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The Job Satisfaction-Job Performance Relationship: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review
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Psychological Bulletin Copyright 2(X)1 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 2001, Vol. 127. No. 3. 376-407 (XB3-2909/01/S5.00 DOI: I0.1037//0033-2909.I27.3.376 The Job Satisfaction-Job Performance Relationship: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review Timothy A. Judge Carl J. Thoresen University of Iowa Tulane University Joyce E. Bono Gregory K. Patton University of Iowa University of North Dakota A qualitative and quantitative review of the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance is provided. The qualitative review is organized around 7 models that characterize past research on the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance. Although some models have received more support than have others, research has not provided conclusive confirmation or disconfirmation of any model, partly because of a lack of assimilation and integration in the literature. Research devoted to testing these models waned following 2 meta-analyses of the job satisfaction-job performance relation- ship. Because of limitations in these prior analyses and the misinterpretation of their findings, a new meta-analysis was conducted on 312 samples with a combined N of 54.417. The mean true correlation between overall job satisfaction and job performance was estimated to be .30. In light of these results and the qualitative review, an agenda for future research on the satisfaction-performance relationship is provided. The study of the relationship between job satisfaction and job have arisen, we provide both a qualitative and a quantitative performance is one of the most venerable research traditions in review of the literature. Thus, the article is organized into three industrial-organizational psychology. This relationship has been major sections. First, we qualitatively review past research on the described as the "Holy Grail" of industrial psychologists (Landy, job satisfaction-job performance relationship. In this section, we 1989). Indeed, interest in the link between workplace attitudes and briefly summarize previous reviews of the literature and then productivity goes back at least as far as the Hawthorne studies consider various conceptualizations of the satisfaction-perfor- (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939), and the topic continues to be mance relationship. Second, we report on the results of a meta- written about to this day. Although the area has not lacked for analysis that remedies limitations in past meta-analytic reviews qualitative (Brayfield & Crockett, 1955; Herzberg, Mausner, and provides the most comprehensive evidence to date on the Peterson, & Capwell, 1957; Locke, 1970; Schwab & Cummings, magnitude of the relationship between job satisfaction and job 1970) or quantitative (laffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985; Petty, Mc- performance. Finally, in light of our qualitative and quantitative Gee, & Cavender, 1984) reviews, these reviews deserve some reviews, we provide suggestions for future research that could scrutiny. Moreover, there have been many developments in the further understanding of the nature of the satisfaction-performance past several years that merit renewed discussion and integration of relationship. this literature. Accordingly, the purpose of the present article is to reexamine Past Research on the Job Satisfaction- the state of the literature concerning the relationship between job Job Performance Relationship satisfaction and job performance. Given the breadth and complex- ity of the literature, as well as the nature of some of the issues that The potential linkage between employee attitudes and perfor- mance was considered in earnest in the 1930s, coinciding with (and as a result of) the Hawthorne studies and the ensuing human relations movement. Although the Hawthorne studies are com- Timothy A. Judge and Joyce E. Bono, Department of Management and monly credited with emphasizing a linkage between employee Organizations, University of Iowa; Carl J. Thoresen. Department of Psy- attitudes and performance, researchers were more circumspect in chology, Tulane University; Gregory K. Patton, Management Department. their conclusions than most assume (e.g., Roethlisberger, 1941). It University of North Dakota. is clear, however, that the human relations movement stimulated Joyce E. Bono is now at the Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota. interest in the relationship. Following the human relations move- We thank Frank L. Schmidt for his comments that inspired this study. ment, the most influential narrative review of the job satisfaction- Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Timothy job performance relationship was published by Brayfield and A. Judge, who is now at the Department of Management, Warrington Crockett (1955). In this article, the authors reviewed studies relat- College of Business, University of Florida. Gainesville, Florida 32611. ing job satisfaction to job performance as well as to a number of Electronic mail may be sent to email@example.com. other behavioral outcomes (accidents, absence, and turnover). 376
JOB SATISFACTION AND JOB PERFORMANCE 377 Brayfield and Crockett concluded that there was not much of a Job performance Model 1 Job satisfaction relationship between job satisfaction and performance, labeling it as "minimal or no relationship" (p. 405). The Brayfield and Crock- ett review was limited by the very small number of published studies available for review at that time (only nine studies were reviewed that reported a correlation between individual job satis- faction and job performance) and the general subjectivity of qual- Model 2 Job satisfaction Job performance itative reviews. In spite of these shortcomings, Brayfield and Crockett's article was perhaps the most frequently cited review in this area of research prior to 1985. Since the Brayfield and Crockett (1955) review, several other influential narrative reviews have been published (Herzberg et al., 1957; Locke, 1970; Schwab & Cummings, 1970; Vroom, 1964). Model 3 Job satisfaction > Job performance These reviews differed greatly in their orientation and, to some degree, in the optimism they expressed regarding the satisfaction- performance relationship, with Herzberg et al. being the most optimistic. The main gist of two of these reviews (Locke, 1970; Schwab & Cummings, 1970) was to issue a strong call for theory- Model 4 driven investigations of the satisfaction-performance relationship. In response to these reviews, researchers began to consider more closely the nature of the relationship, giving particular consider- ation to factors that might moderate or mediate the relationship. Accordingly, in the next section of the article, we group these Model 5 investigations into seven models of the satisfaction-performance relationship and review research that has been conducted on these functional forms. Nature of the Job Satisfaction- Model 6 Job Performance Relationship There are at least seven different ways in which the satisfaction- performance relationship has been specified. A graphical depiction of the different functional forms is provided in Figure 1. These theoretical perspectives previously have not been reviewed to- Model 7 Job satisfaction Job performance gether; accordingly, below we provide a review of each of these perspectives. Before each of these models is discussed, however, a brief discussion of the typical means through which studies inves- Affect Performance tigating the satisfaction-performance relationship have been con- ducted is warranted. By far, the most dominant methodology has Figure 1. Models of the relationship between job satisfaction and job involved the concurrent investigation of these two variables. performance. (Note that in Models 4 and 5, C denotes a third variable.) (However, as we note in discussing Model 6, the correlation between satisfaction and performance is not the focus of the vast majority of studies that have shown a correlation between the logical grounds) any unmeasured variables that could spuriously constructs.) In such studies, employees are asked about current influence the hypothesized relationship (Cook & Campbell, 1979). satisfaction levels, and these responses are correlated with super- Thus, though the studies in Models 1-3 (reviewed below) are visory assessments of job performance, organizational perfor- purportedly causal, rarely are the assumptions necessary to draw mance records (e.g., sales, productivity), and the like. Some stud- causal inferences satisfied. ies have made use of longitudinal, panel, or cross-lagged designs Perhaps because of the logistical difficulties associated with to investigate the satisfaction-performance relationship (e.g., Ba- conducting such studies in field settings, there also have been only gozzi, 1980; Sheridan & Slocum, 1975; Siegel & Bowen. 1971; a handful of quasi-experimental studies in the satisfaction-perfor- Wanous, 1974), but such studies have been rare. Causal inferences mance literature. Some of these studies have attempted to increase based on cross-sectional data represent a contentious issue in the satisfaction-performance correlation in a "real" work setting nearly all areas of psychology (James, Mulaik, & Brett, 1982), and through some theoretically justified intervention, such as the use of the legitimacy of drawing causal conclusions based on hypothe- contingent versus noncontingent reward schedules for perfor- sized models with cross-sectional data is directly dependent on the mance (e.g., Orpen, 1981, 1982a). Other studies have investigated theoretical appropriateness of the model in question. Likewise, the the effectiveness of organizational interventions on raising levels use of longitudinal or panel designs does not ensure legitimate of both satisfaction and performance, although the magnitude of causal interpretations—one must control for (or at least rule out on the relationship between these two variables was not the focus of
378 JUDGE, THORESEN, BONO, AND PATTON these studies. For example, Oldham, Cummings, Mischel, these theories tend to be completely independent of the planned Schmidtke, and Zhou (1995) examined the effects of having em- behavior models that dominate attitude —» behavior research. Per- ployees listen to music using personal stereo headsets on produc- haps not surprisingly, then, the theoretical rationale for the perfor- tivity, satisfaction, and a host of other work responses. It is unclear mance -> satisfaction relationship also is quite different from the from these studies whether or not there were unmeasured factors basis for the opposite link. Although there are differences in these that could have affected the selection of employees into experi- explanations, broadly construed the performance —» satisfaction mental versus control groups (Cook & Campbell, 1979). model is derived from the assumption that performance leads to valued outcomes that are satisfying to individuals. Model I : Job Satisfaction Causes Job Performance Expectancy-based theories of motivation generally stipulate that satisfaction follows from the rewards produced by performance This model posits a causal effect of job satisfaction on job (Naylor, Pritchard, & Ilgen, 1980; Vroom, 1964). Lawler and performance. This is probably the oldest specification of the rela- Porter (1967), expectancy theorists themselves, argued that per- tionship and is often attributed to the human relations movement. formance would lead to job satisfaction through the provision of As G. Strauss (1968) commented, "Early human relationists intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. As these authors noted, "Briefly viewed the morale-productivity relationship quite simply: higher stated, good performance may lead to rewards, which in turn lead morale would lead to improved productivity" (p. 264). This model to satisfaction" (p. 23). Like expectancy theorists, Locke (1970) is implicitly grounded in the broader attitudes literature in social viewed satisfaction as resulting from performance, but in this case psychology. The premise that attitudes lead to behavior is a prom- satisfaction was viewed as a function of goal-directed behavior and inent theme in the literature, and most attitude researchers assume value attainment. Even advocates of intrinsic motivation would that attitudes carry with them behavioral implications. Fishbein implicitly stipulate an effect of performance on satisfaction. Deci and Ajzen (1975), for example, defined an attitude as a "learned and Ryan's (1985) self-determination theory, for example, argues predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavor- that satisfaction follows from the rewards that result from behavior able manner with respect to a given object" (p. 6). Fishbein (1973) (though they also argued that the motivations for the behavior are also noted that attitude measures "should be consistently related to important to this process). the pattern of behaviors that the individual engages in with respect Compared with research stipulating a unidirectional effect of job to the attitude object" (p. 22). More recently, Eagly and Chaiken satisfaction on job performance, more studies have posited a (1993) concluded, "In general, people who evaluate an attitude unidirectional effect of job performance on job satisfaction. We are object favorably tend to engage in behaviors that foster or support aware of 10 studies that have investigated such a link. In 4 of the it, and people who evaluate an attitude object unfavorably tend to studies (S. P. Brown, Cron, & Leigh, 1993; Darden, Hampton, & engage in behaviors that hinder or oppose it" (p. 12). Following Howell, 1989; MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Ahearne, 1998; Stumpf this logic, attitudes toward the job should be related to behaviors & Hartman, 1984), job performance had a significant causal effect on the job, the most central of which is performance on the job. on job satisfaction. In 6 of the studies (Behrman & Perreault, 1984; Surprisingly, however, outside of the causal studies that have Birnbaum & Somers, 1993; S. P. Brown & Peterson, 1994; Du- investigated a reciprocal relationship between satisfaction and binsky & Hartley, 1986; Dubinsky & Skinner, 1984; Hampton, performance (Model 3—see below), we are aware of only two studies that have specifically stipulated a unidirectional causal Dubinsky, & Skinner, 1986), there was no significant effect. Thus, effect of job satisfaction on job performance. Keaveney and Nel- as in the job satisfaction —» job performance studies, results of son (1993), in testing a complex model of the interrelationship studies testing the job performance -^job satisfaction relationship among numerous attitudes (intrinsic motivation orientation, role are inconsistent. Several caveats are in order when interpreting conflict, role ambiguity, psychological withdrawal), found a job these results. First, as before, though these studies are ostensibly satisfaction —> job performance path coefficient of .12 (ns) in a causal, this does not mean that the associations are proven to be relatively saturated model involving these attitudes; a simpler causally valid. Second, in the cases in which job performance did model provided a much stronger (.29) but still nonsignificant not have a unique effect on job satisfaction, one cannot conclude coefficient. Shore and Martin (1989) found that when regressing that no association exists. In fact, in many of these studies, there supervisory ratings of job performance on job satisfaction and was a significant correlation between the two constructs, but the organizational commitment, job satisfaction explained more incre- effect was reduced by the relative influence of other variables, or mental variance in the performance of professionals (A^?2 = .07, the effect was mediated through other constructs (e.g., in S. P. p < .05) and clerical workers (A/?2 = .06, p < .05) than did Brown & Peterson, 1994, a .31, p < .01, correlation became a .04, commitment (A/?2 = .01 in both samples, ns). Thus, few studies ns, performance —> satisfaction path coefficient when effort and have posited a unidirectional effect of job satisfaction on job role conflict also were modeled to influence job satisfaction). performance, and the findings of those studies are inconclusive.' 1 As noted by a reviewer, studies that measure performance subsequent Model 2: Job Performance Causes Job Satisfaction to satisfaction implicitly assume Model 1, and studies that measure satis- faction after performance implicitly assume Model 2. However, as Siegel Though most attitude-behavior research in psychology has as- and Bowen (1971) documented 30 years ago and we reaffirm below, very sumed that the link is from attitudes to behavior, this view has not few satisfaction-performance studies are longitudinal, and most of these gone unchallenged. Olson and Zanna (1993) reviewed several do not explicitly model a causal relationship between satisfaction and theories in social psychology that argue attitudes follow behavior; performance.
JOB SATISFACTION AND JOB PERFORMANCE 379 Finally, and somewhat curiously, most (8 of 10) of these studies lowed to influence both. Several studies have suggested that self- were published in marketing journals. Thus, the generalizability of esteem might explain the association between job satisfaction and the results is unclear. job performance. Pierce, Gardner, Cummings, and Dunham (1989) found that self-esteem was related to both job satisfaction and job Model 3: Job Satisfaction and Job Performance Are performance. Further, Gardner and Pierce (1998) found that job satisfaction and job performance were significantly related (r = Reciprocally Related .27, p < .01), but once organization-based self-esteem was al- Models of the reciprocal relationship between job satisfaction lowed to influence both, there was no significant relation between and job performance have no distinct theoretical foundation. satisfaction and performance. Keller (1997) found that a signifi- Rather, they are hybrid models of the previous two approaches, cant satisfaction-performance correlation became nonsignificant ostensibly accepted by those who believe that both theoretical once job involvement and organizational commitment were con- explanations are plausible, that performance can be both satisfying trolled. A significant satisfaction-performance correlation also has and, in turn, caused by satisfaction. Although reciprocal models been rendered nonsignificant when controlling for trust in man- may well find unique justification in each literature, further theo- agement (Rich, 1997) and participation in decision-making retical grounding seems important. For example, if the relationship (Abdel-Halim, 1983). is reciprocal, how does the reciprocation work? A dynamic model Several caveats must be kept in mind when interpreting these seems necessary to firmly ground such an approach, yet we are results. First, the purpose of most of these studies was not to aware of no dynamic models in the literature. Perhaps Schwab and investigate the spuriousness of the job satisfaction-job perfor- Cummings (1970) came the closest to an elucidation of a dynamic mance relationship. Accordingly, other—more theoretically sa- model in their attempt to adapt March and Simon's (1958) model lient—variables not measured in the aforementioned studies may to the satisfaction-performance relationship. lend additional insight into the satisfaction-performance relation- Five studies have investigated the possibility of a reciprocal ship. Second, the purported causal effects found in these studies relationship between job satisfaction and job performance. In these may not be valid (i.e., failure to satisfy the assumptions required to studies, job satisfaction and job performance are related either in a make causal inferences may have rendered the conclusions in- cross-sectional nonrecursive causal model, or in a cross-lagged valid). Finally, a nonsignificant direct relationship between job correlational model, where Time 2 job satisfaction is regressed on satisfaction and job performance does not mean that there is not a Time 1 job satisfaction and Time 1 job performance, and Time 2 meaningful relationship between job satisfaction and job perfor- job performance is regressed on Time 1 job performance and mance—it might simply mean the relationship is mediated by Time 1 job satisfaction. Two of these studies (Bagozzi, 1980; other variables (we address this issue later in the article). Siegel & Bowen, 1971) have suggested that job performance leads to job satisfaction but not the reverse. Two other studies provided Model 5: The Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and some support for a reciprocal relationship (mutual causal effects Job Performance Is Moderated by Other Variables between job satisfaction and job performance). Specifically, Sheri- dan and Slocum's (1975) study yielded partial support for a By far the most common means of investigating the job reciprocal relationship; Wanous (1974) found support for a recip- satisfaction-job performance relationship has involved the use of rocal relationship, but it depended on the type of satisfaction— moderator variables. Perhaps the most frequently investigated for extrinsic satisfaction, satisfaction —» performance, whereas moderator is reward contingency. Numerous studies have hypoth- for intrinsic satisfaction, performance —> satisfaction. Finally, esized that job performance should affect job satisfaction only to Prestwich (1980) found no significant causal effect in either di- the extent that people are compensated based on their performance. rection. Some of these studies were cross-sectional (e.g., Bagozzi, The logic of this argument is that, assuming pay is valued by 1980), and some were longitudinal (e.g., Sheridan & Slocum, employees, high performance should be satisfying (or low perfor- 1975; Siegel & Bowen, 1971). Although the results of these mance dissatisfying) to the extent that pay is linked to perfor- studies are somewhat inconsistent, four of the five studies suggest mance. Although this proposal generally was couched in terms of a causal effect of job performance on job satisfaction, and two of operant conditioning (Cherrington, Reitz, & Scott, 1971; Orpen, the five suggest a causal effect of job satisfaction on job 1981, 1982a), this need not (and perhaps should not) be the case. performance. Locke (1970) hypothesized that value attainment would moderate the performance-satisfaction relationship, such that performance is Model 4: The Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and satisfying to the extent that it leads to important work values. Thus, Job Performance Is Spurious a strong pay-performance contingency would make those who value pay satisfied because performance leads to valued rewards. A spurious correlation is observed when the relationship be- Locke's (1970) hypothesis exposes another limitation of the pay- tween two variables is due to the relation of these variables to a for-performance contingency hypothesis. Pay is only one of many third, unmeasured variable (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). Although few job rewards, and research indicates a weak correlation between pay studies have formally tested the hypothesis that the job and job satisfaction (Spector, 1997). Employees report that they satisfaction-job performance relationship is spurious, several stud- value intrinsic rewards such as the nature of the work itself more ies support such an inference. S. P. Brown and Peterson (1993) than pay (Jurgensen, 1978). Furthermore, tests of the reward found that a nonzero relationship between job satisfaction and job contingency hypothesis have ignored the possibility that perfor- performance became nonsignificant when role ambiguity was al- mance itself may be intrinsically satisfying to individuals. Despite
380 JUDGE. THORESEN. BONO, AND PATTON these limitations, in a review of this literature, Podsakoff and number of studies attests to the popularity of the moderator per- Williams (1986) found that the general satisfaction-job perfor- spective, little assimilation has occurred. mance relationship was somewhat stronger in studies in which rewards were linked to performance (mean r = .27) than in studies where there was no performance-pay contingency (mean /• = .17). Model 6: There Is No Relationship Between Job Another potential moderator of the job satisfaction-job perfor- Satisfaction and Job Performance mance relationship is job complexity or intrinsic job characteris- Of all of the studies that report a correlation between job tics. This moderator is similar to the pay-performance contingency satisfaction and job performance, only a minority fall into the five moderator in that both deal with work rewards. The distinction is models reviewed above (i.e., only a few posit any kind of a that job complexity is intrinsic whereas pay is extrinsic; however, relationship between satisfaction and performance). Thus, most the direction of the effect should be the same. Namely, performing studies that include job satisfaction and job performance treat them well in an interesting or stimulating job should be intrinsically as separate variables that have no direct relationship to one an- satisfying, whereas performing well in a repetitive or boring job other. For example. Greenberger, Strasser, Cummings, and Dun- should be less rewarding (Baird, 1976). Only three studies have ham (1989) investigated the causal relationship between personal tested this proposition, and substantial differences in the nature of control and job satisfaction, and between personal control and job the studies make the results difficult to assimilate. One of the performance, but did not investigate the relationship between job difficulties is that two of the studies (Ivancevich, 1978, 1979), in satisfaction and job performance. Authors might ignore the satis- addition to testing the moderating role of job complexity, also faction-performance relationship, while including the two con- investigated the causal directionality of the relationship. A study structs in their study, for different reasons. For example, authors that posits joint causal effects, in the presence of a moderator might be convinced there is no relationship between job satisfac- variable, is a complicated proposition. Advances in causal model- tion and job performance, and/or they might believe that investi- ing in the last 20 years might facilitate future tests of the gating the relationship between the constructs is beyond the scope relationship. of their study. Although either of these assumptions might be valid Beyond the pay-performance contingency, the most commonly (we address the first assumption—no relationship between satis- investigated moderator of the satisfaction-performance relation- faction and performance—shortly), studies operating from either ship is self-esteem. Korman's (1970) self-consistency theory pre- of these assumptions are limited in what they can tell us about the dicts that individuals will be most satisfied when engaging in those nature of the relationship between job satisfaction and job behaviors that are consistent with their self-image. Thus, the performance. relationship between satisfaction and performance should depend on self-esteem, such that only for an individual with high self- esteem is performance satisfying (high performance would not Model 7: Alternative Conceptualizations of Job necessarily be satisfying to individuals with low self-esteem be- Satisfaction and/or Job Performance cause it is inconsistent with their self-perceived adequacy). Kor- man's theory has been reviewed by Dipboye (1977), who sug- The next three models of the relationship between job satisfac- gested that evidence provided "very weak" (p. 1 15) support for this tion and job performance are similar in that they argue that it aspect of the theory. Our reading of the literature since Dipboye's makes little sense to consider job satisfaction as related to job review suggests mixed support for the theory. Some studies appear performance in the traditional way. Rather, they argue that the to be supportive (Inkson, 1978; Jacobs & Solomon, 1977), others general concept that attitudes lead to performance has merit, but unsupportive (Kaldenberg & Becker, 1991; Tharenou & Harker, only when attitudes and/or performance are reconceptualized. Col- 1984), and still others partially supportive (Dipboye, Zultowski, lectively, these models are depicted as Model 7 in Figure 1. Dewhirst, & Arvey, 1979; E. M. Lopez, 1982). It would not be fair Reconceptualizing attitudes. In response to the apparently low to conclude that the theory is without support, nor would it be satisfaction-performance relationship, some researchers have re- accurate to maintain that Korman's theory is wholly supported. cast the satisfaction-performance hypothesis in terms of the rela- Myriad other moderators of the satisfaction-performance rela- tionship between emotions and performance (George & Brief, tionship have been proposed and/or tested, including attributions 1996; Staw. Sutton. & Pelled. 1994). For example. Staw et al. and organizational tenure (Norris & Niebuhr, 1984), cognitive demonstrated that positive emotions on the job led to favorable job ability (Varca & James-Valutis, 1993), need for achievement outcomes. Why would positive emotions at work predict job (Steers, 1975), career stage (Stumpf & Rabinowitz, 1981). pres- performance where job satisfaction would not? Both theory sure for performance (Ewen, 1973), time pressure (Bhagat, 1982), (George & Brief. 1996) and empirical evidence (Isen & Baron, job fit (Carlson, 1969), occupational group (R. E. Doll & Gunder- 1991) indicate that positive affect is related to employee motiva- son, 1969), dyadic duration (Mossholder, Bedeian, Niebuhr, & tion and other positive aspects of organizational membership. As Wesolowski. 1994), similarity in problem-solving styles (Gold- reviewed by Wright and Staw (1999), employees with positive smith, McNeilly. & Ross, 1989), perceived appropriateness of affect may be more motivated according to several theories of supervisory task allocation decisions (Jabri, 1992), affective dis- motivation, including expectancy theory, goal setting theory, and position (Hochwarter, Perrewe, Ferris, & Brymer, 1999), and attribution theory. Research operationalizing positive emotions situational constraints (Herman, 1973). A problem is that very few through a variety of methods and measures has demonstrated that of these moderators have been tested in more than one study. This positive emotions are related to job performance (Cropanzano, makes it difficult to assess their validity. Thus, though the large James, & Konovsky, 1993: George & Bettenhausen. 1990; Staw &
JOB SATISFACTION AND JOB PERFORMANCE 381 Barsade, 1993; Staw et al., 1994; Wright, Bonett. & Sweeney, scores, drop-out rate, vandalism costs, student satisfaction, teacher 199.3; Wright & Staw. 1999). turnover). In several other studies, all of which were completed in Several researchers have gone so far as to argue that job satis- the same educational context, Ostroff and colleagues have revealed faction fails to predict job performance because extant job satis- reliable relations between job satisfaction and performance at the faction measures reflect more cognitive evaluation than affective organizational level (Ostroff. 1993; Ostroff & Schmitt, 1993). tone (Brief & Roberson. 1989: Organ & Near. 1985). Brief and Recently. Harter and Creglow (1998) linked overall satisfaction to Roberson concluded that three of the most widely used job satis- various indicators (customer satisfaction, profitability, productiv- faction measures differed dramatically in the degree to which they ity, turnover) of the performance of a variety of business units. captured affect. In support of this argument, Brief (1998) used this study to demonstrate that cognitions correlate more strongly (av- Summary erage /• = .70) with job satisfaction than does affect (average /• = .43). However, it seems likely that job beliefs (cognitions) are as Among the seven general models of the job satisfaction-job influenced by affect as job satisfaction itself. Indeed. Brief and performance relationship that have been reviewed herein, the re- Roberson's results, as well as those of another study (Weiss. sults are inconsistent. Part of the confusion may be due to the Nicholas. & Daus, 1999). demonstrate that both cognition and piecemeal nature of the research—many models have been pro- affect contribute to job satisfaction. Nevertheless, the hypothesis posed, but, with a few exceptions, most have not been thoroughly that positive emotions relate to performance has garnered consid- or systematically tested. This has made assimilation and integra- erable support in recent research (see Wright & Staw. 1999). tion difficult. Some of the disarray can be attributed to disagree- Reconcepmalizing performance. Organ (1988) suggested that ment over the nature of the satisfaction-performance relationship. the failure to find a relationship between job satisfaction and If there is little relationship between job satisfaction and job performance is due to the narrow means often used to define job performance, then there can be no direct causal effect of satisfac- performance. Typically, researchers have equated job performance tion on performance or performance on satisfaction (Models 1 and with performance of specific job tasks. However, some researchers 2), nor can there be a reciprocal relationship (Model 3). nor would (see Borman & Motowidlo, 1993) have broadened the perfor- there be a correlation that could be spurious (Model 4). Thus, if mance domain to include citizenship behaviors. Borman. Motow- there is an inconsequential relationship between satisfaction and idlo. Organ, and colleagues have argued that these behaviors, performance, there is little to be gained by testing the validity of which include helping others with their jobs, volunteering for Models 1-4. On the other hand. Models 5-7 could be valid in the additional work, and supporting organizational objectives, shape context of a zero or very weak correlation between individual the social and psychological context in which task performance satisfaction and performance. Thus, an important first step in takes place. Hence. Organ argued that when performance is con- determining the merits of models of the satisfaction-performance ceptualized more broadly—to include both task performance and relationship is to determine the magnitude of the bivariate rela- organizational citizenship behaviors—its correlation with job sat- tionship. Accordingly, in the next section of the article, we review isfaction will increase. Organ based his hypothesis on the argu- meta-analytic evidence of this relationship. ment that job satisfaction measures assess perceived fairness and, based on equity theory, fairness cognitions should correlate more Meta-Analytic Reviews of the Job Satisfaction- strongly with citizenship behaviors than with typical measures of Job Performance Relationship performance. Although support for the assumptions underlying Organ's proposition has not been directly examined, a recent There have been two meta-analyses of the job satisfaction-job meta-analysis supports the link between job satisfaction and citi- performance relationship. Petty et al. (1984) provided a limited zenship, finding nonzero correlations between job satisfaction and meta-analysis of the job satisfaction-job performance relationship. the two major dimensions of organizational citizenship behav- These authors confined their analyses to 16 studies that were iors—altruism (p = .28. A- = 28, where p is the estimated popu- published in five journals from 1964 to 1983 and that included a lation true-score correlation, corrected for unreliability, and k is the measure of overall job satisfaction. Correcting the correlations for number of correlations) and compliance (p = .28. k = 22: Organ unreliability in job satisfaction and job performance. Petty et al. & Ryan, 1995). reported a mean corrected correlation of .31 between the con- Organizational level of analysis. Ostroff (1992) noted that one structs. In interpreting their results. Petty et al. concluded, "The possible reason that the satisfaction-performance relationship has results of the present study indicate that the relationship between not been substantiated is that researchers have considered the individual, overall job satisfaction and individual job performance relationship solely at the individual level of analysis. The individ- is stronger and more consistent than that reported in previous ual level of analysis. Ostroff argued, may be too restrictive in the reviews" (p. 719). Despite the fact that the results of this study way that performance is measured because it fails to take into reveal a stronger satisfaction-performance relationship than had account the wide range of behaviors individuals may enact in been suggested by qualitative reviews, and perhaps because of the response to (dis)satisfaction. This argument is similar to Organ's, limited scope of the meta-analysis, this correlation is rarely cited though we are not aware of any studies that have related job by those currently investigating the satisfaction-performance satisfaction to organizational citizenship behaviors at the organi- relationship. zational level of analysis. Ostroff found significant correlations At about the same time as the Petty et al. (1984) review, between average teacher job satisfaction in a school district and laffaldano and Muchinsky (1985) conducted a more comprehen- numerous indicators of school district effectiveness (student test sive meta-analysis of the job satisfaction-job performance litera-
382 JUDGE, THORESEN, BONO, AND PATTON ture. Meta-analyzing 217 correlations from 74 studies, they found represent a common construct (Parsons & Hulin, 1982), "there can a substantial range in satisfaction-performance correlations across be considerable distortion" (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990, p. 452). the job satisfaction facets, ranging from a mean "true score" Third, laffaldano and Muchinsky (1985) corrected for unreli- correlation of .06 for pay satisfaction to .29 for overall job satis- ability in ratings of job performance using internal consistency faction. For their primary analysis, laffaldano and Muchinsky estimates of reliability. It is commonly accepted that internal averaged the facet-performance correlations and reported an aver- consistency reliability overestimates the reliability of supervisory age true score correlation of .17 between job satisfaction and job ratings of performance because it consigns variance idiosyncratic performance. In discussing their findings, the authors only made to raters to the true variance component of job performance rat- reference to the .17 correlation, concluding that job satisfaction ings, resulting in downwardly biased corrected correlations and job performance were "only slightly related to each other" (Schmidt & Hunter, 1996). For this reason, Viswesvaran, Ones, (p. 269). and Schmidt (1996) argued that researchers should use interrater laffaldano and Muchinsky (1985) also examined nine modera- reliability to correct job performance for measurement error. In- tors of the satisfaction-performance relationship. With one excep- deed, all recent meta-analyses involving job performance have tion (white-collar vs. blue-collar occupational type), the modera- used this method (e.g., Ones, Viswesvaran, & Reiss, 1996; Roth, tors pertained to the measures of job satisfaction (e.g., composite BeVier, Switzer, & Schippmann, 1996; Vinchur, Schippmann, of satisfaction, global, unknown-unspecified) and job perfor- Switzer, & Roth, 1998). mance (e.g., quality vs. quantity, objective vs. subjective). The Fourth, and most important, in arriving at an overall estimate of moderator analysis was not particularly successful—none of the the average correlation between job satisfaction and job perfor- moderators correlated .20 or greater with the satisfaction-perfor- mance, laffaldano and Muchinsky (1985) combined results from mance correlation. However, when the moderators were broken each specific facet measure of job satisfaction. In other words, the down by satisfaction facet, some significant correlations were .17 correlation between satisfaction and performance reported by observed. Because all the moderators were dichotomous variables laffaldano and Muchinsky is actually the average of the correlation and many of their distributions were highly skewed, the lack of between pay satisfaction and job performance, coworker satisfac- significant findings may have been due to the distributional prob- tion and job performance, promotion satisfaction and job perfor- lems with the moderators rather than truly insignificant moderator mance, and so forth. This approach is not an appropriate estimate effects. laffaldano and Muchinsky concluded that the moderators of the relationship between overall job satisfaction and job perfor- were "of little consequence" (p. 267). mance. The average relationship involving job satisfaction facets is The laffaldano and Muchinsky (1985) study provided many not the same as the relationship involving the overall construct any advances. Most important, their quantitative review avoided the more than the validity of intelligence as a predictor of job perfor- imprecision and subjectivity of earlier qualitative reviews and was mance can be estimated by the average correlation between re- more comprehensive than the Petty et al. (1984) meta-analysis. sponses to each item on an intelligence test and job performance. Despite these contributions, in retrospect several limitations of the Job satisfaction facets define the construct of overall job satisfac- study are apparent. Whereas some of these limitations may be of tion, so one must treat the facets as manifestations of the overall minor practical significance, others substantially impact the accu- construct (i.e., one must create a composite of the facets or capture racy and interpretation of the results. First, the authors excluded the shared variance among the facets, as opposed to correlating unpublished studies (doctoral dissertations, working papers, un- each facet with performance and then averaging these facet cor- published data, and technical reports), leaving their results vulner- relations). This point has been made specifically with reference to able to the possibility of publication bias (Rosenthal, 1995). job satisfaction measurement (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990, p. 460). Second, because laffaldano and Muchinsky (1985) included in The averaging approach used by laffaldano and Muchinsky down- their study correlations between each satisfaction facet and job wardly biases the mean correlation estimate. As Wanous, Sullivan, performance, they cumulated 217 correlations across only 74 stud- and Malinak (1989) concluded, "Facet satisfaction correlations ies. Their use of multiple correlations from a single study violates will always be lower then [sic] overall satisfaction correlations, so the independence assumption of meta-analysis and, thus, biases the combining them (as done by laffaldano & Muchinsky) lowers the results (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). It is rare for contemporary effect size" (p. 261). Thus, the method laffaldano and Muchinsky meta-analyses to violate the independence assumption (include used to combine the information from facet measures cannot be multiple correlations from the same sample). This is probably due interpreted as an accurate estimate of the relationship between to the fact that meta-analysis experts (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990; overall job satisfaction and job performance. In sum, there are a Rosenthal, 1995) have cautioned meta-analysts against including number of reasons to believe that. 17 is not the best estimate of the multiple correlations from the same sample in their analyses. In true relationship between overall job satisfaction and job fairness, laffaldano and Muchinsky were aware of this problem. performance. They noted, "The inclusion of several correlations from a single Though a number of reviews throughout the past 50 years have study does suggest a lack of independence in the data" (p. 255). shaped researchers' views about the nature of the relationship They did so to avoid losing "considerable amounts of information" between job satisfaction and performance, laffaldano and Muchin- (p. 255). However, this does not make violation of the assumption sky's (1985) review has had the most impact, as evidenced by the any less serious of a problem. The violation is particularly prob- large number of citations the study has generated in the 15 years lematic when the sources of the different correlations are related to since it was published (a Social Sciences Citation Index search, each other (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). Because the correlations conducted October 4, 2000, yielded 168 citations). Because laf- among different facets of job satisfaction are so high that they faldano and Muchinsky concluded that there was no appreciable
JOB SATISFACTION AND JOB PERFORMANCE 383 relationship between job satisfaction and job performance, re- tion of employed adults. Hence, satisfaction and performance in searchers have accepted this conclusion, as evidenced by the original studies had to be measured at the individual (as opposed following statements: "The seminal research on job satisfaction to group) level, and performance had to occur in a natural job and job performance suggests that there exists only a modest setting (studies involving performance on laboratory tasks were correlation between these two constructs" (Cote, 1999, p. 65); "It excluded). Satisfaction was measured globally (general percep- is accepted among most researchers that there is not a substantial tions of one's job) or with reference to specific facets of the job relationship between job satisfaction and productivity" (Judge, situation (supervision, coworkers, opportunity for advancement, Hanisch, & Drankoski, 1995, p. 584); "Much evidence indicates etc.), although in many cases the measure was not described in that individual job satisfaction generally is not significantly related sufficient detail to determine its nature. Studies focusing on a to individual task performance" (Brief, 1998, p. 3); and "The single satisfaction facet were excluded in the overall analysis. magnitude of correlation between job performance and job satis- However, we did include studies measuring at least two facets in faction is unexpectedly low" (Spector, 1997, p. 56). the overall analysis as these facets could be combined to form a In light of these conclusions, it is probably safe to conclude that measure of overall job satisfaction. In addition, we were interested Models 1-4 are seen as archaic by most researchers. If there is in analyzing studies focusing on job performance per se. Thus, we little relationship between job satisfaction and job performance, excluded studies correlating job satisfaction with absenteeism, researchers have concluded that either Model 5 (relationship is turnover, job withdrawal, and the like. moderated by other variables) or Model 7 (alternative forms of the relationship) is valid. However, because of the limitations of Identification of Studies previous reviews, it is also possible that we have erroneously accepted conclusions about the magnitude of the job satisfaction In order to locate studies containing relationships between in- and job performance relationship. At the very least, given the dividual job satisfaction and job performance, we first searched the importance of the topic, it seems appropriate to reexamine this PsycINFO electronic database (1967-1999).2 Our primary focus relationship. Accordingly, in the next section of the article, we was on locating published studies, unpublished doctoral disserta- provide an updated, and more comprehensive, meta-analysis of the tions, and cited but unpublished manuscripts and research reports relationship between job satisfaction and job performance. from government agencies. We also reviewed the bibliographies In the following meta-analysis, we focus on the relationship from previous qualitative and quantitative reviews. Finally, in between overall job satisfaction and overall job performance. order to locate studies that might not have been referenced in these Theoretically, there are compelling reasons to focus on overall job sources, we manually searched the 21 journals in which most of satisfaction. As noted by Fishbein (1979), in order for attitudes to the satisfaction-performance correlations appeared from 1983 to predict behaviors properly, the attitudes and behaviors must be the present. congruent in terms of their generality or specificity. Because overall job performance is a general construct composed of more Results of Searches specific factors (Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, & Sager, 1993), in order to achieve construct correspondence with respect to the From the computer-assisted searches, we were able to iden- satisfaction-performance relationship, one must consider overall tify 1,008 references to studies concerning job satisfaction and job satisfaction. As Hulin (1991) noted, failure to match constructs performance. The abstracts of each of these studies were read to in terms of their generality leads to downwardly biased correla- determine whether the study met the inclusion criteria. Although tions when relating job satisfaction to other constructs. Fisher most of these references were to published reports, a significant (1980) made this point specifically with reference to the satis- number of unpublished studies were revealed by the search. To faction-performance relationship, noting, "Researchers interested obtain the unpublished studies that met our inclusion criteria, we in the job satisfaction/job performance relationship . . . should be contacted libraries where doctoral dissertations and unpublished aware of the need to have an appropriate 'fit' between attitude government reports were held in order to have access to these measure specificity and behavioral criteria to obtain maximum documents and were able to obtain 73 unpublished studies and predictability" (p. 611). Indeed, the limited empirical evidence that dissertations (containing 88 independent samples) meeting the exists suggests that when job satisfaction is treated as a general criteria for our meta-analysis. We do not specifically recall iden- construct, a stronger correlation with job performance emerges tifying any studies that simply reported a "nonsignificant" finding than suggested by laffaldano and Muchinsky's (1985) results. in our search. If such studies exist, failing to impute a value for Accordingly, our focus here is on the relationship between overall these studies could be argued to lead to an upwardly biased job satisfaction and overall job performance. estimate of the relationship (Rosenthal, 1995). However, imputa- tion does introduce an element of subjectivity and imprecision into the analysis (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). In any event, a sensitivity Quantitative Review of the Job Satisfaction- analysis revealed that even if there were 10 studies that simply Job Performance Relationship Rules for Inclusion in the Meta-Analysis 2 We also partially searched Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI). However, early in our search, we discovered that all of the dissertations Consistent with the recommendations of meta-analytic research- uncovered in DAI were also indexed in PsycINFO (PsycINFO, unlike ers (Matt & Cook, 1994), we defined the population to which we PsycLIT, includes dissertations). Thus, we subsequently confined our wished to generalize a priori as consisting of the general popula- search to PsycINFO.
384 JUDGE. THORESEN. BONO, AND PATTON reported a nonsignificant correlation, following Rosenthal (1995), used as a reliability estimate in the one study using solely subor- assuming a correlation of .00 for these studies, it would change the dinate ratings). 3 overall results by only a trivial degree (.008 difference). Often, studies reported performance information from multiple All told, 312 samples met our inclusion criteria. Our search sources (e.g., peer and supervisory ratings, objective measures and resulted in a substantially larger sample of studies than that ob- supervisory ratings). In these samples, we estimated reliability tained by laffaldano and Muchinsky (1985) and Petty et al. (1984), using meta-analytic findings from the job performance literature who included only 24% and 4% of the independent samples pertaining to correlations between these sources (Bommer, John- included in this study, respectively. Our overall analysis of the son, Rich, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 1995; Harris & Schaubroeck. relationships between satisfaction and performance was estimated 1988; Viswesvaran et al., 1996) and computed equally weighted from 312 independent samples contained in 254 studies (total composite correlations between satisfaction and performance. N = 54,417). A summary of studies included in the meta-analysis When sources for which no reliability information was available is given in the Appendix. (listed previously) were used in conjunction with supervisory ratings of performance, we treated the former as peer ratings (Viswesvaran et al., 1996). Meta-Analytic Procedures In cases in which multiple supervisors or multiple peers were used to generate ratings (and these ratings were not merely aver- We used the meta-analytic procedures of Hunter and Schmidt aged), we substituted the meta-analytic reliability values into the (1990) to correct observed correlations for sampling error and Spearman-Brown prophecy formula to obtain an estimate of per- unreliability in measures of job satisfaction and job performance. formance reliability for the given sample. Finally, a number of Correlations were corrected individually. In terms of correcting job studies reported peer or supervisory ratings that had been averaged satisfaction measures for unreliability, when authors of original across multiple raters. Scullen (1997) demonstrated that this aver- studies reported an overall internal consistency reliability for job aging process causes resulting correlations between these ratings satisfaction, we used this value to correct the observed correlation and other variables of interest to be upwardly biased and provided for attenuation. If correlations between multiple measures of job a correction to eliminate this bias when the number of raters is satisfaction were reported in original studies, we used these values known. Thus, we applied Scullen's correction to observed corre- to compute the reliability of an equally weighted composite of lations to original studies in which ratings had been averaged and overall satisfaction using the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula the number of raters was provided in the study. Across all samples, (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). Finally, for single-item measures of job the average reliability of job satisfaction measures was .74 (square satisfaction, we used meta-analytically derived estimates of the root = .86) and the average reliability for job performance was .52 reliability of single-item measures of job satisfaction (Wanous, (square root = .72). Reichers. & Hudy. 1997). We report several statistics that are used to explain heterogene- As is typical in meta-analyses involving supervisory ratings of ity in the correlations. First, we report the percentage of the job performance (e.g., Barrick & Mount, 1991), only a handful of variance in the correlations that is explained by statistical artifacts. studies in our database (k = 4) reported correlations among raters, We also report the Q statistic (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990, p. 151), making it impossible to form an accurate estimate of the reliability which tests for homogeneity in the true correlations across studies. of performance ratings based on information contained in the The Q statistic was recommended by Sagie and Koslowsky (1993), articles. Accordingly, we took meta-analytic estimates of the reli- though it has all the limitations of a significance test (see Hunter ability of various sources of performance information from the job & Schmidt, 1990, pp. 483-484). A low percentage of variance performance literature. The most frequently used source of perfor- explained and a significant Q statistic (which is approximately mance information in our sample of studies involved supervisory distributed as a chi-square) indicate the likelihood of moderators ratings of job performance. In fact, more than 80% of the total that explain variability in the correlations across studies. samples used supervisory ratings as the performance criterion. When supervisory or peer ratings of performance were used in Because it seemed unlikely that statistical artifacts would ex- original studies, we used Viswesvaran et al.'s (1996) estimate of plain all of the variability in the correlations across studies, we the reliability of supervisory and peer performance ratings. In a number of studies, authors used objective measures (such as qual- 1 Murphy and DeShon (2000) argued against the practice of correcting ity and quantity of output) to evaluate performance. When multiple correlations based on current estimates of interrater reliability. They did so objective measures were used, we estimated the composite reli- on the grounds that raters may disagree for reasons other than random error ability of these measures. In cases in which the reliability of (e.g., rater effects—some of which may be shared and some of which may objective indices of performance was not provided by authors, we be idiosyncratic). Thus, according to Murphy and DeShon, treating corre- estimated reliability of these measures with the mean reliability of lations among raters as a measure of reliability is inappropriate because it all the studies in the given analysis. In a handful of studies (six assumes that all lack of agreement is due to random error. Schmidt, samples in total), other sources of performance information were Viswesvaran, and Ones (2000), although not disagreeing that there are many potential influences on performance ratings, argued that such influ- used for which meta-analytic reliability estimates were unavailable ences are an issue not of the reliability of the ratings but rather of the (ratings from subordinates, students, clients, customers). When theoretical nature (construct validity) of the ratings. Although a full airing these rating types were used, we estimated the reliability of these of this debate is beyond the scope of this article, we note that our practice ratings with the distribution that was deemed most similar (e.g., is consistent with all contemporary (post-1990) meta-analyses involving Viswesvaran et al.'s estimate of the reliability of peer ratings was job performance.
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PORT SHELDON TOWNSHIP, Mich. (WOOD) — A man was hospitalized in critical condition after being pulled from Lake Michigan Wednesday evening.
The Ottawa County Sheriff's Office says crews were called to Windsnest Park in Port Sheldon Township around 8:20 p.m. to conduct a water rescue.
Authorities say the man was swimming about 20 feet from shore when he went under the water. He had last been spotted about three minutes before the call to 911.
Emergency responders soon found the man and rushed him to Holland Hospital.
His name was not released Wednesday night.


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April 28, 2020
Dear Crown Pointe Residents:
Crown Pointe Community Tennis courts and pickleball courts are scheduled to reopen tomorrow, April 30, 2020. The use of the reopened facilities will be governed by all Crown Pointe Rules and Regulations as well as directives from the State of Florida and Collier County.
In essence, this means social distancing will be required. A six (6) foot distance shall be maintained between all individuals whether you are playing tennis or pickleball. Additionally, groups larger than ten (10) persons will not be allowed within the court enclosure.
The Clubhouse, Fitness Center, and Pool will remain closed until the reopening of these types of facilities are addressed by the State and County which we expect to take place at a later date.
Violation of any of the provisions governing the reopening of our facilities could result in the deactivation of your fob.
The Community cannot guarantee that any of its facilities will be virus or bacteria-free. The use of the facilities will be at your own risk.
As with all of our facilities, it is assumed you will adhere to the rules and be considerate of your fellow residents. These are tough times for all of us and we must show respect for all. As you are well aware there are times when no one is watching your use of the facilities, except for the cameras, so be thoughtful.
Crown Pointe Board of Directors


text:
AFP/New Delhi
The alleged British middleman in a scandal-hit helicopter deal between India and an Anglo-Italian firm was due to appear in a Delhi court on Wednesday after being extradited by the UAE, authorities said.
Christian Michel James is accused of arranging kickbacks to Indian officials to secure a deal for AgustaWestland to supply New Delhi with 12 helicopters for 556 million euros ($630 million).
Italian prosecutors suspect illegal sweeteners worth about 10 percent of the contract, or some 55 million euros, were paid out in bribes. India cancelled the deal in January 2013.
James, who in previous interviews with Indian newspapers denied any wrongdoing, was detained in Dubai in February 2017 following an Indian arrest warrant and an Interpol notice.
Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi's Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has sought to capitalise politically on the scandal as the contract was signed under the previous government of the Congress party.
The BJP said on Tuesday that the case could spell "serious trouble" for the "first family" of Congress, referring to the party's long-powerful Nehru-Gandhi dynasty, Indian media reported.
In Italy, the former head of AgustaWestland and of parent company Finmeccanica were given jail sentences in 2014 over the scandal but they were later acquitted.
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Great idea, very helpful.
Yes! Very good idea. This would save us from either having to re-create the e-receipt from the CRM receipt process or buy saving a copy of what the donor is sent (via creating a staff notification copy of the e-receipt). Both of these represent significant additional work for something (e-receipt) that BBIS does quite well, and simply.
Yes! This would be extremely helpful!
I agree! 'Sooner rather than later'.
I hope this happens sooner rather than later!!


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Shiloh Farms Organic Red Split Lentils
15 ozUPC: 0004759332238
Purchase Options
Product Details
Vibrant reddish-orange in hue, with a rich, nutty flavor, red split lentils are a feast for the eyes & the palate! They are a delicious source of protein, iron, & potassium.
- Real Food Since 1942
- Wholesome, Healthy Foods
- USDA Organic • Non-GMO
- Kosher
Nutrition Information
Nutrition Facts
9.0 servings per container
Serving size
Amount per serving
% Daily value*
Total Fat1g2%
Saturated Fat0g0%
Trans Fat0g
Total Carbohydrate28g9%
Dietary Fiber7g28%
Vitamin A0International Unit0%
Vitamin C0mg0%
*The % Daily Value (DV) tells you how much a nutrient in a serving of food contributes to a daily diet. 2,000 calories a day is used for general nutrition advice.
Organic Red Split Lentils .
Allergen Info
Contains Pod Fruits and Their Derivatives. Free from Does Not Contain Declaration Obligatory Allergens.
Actual product packaging and materials may contain additional and/or different ingredient, nutritional, or proper usage information than the information displayed on our website. You are responsible ... Read More


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We go out at breweries and there are only a few beers we like. We can never like all the beers of all the breweries. Hence, this brewery came up with an idea of making beer according to your DNA. So, no matter what, you are going to love the beer.
Ciaran Giblin got a beer made according to his DNA. His taste preference was then recorded and a genetically derived beer was made to suit his specificity of flavors.
So, you can get a beer made according to your genetic codes and you are going to love it. The brewmaster, Ciaran got his DNA tested by genetic testing company 23 and Me in 2016. It was declared that his genetics had TAS2R receptors, which meant that he has an inclination towards bitter or sweet flavors.
The conclusion: He liked anything bitter such as coffee and Brussels sprouts.
Ciaran was happy with the beer experiment. He said, "If you want to make a beer you're going to love, you have to really mean it and go the extra mile – in this case, determine your genetically determined taste preferences first!
There are lots of people talking about the potential that genetic testing has on what we consume but I thought the best way to test some of the theories was to get on and brew something.
Double Helix was brewed to fit the specific taste preferences of one person – me.
However thanks to the investment in our Pilot Brewery and what it allows us to do in the name of innovation, it's become a 'successful experiment' that others can enjoy as well."
They have different kinds of beers:
1. Bitter one: Double Helix
2. Fruity beer
3. Full-bodied flavor beer
After the successful testing of beer batch, this concept is being followed in Meantime Brewery, London for a limited period of time.


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BRIDGEWATER — Neither Erik Arnesen nor the Oakland Athletics organization got what they expected when they joined forces four weeks ago, and now the Somerset Patriots have their Opening Day starter back.
Arnesen, who will be activated in time to start in Saturday's doubleheader, re-signed with the Patriots prior to Thursday night's game against the York Revolution at TD Bank Ballpark. He was released out of Double-A by Oakland on Tuesday after pitching to a 10.13 ERA in three appearances.
"It's a hard road to the majors when you are not in affiliated ball and if I'm being honest with myself it could be a little tougher now because I've been there once already this season," Arnesen said.
Keep Reading: "You can't bring all that off-field stuff to the field with you."


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Welcome to the Superroihour.com Review. In the review we will cover this HYIP program and outline in detail what this program offers. Is the program currently paying or is it a scam? Let's find out.
What is Superroihour.com:
Is an UK Registered Company since 2020, having its base in London. We call ourself Super ROI Hour as we pay Hourly earnings.Our role is to trade in FOREX, Crypto Currency Exchanges, and Stock market from where we daily generate Profits and share some part with investors. Being 4 years old company and trading in the most profitable and futuristic platform, we are able to achieve huge Profits for our offline Investors and thus now planned to be online to reach the world and make the exchange of benefit among our investors and us.
Superroihour.com Review – Investments:
1.15% – 1.5% hourly for 90 hours; 4% – 6% hourly for 60 hours; 15% – 20% hourly for 30 hours;
Superroihour.com Technical Analysis:
Registrar: NameCheap Domain Registered: Jun 21, 2020 16:48 – Jun 21, 2021 16:48 Hosting: Cloudflare IP: 18.104.22.168 (1 Total HYIPs / 1 paying) SSL: Cloudflare Inc ECC CA-3 valid from 23 Jun, 2020 to 23 Jun, 2021 – Cloudflare, Inc. NS servers: alina.ns.cloudflare.com, rustam.ns.cloudflare.com
What does Superroihour.com look like?
Superroihour.com Paying/Scam Status:
In this paragraph you will find the status of Superroihour.com on several other high-quality HYIP monitors such as HYIP-Logs.com and HYIP.biz
Please, be reminded that if any of these monitors show a warning (scam status) the program is likely to be a scam and not paying its current investors.
What is a HYIP program?
HYIP stands for High-Yield Investment Program. They have been around for a long time, and are not anything new to Bitcoin or cryptocurrency.
A HYIP is essentially a Ponzi scheme – more often than not, a scam. It involves paying returns to earlier investors with money invested by new investors. As a result, some do walk away with a positive return, if they get in early enough. However, it's not a sustainable model. Once new investors stop coming on, the cash flow stops, often leaving a large number with significant losses.
To generate a high return, HYIPs often involve investors' money put into high-risk ventures, such as day-trading stocks or bonds, or sports betting. A Bitcoin HYIP can work the same, except with Bitcoin or another crypto as the investment currency. Those running HYIPs are looking to benefit from an increased willingness to invest from crypto holders, as well as the cross-border payments enabled by cryptocurrency.
One common variation of the traditional HYIP in crypto is investing in a "mining pool". The idea of this is to put money towards a cryptocurrency mining operation, with the mining rewards paid out to members. Often times these are fronts for a Ponzi scheme, though in some cases they can be real. (source: https://usethebitcoin.com/guide-to-bitcoin-hyip/ )
Our Investment in Superroihour.com
Please be reminded that we have currently not invested in this program and we can only conclude the status of this program from various other monitors. If you are the admin of this program, feel free to contact us to upgrade your listing and add advertisement to our blog.
Superroihour.com Review: Conclusion
From the above monitoring status, we can conclude that the program called 'Superroihour.com' is currently paying its investors and is safe to invest in. Please be reminded never to invest more than you can afford in a program, especially in the HYIP business. We hope this expertise Superroihour.com Review has given you more information on this program so you can decide whether or not to invest in this program. Follow us on social media and visit this site regularly for more reviews of the best and top paying hyip programs of 2019 and 2020.


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The Industrial Revolution was a period in modern history when the production of goods by hand was gradually converted to methods of manufacture using large machines and assembly lines. This shift is seen by many historians as the force chiefly responsible for the birth of the modern era and for the ongoing phenomenon of globalization that emerged in the 19th century and now continues into the 21st.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain. In 1650 the population of England was approximately 10 million, of which 90% earned a livelihood through farming of one kind or another. In 1821, Thomas Malthus wrote Principles of Political Economy, in which he discussed the concern that a lack of moral restraint by the British working class might lead to unchecked population growth. This behavior on the part of some people would create a fall in production, and the world would face a famine. Malthus gave a very gloomy prediction that worldwide mass starvation would eventually occur. In just 200 years, 1650 to 1850, the English population soared to more than 30 million, with less than 20% at work in fields, barns, and granaries. During this time England experienced the first Industrial Revolution, as entrepreneurs and capitalists began procuring the natural resources and labor power to produce goods for profit on a scale hitherto unknown.
The Industrial Revolution succeeded the longstanding agrarian age, which had begun millennia before when much of humankind developed agriculture and gave up nomadic lifestyles. Agrarian societies allowed people to escape from dependence on food sources over which they had no control. In such societies people produced surpluses that could be used to feed new classes of non-food-producers. At the same time, these societies required increasing amounts of land, which led to conflicts over territory. The need to store and defend food supplies and to house non-foodproducers resulted in the growth of villages and small cities. Agrarian societies developed extensive division of labor and interdependence.
In Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, economist David Ricardo furthered the explanation for the changes that were occurring during the Industrial Revolution. Ricardo explained the notion of cooperation as a consequence of prosperity in his theory of comparative advantage. Ricardo concerned himself with explaining the factors that caused growth in an agrarian economy. At the time, modern science and technology had not been applied to agriculture, and capital tools such as hoes and plows were of relatively minor importance as productivity inputs. Ricardo argued that the average productivity of labor would eventually decrease. This decrease in productivity would lead to falling wages for workers.
The Industrial Revolution in the simplest terms can be described as the advent of a decline in household production. It started in Britain for several reasons. The increased population provided labor for factories and markets. Britain had a rich supply of raw materials. Britain had many small shop owners that knew how to run a business. The change in production was an economic one, yet over time it became a political one as well as a social one.
Political Thoughts on the Industrial Revolution
The first Industrial Revolution was the impetus that led to the science of political economy. A new way of thinking was needed to explain and justify the social conditions. This began as philosophers in Europe struggled with the fundamental problem of how the individual pursuit of self-interest would lead to the highest social good. According to Arild Saether, theology and the power of the universal church as an explanation for human behaviors were replaced by new theories independent of church doctrines. There was a new distinction between positive and natural laws. Natural law was the manifestation of divine law. This law was revealed through nature based on reason. On the other hand, humankind created the concept of positive law. People needed to create laws to secure peace. New laws were required, because in a natural state everyone has the same equal and unlimited right to everything. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, social structures changed and continued to develop specialized production of material goods. A continued propagation of the natural law would have resulted in a war of all men against all men, and self-destruction would have resulted. Hence, it was necessary for people to seek an agreement of cooperation and common wealth with each other. Works were written to explain positive laws. Such positive law acquired dominance in the 18th century and was firmly established in the 19th century.
The origins of the early teachings of political science are widely agreed upon. The Industrial Revolution had created a wealthy class of industrial capitalists who had to pay workers at least enough to live on. England at that time had a living wage that depended greatly on food prices. Ricardo advocated trade between countries. Consequently, the Corn Laws were passed. The Corn Laws placed tariffs on grain imports and created export subsidies that kept food prices high and increased the wages that capitalists had to pay. The basis of David Ricardo's theory, accepted in Parliament, was that specialization and free trade were beneficial to all trading partners. Adam Smith and Ricardo had successfully explained the need and advantages for material cooperation and the acceptance of economic inequalities.
Adam Smith, a Scottish philosopher, wrote The Wealth of Nations in 1776; the book was widely accepted as a blueprint for economic activity and has been called the "bible of capitalism." Smith's teaching underscored the way humans reconciled self with others during the first Industrial Revolution. Smith discussed the division of labor as a consequence of social prosperity and people's desire to barter and exchange one thing for another. He explained how people managed to coexist by offering goods and services for sale in quantities that satisfied each other's private wants. Smith described how the invisible hand of the marketplace led to a cooperation that provided productivity and distribution that met the needs of society, and he argued that people would act in their own self-interest to provide goods and services of the greatest possible value. That in turn would allow for one to trade a good or service of a proportional value for another that one otherwise would not be able to receive. Those who produced the best would thrive, while those who provided the wrong good or provided an inferior good would lose out. Smith explained how the Industrial Revolution shaped what became known as the free market.
The free market paradigm provided an incentive for productivity and trade and provided a rationale for people to accept the idea of economic inequalities. Smith in essence justified the unequal distribution of wealth, arguing that in the long run everyone would gain. This notion of inequality was not new to the human race, but the free market explanation was an extension of the new concept of positive law. At the time of Smith's publication, England's Industrial Revolution saw the new manufacturing technologies, the development of more efficient forms of transportation, and the increase in productivity of agriculture that led to a massive movement from the countryside to the city. People in search of work migrated from rural areas to crowded cities and toiled long hours.
In 1875, Karl Marx completed work on the book Capital (Das Kapital). Marx's treatise developed an alternative understanding of the value of human labor. Marx's work served as an intellectual basis for a different vision of society, one that originated in class conflict, a struggle between labor resources and owners of capital. The labor theory of value, according to Marx, was the value of any commodity that resulted from the labor needed to produce the commodity. Labor provided more value in a day than it was paid. Capital owners were able to extract a profit when labor was used for the production of commodities. This notion proved to be a basis of the controversy as to how cooperation among humans over material value was organized. The philosophy of Marx pointed to the inevitably antiprogressive results of the economic and social inequality that the Industrial Revolution produced. Marx's view of progress was not supportive of the Industrial Revolution and the decline of family production. His philosophy was not based on incentives for people to be productive in order to get their needs and wants met. Marx's work in the field of political economy promoted an egalitarian economic and social structure, unlike the theories of other political economists, which were concerned with explaining the Industrial Revolution.
These three scholars—Smith, Ricardo, and Marx—are considered the progenitors of modern economics; in due course their ideas were exported across the Atlantic and promoted in the United States.
The Industrial Revolution in the United States
The Industrial Revolution that began in the mid- 19th century in the United States must have seemed to others to have come out of nowhere. Europe had been the undisputed economic and technological leader in the world until, suddenly, the United States appeared in the vanguard. By 1926, the United States was producing about 45% of the world's industrial output, including 80% of the world's automobiles and 50% of its steel, electricity, and crude oil. America's experience of the Industrial Revolution had a decisive effect on the role of human resources in the economy and on social conditions for the American family. The Industrial Revolution in the United States thus mirrored Europe, as production changed from the manufacture of goods in small workshops to making goods with machines in factories.
The Industrial Revolution in the United States placed the family squarely in the capitalist mode of production, a fact well documented by the stories of urban working-class families' struggles to survive the Industrial Revolution. Changes in social relationships in the workplace and in households as a result of the Industrial Revolution have been viewed as both progressive and antiprogressive. The limits of capital's extensive mode of consuming labor in the first phase of industrialization, it has been argued, created a false consciousness among urban working-class families. The forces inducing conversion to a more intensive regime of separate spheres between work and home in the latter half of the 19th century were crystallized. Changing forms of family occurred as a result of the Industrial Revolution, as modern industry created the social construction of the "male breadwinner wage."
Thus, the economic structure of modern industry led to significant changes for American families. Prior to the industrial revolution, families had been largely self-sufficient work units. Fathers and mothers worked side by side, and children joined in the work as soon as they were able. Almost all of the values and skills needed for life were learned in the family setting. A sense of self-worth came naturally as did a sense of one's place in society.
The Industrial Revolution and the growth of cities changed all that. Fathers left home to work for money wages, and real wages rose quickly. Many families left their small farms and moved to the city. Children became more of an economic liability and less of an economic asset as they became unable to contribute to family maintenance. During the Industrial Revolution, work changed from requiring physical strength to requiring the ability to manipulate factory machinery, and what adults did was separate from children. This prompted the social need to limit the size of the family during the early years of the 20th century. The modern image of the family consisting of mother at home, a father at work, and children playing at home was born during the Industrial Revolution. Some scholars see the current crisis in family life as a long-term effect of the Industrial Revolution, one that poses a serious challenge for the 21st century.
In the United States as elsewhere, the Industrial Revolution greatly enhanced the economic fortunes of the middle classes and brought economic and social improvement for many people owing to the increase in earned wages. The lower classes, however, gained far less economically and socially. As the nation advanced, it failed to build adequate support systems for families in which both parents were employed. Indeed, the United States has not put national policies in place to provide for children's needs, as many European countries have done. Much of the energy behind popular demands for political change arises from the perception that the socioeconomic system that resulted from the Industrial Revolution and its aftermath has expanded social inequalities. As some economists and sociologists have pointed out, economic power in the 21st century has remained concentrated in the hands of those who own and control the means of production.
Marianne Partee
See also Economics; Evolution, Cultural; Fossil Fuels;
Global Warming; Marx, Karl; Technology Assessment; Timetables; White, Leslie A.
Further Readings
Adam, L. (1965). Agricultural depression and farm relief in England 1813-1852. New York: A. M. Kelly.
Buchholz, T. G. (1989). New ideas from dead economists. New York: Plume Books.
Malthus, T. (1821). Principles of political economy. Boston: Wells and Lilly.
Marsh, R., & Tucker, M. (1992). Thinking for a living.
New York: Basic Books.
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1982). Collected works. New York: International.
Pfeffer, R. (1979). Working for capitalism. New York: Columbia University Press.
Reich, R. (1992). The work of nations. New York: Vintage Books.
Smith, A. (1937). The wealth of nations. New York: Random House. (Original work published 1776)
Wirth, A. G. (1992). Education and work for the year 2000: Choices we face. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.