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A ketogenic diet for beginners Vegetarian Keto Diet Plan
A keto or ketogenic diet is a low-carb, moderate protein, higher-fat diet that can help you burn fat better. It has numerous benefits for weight-loss, health, and performance, as displayed in over 50 research studies.1 That's why it's recommended by numerous medical professionals.
A keto diet can be specifically helpful for losing excess body fat without appetite and for type 2 diabetes.
Here, you'll learn how to eat a keto diet plan based upon genuine foods. Start with our visual guides, dishes, meal plans, and basic 2-week Begin program. It's everything you need to succeed on keto.
1. What is a keto diet plan?
The keto diet plan is a very low-carb, higher-fat diet plan. It's similar in many methods to other low-carb diet plans.
While you consume far fewer carbs on a keto diet, you keep moderate protein consumption and may increase your intake of fat. The decrease in carb intake puts your body in a metabolic state called ketosis, where fat, from your diet plan and from your body, is burned for energy.
What "keto" suggests.
A "keto" or "ketogenic" diet plan is so named since it causes your body to produce small fuel particles called "ketones." This is an alternative fuel source for your body that can be utilized when blood sugar (glucose) is in short supply.
When you consume really few carbs or extremely couple of calories, your liver produces ketones from fat. These ketones then function as a fuel source throughout the body, especially for the brain.
The brain is a starving organ that takes in lots of energy every day, and it can't run on fat directly. It can just operate on glucose– or ketones.7.
On a ketogenic diet plan, your whole body switches its fuel supply to run mainly on fat, burning fat 24-7. When insulin levels drop extremely low, weight loss can increase significantly. It ends up being simpler to access your fat stores to burn them off.
This is terrific if you're trying to lose weight, but there can also be other benefits, such as less hunger and a stable supply of energy– without the sugar peaks and valleys that typically happen when eating high-carb meals. This may assist keep you alert and focused.
When the body produces ketones, it goes into a metabolic state called ketosis. The fastest way to arrive is by fasting– not eating anything– however no one can regularly quickly permanently.
A keto diet, on the other hand, also results in ketosis and can be consumed indefinitely. It has much of the advantages of fasting– consisting of weight reduction– without having to fast long term.
Who should Refrain From Doing a ketogenic diet?
There are debates and misconceptions about a keto diet plan, but for many people it seems really safe. However, 3 groups often need special consideration:.
- Do you take medication for diabetes, such as insulin?
- Do you take medication for high blood pressure?
- Do you breastfeed?
2. What to eat on a keto diet.
Here are common foods to enjoy on a ketogenic diet. The numbers are net carbohydrates per 100 grams (3.5 ounces) of food.13 To stay in ketosis, lower is typically better:.
Keto diet foods: Natural fats (butter, olive oil); Meat; Fish and seafood; Eggs; Cheese; Vegetables that grow above ground.
What's the most important thing to do to reach ketosis? Prevent eating a lot of carbs. You'll likely need to keep carbohydrate intake under 50 grams of net carbs each day, preferably listed below 20 grams.14.
The fewer the carbs, the more effective the diet appears to be for reaching ketosis, slimming down or improving type 2 diabetes.15.
Counting carbohydrates can be valuable at first. But if you stick to our recommended foods and recipes you can remain keto even without counting.
Try to avoid.
Here's what you should prevent on a keto diet– foods containing a lot of carbs, both the sweet and the starchy kind. This includes starchy foods like bread, pasta, rice and potatoes. These foods are extremely high in carbs.
Foods to prevent on a ketogenic diet plan: bread, pasta, rice, potatoes, fruit, beer, soda, juice, candy.
The numbers are grams of net carbs per 100 grams (3.5 ounces), unless otherwise kept in mind.16.
Also prevent or limit highly processed foods and rather follow our whole foods keto diet plan recommendations.
You need to likewise prevent low-fat diet plan products. A keto diet ought to be reasonably high in protein and will probably be greater in fat, since fat offers the energy you're no longer getting from carbohydrate. Low-fat items usually provide too many carbohydrates and not enough protein and fat.17.
More particular advice on what to consume– and what not to consume.
What to drink.
Keto drinks: water, coffee, tea, dry wine.
What can you drink on a ketogenic diet? Water is the perfect drink, and coffee or tea are great too. Ideally, utilize no sweeteners, especially sugar.
A splash of milk or cream in your coffee or tea is OK, but beware that the carbs can accumulate if you consume multiple cups in a day (and certainly prevent caffe lattes!). The occasional glass of red wine is fine too.
Take a look at our full guides to keto beverages and keto alcohol.
How low carbohydrate is a keto diet?
A keto diet plan is an extremely strict low-carb diet, consisting of less than 20 grams of net carbs per day.
We recommend starting out by following the dietary recommendations as strictly as you can. When you more than happy with your weight and health, you could thoroughly try eating a few more carbohydrates (if you wish to). Learn more.
Vegetarian Keto Diet Plan
3. Keto benefits: Why consume a keto diet plan.
The benefits of a ketogenic diet resemble those of other low-carb and higher-fat diets, but it seems more powerful than liberal low-carb diets.19 Think about keto as a super-charged, low-carb diet plan, maximizing the benefits. Nevertheless, it may likewise increase the danger of negative effects a bit.
Drop weight.
Turning your body into a fat-burning maker can be helpful for weight-loss. Fat loss is substantially increased, while insulin– the fat-storing hormone– levels drop greatly. This appears to make it far easier for body weight loss to happen, without cravings.
More than 30 high-quality clinical studies show that, compared to other diet plans, low-carb and keto diet plans lead to more efficient weight loss.
Appetite Control
On a keto diet plan you're likely to get better control of your hunger. It's an extremely typical experience for feelings of appetite to decrease significantly, and studies prove it.23.
This typically makes it simple to eat less and lose excess weight– simply wait until you're hungry before you eat.24 It likewise makes intermittent fasting easier, something that can enhance efforts to reverse type 2 diabetes and speed up weight reduction, beyond the impacts of keto just.25.
Plus, you might conserve money and time by not having to treat all the time. Lots of people just feel the need to eat two times a day on a keto diet plan (typically avoiding breakfast), and some just consume once a day.26.
Not having to fight sensations of hunger could likewise potentially assist with issues like sugar or food addiction.27 At last, feeling pleased can be part of the solution. Food can stop being an enemy and become your friend, or merely fuel– whatever you prefer.
Low carb and diabetes reversalControl blood glucose and reverse type 2 diabetes.
Research studies show that a ketogenic diet is outstanding for handling type 2 diabetes, often even causing complete reversal of the disease.28 It makes perfect sense, given that keto lowers blood-sugar levels, lowers the requirement for medications and minimizes the potentially unfavorable impact of high insulin levels.29.
Because a keto diet might reverse existing type 2 diabetes, it's likely to be efficient at preventing it, in addition to reversing pre-diabetes.30.
Keep in mind that the term "turnaround" in this context just indicates that the illness gets better, improving glucose control and lowering the need for medications. In the best case, it can be a lot improved that blood sugar returns to typical without medication, long term. In this context, turnaround implies the opposite of the disease progressing or worsening.
However, way of life changes only work when you do them. If an individual go back to the lifestyle he or she had when type 2 diabetes appeared and progressed, with time it is most likely to return and advance once again.
Improved health markers.
Numerous research studies reveal that low-carb diets enhance several important risk factors for heart problem, consisting of the cholesterol profile, which includes high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and triglycerides. Overall and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels are normally impacted modestly.
It's also normal to see improved blood sugar levels, insulin levels, and blood pressure.32.
These commonly enhanced markers are connected to something called "metabolic syndrome," an insulin-resistant condition that low-carb diets treat successfully.33.
Keto diet and continuous energy and psychological performance.
Some individuals use ketogenic diets specifically for increased psychological performance. Likewise, it's common for people to experience an increase in energy when in ketosis.35.
On keto, the brain does not need dietary carbs. It's fueled 24-7 by ketones together with a smaller amount of glucose synthesized by your liver. There is no requirement for dietary carbs.36.
Therefore, ketosis results in a stable circulation of fuel (ketones) to the brain, thus avoiding problems experienced with huge blood sugar swings.37 This might in some cases lead to enhanced focus and concentration, and resolution of brain fog, with improved mental clarity.38.
Keto and IBS.
A keto diet can result in a calmer stomach, less gas, fewer cramps and less discomfort, often resulting in enhancements in IBS symptoms.39.
For some people this is the top benefit, and it often just takes a day or 2 to experience it.40.
Increased physical endurance.
Ketogenic diet plans can in theory increase your physical endurance by improving your access to the large quantities of energy in your fat stores.
The body's supply of saved carbohydrates (glycogen) just lasts for a number of hours of intense exercise, or less. But your fat shops carry enough energy to potentially last for weeks.
Beyond this impact, another possible advantage is the decrease in body fat portion that can be attained on a keto diet (see weight loss, above). This reduction in body fat weight is possibly important in a variety of competitive sports, consisting of endurance sports.
Keto diets and epilepsy
The ketogenic diet is a proven and often reliable medical treatment for epilepsy that has actually been utilized because the 1920s. Traditionally it was utilized mostly for children, however over the last few years grownups have gained from it also.
Using a ketogenic diet plan for epilepsy can allow some people to take less anti-epileptic drugs or none at all, while potentially still remaining seizure-free. This may lower drug negative effects and hence increase psychological efficiency.
More possible keto benefits.
A keto diet can also assist treat high blood pressure,46 may lead to less acne,47 and might help manage migraine.48 It might likewise assist improve numerous cases of PCOS and heartburn, while also frequently lowering sugar yearnings. Lastly it might help with particular mental health issues and can have other possible benefits.
It might seem like a keto diet is a wonder cure for anything. It's definitely not. While it can have lots of advantages, it's not for everybody. Discover more about if a low-carb or keto diet is right for you.
4. How to enter ketosis on a keto diet.
Here are the seven crucial things to increase your level of ketosis, ranked from a lot of to least crucial:.
Limit carbs to 20 digestible grams each day or less— a strict low-carb or keto diet plan. Fiber does not need to be limited, it may even be helpful for ketosis.50.
Typically, just limiting carbohydrates to really low levels leads to ketosis. So this might be all you need to do. However the remainder of the list below will help make sure that you're successful.
Eat enough fat to feel satisfied. A keto low-carb diet is normally a higher-fat diet, since fat supplies the energy that you are no longer receiving from carbohydrates.51 This is the huge distinction between a keto diet plan and starvation, which also results in ketosis. A keto diet plan is sustainable while starvation is not.52.
If you feel as if you're starving, you're likely to feel tired and wish to give up your diet plan. But a ketogenic diet plan ought to help you avoid getting too starving, making it sustainable and possibly making you feel terrific.53.
So eat sufficient protein foods and low-carb veggies, with enough included fat to feel pleased. If you're hungry all the time, check that you are getting sufficient amounts of protein at most meals and, if so, add more fat to your meals (like more butter, more olive oil, or some delicious sauces).
Our keto dishes have a lot of fat included, but you can change up or down, according to your own needs.
Maintain a moderate protein consumption. A keto diet plan is not indicated to be a very-high-protein diet. We suggest 1.2 to 1.7 grams of protein per kg of reference body weight each day.54 This implies about 100 grams of protein daily if your lean body mass weight is around 70 kilos (155 pounds). Have a look at our target protein varies to learn just how much protein you must be going for each day.
Regardless of concerns that individuals on keto diets eat "too much" protein, this does not appear to be the case for many people. Due to the fact that it is extremely filling, the majority of people find it difficult to eat way too much protein.55.
Although amino acids from protein foods can be transformed to glucose, under speculative conditions, only a little portion actually are.56 This may be related to specific factors, such as degree of insulin resistance.57 However, even people with type 2 diabetes normally succeed with the sufficient levels of protein Diet Physician recommends, if their diets are also low carbohydrate.58.
At the same time, inadequate protein intake over extended periods of time is a major issue. It can result in loss of muscle and bone, particularly as you age.
Prevent snacking when not starving. Eating regularly than you require, just eating for fun, or eating due to the fact that there's food around, decreases ketosis and decreases weight loss.59 Though using keto snacks may minimize the damage when you're hungry in between meals, try to change your meals so that snacks end up being unnecessary.
If necessary, include intermittent fasting. For example, avoid breakfast and just consume throughout 8 hours of the day, fasting for 16 hours (i.e. 16:8 fasting). This works at boosting ketone levels, along with speeding up weight-loss and improving insulin resistance.60 It's also usually easy to do on keto.
Add workout. Including any type of physical activity while on low carbohydrate can increase ketone levels reasonably.61 It can likewise assist accelerate weight-loss and enhance type 2 diabetes.62 Exercise is not essential to enter ketosis, however it may be handy.
Sleep enough and lessen tension. Many people benefit from a minimum of 7 hours of sleep per night, on average. And try to keep tension under control. Sleep deprivation and stress hormones raise blood sugar level levels, slowing ketosis and weight reduction.63 Plus they may make it harder to stay with a keto diet plan and resist temptations.64 So while dealing with sleep and tension will not get you into ketosis on their own, they are still worth considering.
Keto supplements are not required. Note what's not on the list above: you do not need expensive supplements, like exogenous ketones or MCT oil (medium-chain triglycerides). These supplements will likely not assist you lose weight or reverse disease. A minimum of there's no evidence for that.65 Learn more in our ketosis guide.
Bottom line: To get into ketosis, limit carbs to really low levels, ideally listed below 20 net carbohydrates daily. That's a ketogenic diet plan, and it's without a doubt the most important thing for ketosis to take place.
Must you require to increase the result, carry out more steps from the list above, starting from the top. Got concerns? Our Facebook group has responses.
5. How to know you're in ketosis.
How do you know if you remain in ketosis? It's possible to determine it by evaluating urine, blood or breath samples. However there are also telltale symptoms that require no testing:.
Signs of ketosis: dry mouth, thirst, regular urination.
Dry mouth and increased thirst. Unless you drink adequate water and get enough electrolytes like sodium, you may feel a dry mouth. Try a cup of bouillon or 2 daily, plus as much water as you need. You may likewise feel a metal taste in your mouth.
Increased urination. A ketone body, acetoacetate, might wind up in the urine. This makes it possible to test for ketosis using urine strips. It also– a minimum of when starting out– can result in needing to go to the bathroom regularly. This might be the primary reason for the increased thirst (above).
Keto breath. This is because of a ketone body called acetone escaping through our breath.68 It can make a person's breath smell "fruity," or similar to nail polish remover. This odor can sometimes also come from sweat, when working out. It's frequently momentary.
Other, less specific however more positive indications consist of:.
Lowered cravings. Many individuals experience a marked decrease in cravings on a keto diet.69 In fact, many individuals feel excellent when they eat just once or twice a day, and may immediately wind up doing a form of intermittent fasting. This saves time and money, while likewise accelerating weight-loss.70.
Possibly increased energy. After a few days of feeling tired (the "keto influenza") many individuals experience a clear boost in energy levels. This can likewise be experienced as clear thinking, a lack of "brain fog," and even a sense of ecstasy.71.
Determining ketosis.
There are 3 methods to determine for ketones, which all come with benefits and drawbacks. For an in-depth comparison, see our full guide to the very best way to check ketones.
Urine strips.
Breath ketone analyzers.
Blood ketone meter.
6. Practical keto diet guides.
A keto diet is easy, but it helps to learn some basic brand-new abilities. How do you prepare easy keto breakfasts? Have you avoided fat for several years and do not understand how to get more in your diet? How do you eat in restaurants and still stay on plan?
These ideas and guides answer common keto questions.
How should you begin your day? If you like bacon and eggs, dig in! If you don't, some incredible keto breakfasts have no eggs at all.
Have you been informed that "breakfast is the most essential meal of the day"? That's most likely not true.73 If you're not starving when you get up, do not hesitate to skip breakfast or simply have a cup of coffee. Minimized cravings is common on a keto diet plan, so do not fret about avoiding any meal.74.
If you're starving when you get up but are short on time, lots of keto breakfasts are yummy, filling and fast. All keto breakfasts.
Hmmm, what to consume for lunch or dinner? Daily meal planning can be as basic as meat, fish or chicken mains with a salad, or veggie side– with melted butter, cheese, or a yummy full-fat sauce. We have hundreds of options for scrumptious keto meals.
A keto diet plan on a budget.
Lots of people think that a keto diet is expensive, and it can be. After all, good-quality food costs more than unhealthier options. But there are lots of methods to remain budget-friendly, and in this guide you'll learn all about them.
Eating more fat on a keto diet plan.
How to eat more fat.
For years we have actually been informed to fear fat, a position that we have evidence to seriously question.75 We now have factor to believe that fat is most likely not hazardous, plus it is satiating and makes food taste great.
Do you need guidance on how to include fat back into your food? What fats should you utilize, olive oil or butter? And simply how much fat do you require each day? Pointer: if you are constantly feeling starving on a keto diet plan, you may require more protein or fat, or both.
Bread is one of the most typical things that people miss on a ketogenic diet. Worry not! There are lots of good keto bread options. Vegetarian Keto Diet Plan
Eating in restaurants on a keto diet.
How do you consume keto at a buffet, a buddy's house, or a snack bar? Avoid starchy foods (like bread, rice, or pasta) and request extra natural fat, like butter or olive oil, if you require it. Eating in restaurants on keto.
How to cheat on a keto diet plan.
To carb or not to carbohydrate? This guide will help you decide, and how to do it smarter.
Prevent processed foods on a keto dietAvoiding unique items.
Don't be fooled by the innovative marketing of unique "low-carb" products. Keep in mind: An effective keto diet for weight loss does not consist of fine-tuned and industrially processed foods.
Low-carb items like chocolate, candy, pasta, and bread often use all sort of misleading marketing, while being simply unhealthy food– consisting of carbohydrates– in disguise. Learn more.
7. Prospective negative effects of a keto diet.
- Headache.
- Feeling exhausted.
- Queasiness.
- Leg cramps.
- Constipation.
- Bad breath.
- Heart palpitations.
- Exercise difficulties.
- Alcohol tolerance.
- Loss of hair.
- Cholesterol.
- Rash.
When you suddenly switch your body's metabolism from burning carbs (glucose) to fat and ketones, you may have some negative effects as your body gets utilized to its brand-new fuel, particularly during days 2 through 5.
Symptoms may consist of headache, fatigue, muscle tiredness, cramping, and heart palpitations. These side effects are short-term for many people, and there are ways to reduce or cure them (see listed below).76.
To decrease prospective adverse effects, you may decide to slowly decrease your consumption of carbohydrates over a couple of weeks. However with a slower start you'll likely not see outcomes as rapidly. While the short-term results may vary, the long-lasting outcomes should remain the same.77.
We advise you stop sugar and starches simultaneously. You will likely lose a number of pounds within days. While much of the initial quick weight loss is water weight (from minimized swelling), it's still an extremely encouraging way to begin your keto journey.
Keto flu
Most people who start a ketogenic diet will experience some symptoms of the "keto flu." This is what you might feel, basically, a couple of days after you've started a keto diet:
Light queasiness
Problem focusing (" brain fog").
Lack of inspiration.
These preliminary symptoms frequently vanish within a week or two, as your body adapts to increased fat burning.
The primary reason for the keto flu is that carb-rich foods can lead to water retention (swelling) in the body. When you begin a low-carb diet much of this excess fluid is lost. You may see increased urination, and with that some additional salt is lost too.
Prior to your body adapts, this can lead to dehydration and a lack of salt. These appear to be behind most of the symptoms of the keto flu.
You can reduce or perhaps remove these symptoms by ensuring you get enough water and salt. One basic way to do this is to drink a cup of bouillon or broth, one or two times a day.8081.
Keto diet plan controversies.
Many adverse effects of a keto diet plan are small and short-lived. But there are a lot of controversies and misconceptions that scare people.
Have you heard that your brain will stop operating unless you eat lots of carbs? It's a misconception, based on a lack of understanding of the method the body works in ketosis (switching the fuel supply of the brain to ketones). Find out more.
Another common misunderstanding is mixing up normal ketosis– resulting from a keto diet plan– with the harmful medical emergency ketoacidosis. Do not fret! They are two extremely various things. Ketoacidosis does not happen simply from eating a keto diet.82.
The keto diet controversies do not stop there. Will keto kill your kidneys or damage your bones? Will it stop your thyroid from working? See our low-carb and keto controversies page, or pick below.
Hydrogenated fat.
Brain needs carbohydrates.
Gut germs.
8. Keto FAQ and other resources.
Keto questions and answersThere are lots of common concerns about keto, and we do our best to answer them all. Do not hesitate to have a look at our full keto diet plan FAQ, or choose below:.
Just how much weight will I lose on a keto diet?
Results differ commonly. Most people lose 2-4 pounds (1-2 kg) during the first week. This is generally water weight. After that, it prevails to lose about 1 pound (0.5 kg) of excess weight per week. However, some lose much faster (frequently more youthful men), some a bit slower (often females over 40).
You can speed up the process or break a weight-loss plateau by following our top tips.
When you approach your regular body weight, the weight reduction will slow. Just keep in mind, a "regular" body weight differs from person to person depending upon our genetics and environmental exposures and may not fit what we see in the popular media. The weight loss will not go on forever. As long as you follow the guidance to eat when you are starving, you will eventually stabilize your weight.
How do I track my carb intake?
If you utilize our keto dishes and keto meal prepares you'll remain under 20 net grams of carbs per day, without any need to count.
Using our keto foods standards and visual guides will make it basic to approximate approximately how many carbohydrates you consume in a day.
If you want to count carbs precisely, the most popular way is with apps like MyFitnessPal, Chronometer or others.
What takes place after I reach my health and weight goals on a keto diet?
When you reach your objectives you can either keep eating keto (to maintain the effect), or you can attempt adding a bit more carbohydrates. In the latter case the effect of the keto diet plan will be a little weaker, and you might or may not gain back some weight.
If you revert to your old routines, you'll gradually go back to the weight and health situation you had before. It resembles exercising– if you stop doing it, you'll slowly lose the advantages. As you might anticipate, a keto diet, like exercise, just works when you do it.
Disclaimer: While the ketogenic diet has many tested advantages, it's still controversial. The main possible threat relates to medications, e.g. for diabetes, where dosages may require to be adapted (see above). Go over any changes in medication and relevant lifestyle modifications with your physician. Complete disclaimer.
This guide is written for grownups with health issues, including obesity, that could gain from a ketogenic diet.
Controversial topics related to a keto diet, and our take on them, consist of saturated fats, cholesterol, entire grains, red meat, whether the brain requires carbohydrates and limiting calories for weight reduction.


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The Empire State
Good afternoon and welcome to The Point! Subscribe here.
Daily Point
Alabama governor on the line?
What could possibly be more unlikely than Alabama electing a Democrat to the U.S. Senate? An Alabama Republican governor listening to a New York Democrat on how to wrap up an election, perhaps. "We don't care how you did it up north!" is more than just a popular bumper sticker slogan below the Mason-Dixon Line.
Nevertheless, Glen Cove Assemb. Charles Lavine sent a letter Wednesday to Alabama Gov. Kay Ivey imploring her to ensure the state's 67 counties report results from Tuesday's elections quickly "so that Senator Elect (Doug) Jones may take the oath of office without undue delay." The letter comes as Jones' opponent, Roy Moore, refuses to concede a race he lost by about 20,000 votes in unofficial results.
Lavine has a calling card in this state-to-state conversation: He is chairman of the Assembly's election law committee. He told The Point Thursday that is part of what led him to write to Ivey, but that he's mostly worried that Alabama's Republican Secretary of State, John Merrill, doesn't much respect the voting rights of Democrats.
"If the state of Alabama had someone in charge of elections who wasn't an ideologue, I would not have been compelled to send it," Lavine said.
In the letter Lavine cited two quotes from Merrill as cause for alarm:
"As long as I am Secretary of State of Alabama, you're going to have to show some initiative to become a registered voter," and "If you're too sorry or lazy to get up off your rear end and go register to vote, you don't deserve the privilege."
Hopefully, his letter is well received. Perhaps Ivey will even respond with some solid advice about fixing painfully restrictive ballot access, early voting and voter registration regulations in the oh-so enlightened Empire State.
Lane Filler
Talking Point
The price of counsel
They say you have to spend money to make money, but does that include a county official enlisting expensive, party-connected outside counsel? That's what Nassau County Clerk Maureen O'Connell, a Republican, did recently. She sent John Ciampoli, the former county attorney and the GOP's go-to election lawyer, to a hearing for the county's fiscal oversight board to argue her department should be exempted from across-the-board cuts.
O'Connell sent two office employees with Ciampoli to the Dec. 7 meeting of the Nassau Interim Finance Authority, where NIFA voted to enforce about $18 million in spending cuts to the 2018 budget. That's about six-tenths of 1 percent of total spending, which is to come from spending other than payroll.
O'Connell says she sent them to argue that her office should be exempted from cuts because the office budget is "bare bones" already and there is not a penny to trim, the services it provides are mandated by the state constitution, and the office brings in $60 million a year in revenue, about 20 times its annual budget.
Ciampoli seems a surprise choice, an elections specialist who served from 2010-2013 as the county attorney and was named as the $160,000-a-year counsel to the board of directors of the Nassau University Medical Center in February. He is also of counsel at Sinnreich, Kosakoff & Messina LLP.
O'Connell argues she did not use a lawyer from the county attorney's office because she feared it might "be a conflict," but did not elaborate. Asked whether it made sense to hire an attorney to argue her office can't spare a penny, O'Connell said she didn't know whether Ciampoli would charge for the work, or how much.
As it happens, NIFA didn't let Ciampoli or the clerk's staff members speak, so maybe Ciampoli will slip a GOP pal a freebie. After all, he knows better than most that what goes around comes around.
Lane Filler
Pencil Point
Making a list, checking it twice
Pointing Out
Off track
New York City is bracing for the 2019 L train shutdown, when the line's East River tunnel and service in Manhattan will be shuttered for 15 months to perform necessary repairs.
Passengers along the line agree it's a pretty big deal. But to underscore the L's importance, New York City Department of Transportation Commissioner Polly Trottenberg turned to Long Island.
"The L train carries as many people into Manhattan as the entire Long Island Rail Rroad," she told the City Council on Thursday.
According to the MTA, daily ridership at Pennsylvania Station (people the LIRR carries under the East River) is roughly 230,000. That's close to the L numbers Trottenberg cited during the council hearing: the 225,000 daily riders on the L between Manhattan and Brooklyn.
There hasn't been much love for LI from city transportation officials lately. Trottenberg was one MTA board member who complained about funding for the LIRR's third track project. But in at least one way the two regions are inextricably bound: a Summer of Hell for LI, a Year-and-a-Quarter of Hell from Canarsie to Chelsea.
Mark Chiusano

subset: commoncrawl


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Shouldn't You Just Go to Bed Already?
Are you putting yourself at risk for sleep deprivation? And what is the risk?
Posted Jan 14, 2016
We've all faced the dilemma at some point: Should I keep studying (or working) and delay bedtime, or log out and hit the hay?
In college, I regularly stayed up until midnight or 1 a.m. studying and writing lab reports, even though my alarm went off at 5 a.m. each morning for rowing practice. It was just so tempting to stay up late when there was so much work to be done—so much work, all the time.
But while running on four or five hours of sleep in college let me finish a lot of work, I was sleepy. I nodded off during class, ate more food to keep myself awake, and became more susceptible to catching colds. I found it harder to study because I hadn't paid attention in class. I even found myself sometimes being short-tempered toward my friends.
Sound familiar?
Today, after working in a sleep research laboratory for the past four years and becoming intimately acquainted with what the research says about sleep curtailment, I am much more inclined to shut the books, close my laptop, and crawl into bed, because the fact is that there are literally no benefits—none, zip, zero, nada—to depriving oneself of necessary sleep.
What does sleep deprivation do to your body?
- Just one all-nighter alters your immune system's functioning, similar to the way stress does. One night of sleep deprivation significantly reduces the peak concentration of your white blood cells' diurnal rhythm, making you more vulnerable to illness and infection.
- A single night of sleep deprivation results in increased blood pressure. Even a half-night of sleep loss can have the same effect for individuals who are hypertensive or prehypertensive, suggesting activation of the sympathetic system.
- Your body experiences many unique endocrine changes during sleep related to growth and thermoregulation, which curtailing sleep disrupts. Satiety hormones, like leptin and ghrelin, are also altered, which may result in increased hunger and weight gain.
- One week of mild sleep restriction (six hours per night—a pretty typical schedule for most people, right?) causes increased secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, which can contribute to cardiovascular and neurocognitive dysfunction. (Recovery sleep on the weekends lowers these inflammation levels.)
- One week of six hours per night is associated with a change in the transcription of over 700 genes, many of which are implicated in the body's circadian rhythms, oxidative stress, and metabolism.
What does sleep deprivation do to your brain?
- One night of total sleep deprivation reduces the coordination and speed of our ability to eye-track, as a study that simulated driving ability after insufficient sleep assessed.
- The same study that found an increase in cytokines with modest sleep restriction for one week found that three nights of recovery sleep (10 hours per night in bed) was not sufficient to reverse deficits in attention and reaction time, as a simple computer task measured.
- Taken together, many studies have concluded that chronic sleep loss is associated with deficits in both short- and long-term memory, memory formation, decision-making, and attention/vigilance.
How can you tell if you're getting enough sleep?
You can take a test called the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. If you add your total score (out of a maximum of 24 points), you can get a sense of how sleepy you are, subjectively. (The average person scores around four or five.) There's also an objective test of daytime sleepiness in which an individual has several 20-minute nap opportunities throughout the day. The lower the sleep latency, the greater the "sleep need."
But sometimes you don't feel like you could actually fall asleep during the day, and yet it's still clear you aren't getting enough sleep. Do you find it difficult to get out of bed in the morning? Feel you need coffee to start your day? Find yourself yawning frequently? Feel sluggish, unmotivated, inattentive, or foggy-headed? Find yourself getting sick more often, or unable to perform as well in the gym? You're probably running on too little sleep.
You have a test or project due tomorrow, and you're too stressed to fall asleep. What can you do?
- If you absolutely must study in the hours before bed, make sure that you're not studying in bright light. Light, especially in the blue wavelength, suppresses the secretion of melatonin, a hormone the pineal gland synthesizes to prepare your body for sleep. Computer, tablet, and phone screens are the worst culprits for blue-light exposure onto the retina. Consider downloading the program f.lux, which automatically softens your computer screen's brightness at sunset. You can also try donning a pair of orange glasses to filter out blue light. (Read about the experiment I did on myself!) Try to limit bright light exposure at least one hour before bed.
- Consider deep breathing and mindfulness techniques to relax. I keep a meditation MP3 and a pair of earbuds by my bed every night, just in case. Even on my most stressful nights, following along with the voice's commands is extremely helpful in relaxing me.
- Associate your bed with sleeping (or sex) only. Don't work or study in bed. If you're lying in bed paralyzed with stress and can't fall asleep, get out of bed and find a quiet activity until you're ready to try again. Associating your bed with insomnia will only make you dread bedtime even more each night.
- If your insomnia is chronic (more than three times per week for at least three months), consider seeing a sleep specialist who may prescribe a medication that can suppress your body's stress system, or refer you to a cognitive behavioral therapy specialist for treatment.
So…should you stay up an extra hour working, or give yourself an extra hour of sleep?
I don't think this question needs answering! Physical effects aside, sleep loss makes it difficult to learn, pay attention, and memorize information. Working late at night, to a degree, becomes counterproductive; delaying sleep cuts into our precious slow-wave sleep stage, which is associated with reduced cortisol levels and memory consolidation.
You get one body and one brain in life. Give them enough sleep—it's the single best thing you can do to perform and feel your best every day.


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Certified Nursing Assistant / Emergency Department Technician
Charles Regional Medical Center
- La Plata, MD
- Permanent
- Part-time
Currently Maryland licensure as a Certified Nursing Assistant and current EMT certification are required. Applications with pending licensure will not be accepted. Please include your license number and expiration date in the Licenses section or resume section of the application.
Education & Experience:
- High school diploma or equivalent required.
- One year experience as an EMT-B (current) or Military Corpsman - Emergency Specialty required.
- Knowledge of medical terminology required.
- Emergency Department experience preferred.
- Unit Secretary or clerical experience preferred.
- Current licensure as a Certified Nursing Assistant from the state of Maryland required.
- Certification as an EMT or equivalent of Military Corpsman - Emergency Specialty required.
- Basic Life Support (BLS) certification required.
- Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) preferred or pass a basic arrhythmia exam and have the ability to recognize critical rhythms and seek intervention.
- Demonstrated knowledge and skills to provide care appropriate to the age of patients served is required.
- Demonstrated knowledge of the principles of growth and development over the life span and the ability to collect data reflective of the patients requirements relative to his or her age specific needs is required.
- Demonstrated ability to prioritize work duties required.
- Demonstrated ability to communicate effectively with patients, nurses, physicians, other healthcare professionals and visitors is required.
- The ability to ensure the confidentiality and rights of all patient and departmental documents is required.
- The ability to read and interpret physician orders and other written methods of health care team is essential. Ability to respond to customers inquiries is required.
- He/she must demonstrate spoken English in order to communicate with customers.
- Ability to work with simple mathematical concepts and pass mathematics test.
- Ability to identify problems, collect data, recognize changes regarding patient/family condition and seek intervention by Clinical Nurse appropriately.
Will work in a clean, well-lighted environment. Requires pushing/pulling and lifting equipment, using proper body mechanics, weighing up to and above 100 lbs. up to 40% of the time. Requires lifting and positioning patients weighing up to 300 lbs., using proper body mechanics, with assistance of other staff members, up to 60% of the time. Requires walking and standing approximately 80% of the time, requires sitting, bending, and reaching approximately 20% of the time. Routine exposure to latex. Potential for exposure to blood and/or body substances, communicable diseases, and hazardous materials, requiring the observance of Universal Precautions and safe handling practices.
UM Charles Regional is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer. All qualified applicants will receive consideration for employment without regard to sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, race, color, religion, national origin, disability, protected veteran status, age, or any other characteristic protected by law.
Charles Regional Medical Center


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Explore 2019 GMC Yukon, performance and technology features. We reviews the 2019 GMC Yukon Release where consumers can find detailed information on specs, fuel economy, transmission and safety.
Explore the design, performance and technology features of the 2019 GMC Yukon. See models and pricing, as well as photos and videos. The 2019 GMC Yukon Redesign goes to excess the right kinds of excess to preserve its best-of status. Find out if the new 2019 GMC Yukon coupe takes a step forward in our first-drive review. See photos and get the story at Car and Driver.
2019 GMC Yukon Concept
Reviews, videos, latest news, specs and road tests on the 2019 GMC Yukon. Top Gear reviews the Specs. Terrific refinement, class-leading technology, and incredible interior quality. Want to know more? Read more.
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Ross Orton talks to Nigel Humberstone about his transition from playing drums with Jarvis Cocker into the world of production, remixing and songwriting. His steel city stories include working with Arctic Monkeys & Working Men's Club.
Her ability to balance the human and the technical sides of recording has made Laura Sisk one of the US's most in-demand engineers.
Deep in the Swedish forest, we track down a producer whose work has defined the sound of modern metal.
Mark Linett is the engineer responsible for preserving and enhancing the recorded legacy of America's greatest pop group...
Devin Townsend turned producer because no-one else could capture his ambitious musical ideas. It led him on a 25-year learning curve that shows no sign of ending...
Teenage sensation Billie Eilish has taken the music world by storm — with an album recorded in her brother's bedroom.
From ABC to Yes via Frankie Goes To Hollywood, Trevor Horn produced some of the most iconic records of the 1980s. In this feature video, Trevor talks about the art of record production then and now.
Foals' first foray into self-production yielded not one but two albums — but making them wasn't easy!
MsM's bedroom studio in North London helped put grime on the map. Since then, both engineer and music have gone on to bigger things...
For her eagerly awaited new album, Florence Welch teamed up with one of the world's hottest producers. Emile Haynie and Florence herself describe the making of High As Hope.
The playful, genre-defying sound of Young Fathers reflects an equally unorthodox approach to studio recording.
Central to Atlanta's white-hot rap scene is producer Zaytoven, who brings a West Coast flavour to trap.
When you're recording a Morrissey album, you need to be ready for anything...
Karl Marx predicted that history would repeat itself as farce — but he never saw a role for expert pop parody!
Soulful electronic artist/producer SOHN shows us how he layers up, edits and processes his own vocals, and uses Auto-Tune in an unconventional way to create ear-catching textural and percussive elements.
Not many dance acts start life as string quartets — but Clean Bandit's fusion of classical and electronic music has powered them to worldwide success.
The challenge of creating a glass-themed sound world for her third album led Agnes Obel to explore some little-used instruments and techniques.
Like their debut, Bastille's Wild World was recorded in a South London basement — but this time around, the band were global superstars.
Singer, songwriter and producer Jack Garratt is only 24, yet his debut album Phase still draws on a decade's experience in the music business.
Grammy-winning producer/engineer Vance Powell welcomes SOS to Sputnik Sound in Nashville to show us how he recorded a track for rock act Tyler Bryant & The Shakedown.
PJ Harvey's long-term co-producer John Parish is uncompromising in his willingness to experiment — even with the world watching!
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Commercial and Residential property! Buy your house and have your business at the same place. House features 3 bedrooms, 2 bathrooms and big living room. Bedrooms are very spacious and tile through the entire house. More than 1/3 of an acre! Plenty of storage and extra buildings for business. Fence in the front and huge backyard! First time home buyer programs available with $0 down payment available!
Listing courtesy of Home Pros Real Estate Group.


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Original Research ARTICLE
An Experimental Evaluation of Competing Age-Predictions of Future Time Perspective between Workplace and Retirement Domains
- 1Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
- 2Quantitative Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States
Future time perspective (FTP) is defined as "perceptions of the future as being limited or open-ended" (Lang and Carstensen, 2002; p. 125). The construct figures prominently in both workplace and retirement domains, but the age-predictions are competing: Workplace research predicts decreasing FTP age-change, in contrast, retirement scholars predict increasing FTP age-change. For the first time, these competing predictions are pitted in an experimental manipulation of subjective life expectancy (SLE). A sample of N = 207 older adults (age 45–60) working full-time (>30-h/week) were randomly assigned to SLE questions framed as either 'Live-to' or 'Die-by' to evaluate competing predictions for FTP. Results indicate general support for decreasing age-change in FTP, indicated by independent-sample t-tests showing lower FTP in the 'Die-by' framing condition. Further general-linear model analyses were conducted to test for interaction effects of retirement planning with experimental framings on FTP and intended retirement; While retirement planning buffered FTP's decrease, simple-effects also revealed that retirement planning increased intentions for sooner retirement, but lack of planning increased intentions for later retirement. Discussion centers on practical implications of our findings and consequences validity evidence in future empirical research of FTP in both workplace and retirement domains.
Because of longer life expectancies, adults are working or retiring longer, or both (Ilmarinen, 2005). In contrast, foreshortened life expectancies reduce employment or retirement experience. Which phase is impacted, however, is likely influenced by one's motivation to work longer or not. To date, empirical evidence has indicated positive effects of age on both, retirement planning and retirement intentions, i.e., later retirement (Montalto et al., 2000). Functionally, workplace and retirement scholars similarly locate future time perspective (FTP), defined as "perceptions of the future as being limited or open-ended" (Lang and Carstensen, 2002; p. 125), as a mediator between age and respective focal criteria. For example, workplace researchers regard FTP as mediating age effects for retirement intentions (RetirIntent; Henry et al., 2017). Consequently, workplace researchers suggest workplace solutions may reduce FTP's decline and, thereby, retain older knowledge workers by prolonging retirement intentions. On the other hand, retirement scholars regard FTP as mediating age effects for retirement planning (RetirPlan; Hershey and Mowen, 2000)1. Consequently, retirement researchers suggest mindfulness solutions may strengthen FTP's increase and, thereby, prompt earlier retirement planning by accelerating preparations for wellbeing in retirement.
The predicted directions of the FTP-mechanism with age, however, are competing, such that retirement scholars predict increasing FTP with age (Hershey and Mowen, 2000), whereas workplace scholars predict decreasing FTP with age (Griffin et al., 2012), consistent with inveterate lifespan theories (Carstensen and Lang, 1996, Unpublished). Effectively, the rival hypotheses can be understood from two valid perspectives on workforce aging, (1) Relative aging (as cohort effect), and (2) Absolute aging (as longer life expectancies). Although both perspectives are reasonable, the implication from 'absolute' aging is that chronological age's explanatory value for developmental predictions will deteriorate continuously (proxy indicator detaches further from longevity complexions). This is evidenced by the fact that absolute aging (work-life and post-work life) will likely continue after the relative aging (graying from Baby Boomer cohort) subsides. Consequently, the substantive value of age-related predictions in both workplace and retirement researches is depreciating. Causally, however, Figure 1 displays the disciplinary sources for the competing age-related predictions for FTP. To date, the competing predictions have not been evaluated (c.f., see Rudolph et al., 2017). As Wang and Schultz (2010, p. 176) described the disjunction between workplace and retirement fields of research, "…very few studies that examined outcomes of retirement have incorporated factors that influenced the original retirement decision…This creates a logic gap because the reasons why people decide to retire would naturally influence how they evaluate outcomes."
FIGURE 1. Lifespan theoretic-disciplinary origins for contradictory age-related predicts for FTP. FTP, future time perspective; SST, socioemotional selectivity theory.
Figure 1 is a good example of how narrow disciplines and misinterpretation of external correlates for construct meaning (rather than internal validity sources) converge to yield static domain structures. That is, conditioning predictions on age for meaningful interpretation of relevant criteria across workplace and retirement domains, requires independence assumptions between work and retirement contexts. Independence of work – retirement domains is intuitively flawed, given the dependence of retirement from a previous worklife. Consequently, age is limitedly meaningful for the growing complexity and overlap of work and retirement contexts. This practical disconnect evidences in probabilistically opposing (directionally competing) age-predictions for FTP concerning the focal criteria of interest (delaying intentions/advancing preparations for retirement).
In contrast to age effects on employment and retirement, much less research attention has been given to its counterpoint, that is, subjective life expectancy (SLE; Griffin et al., 2013). Empirical evidence has indicated that perceptions of remaining time in later stages of life are comparatively better predictors than age for decision processes and transitions, e.g., retirement, (van Solinge and Henkens, 2010). Interestingly, workplace and retirement scholars locate FTP in similar nomological networks vis-à-vis intended retirement (Table 1).
Taken together, current empirical findings suggest that RetirPlan (accelerator) and FTP (delayer) may operate as competing mechanisms on retirement decisions Empirical support for the first mechanism, RetirPlan as-accelerator of workforce withdrawal is well-illustrated by the design of Thaler and Benartzi's (2004) 'Save for Tomorrow' United States retirement pension program. Its dynamic feature, to auto-increase savings contributions over employment, is premised on counteracting increasing discount rate (and retirement delays) as a function of aging. This reasoning is further consistent with recent empirical findings that substantively distinguishes between temporal quantification and domain-specific goal strivings as mechanisms to specific facets of developmental self-regulation (Kornadt et al., 2017).
Regarding the second mechanism, FTP as-delayer of retirement intentions, it has received empirical support from a study that indicated, future-oriented prospections induced escalations-of-commitment (i.e., sunk-cost biases; Strough et al., 2016). Additional, indirect evidence from a meta-analysis of FTP and procrastination reported a moderate-negative association of r = -0.45 (Sirois, 2014). Moreover, mediation tests of perceived stress and positive-affect suggested that positive-affect operates as a significant-mediator between FTP and procrastination; Inclusion of the mediator resulted in the unconditional-direct effect of FTP-procrastination to switch signs (from negative to positive).
Retention of older workers, by aligning workplace conditions with growing 'stability preferences' is premised on counteracting the opportunity cost from workforce continuation at older age; Indeed, workplace conditions typically govern worker wellbeing, and poor quality workplaces render their occupants decremented in wellbeing to levels comparable to, both the unemployed and disabled (ten Have et al., 2015). Extrapolating, a systematic review of the association between the latest economic crisis (i.e., low job mobility opportunity) and workplace stressors found that job insecurity was the strongest correlate with mental health impairments (Mucci et al., 2016).
Synthesizing conceptions across empirical studies, the impacts of: (1) work vs. non-work valuation (affect), and (2) short vs. long time horizons (cognitive), as two mechanisms linking work and retirement has not yet been evaluated in a single study. The goal of the current experiment, therefore, is to pit these competing mechanisms in an evaluative framework by manipulating SLE via attribute-framing conditions. The results are expected to clarify competing age-predictions for FTP across workplace and retirement research domains. Next, we will introduce our SLE manipulation for subsequently deriving our research hypotheses.
The current study evaluates the competing predictions for age-FTP with an attribute-framing manipulation of SLE and simultaneous estimation of FTP and RetirIntent. Recent findings indicate that the framing of SLE questions, as either 'Live-to' or 'Die-by,' results in an SLE difference of approximately 7–10 years (Payne et al., 2013). Examples of the 'Live-to' and 'Die-by' framings are "What is the probability that you currently expect to 'live-to'/'die-by' 95-years of age? The 'Die-by' frame has been found to lower SLE compared to 'Live-to' framings.
Conceptually, we may re-interpret this SLE manipulation as a 'subjective age' manipulation. In this case, if the 'Die-by' frame is successfully replicated so that it lowers SLE, we may interpret this as inducing 'older subjective age.' Consequently, the randomization of participants and comparison on FTP enables us to infer how FTP covaries with different perceptions of one's remaining lifetime/SLE. Restated in the context of formal hypothesis-testing, we hypothesize that the 'Die-by' SLE frame will reduce FTP compared to the 'Live-to' frame.
H1: The 'Die-by' frame will decrease FTP compared to the 'Live-to' frame.
Additionally, we include the variable 'retirement intention' in order to assess the consistency of directional effects across 'work' and 'retirement' domains. Specifically, if we accept retirement to be subsumed by overall age, then it follows that older workers (lower SLE from 'die-by' frame) should report closer proximity to retirement (sooner retirement). Thus, we also hypothesize that the 'Die-by' SLE frame will reduce retirement intentions compared to the 'Live-to' frame.
H2: The 'Die-by' frame will decrease RetirIntent compared to 'Live-to' frame.
Finally, 'retirement planning' is purposefully assessed before randomized treatment assignment (live-to/die-by). Therefore, because 'retirement planning' is domain-specific to 'life after retirement,' we assume that greater planning for this post-work time will reduce the negative effect of lowered SLE on FTP as a 'global' construct. That is, we hypothesize that RetirPlan will operate by interacting with the 'Die-by' frame by buffering its negative effect on FTP.
H3: RetirPlan will interact with the 'Die-by' frame on FTP, such that high RetirPlan will reduce the negative effect.
In contrast, we expect that the domain-specificity of 'retirement planning' and 'retirement intention' to conjoin, so that the hypothesized main-effect of 'sooner retirement' will be strengthened by more retirement planning (assuming planning is proximal of this post-work life). That is, we hypothesize that RetirPlan will operate by interacting with the 'Die-by' frame by strengthening its negative effect on retirement intentions.
H4: RetirPlan will interact with the 'Die-by' frame on RetirIntent, such that high RetirPlan will strengthen the negative effect.
In addition to hypothesizing SLE-manipulation effects via response processes, that is, on mean-level changes of our focal outcomes, we further explore the nomological pattern of correlates with relevant external variables, in particular, the association between RetirPlan and RetirIntent.
Materials and Methods
A sample of N = 207 participated in '2 × 1' between-subjects experimental design. SLE served as between-subjects factor via the framing manipulation ('Live-to' vs. 'Die-by'). Inclusion criteria required that participants be presently working full-time (>30-h/week) for appropriate study of focal retirement variables. Amazon's Mechanical Turks crowdsourcing labor market was used for participant recruitment. Participants received nominal compensation ($1.50) for completion of the online experiment-questionnaire, with an additional incentive offered via a $100 lottery drawing.
Ethical Considerations
This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of 'international-ethical human study guidelines' in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The protocol was approved by the authors' academic institutional review board (Georgia Institute of Technology). All subjects were given written, informed consent prior to participating in the online questionnaire. Additional educational materials on retirement preparation was provided for interested participants on completion of the questionnaire. See, Figure 2 below.
FIGURE 2. Participant flow through online survey protocol. SLE, subjective life expectancy; FTP, future time perspective.
Subjective Life Expectancy
Subjective life expectancy was assessed on a slider-scale with probabilities ranging from 0 to 100. Participants were instructed to use the slider to indicate their probability of living to ages 65, 75, 85, and 95-years old. Instructions varied with experimental condition, so that participants assigned to the 'live-to'/'die-by' condition read, "Using the slider scale below, please indicate the likelihood you currently believe you will 'live-to'/'die-by' 65 / 75 / 85 / 95-years of age. Cronbach's internal reliability was estimated at α = 0.83.
Future Time Perspective
Carstensen and Lang's (1996, unpublished) original 10-item instrument was administered to assess FTP2. Participants indicated their agreement with how "true" each item described themselves using a 7-point Likert-type scale from 1 (Very untrue) to 7 (Very true). A sample item is, "(1) Many opportunities await me in the future." Cronbach's internal reliability was estimated at α = 0.91.
Retirement Intentions
RetirIntent was assessed as a four-item composite of intended retirement age across four domains: 'current employer,' 'career,' 'occupation,' and 'general workforce.' Responses were recorded on a continuous scale. A sample item is, "I intend to retire at age 66–95." Cronbach's internal reliability was estimated at α = 0.89.
Retirement Planning
RetirPlan was assessed with Griffin and Hesketh's (2008) 11-item global measure of planning activities. Participants indicated their behavioral tendency to engage in preparatory activities on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 1 (Not at all) to 5 (A great deal). A sample item is, "Seeking retirement advice about retirement issues." Cronbach's internal reliability was estimated at α = 0.90.
Preliminary response-quality screening, missing-data assessment, and hypotheses testing was conducted in SPSS v23. To test main-effects across our randomly allocated experimental groups, independent-sample t-tests were conducted to compare means on FTP and RetireIntent. High- and low-RetirPlan groups were generated with median-splits on the RetirPlan variable in order to test interaction-hypotheses in our experimental design. In order to test for interaction-effect hypotheses, SPSS's univariate-general linear model procedures were implemented with SLE-experimental condition (Live-to vs. Die-by) and RetPlan groups (high vs. low) entered in a full-factorial model. Type III sums-of-squares were utilized in parameter estimate calculations. Significant-interactions were further inspected with simple pairwise-comparisons of experimental conditions within each level of the data-driven moderator (low/high RetirPlan). Bonferroni's corrections were implemented for managing Type-1 error rates from multiple-comparison tests. The observed-score general linear model was selected over latent-variable approaches3 due to its parsimony, including lower sample size requirements and our focus on competing predictions between specific relations/localized pathways (compared to latent-variables' usage for overall-model comparisons).
Summary sample characteristics are reported in Table 2 below. SLE-manipulation effects were successfully replicated, such that participants in the 'Live-to' condition reported a 10.02% greater chance of living to age 80 compared to the 'Die-by' condition [t(205) = 3.75, p < 0.01, Cohen's d = 0.52]. Notably, we observed a differential correlation between SLE-FTP that is consistent with theoretically competing age-predictions for FTP, r = 0.40(Live)/-0.30(Die). That is, the directional discrepancy may be retraced to 'younger' and 'older' populations that were the foci for early-child development and gerontological theories predating the lifespan framework's practical integration.
Main Effects: Live-to vs. Die-by
Main effect hypotheses received mixed-support. Supporting H1, participants assigned to the 'Die-by' condition reported significantly lower FTP (M = 44.74, SD = 11.15) compared to the 'Live-to' condition (M = 47.92, SD = 13.14); t(205) = 3.44, p = 0.03, Cohen's d = 0.48.
For H2, participants assigned to the 'Die-by' condition also reported lower RetirIntent (M = 2.08, SD = 1.06) compared to the 'Live-to' condition (M = 2.04, SD = 1.14), but the effect was not significant; t(205) = 0.52, p = 0.31, Cohen's d = 0.07. Main effect results are summarized in Figure 3 below as standardized reductions of the 'Die-by' frame compared to the 'Live-to' frame.
FIGURE 3. Main effect of die-by condition on mean FTP and intended retirement. Standardized mean differences reported as path estimates with 95% standardized errors displayed in parenthesis; N = 206; FTP, future time perspective.
Interaction Effects
Interaction hypotheses for RetirPlan were generally supported. Specifically, regarding H3 for RetirPlan's buffering effect of the 'Die-by' frame on FTP, results indicated a significant interaction, F(1,203) = 3.01, p = 0.044. A simple-contrast estimate indicated significance in the hypothesized direction, such that the 'Die-by' frame's negative effect on FTP was limited to low RetirPlan [F(1,203) = 4.27, p = 0.02]. In contrast, for high RetirPlan, the 'Die-by' frame had no effect on FTP [F(1,203) = 0.01, p = 0.96]. FTP's marginal-means used for simple-contrasts are illustrated in the left-panel of Figure 4.
FIGURE 4. Experimental marginal-means of FTP (left) and retirement intention (right) by High/Low planners. n.snon-significant experimental effect (F = 0.01,p = 0.96). ∗p < 0.05 (F = 4.27[left]/F = 4.11[right]). +p < 0.10 (F=2.72). Degrees of freedom between, within = 1,203 for all simple-contrasts.
Regarding H4 for RetirPlan's enhancing effect of the 'Die-by' frame on RetirIntent, results indicated a significant interaction, F(1,203) = 3.40, p = 0.03. A simple-contrast estimate indicated significance in the hypothesized direction, such that the 'Die-by' frame's negative effect on RetirIntent was significant for high RetirPlan [F(1,203) = 4.11, p = 0.04]. For low RetirPlan, an unexpected increase in RetirIntent was also observed, although it was only marginally significant [F(1,203) = 2.72, p = 0.10]. This unexpected cross-over interaction helps to explain the unobservable main-effect for RetirIntent, which would seem to-have been obscured. RetirIntent's marginal means used for these calculations are illustrated in the right-panel of Figure 4.
Finally, Table 3 below summarizes descriptive statistics for all simple-pairwise comparisons. Specifically, each row of Table 3 lists the mean differences of all 2 × 2 combinations of low/high RetirPlan for FTP and RetirIntent with Bonferroni-adjusted 95% confidence intervals [CIs] reported.
TABLE 3. Pairwise-comparisons of experimental mean-differences for FTP and RetirIntent by Low/High plan groups.
Exploratory Analyses
In addition to mean-level effects on focal outcomes, the patterning of external correlates was different across 'Live-to' and 'Die-by' conditions. Specifically, for the 'Live-to' condition, a significant positive correlation was observed between RetirPlan-RetirIntent, r = 0.19, p = 0.04. In contrast, for the 'Die-by' condition, a significant negative correlation was observed, r = -0.22, p = 0.03. The latter finding supports views of RetirPlan as a mechanism that accelerates workforce withdrawal (earlier retirement).
Given the patterning of external correlates, we considered additional explanatory causes for our experimental findings to support substantive interpretation of RetirPlan's moderation effects. First, we considered if the FTP main effect may be attributable to its sensitivity to 'careless responding' based on mix-scored items (positive- / reverse-scored). An independent-samples t-test was re-conducted, excluding the j = 3 reverse-scored FTP items. There remained a significant difference for the FTP subscore in the hypothesized direction across 'Live-to' (M = 33.11, SD = 8.33) and 'Die-by' (M = 30.69, SD = 9.67) conditions; t(205) = 3.84, p = 0.03, Cohen's d = 0.54. The pattern of interactions also remained unchanged in terms of direction and statistical significance.
Because our RetirIntent outcome comprised no reverse-scored items, we examined if the non-significant main effect would hold across a median-split on survey duration (i.e., 'time on test'). An independent-samples t-test was re-conducted separately for the low-Time and high-Time groups. The non-significant difference for RetirIntent remained for both the low-Time [t(101) = 0.46, p = 0.65, Cohen's d = 0.06] and high-Time [t(103) = 0.85, p = 0.40, Cohen's d = 0.12] groups. The pattern of interactions also remained unchanged in terms of direction and statistical significance. We summarize our findings and briefly elaborate their implications for future work-retirement integrative research in the section "Discussion" below.
The current study identified a construct, FTP, with disproportionate external validity evidence in a shifting applied context, specifically, workers and retirees. The mono-operation bias inherent to two contrarian theoretical origins of FTP across functionally dissimilar populations (workers and retirees), thus, vesseled weak validity evidence and poor verisimilitude (Cronbach, 1988). We evaluated the rival age-related hypotheses with an experimental SLE-framing manipulation.
Summarizing our findings, first, we successfully replicated the SLE-framing manipulation and observed the opposing relations between SLE-FTP, which was positive in the 'Live-to' condition (r = 0.40) and negative in the 'Die-by' condition (r = -0.30). For hypotheses, H1 was supported with a significant negative effect of the 'Die-by' condition on FTP. The finding generally support inveterate lifespan theories that postulate age-related decline in FTP (Carstensen and Lang, 1996, Unpublished). Furthermore, we received support for FTP's hypothesized interaction with RetirPlan, such that participants reporting more RetirPlan were unaffected by the 'Die-by' framing's negative impact on FTP.
On the other hand, H2 pertaining to RetirIntent was unsupported by our findings. There was no significant difference between SLE-frames for RetirIntent. Further inspection of the interaction hypothesis (H4) revealed an unexpected cross-over effect, providing some indication for obscuring the hypothesized main effect. Contrast analyses supported our hypothesis for RetirPlan's strengthening of the negative 'Die-by' effect. On the other hand, we also observed an unanticipated positive effect of the 'Die-by' condition on RetirIntent for low-RetirPlan. The cross-over effect could be interpreted as a delay of RetirIntent when shorter SLE is combined with inadequate preparation. This interpretation is consistent with recent empirical findings that indicate FTP's dual-mechanism of prompting planning and inducing sunk-cost biases/escalations of commitment with current conditions. That is, in the same way that job characteristics may enhance occupational FTP, contracted lifespans may induce avoidance of retirement's unknown, if ill-prepared, event space.
Taken together, we hope that the current findings hold practical import for bettering the practice of career counseling and job crafting amid longer working lives. For example, practical implications of this experimental study intersect the age-integration of social institutions and domain-integration of work-life balance. To this end, results should inform ongoing areas of research on related lifespan concepts – For example, 'active aging' (World Health Organization, 2002), 'aging-in-place' (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011), and 'successful aging in the workplace' (Krause, 2001).
We aimed to evaluate contradictory predictions for age-related changes in FTP. Although, we found support for negative age-related predictions for FTP, we also observed a substantive content responsitivity effect (Nichols et al., 1989). A tenable mechanism to explain such effects stem from empirical findings on mortality salience, specifically, its impact on identified determinants of motivated responding. For example, mortality salience is positively associated with prosocial attitudes (Jonas et al., 2002) and trust beliefs (Paulhus, 1983). The cognitive context of our SLE elicitations systematically impacted response processes, in turn, un-differentiable main effects were observed on RetirIntent. On the other hand, we observed an unexpected crossover interaction, such that participants in the 'Die-by' reporting low RetPlan reported significantly later RetirIntent. Although exploratory analyses were conducted to increase substantive inference from our findings, important limitations are noteworthy for cautious interpretation. For example, from a response-modeling perspective, our focus on latent-structural relations limited our examination of potential response biases to classical approaches, such as conditioning on standard- and reverse-scored items (Colsher and Wallace, 1989). More advanced item response theory (IRT) models, however, have recently been published, enabling researchers to precisely account for wording effects and model directly, any number of suspected response styles (e.g., midpoint, extreme, acquiescence; Falk and Cai, 2016). Second, regarding RetIntent, we presumed that our sample of older employees anticipated a future withdrawal from the workforce toward retirement. It is tenable, however, that low-RetPlan participants did not represent inadequate- or ill-preparation but, rather, a deliberate intention to never retire.
Future Directions
The continually aging workforce puts a premium on organizational and retirement scholars' specification of lifespan motivation theories (Löckenhoff, 2012). The psychological construct of FTP figures prominently in both areas of research; for work scholars, the socio-emotional selectivity theory (SST) of lifespan motivation predicts that FTP decreases with age (Carstensen and Lang, 1996, Unpublished). In opposition, retirement scholars employ a psycho-motivational model, adapted from a theory of lifespan planning that predicts FTP increases with age (Hershey, 2004).
Sophisticated IRT models offer explanatory testing of suspected response biases for self-report measures. For example, Kam and Meyer (2015) recently examined the broad implications of item valence (i.e., standard- and reverse-scoring) for, both factor loading-patterns and bivariate external correlates. Future research should continue to integrate cognitive context of the assessment scenario (including response instructions/item framing) with IRT models sensitive to potential response styles or construct distortion.
Regarding workplace adaptations of FTP, redesigning work to motivate older employees' may not function as increase of occupational-FTP, rather, as a decrease in waiting costs, as Paglieri observes, "Costs of delay should be taken into account, on par with delay, in determining intertemporal choices. From this viewpoint, refusing to sustain the costs of a delay is not the same thing as devaluing a reward because it is delayed" (Paglieri, 2013, p. 371). A future experimental study examines this possibility (alternative mechanism) with a battery of decisional delay-discounting, psychophysical patience tests, and the FTP questionnaire (see also, Scheibe and Zacher, 2013). Summarizing, the new context of aging workforces and retirees presents an opportunity for theory elaboration in future research agendas (Fisher and Aguinis, 2017).
The divide between work and retirement scholarship may be a reification of initial schisms between lifespan researches (early childhood vs. gerontological). The current authors concur with Shepard's (1993) articulation of consequential validity regarding unintended consequences of measures, specifically, that it is a "logical extension" (p. 426) of Campbell's (1960) advocacy for rival hypotheses in validity evaluations. Understanding of the aging labor force, by extension, requires a more comprehensive understanding of the motivations for retiring and for continuation. Should longer life expectancies abide the relative-cohort effect, then age-based predictions may depreciate in usefulness amid ever-longer and more complex employment lives. The contribution of the current experiment's findings is that, not all work redesigns will encourage adequate planners to forego retirement, and not all who continue working past retirement are meaningfully present at work.
Author Contributions
MK designed the experiment, recruited and ran participants, and conducted primary analyses. SE provided advanced-methodological consultancy and conducted expository write-up.
Conflict of Interest Statement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Supplementary Material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02316/full#supplementary-material
- ^See Supplementary Appendix Table S1 of FTP-criteria correlates.
- ^See Supplementary Appendix Table S2 for all FTP items.
- ^Model-comparisons were also conducted with structural equation modeling (SEM) without substantive change to parameter estimates and nominal significance levels.
- ^Similar analyses were conducted in an ordinary-least squares regression framework by computing a 'Live/Die × RetirPlan' multiplicative-interaction term. The equivalent results are reported here for complementary interpretation. Specifically, the 'Live/Die × RetPlan' regression-interaction coefficient was estimated at, b = 0.24, p = 0.04, supporting H3 and RetPlan's buffering effect on FTP. Additionally, regarding H4 and RetirIntent, results indicated a significant interaction, such that the 'Live/Die × RetPlan' regression-interaction coefficient was estimated at, b = 0.26, p = 0.03.
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Keywords: subjective life expectancy (SLE), future time perspective (FTP), experiment, rival hypotheses, theory elaboration
Citation: Kerry MJ and Embretson SE (2018) An Experimental Evaluation of Competing Age-Predictions of Future Time Perspective between Workplace and Retirement Domains. Front. Psychol. 8:2316. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02316
Received: 31 August 2017; Accepted: 20 December 2017;
Published: 09 January 2018.
Edited by:Giulio Arcangeli, University of Florence, Italy
Reviewed by:Marco Tomietto, Azienda per l'Assistenza Sanitaria n. 5 "Friuli Occidentale", Italy
Vincenzo Cupelli,
Copyright © 2018 Kerry and Embretson. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Matthew J. Kerry, firstname.lastname@example.com


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