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FEMA maps coastal flood hazards based on existing shoreline characteristics, and wave and storm climatology at the time of the flood study. In accordance with the current Code of Federal Regulations, FEMA does not map flood hazards based on anticipated future sea levels or climate change. Over the lifespan of a study, changes in flood hazards from sea level rise and climate change are typically not large enough to affect the validity of the study results.
In accordance with the Biggert-Water Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2012, FEMA is to establish a Technical Mapping Advisory Council that will provide recommendations to FEMA on flood hazard mapping guidelines-including recommendations for future mapping conditions, the impacts of sea level rise and future development. FEMA will be required to incorporate future risk assessment in accordance with the recommendations of the Council.
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Coastal flood maps represent "snapshots" of flood risk for a local area at the time the study was performed. Flood maps can become obsolete as physical conditions change, or as our understanding of local flooding and flood effects improves. Obsolete flood maps have consequences for life safety (individuals may be living at risk and not know it), insurance reasons (flood insurance premiums may no longer reflect actual flood risk), and for land use and building permit reasons (development, building design, and post-flood recovery decisions are no longer tied to the nature and severity of flood hazards). Thus, it is in the best interest of the community and its citizens to maintain up-to-date flood hazard maps.
New flood studies are undertaken and flood maps are updated for a number of reasons, including:
According to FEMA's records, eight of the top 10 most expensive disasters in our Nation were caused by hurricanes. During these disasters, thousands of homes were destroyed, lives were disrupted, and many people were killed. Understanding coastal risks and then taking steps to make our homes and communities more resilient makes sense both on an economic and human level.
FEMA understands it may seem unlikely that it will flood in your community, especially as you and possibly even your neighbors, parents, or others may not ever remember flooding there. But changes in your community can send water flowing in new directions, creating flood risks that never existed before.
Be aware that every flood and every storm is different. For instance, there were some communities in Louisiana that flooded during Hurricane Isaac (2012) but did not flood during Hurricane Katrina (2005). Although Isaac was much weaker than Katrina, Isaac moved very slowly and caused flooding in areas that the faster-moving, stronger Katrina had not.
FEMA is using the latest science and technology available to make your flood maps more accurate with the ultimate goal of protecting you, your home or business, and your community from flood-related losses. FEMA is also working with your local officials to use the information in your new flood map to better plan community development and protect your community from the devastation floods can cause.
Zone AE is the area subject to inundation by the base (1-%-annual-chance) flood event. Zone VE is also area subject to inundation from the base flood, but with additional hazards due to storm-induced velocity wave action. Base Flood Elevations (BFEs) derived from detailed hydraulic analyses are shown. Mandatory flood insurance purchase requirements and floodplain management standards apply in both zones.
The base (1-%-annual-chance, or 100-year) flood standard was adopted for the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) after various alternatives were considered. The standard constitutes a reasonable compromise between the need for building restrictions to minimize potential loss of life and property and the economic benefits of floodplain development. The Base (1-%-annual-chance) Flood Elevation (BFE) has been adopted by the NFIP as the basis for floodplain management and flood insurance regulations.
The issuance of a preliminary Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM) does not impact flood insurance rates. When FEMA releases a preliminary FIRM and Flood Insurance Study (FIS) report for a community, caution must be exercised in using this data. For insurance purposes, preliminary FIRMs and FIS reports cannot be used to make official flood determinations. The currently effective FIRM is the only official document for this purpose.
However, for regulatory purposes, preliminary FIRMs and FIS reports may be used by the community. Local regulations usually allow for the use of the best available data, and in most instances, the data provided on the preliminary FIRMs is much better than the older data on the currently effective FIRMs. The use of preliminary maps as "best available data" is only allowable when the preliminary data are more conservative than the effective data; i.e. the elevations of the base (1-%-annual-chance) flood are higher or the Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) is more extensive. Please contact your community's floodplain administrator to determine whether preliminary data is being used by your community and whether it has any impact on construction or other use of your property.
FEMA recognizes that communities have many priorities competing for their time, attention, and funding. FEMA also believes that public safety is a top priority of all communities. Understanding the flood risk for a community and taking action to mitigate that risk saves lives, property, and the heartache caused by a flood.
Coastal flood study methods and the specific modeling software used are tailored to the coastline characteristics and the nature of coastal flood events.
For example, the Wave Height Analysis for Flood Insurance Studies (WHAFIS) model is used for analyses of low-lying areas subject to overland flooding and waves. However, WHAFIS is not appropriate for analysis of coastal dune or bluff areas that are subject to erosion and wave runup; other procedures and models are used in these areas. Some studies consider hurricane effects while others consider northeasters or Pacific storms or tsunamis; some studies consider multiple flood types. Great Lakes studies consider fluctuating lake levels and ice cover.
However, all coastal flood studies:
In the late 1990s through the mid-2000s, FEMA made a significant effort to convert paper maps into a digital format to increase their usefulness in flood risk analyses and associated flood risk mitigation efforts. In recent years, as part of the initiation of the Risk Mapping, Assessment, and Planning (Risk MAP) program, FEMA is investigating entire watersheds instead of individual counties because this made the most sense scientifically. Floods do not stop at political boundaries.
Although new maps may have been issued recently, much of the underlying study information in coastal areas across the U.S. has not been updated for decades. In recent years, FEMA has initiated studies along the entire populated U.S. coastline because of the significant and sometimes dangerous flood risks along the coast. Where possible, FEMA has combined these studies, but in some cases, studies have overlapped. FEMA requests your patience and support as we seek to better understand this country's coastal flood risks, and equip communities and families with appropriate information so they may protect themselves from catastrophic loss.
For coastal flood hazard mapping, the existing repository of historical observational data (e.g. hurricane winds and barometric pressure, high-water marks, wave conditions, pre- and post-storm beach profiles) is relatively small, and therefore insufficient for use in predicting coastal flood elevations. As a result, when performing coastal studies, FEMA and mapping partners rely more heavily on the modeling of wave and erosion processes and storm surge (water that is pushed toward the shore by the force of winds swirling around a storm) to predict coastal flood elevations.
FEMA works to create the most accurate FIRMs possible. Accuracy can be impacted by the quality of the underlying data, and the assumptions and approximations that must be made when conducting a coastal study. The accuracy of a coastal study depends directly on several parameters:
In an effort to improve the accuracy and resolution of topographic and bathymetric data, FEMA and mapping partners (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and others) are using Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) technology to gather data for many coastal studies. This topographic collection approach represents a higher level of accuracy over traditional methods.
Study accuracy also depends on:
FEMA readily shares methodology and data, and welcomes new information that will make the mapped flood hazard information even more accurate. It is important to note, however, that even when SFHAs are mapped with high precision for existing conditions, new residential and commercial development and natural changes in weather patterns may, over time, change conditions sufficiently to require a restudy to update the study to the new conditions.
FEMA's coastal flood studies and coastal flood hazard mapping, like all other hazard studies and maps, are not perfect. Some uncertainty will always be associated with Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) limits and Base (1-%-annual-chance) Flood Elevations (BFEs). Through our modeling procedures, FEMA strives to reduce the uncertainty and to calculate the average of the likely range of BFEs.
In other words, the elevations and lines shown on the FIRMs are just as likely to under-predict the true 1-%-annual-chance flood conditions as they are to over-predict them.
Please note that flood risk exists even for structures located outside the SFHA. Past floods have exceeded the 1-%-annual-chance flood and future floods may as well. About one in five NFIP claims come from property owners whose structures are located outside the mapped SFHA.
Often the coastlines of entire states or an entire area, such as the Great Lakes, are included in one coastal study. Due to the large scale of FEMA's coastal flood studies, many are performed using clusters of high-powered computers to calculate components (e.g. storm surge, wave conditions) of a coastal flood. Such computing power is necessary to capture the physics of water moving over highly detailed topography and bathymetry.
The computer models calculate water levels and wave effects in areas that can be several hundred miles across, at hundreds of thousands (or sometimes millions) of points every few seconds during each simulation. Typically, 100 to 200 storms or coastal flood events are simulated for a coastal flood study.
FEMA is sensitive to the needs of property owners and community officials who believe the flood hazard information shown on a new or updated FIRM or accompanying Flood Insurance Study (FIS) is incorrect. Therefore, the study procedures, data, and results are documented throughout a coastal flood study and are available for review by those individuals or communities considering an appeal.
Although it is true that replicating an entire coastal flood study will be time-consuming and expensive, a review of the study documentation can help focus an appeal on certain aspects of the study, including, but not limited to, the following:
The first and last items listed above (topography and overland wave hazard modeling) have a significant influence on the Base (1-%-annual-chance) Flood Elevations (BFEs) and Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) boundaries and/or zone designations (Zones VE or AE) produced by a coastal flood study, and do not require high-powered computers and sophisticated models to appeal. In fact, challenging results based on these two items is no more complicated today than it was before the advent of supercomputers. Many appeals and revision requests are still submitted and granted using local topographic data, desktop computers, and readily-available models.
The latest models resolve the flow of water or waves in two horizontal directions, and they are referred to as 2-D models. Simpler, 1-D models resolve flow or waves in one direction. Each has advantages and disadvantages. For now, FEMA uses both types of models. It uses 2-D wave models in the ocean and in bays, and a 1-D model-Wave Height Analysis for Flood Insurance Studies (WHAFIS) - over land.
On a large scale, 2-D wave models offer certain advantages over simplified wave analyses-the 2-D models better capture the physics of wave propagation, account for waves changing direction in response to bathymetric features.
However, the 2-D models still have some unresolved technical and computational issues related to overland wave propagation:
WHAFIS captures the key aspects of waves moving along a specified transect over land and has been used successfully applied to many flood studies and flood map revisions.
The use of WHAFIS on land does not eliminate the use of 2-D wave models seaward of the shoreline. 2-D wave models are still used by modern flood studies to transform waves from deep water to the shoreline, at which point the 2-D wave characterization can be used as an input to WHAFIS. WHAFIS will be eventually be replaced as 2-D models become able to handle topography and development characteristics on a finer scale; but until that time, FEMA will continue to use WHAFIS.
Please also note that Letters of Map Revision (LOMRs) that are based on better topography or changed site conditions can now be carried out with relatively little effort and at modest cost using WHAFIS. Use of a 2-D overland wave model would make these map revisions more challenging and expensive. At some point in the future, when 2-D models overcome the technical issues mentioned above, and as their use becomes more widespread, flood studies and flood map revisions using the 2-D overland wave models will become feasible.
Even a small difference in the 1-%-annual-chance water level or wave height can change a BFE from one whole foot to another. Larger differences in BFEs can result when:
The Limit of Moderate Wave Action (LiMWA) is the location where the 1-%-annual-chance wave height equals 1.5 feet. FEMA began showing the LiMWA on Flood Insurance Rate Maps to communicate the higher risk that exists in the area. Because the 1.5-foot breaking wave in the LiMWA zone can potentially cause foundation failure, communities are encouraged to adopt building construction standards similar to Zone VE in those areas.
Residents and business owners living or working in the LiMWA zone should be aware of the potential wave action along with floating debris, erosion and scour that could cause significant damage on their property. They are encouraged to build safer and higher to minimize the risk to life and property.
Like any other Base (1-%-annual-chance) Flood Elevation (BFE) zone break or Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) boundary on a coastal FIRM, the LiMWA's position is calculated along overland wave propagation analysis transects and interpolated between the transects. Transect locations are selected so they are representative of topographic and land use/land cover characteristics on either side. Interpolation takes these same factors into consideration.
Building codes use the LiMWA to identify the "Coastal A Zone" (e.g., the area where base flood wave heights are between 1.5 and 3 feet), where certain design and construction requirements are instituted. Because of the presence of damaging waves, VE Zone design, construction, and certification practices are recommended, though not required by the National Flood Insurance Program, in the LiMWA. Recommendations include:
No. The LiMWA currently has no bearing on flood insurance premium rates. Zone AE areas that are both seaward and landward of the LiMWA will be rated the same for flood insurance purposes.
A PFD is defined as a continuous or nearly continuous mound or ridge of sand with relatively steep seaward and landward slopes immediately landward and adjacent to the beach and subject to erosion and overtopping from high tides and waves during major coastal storms. The inland limit of the primary frontal dune occurs at the point where there is a distinct change from a relatively steep slope to a relatively mild slope.
Areas designated as Zone VE, by definition, must at a minimum extend to the inland limit of the PFD. Primary frontal dunes are mapped as Zone VE because of their important role as the first line of defense against flooding. The Zone VE designation ensures that dunes are not subject to manmade alterations in a way that could increase potential flood damage. The Zone VE designation also reflects the potential risk of erosion and undermining of structures that exists for primary frontal dunes.
Taken as a whole, the mapping process, from inception to final map adoption, can take several years.
There are three primary reasons for the length of a study from project inception through final map adoption:
It is important for our Nation to have accurate flood hazard information. This information is used by communities to plan for disaster resiliency and by individual property owners to protect themselves and their assets. Coastal flood studies are complicated and many stakeholders may be involved in their development, including:
Because coastal studies can involve the entire coastline of a state or multiple states as in the case of the Great Lakes Coastal Flood Study, the number of stakeholders who have an interest or relevant information for the study is multiplied dramatically. FEMA must engage hundreds or even thousands of communities. This coordination takes time, but FEMA believes the ultimate product is improved with their involvement.
In addition to the stakeholder engagement and coordination needed, coastal studies are technically complex. Coastal flood studies use sophisticated computer models and complex statistical analyses covering areas that are hundreds of miles across, capturing detailed ground elevations, land characteristics, and modeled surge and waves.
Gathering and formatting the input data requires attention to detail and exacting quality control. Running the models and checking the outputs requires time. Translating the verified outputs into Special Flood Hazard Areas (SFHAs) and Base (1-%-annual-chance) Flood Elevations (BFEs) is the next step, which is guided by FEMA's guidelines and standards. Draft maps must be checked carefully (and revised, when necessary) before Preliminary versions of FIRMs are created and distributed to communities and other stakeholders. Everything must be documented and reviewed.
Once a preliminary FIRM is produced and distributed, the review and appeal period can extend for one year or more. After a standard review and comment period, a meeting is scheduled by FEMA's Regional Office staff and community officials. Unless significant technical concerns are raised before or during that meeting, FEMA will then initiate a statutory 90-day appeal period whenever new or revised flood hazard information is proposed. During this period, community officials and property owners have the opportunity to submit appeals and comments regarding the BFEs shown on the preliminary FIRM or in the accompanying FIS report. When the 90 day period is complete and all appeals have been resolved, a six-month "adoption/compliance" period begins. During this time, the community enacts any new or modified floodplain management ordinances required for participation in the National Flood Insurance Program.
The Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) produced by FEMA and the Hurricane Inundation/Evacuation Maps produced by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) maps are fundamentally different. NOAA's Hurricane Inundation/Evacuation Maps depict areas that are subject to hurricane surge inundation for established storm intensities (usually the Saffir-Simpson scale). The FIRMs depict the areas subject to inundation by the 1-%-annual-chance flooding and the water surface elevations having a 1-%-annual-chance of exceedance.
There are no consistent probabilities of flooding associated with the NOAA inundation/evacuation maps. There are no storm categories associated with FIRMs. There are also differences between the models and the underlying methodologies. For example, NOAA's maps do not incorporate wave effects while FIRMs do.
Thus, there is no direct or consistent comparison between Special Flood Hazard Areas (SFHAs) shown on FIRMs and surge inundation areas shown on Hurricane Inundation/Evacuation Maps; or between Base Flood Elevations (BFEs) and water elevations produced by NOAA's SLOSH (Sea Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes) model. For example, the area flooded by the base flood at one location may be roughly equivalent to Category 2 hurricane inundation, but at another nearby area, it may be closer to a Category 1 inundation or a Category 3 inundation.
Beaches are dynamic in nature as they are likely to continue to erode over time due to winds and waves, which reduces the effects of nourishment projects on flood hazards landward of the beach. Therefore, without regular maintenance, a raised or widened beach is only temporary. When coastal flood hazard mapping studies are performed, FEMA takes beach nourishment projects into consideration only when the project is significant (i.e., has the dimensions necessary to affect 1-%-annual-chance flood hazards) and will be maintained for many years. Dunes are also dynamic as they are subject to erosion, overwash, and could be washed away during major storms. Many nourishment projects incorporate a dune - either new or rebuilt - at the landward edge of the beach, although in some cases dunes are enlarged or constructed separately.
Not all nourishment projects will affect the 1-%-annual-chance flood hazard - either because the project is small, the dune lacks vegetation, the community cannot demonstrate a commitment to future maintenance, or other reasons. FEMA's experience evaluating these projects shows:
In order to assure that the analysis includes enough information to accurately depict the flood risk as accurately as possible, FEMA uses the Joint Probability Method.
The Joint Probability Method (JPM) is a statistical approach to determine extreme water levels based on a large number of combinations of storm parameters. This is the primary method used to predict the 1-%-annual-chance storm surge elevation for a coastal flood study. The JPM describes tropical storms using five or six parameters (central pressure, storm size, forward speed, direction, point of landfall or exit or closest approach, and wind speed variation with distance from storm center). Probability distributions are developed for each of the parameters based on local climatology. All possible parameter combinations are simulated using a hydrodynamic model constructed to faithfully represent the bathymetry, topography, and ground cover of the study area.
The JPM was developed in 1975 and has been modified since that time. The most recent modification was to optimize the parameterization of storm characteristics and reduce the number of storm simulations that must be performed to estimate 1-%-annual-chance flood levels; this method is known as JPM-OS (Joint Probability Method - Optimal Sampling).
A synthetic storm is a hypothetical storm that is created using combinations of storm parameters derived from the historical storm record. Because severe coastal storms tend to occur infrequently in a given local area, observed storms do not capture all plausible combinations of important storm parameters. Synthetic storms are created to capture this variability by sampling the statistical distributions of observed storm parameters, and combining these to create additional storms for coastal flood study simulations.
Depending on the study area, tsunami flooding could be a contributor to the 1-percent-annual-chance flood event. In those specific areas, tsunamis have been included in the FEMA flood hazard analysis. Typically, tsunami flooding has a longer recurrence interval than the 1-percent-annual-chance event and therefore is not included in most FEMA Flood Insurance Studies. Check with your local community or FEMA Regional Office to determine if tsunamis are included in your study.
The Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA) of 1982 established the John H. Chafee Coastal Barrier Resources System (CBRS), a defined set of coastal barrier units located along the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, Great Lakes, U.S. Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico coasts. These areas are delineated on a set of official maps that are maintained by the Department of the Interior through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). Most new Federal expenditures and financial assistance, including Federal flood insurance, are prohibited within the CBRS. CBRA does not prevent development, and it imposes no restrictions on development conducted with non-Federal funds. Congress enacted CBRA to minimize the loss of human life, wasteful Federal expenditures, and the damage to natural resources associated with coastal barriers. Because of the implications of CBRA on FEMA programs (such as the National Flood Insurance Program), CBRS boundaries are also shown for informational purposes on FEMA's Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs).
FWS is collaborating with FEMA to conduct a digital conversion of the CBRS maps by 2016. The CBRS digital conversion effort is being conducted concurrently with FEMA's large-scale effort to modernize its coastal FIRMs. The digital conversion effort will accomplish the following: (1) ensure that the CBRS boundaries depicted on FEMA's FIRMs are the same as the boundaries depicted on FWS's official CBRS maps; (2) fulfill FWS's responsibility under CBRA to update the CBRS maps at least once every five years to account for natural changes such as erosion and accretion (mandated by Section 3 of P.L. 101-591); and (3) replace the entire set of CBRS maps in a timely and cost-effective manner. Replacing the existing CBRS maps with more accurate and user-friendly updated maps will significantly improve the administration and implementation of CBRA, thereby reducing the number of Federal flood insurance policies, and other financial assistance, provided within the CBRS in error.
Since 2006, CBRS boundaries have been placed on updated FIRMs by FWS through an interagency agreement with FEMA. However, the CBRS boundaries shown on the FIRMs are for informational purposes only and can serve as a first alert that a property may be located within the CBRS. Until the digital conversion effort is completed for the entire CBRS (projected completion timeframe is 2016), there may be discrepancies in the depiction of CBRS unit boundaries on the FIRMs and on the official CBRS maps maintained by FWS.
Because the official CBRS maps can be difficult to interpret, in November 2012, FWS released to the public an interactive CBRS mapper that can be used to help determine whether a property may be located within the CBRS. The digital CBRS boundaries depicted in the mapper are the best available representations of the official CBRS boundaries and should not be relied on for determining whether a property located close to a CBRS boundary is "in" or "out" of the CBRS (i.e., the area identified within the "CBRS Buffer Zone" on the mapper). If a property is covered by or touches the "CBRS Buffer Zone", an official determination from FWS is recommended.
When completing detailed engineering studies, FEMA, or its mapping partners, establishes temporary benchmarks, also called elevation reference marks, in the vicinity of the floodplain to aid in data collection.
Upon publication of the studies, FEMA initially chose to include such information on the FIRMs and within the Flood Insurance Study report. However, FEMA and, in some instances, the community do not actively maintain these temporary benchmarks.
Because it cannot be guaranteed that the benchmarks have remained undisturbed, FEMA elects not to include such benchmark information on subsequent FIRM revisions.
In some VE zones, it is not uncommon to have ground elevations at or above the Base (1-%-annual-chance) Flood Elevation (BFE), particularly along shorelines with well-developed dune fields. Having a mapped Zone VE with a BFE at or below grade seems counterintuitive, but it is possible because of two VE Zone mapping considerations:
Mitigation is best employed at the time a coastal building is planned and designed, because that affords an opportunity to maximize mitigation benefits while minimizing mitigation costs.
For new construction, mitigation efforts can best be directed at the following:
If a property owner has an existing building and wants to make it more hazard resistant, the building can be "retrofitted." While it is preferable to design and build in a hazard-resistant method originally, there are steps an owner of an existing building can take, particularly with respect to wind and wind-driven rain resistance. Improving the flood resistance of an existing building often involves elevating the building on a new foundation.
Other helpful tips include:
Yes. Though participating communities are required to adopt the most current Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM), communities are free to regulate to higher standards than the flood hazard information shown on the latest FIRM.
In building code terms, this means adopting a design flood greater and higher than that which is shown on FEMA's latest flood map. Some communities take new maps with lower Base (1-%-annual-chance) Flood Elevations (BFEs) as an opportunity to require freeboard, without requiring buildings to be elevated higher than has been customary. By maintaining locally-required building elevations at or near prior BFEs, property owners may be eligible to receive substantial flood insurance premium discounts, both individually and as a community.
My home was destroyed in a fire and my local building code official is telling me I have to elevate my replacement home due to flood concerns. My homeowners insurance will not cover the additional cost to elevate. How is that fair?
FEMA recognizes that communities have many priorities competing for their time, attention, and funding. FEMA also believes that public safety is a top priority of all communities. Understanding your community's hazard risks and taking action to mitigate that risk saves lives, property, and the heartache caused by disasters.
The elevation requirement is based on the flood risk to your property. Your original home was probably built before the latest flood study and maps were completed for your area. The community adopts floodplain management regulations and periodically adopts new flood maps to minimize flood risk to development, and in return for reducing flood risk, the Federal government makes flood insurance and other assistance available to residents of the community. One such floodplain management regulation is that new construction must be elevated to the Base (1-%-annual-chance) Flood Elevation (BFE), or higher if the community requires elevation above the BFE.
This situation arises when a homeowner in a flood hazard area does not carry flood insurance and the home is damaged by a flood. Homeowner's insurance will not cover the cost of elevation unless the owner purchased separate coverage that pays for the costs of meeting whatever building requirements exist when a building is rebuilt. If the owner had carried flood insurance, however, the flood policy would have paid up to $30,000 toward the cost of elevation.
While it may seem unfair to have this requirement, studies have found for every $1 spent on mitigation, such as elevating above the floodplain, approximately $4 is saved in losses avoided. There may be grants or low-interest loans available that will help you rebuild at the required elevation. You should check with the community floodplain administrator.
New construction includes anything that is normally thought of as a "new" building, as well as any building that is a replacement for an existing building that is heavily damaged or destroyed, regardless of the cause ("substantially damaged" according to community and National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) regulations). The NFIP defines substantial damage as "damage of any origin sustained by a structure whereby the cost of restoring the structure to its pre-damaged condition would equal or exceed 50 percent of the market value of the structure before the damage occurred." The requirement that replacements of substantially-damaged buildings must be elevated to or above the BFE is central to the long-term goal of reducing flood damage in a community. Owners can continue to occupy and use non-conforming buildings until such time as those buildings are substantially damaged. After that, any replacement building must conform to the latest flood elevation requirements.
Development may take place within the SFHA if it complies with local floodplain ordinances, which must meet Federal requirements. Communities participating in the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) must at least require that new construction or substantial improvements of residential structures in the SFHA be elevated so that the lowest floor (including the basement) is at or above the Base (1-%-annual-chance) Flood Elevation. A community in the NFIP must also require permits for all new development in the SFHA and ensure that the construction materials and methods will minimize future flood damage. Permit files must document how buildings were actually constructed.
The floodplain management requirements for the SFHA are designed to prevent new development from increasing the flood threat and to protect new and existing buildings from anticipated flood events. FEMA works closely with states and local communities to identify flood hazard areas and risks. When a community joins the NFIP, it agrees to adopt the required floodplain management regulations and to ensure that its enforcement procedures meet NFIP requirements. In return, the Federal Government makes flood insurance available for almost every building and its contents within the community.
Please note that communities are encouraged to adopt higher standards than those of the NFIP. Check with your local officials for information regarding your community's specific floodplain development standards, which may include further limits on development in the SFHA.
Under the minimum National Flood Insurance Program regulations, you are not required to elevate your home out of the floodplain unless you are located within a Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) and if you're making substantial improvements to your home, or if your home has been damaged and you are now required to meet certain building requirements.
The only times that you may be required to elevate your home within a SFHA is when you're making significant improvements to your home or if your home has been severely damaged and you are now required to meet certain building requirements.
If you are required to elevate your home due to recent flood damage and you have a standard flood insurance policy, your coverage (specifically the Increased Cost of Compliance (ICC) portion of your coverage) will pay up to $30,000 to comply with your community's building requirements if the home is damaged more than 50% of the market value.
The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) does not seek to encourage unwise development in high-risk flood hazard areas. The NFIP was created by Congress to offer flood insurance in return for participating local community's adoption and enforcement of flood-resistant design and construction standards. The NFIP program is estimated to save the Nation $1.6 billion annually in avoided flood losses.
Congress changed the law in 1973 to mandate flood insurance coverage for many properties. Since this time, Federally regulated lending institutions cannot make, increase, extend, or renew any loan secured by improved real property located in a Special Flood Hazard Area in a participating community, unless the secured building and any personal property securing the loan were covered for the life of the loan by a flood insurance policy. Changing the law was necessary because, after major flooding disasters, it became evident that relatively few individuals in eligible communities who sustained flood damage had purchased flood insurance.
In accordance with the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973 and the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994, flood insurance is required for all structures in a Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) that carry a home mortgage loan backed by a federally regulated lender or servicer. For virtually every mortgage transaction involving a structure in the United States, the lender reviews the current National Flood Insurance Program maps to determine the property's location relative to the published SFHA. This review occurs anytime a Federally backed loan is can made, increased, extended, or renewed.
The mortgage lender, or a determination company hired by the mortgage lender, typically determines whether a structure is in a SFHA, and if flood insurance is required. If they determine that a home or business is located in a high-risk area, they then inform the owner or potential buyer that flood insurance is required to receive the loan.
If you have an elevation certificate, which verifies the elevation of the lowest floor of your house, you should bring it with you for any meeting with a flood insurance agent. This is especially important if your house/building is in a Special Flood Hazard Area, since rates in SFHAs can vary depending on how high your building is relative to the Base (1-percent-annual-chance) Flood Elevation.
The National Flood Insurance Program is a Federal program offering flood insurance that can be purchased from most leading insurance companies. Rates are set and do not differ from company to company or agent to agent.
Just a few inches of water from a flood can cause tens of thousands of dollars in damage. From 2007 to 2011, the average residential flood claim amounted to almost $30,000. Flood insurance is the best way to protect yourself from devastating financial loss. Flood insurance is available to homeowners, renters, condo owners/renters, and commercial owners/renters. Costs vary depending on how much insurance is purchased, what it covers and the property's flood risk.
FEMA knows that flood insurance, especially when it becomes required unexpectedly, may be difficult for people to afford. Flood insurance helps protect you from the financial burden that flooding can cause - the average flood insurance claim from 2007 to 2011 was around $30,000. There are things you can do to make flood insurance as affordable as possible:
Also, if your community participates in the National Flood Insurance Program's Community Rating System (CRS), you could qualify for a flood insurance discount of between five and 45% if your property is in the Special Flood Hazard Area. Communities that participate in CRS may also have elevation certificates on file for individual homes or businesses. Check with your tax assessor's office or planning and zoning commission to determine if an elevation certificate is available for your home or business.
Your insurance agent can help you work through all of the options to make sure your payments are as low as possible.
Yes. If a property owner has an existing building and wants to make it more hazard resistant and reduce flood insurance premiums, the building can be "retrofitted." While it is preferable to design and build in a hazard-resistant method originally, there are steps an owner of an existing building can take, particularly with respect to wind and wind-driven rain resistance. Improving the flood resistance of an existing building often involves elevating the building on a new foundation. FEMA provides hazard mitigation grants to states for activities such as structure elevation, property acquisition, and flood-proofing. When completed, these activities can reduce or eliminate risk, which may result in lower flood insurance rates.
It is not FEMA's intention that homeowners pay for extensive engineering studies to obtain supporting documentation for a LOMA request. For most LOMA requests, the only elevation information that must be submitted is the Lowest Adjacent Grade (LAG) - the elevation of the lowest ground touching the structure, including stairs, attached deck, or garage - or the lowest lot elevation, which must be certified by a licensed land surveyor or professional engineer who is authorized by State or local law to certify elevation information. You may find it less expensive to provide the certified LAG or lowest lot elevation in a letter from a professional surveyor or engineer or to complete Section B of the MT-EZ forms packet, than to obtain a complete property survey or Elevation Certificate. You may also wish to contact the FEMA Map Information exchange, toll free at 1-877 FEMA MAP (877-336-2627) for assistance with the LOMA process.


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Josh Beckett (6-13, 5.05) vs. Lance Lynn (14-7, 4.04).
The Dodgers are slumping! The Cardinals are slumping! Yet, due to Rule 1.03 of the Official Rules of Major League baseball:
The winner of the game shall be that team which shall have scored, in accordance with these rules, the greater number of runs at the conclusion of a regulation game.
Yes, someone has to win! And don't forget about the resurgent Brewers and Phillies, who with the Dodgers and Cards are within three games of that sad, sad final wild card spot. Let's call it the mini card.

subset: commoncrawl


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Let Mitchell Allen Motor Company show you how easy it is to buy a quality used car in Montgomery . We believe fair prices, superior service, and treating customers right leads to satisfied repeat buyers.
Our friendly and knowledgeable sales staff is here to help you find the car you deserve, priced to fit your budget. Shop our virtual showroom of used cars, trucks and suv's online then stop by for a test drive.
Montgomery, AL 36117


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You are here
Signature Midwestern Cakes
South Dakota: Pioneer Wedding Stack Cake
This modern version of a pioneer wedding cake represents the Mount Rushmore State and its prairie heritage. It's said that each guest brought a cake layer to a pioneer wedding to stack together. Our Pioneer Wedding Stack Cake is based on a simple molasses recipe with applesauce filling. The moist layers are simple, yet elegant.
Iowa: Best-Ever Chocolate Cake
To represent Iowa, we turned to Des Moines-based Better Homes and Gardens® magazine for Best-Ever Chocolate Cake. Our sister publication has influenced home cooks since 1922. Its red-plaid cookbook, first published in 1930, has sold 39 million copies. This delicious recipe never goes out of style.
Missouri: St. Louis Gooey Butter Cake
For the Show-Me State, we went to the Italian neighborhoods of this Mississippi River city for St. Louis Gooey Butter Cake, a one-layer bakery legend that is irresistible for its name alone.
North Dakota: Honey-Glazed Buttermilk Oatmeal Coffee Cake
The Peace Garden State produces almost 20 percent of U.S. honey—and it's also a big oat producer. The two flavors complement each other in Honey-Glazed Buttermilk-Oatmeal Coffee Cake.
Minnesota: Sour Cream-Walnut Date Cake
Using cake mix cuts steps in Sour Cream-Walnut Date Cake, which has a date-nut center. The baking pan brings in the North Star State's heritage. Family-owned, Minnesota-based Nordic Ware makes the fluted tube pan that gives the cake its familiar shape. The pan's design is more than 60 years old.
Illinois: Amish Apple-Butter Baby Cakes
Caramel sauce adds a creamy-sweet finish to individual Amish Apple-Butter Baby Cakes. You can choose from two Prairie State ingredients, apples or pumpkins, for this treat, which honors the state's Amish bakers.
Kansas: Sunflower Cupcakes
The Sunflower State's wheat crops and native state flower inspired our cake ideas for this part of the Midwest. The cupcake seemed like the ideal shape for this recipe; frosting piped like petals turns the individual Kansas Sunflower Cupcakes into pretty treats. Wheat germ adds a hearty touch to the buttermilk-vanilla cakes.
Michigan: Cherry-Berry Shortcakes
The fruit belt of the Great Lakes State inspired our Cherry-Berry Shortcakes. We played up the sweet cherries grown here, along with blueberries and raspberries. Add the nostalgic summertime biscuit base and sweetened whipped cream for a colorful and tempting dinner finale.
Indiana: Ice Cream Cookie Cake
The top ice cream-producing state in the Midwest gets Ice Cream Cookie Cake created in its honor. You can mix and match cookies and ice cream to make this frosty, no-bake treat that's also an easy make-ahead dessert.
Nebraska; Tinted Angel Cake
The many colors of Kool-Aid, a Cornhusker State invention, give an array of choices for this angel food cake that starts with a mix. Pink lemonade Kool-Aid adds pastel prettiness and a delicate flavor to Tinted Angel Cake. The tropical punch version gives the cake flavor that's as intense as its color.
Ohio: Old-Fashioned Ice Cream Cake
Several states claim to be the birthplace of the ice cream sundae. Since the Buckeye State makes a good case, we created the Old-Fashioned Ice Cream Cake for Ohio. Four layers of baked white cake get sandwiched in ice cream layers in favorite sundae flavors: strawberry, pineapple and chocolate-banana. A whipped topping frosting crowns the cherry-topped dessert.


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"It's Monday. The kids were home all weekend, so naturally, the house is destroyed. Time to clean. La la la la la, whistle while you work...I'm going to make the beds and straighten up the bedrooms because a clean room is a happy room."
"Time to clean the bathrooms. It's amazing how disgusting those bathtubs can get. How DO those bathtubs get so gross so fast?"
At this point, Brooklyn interrupted me to tell me I wasn't playing the right way. "Mooom, she doesn't clean the bathroom. She puts on makeup to get ready for her date."
"Wow, you really have a good imagination, Brooklyn!" I said, impressed. Then I went back to my way of playing.
"I need to pull the curtains down to wash them since someone didn't want their pasta and ended up flipping her plate against the window while throwing a fit because I dared to feed her something other than chocolate milk and peanut butter."
"Next, it's time to dust the entertainment center, scrub the marker off the TV, and vacuum up the weekend's popcorn extravaganza."
"Oh, I think I hear the kids coming home from school now! Hi guys! How was your day? Do you have any homework?
Great, well you do your homework while I get dinner started."
"Hey kids, dinner's almost.....
.....what on earth have you guys done to the family room?!?!?!"
"Seriously? Seriously??? You've been home for one hour! ONE! Who put the milk by the TV? Why are there cupcakes on the couch? A boogie board? Why in the world did you guys bring the boogie board in here?! Put the kitchen chair back and clean up this mess. NOW!"
"Oh yeah, I love bedtime. Ahhhh, I'd get another rum and Coke, but I'm too tired to get up."
Brooklyn stopped me again. "Moooom, that's NOT how you play dolls! You have to take the kids to Chuck E Cheese. You don't make them clean up. You're not playing right."
Clearly, my kids have better imaginations than I do because no matter how hard I try, I can't fathom putting on makeup, going on a date, and taking my kids to Chuck E Cheese.
But, on the bright side, I think I've gotten out of playing dolls with Brooklyn for a while.


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Top 10 Excuses Owners Give For Pet Obesity
By DR. PATTY KHULY, VMD
As if it's not already tough enough to discuss weight loss, veterinarians get treated to a range of excuses for why their pets are tipping the scales. Broaching the "o" subject is itself an adventure, one which is commonly met with defensive postures, nervous laughs or just plain disdain.
At the outset of any conversation on the subject of extreme body mass and its ills, with fat pet as Exhibit A, I can already see my clients' shoulders set in the universal symbol for "back up, girlfriend!"
That's when I advance a few mollifying statements that have been carefully crafted to set them at ease, something like:
She's so gorgeously cute and she looks really healthy on the outside. I can understand why you love having her this sweet and plump, but let's talk about what it means for her long-term health and comfort.
When what I really want to say is:
Wow! Miss Fatty's blown up like a tick! At this rate, you really think those toothpick limbs can hold her up for ten more years?
Despite my mild lack of candor, what I'm really trying to do is get owners past playing the blame game. It's my job to get the animal healthy, not to tussle with the owner over who's at fault for making their pet so fat.
And yet for all my concessions to their human feelings, I might as well be pulling teeth for all the stress it takes to get my clients to view the situation objectively and be open to discussing the root of the problem dispassionately so we can move on to a solution as quickly as possible.
So you can appreciate what veterinarians are up against. Here are the top ten rejoinders to my appeals for weight loss in pets:
1. But she only eats this much! (Hold your index finger about an inch away from your thumb for visual impact.)
Why is it so hard to understand that weight gain often has little to do with the total quantity of food? Come on, we all learned about calories in versus calories out in grade school, right? If you have to feed two kibbles a day because she sleeps 24/7, then that's what you have to do. And make her move so she can earn another. (Disclaimer: obese cats require much more conservative weight loss regimens than the "two-kibble" approach.)
2. But he's always hungry.
Many pets will always act hungry. It's both learned behavior and instinctual for some. Imagine that your ancestors never knew where their food was coming from. Wouldn't it be a great adaptation to be able to fill your stomach to the ripping point so you could survive on next to nothing for the next week?
3. But food is the only thing that makes him happy.
Yeah, because there's something very bizarre about what you consider "happy."
4. She'll starve.
Really? Let's conduct an experiment ...
5. I can't bear to know that she's suffering from hunger.
I can promise you she's suffering already. What would you prefer, constant joint pain, or physical comfort at half your "normal" calories?
6. He's so old already. I want him to live the rest of his life fat and happy.
He wouldn't seem so "old" if he weren't prematurely diseased from his obesity.
7. He refuses to walk.
Yeah, I would too if I weighed that much. It's a lame excuse (no pun intended). There's always a plan for pain relief/dietary management/gradual exercise introduction.
8. Whenever she loses weight, everyone tells me she's too thin.
And when you lose weight everyone says you look great. So when did you start listening to your mother-in-law over your veterinarian, anyway?
9. It's my family's fault.
OK, you may not be the one gorging her on your left over ice cream, but her obesity is still your responsibility. Call a family meeting to discuss how Princess will be in constant pain and die an early death if everyone doesn't cooperate.
10. My pets have always been chunky and they've never died early.
How to prove an asinine negative. Hmmm ...
Originally published on Dolittler


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The best budget and fancy restaurants in Ettlingen (26), where you can have a good meal. The most popular cuisines are german, baden, european. Among interesting opportunities: tables outside, car parking, highchairs.


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Myanmar has an election this Sunday where only a small fraction of the parliamentary seats are at stakes — and yet the ballot is commanding international attention.
The closely watched election is seen as a test of whether the country's rulers are sincere about reforms they have been introducing over the past year.
If the vote is seen as free and fair, it could prompt Western governments to begin lifting sanctions imposed during the half-century of military rule in Myanmar, also known as Burma.
The vote is unlikely to change the balance of political power. But the opposition National League for Democracy, and its leader, Nobel laureate Aung San Suu Kyi, have been actively campaigning for the first time in more than two decades.
A campaign rally by the party is a high-spirited and colorful affair. Sound trucks packed with red flag-waving supporters cruise the streets, belting out tunes praising democracy and Suu Kyi.
The party boycotted the 2010 general elections as a sham, and this is the first time the party's candidates have been on the ballot since 1990. The party won that election by a landslide, but the ruling military junta refused to step aside.
Problems On The Campaign Trail
On the outskirts of Yangon, May Win Myint is campaigning to represent the township of Myangone. She is a retired doctor who spent more than a decade in jail for her leadership role in the party.
In my opinion, the election is to demonstrate to the government, and to those who oppose reform, what the people want. We're voting ... not just to send Aung San Suu Kyi to parliament, but to express the popular will.
She complains that the military recently barred her from canvassing on its bases, and she accuses her rival of vote-buying.
"The worst thing is that my opponent has been handing out loans to residents here, and at the same time distributing pamphlets with rumors attacking Aung San Suu Kyi. So I've lodged a formal complaint with the election commission," she says.
In addition, Win Myint complains, the voter registration lists haven't been updated since the last election.
Next door, resident Hla Tun says this kind of irregularity is nothing new.
"This kind of problem is not unique to this town. It's in all the constituencies. Some dead people's names are still on the lists, while some living voters are left out," Hla Tun says. "This has been going on for the past 20 years."
At a press briefing Friday morning, Aung San Suu Kyi said that despite the widespread irregularities, her party would compete to win in the elections.
"What has been happening in this country are really beyond what is acceptable for a democratic election," she told journalists, diplomats and foreign election observers gathered at her home. "Still, we are determined to go forward because we think this is what our people want."
Lately, the ruling Union Solidarity and Development Party has gotten its own sound trucks. Their color is green. They're stumping for Win Myint's opponent, former army officer Ye Htut.
"I believe the election will be free and fair," says Ye Htut. "I want to win freely and fairly. Since our country is democratizing, I want to win democratically, and I hope the other candidates will do the same."
He denies knowledge of any political attacks against Suu Kyi. And he insists a computer glitch is responsible for the dead people on the voter registration lists and says that has been cleared up.
Myanmar now has a nominally civilian government that has publicly pledged that the by-elections will be free, fair and credible. There are just 44 seats up for grabs, only 7 percent of the total seats in parliament.
But veteran journalist Khin Maung Htwe says that's beside the point. The value of this by-election, he argues, is as a sort of referendum on the political reforms that began just over a year ago.
"In my opinion, the election is to demonstrate to the government, and to those who oppose reform, what the people want," he says. "We're voting for the NLD, not just to send Aung San Suu Kyi to parliament, but to express the popular will."
The government denies that there's a conservative, anti-reform faction within its ranks. But Khin Maung Htwe says some officials and army officers indeed feel threatened by the political liberalization.
This week, army Commander Min Aung Hlaing declared that Myanmar's military will retain its leading role in politics. This was a clear rebuff to Suu Kyi, who wants to limit the military's role in government.
Copyright 2021 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.


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We don't make standard products - we don't supply framed pictures and mirrors in a standard frame and size. Everything we make is made to order - a bespoke creation made for a particular client. It's usually an idea or vision that has developed and grown which we then turn into a beautiful hand crafted finished product.
Spend a day here and you will see for yourself the wide range of items we are making for our clients. Art prints are printed on the finest papers and canvas using the latest in digital print technology.
These printed images, which may be from our own art collections or designed by one of our graphic designers are then custom framed and finished to the clients specification. Any size, any frame any finish - you choose.
We also supply custom made mirrors, digital wallpapers, we commission paintings and sculpture and often source curiosity items for specific projects.
Or maybe you have your own artwork, phototograpy or 3D items you want us to custom frame for you - we would be delighted to assist.
As you will discover, there's an art to everything we do !


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Contestants with ties to the state excited to compete for coveted RNCFR titles
OKLAHOMA CITY – The Ram National Circuit Finals Rodeo is an important championship for each of the 195 contestants who are scheduled to compete this week.
It's an even bigger deal for 11 cowboys and cowgirls with ties to Oklahoma. From those like steer wrestler Stockton Graves who were born in the Sooner State to transplants like barrel racer P.J. Burger, Oklahoma's rich rodeo and Western heritage shines brightly.
There's no better way to put it on display than hosting ProRodeo's National Championship, set for 11 a.m. and 7:30 p.m. Thursday, April 4; 7:30 p.m. Friday, April 5; and 1 and 7:30 p.m. Saturday, April 6, at State Fair Arena in Oklahoma City. The three days family entertainment, from funnyman Justin Rumford of Ponca City, Okla., to Whiplash the Cowboy Monkey to concerts from top country acts Thompson Square and Chris Cagle.
"I love the fact that the (Ram) Finals is in Oklahoma City," said Graves, a seven-time Wrangler National Finals Rodeo qualifier from Newkirk, Okla. "It's a great event, and I'm glad to see they moved that finals to Oklahoma City from Pocatello (Idaho)."
The RNCFR was established in the 1970s and was held on the campus of Idaho State University for decades. It moved to Oklahoma City three years ago and found a fantastic home: State Fair Arena is the former home of NFR and has been the site of numerous championship events over the last half century.
"I don't think it's a home-field advantage in any way for me," said Burger, who qualified for the NFR in 2009. "It's still a good paying rodeo, and it doesn't matter if it's close to home or across the country. It'll be nice to sleep in my own bed and be able to take the horses home each night, but that's about it."
Burger moved to Oklahoma 13 years ago after spending her formative years in Minnesota. She married Joey Burger, whose mother, Mary, is the 2006 barrel racing world champion.
"It's an honor to represent your circuit at that big of a rodeo," said P.J. Burger, a two-time RNCFR qualifier who earned the right to compete in Oklahoma City by winning the Ram Prairie Circuit Finals Rodeo average championship last October in Duncan, Okla. "You rodeo all year for a chance to compete at a deal like that, so it means a lot."
The home-state contingent includes team ropers Destry Graham of Sallisaw, Jimmy Thomas of Hodgen, Hunter Munsell of Arnett and Derrick Jantzen of Ames; bull rider Guthrie Murray of Miami; barrel racers Tana Renick of Kingston and Carlee Pierce, who spent most of her life near Freedom and Woodward; and tie-down ropers Hunter Herrin and Bryson Sechrist, both of Apache.
In addition to Graves and Burger, Herrin and Pierce are NFR veterans – Herrin is a six-time qualifier, while Pierce has earned trips to Las Vegas each of the past two years. Now living in Stephenville, Texas, Pierce finished the 2012 campaign No. 2 in the world standings, earning $79,802 at the NFR and finishing the season with $204,322.
"It's always fun to go back to Oklahoma and compete, especially at that rodeo," said Pierce, who finished second at the RNCFR last April. "It's always nice to be able to go back to a place that was home for so long. That's a place that always feels more comfortable.
"When you go back to Oklahoma and you're from Oklahoma, everybody gets excited about it, including me."
Born in Alberta, Pierce moved to Freedom at age 10. She married Steve Pierce years later; the couple began their family in Woodward and didn't leave the Sooner State until the fall of 2011.
"All three of our kids were born in Oklahoma, and I lived there most of my life," Carlee Pierce said. "I love competing at State Fair Arena. I've always done well there and on multiple horses. It's a good setup, and the ground is always really good.
"I wish they had more ProRodeo stuff in that arena."
Oklahoma has a powerful rodeo heritage that goes beyond hosting some of the sport's greatest events. In addition to the RNCFR and NFR, Oklahoma has been host to the Clem McSpadden National Finals Steer Roping and some of the greatest names in the sport: Shoulders, Brown, Duvall, Etbauer and Ferguson, to name a few.
"I think it's important to have an event like the (Ram) Finals in Oklahoma," Graves said. "When you look back at the history of rodeo, there's a lot of it right here in Oklahoma. This is the perfect place for a championship like this."


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Prints and Drawings Room
View by appointment- Artist
- Akram Zaatari born 1966
- Medium
- Photograph, gelatin silver print on paper
- Dimensions
- Image: 291 × 289 mm
- Collection
- Tate
- Acquisition
- Presented by Tate International Council 2008
- Reference
This work is one of a series of black and white silver gelatin photographs of varying sizes that are collectively titled Objects of study/The archive of studio Shehrazade/Hashem el Madani/Studio Practices. All of the photographs were taken by the Lebanese commercial photographer Hashem el Madani between 1948 and 1982 and compiled into the present group, 117 of which are in Tate's collection, by the Lebanese artist Akram Zaatari. All of the photographs include people, either alone, in pairs or in small groups, and most were taken in Madani's studio, although some were shot outside and in his subjects' homes. The series features men and women and covers a wide age range from babies to elderly people. Almost all of the sitters assume poses deliberately for the camera, sometimes accompanied by props or costumes, and most gaze directly towards the lens. Many of the pictures show subjects interacting in various ways, including embracing, kissing and acting out scenes, such as a mock wrestling match. The photographs are mostly tightly cropped, with the sitter or sitters filling most of the frame, although in some cases the figures are positioned further away from the camera, for instance when shown sitting at a table or standing behind a chair. The photographs tend to have sparse backgrounds, often dominated by a blank posterior wall. They are mounted on white paper, displayed in plain white frames and signed on the back by Madani. Many of them have been organised into categories by Zaatari – such as a group featuring men dressed as Syrian resistance fighters and a collection depicting newly married couples – while the rest are presented individually. Zaatari has stated that although he prefers these groups to be displayed together, this is not a requirement (Akram Zaatari, email to Rachel Taylor, 24 April 2008, Tate Acquisition file).
All of the photographs in this series were taken in Zaatari's hometown of Saida in Lebanon, where Madani first established his photographic studio in 1948. The images were commissioned by the subjects and their families, who sometimes allowed Madani to select poses and settings for them and sometimes chose these themselves. To assist in this process, Madani had a book containing images of people posing in different ways that his clients could select from, and he also provided them with props and costumes when required. In a 2004 interview Madani stated that he 'photographed 90% of the people in Saida. They used to come from all social backgrounds and classes' (Madani in The Photographers' Gallery 2004, p.16). Zaatari began to work with Madani's archive in 1999 as part of a project run by the non-profit Arab Image Foundation that Zaatari co-founded in 1997, which works to collect and study photographs from the Arab world. Zaatari selected the pictures from the many thousands in Madani's collection and had them all mounted and framed in a specific way, and Madani was not involved in this process.
The title of each photograph includes a standard set of elements: the names or descriptions of any individuals shown, the location and date of the photograph and the photographer's name. The title of the series makes reference to Madani and the name of his studio ('studio Shehrazade'), and combines the phrases 'objects of study' and 'studio practices', emphasising the dual nature of these images as both examples of Madani's photographic practice and the subjects of Zaatari's ongoing research at the Arab Image Foundation.
Zaatari has discussed the unusual status of authorship in this series, noting that each image has 'two authors' and 'two dates' (Downey 2014, accessed 24 October 2014) and suggesting that this shows that photographs take on different meanings when they are removed from their original context and 'displaced ... into another time, another tradition, another economy' (quoted in Eva Respini and Ana Janevski, 'Interview with the Artist', April 2013, www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/projects/akram-zaatari/interview-with-the-artist, accessed 27 November 2014). This reflects Zaatari's broader concern with the way that photography can become part of a social fabric, rather than just a set of isolated pictures. As he explained in 2006: 'I see this project and my involvement in it as an almost archaeological approach to the understanding of what the studio means, what the collection means in relation to the city.' (Zaatari in Predrag Pajdic, 'Akram Zaatari', In Focus, December 2006, www.infocusdialogue.com/interview/akram-zaatari, accessed 17 April 2008.)
These images were originally intended as objects with a personal or domestic purpose, rather than artworks to be shown in galleries. Zaatari has explained that he is interested in studio photographs for their theatrical and aspirational qualities, stating in 2013 that
Most of my work regarding studio photography is about this – how these studios become theatres in which people act. Many times they act out things that they miss or don't have in life – particularly social status.
(Zaatari in Ashitha Nagesh, 'Reflection in Water: Interview with Akram Zaatari', Artinfo, 26 November 2013, http://uk.blouinartinfo.com/news/story/989423/reflection-in-water-interview-with-akram-zaatari, accessed 24 October 2014.)
In addition, because most poses that feature in the series are repeated in several images, the group offers a reflection on the ways in which stock motifs and characters in a given culture might influence the way that people choose to represent themselves.
Further reading
Hashem El Madani: Studio Practices, exhibition catalogue, The Photographers' Gallery, London 2004.
Akram Zaatari: The Uneasy Subject, exhibition catalogue, Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Castilla y León, León 2011.
Anthony Downey, 'Photography as Apparatus: Akram Zaatari in conversation with Anthony Downey', Ibraaz, 28 January 2014, http://www.ibraaz.org/interviews/113/, accessed 24 October 2014.
David Hodge
November 2014
Supported by Christie's.
Does this text contain inaccurate information or language that you feel we should improve or change? We would like to hear from you.
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Saturday, February 6, 2010
Hadoop AvatarNode High Availability
61 comments:
- AnonymousFebruary 14, 2010 at 10:16 AM
Isn't this the job for a ClusterWare solution like the linux-ha project with PaceMaker and DRBD configured?
I'm sure the system you outline works, but it seems a bit of a, well, developer's solution.
Now you're going to have to maintain the codebase for the Avatar wrappers, but instead you could have made Red Hat support it. Thanks for your comments. The problem with just the DRBD-Linux solution is that the Standby cannot be a hot standby. in that solution, the primary NameNode will write its transaction logs to a ext3-like filesystem on a shared disk. When a failover event occurs, you have to make the shared disk accessible to the Standby machine, and then the StandbyNameNode has to do the following:
1. read in the transaction log from the ext3 filesystem
2. process block reports from all
Steps 1 takes about 8 minutes and step 2 takes about 25 minutes for a HDFS file thathas 50 million files. Thus, the total failover time for the HDFS NameNode is more than half hour.- AnonymousMarch 2, 2010 at 1:47 PM
Thanks for all of the great info on this topic (here & in other posts).
Elsewhere, you mention you're familiar with efforts to make HDFS store transaction logs in Zookeeper (http://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/HDFS-234). Could a cluster using AvatarNodes avoid NFS using that approach? How easy or difficult might this be using existing classes/interfaces? The AvatarNode approach is very much compatible with using BookKeeper/Zookeeper (instead of NFS). The Primary AvatarNode could write its edits logs to Bookeeper/Zookeeper while the standby AvatarNode could continue to read the edits log from the same Bookeeper. This will ensure that the Standby AvatarNode closely follows the transactions that occur in the primary namenode.
HDFS-234 discusses integration of Namenode with Bookeeper. If that is done, then there is no additional work to make in work well with AvatarNode.
hope this explanation helps,
dhrubahi Dhruba: thanks for your nice idea of namenode HA,we encounter the same problem on hdfs upgrade and restart,I know that the time consumed on the restart of hdfs is partly on the loading of the fsimage and editlog, and partly on the block reports, but the ratio is hard to compute because we can't perform the real environment testing on the test cluster, Is there any info about this issue?
ReplyDeletehi Dhruba,I noticed that when NN restart,it takes a long time when call the DatanodeDescriptor.reportDiff() on every dn reports it's blocks,I think it is not neccessary to do this when NN just restart,and also I debuged the nn code and found that when nn restart, the toRemove and toInvalidate list after reportDiff are all empty. This also lead me to think that it is not neccessary to reportDiff when restart NN.Did I get anything wrong?
ReplyDelete- AnonymousJuly 27, 2010 at 8:08 AM
Does anyone know a place to get Hadoop patches for 0.20.2 I keep getting errors when i try to use patches from
https://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/HDFS-630 - AnonymousAugust 4, 2010 at 7:23 AM
What's the reason for the one minute latency in failover? Is this the time for administrators to recognize the primary is dead, or is this additional system time for the failover?
I wonder if you couldn't also have application-level reliability by letting your DFS client retry failed requests to one or more avatar standby namenodes. Since the avatar's namenode is in safe mode it would only allow that for reads, but for some applications that would still be very helpful. @luo: the patch for HDFS-1295 has the change to the unit test to measure the improvement in block report processing. I do not have a separate tool to measure it on a live system.
@rbodkin: the failover takes less than a minute, typically 10-20 seconds. this latency is partly because we have to switch the Virtual IP Address (VIP) from one machine to another.
On a related note,we are exploring options to make the Standby AvatarNode serve read-only requests from live applications.- Sridhar ChellappaSeptember 17, 2010 at 8:03 PM
This does look like a cool thing. Specifically, I am loving the "Unchanged" Avatar NameNode. However, I do see some problems with this approach, though yet to practically observe it.
1. Can cause problems for Name Node Crashes. What the Primary Avatar Node is doing is to write its Transaction log to NFS. Transaction log replay time over NFS can be orders of magnitude higher, causing delays during NameNode Crash recovery.
2. The Primary and Standby need to be on the same subnet for the VIP to be effective. This can potentially Hog Network bandwidth(Writing and Reading Transaction logs continuously) causing additional delays during shuffling. The problem multiplies when you have Avatar Replicas of a Federated NameNode.
3. The problem I have often seen is a non-responsive Name Node. The NameNode takes a Giant Lock to process a Request, causing the Number of outstanding Requests to build up. The Avatar node provides HA but adds to this problem; the latency per request is more because - By writing over NFS - the latency per request increases; thereby INCREASING the chances of an unresponsive NameNode.
Did you observe any of the above ? If yes, how did you work around it ? Hi Sridhar, thanks for your comments.
@1: I agree that NFS is not the fastest way to read/access that transaction log. However, it is not really NFS but rather the NFS implementation that could be an issue. We use a NetApp NFS Filer and the filer's uptime and latencies are hard to beat! Also, we depend on NFS close-to-open cache coherency semantics: http://nfs.sourceforge.net/
@2: The VIP is an issue. We found this while testing and we are moving to a non-VIP setup where the clients' are actually aware (via zookeeper) who the primary is. If the client is unable to connect to the currently known primary, it polls zookeeper to see if the primary has changed, and if so, then it retries the connection to the new primary. This approach completely removes any dependency on VIP.
@3: Again, the latency supported by a NetApp NFS filer is hard to beat. I agree that if your NFS server is another commodity machine then you could suffer from increased latency. Also the writes to the transaction log are batched and is done outside the global FSNamesystem lock.
We measure and monitor namenode latencies. We are running a namanode with 500+ threads, and we see that the RPC call queue size hardly becomes non-zero, thereby implying that our current workload is not bottlenecked on the transaction log.For the client failover via zookeper, we have a DistributedAvatarFileSystem (DAFS) layered over DistributedFileSystem for all clients. The DAFS contacts zk to figure out who the current primary is.
Regarding the NetApp filer issues, the latencies of sync are in the order of 10 ms. This, by itself, is not bad especially because the NN does batch syncs and does not hold locks while doing the syncs. also, the edits log is always written sequentially by the primary and read sequentially by the standby. Thus, reads are probably mostly serviced by the read-ahead code in the nfs client on the standby machine ( I do not have hard numbers).
> The main reason for Hadoop is to provide Reliability, Scalability and PErformance over cheap commodity hardware to minimize costs. From this standpoint, NetApp Filers are not a Fit into the Hadoop Cluster.
I agree with you here. It would be nice to be able to design something that uses commodity hardware but still reaches the latency/uptime/durability guarantees of a NetApp filer.- AnonymousOctober 26, 2010 at 3:27 PM
Hello, where can I find code to run hdfs clients to talk to namenodes via zookeeper? Thanks.
ReplyDelete - AnonymousJanuary 8, 2011 at 8:58 PM
Hello, does HDFS-976 incorporates HBASE handling in a sense that when zookeeper quorum becomes aware that primary avatarnode is dead, all HBASE servers, master and region, must then switch to a secondary Avatarnode?
Would you mind checking in or posting sample config to get started with avatarnode setup?
-Jack hi jack, hbase is a layer on top of hdfs. When the hdfs avatarnode failover occurs, the hbase application (region servers, master, etc) wil pause for a few seconds before automatically using the new primary avtarnode. We wil post a new version of the avatrnode code into HDFS-976, but you can see the 0.20 code base that we are running here: http://github.com/facebook/hadoop-20-warehouse/tree/master/src/contrib/highavailability
ReplyDelete- AnonymousJanuary 10, 2011 at 10:57 AM
So, the namenode IP does not change? HBASE does specify namenode "url" to talk to its hdfs root dir. If IP does change when avatar nodes switch, then how would hbase be able to access its hdfs directory with an IP pointing to a server thats down? (downed namenode)
ReplyDelete Avatarnode uses zookeeper. Zookeeper has a list of two machine names that run the AvatarNodes. All clients a layered file system called DistributedAvatarFileSystem (DAFS). DAFS retrieves the name of the machine that is marked as "primary" in zk, and then connects to it. If it fails, then rechecks with zk to see if the primary has changed, and if so, then it reconnects to the new primary. All these are completely transparent to the application.
ReplyDeleteThe code that we are running are at https://github.com/facebook/hadoop-20-warehouse/tree/master/src/contrib/highavailability. Unfortunately, we do not have a rpm or any other packaged form: you would have to compile and package it yourself.
the code at the above URL is about 2 months old, we have since then made some important fixes to HA. We will be re-uploading our latest version of the code at the same URL very shortly.when the avaratnode-standby starts up, it reads the fstime of the remote primary namenode to remember the time wen the primary ast checkpointed. if, somehow, the primary checkpoints again by itself (without consulting the standby), the standby can still detect this fact by looking at the fstime file.
ReplyDelete- AnonymousMay 20, 2011 at 12:01 PM
Elegant solution.
Was curious to know what the I/O rates are for the secondary trying to keep up with the primary.
Did you consider a fast interconnect between primary and secondary as a means for the secondary to read transactions and go to the filer only as a fallback?
TW @shrusamira Is it possible do have both Avatar/NameNodes in a state where they can write? If so you could put an LVS-Loadbalancer in the front that can hold the VIP and can route to NameNodes through direct-routing which would also solve the problem of the NameNode as a bottleneck in HDFS.
If this is not possible I do want to make a remark on the first comment. I do like pacemaker very much for it's flexibility, and I think it could fit here. DRBD might be the false approach, but you can have a shared-storage like NFS as you did and put your NameNodes as Cloned-Ressources (or Master-Slave) through pacemaker on the different Hosts. On of them gets the VIP. You do have a hot-standby through the cloned/master-slave-ressource-concept and you are very flexible in scripting for it through the OCF-Framework. Pacemaker does the monitoring and failover for you.
I think it would be nice to have this integration into the "standard" linux-ha suite.It belongs.
They don't need to, but they need to have one interface in it, cause it is only one unique VIP that belongs to only one subnet if I understand you right? It should be made available somehow on the machines.
Everything else can be subnet-indepedendent. Pacemaker uses Multicast often to have a cluster-wide communication which is independent to the underlying topology.- AnonymousJune 12, 2011 at 8:01 PM
Hi, would you please tell me how to configure and startup?
and you metioned that have to 'runs a manual command to trigger the failover' , and what is it?
Thank you very much Hi Dhruba!
I am curious about the restart time of non-avatar NameNode. You mentioned that it could take 1 hour to restart, including:
- 6 minutes to load the 12GB fsimage
- 35 minutes to process block reports
So, did it take about 20 minutes to process the transaction log? What is the typical size of a edits file in your cluster?Dhruba, if I remember correctly, the checkpoint will be done once the edits file exceeds 64MB right? So restarting a non-avatar NameNode shouldn't spend much time on processing the transaction log. And the major time spent on restarting comes from processing block reports, right? Please correct me if I am wrong.
ReplyDeleteKonstantine once mentioned in his paper (http://developer.yahoo.com/blogs/hadoop/posts/2010/05/scalability_of_the_hadoop_dist/) that NameNode is able to process about 10 block report per second. So if we have a cluster of around 2000 nodes, it will take around 200 seconds to process all block report. Can you comment on this?
ReplyDeleteA block report processing takes about 100 ms. This means we can process about 100 nodes per second. On namenode startup, our 3000 node cluster takes about 5 minutes to process all block reports.
Then it takes another 10-15 minutes to exit safemode, the reason being that when the namenode decides to exit safemode it loops though all existing blocks to determine underreplicated/excess-replicated blocks. Since we have close to 300 million blocks it takes a long long time to loop through all those blocks. Another reason is that since we use HDFS RAIFD, there could be lots of blocks with excess replicas, and excess replica deletion code in the NN is very heavy-weight.Hi Dhruba,
I was working in a version of Avatar Node that uses the BackupNode. But on the paper for SIGMOD '11 is said that this does not bring any advantage over current approach. I though it was because the backup node was not available on 0.20 . I also tought that failures on BackNode would not affect Namenode, but it does not look so. Could you comment on that?
Could also give some overview about the implementation of DAFS? I understood that you replaced the ClientProtocol proxy ( dfs,namenode) by FailoverClientProtocol, which redirect requests to the current active avatar. But I did not understood why in the event of failover, failoverFS, a new DistributedFileSystem, is created and FailoverClientProtocol is set to point to its dfs.namenode. Why couldn't we just create a new ClientProtocol proxy ?
AndréI am not sure what you mean by "version of Avatar Node that uses the BackupNode", can you pl explain?
My point is that if u use the BackupNode from 0.20 (or 0.22), the system will be as reliable as the combined availability of both nodes (which is typically lower than the availability of just the NN). The NN synchronously sends a transaction to the BN.If you make the BackupNameNode process block reports/blockReceiveds from datanodes, then it will be hot in nature. This is one step closer to the design of the AvatarNode. The difference being that the AvatarNode still uses the shared NFS mount point to store transaction logs.
If you decide to make the primary namenode synchronously replicate transactions to the backupnode, you would have to measure the performance of transactions. will the response from the backupnode be as fast/reliable as an NFS appliance? If the backup node falls out of sync, how quickly/reliably does it get the full transaction log from the primary? These are some issues that are worth measuring on a real cluster.hi I am trying to build avatar node build has faild here with the jsp
Compiling 5 source files to C:\Chaitanya\Projects\Hadoop\Sample\facebook-hadoop-20-warehouse-bbfed86\build\classes
[javac] C:\Chaitanya\Projects\Hadoop\Sample\facebook-hadoop-20-warehouse-bbfed86\build\src\org\apache\hadoop\hdfs\server\namenode\corrupt_005ffiles_jsp.java:77: cannot find symbol
[javac] symbol : method getNamesystem()
[javac] location: class org.apache.hadoop.hdfs.server.namenode.NameNode
[javac] FSNamesystem fsn = nn.getNamesystem();
[javac] ^
[javac] C:\Chaitanya\Projects\Hadoop\Sample\facebook-hadoop-20-warehouse-bbfed86\build\src\org\apache\hadoop\hdfs\server\namenode\corrupt_005ffiles_jsp.java:80: cannot find symbol
[javac] symbol : class CorruptFileBlockInfo
[javac] location: class org.apache.hadoop.hdfs.server.namenode.FSNamesystem
[javac] Collection corruptFileBlocks =
[javac] ^
[javac] C:\Chaitanya\Projects\Hadoop\Sample\facebook-hadoop-20-warehouse-bbfed86\build\src\org\apache\hadoop\hdfs\server\namenode\corrupt_005ffiles_jsp.java:81: cannot find symbol
[javac] symbol : method listCorruptFileBlocks(java.lang.String,)
[javac] location: class org.apache.hadoop.hdfs.server.namenode.FSNamesystem
[javac] fsn.listCorruptFileBlocks("/", null);
please help on thisHi Sid...
I have done that and i am facing this problem after that
[ivy:retrieve] :: retrieving :: org.apache.hadoop#hmon [sync]
[ivy:retrieve] confs: [common]
[ivy:retrieve] 0 artifacts copied, 8 already retrieved (0kB/0ms)
No ivy:settings found for the default reference 'ivy.instance'. A default instance will be used
DEPRECATED: 'ivy.conf.file' is deprecated, use 'ivy.settings.file' instead
:: loading settings :: file = H:\Webproject\hadoop\Hadoop\facebook-hadoop-20-warehouse-bbfed86\ivy\ivysettings.xml
[echo] contrib: hmon
H:\Webproject\hadoop\Hadoop\facebook-hadoop-20-warehouse-bbfed86\build.xml:522: The following error occurred while executing this line:
H:\Webproject\hadoop\Hadoop\facebook-hadoop-20-warehouse-bbfed86\src\contrib\build.xml:30: The following error occurred while executing this line:
H:\Webproject\hadoop\Hadoop\facebook-hadoop-20-warehouse-bbfed86\src\contrib\hod\build.xml:29: Execute failed: java.io.IOException: Cannot run program "echo" (in directory "H:\Webproject\hadoop\Hadoop\facebook-hadoop-20-warehouse-bbfed86\src\contrib\hod"): CreateProcess error=2, The system cannot find the file specifiedWould you mind providing a brief description of the NN/DN heartbeat process from time T1 when NN is alive, through time T2 when NN is dead but AN (Avatar Node) switchover has not yet occurred, through T3 where AN is now what DN heartbeat is talking to. Specifically, I am trying to understand how and when DN knows where to send its heartbeat report. Thanks.
ReplyDeleteThe datanodes send blockReceived and block reports to both AvatarNodes. One of the Avatarnode is running as the primary and the other one as the standby. From the perspective of sending heartbeats, the datanode does not distinguish between primary AvatarNode and standby AvatarNode.
If the datanode cannot send a report to one of the namenodes, it retries for a certain period (with backoff), but if the buffer becomes too big, it drops all the blockReceived and remembers to send a full blockreport at the next successful call to that AvatarNode.Thanks for sharing it with us. Keep it up!
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