text:
- February 7, 2013
- 8:29 a.m.
- Suggest removal
- Reply to this post
markmucher writes:
in response to retiredengr2:
My bet is that they will not tell the City voters all of the truth because doing so will guarantee that the deal will not be approved. I am a County resident on CVB power that would vote against the deal if I could. Everytime that I have had a power outage and called the City, workers have been here within the hour to work on. This quick response is valuable to me and well worth the small additional percentage I pay for electricity.
I seriously doubt that FPL will even try to match this response time.
Small additional percentage? HAHAHAHA
Try 40%
(But I'm sure you and the other anti-sale folks would be glad to pay double - you may get that chance if we have problems with Big Blue, or Obama has his way with coal...)
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Celebrating Rachel Carson and the Natural World: A Centennial Event with Performances, Workshops and Outdoor Fun
Friday, May 4th and Saturday, May 5th
All events are FREE and open to the public. We ask that you give us 24 hours notice if you will be unable to attend. Questions or cancellations should be directed to Beth Kopp (859-4846 or email@example.com).
Please list below the other family members attending. If any of these are children, please include their age. If you wish to register more than four additional people, enter their names and ages in the general comments section below.
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Play: A Sense of Wonder (Suggested for audiences 13 and over)
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text: I am a fourth-year PhD student in Computer Science at Stanford University. I am part of the Stanford Information Networks Group, led by Prof. Philip Levis. My current work spans two quite diverse fields: virtual worlds and sensor networks. Previously I have also worked on projects in grid computing and handheld computing.


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Descending through some cloud early in the morning. It taken on a flight to Delhi in India. The picture was not planned at all. I just grabbed the camera out of it's bag and aimed at the cloud. As you start descending through the cloud the light changes by the second and the poor camera cannot make up it's mind about any setting therefore some over exposure of the sunlight through the cloud. Not a technically good photo but one to share with you.
Brand: | Canon |
Camera: | Canon EOS 5D MkII |
Lens: | 50.0 - 500.0 mm (35 mm equivalent: 48.8 - 488.0 mm) |
Recording media: | JPEG (digital) |
Date Taken: | 5 Apr 2013 - 5:42 AM |
Focal Length: | 84mm |
Aperture: | f/7.1 |
Shutter Speed: | 1/200sec |
Exposure Comp: | 0.0 |
Exposure Mode: | Program AE |
Metering Mode: | Evaluative |
Flash: | Off, Did not fire |
White Balance: | Auto |
Title: | Flying towards the light. |
Username: | georg |
Uploaded: | 29 May 2013 - 12:20 PM |
Tags: | Clouds, Landscape / travel, Light, Travel |
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A fantastic sight up in the clouds. I flew between layers of cloud going to the Channel Islands many years ago it was like being in a cloud sandwich.
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Zuma throwns down the gauntlet on detractors
PRESIDENT Jacob Zuma has slated his detractors who think they knew better about ANC policies and leadership, warning that the party must not be pushed too far.
Without mentioning any names, Zuma said all this criticism directed at leadership would eventually culminate in an angry revolt.
"They are talking about us in the wrong way ... We don't want to tell or remind people where they come from. They see us laughing and they think we don't get angry ... we got angry with the apartheid regime, very angry."
He was speaking at Nehawu's policy discussion meeting in Boksburg yesterday.
Zuma said the democracy he and other leaders fought for and ushered in a new era in which everyone wants to shape the nature of the country and determine everything else. "They give themselves the privilege position of knowing the policy and the quality of leadership more than us," he told delegates who applauded in agreement.
"We shaped and determined the nature and time of this revolution ... Now because of freedom, everyone wants to shape the nature and direction of this country."
Zuma questioned where were these "clever" people when he was fighting for what his detractors say they know better today.
Expelled ANC Youth League Julius president Julius Malema was among those that have criticised Zuma's leadership, comparing it to that of a dictator.
Zuma reiterated his call for workers to swell the ranks of the ANC, saying the revolution was at a crossroad where names were seen to be more important that the actual task at hand, such as addressing issues of inequality, poverty and unemployment.
He said the focus on individuals at elective conferences needed to be nipped in the bud and encouraged union members to go to Mangaung in December with that mindset.
Zuma's address gave particular focus to the ANC's draft policy on the second transition, which tackles long term problems that the organisation and the country faced.
The issue of transformation was one that needs urgent attention, as it was central to the development of the country, he said.
"We must debate what type of economy do we need ... there may be resources, but they are in the hands of a few. This is an issue we don't need to use slogans about.
"The structuring of the apartheid economy had remained intact, it doesn't allow for a higher inclusive growth," Zuma said.
The ANCYL has consistently called for the nationalisation of strategic sectors of the economy such as mines and banks, as being the only solution to an equal society.
Zuma has differed in this regard; saying nationalisation of mines was not government policy. - email@example.com
Zuma throwns down the gauntlet on detractorseeehh sowetan, dont mean to nit pick but that headline is wrong. should read Zuma throws down the gauntlet on detractors
we know its cold so the fingers are frozen.
Report Abuse
eh zuma. we are tired of you and your lack of leadership, running this country like a spaza shop. it is us who are going to throw down the gauntlet on you. matter of fact your entire tenure as president of this country has been a massive gauntlet for youyou need to step down. post Mbeki this country has not seen much action in terms of aliviating poverty and job (REAL JOBS) creation. the e-toll saga, all that corruption haai maan just go already.
all you have managed to do is increase the size of your family and appoint even more corrupt thugs into power. we are enough. no more debates. we demand action now.
Report Abuse
Yes Zuma, everyone has a right to shape the direction of the country especially when the leadership is poor and visionless...you seem to be stooges and listen to propaganda when your family is enriched at our expense, besides you were in the bushes (as a soldier)not negotiating, Mbeki and others were the negotiators. And when apartheid systems are still in place 18 into democracy who else to blame, you seem to have a narrow vision of the country as a president and that includes enriching yourself-building bunkers and your family first.Report Abuse
Zuma playing the emotional blackmail card again. after all his moonish, its a bit hard to smile and be patriotic with all this bull$hit going on.Report Abuse
Zuma, it is not you and a few selected "leaders" who shaped the revolution. It was the faceless masses of people who supported the struggle and who continued life under the apartheid regime while you were safely away in exile who shaped the revolution. It was the millions of families you are now cheating out of their rightful share of fre.edom, so I'd be very careful to throw down gauntlets if I were you.Report Abuse
Zuma and the ANC do not own our Freedom, nor do they own the country. People are right to question the leadership of the ANC if they feel it is not what it should be. Policy making is not the sole responsibility of the ANC as there are millions of people who are not part of the ANC in this country and their voices should be heared and respected because we are ALL citizens of this country. ANC is an ELECTED party put in power to serve the people, not the other way around. Being in that position of power does not mean you should manipulate, abuse and bully the very people who put you there.Report Abuse
Why are you addressing Labour movements, Where is the minister of labour? Dont be angry, just do your work and people will shut up.Report Abuse
Again Dr Zuma, you never seize to amaze me. Please remember thatthe struggle was not fought to protect people like you but to free
everyone from mental slavery. As long as you are a public figure you are
bound to criticism, just like Tata said "No one is beyond criticism".
Now you are trying to act as messiah to hell with.
You are failing the country there's no doubt about that and the best thing
you can do is to step down. Before Polokwane our GDP was at 5-6%
now 2- 3%. Ofcourse the was inflation and things like that but countries
like Nigeria are doing well at 7% and it is likely that by 2016 they
might become Africa's power house. You are an embarrassment to
Africa and yourself. You can buy a rope and hand thy self and your
Report Abuse
oldlady5Zuma, it is not you and a few selected "leaders" who shaped the revolution. It was the faceless masses of people who supported the struggle and who continued life under the apartheid regime while you were safely away in exile who shaped the revolution. It was the millions of families you are now cheating out of their rightful share of fre.edom, so I'd be very careful to throw down gauntlets if I were you.
The wise thing would be to listen to what the detractors are saying ....and simply fix them. Because if they are fixed there is nothing to say.....as evrything would be perfect... but fragile ego just promotes in fighting....and an internal/ eternal struggle for the struggle party
Report Abuse
Why stupid Zuma i can't fire Bheki Cele.KZN ANC PEC will be divided.
Cele know his dirty secrecy.
Report Abuse


text:
I have a problem cutting Radial cut with Zdepth, import toolpath from Mastercam X.
see photo's.
I use slow Feedrate like 700, and use the slowest Accelerate on MAch3.
I use to check the reference 0,0,0 after cutting and the result is 0,0,0 no shifted.
when you see the photo, the Z depth is fine, but it looks that X axis is the probelm, I can not find what's wrong.
the Z ballscrew is using 5 times bigger lead (1 inch) than X and Y (5mm).
it's direct step motor, no gear ratio or belt.
I have no idea where to ask, I've been asking this to Mach support but no luck.
of course they help me alot but ....


text:
- January 21, 2013
- 10:16 a.m.
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sonofdiogenes writes:
in response to dbryant:
Looks to me that if the victim was bludgeoned to death someone would have heard it.
Not necessarily. Remember Ted Bundy or other serial murderers who killed multiple victims without making much noise to alert anyone?
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Contract: $116,311 - Department of Justice - Aug. 6, 2009
100% voted satisfied - 0% voted not satisfied - 1 vote(s) cast
Award Description: Butte-Silver Bow Law Enforcement Department Technology, Integration and Equipment Project.
Project Description: 33 digital cameras were purchased for sworn officers.
Jobs Summary: N/A (Total jobs reported: 0)
Project Status: Less Than 50% Completed
This award's data was last updated on Aug. 6, 2009. Help expand these official descriptions using the wiki below.
No comments have been added for this project.


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Design by Friedrich Reiffer, 1999. Hand blown Murano glass sconce for diffused illumination. Matte white glass. Notes: CSA for US and Canada. ADA compliant. Material(s): Metal, Glass Dimensions: 6"W X 12.5"H X 3.25"Extension Lamp Type: HALOGEN Bulbs: 1 X 150W 120V E26 (medium base) T10 double envelop halogen lamp (not included) Listing: CSA, ADA Model(s): D8-3025 Friedrich ReifferSee other lights/products from Friedrich ReifferZaneenFrom the onset of Zaneen Lighting in 1981, their goal has been to provide discriminating clients with high quality lighting from European crafters. To this end they continue to introduce unique new models in a variety of styles while maintaining a commitment to quality and craftsmanship.
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53.76% of the people in Reading, PA are registered as Democrats. 44.60% are registered Republican. Remaining are independent: 1.63%.
Changing direction: I read two interesting posts here, and to a degree, I think they both have some points. Reading has a high crime rate, no doubt about that. The people in general are... (read more)Relocation : Well to start, in the past 8 years ive lived in 7 states, some pros and cons. Tucson I loved in all respects except its not as nice as living in a small town but it... (read more)Reading: Berks County, PA is a beautiful area filled with rolling hills and trees. The people are friendly and the cost of living is affordable compared to neighboring... (read more)Have an opinion about Reading? Leave a commentTo See All SperlingViews for Reading Click Here


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We pause this day to remember the men and women who died for peace and freedom.
A hero is someone who has given his or her life to something bigger than oneself. ~Joseph Campbell
photo credit: Pawel Loj on Flickr
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Every so often, a new artist emerges with the new street anthem, and Young Scooter is that artist, "Colombia" is that anthem. The street single finally gets a visual, and Im happy to see he went all out for his video. Young Scooter even called on the services of director Decatur Dan to shoot the visual for his street banger.
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Below you will find the Show Garden winners from the Northwest Flower & Garden Show. Images of the winning gardens are located under the award type.
2013 Show Garden Awards
Display Gardens–Gold Award Winners:
Association of Professional Landscape Designers Washington Chapter; Barbara Lycett Landscape Design; Home & Garden Art LLC; Native Root Designs; Plantswoman Design, Inc.; RHR Horticulture & Landwave Gardens; Washington State Nursery & Landscape Association; Washington Association of Landscape Professionals; and the Washington Park Arboretum.
Display Gardens—Silver Award Winners:
Adam Gorski Landscapes, Inc.; Artisan's Cottage; Dakara Landscape Design; Dr. Decks LLC; Evergreen Landscaping & Ponds; Fancy Plants Gardens, Inc.; Northwest Orchid Society; Pacific Stone Company, Inc.; Redwood Builders LLC, Landscaping; Susan Browne Landscape Design and Issaquah Landscaping; TreeLine Designz International and West Seattle Nursery; Under the Arbor Landscape Design; and Wight's Home & Garden.
Two outstanding gardens not included in the judging process included the South Lobby's "Entryway Garden," created by the Flower Growers of Puget Sound, and the show's popular "Wine Garden" created by Marenakos Rock Center.
2013 Special Recognition Award Winners:
Founder's Cup (Best in Show): RHR Horticulture & Landwave Gardens (Shoreline)
Ethel Moss People's Choice Award: Washington Park Arboretum (Seattle)
Fred Palmer Garden Creator's Award: Washington Park Arboretum (Seattle)
American Horticultural Society Environmental Award: RHR Horticulture & Landwave Gardens (Shoreline)
Golden Palette Award: RHR Horticulture & Landwave Gardens (Shoreline)
Best Use of Theme Award: Wight's Home & Garden (Lynnwood)
X Factor Award: Barbara Lycett Landscape Design (Seattle)
Pacific Horticultural Society Award: Washington Park Arboretum (Seattle)
Sunset Western Living Award: Washington Park Arboretum (Seattle)
South Sound Magazine Editor's Choice Award: Dr. Decks (Tacoma)
425 Magazine Editor's Choice Award: Washington Park Arboretum (Seattle)
Small Space Showcase:
People's Choice: West Seattle Nursery (Seattle)
Best Plant Material: West Seattle Nursery (Seattle)
Best Design: Killarney Cove Garden Design (Federal Way)
Best "Re-Characterization:" Artistic Garden Concepts (Kent)
Floral Competition:
People's Choice: Young's Enumclaw Flowers (Enumclaw)
1st Place: Fena Flowers (Kirkland)
2nd Place: Holly's Fine Flowers (Port Townsend)
3rd Place: Tiare Floral Design (Tacoma)
"Funky Junk" (High School Competition)
Best Plant Material: Nathan Hale High School (Seattle)
Best Design: Ballard High School (Seattle)
Best Example of Re-Characterization: Ballard High School (Seattle)
Most Funky/Cool/Unusual/Creative: A.G. West/Black Hills High School (Thurston County)
About the 2013 Show Garden Awards
Founder's Cup – Garden that is deemed best in show and a majority favorite of a committee of judges for the other awards. Recipient receives a rotating trophy which must be relinquished prior to the following year's show.
American Horticultural Society Environmental Award – garden that best demonstrates skillful design that incorporates environmental stewardship in the garden. Judged by Medal Show Judges.
Pacific Horticulture Magazine Award – garden that best demonstrates the regional nature of garden design. Judged by Pacific Horticulture representatives. A permanent plaque is given.
Sunset's Western Livingâ Award – garden most filled with fresh, useful, achievable ideas that enhance outdoor living in the West. Judged by Sunset editors. A permanent plaque is given.
"Golden Palette Award" – garden the best incorporates dramatic color from leaves, forced blooms and winter blooming plants. Judged by regional horticulture experts. A permanent plaque is given.
Best Theme – garden that captures the spirit of the 2013 theme, "The Silver Screen Takes root… Gardens Go Hollywood." Judged by Seattle Film Festival staff. A permanent plaque is given.
"X-Factor Award" – garden that best captures the imagination of the next generation of garden designers. Judged by recent graduates of the regional horticulture programs. A permanent plaque is given.
425 Magazine Award – garden that dazzles thanks to smart design, creativity and originality. Judged by 425 Magazine editors. A permanent plaque is given.
Ethel Moss People's Choice Award – favorite garden as voted by the public. Recipient receives a permanent plaque, and a rotating trophy which must be relinquished prior to the following year's show.
Fred Palmer Exhibitor Award – garden voted the most accomplished by fellow garden creators. A permanent plaque is given.


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Salud Pública de México
Print version ISSN 0036-3634
Salud pública Méx vol.39 n.4 Cuernavaca Jul. 1997
Nutrition and cancer
Evidence from both animal and epidemiologic studies indicate that throughout life excessive energy intake in relation to requirements increases risk of human cancer. Rapid growth rates in childhood lead to earlier age at menarche, which in turn increases risk of breast cancer, and accumulation of body fat in adulthood in related to cancers of the colon, kidney, and endometrium as well as postmenopausal breast cancer. Higher intake of vegetables and fruits has been associated with lower risks of many cancers. The constituents responsible for these apparent protective effects remain uncertain, although evidence supports a contribution of folic acid. Recent evidence suggests that the percentage of energy from fat in the diet is not a major cause of cancers of the breast or colon. Higher intake of meat and dairy products has been associated with greater risk of prostate cancer, which may be related to their saturated fat content. Also, red meat consumption has been associated with risk of colon cancer in numerous studies, but this appears to be unrelated to its fat content. Excessive consumption of alcohol increases risks of upper gastrointestinal tract and even moderate intake appears to increase cancers of the breast and large bowel. Although many details remain to be learned, evidence is strong that remaining physically active and lean throughout life, consuming an abundance of fruits and vegetables, and avoiding high intakes of red meat, foods high in animal fat, and excessive alcohol will substantially reduce risk of human cancer.
KEY WORDS: nutrition; neoplasms; review
La evidencia que proporcionan tanto los estudios en animales como los epidemiológicos, indica que el consumo excesivo de energía incrementa el riesgo de cáncer en los humanos. Las tasas de crecimiento rápidas durante la niñez pueden conducir a una menarquia temprana, lo que aumenta el riesgo de cáncer de mama, y la acumulación de grasa corporal en la madurez está relacionada con el cáncer de colon, riñón y endometrio, y con el de mama después de la menopausia. Un alto consumo de verduras y frutas se ha relacionado con riesgos más bajos de contraer varios tipos de cáncer. Sigue sin conocerse cuáles son los componentes responsables de estos efectos, aparentemente protectores, aunque se le atribuye un papel importante al ácido fólico. En la dieta, el porcentaje de energía que proviene de la grasa no constituye una causa importante del cáncer de mama o de colon. El consumo excesivo de carne y de productos lácteos se ha asociado con un riesgo mayor de cáncer de próstata; esto se puede relacionar con su contenido de grasa saturada. De igual forma, en numerosos estudios la ingesta de carne roja se ha asociado con un mayor riesgo de cáncer de colon, aunque esto parece no estar relacionado con su contenido de grasa. El consumo excesivo de alcohol aumenta los riesgos de cáncer del tracto gastrointestinal superior, e incluso parece que su consumo moderado incrementa el riesgo de cáncer de mama y del intestino grueso. Aunque falta conocer muchos detalles, la información muestra que el mantenerse físicamente activo y delgado, consumir frutas y verduras en abundancia, y evitar la ingesta excesiva de carne roja, de alimentos ricos en grasa animal y el no abusar del alcohol, puede reducir substancialmente el riesgo de cáncer en los seres humanos.
PALABRAS CLAVE: nutrición; neoplasmas; revisión
Following cardiovascular disease, cancer is the second most important cause of death in most affluent countries and is increasingly important in developing countries as mortality from infectious diseases declines.1,2 In the US, about one in three persons will be diagnosed with cancer during their lifetime and about 60% of those diagnosed will die of cancer.3 Although overall cancer rates among adults vary only modestly around the world, the types of cancers are dramatically different.1,2 In most affluent countries cancers of the lung, colon, breast, and prostate contribute most to incidence and mortality (see Figures 1a and 1b). In poorer regions and the Far East, cancers of the stomach, liver, oral cavity, esophagus, and uterine cervix are most important. In Japan, for example, rates of breast cancer have until recently been only about one fifth those of the US and the differences in rates of colon and prostate cancers have been even greater.5 However, cancer incidence rates are very dynamic; many areas of the world are experiencing a transition from the cancer incidence patterns of poorer to those of affluent areas.1 In almost all countries rates of breast cancer have been increasing.
Although the development of cancer is characterized by alterations in DNA and some of these changes can be inherited, inherited mutations cannot account for the dramatic differences in cancer rates seen around the world. Populations that move from countries with low rates of cancer to areas with high rates, or the reverse, almost invariably achieve the rates characteristic of the new homeland.6-8 The rate of change can vary, though, from several decades in the case of colon cancer, to about three generations for breast cancer.8-11 The dramatic changes in cancer rates within a countries provide further evidence for the importance of noninherited factors. For example, in Japan rates of colon cancer mortality increased about 2.5-fold between 1950 and 1985.5
The dramatic variations in cancer rates around the world and changes over time imply that these malignancies are potentially avoidable if we were able to know and alter the causal factors. For a few cancers, such as lung cancer, the primary causes are well known, in this case smoking, but for most others the etiologic factors are less well established. However, there are strong reasons to suspect that dietary and nutritional factors may account for many of these variations in cancer rates. First, a role of diet has been suggested by observations that national rates of specific cancers are strongly correlated with aspects of diet such as per capita consumption of fat.12 Also, numerous studies in animals, including a series of detailed experiments conducted during the 1930s.13 clearly demonstrated that dietary manipulations could dramatically influence tumorigenesis.
Also, a multitude of steps in the pathogenesis of cancer have been identified where dietary factors could plausibly act either to increase or decrease the probability that the clinical cancer will develop. For example, carcinogens in food can directly damage DNA and other dietary factors may block the endogenous synthesis of carcinogens or induce enzymes involved in the activation or deactivation of exogenous carcinogenic substances.14 Oxidative damage to DNA is likely to be an important cause of mutations and can potentially be enhanced by some dietary factors, such as polyunsaturated fats, or reduced by dietary antioxidants or nutrients that are co-factors for antioxidant enzymes, such as selenium or copper.15 Inadequate intake of dietary factors needed for DNA synthesis, such as folic acid, could also influence the risk of mutation. The rate of cell division will influence whether DNA lesions are replicated and is thus likely to influence the probability of cancer developing.15 Thus, energy balance and growth rates, which can be influenced by a variety of essential nutrients, could affect cancer rates. Dietary factors can influence endogenous hormone levels, including estrogens and various growth factors, which can influence cell cycling and, thus, potentially cancer incidence. Estrogenic substances found in some plant foods can also interact with estrogen receptors and thus could either mimic or block the effects of endogenous estrogens.14 Many other aspects of diet can alter cell proliferation or differentiation either by direct hormonal effects, such as by vitamins A or D, or indirectly by influencing inflammatory or irritative processes, such as specific fatty acids that are precursors of prostaglandins or that inhibit their synthesis. Many other examples can be given by which dietary factors could plausibly influence the development of cancer.14,15
Epidemiologic investigation of diet and cancer relationships
The strong suggestions from international comparisons, animal studies, and mechanistic investigations that various aspects of diet might importantly influence risk of cancer raises the two critical sets of questions: Which dietary factors are actually important determinants of human cancer? What is the nature of the dose-response relationships? The nature of the dose-response relationships is particularly important because a substance could be carcinogenic to humans, but there could be no important risk within the range of intakes actually consumed by humans. Alternatively, another factor could be critical for protection against cancer, but all persons in a population may already be consuming sufficient amounts to receive the maximal benefit. In either case, there is no potential for reduction in cancer rates by altering current intakes. The important factors to identify are those for which at least some part of the population is either consuming a toxic level or is not eating a sufficient amount for optimal health.
A variety of epidemiologic approaches can be used to investigate diet and human cancer relationships, including case-control or cohort studies and randomized trials. Relationships between diet, nutrition, and cancer incidence in epidemiologic studies can be evaluated by collecting data on dietary intake, by using biochemical indicators of dietary factors, or by measuring body size and composition. Food frequency questionnaires have been used to assess diet in most epidemiologic studies because they provide information on usual diet over an extended period of time and are sufficiently efficient to be used in large populations. Food frequency questionnaires have been shown to be sufficiently valid to detect important diet-disease relationships in comparisons with more detailed assessments of diet and biochemical indicators.16 Biochemical indicators of diet can be useful in some situations, but for many dietary factors of interest, such as total fat, fiber, and sodium, no useful indicators exist. DNA specimens have been collected from participants in many studies and allow the examination of gene-diet interactions. Until now, most information on diet and cancer has been obtained from case-control studies. However, a number of large prospective cohort studies of diet and cancer in various countries are now ongoing and will be producing reliable data at an exponentially increasing rate as the their populations age.
Epidemiologic investigations should be viewed as complementary to animal studies, in vitro investigations, and metabolic studies of diet in relation to intermediate endpoints, such as hormone levels. Although conditions can be controlled to a much greater degree in laboratory studies than in free living human populations, the relevance of findings to humans will always be uncertain, particularly in regard to dose-response relationships. Ultimately, our knowledge is best based on a synthesis of epidemiologic, metabolic, animal, and mechanistic studies.
Current state of knowledge for specific aspects of diet
Diet is a complex composite of various nutrients and nonnutritive food constituents and there are many types of human cancer, each with its own pathogenetic mechanisms; thus the combinations of specific dietary factors and cancer is almost limitless. This brief overview will focus primarily on cancers that are most important in affluent populations and that are rapidly increasing in countries undergoing economic transition. Aspects of diet for which there are strong hypotheses and substantial epidemiologic data are also emphasized.
Energy balance, growth rates, and body size
Studies by Tannenbaum and colleagues13,17 during the first half of the 20th century indicated that energy restriction could profoundly reduce the development of mammary tumors in animals. This finding has been consistently replicated in a wide variety of mammary tumor models and has also been observed for a wide variety of other tumors.18-22 For example, restriction in energy intake by approximately 30% can reduce mammary tumors by as much as 90%.23 The possibility that this relationship, which is the most consistent and strong effect of diet in animal studies, might also apply to humans has received relatively little attention until recently.
The most sensitive indicators of the balance between energy intake and expenditure are growth rates and body size, which can be measured well in epidemiologic investigations, although they also reflect genetic and other nonnutritional factors. Adult height can thus provide an indirect indicator of pre-adult nutrition and adult weight gain and obesity reflect positive energy balance later in life. Internationally, the average national height of adult women is strongly associated with risk of breast cancer.24 Also, in case-control and cohort studies, greater height has generally been associated with an increased risk of breast cancer.25 For example, in a representative US sample, taller women had nearly twice the risk of breast cancer compared to the shortest.26 Taller height has also been associated with risk of colon and other cancers.27,28 In populations who were traditionally short, such as the Japanese, rapid gains in height during the last several decades29 have corresponded with increases in breast cancer rates. Further support for an important role of growth rates comes from epidemiologic studies of age at menarche. An early menarche is a well-established risk factor for breast cancer. The difference in the late age in China, approximately 17 years,30 compared to 12 and 13 years of age in the US,31 contributes importantly to differences in breast cancer rates between these populations. Body mass index, height, and weight have consistently been strong determinants of age at menstruation,32-34 but the composition of diet appears to have little if any effect. Collectively, these studies provide strong evidence, consistent with animal experiments, that rapid growth rates prior to puberty play an important role in determining future risk of breast and probably other cancers. Whether the epidemiologic findings are due only to restriction of energy intake in relation to requirements for maximal growth, or whether the limitation of other nutrients, such as essential amino acids, may also play a role cannot be determined from available data.
A positive energy balance during adult life and the resultant accumulation of body fat also contributes importantly to several human cancers. The best established relationships are with cancers of the endometrium and gall bladder.35-39 Greater adiposity also increases the risk of colon cancer in both women40 and men, particularly when assessed as abdominal circumference.41 The relation between body fatness and breast cancer is more complex. Prior to menopause, women with greater body fat have reduced risks of breast cancer,42,43 and after menopause a positive, but weak, association with adiposity is seen. These findings are probably the result of anovulatory menstrual cycles in fatter women prior to menopause,44 which should reduce risk, and the synthesis of endogenous estrogen by adipose tissue in postmenopausal women,45 which is presumed to increase risk of breast cancer.
Dietary fat and meat intake
In the landmark 1982 National Academy of Sciences review of diet, nutrition and cancer,46 reduction in fat intake to 30% of calories was the primary recommendation; this objective has been echoed in subsequent dietary recommendations as well.47,48
Interest in dietary fat as a cause of cancer began in the first half of the 20th century when studies by Tannenbaum and colleagues,13,17 indicated that diets high in fat could promote tumor growth in animal models. In this early work, energy (caloric) restriction also profoundly reduced the incidence of tumors. A vast literature on dietary fat and cancer in animals has subsequently accumulated (reviewed elsewhere).22,46,49-51
Dietary fat has a clear effect on tumor incidence in many models, although not in all;52,53 however, a central issue has been whether this is independent of the effect of energy intake. An independent effect of fat has been seen in some animal models,22,49,50 but this has been either weak54 or nonexistent23 in some studies designed specifically to address this issue. A possible relation of dietary fat intake to cancer incidence has also been hypothesized because the large international differences in rates of cancers of the breast, colon, prostate, and endometrium are strongly correlated with apparent per capita fat consumption.12,55,56 These correlations are limited to animal, not vegetable, fat.57
Fat and breast cancer
Although a major rationale for the dietary fat hypothesis has been the international correlation between fat consumption and national breast cancer mortality,12 in a study of 65 Chinese counties,58 in which per capita fat intake varied from 6 to 25 percent of energy, only a weak positive association was seen between fat intake and breast cancer mortality. Notably, five counties consumed approximately 25% of energy from fat, yet experienced rates of breast cancer far below those of US women with similar fat intake,59 thus providing strong evidence that factors other than fat intake account for the large international differences. Breast cancer incidence rates have increased substantially in the United States during this century, as have the estimates of per capita fat consumption based on food disappearance data. However, surveys based on reports of individual actual intake, rather than food disappearance, indicate that consumption of energy from fat, either as absolute intake or as a percentage of energy, has actually declined in the last several decades,60,61 a time during which breast cancer incidence has increased.62
A substantial body of data from prospective cohort studies is now available to assess the relation between dietary fat intake and breast cancer in developed countries. In a pooled analysis of the prospective studies with more than 200 cases of breast cancer,63 no overall association was seen for overall fat intake over the range of <20 to >45% of energy from fat (see Figure 2). A similar lack of association was seen among postmenopausal women only and for specific types of fat. Only among the small number of women consuming less than 15% of energy from fat was a significant association seen; breast cancer risk was elevated two-fold in this group.
Although total fat intake has been unrelated to breast cancer risk in prospective epidemiologic studies, there is some evidence that the type of fat may be important. In animal mammary tumor models, the tumor promoting effect of fat intake has been observed primarily for polyunsaturated fats when fed in the presence of high fat diets containing approximately 45% of energy.64,65 However, in a meta-analysis of case-control studies,66 increased risk of breast cancer was somewhat greater for saturated (relative risk = 1.46) and monounsaturated fats (relative risk = 1.41) than for polyunsaturated fats (relative risk = 1.25). In data based on the detailed food frequency questionnaire administered in 1984 in the Nurses Health Study, an inverse association between monounsaturated fat and breast cancer was present.59 This is an intriguing observation given the relatively low rates of breast cancer in Southern European countries which have high average intakes of monounsaturated fats due to the use of olive oil as the primary fat. In case-control studies in Spain and Greece, women who used more olive oil had reduced risks of breast cancer.67,68 Furthermore, olive oil has been shown to be protective relative to other sources of fats in some animal studies.49
Fat and colon cancer
In comparisons among countries, rates of colon cancer are strongly correlated with national per capita disappearance of animal fat and meat, with correlation coefficients ranging between 0.8 and 0.9.12,57 Based on these epidemiologic investigations and animal studies, a hypothesis has developed that dietary fat increases excretion of bile acids, which can be converted to carcinogens or promoters.69 However, recent evidence from many studies that higher levels of physical activity reduce risk of colon cancer risk means that at least part of the high rates in affluent countries previously attributed to fat intake are probably due to sedentary lifestyle.
With some exceptions,70-73 case-control studies have generally shown an association between risk of colon cancer and intake of fat74-81 or red meat.82-87
However, in many of these studies, a positive association between total energy intake and risk of colon cancer has also been observed,74-78,80,81 raising the question of whether it is general overconsumption of food or the fat composition of the diet that is etiologically important. A recent meta-analysis by Howe and colleagues of 13 case-control studies found a significant association between total energy and colon cancer, but saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat were not associated with colon cancer independently of total energy.88
The relation between diet and colon cancer has been examined in several large prospective studies. These have not confirmed the positive association with total energy intake in case-control studies,89-93 suggesting that the case-control studies were distorted by reporting bias. The Nurses Health Study showed about a 2-fold higher risk of colon cancer among women in the highest compared to those in the lowest quintile of animal fat intake.89 In a multivariate analysis of these data, which included red meat and animal fat intakes in the same model, red meat intake remained significantly predictive of risk of colon cancer, whereas the association with animal fat was eliminated. A cohort study from the Netherlands showed a significant direct association between intake of processed meats and risk of colon cancer, but no relationship was observed for fresh meats or overall fat intake.90 A cohort study in Iowa women also found a direct association with processed meats, although this was not statistically significant.91 Among a large cohort study of men, a direct association between red meat consumption and risk of colon cancer was seen, but no association was observed with other sources of fat.92 In this study, no overall relationship existed between total or saturated fat and colon cancer despite a substantial range in fat intake. A similar association was noted for colorectal adenomas in the same cohort of men.69 In the large American Cancer Society Cohort,93 little relation was seen between either meat or fat intake and mortality due to colon cancer, but the dietary questionnaire was brief and of uncertain validity. The apparently stronger association with red meat compared with fat in several recent cohort studies needs further confirmation, but could result if the fatty acids or nonfat components of meat (for example the heme iron or carcinogens created by cooking) were the primary etiologic factors. This issue does have major practical implications as current dietary recommendations94 support the daily consumption of red meat as long as it is lean.
Fat and prostate cancer
Associations with fat intake have been seen in many case-control studies,95-105 but sometimes only in subgroups. In a recent large case-control study among various ethnic groups within the US,106 consistent associations with prostate cancer risk were seen for saturated fat, but not with other types of fat.
The association between fat intake and prostate cancer risk has been assessed in only a few cohort studies. In a cohort of 8 000 Japanese men living in Hawaii, no association was seen between intake of total or unsaturated fat.107 However, diet was assessed with a single 24-hour recall in this study so the lack of association may not be informative. In a study of 14 000 Seventh-Day Adventist men living in California, a positive association between the percentage of calories from animal fat and prostate cancer risk was seen, but this was not statistically significant.108 More recently two large prospective studies have been published. In the Health Professionals Follow-up Study of 51 000 men, a positive association was seen with intake of red meat, total and animal fat, which was largely limited to aggressive prostate cancers.109 No association was seen with vegetable fats. In another cohort from Hawaii, increased risks of prostate cancer were seen with consumption of beef and animal fat.110
Although further data are desirable, the evidence from international correlations, case-control, and cohort studies is reasonably consistent in support of an association between consumption of fat-containing animal products and prostate cancer incidence. This evidence does not generally support a relation with intake of vegetable fat, which suggests that either the type of fat or other components of these animal products are responsible. Evidence also suggests that animal fat consumption may be most strongly associated with aggressive prostate cancer, which suggests an influence on the transition from the wide-spread indolent form to the more lethal form of this malignancy.
Other cancers
Rates of other cancers that are common in affluent countries, including those of the endometrium and ovary, are, of course, also correlated with fat intake internationally. Although these have been studied in a small number of case-control investigations, consistent associations with fat intake have not been seen.111-120 In a prospective study among Iowa women,121 no evidence of relation between fat intake and risk of endometrial cancer was observed. Positive associations have been hypothesized between fat intake and risks of skin cancer122 and lung cancer, but relevant data in humans are limited.
Summary of fat and cancer
As the findings from large prospective studies have become available, support for a major relationship between fat intake and breast cancer risk has weakened considerably. For colon cancer, the associations seen with animal fat internationally have been supported in numerous case-control and cohort studies. However, more recent evidence has suggested that this might be explained by factors in red meat other than simply its fat content. Further, the importance of physical activity as a protective factor against colon cancer indicates that international correlations probably overstate the contribution of diet to differences in colon cancer incidence. The available evidence most strongly supports an association between animal fat consumption and risk of prostate cancer, particularly the aggressive form of this disease. As with colon cancer, however, the possibility remains that other factors in foods containing animal fat contribute to risk.
Fruits and vegetables
A massive body of epidemiologic data indicates that higher consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with a reduced risk of cancers at many sites. Inverse relationships with intake of these foods have been observed in over 200 case-control and prospective cohort studies123,124 and additional support comes from studies in which biochemical indicators of fruit and vegetable consumption, such as serum carotenoid levels, are also associated with reduced risks. The studies are particularly numerous and consistent for cancers of the lung125 and stomach;126 inverse associations have also been observed in many case-control studies of colon cancer but prospective data are still limited. Somewhat fewer studies have also indicated inverse associations with cancers of the oral cavity, larynx, esophagus, endometrium, cervix, bladder, kidney and breast.127 Although, inverse associations have not been seen between fruit and vegetable consumption in general and risk of prostate cancer, inverse associations with tomato products, the primary source of the carotenoid lycopene, have been seen in several case-control and prospective studies.99,108,128
Although the evidence that high consumption of fruits and vegetables can reduce the risk of many cancers is strong, the constituents of these foods that are responsible for these reduced risks are less clear. These foods contain a myriad of biologically active chemicals, including both recognized nutrients and many more nonnutritive constituents, that could potentially play a role in protection against cancer.14 Among the potentially protective factors are various carotenoids, folic acid, vitamin C, phytoestrogens and fiber (discussed below). The identification of the specific protective constituents, or combination of constituents, is a daunting task and may never be completely possible. Further details on the types and amounts of fruits and vegetables that appear to be particularly protective could provide additional practical guidance for those wanting to select an optimally healthy diet.
Dietary fiber and cancer risk
Interest in dietary fiber is largely the result of Dr. Denis Burkitts observation of low rates of colon cancer in areas of Africa where fiber consumption and stool bulk were high.129 Although fiber was originally seen simply as providing bulk to dilute potential carcinogens and speed their transit through the colon, other hypotheses have suggested that fiber may act by binding carcinogenic substances,130 altering the colonic flora,131-134 reducing the pH,135 or serving as the substrate for the generation of short-chain fatty acids that are the preferred substrate for colonic epithelial cells.136
As epidemiologic evidence has accrued, the importance of dietary fiber in reducing risk of colon cancer has become less clear. First, the populations with high fiber consumption and low intakes rates of colon cancer are also typically those of poorer countries where consumption of meat and obesity are low and physical activity is high. Evidence has become clearer that each of these factors reduces risk and thus is likely to explain at least part of the ecological associations between low intake of dietary fiber and colon cancer rates. Also, in case-control studies, intake of cereal products or fiber from grains has not usually been associated with reduced risks of colon cancer, in contrast to the abundant evidence for a protective effect of fruits and vegetables.137,138 Indeed, in some studies higher consumption of grains has been associated with greater risks of colon cancer.70,83,139,140 Also, in several large prospective studies, even overall fiber intake has not been clearly associated with lower risk of colon cancer incidence after adjustment for other risk factors.89-92 Thus, fiber intake does not appear to account for the reduced risk of colon cancer associated with consumption of fruits and vegetables, and evidence supporting higher consumption of grain fiber to reduce risk of colon cancer is weak.
Higher intake of fiber has also been hypothesized to reduce risk of breast cancer by interrupting the enterohepatic circulation of estrogens.141 However, in prospective studies, little or no relationship has been observed between fiber intake and risk of breast cancer.59,142,143
Alcoholic and caffeinated beverages
High consumption of alcohol, particularly in combination with cigarette smoking, is a well-established cause of cancer of the oral cavity, larynx, esophagus, and liver.144 More recently, substantial evidence from case-control and cohort studies indicates that amounts as low as one or two drinks per day increase risk of breast cancer.145,146 Moderate alcohol consumption appears to increase endogenous estrogen levels, which may account for this effect.45,147,148 Moderate alcohol consumption also appears to be associated with risk of cancers of the colon and rectum.138 Alcohol interferes with the availability of folic acid, which may account for its relation with large bowel cancers.149-151
Coffee contains multiple mutagenic substances15 and concern has thus existed that it might be an important cause of cancer in humans. Although early evidence suggested a possible positive association with pancreatic cancer, this has not been supported in most subsequent studies.152-154 Similarly, for breast cancer, coffee consumption has been unassociated155 or even weakly inversely associated with risk.156 Green tea contains polyphenolic compounds that inhibit tumors in experimental animals157 and inverse associations between green tea consumption and risk of gastric cancer have been seen in case-control studies from Japan158 and China.159 Notably, however, rates of gastric cancer in the US, where tea consumption is low, are among the lowest in the world; this has been attributed in part to relatively low salt intake.126
Vitamin supplements
Relatively little data are available on vitamin supplement use and cancer incidence. High-dose supplements of vitamins C and E have not been associated with reductions in breast cancer incidence.142,160 In the study by Hunter, there was a suggestion that vitamin A supplements at the RDA level might be associated with reductions in breast cancer risk among women whose dietary intakes were relatively low, but higher intakes did not confer additional reductions in risk. Limited data suggest that folic acid contained in multiple vitamins might reduce risk of large bowel cancer,149,150 but this needs confirmation. In a single case-control study, vitamin E supplements were associated with a reduced risk of oral cancer.161 In a randomized trial conducted in a region of China with low consumption of fruits and vegetables, a supplement containing beta-carotene, vitamin E, and selenium reduced incidence of stomach cancer.162 Although further research is needed, on the basis of available evidence, the prevention of cancer does not provide justification for the use of vitamin supplements by most persons with a reasonable diet.
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66. Howe GR, Hirohata T, Hislop TG, Iscovich JM, Yuan JM, Katsouyanni K et al. Dietary factors and risk of breast cancer: Combined analysis of 12 case-control studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 1990;82:561-569. [ Links ]
67. Martín-Moreno JM, Willett WC, Gorgojo L, BanegasJR, Rodríguez-Artalejo F, Fernández-Rodríguez JC et al. Dietary fat, olive oil intake and breast cancer risk. Int J Cancer 1994;58:774-780. [ Links ]
68. Trichopoulos A, Katsouyanni K, Stuver S, Tzala L, Gnardellis C, Rimm E et al. Consumption of olive oil and specific food groups in relation to breast cancer risk in Greece. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:110-116. [ Links ]
69. Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rimm EB, Willett WC. Relationship of diet to risk of colorectal adenoma in men. J Natl Cancer Inst 1992;84:91-98. [ Links ]
70. Macquart-Moulin G, Riboli E, Cornee J, Charnay B, Berthezene P, Day N. Case-control study on colorectal cancer and diet in Marseilles. Int J Cancer 1986;38:183-191. [ Links ]
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78. Bristol JB, Emmett PM, Heaton KW, Williamson RC. Sugar, fat, and the risk of colorectal cancer. Br Med J Clin Res Ed 1985;291:1467-1470. [ Links ]
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80. West DW, Slattery ML, Robinson LM, Chuman KL, Ford MH, Mahoney AW et al. Dietary intake and colon cancer: Sex and anatomic site-specific associations. Am J Epidemiol 1989;130:883-894. [ Links ]
81. Peters RK, Pike MC, Garabrandt D, Mack TM. Diet and colon cancer in Los Angeles County, California. Cancer Causes Control 1992;3:457-473. [ Links ]
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99. Schuman LM, Mandel JS, Radke A, Seal U, Halberg F. Some selected features of the epidemiology of prostatic cancer: Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota case-control study, 1976-1979. En: Magnus K, ed. Trends in cancer incidence: Causes and practical implications. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corp., 1982:345-354. [ Links ]
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102. West DW, Slattery MI, Robison LM et al. Adult dietary intake and prostate cancer risk in Utah: A case-control study with special emphasis on aggressive tumors. Cancer Causes Control 1991;2:85-94. [ Links ]
103. Kolonel LN, Yoshizawa CN, Hankin JH. Diet and prostatic cancer: A case-control study in Hawaii. Am J Epidemiol 1988;127:999-1012. [ Links ]
104. Heshmat MY, Kaul L, Kovi J, Jackson MA, Jackson AG, Jones GW et al. Nutrition and prostate cancer: A case-control study. Prostate 1985;6: 7-17. [ Links ]
105. Kolonel LN. Nutrition and prostate cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1996;7:83-94. [ Links ]
106. Whittemore AS, Kolonel LN, Wu AH, John EM, Gallagher RP, Howe GR et al. Prostate cancer in relation to diet, physical activity, and body size in blacks, whites, Asians in the United States and Canada. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:652-661. [ Links ]
107. Severson PK, Nomura AMY, Grove JS, Stemmermann GN. A prospective study of demographics, diet, and prostate cancer among men of Japanese ancestry in Hawaii. Cancer Res 1989;49:1857-1860. [ Links ]
108. Mills PK, Beeson WL, Phillips RL, Fraser GE. Cohort study of diet, lifestyle and prostate cancer in Adventist men. Cancer 1989;64:598-604. [ Links ]
109. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Ascherio A, Chute CC et al. A prospective study of dietary fat and risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993;85:1571-1579. [ Links ]
110. Le Marchand L, Kolonel LN, Wilkens LR, Myers BC, Hirohata T. Animal fat consumption and prostate cancer: A prospective study in Hawaii. Epidemiology 1994;5:276-282. [ Links ]
111. Cramer DW, Welch WR, Hutchison GB, Willett W, Scully RE. Dietary animal fat in relation to ovarian cancer risk. Obstet Gynecol 1984;63:833-838. [ Links ]
112. La Vecchia C, Decarli A, Negri E, Parazzini F, Gentile A, Cecchetti G et al. Dietary factors and the risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1987;79:663-669. [ Links ]
113. Shu XO, Gao YT, Yuan JM et al. Dietary factors and epithelial ovarian cancer. Br J Cancer 1989;59:92-96. [ Links ]
114. Byers T, Marshall J, Graham S et al. A case-control study of dietary and nondietary factors in ovarian cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1983;71: 681-686. [ Links ]
115. Slattery ML, Schuman KL, West DW et al. Nutrient intake and ovarian cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1989;130:497-502. [ Links ]
116. Risch HA, Jain M, Marrett LD, Howe GR. Dietary fat intake and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994;86:1409-1415. [ Links ]
117. Levi F, Franceschi S, Negri E, La Vecchia C. Dietary factors and the risk of endometrial cancer. Cancer 1993;71:3575-3581. [ Links ]
118. Barbone F, Austin H, Partridge EE. Diet and endometrial cancer: A case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 1993;137:393-403. [ Links ]
119. Potischman N, Swanson CA, Brinton LA, McAdams M, Barrett RJ, Berman ML et al. Dietary associations in a case-control study of endometrial cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1993;4:239-250. [ Links ]
120. Shu XO, Zheng W, Potischamn N et al. A population based case-control of dietary factors and endometrial cancer in Shanghai, Peoples Republic of China. Am J Epidemiol 1993;137:155-165. [ Links ]
121. Zheng W, Kushi LH, Potter JD, Sellers TA, Doyle TJ, Bostick RM et al. Dietary intake of energy and animals foods and endometrial cancer incidence. Am J Epidemiol 1995;142:388-394. [ Links ]
122. Black HS, Herd JA, Goldberg LH, Wolf JEJ, Thornby JI, Rosen T et al. Effect of a low-fat diet on the incidence of actinic keratosis. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1272-1275. [ Links ]
123. Steinmetz KA, Potter JD. Vegetables, fruit and cancer. I. Epidemiology. Cancer Causes Control 1991;2:325-357. [ Links ]
124. Block G, Patterson B, Subar A. Fruit, vegetables, and cancer prevention: A review of the epidemiologic evidence. Nutr Cancer 1992;18:1-29. [ Links ]
125. Ziegler RG, Mayne ST, Swanson CA. Nutrition and lung cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1996;7:157-177. [ Links ]
126. Kono S, Hirohata T. Nutrition and stomach cancer: Cancer Causes Control 1996;7:41-55. [ Links ]
127. Willett WC, Trichopoulos D. Nutrition and cancer: A summary of the evidence. Cancer Causes Control 1996;7:178-180. [ Links ]
128. Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Intake of carotenoids and retinol in relation to risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:1767-1776. [ Links ]
129. Burkitt DP. Epidemiology of cancer of the colon and rectum. Cancer 1971;28:3-13. [ Links ]
130. Story JA, Kritchevsky D. Bile acid metabolism and fiber. Am J Clin Nutr 1978;31suppl:199S-202S. [ Links ]
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134. Klurfeld DM. Dietary fiber-mediated mechanisms in carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1992;52suppl:2055S-2059S. [ Links ]
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138. Potter JD. Nutrition and colorectal cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1996;7:127-146. [ Links ]
139. Wynder EL, Kajitani T, Ishikawa S, Dodo H, Takano A. Environmental factors of cancer of the colon and rectum. II. Japanese epidemiological data. Cancer 1969;23:1210-1220. [ Links ]
140. Bidoli E, Franceschi S, Talamini R, Barra S, La Vecchia C. Food consumption and cancer of the colon and rectum in north-eastern Italy. Inst J Cancer 1992;50:223-229. [ Links ]
141. Gorbach SL, Goldin BR. Diet and the excretion and enterohepatc cycling of estrogens. Prev Med 1987;16:525-531. [ Links ]
142. Rohan TE, Howe GR, Friedenreich CM et al. Dietary fiber, vitamins A, C, and E, and risk of breast cancer: A cohort study. Cancer Causes Control 1993;4:29-37. [ Links ]
143. Verhoeven DTH, Assen N, Goldbohm RA, Dorant E, Vant Veer P, Sturmans F et al. A prospective study of vitamins C and E, retinol, beta-carotene, dietary fiber and breast cancer risk. Am J Epidemiol 1996;143suppl:37S. [ Links ]
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145. Longnecker MP, Newcomb PA, Mittendorf R, Greenberg ER, Clapp RW, Bogdan GF et al. Risk of breast cancer in relation to lifetime alcohol consumption. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:923-929. [ Links ]
146. Longnecker MP. Alcoholic beverage consumption in relation to risk of breast cancer: Meta-analysis and review. Cancer Causes Control 1994;5:73-82. [ Links ]
147. Reichman ME, Judd JT, Longcope C, Schatzkin A, Clevidence BA, Nair PP et al. Effects of alcohol consumption on plasma and urinary hormone concentration in premenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993;85:722-727. [ Links ]
148. Ginsburg ES, Walsh BW, Gao XP, Gleason RE, Feltmate C, Barbieri RL. The effect of acute ethanol ingestion on estrogen levels in postmenopausal women using transdermal estradiol. J Soc Gynecol Invest 1995;2:26-29. [ Links ]
149. Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Rimm EB, Trichopoluos D, Rosner BA et al. Folate, methionine, and alcohol intake and risk of colorectal adenoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993;85:875-884. [ Links ]
150. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Ascherio A, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Alcohol, low-methionine-low-folate diets, and risk of colon cancer in men. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:265-273. [ Links ]
151. Freudenheim JL, Graham S, Marshall JR. Folate intake and carcinogenesis of the colon and rectum. Int J Epidemiol 1991;20:368-374. [ Links ]
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154. Gordis L. Consumption of methylxanthine-containing beverages and risk of pancreatic cancer. Cancer Lett 1990;52:1-12. [ Links ]
155. Folsom AR, McKenzie DR, Bisgard KM, Kushi LH, Sellers TA. No association between caffeine intake and postmenopausal breast cancer incidence in the Iowa Womens Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 1993;138: 380-383. [ Links ]
156. Hunter DJ, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ et al. A prospective study of caffeine, coffee, tea, and breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1992;136:1000-1001. [ Links ]
157. Yang CS, Wang ZY. Tea and cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993;85:1038-1049. [ Links ]
158. Kono S, Ikeda M, Tokudome S, Kuratsune M. A case-control study of gastric cancer and diet in northern Kyushu, Japan. Jpn J Cancer Res 1988;79:1067-1074. [ Links ]
159. Yu GP, Hsieh CC, Wang LY, Yu SZ, Li XL, Jin TH. Green-tea consumption and risk of stomach cancer: A population-based case-control study in Shanghai, China. Cancer Causes Control 1995;6:532-538. [ Links ]
160. Hunter DJ, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Rosner B, Hennekens CH et al. A prospective study of intake of vitamins C, E and A and risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 1993;329:234-240. [ Links ]
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(1) Professor of Epidemiology and Nutrition, Departments of Epidemiology and Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States of America.
Fecha de recibido: 4 de marzo de 1997 · Fecha de aprobado: 6 de junio de 1997
Reprint requests to: Dr. Walter Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health. 665 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, United States of America.


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WASHINGTON -- The latest numbers from the U.S. Department of Agriculture find feeding a family of four can cost anywhere between $146 and $289 dollars a week. The estimate is based on preparing all the meals and snacks at home for a couple with two school-aged children. The latest numbers are divided into three seperate plans: a thrifty food plan, $146 a week; a low-cost food plan, $191 a week; a moderate-cost plan, $239; a liberal plan, $289 a week.
A report in USA Today finds costs today are up from 10 years ago, when a thrifty-cost food plan for a family of four was $108; a low-cost food plan, $139; moderate-cost plan, $173; a liberal plan, $208 a week.
How much do you spend a week to feed your family? Do you have any money saving tips to share? Leave a comment below.


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Your friendship seems so innocent. But what if your guy friend wants more?
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I've always had a sense of caring for our world and each other. I want to leave the world a better place than I found it. No easy task, but I figure the things we do along the way to care for each other and our world count.
I've been lucky in life to have had two amazing careers involving environment. The first for a dozen years, using my Huxley environmental science degree, as a waste reduction and recycling planner. Yes, it involved dumpster diving - and that is a whole 'nother story. I did help write some of the very first plans for curbside recycling collection in a few states across the nation and organized Seattle's first household hazardous waste collection day. It felt so good to help make our environment a little better.
My second career - the one I'm still in - as the manager and owner of the Bellingham Tennis Club and Fairhaven Fitness, gives me the opportunity to make significant and real changes in one's "internal" environment through better health. And I've always thought that if you feel healthy and fit, you'll also have more energy to do good in the world.
And now with this great business at the club, we can use our energy for even more good! I feel blessed to have good health and fitness, to continually challenge myself (and others), and to share all of this through my business. I wanted to create the opportunity to help our community (and the world) through the club.
That brings me to our upcoming fundraiser called "SPIN-Raiser" on Jan. 20. It's an indoor cycling (or spinning) fundraiser to benefit two charities that literally change lives through bicycles. You'll have fun at this event whether it is your first time on a bike or you are an expert. We have a different theme every hour to suit your needs with prizes donated by Jacks, Fairhaven, Fanatik, and Kulshan bike stores. You can see the full schedule of events at spinraiser.com.
Benficiaries are The Bike Shop and World Bicycle Relief.
The Bike Shop in Bellingham provides bikes to kids from low-income families. Not only do they teach kids how to work on and maintain bikes, but they give kids so much more with building confidence, teaching responsibility and giving the freedom and power that a bike allows.
World Bicycle Relief provides bikes in several countries in Africa. When faced with walking 10 miles per day to go to school, get your wares to market or take a sick child to the doctor, a bicycle is a life-changing event. World Bicycle Relief trains field mechanics to build and repair bikes and works with microfinance programs to get bikes to those who need them most.
We come up with crazy ideas and sometimes it just seems to be the right thing to create them to benefit others. Also on our list for this year:
WWU Showdown Jan. 11-12 for the WWU tennis team and Boys and Girls Club free tennis clinic;
Smash Kawasaki Disease Tennis Tournament Feb. 17 for Children's Hospital research;
Pooch Scoot 5K Run/Walk April 14 benefiting Animals as Natural Therapy;
Racquet Rally for the Cure May 10 for Susan G.Komen Foundation;
Learn the Thriller Dance - October - the fifth year! This benefits Blue Skies for Children and Thriller performances.
I am passionate about exercise and love to see each person's joy of success in growth in confidence, power and stamina through improved fitness and better help. I truly believe in the saying "You are stronger than you think you are, you can do more than you think you can" from Ken Chlouber, the founder of Leadville 100 race series.
Besides, my own knees, after eight knee surgeries, do not allow me to do any impact sports - like running or (ironically) tennis - and so cycling has been my savior. I love, love, love riding my bike - road bike, mountain bike, commuting, I've even dabbled in racing and was the 2009 Washington State Masters "B" BARR (Best All Around Road Rider) Champion. I am a certified personal trainer and USA Cycling Coach, level 2, and love to share my enthusiasm for fitness and cycling with everyone.
I am so pleased to offer the SPIN-Raiser and hope you will join me!
Window On My World is an occasional essay in Monday's Bellingham Herald that allows Whatcom County residents to share their passion for what they do, an idea or cause they support. Send your Window On My World, which must be no more than 700 words, to firstname.lastname@example.com.
Robin Robertson is owner and manager of Bellingham Tennis Club and Fairhaven Fitness, at 800 McKenzie Ave.


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The Pregnancy Help Center of Lufkin offers needed information, resources and loving support to sexually active, pregnant and mothering women of all ages to encourage positive responses to life's difficult choices. Our primary focus is to provide positive alternative to abortion for women facing an unexpected pregnancy.
- Pregnancy Screening (click here)
- Pregnancy verification for Medicaid or Insurance
- Pregnancy Options (discussion on parenting, abortion and adoption)
- Limited obstetrical ultrasound
- Post abortion support (click here)
- Pregnancy education through our Learn to Earn Education Program
- Parenting support through our Learn to Earn Education Program (click here)
- Assistance with baby items through our Learn to Earn Education Program (click here)
- Abstinence education and support
- Cummunity education in schools, jail, after-school programs, youth groups, etc.
- Car seat education and distribution program
- Limited education services for the father of the baby
For more detailed information about services offered, visit www.choice4me.com
As a Christian organization, it is important that we not only meet the physical and material needs of the women and families we serve, it is also our desire to meet their emotional and spiritual needs. All clients are given opportunities to discuss their personal beliefs on God and, if desired, are encouraged to speak with one of our spiritual mentors or attend a Bible study class offered at the Center. All spiritual activities are done with respect to the clients desires and are in no way forced or pushed. It is our desire that clients hear, either in word or in deed, that they are deeply loved by God and that through him there is hope for tomorrow.
The Pregnancy Help Center of Lufkin is a 501 c(3), non-profit orgnanization that was established in October 1984 as Mother & Unborn Childcare of Lufkin, Inc. We have been serving the East Texas Community for the past 27 years and look forward to the blessing of 27 more!
The success of the Pregnancy Help Center of Lufkin is largely a result of the amazing support we have received from this community. From the gift of finances, to the donation of baby items and the gift of volunteer time, this community has rallied behind the mission of the Pregnancy Help Center of Lufkin to provide Today's Help for Tomorrow's Hope.
Please feel free to browse our website for information on upcoming events, volunteer opportunities, Center needs and more.
If you would like to plug in to this ministry in any way, please contact our Executive Director, Paula Havard at 936-632-9292 ext. 104.


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AIDS Garden Cleanup
Tanglewood AIDS Garden
It's time again to spruce up the AIDS Memorial Garden at Tanglewood! There'll be lots of weeding and mulching and other garden-y stuff to do, so bring your work gloves and garden implements and dig in. Directions to the AIDS Memorial Garden at Tanglewood: Take I-40 West to Exit 182. Take left on Harper Road. At the light at the intersection of Harper Rd and Hwy 158, go directly across Hwy 158 – do NOT turn right toward the main Tanglewood entrance. Once you've crossed 158, make an almost-immediate left into the garden area at the brown sign for Memorial Garden. Contact Seretha Masdon at firstname.lastname@example.com.


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helpful tips
These tips are provided as a courtesy from Residential Plumbing. The information contained in these tips are intended to simplify jobs around the house. Tools, products, materials, techniques, building codes and local regulations change; therefore, Residential Plumbing assumes no liability for omissions, errors or the outcome of any project. The reader must always exercise reasonable caution, follow current codes and regulations that may apply, and is urged to consult with a licensed professional if in doubt of any procedures.
License# 055-024731
24W947 Ramm Dr.
Naperville, IL 60564
Fax: 630.978.7967
Ken Fenzil - Owner
Cell: 630.269.5678


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We booked this hotel through internet, The hotel was not at all what we expected. When we got there we asked why they didn't have a pool the only answer we got is that the hotel is not like the picture on the internet. The room was ok, not nice looking or anything special but clean., however the bed was... More
- Also Known As:
- Aonang Terrace Hotel Krabi/Ao Nang
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Ranked #63 of 81 hotels in Ao Nang
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text: cultural Archive Superstition By abi Thoughts Nov 14, 2009 What is superstitions? Well this is what Wiki thinks it is -> Superstition is a credulous belief or notion, not based on reason, knowledge, or experience. The word is often used pejoratively to refer to folk beliefs deemed irrational. This leads to some superstitions being called "old wives' tales". It is also ...Read More 1 Comment Tweet