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- Optical mapping as a routine tool for bacterial genome sequence finishing (2007)
- Background: In sequencing the genomes of two Xenorhabdus species, we encountered a large number of sequence repeats and assembly anomalies that stalled finishing efforts. This included a stretch of about 12 Kb that is over 99.9% identical between the plasmid and chromosome of X. nematophila. Results: Whole genome restriction maps of the sequenced strains were produced through optical mapping technology. These maps allowed rapid resolution of sequence assembly problems, permitted closing of the genome, and allowed correction of a large inversion in a genome assembly that we had considered finished. Conclusion: Our experience suggests that routine use of optical mapping in bacterial genome sequence finishing is warranted. When combined with data produced through 454 sequencing, an optical map can rapidly and inexpensively generate an ordered and oriented set of contigs to produce a nearly complete genome sequence assembly.
- Dual targeting of the tRNA nucleotidyltransferase in plants: not just the signal (2007)
- Enzymes involved in tRNA maturation are essential for cytosolic, mitochondrial, and plastid protein synthesis and are therefore localized to these different compartments of the cell. Interestingly, only one isoform of tRNA nucleotidyltransferase (responsible for adding the 3′-terminal cytidine–cytidine–adenosine to tRNAs) has been identified in plants. The present study therefore explored how signals contained on this enzyme allow it to be distributed among the different cell compartments. It is demonstrated that the N-terminal portion of the protein acts as an organellar targeting signal and that differential use of multiple in-frame start codons alters the localization of the protein. Moreover, it is shown that the mature domain has a major impact on the distribution of the protein within the cell. These data indicate that regulation of dual localization involves not only specific N-terminal signals, but also additional factors within the protein or the cell.
- Tetracycline aptamer-controlled regulation of pre-mRNA splicing in yeast (2007)
- Splicing of pre-mRNA is a critical step in mRNA maturation and disturbances cause several genetic disorders. We apply the synthetic tetracycline (tc)-binding riboswitch to establish a gene expression system for conditional tc-dependent control of pre-mRNA splicing in yeast. Efficient regulation is obtained when the aptamer is inserted close to the 5′splice site (SS) with the consensus sequence of the SS located within the aptamer stem. Structural probing indicates limited spontaneous cleavage within this stem in the absence of the ligand. Addition of tc leads to tightening of the stem and the whole aptamer structure which probably prevents recognition of the 5′SS. Combination of more then one aptamer-regulated intron increases the extent of regulation leading to highly efficient conditional gene expression systems. Our findings highlight the potential of direct RNA–ligand interaction for regulation of gene expression.
- Funktionelle Charakterisierung der Wechselwirkungen zwischen HsfA1 und HsfA2 aus Lycopersicon esculentum (2007)
- Die Hitzestresstranskriptionsfaktoren HsfA1 und HsfA2 repräsentieren wichtige transkriptionelle Regulatoren in der Regulation der Hitzestressantwort von Lycopersicon esculentum (Tomate). Unter Stressbedingungen induziert HsfA1 die Expression von HsfA2 und bildet heterooligomere HsfA1/HsfA2 Komplexe, die im Zusammenhang mit der erhöhten Expression von Hitzestressgenen stehen (Scharf et al., 1998b, Mishra et al., 2002, Port et al., 2004). Durch funktionelle Charakterisierungen der Wechselwirkung zwischen HsfA1 und HsfA2 werden neue Aspekte der spezifischen und synergistischen Aktivierung durch HsfA1 und HsfA2 erläutert. - Die Spezifität der funktionellen Interaktion zwischen HsfA1 und HsfA2 wird in Vergleich mit weiteren Klasse A Hsfs, HsfA3, HsfA4b und HsfA5 anhand von GUS Reporter Assays, Coimmunpräzipitationsanalysen und der interaktionsvermittelten Kernretention von GFP-HsfA2 verdeutlicht. Trotz des Potenzials von HsfA2, multiple Wechselwirkungen einzugehen, ist die Spezifität zwischen HsfA1 und HsfA2 am höchsten. Für die Analyse der synergistische Aktivierung durch HsfA1 und HsfA2 werden 3HA-HsfA1 und 3HA-HsfA2 in unterschiedlichen Mengenverhältnissen coexprimiert. Sowohl am Hsp17.3B-CI::GUS Reporter als auch an der induzierte, endogene Tabak Hsp17-CI Expression kann der spezifische Effekt der synergistischen Aktivierung durch HsfA1 und HsfA2 demonstriert werden. - Um die strukturellen Voraussetzungen der synergistischen Aktvierung zu definieren, werden Mutanten mit Defekten in der DNA Bindung, Oligomerisierung und Aktivierung in funktionellen Analysen der transkriptionellen Aktivität (GUS Reporter Assays, Induktion endogener Hsp17-CI Expression), Komplexbildung (Co-Immunpräzipitation) und der HsfA1 vermittelte Kernretention von HsfA2 (Immunfluoreszenz) untersucht. Die synergistische Aktivierung erfordert die Bildung heterooligomerer HsfA1/HsfA2 Komplexe, die über eine Kombination ihrer C-terminalen Aktivierungsdomänen kooperativ aktivieren. Dagegen hat die DNA Bindung durch die DBDs beider Hsfs einen geringen Anteil an der synergistischen Aktivierung. Zur Verifizierung der funktionellen Unterschiede zwischen HsfA1 und HsfA2 werden HsfA1-HsfA2 Hybride durch Coexpression mit HsfA1 und HsfA2 Wildtypformen analysiert. Heterooligomere Komplexe aus Wildtyp und Hybrid-Hsfs zeigen ausschließlich eine synergistische Aktivierung, wenn die C-terminalen Aktivierungsdomänen von beiden Hsf Typen stammen, während heterooligomere HsfA1/HsfA2 Komplexe mit typgleichen C-Termini nicht synergistisch aktivieren. Weiterhin wird gezeigt, dass Wildtyp- Hybridkomplexe mit identischen HR-A/B Regionen in der synergistischen Aktivierung abgeschwächt sind. - Die Bildungseigenschaften der DNA-Hsf Komplexe (DNP) von HsfA1 und HsfA2 werden in Hinblick auf qualitative Veränderungen unter Coexpressionsbedingungen betrachtet. Interessanterweise konnte die Bildung intermediärer DNPs sowie von Hsf-Komplexen mit intermediärer Größe in Gelfiltrationsanalysen als Indizien für qualitativ veränderte HsfA1/HsfA2 Komplexen nachgewiesen werden. Die funktionelle Analyse von HsfA1 C-terminalen Deletionsmutanten führt zur Identifizierung einer de-regulierten HsfA1 Mutante, die trotz de-regulierter Aktivität mit HsfA2 zur synergistische Aktivierung fähig ist. - Zur Verifizierung der interaktionsvermittelten synergistischen Aktivierung wird die Oligomerisierung partiell deletierter HsfA2 HR-A/B Mutanten ermittelt. Da diese Mutanten intermediäre Oligomerisierungszustände zeigen, werden durch die systematische Deletionsmutation der HR-A/B Region von HsfA2 strukturellen Voraussetzungen für die synergistische Aktivierung durch HsfA1 und HsfA2 charakterisiert. Co-Immunpräzipitationsversuche belegen, dass die Integrität der HR-A/B Region für die Bildung stabiler HsfA1/HsfA2 Komplexe benötigt wird, jedoch eine transiente und spezifische Interaktion über die C-terminalen L2 und HR-B Regionen für die synergistische Aktivierung ausreicht. - In der Charakterisierung der kooperativen, synergistischen Aktivierung durch beide CTADs werden Mutanten der vier vorhandenen AHA Motive von HsfA1 und HsfA2 durch Coexpression mit dem Wildtyp Hsf Partner getestet. Die Ergebnisse verdeutlichen, dass jedes der AHA Motive unterschiedlich zur synergistischen Aktivierung beitragen.
- Metal-ion binding and metal-ion induced folding of the adenine-sensing riboswitch aptamer domain (2007)
- Divalent cations are important in the folding and stabilization of complex RNA structures. The adenine-sensing riboswitch controls the expression of mRNAs for proteins involved in purine metabolism by directly sensing intracellular adenine levels. Adenine binds with high affinity and specificity to the ligand binding or aptamer domain of the adenine-sensing riboswitch. The X-ray structure of this domain in complex with adenine revealed an intricate RNA-fold consisting of a three-helix junction stabilized by long-range base-pairing interactions and identified five binding sites for hexahydrated Mg2+-ions. Furthermore, a role for Mg2+-ions in the ligand-induced folding of this RNA was suggested. Here, we describe the interaction of divalent cations with the RNA–adenine complex in solution as studied by high-resolution NMR spectroscopy. Paramagnetic line broadening, chemical shift mapping and intermolecular nuclear Overhauser effects (NOEs) indicate the presence of at least three binding sites for divalent cations. Two of them are similar to those in the X-ray structure. The third site, which is important for the folding of this RNA, has not been observed previously. The ligand-free state of the RNA is conformationally heterogeneous and contains base-pairing patterns detrimental to ligand binding in the absence of Mg2+, but becomes partially pre-organized for ligand binding in the presence of Mg2+. Compared to the highly similar guanine-sensing riboswitch, the folding pathway for the adenine-sensing riboswitch aptamer domain is more complex and the influence of Mg2+ is more pronounced.
- The contribution of differential hatching success to the fitness of species and interspecific hybrids (2007)
- Resting egg banks of microcrustaceans have been used to reconstruct the evolutionary and ecological history of species. However, recent studies provided evidence for a discrepancy between dormant propagules in the sediment and the planktonic population. This pattern raises two questions: First, what is the value of data on resting egg banks for population dynamics over time and second, which component of the reproductive cycle causes the observed inconsistency? In our study we focussed on the second question by comparing the taxon composition of a resting egg bank with the reproductive success of ex-ephippial hatchlings. Species and interspecific hybrid identification of dormant and hatched stages was achieved through the application of restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of an internal transcribed spacer region. We found no significant deviation between the proportion of hatched Daphnia galeata, D. galeata x hyalina and D. hyalina individuals and the observed taxon composition of the resting egg bank. However, species and hybrids differed in their mode and relative success of reproduction. We conclude that the components of reproductive success in Daphnia contribute differentially to the fitness of species and interspecific hybrids. The discrepancy between resting egg banks and ''active'' planktonic populations results not from differential hatching of species but from the reproductive success of ex-ephippial females and the timing and frequency of sexual reproduction of the different taxa.
- Microarray analysis in the Archaeon Halobacterium salinarum strain R1 (2007)
- Background: Phototrophy of the extremely halophilic archaeon Halobacterium salinarum was explored for decades. The research was mainly focused on the expression of bacteriorhodopsin and its functional properties. In contrast, less is known about genome wide transcriptional changes and their impact on the physiological adaptation to phototrophy. The tool of choice to record transcriptional profiles is the DNA microarray technique. However, the technique is still rarely used for transcriptome analysis in archaea. Methodology/Principal Findings: We developed a whole-genome DNA microarray based on our sequence data of the Hbt. salinarum strain R1 genome. The potential of our tool is exemplified by the comparison of cells growing under aerobic and phototrophic conditions, respectively. We processed the raw fluorescence data by several stringent filtering steps and a subsequent MAANOVA analysis. The study revealed a lot of transcriptional differences between the two cell states. We found that the transcriptional changes were relatively weak, though significant. Finally, the DNA microarray data were independently verified by a real-time PCR analysis. Conclusion/Significance: This is the first DNA microarray analysis of Hbt. salinarum cells that were actually grown under phototrophic conditions. By comparing the transcriptomics data with current knowledge we could show that our DNA microarray tool is well applicable for transcriptome analysis in the extremely halophilic archaeon Hbt. salinarum. The reliability of our tool is based on both the high-quality array of DNA probes and the stringent data handling including MAANOVA analysis. Among the regulated genes more than 50% had unknown functions. This underlines the fact that haloarchaeal phototrophy is still far away from being completely understood. Hence, the data recorded in this study will be subject to future systems biology analysis.
- Structural and functional characterisation of Photosystem II from two His-tagged transplastomic strains of Nicotiana tabacum (2007)
- Photosystem II (PSII) is a polypeptide-cofactor complex organised as a homodimeric multisubunit protein embedded in the thylakoid membrane. PSII monomers are heterooligomers related to each other by a pseudo-twofold axis perpendicular to the membrane plane (Loll et al. 2005). PSII acts as a photochemical enzyme that through the chlorophylls and the other cofactors catalyses photon capture and electron transfer from water to the plastoquinone pool with concomitant evolution of oxygen. Photon capture and charge separation take place in the PSII core which consists of the D1 and D2 proteins, the cytochrome b559 alpha- and beta-chains (PsbE and F subunits) and the chlorophyll a-binding antenna proteins CP43 and CP47 (Loll et al. 2005). The remaining polypeptides are low molecular mass proteins with not clearly understood fuctions; they include chloroplast-encoded (PsbH, I, J, K, L, M, N, T and Z) and nucleus-encoded (PsbR, S, W and X) proteins consisting of one to four transmembrane helices (Barber et al. 1997). The oxygen-evolving part of PSII consists of a Mn-Ca transition complex called Mn cluster or oxygen evolving complex that is situated on the luminal side of PSII. In higher plants it is stabilised by the PsbO (33 kDa), PsbP (23 kDa) and PsbQ (17 kDa) extrinsic subunits (Soursa et al. 2006; Ifuku et al. 2005). The structure and mechanisms related to the oxygen evolving complex of PSII are not completely clarified. Currently two high resolution structures from the cyanobacteria S. elongatus are available (Loll et al. 2005; Ferreira et al. 2004) Nevertheless structural information is not as well defined in green algae and higher plants as in cyanobacteria. In fact the 8Å structure available from spinach has too low resolution for addressing questions such as the structural and functional differences in respect to PSII from cyanobateria (Rhee et al. 1997).. Therefore it is obvious that for PSII from higher plants the main general questions are still open: is the structure of PSII from higher plants equivalent to the structures observed in cyanobacteria? Is the typical higher plants subunit PsbS stably or transiently bound to PSII? Finding an answer to these questions was the main focus of this work. In this work a simple and rapid protocol to isolate the oxygen-evolving photosystem II (PSII) core complex from Nicotiana tabacum was developed. A PSII having a His-tag extension made of six or ten consecutive histidine residues at the N-terminus of the PsbE subunit was purified by a single-step Ni2+ NTA-affinity column chromatography after solubilisation of the thylakoid membranes using different mild detergents. Characterization of the oxygen evolution and the subunit composition by immunoblotting and mass spectroscopy revealed that the His-tagging did not affect the functional integrity of the PSII reaction center. The final PSII core complex was purified in a single step from solubilised thylakoids in less than 14 hours getting a very pure sample in high amount. The isolated core complex was in a dimeric form as demonstrated by Blue Native PAGE, analytical gel filtration and single particles analysis; with a molecular mass of about 500 kDa, consisting of D1, D2, CP43, CP47, 33 kDa and low molecular weight proteins. The preparation retains a high rate of oxygen-evolving activity but showed different stabilities of the binding of the three extrinsic proteins. The subunit of 33 kDa was always present in the preparations with a constant amount, whereas the 23 and 17 kDa subunits were always in less and unconstant amounts. Nevertheless the oxygen evolution was not depending on the amount of the 23 and 17 kDa subunits. Furthermore the preparation showed a high oxygen-evolving activity of 1390 micromol/mg Chl·h-1 in presence of betaine, while its activity was 440-680 micromol/mg Chl·h-1 in its absence. The presence of 1.0 mol/L betaine during the isolation of PSII increased the preservation of the photochemical activity hence the oxygen evolution. It was inferred from these results that His-tagging does not affect the functional and structural integrity of the PSII core complex and that the "Histag strategy" is highly useful for biochemical, physicochemical and structural studies of higher plant PSII. PSII is directly involved in two essential processes, the efficient capture and funnelling of light energy to the reaction centre and the controlled dissipation of excess excitation energy. Those functions require structural and functional flexibility in order to be performed with high efficiency. Moreover light-harvesting proteins respond to an external signal, the thylakoid pH, to induce feedback control regulating those activities in every moment. This process called non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) is mainly depending on the xanthophyll cycle and the PsbS protein (Szabo et al. 2005). In this work several new evidences related with those two processes were found. The subunit PsbS is a polypeptide whose involvement in the NPQ processes is debated. Nevertheless, its position in the PSII complex and the mechanisms by which this subunit contributes to carry out the NPQ functions are not definitely known. In addition it is not sure if it is a pigment binding protein or not. Currently several lines of evidence indicate that this subunit is able to bind two molecules of zeaxanthin, one of the pigments involved in the xanthophyll cycle. In this work immunolabelling indicated that PsbS is tightly bound to the PSII core dimer, monomer and incomplete PSII particles as Reaction Centre-CP47 (RC-CP47). Furthermore qualitative HPLC indicates a complete absence of zeaxanthin in the sample and the presence of violaxanthin, another pigment involved in the xanthophyll cycle. The absence of zeaxanthin was expected considering that the plants were harvested after the dark period and that the particles were purified in complete dark (or in green light), whereas the presence of violaxanthin was unexpected considering that so far no evidence of violaxanthin bound to PSII cores devoid of LHC proteins was reported. Furthermore the amount of chlorophyll b was not relevant for suspecting this pigment bound to PsbS. Therefore we conclude that if PsbS is able to bind chlorophyll it has to be a chlorophyll a. The results indicate that PsbS could be able to bind not only zeaxanthin but also violaxanthin. The extrinsic subunit Psb27 was also found in this preparation. The presence and the amount of this subunit, reported to be involved in the repair of damaged PSII, was not constant and therefore behaving as the other two extrinsic proteins 23kDa (PsbP) and 17kDa (PsbQ). Electron crystallography studies on spinach PSII particles purified by differential solubilisation resulted in crystalline tubes with new unit cell constants. From data analysis a density map at 15Å resolution was obtained with a P22121 symmetry. However, at this resolution it cannot be said if the internal symmetry axis is related with the two-fold axis of the dimer or the pseudo two-fold axis of the monomer. In conclusion a method to isolate functional, pure PSII core complexes was developped. These samples, together with the improved 2d crystallisation protocol could lead to crystals with higher quality hence better resolution density maps in the future.
- Funktionelle Morphologie des Schädels und der Bezahnung der Ursidae (2007)
- Sandra Engels hat zwischen August 2006 und Juni 2007 Schädel und Gebiß südostasiatischer Ursiden im Hinblick auf Ernährungspräferenzen rekonstruiert. Obwohl die Ursiden systematisch zur Ordnung der Carnivora gehören, verfolgen ihre Vertreter völlig unterschiedliche Ernährungsstrategien. Darunter sind spezialisierte Herbivoren genauso vertreten wie Carnivoren und Omnivoren. Ziel der Arbeit von Sandra Engels war es, anhand der unterschiedlichen Ernährungsregime, Parameter an Schädel, Gebiss und Einzelzähnen rezenter Tiere festzulegen und diese dann auf fossiles Material anzuwenden.
- Experimental characterization of Cis-acting elements important for translation and transcription in Halophilic Archaea (2007)
- Summary The basal transcription apparatus of archaea is well characterized. However, much less is known about the mechanisms of transcription termination and translation initation. Recently, experimental determination of the 5´-ends of ten transcripts from Pyrobaculum aerophilum revealed that these are devoid of a 5´-UTR. Bioinformatic analysis indicated that many transcripts of other archaeal species might also be leaderless. The´-ends and 3´-ends of 40 transcripts of two haloarchaeal species, Halobacterium salinarum and Haloferax volcanii, have been determined. They were used to characterize the lengths of 5´-UTRs and 3´-UTRs and to deduce consensus sequence-elements for transcription and translation. The experimental approach was complemented with a bioinformatics analysis of the H. salinarum genome sequence. Furthermore, the influence of selected 5´-UTRs and 3´-UTRs on transcript stability and translational efficiency in vivo was characterized using a newly established reporter gene system, gene fusions, and real-time PCR. Consensus sequences for basal promoter elements could be refined and a novel element was discovered. A consensus motif probably important for transcriptional termination was established. All 40 haloarchaeal transcripts analyzed had a 3´-UTR (average size 57 nt), and their 3´-ends were not posttranscriptionally modified. Experimental data and genome analyses revealed that the majority of haloarchaeal transcripts are leaderless, indicating that this is the predominant mode for translation initiation in haloarchaea. Surprisingly, the 5´-UTRs of most leadered transcripts did not contain a Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence. A genome analysis indicated that less than 10% of all genes are preceded by a SD sequence and even most proximal genes in operons lack a SD sequence. Seven different leadered transcripts devoid of a SD sequence were efficiently translated in vivo, including artificial 5´-UTRs of random sequences. Thus, an interaction of the 5´-UTRs of these leadered transcripts with the 16S rRNA could be excluded. Taken together, either a scanning mechanism similar to the mechanism of translation initiation operating in eukaryotes or a novel mechanism must operate on most leadered haloarchaeal transcripts. Author Summary Expression of the information encoded in the genome of an organism into its phenotype involves transcription of the DNA into messenger RNAs and translation of mRNAs into proteins. The textbook view is that an mRNA consists of an untranslated region (5´-UTR), an open reading frame encoding the protein, and another untranslated region (3´-UTR). We have determined the 5´-ends and the 3´-ends of 40 mRNAs of two haloarchaeal species and used this dataset to gain information about nucleotide elements important for transcription and translation. Two thirds of the mRNAs were devoid of a 5´-UTR, and therefore the major pathway for translation initiation in haloarchaea involves so-called leaderless transcripts. Very unexpectedly, most leadered mRNAs were found to be devoid of a sequence motif believed to be essential for translation initiation in bacteria and archaea (Shine-Dalgarno sequence). A bioinformatic genome analysis revealed that less than 10% of the genes contain a Shine-Dalgarno sequence. mRNAs lacking this motif were efficiently translated in vivo, including mRNAs with artificial 5´-UTRs of total random sequence. Thus, translation initiation on these mRNAs either involves a scanning mechanism similar to the mechanism operating in eukaryotes or a totally novel mechanism operating at least in haloarchaea.


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Cheese (Encyclopedia of Food & Culture)
CHEESE. Cheese, which has been described as "milk's leap toward immortality," can be more dispassionately defined as a product of milk fermentation. Yet part of our fascination with cheese may come from the sheer number and diversity of cheeses worldwide. They number into the thousands, although an exact count is difficult, as cheeses are notoriously difficult to classify. A classification of cheese only in terms of bacteriological processes neglects the symbolism of ancient mythologies, regional pride, and artistic ingenuity that are embedded in this, one of the simplest and most complicated of foods. The mythology of cheese is shared by disparate groups: the Greeks gods and mortals, the conquerors and conquered of the Roman Empire, a delighted Napoleon and the waitress who first served him Camembert. The legends are compelling, but not as much as the product itself.
The beginnings of cheesemaking are unknown, but it has been generally reasoned that the knowledge of how to turn milk into cheese closely followed upon the domestication of lactating animals. Some of the earliest archaeological evidence of cheesemaking comes from the Fertile Crescent, where animals were domesticated around 8000 B.C.E. A Sumerian relief (c. 3500800 B.C.E.) portrays cattle and dairying practice. Pots that had likely contained cheese were discovered in the tomb of Horus-aha, the second king of the Egyptian First Dynasty (c. 3000800 B.C.E.). And perforated bowls (c. 3000000 B.C.E.) made from pottery or rushes have been found in more than one European location. These bowls were designed to drain the liquid whey from the solid curds.
Cheesemaking was an efficient means of preserving an extremely perishable food (milk) from the spoiling effects of the Near East climate. The art and science of cheesemaking spread into Europe, and quickly became a regular part of the diet and a symbol of strength in ancient Greece, where Olympians trained on diets of cheese. Polyphemus, the brutal Cyclops of Homer's Odyssey, milks his animals amid the racks of cheese in his cave, while Odysseus watches quietly nearby. According to Greek mythology, the knowledge of cheesemaking was a gift to mortals by the gods of Mount Olympus. Roman soldiers carried cheese rations with them as the Roman Empire grew, though cheesemaking was highly developed in the Celtic parts of Europe. The Feast of Imbolc (2 February) was a celebration of the approach of spring: the new lambs and the milk of the ewes represented the changing seasons and were honored as a first sign of spring.
Artisanal cheesemaking might have been lost after the fall of the Roman Empire if not for the Christian monasteries. The monks not only preserved cultural traditions during the Dark Ages, but spent much time reworking and improving cheese recipes. Their creations, among them French Munster and Epoisses, are still referred to as "monastery" or "trappist cheeses."
In the following centuries, cheesemaking grew as an art and industry. The first commercial cheese factory in the United States was established in Rome, New York, in 1851. Innovations like the kind of cream cheese popularly known as Philadelphia Cream Cheese and pasteurizing whole cheese (patented in the United States by James Kraft in 1916) followed. Almost a century of pasteurized process cheese sales in the United States and abroad have demonstrated their popularity, but a growing number of cheesemakers and cheese-eaters are committing to the preservation and production of artisanal (made by hand) and farmstead (made from the animals of a farm on that farm) cheeses. Several books about specialty cheeses have been published in the last few years, and wider selections of domestic and imported cheeses are available in supermarket, and restaurants.
When confronted by the vast number of cheeses, the different shapes, colors and aromas at a well-stocked cheese counter, it is astonishing to remember that all these endless varieties come from only one basic ingredient. Although a cheesemaker makes many decisions throughout the cheesemaking process that will affect the finished product, the first step is always to select the raw material, milk.
Cheese can be made from any animal that produces milk: cow, sheep, goat, camel, mare, buffalo, or yak. With the exception of Italy's mozzarella di bufala, made from the milk of herds of water-buffalo, cheeses in the Western world are typically made from the milk of cows, goats, and sheep. Of the three animals, sheep produce the lowest volume of milk, but because it is so much higher in fat and protein content than either goat's or cow's milk, less of it is needed to make cheese. On average, ten pounds of cow's or goat's milk or about half that amount of sheep's milk is required to make one pound of cheese. In contrast to the rich, concentrated flavor of sheep's milk, goat's milk is slightly sweet and fresh-tasting; cow's milk is the lightest of the three. The milk of individual breeds of the same species also has a unique flavor profile. Consequently, the laws governing many name-controlled cheeses specify the breed of animal from which the milk is to come. Cheese-makers have the further choice of how to use the milk they collect: full fat, partly skimmed, or with extra cream added.
Free-grazing animals feast on a bounty of wild grasses, flowers, and other vegetation during the warmer months. This gives their milk a complexity of flavor that is easily distinguishable from the milk of grain-fed animals in winter. Some cheesemakers insist that they can
Milk used for cheese may or may not be pasteurized. Pasteurization is a process of heating milk that destroys most of the naturally present bacteria (see Cheese Safety below). Current U.S. law requires that cheeses be pasteurized or, if made from unpasteurized milk, aged for at least sixty days at 35°F before sale for consumption. Milk may be pasteurized in one of two ways: by heating it to 161°F for fifteen seconds, or by heating it to 145°F for thirty minutes (the latter method is sometimes called "heat treatment"). These laws apply to both domestically produced and imported cheeses. When cheese is made from unpasteurized milk, it is frequently referred to as "raw milk" cheese, connoting that the milk has not been "cooked." Most cheesemakers believe that the brilliant nuances of flavor found in raw milk, with its naturally present "good" bacteria, simply cannot be duplicated in a pasteurized milk cheese, though some well-respected cheeses, including British Stilton, are made only from pasteurized milk.
The Principles of Cheesemaking
An oft-repeated legend has it that the first cheesemaker fell into the role by accident. A nomadic tribesman prepared for a long desert journey, he carried a bag made from the dried stomach of a young sheep and filled with milk. As he walked steadily under the relentless sun, the milk began to curdle. Noting that this "fresh cheese" had a pleasant taste and did not spoil as easily as milk, the nomad later drained off the whey and salted the curds to enhance these qualities. The cheesemaking tradition had begun.
While modern cheesemaking techniques are more refined and recipes have become standardized, the basic principles remain the same now as when the (possibly apocryphal) nomad of cheese legend opened his sheep's stomach bag (which supplied the coagulating rennet), warmed by the sun and agitated by his rhythmic trek.
The Steps of Cheesemaking
There are as many recipes for cheese as there are cheeses, but all of them follow some combination of these steps.
Acidification: souring the milk. The milk is gently warmed to encourage the growth of lactic acid bacteria, Streptococci and Lactobacilli. These bacteria feed on the milk sugar lactose, changing it to lactic acid. As the acidity rises, the solids in the milk (casein protein, fat, some vitamins and minerals) clump together, forming curds in the watery whey (milk is approximately 85 percent water). This is the first step for making all cheeses; in ancient times, cheeses were most likely the result of leaving pots of milk to sour naturally in the sun, affected by bacteria in the air. Some cheesemakers still wait for these process to begin with free, airborne lactic acid bacteria, but most use a starter culture. Starters are widely available commercially, but cheesemakers can also use a bit of the previous day's milk (unless it is pasteurized)he same principle as with a sourdough bread starter.
Renneting: coagulating the curd. Cheesemaking has been referred to as "controlled spoiling" because of the need to efficiently form curds before undesirable bacteria cause the milk to become rancid. The enzyme rennin, traditionally removed from the stomach lining of a young animal (usually the same species of animal that supplied the milk), hastens and completes the curdling process. The renneting property of some plants has been recognized nearly since the dawn of cheesemaking; these vegetable rennets are the traditional agents in several cheeses. Other vegetarian rennets, made from a yeast or fungus, are also used today.
The curd is left to "set," forming a network of protein that traps the other milk solids inside. As the solids bind more tightly together, they begin to push out the liquid whey, a process the cheesemaker may continue by cutting, cooking, and pressing. The whey is sometimes used to make cheese as well (Italian ricotta and Cypriot hallumi are two examples), but usually it is discarded.
Treating the curds. After renneting, cheese recipes diverge. Some soft cheeses, like fresh goat's milk cheese, are gently transferred to molds. The curd's own weight will continue to press out whey. These cheeses might be labeled "hand ladled" to indicate that they were created using this time-consuming method. The Greeks called the molds that held the curds formos, which became the root for cheese in Italy (formaggio) and France (fromage). Our English word "cheese" has its root in the Latin caseus, which became Käse in German and queso in Spanish.
In contrast to the light touch required for soft cheeses, which derive their creamy texture from a higher water content, the curds for other cheeses are sliced and chopped, by hand or machine, to release more whey. The smaller the curds are cut, the firmer the resulting cheese. Cheddar and some other cheeses undergo a unique process called "cheddaring," which results in its firm, flaky texture. Blocks of curd are stacked, turned, and restacked to press out as much whey as possible. Then the dry curds are milled, ground into tiny pieces, and packed into molds.
Some hard cheeses are "cooked," that is, the curds are reheated during processing. This causes the curds to release even more whey and alters the texture of the cheese. Examples of cooked cheeses include Emmentaler, Appenzeller, and Gruyère.
Preparation for aging: salting, molding, and pressing. Cheeses can be salted in four different ways. For some cheeses, the salt is stirred directly into the curd. A second method involves rubbing or sprinkling dry salt onto the rind of a cheese. This helps to form the rind, protecting the inside of the cheese from ripening too quickly. Some large cheeses are soaked in a pool of brine. The fourth option is to wash the surface of the cheese with a brine solution. In the case of washed-rind cheeses, the salt does not protect the cheese from bacteriat invites them. The cheeses must be regularly rubbed with water, brine, or alcohol to encourage the growth of the bacteria that give them their sticky orange rinds and distinctive aroma.
Cheese is then transferred, if it has not been already, to a mold where the final cheese will take shape. The whey of soft cheeses drips through the holes in their molds, pressed out by the cheese's weight. Other, firmer cheeses are pressed by hand or machine to extract the last bits of whey.
Ripening. During the ripening or aging stage, the cheesemaker cares for the cheese at a precise temperature and humidity level until it is ready to eat; this can range anywhere from a few weeks for a soft-ripened cheese to a few years for a wheel of Parmigiano-Reggiano. Depending on the variety, ripening cheeses need to be turned to equally distribute the butterfat and brushed to maintain the rind quality.
Name-controlled Cheeses
Before the 1951 Stresa Convention in Stresa, Italy, it was impossible for traditional, regional cheesemakers to protect their products from inauthentic forgeries. The delegates to this international conference accomplished two goals: they created a uniform definition of "cheese" to facilitate international trade, and protected by law the names and origins of a select group of treasured traditional cheeses. Protected cheeses fall into two categories. A few cheeses, including France's Roquefort and Switzerland's Sbrinz, are given absolute protectionhe cheese cannot be made outside of its designated region. A second group of cheeses may be produced in nontraditional areas, but must be clearly labeled with its region of origin. Camembert produced in the United States is a good example of this second group.
"Name-controlled" cheeses must meet stringent laws that go beyond the international standards for processing and safety. The departments and associations that supervise these cheeses differ from country to country (and from cheese to cheese), but generally emphasize the unique, regional quality of the cheese. In Switzerland, for example, cheeses must be native to the area in which they are made. France has the most specific cheese production laws of any country. The Appellation d'Origine Contrôllée (AOC) designation indicates that a cheesemaker has complied with regulations that include the type and breed of animal from which the milk comes, location of production of both milk and cheese, production techniques (including pasteurization), the final composition of the cheese (its fat and moisture content, for example), and the physical and sensory attributes of the cheese, which include its shape, size, and of course, flavor. Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Great Britain are also home to name-controlled cheeses.
The effort to control cheese quality through government standards of identity can be related to similar efforts with wine. Purchasing a French cheese with the AOC designation on the label does not necessarily guarantee quality, however. Subtle differences between individual producers, milk quality, or aging time and conditions can make the difference between a great cheese and a not-so-great one.
Classifying Cheese
As Pierre Androuët asserts in his fundamental text Guide du Fromage (Guide to Cheese), a cheese should simply be what it ists appearance, aroma, texture, and flavor
General characteristics, such as the type of milk (or whey) used or the country of origin, provide a starting point for discussing broad topics; for example, the relative unpopularity of sheep's milk cheese in the United States compared to European countries, or the social implications of cheese consumption in England as opposed to France. More specific classificationshe moisture content of the cheese (hard, semi-hard, soft, or fresh), whether it was made from pasteurized or unpasteurized milk, or the length of agingay serve scientific inquiries concerned with bacterial development rates in different cheeses.
When cheese is classified by "type," it is grouped by similar characteristics like taste, smell, and appearance. The rind type and the method of production are often used as determining factors. Steven Jenkins describes eight different cheese "families" (including processed cheese) (Cheese Primer, pp. 113). These very common categories may help when choosing a cheese at the cheese counter, but a particular cheese may fit into more than one category, or not seem to fit in any.
Fresh cheese. After the formation of curds, the cheese (and also, sometimes, the whey) is usually transferred to plastic tubs and covered. The cheeses are eaten fresh, not ripened, and do not have a rind. Cottage cheese, cream cheese, and feta pickled cheesere some common examples of fresh cheeses. Sometimes fresh Mozzarella is also included in this category because it does not form a rind, but this is problematic because Mozzarella curds are heated and stretched.
Bloomy rind cheeses. Also called simply "soft ripened cheese," this category includes cheeses like French Camembert and Brie, which are covered with velvety white molds that ripen the cheese from the outside in.
Washed-rind cheese. These orange, sticky, stinky cheeses are rubbed with a water, brine, or alcohol solution to invite the growth of ripening bacteria and molds on their rinds. Examples include the French Livarot (nicknamed "The Colonel" because it is ringed with raffia stripes) and Alsatian Munster.
Natural rind cheese. These cheeses are self-sufficient, naturally forming their rinds from air contact. Surface-molded goat cheeses and British Stilton are good examples. British farmhouse cheeses are sometimes included in the natural rind category because their permeable cheesecloth wrapping allows them to develop a thick protective rind. Likewise, Parmigiano-Reggiano and other cheeses are helped to form a rind that still develops largely from air contact.
Blue-veined cheese. To allow the growth of their distinctive bluish or greenish interior molds, these cheeses are never pressed. They are typically injected with a mold strain, and then pierced to expose the insides to air. They may be wrapped in foil like Italian Gorgonzola or form natural rinds like British Stilton.
Uncooked, pressed cheese. This is a category defined by processing type. These cheeses are pressed to remove whey, but are not cooked (see Treating the Curds).
Cooked, pressed cheese. Cheeses such as Swiss Emmental (sometimes Emmentaler) and Gruyère are cooked and pressed in the processes described above.
Processed cheese. There is another type of cheese that, because of its overwhelming presence in supermarket refrigerator cases, should not be overlooked. Pasteurized processed cheese is created by heating and mixing a blend of natural cheeses and emulsifiers. These cheesesmerican cheese certainly being the best-known in the United Statesan retain their flavor and texture qualities in a much broader range of temperature and moisture conditions than can natural cheeses, and for a longer period of time. They are also easy to use in a variety of dishes, and are typically less expensive than natural cheeses. Because the entire product, not just the milk, is pasteurized, and because processed cheeses are often vacuum-packaged, they are uniformly and consistently safe. The nutrient content of processed cheese remains very close to that of natural cheese, although the sodium content may be higher. All of these characteristics make them popular choices not only in the United States but in other countries as well.
Processed cheese food and cheese spread both contain natural cheese and emulsifying agents, but add other ingredients like whey, skim milk, milk powders, or water that raise the moisture content of the product. This causes them to melt or spread more easily. There are also imitation cheese products that contain little or no milk protein. Soy cheese is one example of an imitation cheese product.
Nutritional Value
The fat content of cheese is noted on its package as a certain percent butterfat. This can be misleading, however, because the fat content is evaluated as a percentage of the solids in the cheese (fat-in-dry-matter), not the overall weight of the cheese. Even a very hard, aged cheese like Parmigiano-Reggiano contains a significant amount of water, about 30 percent. As a cheese ages, it loses moisture, and the fat percentage relative to weight increases, though the fat-in-dry-matter remains the same. Soft cheeses typically have a high fat-in-dry-matter percentage, but they also contain more water than hard cheeses; their overall fat percentage is much lower, as much as half, the fat-in-dry-matter percentage.
Cheese's greatest nutritional advantage is its high protein content and the digestibility of that protein. In addition, cheese is a valuable source of vitamin A, vitamin B2, and vitamin B12, and the minerals calcium and phosphorus.
People who suffer from lactose intolerance often believe that they must forego cheese altogether. In fact, many cheeses (especially aged, hard cheeses like Parmigiano-Reggiano) contain very little or no lactose, as the lactose is expelled along with the whey. The small amounts of remaining lactose are mostly converted into lactic acid during the aging process.
Cheese Safety
Cheese has been cited as the vehicle for several bacterial outbreaksefined as an illness from a common source that affects two or more people. Organisms communicated to humans through cheese have included Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, Brucella melitensis, and Escherichia coli (including E. coli O157). Nearly all of these bacteria are destroyed during the pasteurization process. Raw milk cheeses seem to have been the cause of reported outbreaks more often than pasteurized cheeses. In the interest of public safety, the United States requires that milk for cheesemaking be pasteurized or that the cheese be aged for sixty days. However, recent concerns about the effectiveness of pasteurization, coupled with alarm and confusion over animal disease outbreaks like mad cow disease and hoof-and-mouth disease (which do not affect milk safety) have prompted scientists and government officials to reevaluate the current policy.
A close review of the reported outbreaks reveals that current laws are probably adequate to prevent cheese-borne illnesses, provided that they are strictly enforced and the starting quality of the milk is high. Reports and studies of cheese-borne outbreaks often include "unpasteurized" and "improperly pasteurized" cheese in the same category, implying that milk that has not completed the pasteurization process is of the same quality as raw milk. Traditional cheesemakers would argue that this is not the case. When milk is intended for pasteurization, its initial bacterial quality need not be as high as that of raw milk, as all bacteria will be destroyed in the pasteurization process. However, if the pasteurization process were ever to fail, or if, as some researchers have hypothesized, pasteurization is not effective against all bacteria, milk of low initial bacterial quality increases the risk of cheese-borne illness. Cheesemakers who use raw milk, on the other hand, must take special care to keep it free of dangerous bacteria.
Few outbreaks have been caused by unpasteurized dairy products in which there was not at least one flaw in the production process. Curds from unpasteurized milk have been mislabeled as pasteurized, raw milk cheeses have been sold before the minimum required aging time, and fresh, unpasteurized Mexican soft cheese has been illegally imported and sold. All of the above cases involved raw milk cheeses, demonstrating the danger that can be associated with that product. Yet, they also show that the existing standards governing raw milk cheese could have prevented the outbreaks, if they had been carefully followed.
Bacterial levels in raw milk will always be higher than in properly pasteurized milk, even when the greatest of care is taken. Aging a cheese for at least sixty days has long been thought to neutralize harmful bacteria, but this may not be true for all types of cheeses and all types of bacteria. Certain groups of people, those with weakened immune systems or special concerns, should not consume raw milk products, particularly soft and semi-soft cheeses. A consumer choosing a raw milk cheese needs to do so fully aware of the possible risks. New labeling requirements could help make sure that people are informed of the risks and the pleasures when they purchase cheese.
See also Dairy Products; France; Italy; Wine.
Androuët, Pierre. Guide to Cheeses. With the help of N. Roche and G. Lambert, translated by John Githens, and new cheeses by Anthea Bell. Henley-on-Thames, U.K.: Aidan Ellis, 1993. New and revised edition. Originally published as Guide du fromage (Paris: Stock, 1971).
Fox, Patrick F., ed. Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology. 2d ed. 2 vols. London: Chapman & Hall, 1993.
Harbutt, Juliet. Cheese: A Complete Guide to Over 300 Cheeses of Distinction. Minocqua, Wis.: Willow Creek Press, 1999.
Jenkins, Steven. Cheese Primer. New York: Workman, 1996.
Jones, Evan. The World of Cheese. New York: Knopf, 1978.
Kosikowski, Frank V., and Vikram V. Mistry. Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods. 3rd ed. 2 vols. Westport, Conn.: F. V. Kosikowski, 1997.
Masui, Kazuko, and Tomoko Yamada. French Cheeses. New York: DK Publishing, 1996.
McCalman, Max and David Gibbons. The Cheese Plate. New York: Clarkson Potter, 2002.
Nantet, Bernard, et al. Cheeses of the World. Translated by Clio Mitchell, Rob Jamieson, and Daniel Wheeler. New York: Rizzoli, 1993.
Pearl, Anita May, Constance Cuttle, and Barbara B. Deskins. Completely Cheese: The Cheeselover's Companion. Edited by David Kolatch. Middle Village, N.Y.: Jonathan David, 1978.
Rance, Patrick. The French Cheese Book. London: Macmillan, 1989.
Rance, Patrick. The Great British Cheese Book. London: Macmillan, 1982.
Sardo, Piero, Gigi Piumatti, and Roberto Rubino, eds. Italian Cheeses: A Guide to Their Discovery and Appreciation. Translated by Giles Watson, Helen Donald, and Michael Farrell. Bra, Italy: Slow Food Editore, 1999.
Simon, André. Cheeses of the World. 2d ed. London: Faber and Faber, 1960. Reprint, 1965.
Stamm, Eunice R. The History of Cheese Making in New York State: The History of Cheese Making in the Empire State from the Early Dutch Settlers to Modern Times. New York: Lewis Group, 1991.
Tewksbury, Henry. The Cheeses of Vermont. Woodstock, Vt.: Countryman Press, 2002.
Werlin, Linda. The New American Cheese: Profiles of America's Great Cheesemakers and Recipes for Cooking with Cheese. New York: Stewart, Tabori & Chang, 2000.
Sara Firebaugh
Cheese (How Products are Made)
Cheese is a fermented food derived from the milk of various mammals. Since humans began to domesticate milk-producing animals around 10,000 B.C., they have known about the propensity of milk to separate into curds and whey. As milk sours, it breaks down into curds, lumps of phosphoprotein, and whey, a watery, grey fluid that contains lactose, minerals, vitamins, and traces of fat. It is the curds that are used to make cheese, and practically every culture on Earth has developed its own methods, the only major exceptions being China and the ancient Americas.
The first cheeses were "fresh," that is, not fermented. They consisted solely of salted white curds drained of whey, similar to today's cottage cheese. The next step was to develop ways of accelerating the natural separation process. This was achieved by adding rennet to the milk. Rennet is an enzyme from the stomachs of young ruminants ruminant is an animal that chews its food very thoroughly and possesses a complex digestive system with three or four stomach chambers; in the United States, cows are the best known creatures of this kind. Rennet remains the most popular way of "starting" cheese, though other starting agents such as lactic acid and various plant extracts are also used.
By A.D. 100 cheese makers in various countries knew how to press, ripen, and cure fresh cheeses, thereby creating a product that could be stored for long periods. Each country or region developed different types of cheese that reflected local ingredients and conditions. The number of cheeses thus developed is staggering. France, famous for the quality and variety of its cheeses, is home to about 400 commercially available cheeses.
The next significant step to affect the manufacture of cheese occurred in the 1860s, when Louis Pasteur introduced the process that bears his name. Pasteurization entails heating milk to partially sterilize it without altering its basic chemical structure. Because the process destroys dangerous micro-organisms, pasteurized milk is considered more healthful, and most cheese is made from pasteurized milk today.
The first and simplest way of extending the length cheese would keep without spoiling was simply ageing it. Aged cheese was popular from the start because it kept well for domestic use. In the 1300s, the Dutch began to seal cheese intended for export in hard rinds to maintain its freshness, and, in the early 1800s, the Swiss became the first to process cheese. Frustrated by the speed with which their cheese went bad in the days before refrigeration, they developed a method of grinding old cheese, adding filler ingredients, and heating the mixture to produce a sterile, uniform, long-lasting product. Another advantage of processing cheese was that it permitted the makers to recycle edible, second-grade cheeses in a palatable form.
Prior to the twentieth century, most people considered cheese a specialty food, produced in individual households and eaten rarely. However, with the advent of mass production, both the supply of and the demand for cheese have increased. In 1955, 13 percent of milk was made into cheese. By 1984, this percentage had grown to 31 percent, and it continues to increase. Interestingly, though processed cheese is now widely available, it represents only one-third of the cheese being made today. Despite the fact that most cheeses are produced in large factories, a majority are still made using natural methods. In fact, small, "farmhouse" cheese making has made a comeback in recent years. Many Americans now own their own small cheese-making businesses, and their products have become quite popular, particularly among connoisseurs.
Raw Materials
Cheese is made from milk, and that milk comes from animals as diverse as cows, sheep, goats, horses, camels, water buffalo, and reindeer. Most cheese makers expedite the curdling process with rennet, lactic acid, or plant extracts, such as the vegetable rennet produced from wild artichokes, fig leaves, safflower, or melon.
In addition to milk and curdling agents, cheeses may contain various ingredients added to enhance flavor and color. The great cheeses of the world may acquire their flavor from the specific bacterial molds with which they have been inoculated, an example being the famous Penicillium roqueforti used to make France's Roquefort and England's Stilton. Cheeses may also be salted or dyed, usually with annatto, an orange coloring made from the pulp of a tropical tree, or carrot juice. They may be washed in brine or covered with ashes. Cheese makers who wish to avoid rennet may encourage the bacterial growth necessary to curdling by a number of odd methods. Some cheeses possess this bacteria because they are made from unpasteurized milk. Other cheeses, however, are reportedly made from milk in which dung or old leather have been dunked; still others acquire their bacteria from being buried in mud.
The unusual texture and flavor of processed cheese are obtained by combining several types of natural cheese and adding salt, milk-fat, cream, whey, water, vegetable oil, and other fillers. Processed cheese will also have preservatives, emulsifiers, gums, gelatin, thickeners, and sweeteners as ingredients. Most processed cheese and some natural cheeses are flavored with such ingredients as paprika, pepper, chives, onions, cumin, car-away seeds, jalapeño peppers, hazelnuts, raisins, mushrooms, sage, and bacon. Cheese can also be smoked to preserve it and give it a distinctive flavor.
The Manufacturing Process
Although cheese making is a linear process, it involves many factors. Numerous varieties of cheese exist because ending the simple preparation process at different points can produce different cheeses, as can varying additives or procedures. Cheese making has long been considered a delicate process. Attempts to duplicate the success of an old cheese factory have been known to fail because conditions at a new factory do not favor the growth of the proper bacteria.
Preparing the milk
- 1 Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer), evening milk, or both. Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which don't pasteurize, this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid, one of the agents that triggers curdling. The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese they're making. Depending on the type of cheese being produced, the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk. This process differs slightly at large cheese factories, which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid.
Separating the curds from the whey
- 2 The next step is to add animal or vegetable rennet to the milk, furthering its separation into curds and whey. Once formed, the curds are cut both vertically and horizontally with knives. In large factories, huge vats of curdled milk are cut vertically using sharp, multi-bladed, wire knives reminiscent of oven racks. The same machine then agitates the curds and slices them horizontally. If the cutting is done manually, the curds are cut both ways using a large, two-handled knife. Soft cheeses are cut into big chunks, while hard cheeses are cut into tiny chunks. (For cheddar, for instance, the space between the knives is about one-twentieth of an inch [half a centimeter].) After cutting, the curds may be heated to hasten the separation from the whey, but they are more typically left alone. When separation is complete, the whey is drained.
Pressing the curds
- 3 Moisture must then be removed from the curds, although the amount removed depends on the type of cheese. For some types with high moisture contents, the whey-draining process removes sufficient moisture. Other types require the curds to be cut, heated, and/or filtered to get rid of excess moisture. To make cheddar cheese, for example, cheese makers cheddar, or finely chop, the curd. To make hard, dry cheeses such as parmesan, cheese makers first cheddar and then cook the curd. Regardless, if the curds are to be aged, they are then put into molds. Here, they are pressed to give the proper shape and size. Soft cheeses such as cottage cheese are not aged.
Ageing the cheese
- 4 At this stage the cheese may be inoculated with a flavoring mold, bathed in brine, or wrapped in cloth or hay before being deposited in a place of the proper temperature and humidity to age. Some cheeses are aged for a month, some for up to several years. Ageing sharpens the flavor of the cheese; for example, cheddar aged more than two years is appropriately labeled extra sharp.
Wrapping natural cheese
- 5 Some cheeses may develop a rind naturally, as their surfaces dry. Other rinds may form from the growth of bacteria that has been sprayed on the surface of the cheese. Still other cheeses are washed, and this process encourages bacterial growth. In place of or in addition to rinds, cheeses can be sealed in cloth or wax. For local eating, this may be all the packaging that is necessary. However, large quantities of cheese are packaged for sale in distant countries. Such cheeses may be heavily salted for export (such as Roquefort) or sealed in impermeable plastic or foil.
Making and wrapping processed
- 6 Edible yet inferior cheeses can be saved and made into processed cheese. Cheeses such as Emmental (commonly called Swiss), Gruyere (similar to Swiss), Colby, or cheddar are cut up and very finely ground. After this powder has been mixed with water to form a paste, other ingredients such as salt, fillers, emulsifiers, preservatives, and flavorings are added. The mixture is then heated under controlled conditions. While still warm and soft, the cheese paste is extruded into long ribbons that are sliced. The small sheets of cheese are then put onto a plastic or foil sheet and wrapped by a machine.
Quality Control
Cheese making has never been an easily regulated, scientific process. Quality cheese has always been the sign of an experienced, perhaps even lucky cheese maker insistent upon producing flavorful cheese. Subscribing to analytical tests of cheese characteristics may yield a good cheese, but cheese making has traditionally been a chancy endeavor. Developing a single set of standards for cheese is difficult because each variety of cheese has its own range of characteristics. A cheese that strays from this range will be bad-tasting and inferior. For example, good soft blue cheese will have high moisture and a high pH; cheddar will have neither.
One controversy in the cheese field centers on whether it is necessary to pasteurize the milk that goes into cheese. Pasteurization was promoted because of the persistence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a pathogen or disease-causing bacteria that occurs in milk products. The United States allows cheeses that will be aged for over sixty days to be made from unpasteurized milk; however, it requires that many cheeses be made from pasteurized milk. Despite these regulations, it is possible to eat cheeses made from unpasteurized milk to no ill effect. In fact, cheese connoisseurs insist that pasteurizing destroys the natural bacteria necessary for quality cheese manufacture. They claim that modern cheese factories are so clean and sanitary that pasteurization is unnecessary. So far, the result of this controversy has merely been that connoisseurs avoid pasteurized milk cheeses.
Regulations exist so that the consumer can purchase authentic cheeses with ease. France, the preeminent maker of a variety of natural cheeses, began granting certain regions monopolies on the manufacture of certain cheeses. For example, a cheese labeled "Roquefort" is guaranteed to have been ripened in the Combalou caves, and such a guarantee has existed since 1411. Because cheese is made for human consumption, great care is taken to insure that the raw materials are of the highest quality, and cheese intended for export must meet particularly stringent quality control standards.
Because they possess such disparate characteristics, different types of cheese are required to meet different compositional standards. Based on its moisture and fat content, a cheese is labeled soft, semi-soft, hard, or very hard. Having been assigned a category, it must then fall within the range of characteristics considered acceptable for cheeses in that category. For example, cheddar, a hard cheese, can contain no more than 39 percent water and no less than 50 percent fat. In addition to meeting compositional standards, cheese must also meet standards for flavor, aroma, body, texture, color, appearance, and finish. To test a batch of cheese, inspectors core a representative wheel vertically in several places, catching the center, the sides, and in between. The inspector then examines the cheese to detect any inconsistencies in texture, rubs it to determine body (or consistency), smells it, and tastes it. Cheese is usually assigned points for each of these characteristics, with flavor and texture weighing more than color and appearance.
Processed cheese is also subject to legal restrictions and standards. Processed American cheese must contain at least 90 percent real cheese. Products labeled "cheese food" must be 51 percent cheese, and most are 65 percent. Products labeled "cheese spread" must also be 51 percent cheese, the difference being that such foods have more water and gums to make them spreadable. "Cheese product" usually refers to a diet cheese that has more water and less cheese than American cheese, cheese food, or cheese spread, but the specific amount of cheese is not regulated. Similarly, "imitation cheese" is not required to contain a minimum amount of cheese, and cheese is usually not its main ingredient. In general, quality processed cheese should resemble cheese and possess some cheesy flavor, preferably with a "bite" such as sharp cheddar cheese has. The cheese should be smooth and evenly colored; it should also avoid rubberiness and melt in the mouth.
Where To Learn More
Brown, Bob. The Complete Book of Cheese. Gramercy Publishing, 1955.
Carr, Sandy. The Simon and Schuster Pocket Guide to Cheese. Simon and Schuster, 1981.
Kosikowski, Frank. Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods. Cornell University, 1966.
Mills, Sonya. The World Guide to Cheese. Gallery Books, 1988.
Timperley, Carol and Cecilia Norman. A Gourmet's Guide to Cheese. HP Books, 1989.
"American Cheese and 'Cheeses'," Consumer Reports. November, 1990, pp. 728-732.
Birmingham, David. "Gruyere's Cheese-makers," History Today. February, 1991, pp. 21-26.
Raichlen, Steven. "Farmhouse Cheeses," Yankee. February, 1991, pp. 84-92.
i>Rose Secrest
Source: How Products are Made, ©2002 Gale Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Full copyright.
Source: Encyclopedia of Food & Culture, ©2003 Gale Cengage. All Rights Reserved. Full copyright.

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Nikon Action Vii 7-15 x 35 Binoculars
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The Nikon Action Vii 7-15 x 35 optical binoulars have a coated lens and a rubberised body They are capable of up to 15x magnification, making them ideal for nature hikes, sporting and other events, bird watching and sight-seeing.
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Emergency response
Life can change for millions of families in an instant: natural disasters can take loved ones and the outbreak of war drives families from their homes. When the unthinkable happens, Mercy Corps delivers rapid, lifesaving aid to hard-hit communities.
We have responded to almost every global disaster in the last 20 years, including the Japan tsunami, Haiti earthquake, hunger crisis in the Horn of Africa and Indian Ocean tsunami.
Right now, our seasoned emergency responders are on the ground in the Philippines working to rush critical supplies to survivors of Super Typhoon Haiyan. The most pressing needs are clean water, sanitation, temporary shelter and food.
Learn more about our Typhoon Haiyan emergency response and how you can help ▸
We're also working to support nearly two million people affected by the crisis in Syria. This is a long-term humanitarian disaster with no end in site; we are committed to helping Syrian refugees and their host communities in Jordan and Lebanon, providing clean water, household supplies, improved shelter and support for children to heal from trauma.
Learn more about our ongoing response to the Syrian refugee crisis ▸
All stories about Emergency response
United States: Returning to a Different Place September 9, 2005
United States: Aid Worker Among the Displaced September 2, 2005
Two years ago, Eileen Ihrig was living in Pakistan, overseeing health services and ensuring the availability of clean water for thousands of Afghan refugees who had fled Kabul in the aftermath of U.S. military action there in 2001.
United States: A History of Domestic Emergency Response September 1, 2005
Mercy Corps is best known for its swift and effective response to international disasters. But sometimes, the magnitude of disasters right here in the U.S. compels us to act. Hurricane Andrew
United States: Tales of Survival Broadcast from the Gulf Region August 31, 2005
There's no telling how long it will be before survivors of Hurricane Katrina can safely return to their homes - or how many will have homes to return to.
United States: Veteran Aid Worker Says Agency Expertise will Bolster Rebuilding Effort August 31, 2005
Nick Macdonald, one of the first humanitarian workers on the ground in Sri Lanka after last December's Indian Ocean tsunami, is among a team of veteran disaster responders that Mercy Corps is assembling in Louisiana.
United States: Mercy Corps Partners with Episcopal Relief and Development to Aid Survivors of Hurricane Katrina August 30, 2005
As flood waters continue to inundate much of the U.S. Gulf Coast, Mercy Corps is partnering with Episcopal Relief and Development (ERD) to meet the immediate and longer-term needs of people displaced from their homes in coastal Louisiana, Alabama and Mississippi.
United States: Catastrophic Hurricane Strikes U.S. Gulf Coast August 29, 2005
Niger: Responding to Health Needs in Niger August 22, 2005
Mercy Corps has an emergency team on the ground in one of Niger's most famine-stricken areas, helping serve malnourished children and families by improving the quality and reach of critical health care.
Niger: Team Deploys to Aid Niger's Food Crisis August 12, 2005
Mercy Corps is sending two veteran aid workers to respond to the current food crisis in Niger. Team leader Christy Collins, a Seattle resident, departed from Portland today.
Niger: Famine in Niger: Millions at Risk August 10, 2005
More than 3.5 million people — including nearly one million children — in the West African nation of Niger are suffering from severe hunger and could die of starvation soon. You can act immediately to ensure lives are saved.


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Philip R. Devlin
In 1915, Jack Barry of Meriden, CT, became the first Connecticut native to be a member of the Boston Red Sox. An infielder and teammate of Babe Ruth, Barry had an 11-year major league career in which he played over 300 games for the Sox — about the equivalent of 2 seasons.
Jack Barry was one of 182 Connecticut natives who have played in the majors, several of whom have spent at least part of their career with the Red Sox. One of the more notable Connecticut natives to have played for the Sox was Mo Vaughn of Norwalk. Mo played eight seasons in Boston and had prodigious power at the peak of his career in the early- to mid-1990s.
Waterbury native Jimmy Piersall broke in with the Sox in 1950. Talented but controversial, Piersall spent eight years of his 17-year career with the Red Sox. He is still alive at 84. Piersall was the subject of both a movie and book entitled "Fear Strikes Out."
Big Walt Dropo of Moosup began his 13-year major league career with the Bosox in 1949. He spent his first four years in Boston. In 1950, Dropo batted .322 and hit 34 home runs — his most productive year.
Farmington native Dick McAuliffe spent 16 productive years in the major leagues. A three-time All-Star infielder, McAuliffe spent his first 14 years with the Detroit Tigers before signing with the Red Sox for his final two years, 1974 and 1975.
Berlin High School graduate Gary Waslewski pitched for Boston in 1967 and 1968. Waslewski was a member of the "Impossible Dream" team of 1967. That team has some parallels with this year's Red Sox. The 1966 version of the Sox finished in 9th place in the American League (out of 10 teams). The 2013 team has gone from "worst to first," having finished dead last in the league last year under manager Bobby Valentine, who is from Stamford. Another interesting parallel is that Waslewski's Impossible Dream team had a new manager — Dick Williams — who had been with the Toronto Blue Jays organization the year before. The Red Sox manager for 2013 — John Farrell — was with the Blue Jays organization last year!
This year's version of the "Impossible Dream" features two Connecticut natives: John McDonald and Craig Breslow. An East Lyme native, John McDonald played for UConn's perennially good Avery Point baseball team. McDonald went on to star on the Providence College baseball team before joining the major leagues. McDonald has played for seven teams in the majors as a versatile utility infielder whose defensive prowess has made him a fan favorite. While with Toronto, his nickname became the "Minister of Defense."
Like John McDonald, Breslow has played for seven different Major League teams. He is an effective relief pitcher this year, usually serving as the "set-up" man for the Boston staff. A graduate of Trumbull High School, Breslow later attended Yale University, where he majored in molecular biology. He was dubbed the "smartest man in baseball" this year by a Minnesota reporter. Breslow has been in the majors for eight years and has an impressive career ERA of 2.82.
Since major league baseball began over 130 years ago, 17,444 men have played in the pros. Of that number, 182 of them have been natives of Connecticut — just over 1%. Since Jack Barry's appearance with the Boston Red Sox in 1915, many Connecticut natives have been a part of the team on a regular basis, often making significant contributions. This year is no exception, as Connecticut can take pride in watching two of its native sons try to help the Sox win their eighth World Series championship in their 112-year history.
By .
Boston Red Sox 2013: The Connecticut Connections
East Lyme's John McDonald and Trumbull's Craig Breslow are the latest two of a long line of Connecticut natives to play for the Boston Red Sox in their 112-year history.
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text: I'm Fog. I'm an insomniac with sometime on my hands. I roleplay it's kinda a hobby, but only one of them. Still it's my favorite so I must admit that I give it more time than the others. I do fantasy roleplay the most it allows creativity to flow. I'm not above romance, and more often than not I use it to my advantage. As for personality I'll let you decide what kind of person I am.


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When we realize that something is not quite right, that there is a problem or when we want to
create change in our schools, one of the most effective tools we can use is a strategy chart.
A way of drawing out your ideas, create a plan and figure out how to create the change and can be used as a guide to help you develop a strategy that best suits the situation at your school and your organization.
Remember, before you sit down to fill out the strategy chart with your activist group, you may want to gather more information. For example, you might want to do a survey to figure out what the problems are at your school, or have a discussion at your GSA about the most pressing problems, you have as students, that you would like to see changed.
Using information from this research, turn the problem into an issue: An issue communicates what you are fighting for to help solve your problem. The issue is the goal of your campaign. If the problem is name-calling and slurs, your issue could be to reduce anti-LGBT slurs.
Additionally, collecting other information and resources to have on hand when working on your strategy chart is critical. For example having your student handbook that outlines school policies, a list of all the staff and teachers at the school, a list of all the district employees and school board members, and any other materials that provide information about key people or policies related to the school.
Goal: Goals are measurements of success or victory. An Intended Impact(s) (this is your long-term goal or what you want to achieve). It could simply be winning the issue you have identified. An intended impact could be implementing AB 537. Make sure to celebrate your accomplishments. [This happens first.]
Short-term goals are the steps toward achieving your intended impact. A short-term goal could be getting on the school board meeting agenda or having your school do a voluntary teacher training. You often may have multiple short-term goals that you are working on at the same time. [Come back here, once you know who your Decision Maker is before you create your Tactics.]
Resources: These are the strengths and weaknesses within your own activist group. Be as thorough as possible when listing your group's resources. Including: skills, assets & gaps related to delivering the strategy, people power, technology, money, coalition resources, etc.
example: A strength could be the number of people you have in your group or access to a computer. Weaknesses might be lack of money or internal division within your group.
Allies are the people who will support you but may not necessarily be members of your group (GSA), for example supportive parents, other groups at your school, or community members. You will also want to think about the groups you have relationships with and see if they might be interested in being Coalitions Partners. They can often be valuable resources themselves or have access to resources.
Opponents are the people who will actively organize to prevent you from winning your issue. Individual students
who are hostile to you and your group can certainly affect your school environment, but they are not your opponents unless they can actually organize to stop your efforts. Try to figure out how your opponents are organized and how they could oppose you.
Decision Maker: The decision maker is the person with the power to give you what you want. Keep in mind that this person is the specific individual who has this power and we can sway.
You may also want to find someone who can Influence your decision maker, this is a person who has more influence or sway than you might.
example: If your decision maker is the school board president, an influencer could be a particularly powerful parent in the school district who is good friends with the school board president and happens to be the parent of one of your GSA members.
Tactics: Activities, that are the specific things that your group members (GSA) and allies can do using the resources you have to meet your goals and put pressure on your decision maker to give you what you want (your intended impact). You may also want to include research and media as important elements in implementing
your tactics.
examples: Publicizing the results of a school survey about name-calling, holding a rally, running a letter-writing campaign, meeting with your principal, testifying at a school board meeting.
Reflection: Along the way be sure your group (GSA and Coalition Partners) checks in to figure out if your tactics are working and, if you are meeting your short-term goals. You may have to change your strategy part way through your campaign if the opposition is successful in countering your efforts or if your first attempt to influence the decision-maker doesn't work, or if your resources change.
With a well-developed strategy, you are more likely to succeed in creating change in your school. GOOD LUCK!
Download the pdf version [1]
[1] http://gsanetwork.org/files/resources/developing%20a%20strategy%20v5.pdf


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5 bedroom detached house for sale Tithe Barn, Rhoose Road, RHOOSE, Vale of Glamorgan
PART EXCHANGE CONSIDERED - RHOOSE ONLY...........SEPARATE DETACHED BUNGALOW IN THE GROUNDS....... SEA VIEWS FROM REAR ELEVATION ...... A spacious, individual property converted in the 80's by its present owners, previously a working farm. The property is placed in a cul de sac position Rhoose Roa... More details ›
£375,000Guide Price
Guide Price £375,000
4 bedroom detached house for sale Fontygary Road, Rhoose
UNINTERRUPTED CHANNEL VIEWS; 4 DOUBLE BEDROOMS; PLENTIFUL PARKING: Situated on this most sought after and desirable location and affording uninterrupted Channel views. The accommodation to the ground floor comprises an entrance hallway, 2 double bedrooms, refitted shower room/WC, lounge, sitting... More details ›
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**** RHOOSE POINT **** This five bedroomed detached property is situated towards the top end of the point built by Westbury it is the Verwood design.The property briefly comprises of lounge, dining room, family room, kitchen/breakfast room, utility room, cloakroom, five bedrooms, dressing area an... More details ›
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£349,950Guide Price
Guide Price £349,950
4 bedroom detached house for sale Lower Farm Court, Rhoose, Vale Of Glamorgan
Beautifully presented modern Detached Home situated in an sought after exclusive address in Rhoose Village. It is very rare that a property of this kind comes to market so early viewing is essential. The property boasts a re-fitted kitchen and bathroom as well as a wealth of fixtures and fittings... More details ›
5 bedroom detached house for sale Bryn Y Gloyn, Rhoose Point
GENEROUS PLOT; LARGE GARDEN; OVER 2100 SQ FT OF ACCOMMODATION!! This spacious family home comprises a large entrance hallway, cloaks/WC, stunning 20'11" lounge, a sitting room/study, dining room and kitchen/family room. To the first floor there are 5 double bedrooms, the main with a full en suite More details ›
4 bedroom detached house for sale Fontygary Road, Rhoose
SENSIBLE OFFERS CONSIDERED - UNIQUE DESIGN; 4 DOUBLE BEDROOMS; 3 RECEPTIONS AND CONSERVATORY; GRANITE KITCHEN; LARGE PLOT; IN STUNNING ORDER THROUGHOUT; 60' X 58' REAR GARDEN: An attractive proposition is offered in this unique and detached property that has been significantly extended in recent... More details ›
5 bedroom detached house for sale Nyth Y Dryw, Rhoose Point
5 DOUBLE BEDROOMS AND SEA VIEWS - A superb David Wilsom Executive Detached family home that offers sea views from elevated rear windows. The accommodation generally includes an entrance hallway (via a covered storm porch), cloakroom/WC, large living room with French doors, dining room with rear... More details ›
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4 bedroom detached house for sale Lon Lindys, Rhoose Point
A SPACIOUS, LIGHT AND AIRY HOME situated in upper Rhoose Point. Comprising a welcoming entrance hallway with central turned staircase, 3 generous reception rooms, cloakroom/WC, large cloaks cupboard and spacious kitchen/family room with utility room. More details ›
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4 bedroom detached bungalow for sale Adenfield Way, Rhoose, Vale Of Glamorgan
Currently Under Refurbishment Is This Greatly Extended Detached Bungalow Situated At This Popular Village Location With In The Vale Of Glamorgan. Spacious Accommodation Is Offered By Way Of Porch. Entrance Hall, 20' Lounge, 18' Fitted Kitchen Breakfast Room, Utility Room, Four Bedrooms Including ... More details ›
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4 bedroom detached house for sale Adenfield Way, RHOOSE, Vale of Glamorgan
A spacious extended detached bungalow that has been extended over the years by its present seller. Offering maintenance free living throughout and offered with No chain. Situated in a popular Village location near shops, schools and public transport. Spacious accommodation. Briefly comprising, p... More details ›


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Hush Hostel Lounge
Real Reviews
Real reviews from fellow travellers
These are trusted reviews from guests who have actually stayed here. We hope you find them helpful.
Note: we only give a property a rating once it has received a minimum of 3 reviews.
- Page:1/1
- " I had a great stay here. It's a wonderful place to slow down and regroup... "
- 16 Oct 2013 Anonymous USA
- " One of the best hostel I ve ever stayed ! Nice turkish breakfast incl. very clean! Shower did not work couple times. Backyard is excellent , quite and kittens are so lovely :) rooftop has a nice view of Bosporus . I will come back again but I am little worry if I wanna recommend it. I don't want ths Plc packed when I am there:) lovely place "
- 04 Oct 2013 Mustafa Turkey
- " I spent a whole day at Hush lo unge as I stopped over in Istanbul on my way to Middle East. I needed to rest a few hours and I opted for Hush because it's close to the airport, half an hour from Sabiha Gocek. I asked to have breakfast the day I arrive as I wouldn't stayed overnight and they let me have it. Staff is great and I lo ed the garden and the terrace! Perfect!! "
- 13 Aug 2013 Anonymous Italy
- " A nice hostel with a good athmosphere. The double room was large and had a balcony. The backyard is really nice to chill a have a beer. Keep in mind that the hostel is on the Asian side of the city so you have to take the ferry home (but it is a nice trip). "
- 16 Jul 2013 Anonymous Netherlands
- " Great home-like atmpsphere with different lounge zone, kitchen and up floor terrase for sunbathing Good clean private and doormitory rooms Cute animals in the garden where you can spend days and evenings Good location to bus station of Kadikoy Nice and helpful staff I would definetely stay again. Thanks! "
- 18 May 2013 Anonymous Russia


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The Classic Step2 Wagon exclusively for girls has an easy-latch door opens to two contoured seats and deep leg well with molded-in drain holes. It has a long handle for easy pulling that fold under wagon for easy transport and storage. Two safety seat belts are included. This requires minimal adult assembly.The Step2 Company is a family company with toy brands including Step2®, Infantino®, and Thinkativity® that foster learning and development through creative play in children from birth to school-age years. Step2 designs and produces new toys that receive recognition every year for their durability, creative play value, and fun designs. The Step2 Company not only designs and produces innovative toys, it also provides parents and child care professionals access to learn and share information about the importance of creative play.
"R"Web#: 684320
Manufacturer #: 813000
Product Weight:23.2 pounds
Product Dimensions (in inches):39.8 x 19.8 x 15.3
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(based on 25 reviews)
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Most Helpful Positive Review
Great Wagon! Love it!!
We received this wagon to review for my mommy blog. We all love it! It was very easy to put together and my daughter has a blast riding around in it. It is easy...Read complete review
We received this wagon to review for my mommy blog. We all love it! It was very easy to put together and my daughter has a blast riding around in it. It is easy to transport and very sturdy. I love that it comes with seat belts, cup holders, and extra storage space!
Most Helpful Critical Review
very hard to assemble
Use for walks It would be nice if the handle turned the wheels its hard to turn corners.Its the perfect size for my 8 1/2 month old crawler.It was ...Read complete review
Use for walks It would be nice if the handle turned the wheels its hard to turn corners.Its the perfect size for my 8 1/2 month old crawler.It was extremely hard to assemble. The instructions are only pictures, no words.
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Best purchase ever!!!
By Abby's MiMi
from Beckley, WV
About Me Grandparent, Parent Of Two Or More Children, Working Parent
Comments about Step2 Wagon for 2 - Pink:
This Step 2 pink wagon was very easy to assemble and the perfect gift for any toddler! From the easy open side door & the safety seatbelts to the cup holders & choice of colors... This is an excellent buy!!! Whether it's a fun day at the beach or a cozy evening in the back yard... This Step 2 pink wagon is a no fail sale!!! Thanks ToysRus
Comment on this review
By Grandma Cindy
from Asheville, NC
About Me Grandparent
Exactly as I expected. While some reviewers mentioned problems with assembly or parts that were not quite right, everything fit together perfectly! I purchased because of the Step 2 product reputation and I was not disappointed. It was exactly what I wanted for my granddaughter's first birthday. I'm sure we will have many years of fun with this wagon.
I would buy this product again and again
By butch
from athens.al
item was shipped and arrived right on time
(1 of 1 customers found this review helpful)
little girl birthday surprise on time
By happy grandma
from bloomsburg pa
About Me Grandparent, Parent Of Two Or More Children
My granddaughter's birthday gift was perfect. Loved that there were safety belts, snack area, cup holders, light weight and the best is that your able to take it with you since the handle folds. My granddaughter loves the color.I wish this product would come with option of a canopy though.
Great Wagon!
By LES
from Maplewood, MN
About Me Stay At Home Parent
This is a great wagon, it handles well. Perfect for walks to the park. The two cup holders are great for the kids. Love the compartment that allows for storage of something that you don't want the kids to get at right away like snacks.
By Homan
from Cordova, TN
About Me First Time Parent
See all my reviews
We are very pleased with this wagon. It quickly became my daughter's favorite toy. My only little complain is that the little black washer caps are hard to install. I broke two of them, but Step2 did send me replacements for free.
Can't Wait to Pull Those Little Darlings
By Grampy
from California
About Me Education Oriented, Grandparent, Handiman
We purchased this wagon for two of our latest family additions to share (Grampy can't wait to give them rides together). This "Pink version available exclusively at Toys"R"Us" works exactly as described and assembled easily for Grampy (he loves to fix things anyway so any minor rough edges are no problem). The tow bar is fixed, laterally, so the wagon pivots on caster type front wheels. A little dry lubricant in the caster sockets and wheel axels keeps them working smoothly. The molded construction is very durable, sanitary (regular cleaning is easy) and weather resistant. The seat storage is fun for treasures and/or water bottles. We may get a second wagon with a shade top for outside and keep this one for inside fun, hauling toys around, etc. Once used outside the wheels can pick up grime that might be hard to clean for soft floors such as wood or vinyl. Softer, rubber (non-latex) straps or channeled boots that could be added around the treads of the wheels would be a useful accessory for indoors that would also reduce hard floor noise. But this continues to be an excellent USA made product.
Perfect for a princess
By littlesippycup
from middle of Texas
About Me Education Oriented, Parent Of Two Or More Children, Stay At Home Parent
I love the seat belts and the little storage unit the best. We got an incredible deal on this but honestly I would have paid full price. We love that it came in pink! I do wish it had a canopy though.
(3 of 3 customers found this review helpful)
Very durable. Smooth ride.
By KimC
from Silicon Valley, CA
About Me Parent Of Two Or More Children
We bought this wagon for our two girls (ages 23 months and 4 years). They love riding in it around the house and to the park. It is very easy to steer with with pivoting wheels, and the handle is well designed. The cup holders and seat belts are very useful features. For safety reasons, the girls can't easily open the door (but I found it tricky to open too!) The color is great, and the whole wagon just looks very well made. This was one of our best Christmas purchases.
Just Perfect
By Loving Grandmother
from Myrtle Beach sc
Love to take the two grandchildren for a walk in their wagon. They love it and the pink color is perfect. Rides well and they will use it for many years to come.
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The days of being able to quickly depart Navarre Beach during summer weekends have mostly come to an end.
Lengthy waits to get off Navarre Beach Bridge and onto U.S. Highway 98 are the new normal. County Engineer Roger Blaylock explained that earlier this year the county hired a consultant to study traffic around the bridge during Memorial Day weekend . The study specifically focused on the timing of the signal at the bridge with respect to traffic patterns and the feasibility of adding a roundabout to the south end of the causeway.The manner in which the study has been conducted is being criticized.