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Reason and Rationality in the Quran
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Dr Ibrahim Kalin*
Note of the editor
This article by Dr Ibrahim Kalin was presented during the second seminar of the Catholic-Muslim Forum at the Baptism site, hosted by the Royal Aal Al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought in Jordan in November 21-23, 2011. The Forum is one of the fruits of the 'A Common Word' initiative, which was launched in 2007 and which seeks to promote Muslim-Christian dialogue (see http://ACommonWord.com). The article was first published as a booklet in MABDA N° 12, English Monograph Series -ISBN: 978-9957-428-48-8. © 2012 The Royal Aal Al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought, Amman, Jordan. We thank Dr Kalin for having permitted republishing on our web portal.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction2. The Modern Context: The Enlightenment Reason3. Ratio and Intellectus4. The Ontological Ground of Qur'anic Rationality5. Reason and Thinking in Context6. The Vocabulary of Thinking in the Qur'an7. Reason, Heart and the Human Conscience8. Reason, Existence and the Universe9. Rationality and Morality10. Rationality as Coherence11. Conclusion: Is Return to Reason Still Possible?
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This paper is based on a simple argument: far from being a self-standing entity, reason functions within a larger context of existence, intelligibility and moral thinking. It articulates as much as discloses the reality of things. Rationality arises within a context of meaning and significance that goes beyond the internal workings of the individual human mind. As a situated and engaged reality, reason by itself is neither a principle nor ground of knowledge, truth or rationality because our epistemic encounter with the world takes place in a wider context of ontological relations and significance. Furthermore, the conceptual and linguistic affiliates of the word 'aql, which make up a long list of interrelated epistemic terms, present a matrix of thinking wider than calculative and discursive rationality can account for. The Qur'an treats reason and rationality in such a wider context of thinking.
Any notion of rationality that can properly be called 'Islamic' operates in the context of what I call the metaphysics of creation, which states that the world has been created by an intelligent God for a purpose. It begins with the premise that the world has a beginning and end and that "all shall perish except His [God's] Face" (al-Qasas 28:88). The beginning (al-mabda') and the end or "return" to God (al-ma'ad) lays out a scope and horizon for our rational deliberations and moral choices. Like the universe, human beings have been created for a purpose whose fulfillment is not possible within the confines of a subjectivist ontology of human reason. The work of reason takes place against the backdrop of an ontology of rationality that links human beings to other human beings on the one hand, and to God and the universe on the other.
Figure 1: Dr. Ibrahim Kalin (the third from the right) during the World Muslim-Catholic Forum held in the Vatican in March 2008. (Source).
As God's intelligent work, the world of creation reflects His creative power. Given that God creates optimally and always for a purpose, the universe has an order and intelligibility built into it. Truth, when properly accessed, is the 'disclosure' of this intrinsic order and intelligibility, which God as the Creator has bestowed upon existence. When reason investigates natural phenomena and the universe, it seeks out this order and intelligibility in them because without order, structure and intelligibility we cannot know anything. To name something, without which we cannot perceive the world, means giving it a proper place and signification in the order of things. A non-subjectivist ontology of reason, which the Qur'an advocates, construes rationality as disclosing the principles of intelligibility derived from the intrinsic qualities of the order of existence. 'Rationality as intelligibility' is thus markedly different from the current notions of instrumental rationality, which reduces the function of reason, the most fundamental trait of being human, to making logical use of available means to reach our stated ends [1].
Rationality is then a function of existence and thinking and takes place in a communicative and intersubjective context. To say that something is intelligible means that it has a certain order and structure by which we can understand it. It also means that since it is intelligible, it can be communicated to others through language and rational arguments. This intersubjective context of rationality, which the Qur'an emphasizes on various occasions, places reason and rationality above the solitary work of a solipsistic and disengaged mind. Just as we humans are part of a larger reality, our thinking functions within a larger context of intelligibility. Using the plural form, the Qur'an explains its verses to a "tribe, nation or community (qawm) who thinks" and chastises "those who do not use their reason" (see for instance, al-Baqara 2:164; al-Ma'idah 5:58; al-Ra'd 13:4; al-Nahl 16:12). From disclosing the intrinsic intelligibility of things to intercultural relations, rationality emerges in a network of relations and connections that go beyond the internal procedures of the human mind.
Subsuming reason within a larger context of existence goes against the main thrust of modern rationalism. Ever since the European Enlightenment adapted its 'baptism of reason' against the alleged irrationality of the Middle Ages, reason has declared its independence and developed a view of itself as the ultimate arche and ens realissimum of reality. In an age in which rationality is measured by quantifiable properties and computerized decisions, the ontological foundations of reason have radically changed, and highly idealized and eventually inhuman forms of rationality have been identified as the basis of human intelligence. In contrast to the notion of rationality as computerization, however, our most unique human quality called reason, the very quality that distinguishes us from the rest of creation and clearly privileges us over them (al-Isra' 17:70), functions essentially and primarily in a qualitative and axiological context. Charges of 'irrationality' and dogmatism have been launched against Islam in part because the concept of rationality as developed in the Islamic intellectual tradition contravenes the main thrust of modern and postmodern notions of rationality that have arisen in the West since the 17th and 18th centuries.
Motivated by religious zeal, most medieval Christians considered Islam to be against reason and saw it as grounded in blind faith, ignorance, violence and worldly pleasures. The Muslim faith attracted many followers, it was argued, not because it offered convincing arguments but because it appealed to their flesh, the lowest part of the human being.
Furthermore, Islam endorsed violence on non-Muslims to convert them because it could not have produced rational arguments to convince the non-believer. Use of violence and declaration of Jihad against non-Muslims showed how irrational Islam was and how Islamic faith went against the nature of things. Not surprisingly, charges of unreason and violence have survived to the modern period. Today, radically anti-Islamic and Islamophobic voices cite similar arguments to depict Islam and Muslims as irrational and violent. History, though, has its own acts of balancing. Some medieval critics of Christianity such as Peter Bayle and Henry Stubbe defended Islam as a faith closer to reason than the Catholic Church. They praised the simplicity of Islamic faith against the complexities of Christian theology and rituals and admired the advanced state of Islamic civilization. While people like Roger Bacon claimed that the Muslim philosophers Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina had produced their philosophical edifice despite Islam, not because of it, and pretended to be Muslims outwardly to avoid the persecution of an intolerant religion, the anti-Catholic thinkers of the Middle Aes believed that Islam tolerated rational thinking and scientific inquiry more than others [2].
The secular critics consider Islam as essentially incompatible with the secular-humanist ethos of modernity and thus in conflict with the supposedly rational-scientific basis of modern culture. They also point to the discrepancies between traditional religions and the modern concepts of human rights, equality and freedom. The Enlightenment reason claims autonomy and self-sufficiency and rejects any outside authority such as history, tradition or religion. It does not reject religion in toto but subjects it to the scrutiny of the individual human reason. It draws boundaries for religious belief and denies any role or authority to religion outside them.
Like the medieval critics, the secular critics of Islam link unreason and violence and allege that "Islamic terrorism" is a result of the irrational nature of the Islamic faith. The radical Orientalists add other things to the list: the oppression of women, violation of minority rights, freedom of press, even poverty, corruption, etc. are all somehow related to the Islamic tradition which did not allow free thinking and oppressed free inquiry, dissent and pluralism. Needless to say, this is a caricature of the Iislamic tradition and based on political considerations rather than a sound analysis of historical facts. Much of the current debate about Islam, reason, rationality and science in popular circles in the West is shaped by such simplistic yet powerful views.
2. The Modern Context: The Enlightenment Reason
Modernity via the Enlightenment has claimed superiority over other traditions and non-Western cultures because of its claim to ground things in reason and thus create a primarily, if not purely, rational order. In contrast to the supposedly fideistic claims of Christianity, the enlightenment philosophes sought to justify everything on the basis of what Descartes called "clear and distinct ideas". The question to which Kant responded with his famous essay in 1784 summed up the relevance of reason and rationality for how we were to live in the post-Medieval world: do we live in an enlightened age? Kant believed his generation lived in an "age of enlightenment" rather than in an "enlightened age". The subtle difference between the two is not to be taken lightly. An enlightened age is one in which the defining elements of culture, society and politics follow the principle of reason. This is presumably a mature state of humanism and rationality, a world in which reason has defeated the forces of anti-reason. By contrast, an age of enlightenment is one in which the battle for the soul of humanity continues and the forces of reason fight ignorance and darkness. It refers to a process of gradual maturity and rationality, a goal towards which humanity as a whole moves. Since the reign of reason has begun, the end of history is within our reach – an end that is certain to come when the light of reason dawns upon all humanity including non-Europeans.
Figure 2: Front cover of Knowledge in Later Islamic Philosophy: Mulla Sadra on Existence, Intellect, and Intuition by Ibrahim Kalin (Oxford University Press, USA, 2010).
Kant defined enlightenment as "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage. Tutelage is man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another". Man's immaturity has created much of the oppression and ignorance that has shaped human history. Kant characterizes the essence of the Enlightenment as the "courage to think" for oneself freely. "Sapere aude! Have courage to use your own reason! That's the motto of enlightenment" [3].
From academic circles to populist politics, the debate about the Enlightenment reason has now become a debate about the alleged lack of rationality and humanity in Islam. In his preface to his brilliant History of the Enlightenment, Louis Dupre, "stunned by the attacks on September 11, 2001", wondered "if there was any purpose in writing about the Enlightenment at a time that so brutally seemed to announce the end of its values and ideals". Dupre does not mean to declare Islamic culture "unenlightened". But he notes that "Islam never had to go through a prolonged period of critically examining the validity of its spiritual vision, as the West did during the eighteenth century" [4]. Dupre does not explain why Islam needs to revisit the "validity of its spiritual vision" but he clearly echoes an increasingly common view about the so-called "Islamic reformation". There have been other more alarming voices calling for an 'Islamic enlightenment' to save Muslims from backwardness and the world from an irrational and dangerous religion.
It is a common mistake to assume that reason has been the exclusive property of the Enlightenment thinking since the 18th century. Traditional societies have accorded reason an important place in theology, law, politics, ethics, art and other areas of human life. The Islamic intellectual tradition, for instance, has produced an immense literature on reason, rationality, logic, thinking, contemplation, scientific inquiry, and so on. From Sunni and Shiite theology to Peripatetic philosophy and Sufism, the classical works are filled with chapters on the nobility of reason, virtues of knowledge and the spiritual blessings of using one's reason properly. The notions of reason and rationality that have developed in this tradition, however, are radically different from their modern counterparts. Traditional societies have seen reason as part of a larger reality and placed them within the wider context of existence and meaning. In order to function properly, reason has to accept its place within an order of things that is larger than the knowing subject. As I shall discuss below, the Qur'an considers human reason as part of a larger reality whose meaning cannot be encapsulated and disclosed by logical analysis, conceptual abstraction or rational discourse alone. The timeless wisdom is that reality is always more than our epistemic constructions of it.
As a mark of modernity, reason has been constructed as a self-regulating principle and the arbiter of truth from the mathematical and physical sciences to social and political orders. One modern tribute to it reads as follows: "The virtue of Rationality means the recognition and acceptance of reason as one's only source of knowledge, one's only judge of values and one's only guide to action" [5]. But in reality, this rarefied view of reason, so passionately defended by academic philosophers, positivists and the self-proclaimed Enlightenment rationalists, has never worked as expected. Nor has it delivered what it promised, i.e., free individuals, rational society, universal equality, scientific culture, reason-bound politics or economic justice. This in itself calls for a deep reflection about the reasonableness of the Enlightenment project of pure reason. At any rate, elements of 'anti-reason' seem to have crept into the new world order promised by the Enlightenment, and the modern capitalist society with its evasive impersonalism, crude individualism and structural violence, is a far cry from a rational social order.
Ever since the triumph of scientism in the late 19th and early 20th century, reason as logic and rational inquiry has been hailed as a trait of modernity not because we want to grasp the reality of things in the Greek sense of the term but because a purely rational order is believed to enable us to have full control over the world. The instrumental rationality that defines our value schemes, educational systems, political orders and daily lives provides handy justification for control, predictability and dominion and gives a largely false sense of security, satisfaction and fulfillment [6]. It asserts that things are important because they have a use-value for us. The 'rational' is the 'useful'. Things have no longer intrinsic intelligibility or 'rationality'; they have only use-value which we are free to use in any way we want.
Reason in the modern period has oscillated between the two extremes of logical positivism and radical historicism. The former view, represented by the Vienna Circle and its followers, has construed reason as an absolute and timeless principle unaffected by history, custom or such human frailties as emotion and desire. Rationality simply means proving that our concepts correspond to facts. It means drawing conclusions which fit the facts at hand. In this sense, rationality is essentially 'logical consistency' and finds its purest expression in formal logic and scientific method [7]. No other criteria count as a basis for rationality, and the value of everything from religion to art and education must be judged according to the logical and scientific dictates of this a-historic reason. Thus the values by which we are to live must be derived from the facts of nature which we must investigate through rational inquiry and logical analysis. All else is to be rejected as metaphysical nonsense. Reduced to a function of reasoning as formal logic, existence, too, is reduced to a logical term with no meaning and force outside logical-linguistic constructions [8].
The second view, represented by the waves of postmodernism and constructivism since the 1960s, deconstructed reason to the point of turning it into a by-product of social-historical processes. Like all other human traits and enterprises, reason is a historically constructed notion whose meaning and function varies from one social setting to another. Rationality means applying the human capacity for thinking to different problem-solving situations. It has meaning only in the context of specific issues, problems or research questions. Depending on the different types of human needs, rationality takes on new meanings and new functions. The defenders of this bounded view of reason insist that this is not to belittle the significance of reason or propose an irrational way of doing things. Rather, it is to admit the limitations of human reason. In this sense, rationality does not necessarily mean drawing conclusions that fit the facts. There are cases where the "anything goes" principle is more useful and functional than some abstract and mathematical notion of reason [9].
The concept of reason has had a different trajectory in the Islamic tradition and avoided the extremes of positivist absolutism and radical relativism. The reason that emerged within the islamic Weltanschauung proposed a different mode of thinking about existence, the universe, the human state and God. It was seen as part of a larger reality rather than a self-regulating principle and self-standing tool. As I shall discuss below, it is this integrated and wholesale view of reality that underlies the Quranic mode of thinking about reason and rationality.
3. Ratio and Intellectus
Before moving further, a word of clarification is in order for the reason-intellect bifurcation that has come about as a result of a major philosophical transformation in the history of Western metaphysics. I shall not venture into this history as it requires a detailed treatment. It should be briefly pointed out, however, that ratio and intellectus came to designate two separate ways of looking at reality in the late Middle Ages and ever since then the two terms have taken different paths. Ratio has been used for logical analysis, abstraction, deduction, drawing conclusions, and other logical functions of reason. In this broad sense, ratio primarily constituted the basis of scientific knowledge and claimed precision and certainty. By contrast, intellectus came to designate intuitive and sapiential knowledge, which was now fully decoupled from rational investigation and logical analysis. By implication, it was seen as lacking a solid foundation like ratio because it spoke of such subjective terms as intuition, imagination, illumination but not proofs, evidence, and demonstration.
Figure 3: The Arabic version of Dr Kalin's booklet Reason and Rationality in the Qur'an published in English, French and Arabic (Amman, 2012).
Had it not been for the later fallout between rationalist naturalism and mystical thought in the Western tradition, this may have been nothing more than a heuristic distinction. As a matter of fact, the Thomistic tradition maintained a relationship of complementarity between ratio and intellectus and held that they were not opposed to one another but addressed to different aspects of the same reality [10]. But as later history shows, the two terms were employed to represent two substantially different ways of understanding the world and making moral judgments. Ratio became the main instrument of natural sciences, which by now had divested nature of all of its intrinsic intelligibility and symbolic significance, and developed a separate modus operandi. The further estrangement of ratio from intellectus meant that 'rational analysis' was no longer to unveil the built-in intelligibility of things, their symbolic significance, or their spiritual value.
Rationality created a new domain of truth for itself and bade farewell to our holistic experience of reality. Rationalism, coupled with naturalism and positivism, sought to reduce reality to the analytical competencies of the human mind and identified quantitative-calculative thinking as the only reliable way of knowing the reality of things. Even though contemporary Christian theologians have insisted that both ratio and intellectus together make up a proper process of knowing, the bifurcation of discursive and intuitive modes of thinking has played a key role in the secularization of the modern world-picture and the profanization of nature. Such a distinction has never occurred in the Islamic tradition. The word 'aql means both reason and intellect in the two senses discussed above. 'Aql is innately capable of performing the two functions of logical analysis and intuitive knowing without a contradiction. Furthermore, it is the same 'aql that guides our will in our moral choices. It is true that in the later Islamic intellectual tradition, the philosophers have introduced a general distinction between "rational investigation" (bahth) and "taste" (dhawq), i.e., realized knowledge. The two modes of thinking, however, complement each other and help us uncover the multilayered structure of reality, which, after all, demands a multidimensional yet integrated approach. In the words of Mulla Sadra who epitomizes this tradition, "true demonstration does not contradict witnessing based on unveiling (al-shuhud al-kashfi)" [11].
When Muslims state, largely under the pressure of modern rationalism and out of inferiority complex against the West, that "Islam is the religion of reason/intellect", what they mean is not that the Islamic faith, or any faith for that matter, can be reduced to human reason. Such a claim would turn faith into an empirical statement or logical proposition. Faith, by definition, must have a dimension that goes beyond reason; otherwise there would be no need for Divine revelation and the Prophets. What is beyond reason, however, does not mean anti-reason; it means supra-rational, that which transcends the cognitive competencies of the human reason. Supra-rational is not irrational because reason can admit what lies beyond its capacities. Such an admission is not illogical because it states not ignorance, agnosticism or blind faith but a self-reflective acknowledgment of limits. Reason cannot think without certain rules and principles. Freedom is not the abolishment of all limits and rules but the exercise of reason in conjunction with virtue [12].
What is unique and even astounding about human reason is that it can set its own limits to what it can and cannot know. The self-delimitation of reason is a rational act and points to the larger context of existence and intelligibility within which it functions. This is what al-Ghazali attempted with his critique of Peripatetic philosophy whereby he critically tried to draw the limits of speculative reason in the field of pure metaphysics which he believed belonged to the "invisible world" ('alam al-ghayb). Committing himself to a similar task but working with different premises, Kant, too, sought to lay out the limits of reason in his Critique of Pure Reason: "Human reason has this peculiar fate that in one species of its knowledge it is burdened by questions which, as prescribed by the very nature of reason itself, it is not able to ignore, but which, as transcending all its powers, it is not able to answer" [13].
4. The Ontological Ground of Qur'anic Rationality
Long before the Greek philosophical texts were translated into Arabic, Muslims had an encounter with the concept of reason/intellect as outlined in the Qur'an and the Hadith. In sharp contrast to the period of the Jahiliyyah, "ignorance", Islam represented the era of faith, knowledge, reason, justice and freedom all at once. Entering Islam meant leaving the mental and social habits of the age of ignorance, polytheism, injustice and immorality. It meant establishing a new socio-political order based on reason, justice, equality and virtue. It also required a new ontology of reason to overcome polytheistic logic and moral cynicism. And this was possible only by introducing a new Weltanschauung and a new mode of thinking.
In order to understand the place of reason and rationality in the Qur'an and the later Islamic intellectual tradition, we thus need to explore the new ontological ground of reason and the mode of thinking which the Qur'an introduced and did so through stories, implorations, deductions, syllogisms, commands, warnings, praises, and promises of reward and punishment. The rich repertoire of logical deductions and moral exhortations which we find in the Qur'an and the Hadith purport to awaken our conscience so that we can begin to use our sensate and rational faculties in a manner that befits our state of existence. The Qur'an says: "And indeed We have put forth for men in this Quran every kind of similitude in order that they may remember" (al-Zumar 39:27). The mathal, translated here as similitude, refers to metaphors and parables by which a fundamental message is conveyed – a message which may otherwise remain inaccessible to the human mind. But since no parable is devoid of cognitive content, this is an appeal both to reason and imagination so that we may "remember" what is essential.
The path of thinking which we find in the Qur'an is not comprised of assembling of facts; nor is it a pietistic enumeration of commands and prohibitions. Rather, it is a whole-some undertaking that requires setting upon an intellectual, moral and spiritual journey. It encompasses all of our being and overcomes such dualities as the sensate versus the rational, the material versus the spiritual, the individual versus the universe, nature versus culture, and so on. The integrated mode of thinking which the Qur'an embodies in its unique style reflects the nature of reality, which is interdependent and multilayered. It urges us to see the interconnectedness of things and how one thing leads to the other in the great chain of being.
The Qur'anic mode of thinking is then primarily not descriptive but prescriptive. The Qur'an does not simply describe things as facts or information; its suggestive stories, striking metaphors and vivid descriptions of God's creation and interventions in history are meant to change the way we see things and our place in the world. it seeks to transform the human conscience so that we can live a life based on justified faith and virtue [14]. Once this conscience is awoken and brought up to reckon with the reality of things, everything falls in place: our reason, thinking, sense organs, seeing, hearing, perceiving and moral judgments begin to come together. Reason and rationality arise within this larger context of integrated thinking and moral discernment. Far from being a principle and ground of truth by itself, reason functions within the larger context of our being in the world and the human responses we give to reality.
Owing its existence to something larger than what is purely human, reason cannot know God in the sense of 'encapsulating' Him because as a finite being, it cannot encircle that which is infinite. God cannot be known empirically because empirical knowledge entails limit, position, relation, relativity, etc., none of which applies to God. God can be known through reason/intelligence to the extent to which the Absolute and the infinite can be intuited, grasped and represented through formal propositions, concepts, and metaphors. To expect reason to do more than that would be to transgress its own limits. If reason, like other components of reality, is part of the order of existence and not the whole of it, then it can never fully encapsulate the whole of reality. But this in no way diminishes or undermines its significance. By contrast, God is the absolute reality that encapsulates everything. He is al-Muhit, the One who encompasses everything. Thus the Qur'an says that "Vision perceives Him not, but He perceives [all] vision; and He is the Subtle, the Acquainted" (al-An'am 6:103).
Like love, charity, wisdom, spirituality and art, rationality is a fundamental human response to the call of reality. It enables us to disclose the intelligible structure of the order of existence. It invites us to overcome our corporeal existence and connect with the world of nature in primarily rational and moral terms. It urges us to establish a socio-political order based on virtue, justice and freedom. The Qur'an presents a view of the human person according to which our humanity is formed by 'rationality' ('aql, nutq) and those other traits that are equally central to our task to give a meaningful response to reality. In an ontological sense, this means recognizing the reality of things as they are and see them as a "trust" (amanah) from God. The human response to the Divine call of protecting His trust is to become His "vicegerent" (khalifah) on earth and thus submit to God, which is the literal meaning of Islam. In the formal religious language, this submission is called 'ibadah, worship, the supreme human act that transcends the limitations of human existence and binds us to the Absolute and the Infinite.
In this regard, the Qur'anic mode of thinking is not empirical or rationalist, historical or systematic, apodictic or pedagogical, analytical or descriptive. It is none of them and all of them at once. It combines conceptual analysis with moral judgment, empirical observation with spiritual guidance, historical narrative with eschatological expectation, and abstraction with imperative command. The Qur'an is primarily a "guidance" (hidayah) for mankind (al-Baqarah 2:2) and seeks to lead us from ignorance to knowledge, from darkness to light, from injustice and oppression to freedom. The Qur'anic rationality thus extends from the empirical and conceptual to the moral and the spiritual. Being rational means rejecting oppression and injustice and embracing the Divine call for justice. The Prophet of Islam has defined 'intelligent person' (al-kayyis) as one who "controls his ego and prepares for the afterlife" (Tirmidhi, al-Qiyamah, 25). In Islamic law and theology, a person must be 'sane' or 'intelligent' ('aqil) in order to be responsible for his/her actions because there is no religious responsibility (taklif) without having sanity or reason ('aql).
In the Islamic tradition, this forms the basis of the moral ontology of reason and rationality and establishes a strong connection between intelligence, rationality, faith and virtue. According to Harith al-Muhasibi (d. 857), reason is "a disposition that is known through its deeds" [15]. It acts as a principle of moral action and seeks to bring us closer to the Divine. If a person is really intelligent, reasons al-Muhasibi, he will seek to secure his salvation in this world and in the hereafter, for which he must use his reason properly. By basing his analysis on the "nobility of reason", which is the title of his work, al-Muhasibi wants to show the unique character of human reason for establishing a justified faith and a virtuous life. A proper use of reason, illuminated by faith, leads to rational thinking and moral behavior. By the same token, faith articulated and corroborated by reason has depth and certainty. The 14th century philosopher Haydar Amuli sees perfect harmony between faith and reason and compares religion (al-shar') and reason to the body and the spirit. Just as the spirit cannot function without the body, the body cannot find meaning, life and wholeness without the spirit. Thus "neither religion dispenses with reason nor reason with religion. Raghib al-Isfahani, quoted by Amuli, states in strikingly unambiguous terms that "reason can never find the right path without religion and religion can never have clarity without reason" [16]. Logic and transcendence thus work together to reveal the nature of things and realize our humanity. But this can happen only when we see human reason working in a larger context of thinking and contemplation.
5. Reason and Thinking in Context
The verb 'a-q-l, to intellect or to use one's reason, literally means to hold, to protect and to guard. Reason is that by which we protect ourselves from falsehood, error and evil-doing. Thus ma'qal means 'fortress'. This is the same meaning conveyed in the english phrase "intelligent person". This basic meaning of reason is not to be taken lightly, for it underlies the essential component of thinking and contemplation as the proper human response to the call of reality. In contrast to attempts to reduce reason and rationality to logical competency and procedural ratiocination, reason as a principle of truth and as an instrument of knowledge represents an encounter with the reality of things.
Thinking is not simply to enumerate the physical properties of things or the logical relations of concepts. It is more than a mere mental representation of things because, as Muslim philosophers insist, mental abstraction gives us only a picture of reality. Like all mental abstractions, this picture is frozen and can never fully measure up to the reality itself.
Abstract concepts are essential for rational thinking and the formation of ideas. Thinking, however, requires more than abstraction and use of concepts. It takes place in a context of encounter with reality and puts us in a relationship with something larger than us. It means seeing, observing, listening, hearing, reflecting, contemplating, and drawing the appropriate practical and moral conclusions. It means responding to what we encounter. It involves rational analysis but also moral commitment. In its deepest sense, thinking prevents us from seeing things as a means to an end. it challenges instrumental rationality on both ontological and spiritual grounds. As I shall discuss shortly, if the world has been created by God, then it cannot be reduced to utility. It has a substantive meaning and value independent of us.
In principle, there is nothing essentially wrong with the idea that we attain a degree of rationality by following rules and procedures. Following a rule can certainly counts as rational act and comes handy in our daily lives, scientific explorations, economic decisions, political lives, etc. But while it has its uses, instrumental rationality moves at the surface of human subjectivity and does not necessarily relate us to reality. Following a rule is no guarantee for a rational outcome. We may follow a procedure and arrive at certain conclusions. The outcome, though, can be the most irrational thing and even a catastrophe. Like many autocracies, the Nazis, for instance, had a rule-bound, procedurally 'rational' governance of Germany. But their instrumentalist approach to religion, history, science and politics destroyed the very meaning of being human. The content and substance of what we do must also have a rational basis.
The Qur'an subscribes to a substantive view of rationality by asserting that not only our instruments and procedures but also our fundamental notions and concepts should be properly rational and conform to the reality of things. The substantive view of rationality follows from the intrinsic intelligibility of existence as God's creation. Every rational act on our part is an act of conforming to the principle of reason built into the nature of things. Whatever violates this principle lands us in the realm of the irrational.
Substantive rationality is also supported by the anthropology of reason itself. Most Muslim thinkers hold that reason responds to empirical data and abstract notions through its own innate qualities. Far from being a hypothetical tabula rasa, reason reflects the fundamental traits of existence of which it is a part. Raghib al-Isfahani divides reason into two: 'aql matbu', "innate reason", and 'aql masmu', "acquired reason". Masmu' literally means that which is heard, referring to things learnt by hearing from others. It roughly corresponds to experience and refers to the context of human relations. Innate reason refers to our in-born ability to grasp the intelligible order and truth of things. It is through innate reason that we inhabit an intelligible world. Acquired reason is what we learn by 'hearing' from others and refers to the context of social relations and linguistic forms with which we name things.
The two are intertwined but 'innate reason' takes precedence over 'acquired reason'. Isfahani, who attributes this division to imam Ali ibn Abi Talib, says that just as the light of the sun has no use when the eye is blinded, acquired reason can do no good when innate reason is corrupted [17]. Reason then works two-ways: in its innate form, it works from inside and out. It encounters and witnesses the visible world through its inborn qualities. This is part of fitrah, the fundamental human nature, which is our window to the world of existence and thus must be protected in order to 'see' right [18]. In its acquired form, reason moves from outside to inside and takes in bits and pieces of empirical data and impressions from the outside world. It is the combination of the two, the inner and the outer, that gives us a fuller picture of the function of reason vis-à-vis reality. This fundamental function of reason, however, always takes place within a larger context of ontological significance and epistemic competency [19].
The most fundamental function of reason/intellect is to act as a mirror to reflect the intrinsic meaning and order of things. in performing this task, the intellect has a special relationship with the Divine because it emanates from the Divine nature. What the intellect discovers as order, necessity and intelligibility in the universe is a reflection of God's own Nature and Will. Mulla Sadra provides a vivid description of this aspect of the intellect:
The intellect, since there is no veil between it and the the First Truth [God], can witness by itself the essence of the Truth [God] … there is no veiling between the two … [God] can certainly manifest itself to the intellect and the manifestation here takes place through the lucid [unveiling] of [God's] essence. There is no aspect or quality added to the Divine and another being added to [the intellect]. The essence of the intellect is like a polished mirror on which the form of the Truth shines. on the mirror itself, there is no existential entity except the reflected form, and the reflected form is nothing but the form related to the Truth. Therefore in the essence of the intellect there is nothing other than the form of the Truth and its theophany. There are no two things here: the existence of the intellect and the manifestation of the Truth upon it because one being cannot have to existences. By the same token, two [distinct] forms cannot emanate from God in one single manner. Because of this, the sages ('urafa') have said that God does not manifest [Himself ] twice in the same form. Thus it is known that the existence of the intellect is nothing but a manifestation of God the exalted through His Form on the intellect; and the form of God's essence is itself his own essence, not something added to Him [20].
6. The Vocabulary of Thinking in the Qur'an
The Qur'an uses a number of terms that are closely related to reason/intellect and thinking. Tafakkur, "thinking", qalb, "heart", fu'ad, "inner heart", and lubb, literally "seed" meaning "essential heart", are among these terms and each corresponds to a different aspect of the act of perceiving, thinking and reflecting. There are also other terms which fall within the same semantic field of 'aql: 'ilm, "knowledge"; fahm, "understanding"; fiqh, "perceiving/understanding"; idrak, "grasping"; shu'ur, "consciousness"; burhan, "demonstration"; hujjah, "evidence"; bayyinah, "clear evidence"; sultan, "over-whelming evidence", furqan, "discernment"; tadabbur, "contemplation"; nutq, "talking/ thinking"; hukm, "judgment"; hikmah, "wisdom"; and dhikr, "remembrance/ invocation".
The Qur'anic usage of these terms, whose full exposition requires a separate study, establishes a context of integrated thinking in which our encounter with reality unveils different aspects of the all-inclusive reality of existence. More importantly, it leads to a mode of thinking that combines empirical observation, rational analysis, moral judgment and spiritual refinement.
This rich vocabulary points to the wholeness of perceiving and thinking. in contrast to categorical distinctions between sensate perception and conceptual analysis, our natural or 'first-order' encounter with things takes place as a unitary experience. in perceiving things, our sense organs and reason work together. The sharp distinctions between sensate qualities, which correspond to the physical-material world, and intellectual notions, which correspond to the world of the mind, are reflections of the Cartesian bifurcation between res extensa and res cogitans and hardly give us an accurate description of the actual act of perceiving and understanding. These categories belong to the 'second-order' reflection upon reality whereby we make distinctions between subject and object, the knower and the known, the perceiver and the perceived, mental and material, etc. Our first-order encounter with the world takes place in a different context.
The wholeness of our epistemic experience of things stems from the wholeness of existence. Knowing as encounter means that we stand before our object of knowledge. This puts us in a special relationship with the reality of things in that we respond to it through our epistemic faculties rather than create its meaning in a a self-referential way. This meaning of knowing through reason is reflected in one of the root meanings of the word 'aql, which is to tie, to link, to relate. Reason ties us to the truth and thus opens up a new horizon beyond the ordinary chain of causes. In a horizontal way, the human reason moves between and across facts and concepts and links them to one another. In a vertical way, it links what is below to what is higher. The Qur'an insists on the convergence of the two axes of causality: horizontal, which regulates the world of physical causes, and vertical, which introduces the 'Divine command' (amr) into the natural realm. There is no contradiction between the two but they follow different rules. The day and night follow each other as part of the natural order in which we live and there is no breaking of this rule. But also "when God wants something to happen, He says to it "be" and it is" (Yasin 36:82). Each realm of existence requires a different type of thinking.
The elaborate vocabulary of sensing, reasoning and thinking which the Qur'an employs is necessitated by the nature of reality itself. A multilayered and multidimensional reality cannot be perceived by a single cognitive method. It requires a larger toolset of conceptual abilities. At this point, the Qur'an speaks of 'alam al-ghayb, "the world of the invisible" and 'alam al-shahadah, "the world of the visible". The invisible world refers to that realm of existence known to God alone. God has given intimations of this world but no comprehensive knowledge of it has been made available.
While not accessible to the human experience, the invisible world guides our encounter with the world of visible existence and thus functions as a signpost for our conceptual analyses and moral judgments. In a metaphysical and moral sense, it regulates the affairs of the visible world in which we live. What is striking about the Qur'anic notion of the 'visible world' is that a proper perception of it is based on an experience of 'witnessing' (mushahadah), which is different from looking and seeing. Witnessing means standing before that which presents itself. It entails looking and seeing but also attending to. it is more like the experience of looking at a landscape and having a gestalt perception of it. In contemplating a landscape, we move between parts and whole and each time discover a new relationship.
In this sense, our encounter with the reality of things is a rational and conceptual process but takes place within a larger context of intelligibility and significance that goes beyond purely logical and discursive thinking. Concepts, which are not created in vacuum, correspond to different aspects of reality and emerge in our encounter with reality, which the Qur'an describes as " bearing witness to the truth". Thus we 'see' the light, 'touch' the wood, 'smell' the rose, 'taste' the cherry, 'perceive' the dimension, 'think of' the infinitude, 'have consciousness of' the nearness of the water, 'discern' between a thing and its shadow, 'understand' a command, 'respond' to a call, 'submit' to truth, 'accept' the evidence, 'contemplate' the meaning of life, and so on. Each of these epistemic acts says something about our mental and conceptual abilities with which we understand the world. But more importantly, they correspond to something outside us and expand the horizon of our subjectivity.
End Notes
[1] Cf. Milton K. Munitz, The Question of Reality (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 124.
[2] See my "Roots of Misconception: Euro-American Perceptions of Islam Before and After September 11th" in Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition, Joseph Lumbard (ed.) (Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, 2009, 2nd edition), pp. 149–193.
[3] Kant, "What is Enlightenment?" in Kant on History, ed. Lewis White Beck, (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1963), p. 3.
[4] Louis Dupre, The Enlightenment and the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004), Preface, ix.
[5] Ayn Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness (New American Library 1964), p. 25.
[6] For a view of modernity as control and predictibility, see Albert Borgmann, Crossing the Postmodern Divide (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992).
[7] Cf. Charles Taylor, "Rationality " in his Philosophy and the Human Sciences, Volume 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 134.
[8] Heidegger rejects this impowerished meaning of 'logos' as 'discourse' or 'analysis' without an ontological ground. Instead, he tries to recover the original Greek meaning of logos as 'gathering' and 'togetherness'. See his An Introduction to Metaphysics, tr. R. Manheim, (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1959), pp. 120–135.
[9] Paul Feyerabend, who in his Against the Method (1975) took upon himself to debunk the absolutist claims of positivist science, is probably the most famous proponent of the second view. Richard Rorty 's Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979) provides another constructivist critique of the Enlightenment project of pure reason. Rorty's alternative is a sort of reason dissolved into human drama. For a discussion of the trails of modern reason in Western philosophy in the 20th century, see Stephen Toulmin, Return to Reason (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001).
[10] See Denys Turner, Faith, Reason and the Existence of God (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), especially pp. 75–88.
[11] Mulla Sadra, al-Hikmat al-muta'aliyah f i'l-asfar al-'aqliyyat al-arba'ah, (Beirut: Dar Ihya' al-Turath al-'Arabi, 1981) I, 2, p. 315. Sadra goes on to say: "The difference between the sciences based on theory and the sciences based on vision, is like the difference between someone who knows the definition of sweetness and someone who has actually tasted sweetness; and someone who understands the definition of health and power and someone who is actually healthy and powerful." Commentary on the Chapter al-Waqi'ah, Tafsir, Vol. 7, p. 10. For more on this, see my Knowledge in Later Islamic Philosophy: Mulla Sadra On Existence, Intellect and Intuition, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 217–221.
[12] What Kant has to say about this is worth quoting in full: "If reason will not subject itself to the law it gives itself, it will have to bow under the yoke of the law which others impose on it, for without any law whatsoever nothing, not even the greatest nonsense, can play its hand for very long. Thus the inevitable consequence of declared lawlessness in thinking (an emancipation from restrictions of reason) is that freedom to think is finally lost." Kant, "What is Orientation in Thinking?", trans. L. W. Beck in Kant's Critique of Practical Reason and Other Writings on Moral Philosophy (Chicago, 1949), p. 304.
[13] Kant, The Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (London, 1933), p. A viii.
[14] Cf. Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur'an (Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1994), p. 22.
[15] Harith al-Muhasibi, Sharaf al-'aql wa mahiyyatuhu, ed. M. A. 'Ata (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyyah), 1982, p. 19.
[16] Haydar Amuli, Jami' al-esrar wa manba' al-anwar, ed. By Henry Corbin and Osman Yahia (Tehran: Department d'iranologie de l'institut franco-iranien de recherche, 1968), pp. 372–3.
[17] Raghib al-Isfahani, al-Mufradat fi gharib al-qur'an (Istanbul: Kahraman Yayinlari, 1986), p. 511. Both Harith al-Muhasibi and al-Ghazali refer to this two-fold definition of reason; see al-Muhasibi, Sharaf al-'aql, p. 20.
[18] Al-Farabi identifies this as one of the six meanings of 'aql; see al-Fararabi, Risalah fi-'l-'aql, ed. Maurice Bouyges (Beirut: Dar el-Machreq, 1983), pp. 8–9.
[19] The later philosophical tradition has developed an elaborate epistemology and anthropology of reason which includes 'aql hayulani or 'aql bi-'l-quwwah, the material or potential intellect, 'aql bi-'l-fi'l, the actualized intellect, 'aql mustafad, the acquired intellect, and finally 'aql fa'al, the active intellect. Since I cannot discuss these later interpretations here, I will only refer to the foundational texts by the philosophers. For al-Kindi's discussion and classification of 'aql, which is the first among the philosophers, see his Risalah fi-'l-'aql ('On the Intellect'), ed. Jean Jolivet in L'Intellect selon Kindi (Leiden, Holland: E. J. Brill, 1971). Al-Farabi fully develops al-Kindi's initial exploration in his various works; see especially Risalah fi-'l-'aql. Ibn Sina discusses 'aql and its types and functions in his various works including the Shifa' and Najat but also al-Mabda' wa-'l-ma'ad. For an extensive survey of their views against the Greek background, see Davidson, Herbert A., Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes on Intellect: Their Cosmologies, Theories of the Active Intellect, and Theories of Human Intellect (New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
[20] Mulla Sadra, Risalat al-Hashr, ed. with Persian translation by M. Khwajawi (Tehran: Intisharat-i Mawlawi, 1998), pp. 85–6.
*Dr Ibrahim Kalin is currently Chief Advisor to the Prime Minister of Turkey and is a fellow at the Prince Alwaleed Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding, Georgetown University, Washington, USA.
by: Dr Ibrahim Kalin, Fri 14 September, 2012
Ali ibn Hazm (d. 456H/1064 CE) was an Andalusian polymath scholar. He was a leading proponent and codifier of the Zahiri school of Islamic thought, and produced many works covering a wide range of topics, such as Islamic jurisprudence, history, ethics, comparative religion, and theology, as well as the famous Tawq al-Hamama (The Ring of the Dove), a literary text on the art of love. Through the variety and richness of his heritage, he was considered as one of the leading thinkers of the Muslim world, and he is widely acknowledged as the father of comparative religious studies. In this article, we seek to shed light on Ibn Hazm's ideas and thoughts related to philosophy and science, and how he linked both philosophy and science to morals. Muslim Contributions to Philosophy - Ibn Sina, Farabi, Beyruni by: Prof. Mehmet AydinMuslim philosophers were men of science who explored and set the very foundations of knowledge. They had great influence and importance in the history of fundamental ideas. Al-Fârâbî as a Source of the History of Philosophy and of Its Definition by: Prof. Mubahat Turker-KuyelThe origins of science lie in the study we call philosophy which itself is traced back through traditions of wisdom. Here a look at al Farabi's description of wisdom and the history of philosophy.


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Vedic Chants
There is a precise academic standard of Sanskrit transliteration that has developed over the years. (See the Sanskrit Pronunciation and Diacritic Guide) Unfortunately, the scheme of diacritics that is used in this system cannot be displayed on a web page. This is a problem for those who wish to present Sanskrit terms in the most accurate way. After reviewing various systems that attempt to solve this problem, including the Harvard Kyoto system and the ITRANS system, we have decided to adopt a system that is similar to what is used in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. This system places an underline mark under each letter that would normally show a diacritical mark. Those who are familiar with the academic system of diacritic notation will easily understand how the Britannica standard relates to the academic standard. Other readers may simply ignore the underlining. There are, however, two cases where this system does not work. It fails to distinguish between two different types of letter n and two different types of letter s. Other than this the underlining system works and we feel that this is a reasonable compromise for the display of web pages. We have, however, made some our material available as a PDF download file which shows the proper Sanskrit diacritical notation for those readers who wish to see our articles complete with the proper diacritic notation.
The Importance of Sanskrit to Hinduism
Sanskrit Terms
Sanskrit Transliteration and this Website
Sanskrit Pronunciation and Diacritic Guide Sanskrit Pronounciation Guide (pdf download) To download and read pdf files, you must have the free Adobe Acrobat Reader.
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subset: commoncrawl


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Neem is an ancient herb from India, which is known for its medicinal benefits externally and internally. Neem's extremely high antioxidant content, high levels of fatty acids as well as its anti-inflammatory properties and antibacterial abilities makes it an excellent choice for people with chronically dry or irritated skin. Some people have even reported healing [...]
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The Wonders of Neem
Posted by All Natural Annie on June 2, 2011


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Dr. Bryan Serkin completed his bachelor's degree in Biomedical Science at Texas A and M before moving to Houston for his medical training. He was awarded his medical degree from The University of Texas Medical School at Houston in 1997, and then completed his Otolaryngology residency at the Unviersity of South Florida in 2002. He then spent seven years in practice in Dallas, Texas where he served as a clinical instructor at a major tertiary referral hospital.
Dr. Serkin enjoys working with both pediatric and adult patients. Although he enjoys all areas of ENT, he has particular interests in chronic sinusitis, head and neck and thyroid surgery, sleep apnea and snoring, and pediatric ENT.
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Christo's California Dreamin'
In 1972, artists Christo and Jeanne-Claude envisioned building a fence, but it would take a village to make their Running Fence happen
- By Erica R. Hendry
- Smithsonian magazine, June 2010, Subscribe
Lester Bruhn never claimed to have an eye for art. So the California rancher wasn't sure what to do one afternoon in 1973, when a couple knocked at his door and introduced themselves as Christo and Jeanne-Claude. The strangers asked, in accented English, if Bruhn would consider leasing them land to erect a temporary art project: a large fabric fence that would stretch across ranches and highways before dipping into the ocean.
Bruhn may have been a bit apprehensive as he sized up the two artists. But unlike the handful of ranchers who had turned the couple away, he invited them in for coffee.
"I guess he saw something nobody else saw," says Bruhn's daughter, Mary Ann. "My father was just totally entranced." Lester Bruhn died in 1991 at age 82.
More than 35 years after that first meeting, thousands of people are still entranced by The Running Fence—an 18-foot-high stretch of white, billowing nylon curtains that extended 24.5 miles along the hills of Sonoma and Marin counties for two weeks in September 1976. It took three and a half years to prepare.
Now, for the first time, the documentation of the entire project—from Christo's initial sketches to pieces of the fence itself—is on display, through September 26 at the Smithsonian American Art Museum in an exhibition called "Christo and Jeanne-Claude: Remembering The Running Fence."
The effect of the artwork, Christo recalled at the exhibition première on March 30, is the real story: how the vast fence, rather than separating people, embodied "togetherness."
Inspired by a snow fence they saw while driving along the Continental Divide in 1972, Christo and Jeanne-Claude envisioned a large installation that would enhance the topography of the land. The actual fence crossed 14 major roads and went through only one town: Valley Ford. Art wasn't something the "old-timers" there had much experience with, recalls Mary Ann. But her father saw it as an opportunity. The project could help the economy, he insisted, creating jobs and boosting tourism.
The artists and the Californian rancher reached out to Bruhn's neighbors with a proposal: the artists would pay the ranchers for the use of their land, and after the fence came down, all the building materials would belong to the ranchers.
Subscribe now for more of Smithsonian's coverage on history, science and nature.
Related topics: Visual Arts Smithsonian American Art Museum Artists 1970s California
Comments (5) |
Christos work of art of the Running fence is truly something magnificent . It was a great work of art something to really admire . The pure white fence looks delicate. Californian people must really appreciate this work of art that streches across the state .
Posted by Kashua Gerena on November 25,2011 | 08:17 PM
As a gradeschool girl looking out my bedroom window, I watched as a half mile away the FIRST white panel of Christio's The Running Fence was installed in rural Sonoma County atop Meacham Hill. It was the first thing I turned my eye to when I woke up, and the last before I went to sleep. The novelty soon wore off as the tourist planes arrived constantly buzzing overhead, seven days a week stealing away our peaceful county life. The event ended, the fence was dismantled. However, the first panel remained attached to its pole only by a single hook at the top. For weeks, maybe months, I watched as the huge white panel flapped in the wind like a piece of tissue paper. I am still fascinated at how while The Fences' idea and installation captured the world, the first panel, which you would think would have a rightful place in the Smithsonian, was actually abandoned. One morning, upon waking it was gone. I am certain it was not taken by an official group, but more likely a neighbor who could climb to the top, unhook it, and make good use of it as a multi-purpose tarp. Yes, I am certain.
Posted by Allison Bean on August 3,2011 | 04:43 PM
When I saw the recent commercial (AT&T?) with the folks running with the crimson silky fabric along the beach and watching it fall from skyscrapers and the Arch, I immediately remembered my experience of travelling back and forth between my home town in Sonoma County and new apartment in SF every weekend in 1976 on Highway 101 and seeing this beautiful fabric fence running over the hillside beginning just north of Petaluma and ending somewhere beyond my vision (Marin County by the ocean, I believe). I was part of an experience and didn't even know it, but oh, was it riveting! I almost pulled over several times just to stop and stare in wonder, but always seemed to be in such a hurry (I was 20 at the time...). I wish now I had paid ever more attention. Such a site to see.
Posted by Angela on July 9,2010 | 07:48 PM
The Smithsonian video - Christo - the running fence - has made me much more aware of this incredible art. WOW! I've always felt that art is food for the soul. This is very filling! I thank the Smithsonian and their marvelous magazine.
Posted by Nancy Betts on May 25,2010 | 04:24 PM
Christo's "Running Fence" was breathtaking, exciting and so beautiful. I lived in Marin County in those days, and it seemed to me that I'd never truly seen the topography of the land until I saw it with the fence undulating across it. What a wonderful memory. How lovely to see the article and know about the show. Thank you.
Posted by Judy Lewis Maestas on May 24,2010 | 01:58 PM


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Moderator: Moderators
cathy wrote:Just too gobsmacked to respond. Who are these two idiots?
Richard Fangrad
Richard has been speaking on the creation/evolution issue since 1994 and involved with a creation-oriented ministry in Canada since 1996. The Canadian office of Creation Ministries International began as a room in his home in late 1998. As a speaker, he is known for his easy-to-understand scientific presentations. He was driven to get involved with creation ministry primarily because of the influence that creation materials and resources had on his own faith and his walk with Christ.
Richard's professional training is in electronics. He has worked on advanced communication satellite systems at Com Dev, a world leader in this field. Shortly before working in creation ministry full-time in 1999, he worked at Raytheon Canada and was involved in the early testing phases of the first all-digital radar system. He is now CEO of CMI–Canada and co-host CMI's TV show Creation Magazine Live!
Richard and his family live in Kitchener, Ontario.
Calvin Smith
Calvin's interest in creation ministry, particularly as a speaker, arose primarily because of seeing its effectiveness in strengthening the faith and evangelistic efforts of those exposed to the truth of God's Word through this type of work.
Calvin was formerly on the pastoral staff of a church in Guelph, ON, overseeing the youth and small group ministries. Through working with young people, both inside the church and with a small group at the University of Guelph, Calvin personally witnessed the devastation brought to our youth by the teaching of evolutionary rationalism. But he also saw the life-transforming effect of biblical answers that encourage people to know that God's Word can be trusted from the very first verse.
He says, "I grew up in an un-churched home. I can honestly say I was an atheist and accepted the humanist/naturalistic viewpoint that I was taught through the public school system and my environment (media, friends, siblings). I became involved in many negative behaviours and suffered from the effects of them. Looking back I can see key encounters with people that contributed to my conversion. However, it was not until I attended a few church services and had some specific stumbling blocks related to evolutionary theory removed that I was able to answer God's call."
Calvin has spoken on creation topics since 2001 at youth groups, Christian schools, churches and small groups. He has also appeared on the CTS live call-in television program 'Nite Lite Live' several times, speaking about the creation/evolution issue. He also co-hosts CMI's TV show Creation Magazine Live!
Through lots of reading, Calvin has become well equipped to talk about many aspects of science and history that relate to the creation/evolution controversy. He has consistently immersed himself in creation apologetics through seminars, classes, scientific papers and hands-on opportunities to study. When asked what formal science background he has, Calvin responds, "the same as Charles Darwin. His only formal training was in Theology!"
Calvin's hobbies include music and wrestling.
He lives in Guelph, Ontario with his wife and 3 children.
Dr_GS_Hurd wrote:Naturally, Calvin Smith is lying. At least he is lying about Darwin's education. I have a brief sketch Notes on Charles Darwins Education.
Dr_GS_Hurd wrote:We might as well see the whole list.
They are not too hard to rebutt.
Academic careerSanford graduated in 1976 from the University of Minnesota with a BSc in horticulture. He went to the University of Wisconsin–Madison where he received an MSc in 1978 and a PhD in 1980 in plant breeding/plant genetics. Between 1980 and 1986 Sanford was an assistant professor of Horticultural Sciences at Cornell University, and from 1986 to 1998 he was an associate professor of Horticultural Science. Although retiring in 1998, Sanford continues at Cornell as a courtesy associate professor. He held an honorary Adjunct Associate Professor of Botany at Duke University. Sanford has published over 70 scientific publications in peer reviewed journals[1][2].
[edit] InventionsSanford is a prolific inventor with more than 32 issued patents. At Cornell Sanford and colleagues developed the "Biolistic Particle Delivery System" or so-called "gene gun".[3][4] He is the co-inventor of the Pathogen-derived Resistance (PDR) process and the co-inventor of the genetic vaccination process. He was given the "Distinguished Inventor Award" by the Central New York Patent Law Association in 1990 and 1995. He has founded two biotechnology companies, Sanford Scientific and Biolistics. In 1998 he retired on the proceeds from the sale of his biotech companies, and continued at Cornell as a courtesy associate professor.
[edit] Genetic Entropy & the Mystery of the GenomeSanford has argued for devolution in his book Genetic Entropy & the Mystery of the Genome (2005, 2008).[5],[6] He summarized all evolutionary major population models in the Appendix.
[edit] Mendel's AccountantSanford and colleagues developed the quantitative forward genetic modeling program Mendel's Accountant. Sanford et al. published two peer reviewed papers dealing with genetic entropy in computing journals concerned with modeling methodology.[7][8]
Based on quantitative modeling evidence developed using Mendel's Accountant and from the mutation evidence he compiled, Sanford holds that the genome is deteriorating and therefore could not have evolved in the way specified by the modern evolutionary synthesis.
[edit] OriginsFormerly an atheist[9] since the mid-1980s, Sanford has looked into theistic evolution (1985–late 1990s), old Earth creation (late 1990s), and young Earth creation (2000–present). According to his own words, he did not fully reject Darwinian evolution until the year 2000. An advocate of intelligent design, in 2005 Sanford testified in the Kansas evolution hearings on behalf of intelligent design, during which he denied the principle of common descent and "humbly offered... that we were created by a special creation, by God."
He stated that he believed the age of the Earth was "Between 5,000 and 100,000" years.[10] An analogy Sanford uses to illustrate evidence of design is that of a car versus a junkyard: "A car is complex, but so is a junkyard. However, a car is complex in a way that is very specific — which is why it works. It requires a host of very intelligent engineers to specify its complexity, so it is a functional whole."[11] Intelligent design advocate William Dembski touts the accomplishments of Sanford as evidence of the scientific status of intelligent design, since Sanford is a specialist in genetic engineering and an Associate Professor in Horticulture. However, Sandford's position is rejected as pseudoscience by most Geneticists and Biologists[12][13] Dembski endorsed Sanford's book Genetic Entropy & the Mystery of the Genome.[14]
Brian Jordan wrote:Well, at least he makes no bones about who the designer is. He clearly believes in Theistic Design. No wonder he cut no ice in the Dover trial.
Peter Henderson wrote:They're pushing this well qualified creationist today, Dr. John Sanford:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHsu94HQ ... re=related
To be honest, it needs someone equally well qualfified to challenge this type of thing.
This guy's a genius. What hope have I got ?
He stated that he believed the age of the Earth was "Between 5,000 and 100,000" years.]
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Kelsey Klettke Event: Distance Hometown: Vancouver, WA Year: Senior Previous School: Prairie HS
Kelsey Klettke
SENIOR: Granted medical redshirt after battling hip and leg injuries.
JUNIOR: Enjoyed one of the best seasons in the history of the Warrior women's program...Started off the year by winning the Idaho Cup, which featured a number of NCAA runners...Went on to finish in the top eight in every regular season race, including wins at the Warrior Invite and the Frontier Conference meet...Ran a season best 17:23 at the Warrior Invite...was the team's top finisher in every race...Placed 11th in the NAIA national meet, which is the highest finish in program history and earned All-American honors...Earned Daktronics NAIA Scholar-Athlete honors...Finished third at Inland Empire meet, fifth at Eric Anderson Invite, and eighth at Willamette Invite.
SOPHOMORE: Finished among the top-three LC runners in all seven cross country races, leading the team three times…Led the Warriors and finished 26th overall at the Charles Bowles Invitational, recording a time of 18:13 that stands as the sixth best 5k time in the LC record book…Finished in the top-10 overall four times… Finished 53rd overall and No. 1 for LC at the NAIA National Championships, crossing the line in 19:40…Holds seven LC track records…In outdoor track set school records, at the season's first race, in the 1500m (4:48.04) and 800m (2:19.57)…Won the 1500m at the Northwest Scoring Clash with a then school-record time of 4:43.69… Later qualified for nationals and broke her own LC-best times in the 1500m (4:42.84), 800m (2:13.65) and 5000m (18:08.61)…Ran on outdoor 4x400m relay team that set a school record (4:18.14).
FRESHMAN: Placed sixth overall in her cross country debut at the Whitman Invitational…Gradually built on her time despite being hampered by illness…Competed in the 800m, 1500m and 4x400m relay during the indoor and outdoor track seasons…Part of the indoor 4x400m relay team that set a school record (4:23.32)…Earned fifth-place finish in the 1500m and was fifth in the 800m at the Idaho Cup…Took third in the 800m at Eastern Washington.
HIGH SCHOOL: Qualified for the state cross country meet three times and was the district champion in cross country and track…Broke district cross country course record and set meet records at the Capitol Invite (twice) and Hoquiam Invite…During her first three years, she won 20 of the 35 cross country races she competed in…State champion in Junior Olympics for both Oregon and Washington in 2006 in cross country and placed in the top five on four occasions in USATF Junior Olympics Track and Field in 2006…Personal bests of 18:03 in the three-mile in cross country, 61 seconds in the 400m, 2:18 in the 800m, 4:52 in the 1500m and 10:35 for 3000m in track and field…All of her track times would have broken LCSC school records at these distances.
PERSONAL: Born March 14,1990 to Suzy and Barry Klettke…One sister Tori…Hobbies include swimming, road biking, mountain climbing, rock climbing, kayaking, snowboarding, going on runs with my dad, playing in the sun, backpacking, and watching Glee with teammate Amanda…Majoring in Secondary Education with Biology emphasis.
FAVORITE RACE: Ken Shannon Invite (track) and Whitman Invite (XC)...NICKNAME: KK...FAVORITE MOVIE: Into the Wild...FAVORITE FOOD: Quinoa... FAVORITE PHRASE: 1 Corinthians 9:24-27...FAVORITE BOOK: Siddhartha...FAVORITE TV SHOW: Modern Family...FAVORITE RESTAURANT: Mississippi Pizza...FAVORITE MUSICIAN: Neil Young...MEMORABLE SPORTS MOMENTS: Running a 4:50 at UW and running against Kara Goucher last summer... DREAM JOB: Supermodel or professional triathlete...IN 10 YEARS: Teaching high school biology, coaching cross country and still running competitively... WHAT I LIKE BEST ABOUT LCSC: The wonderful cross country team...WHAT I LIKE BEST ABOUT XC/TRACK PROGRAMS: Everything. The girls, the boys, Coach, Tracy, camp, the competitiveness and the list goes on and on.
© 2012 Lewis-Clark State College Lewis-Clark State College, 500 8th Avenue, Lewiston, ID 83501 | College Website Athletics website maintained by: Sports Information Office | Disclaimer | Technology Use Guidelines | Admin


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December 16 - Day 1: State of the Industry
Captain Hybrid
Internal Combustion Engines Primed for Performance
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The Chevy Cruze Eco punched up its fuel economy to 42mpg highway by using a 1.4-liter Ecotec turbocharged engine. The engine's Turbo Airflow uses a compressor wheel (driven by hot exhaust gas) to draw air into the intake. The air is forced through an intercooler and then travels to the engine's intake manifold. The intake manifold subsequently distributes air to cylinders, where fuel is added, and combustion takes place.
(Source: GM)
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Re: Internal Combustion Engines
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Many of the early EV and hybrid designs consist of sticking an electric motor in where the engine should be or in parallel with the IC engine - automotive engineers have got to go with what they know. Some EVs and now some hybrids are going with direct drive electric. In the former, torque is generally ratioed through a centralized transmission; in the latter, it is managed by switching windings or laddering operating voltage i.e. replacing mechanical systems with electrical ones. One of the advantages of direct drive is that instantaneous torque of an electric motor is huge and can't practically be coupled through a transmission while another is that fully independent control of torque per wheel provides superior handling which are good reasons why direct drive electric is being applied to high-performance vehicles. I've designed direct drive motion systems where the constraint on peak torque was not letting the armature break off the drive shaft.
As for lifetime, some hobbiest friends run a full-scale railroad with direct drive electric traction some of which dates to the 19th century. Other than bearings, brushes and the steel tires (all replaceable), this stuff never wears out.
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There are none so blind .... My brother-in-law works on fleet trucks that have been using stop-and-go for years; that's right, big rigs that back up on electric power alone. For rail, electromotive diesel, i.e. self-charging EV, has been the standard for decades. The oldest freight locomotives in operation in North America are electric box-cabs with ballast batteries that have been humping freight through mountain passes since WW1. The biggest rail electric locomotives put out 55,000 hp. In Europe, some of the fastest rail is turbo-electric. The largest earth movers used in hard rock mining are, guess what, electric. EV commuter trains are not grid connected - they use charging stations, typically inductively coupled. Many cruise ships use electric auxilliarys for course compensation and docking. Of course, it's easy to lose sight of this in North America which is mostly last to adopt modern transit technology.
If EV technology doesn't pack 'enough punch' how do you account for Tesla Roadster performance?
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While your numbers are not exactly correct, there is a lot of truth in the case of turbocharged/supercharged engines where mixture cooling is strongly needed to avoid detonation. I have a friend that was working for several years at a famous piston ring factory ("P.Circle"), that took his father's car, an old 1966 dDodge Coronet with a modified for very high compression 318 C.I. V-8 engine that required WATER injection for above moderate throttle, but achieved tremendous fuel economy when driven moderately. It used a 50-50% blend of regular and premium gas at our very high altitude (7350 ft ASL). As water injection requires regular replacement, it is not considered practical by many, but for my friend it quite is. On the other side, many Turbocharged engines really swallow an excessively rich mixture at Wide Open Throttle in order to keep pistons from developing holes in them.
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You are right sbkenn, even if your numbers could be only approximate, your statement is correct: There is a tremendous waste in throwing away a well maintained car from the 90's up to buy a new one, even when its emissions could be slightly lower or be slightly more fuel efficient. The problem is that people believe in the automotive industry motto of "improvement" and keep them producing cars at unsustainable levels. My late father lived a few years in Europe in the 40's and 50's, and always told me that the American way of renewing their automobiles, buying a new one every year or two was plainly wasteful (and dumb); specially compared to the european practices. He was proud of his cars maintenance and conservation, and kept them for at least 8-10 years at a time. I followed his style and still have a 1991 and a 2002 that pass emissions perfectly and still work as new day to day. I had an old (1967) Ford Falcon that I was able to keep in top form for almost 40 years of DAILY use, but stopped using it when much more recent (and fast) vehycles were hard to keep the pace with in highways, and because I was unable to modernize sufficiently to keep it current. BTW, a serious study recently cited in this same site, revealed the large inefficiency paid to fabricate a Nissan Leaf, when materials and fabrication energy amount was properly included in the overall picture, It was not as green as some politicians (or phanatic owners) would like us to believe. Amclaussen.
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You may be right. Electric motor can be compared to jet engines on an airplane. Airline quickly realized jet engines are more economical to operate than piston engines because they are cheap to maintain. Only the bearings. Because they don't shake to pieces like piston engines, you save fatigue on all the parts including airframe.
In the long run, all electric is the way to go.
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Having just rented a Prius for several days, I can say that in spite driving in power mode between 75 and 80 MPH for 80% of the time in mild hilly terrain, and the rest split between ungraded/unpaved roads. I still averaged 43 MPG (42.9 - topped off tank several times over 500 miles to get a decent read). It was also the only compact I have rented that was easy to get a large heavy box of our equipment into. Overall pretty comfortable. My criticisms of the Prius - no clearance underneath - scraped going into driveways and curbs when parking, and ultimately tore up the (air dam?) on a cattle grate on a dirt road. Also, dashboard GUI is way too cluttered and non-intuitive. Otherwise thumbs up.
Regards costs, I can't see how ICE can beat an (all) electric -(not the Prius). I think people forget there are maintenance costs associated w/ ICE - oil, transmission fluid, clutches, seals, filters, belts, radiator re-coring, anti-freeze replacement, exhaust/catalytic converter, timing sensors, O2 sensors, water pump etc. on a mechanically/electronically very complex piece of machinery that simply aren't necessary on an electric. And after 10-15 years how much is ICE replacement going to cost (if it makes it that far - my Chevy only made 60k w/ $2000 maintenance/repair costs, my Jeep has 370k w/ only routine maintenance, which has added up to around $3000 sans items that would apply to an electric as well, like A/C.
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1. Consider the depreciation expense. A Prius depreciates at a higher rate than a Yaris. The depreciation of a Prius in the first five years is TWICE the depreciation of a Yaris, or about $6,000 more. This factor alone wipes out any savings in gasoline expense, considering 15k miles per year.
---> I have a Yaris. $17k when new, now with 150k probably $3k. Prius $24k new, recently looked for one, they are $10k used. Both around $14k depreciation. Prius is a bigger car, so is apples to orange comparison anyway.
2. If you don't care about depreciation because you are going to keep your Prius forever, then you better think about how much it is going to cost to replace the batteries. "Prius batteries last forever; I will never have to replace them, and maintenance costs have been low!" Right. Sure. I believe it. NOT!
---> Even taxi are using the Prius, so you know they have got to be reliable and low cost. Used battery is $1.5k-2k. Normal car will have to change the transmission about the same time. Even if is a clutch car, clutch needs replacement. After labor, is about the same. On the plus side, Prius battery rarely need replacement. You are already ahead of the game here.
3. What about your time? Time is money, as they say. Accelerating at rates that give you 52 MPG, and driving slowly on the highway to maximize fuel efficiency will both increase the time you sit in your car. Is your time worth anything? Mine is. 2 - 3 minutes of my time every day, spent sitting in a Prius to maximize fuel efficiency is enough time to wipe out any fuel expense savings. Often when I find myself held up in traffic because of a slow driver, it is a Prius!
---> Drove a rental Prius, it was just like a typical car. Adequate acceleration no different than Yaris or any other economy cars. On any car, the faster you go the more gas. That holds true no matter what. Drive a car at 80mph, and you mpg goes way down. Go slow or fast, Prius still get better mpg than a normal car.
After seeing taxi use Prius around here, and started reading about how long the battery last, I started looking for a used Prius. Soon gave up. They were not depreciating like I hoped. Is a good car, and the market has spoken. People want the Prius as a used car, so price stays high.
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Comparing the depreciation of a used Prius against the depreciation of a new Echo is not apples to oranges. I have a (true) depreciation story that can beat yours:
Four years ago I bought a '98 Jetta TDI with 240k miles on it for $7000. I've put 70k more miles on it and am now selling it for $6200 with 310k miles. Repairs have been one alternator. Expenses have been fuel, oil changes and tires. The car is chipped so has about 150 hp and 300 lb ft of torque. I drive it like a complete loon and still get fuel mileage in the low 40s around town and low 50s on the highway. 70,000 miles for $800 in depreciation is 1.1 cents per mile for a great car, fun to drive, has always been 100% reliable, carries five passengers and has a tow hitch.
In a comparison of depreciation between a new car and a used car the used car will always have the advantage.
J. Kammeyer
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"1. Consider the depreciation expense."
We bought a new $14,250, Echo in 2001 instead of the Prius and sold it in 2009 for $3,000. We had just under 30,000 miles on it or about $0.33/mile depreciation.
We bought a used, Prius, $17,300 in 2005 with 49,000 miles and I just drove home in the 150,000 mile, in our perfectly fine, 52 MPG commuting car. So if it disappeared tomorrow, $0.17/mile, half the Echo rate.
BTW, our NHW11 also has a 1 kW inverter and provided emergency power when the tornados tore up the TVA power lines over four days and six hours at two gallons/day . . . no carbon monoxide risk . . . too quiet to hear outside of our property line.
Our 2010 Prius was $24,250 bought in May 2009 (we sold the Echo to help pay for it.) It works perfectly fine and even towed a small airplane 600 miles from Canton Il to Huntsville, Al. It also has a 1 kW inverter. The newer car, it has 35,000 miles or $0.66/mile, today. In another three years, it is likely to be the Echo $0.33/mile rate and descending.
"2. . . . better think about how much it is going to cost to replace the batteries."
In November 2008 I upgraded the traction battery from the original style to the newer modules from salvage Prius, $1,700. The old traction battery was working perfectly fine and the modules measured 5.0-5.5 Ahr versus the new ones at 6.5 Ahr capacity.
I kept the 38, old battery modules and am looking at replacing a 48V, lead-acid battery in our electric bicycle with the NiMH modules. This should double the 10 mile range.
"3. What about your time?"
I have always driven in the right lane, following traffic or with cruise control set to the posted speed limit. It gives me time to think and plan what I'm going to do at work or on the way home, plan dinner and shopping lists.
I am not a "Type A" driver. Often, when being tailgated in the right lane, will change so the tailgater can accelerate, pass me on the right, and get away from me. But if I'm conducting a 'study', I have no problem with reaching 100 mph and still getting 22.5 MPG. But in reality, flying meets my need for speed and isolation from the road-rage idiots.
". . . .If you look at the total cost of ownership of a Prius compared to a Yaris, "
We have owned the Echo (the original Yaris) and choose to continue to own the 2003 Prius, the Echo equivalent. We already have the 1.8L, 2010 Prius and both have tow bars used for oversized loads and the occasional rental boat. More importantly, there is no car that matches the 140 mph, 4 gal/hr, airplane. We also have an electric bicycle for trips to the grocery store.
In short, we're pretty happy and don't see any gaps in our transportation needs and desires. Our lives are as quiet as our cars and when we go out of town, we eat at upscale restaurants because we don't worry about gas burned in a frantic drive back home.
Bob Wilson
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It was $10 million and the X-Prize committee tried real hard to make this a real-world competition by requiring that the car entries demonstrated manufacturing cabability to qualify, not just show off what a one-off laboratory experiment is capable of.
In fact, if I remember right this was the very first X-Prize competition that was designed to avoid the previous results where the prize winner never actually puts their technology onto the market.
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