike, and the undisputed best basketball movie ever, Hoosiers.
Weird Indie of the Week
An Awkward Sexual Adventure
This story of a nebbishy guy trying to learn how to be good at sex so his girlfriend will marry him purports to be "the funniest Canadian sex comedy ever." Your move, Porky's franchise.
Early VOD Premiere of the Week
Dog Pound
Four boys get sent to juvie, which seems like it's absolutely no fun at all.
Masochist's Choice
The Baytown Outlaws
Eva Longoria hires a trio of dirtbag brothers to get her godson back from her ex-husband, Billy Bob Thornton.
Filed Under: Jessica Chastain, Judd Apatow, Kathryn Bigelow, The Hobbit, This Is 40, VOD OCD, Zero Dark Thirty
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The Week 13 Mailbag: Giving Thanks, Making Picks
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Who Has the Upper Hand? Matt Damon vs. Ben Affleck
Cousin Sal's Week 13 Prop Bets!
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Should You See It? A Curious Consumer's Decision-Making Guide to 'Interstellar'
Mistrial and Error: RDJ's Messy 'The Judge' and the Highs and Lows of What's New This Week
The Week in Gossip: Drake's Tangled Stripper Web, and the Continued Misadventures of Amanda Bynes
A Brief History of Tom Hardy Getting His Ass Kicked
Your Latest 'True Detective' Micronews: One Male Lead to Rule Them All?
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'Do You Like Prince Movies?' Podcast: 'The Hunger Games,' 'Foxcatcher,' and Remembering Mike Nichols
Wrestling With the Truth: The True Crime of 'Foxcatcher' and 'Serial'
Who Has the Upper Hand? Matt Damon vs. Ben Affleck
I Went to 15 Hours of 'Interstellar' Last Weekend and Lived to Tell About It
The First 'Jurassic World' Trailer: If Something Chases You, Run


text:
IT was 10 p.m. in Siem Reap, and while most tourists were tucked in after a long, hot day exploring the temples of Angkor, things were just getting going at a bar called Linga. Pairs of European men in their 30s and 40s wearing unbuttoned collared shirts and checkered krama scarves sipped fruity cocktails and jostled for space with the young Khmer crowd, who huddled around small tables in anticipation of the main … [Read more...]
Cambodia's dark past clouds minds
One of the worst mental health crises in Asia gets precious little attention and money. By Aubrey Belford — Special to GlobalPost PHNOM PENH, Cambodia — Psychiatrist Sotheara Chhim has given more thought than most to the mental burdens carried by Cambodians. Pointing to a glass of water on his table, he describes how the legacy of decades marred by war, genocide and enduring poverty still help push so many here … [Read more...]
History – Bombing of Cambodia
In March 1969, President Richard Nixon authorized secret bombing raids in Cambodia, a move that escalated opposition to the Vietnam War in Ohio and across the United States. Nixon believed North Vietnam was transporting troops and supplies through neighboring Cambodia into South Vietnam. He hoped that bombing supply routes in Cambodia would weaken the United States' enemies. The bombing of Cambodia lasted until … [Read more...]
4 Photos Boat Reflection at Tonle Sap
I found today few beautiful photos from Tonle Sap, Siem Reap, Cambodia. 1. Boat Reflection at Tonle Sap, Cambodia … [Read more...]
Cambodia: A different kind of jungle
I still find out if it's real story or fiction but it is well written. Imagine how hard it was in Khmer Rouge Regime. We are in Cambodia. Here, anything can happen. And everything did. I am suddenly surrounded by the impoverished souls of terminally broken people. These, little did they know it then, would turn out to be the future monsters of this lost and tragic nation. They came silently in the night, … [Read more...]
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Rated 4 out of 5 by 392 reviewers.
Rated 4 out of 5 by AmyJack17 Great time at Va Beach Sheraton We love staying in Va Beach and have a few hotel requirements - staying on the north end, outdoor pool facing the ocean, bar with food options at the outdoor pool, ocean front rooms and suites. The Sheraton has all those things and is really nice. We had a great stay there. As to be expected with an ocean front hotel, the food and drink are very expensive. However, for convenience, it is nice to not have to get in your car to drive anywhere for just about anything. July 4, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by AlwaysMarine Thank you!!! We stayed during the busy weekend of the Shamrock Marathon. The staff were amazing and gave us a great room with a view, despite such short notice of our stay. They gladly accommodated us and made our stay worth the price! Unfortunately, our car was stuck in the parking lot during the marathon course after I had finished my half marathon. Since we had no way of leaving, the staff allowed me to re-enter my room after checkout time so that I could shower while we waited for the road blocks to be moved. I cannot thank them enough for this luxury!!! After 13.1 miles of running, I'm sure my family thanks them, too, since we had a 2 1/2 hour car ride before I'd be able to get home to shower! LOL Thanks again to the staff at Sheraton for making our stay so comfortable and by providing me the opportunity to shower while we waited for our car. THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU!!! March 18, 2013
Rated 4 out of 5 by ctar Hotel Convenient and Nice but Cust Service Needs improvement We enjoyed our 2nd year here using Starwood points. Love the convenient location and pool. Only issue was with service. We were supposed to get 20% off food at the hotel restaurant when using our starwood amex, but the discount was never given. I tried to get it fixed during checkout, but they couldn't do anything about it and said we should have told the waitress when the bill came. I think the wait staff should be better trained to look for the starwood amex and the front desk should have done something to reimburse us. Even a couple free drink tickets would have done the trick. Front desk needs to focus on better customer satisfaction. Also, the coffee pot in the room was terrible (we even asked for another to see if it would be better). Both leaked during brewing and burned my hand a couple times as I tried to clean up the mess! July 6, 2014
Rated 4 out of 5 by Everuby Beach Vacation Wonderful location for beach activities. Lobby was clean and staff were incredibly helpful and accommodating. Disappointed in room itself, toilet was not centered in bathroom floor, very odd. Lighting in bathroom was very dim, almost dusk-like. Coffee maker was not cleaned out, had previous guests old grounds. We had 2 queens and the mattresses might need replacing. July 25, 2014
Rated 2 out of 5 by military Hotel needs work Terrible room. Yes, it was explained that parts of the hotel were under construction. Didn't think it would apply to the room as well. They shouldn't tell you there is a city view when all you can see is the roof of the hotel addition. And see it you will since there were no curtains or blinds installed. They were in the box in the room but I forgot my tool kit and had to make do with rigging the towels from the Jacuzzi tub. Thought the tub would be the redeeming feature of the room, unfortunately the jets were inoperable and it took all night to drain. Overall the room had quite a few 'punch list' items that should have been addressed prior to letting it for the night. Since it was Gov't rate guess I got what I paid for. Next time I'll just stay on base. May 28, 2012
Rated 5 out of 5 by BusinessTraveler Nice beach front gateway Nice beach front gateway. I stayed in a cabana ocean-front suite - enjoyed it. Don't forget to check out the Pocahontas pancake house right across the road! The hotel looks to have been recently renovated, and some touch-up was still underway when we stayed there (not an issue). Only possible downside is that the outdoor pool is not heated (there is a heated indoor pool). Should not be an issue in the heat of the summer, but only a decoration during the other 3 seasons. Ocean-front outdoor fountain/pool looked very attractive. April 1, 2013
Rated 5 out of 5 by fresh81 This hotel has awesome features This hotel was awesome during our stay. Our family members enjoyed everything during our stay for our daughter wedding. The one thing our family members liked was you all parking garage right across from the sheraton. They didn't have to walk far to get there. Other hotels you have to walk a distance to get to the hotels. July 27, 2014
Rated 4 out of 5 by HJX49 Great Location We had a great stay before the Labor Day. The location is on the ocean front and the self parking is very close. Two issues for improvement opportunities: 1) at 10th floor, the water (cold) at the sink needs more pressure. It takes a while to collect one cup of cold water in the bathroom sink. 2) they promise you 500 starpoints if you forego the room services each night. However, I reminded the staff twice and both time they told me it is done! Unfortunately, it was not done and points still hasn't shown up in my SPG account. September 4, 2012
Rated 2 out of 5 by Joy1212 Very Disappointed I booked a Deluxe Oceanfront room w/ 2 beds & I was very disappointed. The beds were the most uncomfortable that I and my sister had ever been in. I can't say sleep, because I hardly slept because the bed was so uncomfortable. There was a hole in the sheet that I didn't discover until 10PM and I was so tired that I didn't call anyone to come and replace the sheet. No one at the front desk could recommnend a restaurant other than the ones in the hotel (I've never had that happen). When I took a shower the next morning, it took a good 5 minutes for the hot water to start working and the water pressure was awful. I paid over $200.00 for 1 night and I have never been more disappointed with a hotel ever. It will be a very long time before I will stay at a Sheraton. September 30, 2013
Rated 4 out of 5 by Stillsplashing Great time but..... Loved the locality of this hotel, the staff is very accomendating however they do not have enough elevators in use to maintain an even flow of traffic they have. You sometimes have to wait 15 mins to get where you need to go. Our room was great ,clean ,very nice oceanfront balcony and when we went into the bathroon the sink was cracked in a million pieces. It did not leak but was very disappointed that it was left like that. Also the mirror needed to be changed out as it was not up to standards with the finish coming off. August 11, 2013
Rated 4 out of 5 by TomH922 Great beach location Located directly on the beach. Has its own pool as well, and balconies that look out onto the beach. Great mattress on bed and big fluffy pillows. Excellent customer service. The food in the hotel restaurant (Fusion) is excellent. Convenient, free parking. Drawback: located on flight path to Oceana Naval Air Station, so a lot of jet noise on weekdays. Rooms are well insulated from outside noise, but noise from adjacent room passes freely through door to adjoining room even when door is closed. May 13, 2014
Rated 3 out of 5 by Beachcomber Poor service I stay at this hotel a couple of times each year because it is the only SPG choice at this location. Usually at SPG hotels I receive outstanding service, upgrades and more. Not the case at this hotel. They have an SPG desk but we wait in line with everyone else. Bell hops will literally just stand there while you struggle with your luggage. We called for bell service upon checking out. We were told that someone would come to our room with a dolly within 10 minutes. 20 minutes later I went to the lobby to discover 2 bellhops with dollies just standing around. They still didn't offer to help and I just took the dolly as they ignored me. Check in service isn't much better and the wi-fi service is awful. At least housekeeping did their job this time but during previous stays had difficulty getting someone to make up the room. There is no pay per view movie service available in the rooms. Wouldn't the hotel make money from this? All of the services offered by this hotel are unsatisfactory! Wish I had another choice for SPG at the beach! July 28, 2014
Rated 3 out of 5 by Elizabeth77 Not impressed with service or room CONS: When I checked in I asked for foam pillows (I am allergic to feather) that were never delivered. I had to request again the second night and finally received them. The elevator is is extremely loud and sounds as if it is about to break. Keeps us all up all hours of the night. The bathroom is one of the smallest that I have ever seen in any hotel and it is almost impossible to turn the water on/off due to a screw that has worked itself loose. PROS: Very large indoor pool. Nice size fridge in room. Great view. April 8, 2013
Rated 5 out of 5 by Pookie1221 Family Beach Vacation We absolutely love this hotel, already planning next year's vacation. The only negative is the size of the bathroom, it is way too small. August 3, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by Tootsieroll All we needed in one place. Great everything except air conditioners come on and off loudly when sleeping. Otherwise all great! August 4, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by CecilleMGS Great Service and Hotel! Highly recommended This hotel has done a great renovation and improvement. I was pleased with my stay years ago and now was really really great! The staff were wonderful. From the front desk, I wish I could remember her name, the lady who checked us in... she even helped us set up the roll away bed. The female servers for 2 consecutive mornings when we had breakfast were amazing and top notch service. Overall, great stay and would highly recommend. Congratulations to all staff. June 9, 2014
Rated 4 out of 5 by Stillsplashing Ocean Front Vacation We had an awesome time on our vacation. First night at this facility was a bit of a surprise,we went to go to sleep and the sheets were dirty. The night time manager after much a due did right the wrong and she made sure we got points back for the problems we had. After that one bump we had a really nice stay. All the staff was courteous and helpful. The Hotel is on the boardwalk and you can walk pretty much any where you may need to go. Waking up to the ocean and seeing the sun rise every day was wonderful. August 26, 2012
Rated 5 out of 5 by Fran52 Great Staff Must recognize Travis in Bell Services. I left a bag of drinks/wine outside while unloading my car. He kept the bag behind the Bell Station desk until next day. Thanks again Travis! July 30, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by wally2014 Right on the Beach - Clean & Comfy Initially given the wrong room type, but that mistake was corrected. Hotel was clean and comfy - right on the beach. Staff was friendly and attentive. Did not eat at the Hotel, but there are restaurants within a short walk/drive. July 27, 2014
Rated 1 out of 5 by Mike257 Terrible experience My family recently concluded our summer vacation early after a stay at the Sheraton, Virginia Beach Oceanfront. When we arrived, we found a very small room, smaller than most hotels I have stayed in. We had booked this hotel because we originally intended to bring our dog with us on vacation. Last minute we had a friend offer to sit the dog so we travelled without our pet. Well, you would have never known we had no pet as the room had a horrible odor of dog when entering and leaving from the room. We later determined the smell was coming from one of the beds. A prior guest's dog had urinated on the bed and the smell was unbearable. Room 301, hopefully they changed the mattress. We then had to move to a new room. As we walked into our new room, we were greeted with a neighboring room's dog barking non-stop. This dog barked so often that we had to call the front desk to have the owners return to calm the dog. Onto the next issue, the staff were very unresponsive to their guests especially at the poolside bar and outdoor seating area. We sat down for lunch one day and no one came over to take our order. We ended up walking down the boardwalk two blocks to another hotel to eat lunch. When being served at the pool, no one ever cleaned up the dishes. We always had to return them ourselves. The overall facility was not that well kept. For the amount of money spent by guests on their stays at this hotel, it should be better maintained. The food overall was good, but it was very pricy. I have stayed at other hotels in this area that offer free meals for children, not here though. The breakfast is very expensive. Although offering a buffet, you can get a much more filling and better tasting breakfast at a private restaurant across the street. We had originally intended to stay for 7 days, but we cut our vacation to 4 days, and those days were a challenge to truly enjoy. It is very unfortunate that when a family tries to enjoy some time away from work and soak up some rays at the beach, that you have to undergo a terrible hotel experience. I would definitely not recommend this hotel to anyone let alone my friends and family. August 14, 2014
Rated 4 out of 5 by DDL53 Comfortable beds I had the best night sleep in a long time due to the comfort of the bedding! August 2, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by Backagain21 "Everytime I walk through the door, something Wonderful happens!" My 7yr old said this coming in the door the second day! Our kids beds were made with their favorite stuffed animals and their blankets tucked in! Our room was just perfect, quite, clean and plenty of space. I planned our family vaca here because of how close it is to the beach, great food/service, and basically feeling like we were at an all inclusive resort! Can't wait to get back...Job well done Sheraton! June 25, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by JoeJr One night stay for business Arrived very late and the staff was able to still provide a late supper at the restaurant that was very good. Comfortable beds were in the room for us. The staff was very friendly. Parking was just across the street and included. Excellent view of the ocean and beach. Hotel is right on the beach and right on Atlantic Ave. July 14, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by MiatoGrands This Hotel always meets my expectations! It is always a pleasure staying at this hotel. Front desk clerk Patrick went above and beyond my expectations to ensure my stay was great. I was traveling on Interstate 81 to I 64 for over 8 hours to get to Virginia Beach. I was stalled in traffic for over 3 hours due to a huge car crash and knew I could not get to the hotel in time for my reservation. Patrick made sure that my reservation was changed without penalty and my stay was perfect because of that!!! Because I have been coming to the VA Beach Ocean Front Sheraton for many, many years for business - always in June, I will always choose to stay there whenever I am in VA Beach. I will retire in December, so I will be absent when my group meets next June, but I will always have fond memories of all my stays at this site!!! Thanks guys. June 24, 2013
Rated 5 out of 5 by TomS2012 Great location VA Beach is one of the best places to visit on the east coast. the view is outstanding. December 31, 2012
Rated 4 out of 5 by joe69 great front desk people was there with family members great check-in,good food,beautiful oceanview room January 22, 2012
Rated 1 out of 5 by jackfrost1302001 Completely unacceptable This may be the last time I book a SPG hotel unless absolutely necessary. March 12, 2012
Rated 5 out of 5 by BostonStrong Home away from home My wife and I stayed at the VB Sheraton the first week in June 2013. The rates were unbelievably low for the area and for what they offer. From the second we walked in we found the resort to be just what we were looking for. The staff member at check in was named Brandon and he was very courteous and had a smile on his face the entire time. He made us feel very welcomed. We cant say enough about the offerings of the hotel. The pool, fitness center, and restaurant made it very easy to enjoy ourselves and relax on vacation. The Fusion restaurant served up some great wings that were only outdone by the top notch service of Rashad the bartender. He took the time to have good conversation and went above and beyond to show us unmatched hospitality. We highly recommend this hotel to anyone going to VB. June 9, 2013
Rated 5 out of 5 by 2014tmm summer vacation This was our first time at Va beach. the cabana was great, very comfortable.The hotel staff made sure we had everything we needed. the cabana rest. had great food. Everthing was within walking distance. We enjoyed the beach and the pool area. We will visit again soon! thanks to all at the Sheraton! July 14, 2014
Rated 3 out of 5 by Jerzie123 Restaurant As the hotel was very nice, the bathrooms could be somewhat larger, but ok. The food I was very disappointed in. The selection was not good. Ordered a sandwich and it was not good very dry. Home made chips are to be served warm not cold and stale. Other restaurants had much better food. July 15, 2014


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