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I first saw the MS Express live inside the Varadero de Recodo ("varadero" is Spanish for shipyard and Chavacano of Zamboanga is a Spanish creole language), a shipyard in Zamboanga City some five years ago now. The High Speed Craft (HSC) was laid up there together with the AS Express and RS Express and they were all Malaysia-built fastcrafts of the Zamboanga-based shipping company A. Sakaluran (for Hadji Ahmad Sakaluran, the founder). The said shipping company has already stopped sailing then and that included even their cruiser ferries like the Rizma. When I approached the fastcrafts, I found out that they still have a caretaker crew and they were friendly if a little bit depressed, shall I say (who won't be in such a situation anyway and there was further reason for that, I later found out).
It was a great opportunity for me because I really wanted to shipspot the A. Sakaluran fastcrafts which was the Zamboanga pioneer in fastcrafts if the Bullet Express fastcrafts of Lepeng Wee (Speaker Ramon Mitra was not the true owner of those unlike what was said by urban legend) are excluded because those did not base in Zamboanga and plied other routes starting in Batangas. Actually, they even antedated the more-known Weesam Express (or more formally SRN Fastcrafts) which later moved to the Visayas. In real life, the two shipping companies are related by blood but A. Sakaluran was into shipping much earlier starting with with what I call the "Moro boats" which is the Mindanao equivalent of the batel in Luzon or lancha in other places and which is based on the Arab dhow.
So, actually I was very saddened by the collapse of A. Sakaluran evidenced by their stopping of sailing. I am always saddened with the departure of the old shipping companies because we again will lose a part of our shipping heritage and history. The reason is unlike abroad we are not good in collecting and preserving records and mementos. In other countries, books about old shipping companies can be written decades after they were gone because there are complete written records plus valuable photos. That is not the situation in our country which is not too keen in history (courtesy of the destruction of the Spaniards of our old history). Actually, I try to write because I want to commit on record what I know and what I remember about our shipping history.
The collapse of A. Sakaluran might follow the analysis of my friend, the Zamboanga-based Administrator of Philippine Ship Spotters Society (PSSS), Britz Salih. He said the small Basilan Lines might have survived if they bought ROROs instead of the Australian catamaran Malamawi. That can also be true for A. Sakaluran. They might have had a longer life if instead of the three fastcrafts they acquired ROROs or maybe additional steel-hulled cruiser ferries. Fastcrafts were not cheap then but maybe the sales pitch of the Sibu fastcraft companies proved to be too tempting. It was also a success already then in Malaysia and in Singapore and so the implication is they will also be successful here.
In such a short time, Zamboanga had such a high concentration of High Speed Crafts (HSC) and mainly fastcrafts of Malaysian origin. Coupled with the sudden rise too in the number of ROROs because of the incentives of the Ramos administration there soon was overcompetition in Zamboanga (but the erroneous paper done by Myrna S. Austria didn't see that because she believed the incomplete reports of the government agencies). Add to that the wont of passengers in Zamboanga not to pay fares if they are related to the owners or they are the followers of some VIPs, soon the High Speed Crafts of Zamboanga were threatened with bankruptcy (HSCs will go down first before the ROROs because they can't carry a meaningful load of cargo and these have oversized engines guzzling large amounts of fuel and not the cheaper MDO by the way). In such a situation, Weesam Express brought most of their fastcrafts to the Visayas. Meanwhile, A. Sakaluran transferred two of their three fastcrafts to Batangas and one to Iloilo.
The A. Sakaluran fastcrafts anchored in Batangas Bay (Photo by Nowell Alcancia)
The diversion did not prove to be successful because when A. Sakaluran transferred to Batangas there was also overcompetition there (when clueless-about-shipping Myrna S. Austria contended in her Philippine Institute for Development Studies paper that there was lack of competition there because she did not see that the government reports she was basing on was highly incomplete). Batangas was not only the base then of ever-increasing number of ROROs but also of High Speed Crafts especially the tough-to-beat, state-of-the-art SuperCats. Losing money, in a few short years the fastcrafts of A. Sakaluran were found just anchored in Batangas Bay and not sailing. And then these were no longer seen there again. However, they were spotted anchored in Bacolod a short while later before they disappeared once more.
The MS Express spotted anchored in Bacolod (Photo by "boybacolod2")
And so in one of my visits to Varadero de Recodo, I was really thrilled to see the three A. Sakaluran fastcrafts after they disappeared from view in Batangas. That was the confirmation that they were still alive and not sold anywhere else like in Indonesia which uses a lot of Malaysian-built fastcrafts. That was really a thrilling find since those fastcrafts were still in good condition and not just some kind of old and balky ferries.
Just what is their origins? The MS Express is a fastcraft built in 1999 by Yong Choo Kui (YCK) in Sibu on the western shore of Sabah, Malaysia, the birthplace of the Malaysian type of fastcrafts. She was like almost all the other Malaysian fastcrafts which were developed by the Malaysian government from a riverboat design. That means a long sleek hull with a narrow beam and sitting low on the water but with oversized engines. The hull is made of strong steel unlike many High Speed Crafts with aluminum alloy hulls. I was told the hull was designed even for beaching if needed.
Now, I do not know if the tale that they can survive a 360-degree cartwheel but of course any passenger or crew not in harness will suffer injury from that. They are known for good seakeeping and stability but many fear wave splashes on the windows thinking it is already a sign of danger when definitely it is not. Well, I guarantee the waves of Celebes Sea can be higher than that and I have personally experienced it there in a fastcraft when we took the direct route from Baganian Peninsula to Zamboanga City and it was habagat (southwest monsoon) time. But the passengers there are used to rougher seas and bigger waves and we all agreed it was simply time to sleep already when it was actually daytime. Well, rather than worry we were not seeing any land anymore.
The MS Express has a registered length (LR) of 40.7 meters, a beam of 4.7 meters and a depth of 2.3 meters and so her height to depth ratio is actually very low which is a big factor in stability. Her gross tonnage is 143 and her net tonnage is only 25 (which I have doubt if that is correct). Like the RS Express and the Sea Jet of Aleson Shipping Lines she was powered by twin Mitsubishi high-speed engines with a total of 3,100 horsepower. Her design speed was 30 knots which is high-speed craft range even in the high European standard. The only problem with big engines in a small craft like a fastcraft is they generate a lot of heat and at full trot dissipating them becomes a problem. However, with no cabin above the engine this is less of a problem in MS Express unlike in Weesam Express fastcrafts.
The stem of MS Express is raked as can be expected of fastcrafts and the stern is transom. There is a main passenger cabin which is airconditioned and on a stair leading to the upper deck is the bridge and behind that was still a half-deck of passenger accommodation. There is the usual-for-HSCs single mast with flashing light which distinguishes High Speed Crafts from other vessels especially in the night. A distinguishing mark for MS Express is the presence of two tall, slanted funnels with the air intakes for the engines just ahead of the funnels.
The pilot houses of the Malaysian fastcrafts are not as great as the High Speed Crafts from Japan and might even look primitive to some. There is that big stainless steel steering wheel (why is it not powered?) and the throttles are just at the right of the helmsman who sits on the port side of the pilot house. At the middle of the dashboard are the gauges and monitors of the ship. The side windows of the pilot houses can swing out.
In Varadero de Recodo, me and Britz heard the three A. Sakaluran fastcrafts have a buyer already and the amount we heard seems to be ridiculously low for us knowing what their original prices were (well, laid-up vessels usually don't command good prices unless it is in Korea). But on my visit back to Varadero de Recodo, I heard Ernesto Ouano of Mandaue offered a much higher price for the three. Me and my companion Britz looked at each other. We know there are implications for that but we cannot be sure if that was related to an unfortunate incident that occurred in Mandaue later (as we say your guess is as good as mine).
And so one by one the three A. Sakaluran fastcrafts disappeared from Varadero de Recodo starting in late 2012 with the AS Express going first and the RS Express the last remaining. They were to be brought back under their own power to Sibu for refurbishing and that was a puzzle for us. They don't look in need of massive refitting and so what was the need then to bring them back to Sibu? Why not Cebu directly? That great shipping place has a lot of shipyards and Varadero de Recodo is also a shipyard. Later it turned out that they will be re-engined also and there will be some other modifications. And so maybe re-engining was the major reason for bringing them back to Sibu. We knew they will already be Star Crafts upon their return.
It will be 2014 already when MS Express returned to the country and she turned out to be the Star Crafts 7 of the shipping company known as either SITI Interisland or Sea Highway Carrier. There is really no difference between the two but everybody knows them as Star Crafts. The mutual legal-fiction companies have two routes from Cebu to Bohol which are to Tubigon and Jetafe (or Getafe) which are just a distance of about 20 nautical miles or so each. And maybe this is why the reason they derated the engine to a YC Diesel (or Yuchai) of China of just a total of 1,850 horsepower with a cruising speed of about 20 knots or a little bit above, just good enough for her to quality as a fastcraft by PSSS (Philippine Ship Spotters Society) definition as MARINA, the maritime regulatory agency has no definition for that.
The upper deck of the fastcraft was lengthened a little by three windows. It has two direct stairs to the upper deck of the ship and it seems primary loading now is through the upper deck as the fastcraft sits low now compared to the docks. The high funnels are no longer around and those were transferred to the stern (that is good because including the derated engines means less noise for the passenger cabins). There is also now a built-up structure in the stern for the crew (they look more like cadets to me, however, as the real crew seems to be just in T-shirts). Between that and the upper passenger deck is space for some light cargo.
The big negative thing that happened to the fastcraft as Star Crafts 7 is in the seating arrangement that is now 4+4 with a small seat pitch which is the distance between the seats and so seating is very tight and there is obvious lack of space. Star Crafts 7 is the tightest-sitting High Speed Craft I ever saw and I wonder if Boholanos are not complaining . She is now a slower fastcraft with tight spaces and almost no legroom. And of course the seats are not reclining.
Now I wonder what kind of refurbishing or improvement is that? It looks more like downgrading to me. For the ownership and the revenues that is good and a plus. But for the passengers, what is the benefit of that? The ship has no canteen and so a crewman not in uniform hawks food when the ship is already sailing (that is also what I observed in Starcrafts 1). Well, even if there is a canteen someone not in the aisle will have difficulty in getting out. The tight spaces forbid movement for the entire ride as the passengers in the cheapest class (which is also airconditioned) are packed like sardines. This cheapest class occupies majority of the passenger accommodation in the fastcraft.
There are also higher class passenger accommodations in the upper deck that seats 3+3 and 3+4 which have a different seat motif and these sell higher. I wonder if they call that the Business Class. Those were farther from the engines but of course the upper deck will sway more in rough seas. Maybe with less water splash the view of the outside is better there.
Her route is Cebu-Tubigon when I rode with her and from Tubigon it took us a few minutes over one hour and part of the reason is the slowing down approaching Shell island because of the speed limit imposed in Mactan Channel now. By whatever measure, I cannot say my ride with her was comfortable and actually I was disappointed.
Star Crafts is dominating the Tubigon and Jetafe routes at the High Speed Crafts segment (that route has many ROROs) especially since Lite Jet is already gone and it seems the Star Crafts 7 is also successful too. But it is my wish that she would be more comfortable. What is the cost anyway of removing a few seats? A High Speed Craft should offer more room, better leg space and better seats than a tourist bus, I should say, if they will use "Tourist" as designation of the passenger class. Am I wrong? After all, a High Speed Craft is the bigger craft, it costs more and so why not make it more comfortable all the way? That way, they will be deserving of the higher class or segment they are thought of to be occupying.


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Frequent Links
Open Access Articles- Top Results for Stimulant
Advances in Crop Science and TechnologyYield and Macronutrient Accumulation in Grain of Spring Wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. vulgare L.) as Affected by Biostimulant Application
Journal of Depression and AnxietyAn Insight into the Cellular Mechanisms of Addiction to Psychostimulants
Journal of Addiction Research & TherapyAlcohol Interactions with Psychostimulants: An Overview of Animal and Human Studies
Journal of Biomolecular Research & TherapeuticsPsychostimulants, Brain Membrane Lipids and Dopamine Transmission
International Journal of Plant, Animal and Environmental SciencesStudy on the Foliar Application of Fitomareî on Drought Tolerance of Tomato Plants
|This article needs additional citations for verification. (December 2007)
Stimulants (also referred to as psychostimulants) are psychoactive drugs that induce temporary improvements in either mental or physical functions or both. Examples of these kinds of effects may include enhanced alertness, wakefulness, and locomotion, among others. Due to their rendering a characteristic "up" feeling, stimulants are also occasionally referred to as "uppers". Depressants or "downers", which decrease mental and/or physical function, are in stark contrast to stimulants and are considered to be their functional opposites. Stimulants are widely used throughout the world as prescription medicines and without prescription both as legal substances and illicit substances of recreational use or abuse.
- 1 Effects
- 2 Medical uses
- 3 Chemistry
- 4 Notable stimulants
- 5 Abuse
- 6 Testing
- 7 See also
- 8 Notes
- 9 References
- 10 External links
|This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2014)
Stimulants produce a variety of different kinds of effects by enhancing the activity of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Common effects, which vary depending on the substance and dosage in question, may include enhanced alertness, awareness, wakefulness, endurance, productivity, and motivation, increased arousal, locomotion, heart rate, and blood pressure, and the perception of a diminished requirement for food and sleep. Many stimulants are also capable of improving mood and relieving anxiety, and some can even induce feelings of euphoria. However different effects are often dose related, such as amphetamine causing anxiety, dysthymia, hyperactivity and potentially heart failure at high doses, but relieving anxiety, producing euthymia or euphoria, reducing hyperactivity and being generally free of serious side effects at moderate doses used in clinical medicine. Stimulants exert their effects through a number of different pharmacological mechanisms, the most prominent of which include facilitation of norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and/or dopamine activity (e.g., via monoamine transporter inhibition or reversal),[1] adenosine receptor antagonism, and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonism.
Medical uses
Stimulants are used both individually and clinically for therapeutic purposes in the treatment of a number of indications, including the following:
- To counteract lethargy and fatigue throughout the day while at work or while doing other activities
- To reduce sleepiness and to keep the person awake when necessary, as well as to treat narcolepsy
- To decrease appetite and promote weight loss, as well as to treat obesity
- To improve concentration and focus, and reduce restlessness and hyperactivity, especially for those with attentional disorders such as ADHD
- Occasionally, used off-label to treat clinical depression, in particular, non-typical depression and treatment-resistant depression[citation needed]
- To relieve nasal congestion and to treat orthostatic hypotension and postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome.
- To aid in smoking cessation. (bupropion, nicotine)
- To counteract fatigue and maintain alertness for extended periods and critical operations in military aviation and space flight.
- To offset sedative effects of opioids used long term at higher doses such as in cancer or AIDS patients. (May also have synergistic effect on opioids.)
- To relieve headache, in part by potentiating other drugs. (caffeine)
ADHD drugs
Stimulants are the most commonly prescribed medications for ADHD. The most common stimulant medications are substituted phenethylamines: amphetamine, methylphenidate (Ritalin, Metadate, Concerta), dexmethylphenidate (Focalin), dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine), mixed amphetamine salts (Adderall),[2] dextromethamphetamine (Desoxyn)[3] and lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse).[4] Controlled-release pharmaceuticals may allow once or twice daily administration of medication in the morning. This is especially helpful for children preferring not to take their medication in the middle of the school day. Several controlled-release methods are used.
Ampakines are a class of compounds observed to enhance attention span and alertness, and facilitate learning and memory in clinical trials. They take their name from the glutamatergic AMPA receptor with which they strongly interact.
These stimulants tend to increase alertness without the peripheral (body) effects or addiction/tolerance/abuse potential of "traditional" stimulants (such as amphetamine),[medical citation needed] as they lack direct dopaminergic action. Their effect on sleep structure is not fully established and may reduce quality of sleep. The ampakine CX717, when administered at doses necessary to reduce the effects of sleep deprivation, reduced subsequent stage 4 and slow-wave recovery sleep.[5] Ampakines such as ampalex and CX717 have been developed but are awaiting further research before being commercially released. They have been investigated by DARPA for potential use in increasing military effectiveness.[6]
A wakefulness-promoting agent (eugeroic) is a type of psychoactive drug that improves wakefulness and alertness, and reduces tiredness, drowsiness, and the need for sleep. They are used mainly in the treatment of sleeping disorders, excessive daytime sleepiness, and narcolepsy, though they are also used merely to counteract fatigue and lethargy and to enhance motivation and productivity. Wakefulness-promoting agents appear to function primarily by increasing catecholaminergic (adrenergic, dopaminergic) and histaminergic activity in the brain. Unlike many other stimulants, eugeroics are relatively non-addictive and non-dependence-forming.[medical citation needed]
The prototype drug in this class is modafinil, and other drugs include adrafinil, hydrafinil, 2C-NPH and armodafinil. The primary difference between these drugs and amphetamine-like stimulants is that wakefulness-promoting agents trigger activation of neurons in the hypothalamus-based wakefulness circuits, as opposed to producing diffuse neuronal activation.[7]
The functional opposites of wakefulness-promoting agents would be hypnotics/sedatives like antihistamines, opioids, and benzodiazepines.
Classifying stimulants is difficult, because of the large number of classes the drugs occupy, and the fact that they may belong to multiple classes; for example, ecstasy is a substituted methylenedioxyphenethylamine as well as a substituted amphetamine (and consequently, a substituted phenethylamine as well).
When referring to stimulants, the parent drug (e.g., amphetamine) will always be expressed in the singular; while the word "substituted" before the parent drug (substituted amphetamines).
Major stimulant classes include phenethylamines and their daughter class substituted amphetamines.
Amphetamines (class)
Substituted amphetamines are a group of phenylethylamine stimulants such as amphetamine and methamphetamine. With the exception of cathinones, many drugs in this class work primarily by activating trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1);[8] in turn, this causes reuptake inhibition and effluxion, or release, of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin.[8] An additional mechanism of some substituted amphetamines is the release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles into the cytosol, or intracellular fluid of the presynaptic neuron.[9]
Amphetamines-type stimulants are often used for their therapeutic effects. Physicians sometimes prescribe amphetamine to treat major depression, where subjects do not respond well to traditional SSRI medications,[citation needed] but evidence supporting this use is poor/mixed.[10] Notably, two recent large phase III studies of lisdexamfetamine (a prodrug to amphetamine) as an adjunct to an SSRI or SNRI in the treatment of major depressive disorder showed no further benefit relative to placebo in effectiveness.[11] Numerous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of drugs such as Adderall (a mixture of salts of amphetamine and dextroamphetamine) in controlling symptoms associated with ADD/ADHD. Due to their availability and fast-acting effects, substituted amphetamines are prime candidates for abuse.[12]
Dopamine precursors
Dopamine is one of the principal neurotransmitters involved with stimulant activity in the brain, (others being norepinephrine and serotonin). Increase in its precursors may result in increased dopamine biosynthesis, especially in malnourished individuals. However levels of the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase ultimately limit the biosynthesis regardless of increased tyrosine.
L-Tyrosine is the precursor that is 'closest' to being dopamine among those supplements legally available without prescription in most jurisdictions. It is converted by tyrosine hydroxylase into L-Dopa. Some of this L-Dopa is converted into dopamine and norepinephrine. Because tyrosine competes with other amino acids for entry into the brain supplement makers recommend tyrosine be taken on an empty stomach. However tyrosine hydroxylase is the rate limiting factor and even large dosages recommended by most supplement companies may not produce any noticeable effect. L-Phenylalanine is 'one step back' from L-Tyrosine—it must be converted into tyrosine before the tyrosine can be converted into L-Dopa, which in turn becomes dopamine. Dopamine is also the direct precursor of norepinephrine.
Notable stimulants
Amphetamine (drug)
Amphetamine is a potent central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the phenethylamine class that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy.[16] Amphetamine was discovered in 1887 and exists as two enantiomers: levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine.[note 1][17] Amphetamine refers to equal parts of the enantiomers, i.e., 50% levoamphetamine and 50% dextroamphetamine.[18][19] Historically, it has been used to treat nasal congestion, depression, and obesity.[17][20] Amphetamine is also used as a performance and cognitive enhancer, and recreationally as an aphrodisiac and euphoriant.[21][22][23][24] Although it is a prescription medication in many countries, unauthorized possession and distribution of amphetamine is often tightly controlled due to the significant health risks associated with uncontrolled or heavy use.[25][26] As a consequence, amphetamine is illegally synthesized by clandestine chemists, trafficked, and sold.[27] Based upon drug and drug precursor seizures worldwide, illicit amphetamine production and trafficking is much less prevalent than that of methamphetamine.[27]
The first pharmaceutical amphetamine was Benzedrine, a brand of inhalers used to treat a variety of conditions.[17][20] Because the dextro isomer has greater stimulant properties, Benzedrine was gradually discontinued in favor of formulations containing all or mostly dextroamphetamine. Presently, it is typically prescribed as Adderall, dextroamphetamine (e.g., Dexedrine), or the inactive prodrug lisdexamfetamine (e.g., Vyvanse).[17][28] Amphetamine, through activation of a trace amine receptor, increases biogenic amine and excitatory neurotransmitter activity in the brain, with its most pronounced effects targeting the catecholamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine.[8] At therapeutic doses, this causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria, change in libido, increased arousal, and improved cognitive control.[22][23][29] Likewise, it induces physical effects such as decreased reaction time, fatigue resistance, and increased muscle strength.[21]
In contrast, much larger doses of amphetamine are likely to impair cognitive function and induce rapid muscle breakdown.[16][22][30] Substance dependence (i.e., addiction) is a serious risk of amphetamine abuse, but only rarely arises from proper medical use.[16][31] Very high doses can result in a psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia), which very rarely occurs at therapeutic doses even during long-term use.[32][33] As recreational doses are generally much larger than prescribed therapeutic doses, recreational use carries a far greater risk of serious side effects.[16][30]
Amphetamine is the parent compound of its own structural class, the (substituted) amphetamines, which includes prominent substances such as bupropion, cathinone, ecstasy, and methamphetamine.[34][35] It is chemically related to methamphetamine; however, unlike methamphetamine, its salts lack sufficient volatility to be smoked.[34] During long-term treatment in humans, amphetamine has been shown to normalize, or improve, brain function, in particular in the right caudate nucleus;[36][37] in contrast, methamphetamine induces permanent reductions in brain structure and function.[38][39] Amphetamine is also chemically related to the naturally occurring trace amines, to be specific phenethylamine and N-methylphenethylamine, both of which produced within the human body.[35]
Caffeine is a stimulant compound belonging to the xanthine class of chemicals naturally found in coffee, tea, and (to a lesser degree) cocoa or chocolate. It is included in many soft drinks, as well as a larger amount in energy drinks. Caffeine is the world's most widely used psychoactive drug and by far the most common stimulant. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily.[40] A few jurisdictions restrict its sale and use. Caffeine is also included in some medications, usually for the purpose of enhancing the effect of the primary ingredient, or reducing one of its side-effects (especially drowsiness). Tablets containing standardized doses of caffeine are also widely available.
Ephedrine is a sympathomimetic amine similar in molecular structure to the well-known drugs phenylpropanolamine and methamphetamine, as well as to the important neurotransmitter epinephrine (adrenaline). Ephedrine is commonly used as a stimulant, appetite suppressant, concentration aid, and decongestant, and to treat hypotension associated with anaesthesia.
In chemical terms, it is an alkaloid with a phenethylamine skeleton found in various plants in the genus Ephedra (family Ephedraceae). It works mainly by increasing the activity of norepinephrine (noradrenaline) on adrenergic receptors.[41] It is most usually marketed as the hydrochloride or sulfate salt.
The herb má huáng (Ephedra sinica), used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), contains ephedrine and pseudoephedrine as its principal active constituents. The same may be true of other herbal products containing extracts from other Ephedra species.
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), known by its common street name "Ecstasy", typically comes as tablets, capsules, and in powder/crystal form. It had a medical application as a treatment for depression and a psychotherapy aid until 1985, when the DEA listed MDMA as a Schedule I controlled substance, prohibiting most medical studies and applications. MDMA is also unique and very popular for its entactogenic properties. The stimulant effects of MDMA include hypertension, anorexia (appetite loss), euphoria, social disinhibition, insomnia (enhanced wakefulness/inability to sleep), improved energy, increased arousal, and increased perspiration, among others.
MDMA differs from most stimulants in that its primary pharmacological effect is on the neurotransmitter serotonin rather than dopamine, epinephrine, or norepinephrine. Because of this, it is considered to be primarily an entactogen or an empathogen.
Methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) is a psychoactive drug with stimulant properties that acts as a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI).[42] It was first developed in the 1960s by a team at Boehringer Ingelheim.[43] MDPV remained an obscure stimulant until around 2004, when it was reported to be sold as a designer drug. Products labeled as bath salts containing MDPV were previously sold as recreational drugs in gas stations and convenience stores in the United States, similar to the marketing for Spice and K2 as incense.[44][45]
Incidents of psychological and physical harm have been attributed to MDPV use.[46][47]
Prolintane is a stimulant that has been around since the 1950s. It is stronger than caffeine and has a very good safety profile. Prolintane use isn't very common, though some people[who?] use it as a safer and more effective alternative to caffeine.
Mephedrone is a synthetic stimulant drug of the amphetamine and cathinone classes. Slang names include drone[48] and MCAT.[49] It is reported to be manufactured in China and is chemically similar to the cathinone compounds found in the khat plant of eastern Africa. It comes in the form of tablets or a powder, which users can swallow, snort, or inject, producing similar effects to MDMA, amphetamines, and cocaine.
Mephedrone was first synthesized in 1929, but did not become widely known until it was rediscovered in 2003. By 2007, mephedrone was reported to be available for sale on the Internet; by 2008 law enforcement agencies had become aware of the compound; and, by 2010, it had been reported in most of Europe, becoming particularly prevalent in the United Kingdom. Mephedrone was first made illegal in Israel in 2008, followed by Sweden later that year. In 2010, it was made illegal in many European countries, and, in December 2010, the EU ruled it illegal. In Australia, New Zealand, and the USA, it is considered an analog of other illegal drugs and can be controlled by laws similar to the Federal Analog Act. In September 2011, the USA temporarily classified mephedrone as illegal, in effect from October 2011.
Methamphetamine (contracted from N-methyl-alpha-methylphenethylamine) is a neurotoxin and potent psychostimulant of the phenethylamine and amphetamine classes that is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obesity.[38][50][39] Methamphetamine exists as two enantiomers, dextrorotary and levorotary.[51][52] Dextromethamphetamine is a stronger CNS stimulant than levomethamphetamine;[30][51][52] however, both are addictive and produce the same toxicity symptoms at high doses.[52] Although rarely prescribed due to the potential risks, methamphetamine hydrochloride is approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) under the trade name Desoxyn.[50] Recreationally, methamphetamine is used to increase sexual desire, lift the mood, and increase energy, allowing some users to engage in sexual activity continuously for several days straight.[50][53]
Methamphetamine may be sold illicitly, either as pure dextromethamphetamine or in an equal parts mixture of the right- and left-handed molecules (i.e., 50% levomethamphetamine and 50% dextromethamphetamine).[53] Both dextromethamphetamine and racemic methamphetamine are schedule II controlled substances in the United States.[50] Also, the production, distribution, sale, and possession of methamphetamine is restricted or illegal in many other countries due to its placement in schedule II of the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances treaty.[54][55] In contrast, levomethamphetamine is an over-the-counter drug in the United States.[note 2]
In low doses, methamphetamine can cause an elevated mood and increase alertness, concentration, and energy in fatigued individuals.[30][50] At higher doses, it can induce psychosis, rhabdomyolysis, and cerebral hemorrhage.[30][50] Methamphetamine is known to have a high potential for abuse and addiction.[30][50] Recreational use of methamphetamine may result in psychosis or lead to post-withdrawal syndrome, a withdrawal syndrome that can persist for months beyond the typical withdrawal period.[58] Unlike amphetamine and cocaine, methamphetamine is neurotoxic to humans, damaging both dopamine and serotonin neurons in the central nervous system (CNS).[38][39] Entirely opposite to the long-term use of amphetamine, there is evidence that methamphetamine causes brain damage from long-term use in humans;[38][39] this damage includes adverse changes in brain structure and function, such as reductions in gray matter volume in several brain regions and adverse changes in markers of metabolic integrity.[36][37][39]
|This section requires expansion with: a connection between its addictive properties and stimulant effect. (January 2014)
Phenylpropanolamine (PPA; Accutrim; β-hydroxyamphetamine), also known as the stereoisomers norephedrine and norpseudoephedrine, is a psychoactive drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes that is used as a stimulant, decongestant, and anorectic agent.[59] It is commonly used in prescription and over-the-counter cough and cold preparations. In veterinary medicine, it is used to control urinary incontinence in dogs under trade names Propalin and Proin.
In the United States, PPA is no longer sold without a prescription due to a proposed increased risk of stroke in younger women. In a few countries in Europe, however, it is still available either by prescription or sometimes over-the-counter. In Canada, it was withdrawn from the market on 31 May 2001.[60] In India, human use of PPA and its formulations were banned on 10 February 2011.[61]
Propylhexedrine (Hexahydromethamphetamine, Obesin) is a stimulant medication, sold over-the-counter in the United States as the cold medication Benzedrex.[62] The drug has also been used as an appetite suppressant in Europe. Propylhexedrine is not an amphetamine, though it is structurally similar; it is instead a cycloalkylamine, and thus has stimulant effects that are less potent than similarly structured amphetamines, such as methamphetamine.
The abuse potential of propylhexedrine is fairly limited, due its limited routes of administration: in the United States, Benzedrex is only available as an inhalant, mixed with lavender oil and menthol. These ingredients cause unpleasant tastes, and abusers of the drug have reported unpleasant "menthol burps." Injection of the drug has been found to cause transient diplopia and brain stem dysfunction.[63][64][65]
Dimethylamylamine is a stimulant drug, once sold in over-the-counter workout supplements and study aids in the United States as in the supplement Jack 3D, but it was later discontinued. Dimethylamylamine is not an amphetamine, though it is structurally similar, and thus has stimulant effects that are less potent than similarly structured amphetamines, such as amphetamine.
Pseudoephedrine is a sympathomimetic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes. It may be used as a nasal/sinus decongestant, as a stimulant,[66] or as a wakefulness-promoting agent.[67]
The salts pseudoephedrine hydrochloride and pseudoephedrine sulfate are found in many over-the-counter preparations, either as a single ingredient or (more commonly) in combination with antihistamines, guaifenesin, dextromethorphan, and/or paracetamol (acetaminophen) or another NSAID (such as aspirin or ibuprofen).
Catha edulis (Khat)
Khat is a flowering plant native to the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.[68][69]
Khat contains a monoamine alkaloid called cathinone, a "keto-amphetamine", that is said to cause excitement, loss of appetite, and euphoria. In 1980, the World Health Organization (WHO) classified it as a drug of abuse that can produce mild to moderate psychological dependence (less than tobacco or alcohol),[70] although the WHO does not consider khat to be seriously addictive.[69] It is a controlled substance in some countries, such as the United States, Canada, and Germany, while its production, sale, and consumption are legal in other nations, including Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Yemen.[71]
Cocaine is an SNDRI. Cocaine is made from the leaves of the coca shrub, which grows in the mountain regions of South American countries such as Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru. In Europe, North America, and some parts of Asia, the most common form of cocaine is a white crystalline powder. Cocaine is a stimulant but is not normally prescribed therapeutically for its stimulant properties, although it sees clinical use as a local anesthetic, in particular in ophthalmology. Most cocaine use is recreational and its abuse potential is high(albeit higher than amphetamine), and so its sale and possession are strictly controlled in most jurisdictions. Other tropane derivative drugs related to cocaine are also known such as troparil and lometopane but have not been widely sold or used recreationally.[72]
Abuse of central nervous system (CNS) stimulants is common. Addiction to some CNS stimulants can quickly lead to medical, psychiatric, and psychosocial deterioration. Drug tolerance, dependence, and sensitization as well as a withdrawal syndrome can occur.[73]
Stimulants enhance the activity of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Common effects may include increased alertness, awareness, wakefulness, endurance, productivity, and motivation, arousal, locomotion, heart rate, and blood pressure, and a diminished desire for food and sleep.
Use of stimulants may cause the body to reduce significantly its production of natural body chemicals that fulfill similar functions. Until the body reestablishes its normal state, once the effect of the ingested stimulant has worn off the user may feel depressed, lethargic, confused, and miserable. This is referred to as a "crash", and may provoke reuse of the stimulant.
The presence of stimulants in the body may be tested by a variety of procedures. Serum and urine are the common sources of testing material although saliva is sometimes used. Commonly used tests include chromatography, immunologic assay, and mass spectrometry.[74] Patients taking ADHD-prescribed, Adderall-type amphetamine compounds are commonly surprised upon being tested as "positive" for "meth", or methamphetamine (Desoxyn—its licit, FDA-licensed, medicinal form) in forensically unsophisticated urinalysis, as methamphetamine is the active ingredient of the drug Desoxyn, and is chemically similar to the active ingredients of other ADHD medications.
See also
- ^ Enantiomers are molecules that are mirror images of one another; they are structurally identical, but of the opposite orientation.
Levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine are also known as L-amph or levamfetamine (INN) and D-amph or dexamfetamine (INN) respectively.
- ^ The active ingredient in Vicks VapoInhaler is listed as Levmetamfetamine, the INN of Levomethamphetamine.[56][57]
- ^ Riddle EL, Fleckenstein AE, Hanson GR (2005). "Role of monoamine transporters in mediating psychostimulant effects". The AAPS journal 7 (4): E847–51. PMC 2750953. PMID 16594636. doi:10.1208/aapsj070481.
- ^ Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A (April 2005). "Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review". Progress in Neurobiology 75 (6): 406–33. PMID 15955613. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.04.003.
- ^ National Toxicology, Program (July 2005). "NTP-CERHR monograph on the potential human reproductive and developmental effects of amphetamines". Ntp Cerhr Mon (16): vii–III1. PMID 16130031.
- ^ Howland RH (August 2008). "Lisdexamfetamine: a prodrug stimulant for ADHD". Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services 46 (8): 19–22. PMID 18777964. doi:10.3928/02793695-20080801-05.
- ^ Boyle, J.; Stanley, N.; James, L.M.; Wright, N.; Johnsen, S.; Arbon, E.L.; Dijk, D.J. (August 2012). "Acute sleep deprivation: the effects of the AMPAKINE compound CX717 on human cognitive performance, alertness and recovery sleep". Journal of psychopharmacology (Oxford, England) 26 (8): 1047–57. PMID 21940760. doi:10.1177/0269881111405353.
- ^ Saletan, W. (16 July 2008). "Night of the Living Meds – The U.S. military's sleep-reduction program". Slate Magazine. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
- ^ Ballon, D.D.; Feifel, D. (2006). "A systematic review of modafinil: potential clinical uses and mechanisms of action". Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 67 (4): 554–66. PMID 16669720. doi:10.4088/JCP.v67n0406.
- ^ a b c d Miller GM (January 2011). "The emerging role of trace amine-associated receptor 1 in the functional regulation of monoamine transporters and dopaminergic activity". J. Neurochem. 116 (2): 164–176. PMC 3005101. PMID 21073468. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07109.x.
- ^ Eiden LE, Weihe E (January 2011). "VMAT2: a dynamic regulator of brain monoaminergic neuronal function interacting with drugs of abuse". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1216: 86–98. PMID 21272013. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05906.x.
- ^ Orr K, Taylor D (2007). "Psychostimulants in the Treatment of Depression". CNS Drugs 21 (3): 239–57. PMID 17338594. doi:10.2165/00023210-200721030-00004.
- ^ Dale, Elena; Bang-Andersen, Benny; Sánchez, Connie (2015). "Emerging mechanisms and treatments for depression beyond SSRIs and SNRIs". Biochemical Pharmacology 95 (2): 81–97. ISSN 0006-2952. doi:10.1016/j.bcp.2015.03.011.
- ^ Efforts of the National Institute on Drug Abuse to Prevent and Treat Prescription Drug Abuse, Testimony Before the Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, Drug Policy, and Human Resources Committee on Government Reform, United States House of Representatives, 26 July 2006
- ^ Broadley KJ (March 2010). "The vascular effects of trace amines and amphetamines". Pharmacol. Ther. 125 (3): 363–375. PMID 19948186. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.11.005.
- ^ Lindemann L, Hoener MC (May 2005). "A renaissance in trace amines inspired by a novel GPCR family". Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 26 (5): 274–281. PMID 15860375. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2005.03.007.
- ^ [13][14]
- ^ a b c d "Adderall XR Prescribing Information" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. June 2013. p. 11. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
- ^ a b c d Heal DJ, Smith SL, Gosden J, Nutt DJ (June 2013). "Amphetamine, past and present – a pharmacological and clinical perspective". J. Psychopharmacol. 27 (6): 479–496. PMC 3666194. PMID 23539642. doi:10.1177/0269881113482532.
- ^ "Amphetamine". DrugBank. University of Alberta. 7 January 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
|chapter=ignored (help)
- ^ "Amphetamine". National Library of Medicine – Medical Subject Headings. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
- ^ a b Rasmussen N (July 2006). "Making the first anti-depressant: amphetamine in American medicine, 1929–1950". J . Hist. Med. Allied Sci. 61 (3): 288–323. PMID 16492800. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrj039.
- ^ a b Liddle DG, Connor DJ (June 2013). "Nutritional supplements and ergogenic AIDS". Prim. Care 40 (2): 487–505. PMID 23668655. doi:10.1016/j.pop.2013.02.009.
Amphetamines and caffeine are stimulants that increase alertness, improve focus, decrease reaction time, and delay fatigue, allowing for an increased intensity and duration of training...
Physiologic and performance effects
• Amphetamines increase dopamine/norepinephrine release and inhibit their reuptake, leading to central nervous system (CNS) stimulation
• Amphetamines seem to enhance athletic performance in anaerobic conditions 39 40
• Improved reaction time
• Increased muscle strength and delayed muscle fatigue
• Increased acceleration
• Increased alertness and attention to task
- ^ a b c Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control". In Sydor A, Brown RY. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 318. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4.
Therapeutic (relatively low) doses of psychostimulants, such as methylphenidate and amphetamine, improve performance on working memory tasks both in individuals with ADHD and in normal subjects...it is now believed that dopamine and norepinephrine, but not serotonin, produce the beneficial effects of stimulants on working memory. At abused (relatively high) doses, stimulants can interfere with working memory and cognitive control, as will be discussed below. It is important to recognize, however, that stimulants act not only on working memory function, but also on general levels of arousal and, within the nucleus accumbens, improve the saliency of tasks. Thus, stimulants improve performance on effortful but tedious tasks...through indirect stimulation of dopamine and norepinephrine receptors.
- ^ a b Montgomery KA (June 2008). "Sexual desire disorders". Psychiatry (Edgmont) 5 (6): 50–55. PMC 2695750. PMID 19727285.
- ^ Wilens TE, Adler LA, Adams J, Sgambati S, Rotrosen J, Sawtelle R, Utzinger L, Fusillo S (January 2008). "Misuse and diversion of stimulants prescribed for ADHD: a systematic review of the literature". J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 47 (1): 21–31. PMID 18174822. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31815a56f1.
Stimulant misuse appears to occur both for performance enhancement and their euphorogenic effects, the latter being related to the intrinsic properties of the stimulants (e.g., IR versus ER profile)...
Although useful in the treatment of ADHD, stimulants are controlled II substances with a history of preclinical and human studies showing potential abuse liability.
- ^ "Convention on psychotropic substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. United Nations. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
- ^ "Methamphetamine facts". DrugPolicy.org. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
- ^ a b Chawla S, Le Pichon T (2006). "World Drug Report 2006" (PDF). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. pp. 128–135. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
- ^ "Adderall IR Prescribing Information" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. March 2007. p. 5. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
- ^ "Adderall XR Prescribing Information" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. June 2013. pp. 4–8. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f Westfall DP, Westfall TC (2010). "Miscellaneous Sympathomimetic Agonists". In Brunton LL, Chabner BA, Knollmann BC. Goodman & Gilman's Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-162442-8.
- ^ Stolerman IP (2010). Stolerman IP, ed. Encyclopedia of Psychopharmacology. Berlin; London: Springer. p. 78. ISBN 978-3-540-68698-9.
Although [substituted amphetamines] are also used as recreational drugs, with important neurotoxic consequences when abused, addiction is not a high risk when therapeutic doses are used as directed.
- ^ Shoptaw SJ, Kao U, Ling W (2009). "Treatment for amphetamine psychosis (Review)". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD003026. PMID 19160215. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003026.pub3.
- ^ Greydanus D. "Stimulant Misuse: Strategies to Manage a Growing Problem" (PDF). American College Health Association (Review Article). ACHA Professional Development Program. p. 20. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
- ^ a b "Amphetamine". European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
- ^ a b Broadley KJ (March 2010). "The vascular effects of trace amines and amphetamines". Pharmacol. Ther. 125 (3): 363–375. PMID 19948186. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.11.005.
Fig. 2. Synthetic and metabolic pathways for endogenous and exogenously administered trace amines and sympathomimetic amines...
Trace amines are metabolized in the mammalian body via monoamine oxidase (MAO; EC 126.96.36.199) (Berry, 2004) (Fig. 2)...It deaminates primary and secondary amines that are free in the neuronal cytoplasm but not those bound in storage vesicles of the sympathetic neurone...
Thus, MAO inhibitors potentiate the peripheral effects of indirectly acting sympathomimetic amines. It is not often realized, however, that this potentiation occurs irrespective of whether the amine is a substrate for MAO. An α-methyl group on the side chain, as in amphetamine and ephedrine, renders the amine immune to deamination so that they are not metabolized in the gut. Similarly, β-PEA would not be deaminated in the gut as it is a selective substrate for MAO-B which is not found in the gut...
Brain levels of endogenous trace amines are several hundred-fold below those for the classical neurotransmitters noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin but their rates of synthesis are equivalent to those of noradrenaline and dopamine and they have a very rapid turnover rate (Berry, 2004). Endogenous extracellular tissue levels of trace amines measured in the brain are in the low nanomolar range. These low concentrations arise because of their very short half-life,...
- ^ a b Hart H, Radua J, Nakao T, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K (February 2013). "Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects". JAMA Psychiatry 70 (2): 185–198. PMID 23247506. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.277.
- ^ a b Spencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Lomedico A, Faraone SV, Biederman J (September 2013). "Effect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in ADHD: a qualitative literature review of magnetic resonance imaging-based neuroimaging studies". J. Clin. Psychiatry 74 (9): 902–917. PMC 3801446. PMID 24107764. doi:10.4088/JCP.12r08287.
- ^ a b c d Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "15". In Sydor A, Brown RY. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 370. ISBN 9780071481274.
Unlike cocaine and amphetamine, methamphetamine is directly toxic to midbrain dopamine neurons.
- ^ a b c d e Krasnova IN, Cadet JL (May 2009). "Methamphetamine toxicity and messengers of death". Brain Res. Rev. 60 (2): 379–407. PMC 2731235. PMID 19328213. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2009.03.002.
Neuroimaging studies have revealed that METH can indeed cause neurodegenerative changes in the brains of human addicts (Aron and Paulus, 2007; Chang et al., 2007). These abnormalities include persistent decreases in the levels of dopamine transporters (DAT) in the orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and the caudate-putamen (McCann et al., 1998, 2008; Sekine et al., 2003; Volkow et al., 2001a, 2001c). The density of serotonin transporters (5-HTT) is also decreased in the midbrain, caudate, putamen, hypothalamus, thalamus, the orbitofrontal, temporal, and cingulate cortices of METH-dependent individuals (Sekine et al., 2006) ...
Neuropsychological studies have detected deficits in attention, working memory, and decision-making in chronic METH addicts ...
There is compelling evidence that the negative neuropsychiatric consequences of METH abuse are due, at least in part, to drug-induced neuropathological changes in the brains of these METH-exposed individuals ...
Structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies in METH addicts have revealed substantial morphological changes in their brains. These include loss of gray matter in the cingulate, limbic, and paralimbic cortices, significant shrinkage of hippocampi, and hypertrophy of white matter (Thompson et al., 2004). In addition, the brains of METH abusers show evidence of hyperintensities in white matter (Bae et al., 2006; Ernst et al., 2000), decreases in the neuronal marker, N-acetylaspartate (Ernst et al., 2000; Sung et al., 2007), reductions in a marker of metabolic integrity, creatine (Sekine et al., 2002) and increases in a marker of glial activation, myoinositol (Chang et al., 2002; Ernst et al., 2000; Sung et al., 2007; Yen et al., 1994). Elevated choline levels, which are indicative of increased cellular membrane synthesis and turnover are also evident in the frontal gray matter of METH abusers (Ernst et al., 2000; Salo et al., 2007; Taylor et al., 2007).
- ^ Lovett R (24 September 2005). "Coffee: The demon drink?". New Scientist (2518). Retrieved 3 August 2009. (subscription required)
- ^ Merck Manuals EPHEDrine Last full review/revision January 2010
- ^ Simmler, L. D.; Buser, T. A.; Donzelli, M.; Schramm, Y; Dieu, L-H.; Huwyler, J.; Chaboz, S.; Hoener, M. C.; Liechti, M. E. (2012). "Pharmacological characterization of designer cathinones in vitro". British Journal of Pharmacology 168 (2): 458–470. ISSN 0007-1188. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.02145.x.
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- ^ a b San Francisco Meth Zombies (TV documentary). National Geographic Channel. August 2013. ASIN B00EHAOBAO.
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- ^ "Vicks Vapoinhaler". Vicks. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
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- ^ "Levomethamphetamine". Pubchem Compound. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
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- ^ Cruickshank CC, Dyer KR (July 2009). "A review of the clinical pharmacology of methamphetamine". Addiction 104 (7): 1085–1099. PMID 19426289. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02564.x.
- ^ Flavahan NA (April 2005). "Phenylpropanolamine constricts mouse and human blood vessels by preferentially activating alpha2-adrenoceptors". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimentical Therapeutics 313 (1): 432–9. PMID 15608085. doi:10.1124/jpet.104.076653.
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- ^ Hodges, K; Hancock S; Currel K; Hamilton B; Jeukendrup AE (Feb 2006). "Pseudoephedrine enhances performance in 1500-m runners". US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health 38 (2): 329–33. PMID 16531903. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000183201.79330.9c.
- ^ Dickens, Charles (1856) [Digitized 19 February 2010]. "The Orsons of East Africa". Household Words: A Weekly Journal, Volume 14. Bradbury & Evans. p. 176. Retrieved 7 January 2014. open access publication - free to read (Free eBook)
- ^ a b Al-Mugahed, Leen (October 2008). "Khat chewing in Yemen: turning over a new leaf – Khat chewing is on the rise in Yemen, raising concerns about the health and social consequences". World Health Organization. Retrieved 8 January 2014.
- ^ Nutt D, King LA, Blakemore C (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse". Lancet 369 (9566): 1047–53. PMID 17382831. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4.
- ^ Haight-Ashbury Free Medical Clinic, Journal of psychoactive drugs, Volume 41, (Haight-Ashbury Publications: 2009), p.3.
- ^ AJ Giannini, WC Price (1986). "Contemporary drugs of abuse". American Family Physician 33: 207–213.
- ^ Dackis CA, Gold MS (1990). "Addictiveness of central stimulants". Advances in Alcohol & Substance Abuse 9 (1–2): 9–26. PMID 1974121. doi:10.1300/J251v09n01_02.
- ^ AJ Giannini. Drug Abuse. Los Angeles, Health Information Press, 1999, pp.203–208
External links
|Look up stimulant or upper in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stimulant.
- Long Island Council on Alcohol & Drug Dependence – About Drugs – Stimulants at the Wayback Machine (archived 5 June 2008)
- Online – Publications – Drugs of Abuse – Stimulants at the Wayback Machine (archived 22 September 2006)
- Asia & Pacific Amphetamine-Type Stimulants Information Centre (APAIC)
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subset: commoncrawl


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text:
Mossberg on the Roku 3
The Roku 3 introduces several new features, including easier streaming and remote headphones. Walt Mossberg discusses on digits.
This transcript has been automatically generated and may not be 100% accurate.
... I ... now is the rope to ... re ... it doubly him self wall last but is about to weigh and ... mall right here right now on Digits good afternoon and welcome I'm Simon Constable ... big doubly him self joins us now from Maryland ... Wall thanks for being now ... happy be here Simon ... now you've been looking at the brokerage firm arranged ... tell us about it ... well you know I think I think ... we take we should take a second just to talk about where we stand ... the road the three is a device that lets you stream ... Internet based video things like Netflix but not just Netflix many many other services ... to your TV ... without a computer ... and you have a remote and you control it ... and it competes most directly with Apple TV ... they're both ... small black ... boxes that really aren't interested in the new TV set up and so forth ... Emerald has been at this they've sold about five million units ... since two thousand ate Apple sells a little more than they do ... aam but this is of a new generation of broker who ... and it has ... a couple of interesting new features ... so let's play tennis for those new pages and am other advantages are drawbacks ... they were small I should say this is the ... top of all it's a new top of the line model cost a hundred dollars ... you can getting lesser Roku for about fifty but the two features are first of all in all new interface ... very bright ... big titles for all with channels that you have selected ... as the ones you use regularly ... and they really needed that because ... they had a kind of carousel one line interface that didn't work very well ... given that they have over seven hundred ... services are what they call channels ... by the more interesting and cool feature is ... a sign when they put a ... headphone jack and it that that can take your buttons or whatever hit twenty one ... right in the remote ... and what this does is ... the last issue to watch a video TV career Roku ... up without ... blasting away a somebody in the next room or even in the same listen ... to this um else is working or are ... you know do some on their computer or whatever ... and I found it useful for isn't so working out on a treadmill ... you know we usually have to get to the old louder than normal ... it to cover the noise of the ... treadmill my wife was doing some work in the same room wasn't ... interested and I should go ... but with the headphones and never been a Jack in the remote she an app to hear it all ... now that that that is a really really cool feature that you say in your column the day and what has described to our board as that they they seem to intended to do ... aam it is this something that you think is gonna be tough the competition or they will much of a month as Apple TV and ... I guess the Xbox has some some some love some of the online I mean it ... it's hard to say that they all picked up speed in their sales though all ... you nothing compared to sales of most of smartphones or tablets or something but at ... the ball picked up sales recently the slide as you know there's a lot more interest in watching ... TV ... other than for your cable box ... Apple has picked up ... accelerated more than Roku book has Apple as a ... teacher ... bro still doesn't have which lets you ... wirelessly beaming programming from a computer an eye pattern I phone or something ... brokers working on that ... by aam ... it bases the comparison is this ... Apple has iTunes which is their own thing and very big and popular and they don't let other people have that ... they also ... it's the one hand you too ... I which is ... owned by their bigger rivals Google ... and YouTube is on Apple TV for some reason YouTube is not on Roku ... and that's the prom by Roku on the other hand ... Apple has you know maybe ten or twelve ... services on Apple TV ... Roku has seven hundred and fifty ... so if you're interested in other European horror films or ... should that ... video channels there specifically about ... things like watch is the more I'm ... you know more of a whole bunch of different music in radio things ... there's more variety on Roku ... Xbox and PlayStation ... are also big source is now for the streaming media stuff but ... they cost more they cost to read it here to her box ... they're bigger ... and in the case of Xbox Micra soft may make should pay sixteen dollars the year ... said them ... before you can even sign up and painted clicks eight dollars a month so ... there's an additional cost with that with Xbox ... all right stop by for a job as always thank you Brian


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You don't want your shins inside of your nasal cavities. You do not even want The Shins inside your nasal cavity, which is probably why Aperture Laboratories discontinued work on the ill-fated nose phones to work on something a bit more productive.
Chell finally gets a chance to shine in a video series that until now has been dominated by robots. Robots are fine when it comes to testing out panels, turrets, and trust issues, but when it comes to shattered bones, you can't beat a human hard enough.
I'm not Cave Johnson, we're done here.


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Cahill co-defendant Scott Campbell lived up to Quincy code throughout trial
In Quincy, loyalty is more prized than a cup of Marylou's coffee.
South Boston has the reputation as the place where secrets go to die and grudges never do, but its South Shore neighbor is no poseur on either count.
That code explains how Scott Campbell got in the trouble he did, the way he addressed it when he faced the very real prospect of jail time, and why the 41-year-old was left virtually speechless when a jury announced his acquittal today.
He had been charged with conspiring with his boss, former state treasurer Timothy P. Cahill, to spend $1.8 million in Massachusetts Lottery funds on TV commercials whose true goal was to boost Cahill's 2010 gubernatorial campaign.
The 12-member jury acquitted him but went back to see if it could break a deadlock over Cahill's fate.
"I'm very happy. I'm very relieved. I'm ready to move on. Thank-you to the jury,'' Campbell said barely audibly outside the courtroom after the verdict was announced.
He then retreated to an elevator with his wife and headed home to his two daughters. Campbell still faces charges in the state's Probation Department investigation that also are linked to Cahill, but he has cleared the first of his two legal hurdles with his local credibility intact.
Campbell is a Quincy kid and former UMass Boston student with a reverence for God and a love for politics. In Tim Cahill, there was a guy who went from city councilor to county treasurer to the same post for the state.
When you consider someone from your hometown is one of but six constitutional officers in your homestate, there are few higher people to aspire to serve if you are a political operative.
Campbell is but that.
As do many people with his bent, Campbell moved freely between the political and governmental worlds, switching from the state to campaign payrolls as needed.
In the former world, he became chief of staff, a fancy title for the person charged with making the Treasury trains run on time.
In the latter world, Campbell joined communications chief Amy Birmingham, First Deputy Treasury Grace Lee, and former aide Neil Morrison as the kitchen cabinet when Cahill decided in 2010 against seeking a third term and instead mounted a now-quixotic campaign for governor as an independent.
It was during that campaign that Cahill broke with his own respect for homegrown talent by hiring consultant John Weaver – famed for cultivating Senator John McCain's maverick, independent image during the 2000 presidential election – as an outside political adviser.
Weaver brought along business partner John Yob, and they recommended protege Adam Meldrum to serve as campaign manager.
Along the way, though, the group had a falling out, bursting into public view in spectacular fashion in September 2010 when Weaver and Yob quit because they felt Cahill could no longer win. Cahill severed ties with Meldrum a day later because he felt he could no longer trust the Michigander.
In his place he put Campbell, who had been working for the campaign in an advisory capacity since May – which would later become relevant in the corruption trial.
"Scott's been really the presence of this campaign, the leader of this campaign. He's got experience in winning two statewide elections for me,'' Cahill told reporters at his Quincy campaign headquarters as he vowed to carry on.
Yet less than a week later, Cahill's own running mate, Paul Loscocco, defected and endorsed Republican gubernatorial candidate Charles D. Baker Jr. Cahill could barely contain his anger.
"As for not having a lieutenant governor, I don't plan to die. And we can save money on that useless job,'' Cahill said after reporters again trekked to Quincy for an emotional news conference.
Less than a week after that, a political campaign descended into a legal morass, with Cahill filing suit against Weaver, Yob, and Meldrum, and Meldrum announcing a counter-claim against Cahill.
The treasurer said the three outsiders had conspired with the Republican Party to boost Baker's campaign. Meldrum said Cahill was suing him because he was trying to quash evidence the former campaign manager had of the illegal expenditure of lottery funds on veiled campaign ads.
The dispute went to court in the form of the trial that just ended for Campbell.
Testimony showed that Cahill and Campbell had communicated with advertising executives about lottery ads as the treasurer's political campaign was hitting the skids in June 2010.
Cahill took the stand to defend himself, saying the ads were aimed at boosting the lottery after the Republican Governors Association attacked it while criticizing the treasurer's stewardship of the agency.
Campbell notably did not take the stand. Moreover, he did not utter a public word during the entire trial. He was indicted, arraigned, and entered and left court in silence.
He left the talking up to Cahill, his once boss and political mentor, even as his own freedom was at risk – and even as Cahill and the attorneys in the case cast Campbell as a patsy and the victim of the ex-treasurer's abuse.
During the trial's five weeks, Campbell sat at the far-right side of the witness table, while Cahill sat at the far-left – closest to the jury. They never interacted before the members.
In the end, Campbell's approach paid off. The jury is still out on Cahill but it has rendered its verdict on Campbell.
He is able to go home to his wife, who has served as a Quincy school teacher, his own big family on Hough's Neck, and carry his head high knowing he lived up to the code of Quincy.
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Finance & Development, June 2011
Show Summary Details
Finance & Development, June 2011
- From the Editor: Keeping Smart about the Older Generation
- People in Economics: The Human Face of Economics
- Costs of Aging: The Price of Maturity: Aging populations mean countries have to find new ways to support their elderly
- Geriatric Deadbeats: Old folks may be less willing to repay sovereign debts
- Costs of Aging: Beyond Retirees: How countries change their pension systems and whether they do it in tandem have major implications for global economic health
- Costs of Aging: How Ready for Pensioners?: A new index assesses which countries are the best prepared and which are the worst prepared when it comes to meeting retirees' needs
- Costs of Aging: Balancing the Burden: The costs of benefits for current retirees fall more on future Americans than on future Italians
- Financial Repression Redux: Governments are once again finding ways to manipulate markets to hold down the cost of financing debt
- Making Friends: A strong connection exists between financial industry lobbying and favorable financial legislation
- Esprit de Currency: The IMF and WTO must pull together to iron out exchange rate policy disputes
- Picture This: Lowering the Cost of Sending Money Home: Reducing transaction costs can put more money in the pockets of migrants and their families
- Arab Spring: Closing the Jobs Gap: High youth unemployment contributes to widespread unrest in the Middle East
- Earthquake and Tsunami: Shaken to the Core: The economic impact of the disaster in Japan is far reaching
- Bankers on the Beach: Financial flows to offshore financial centers, when properly managed, can contribute to economic growth
- Back to Basics: What Are Economic Models?: How economists try to simulate reality
- Straight Talk: Emerging Challenges: Emerging markets must adapt to the new global reality by building on their economic success
- Rethinking Economics in a Changed World: Three Nobel laureates discuss what the crisis has taught us
- Data Spotlight: Looking under the Hood: Bank capital ratios have improved since the crisis, but mainly because banks are lending less
- Book Reviews


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In the August 24 edition of the print version of The Catholic Herald I wrote an article which dealt with the necessity of evangelisation in the face of declining Catholic practice in the United Kingdom. This attracted two replies in the letters column of the paper the next week, one of which came from Fr Andrew Pinsent, of Oxford University. What he says is so interesting, I thought I would reproduce it here.
Fr Pinsent identifies two problems which have led to our current state of affairs:
First, there has been an almost complete loss of any sense of the "drama of salvation", namely that the eternal outcome of our lives is an open question. If you ask churchgoers today what they think happens to them when we die, many of them will say that we go to heaven, not judgment (cf Hebrews 9:27).
He is completely correct in this and puts his finger on something important. I remember once being in the Cathedral of Torcello, which boasts a huge mosaic of the Last Judgment. I was resting my weary feet while a guide explained the significance of the mosaic to some tourists. The person next to me said: "He is explaining it from the outside." In other words, modern people look at the Last Judgement as a picture in which they themselves are not present.
But in every picture of the Last Judgement, if we look carefully, we will see ourselves depicted. This is a drama in which we will play a part, whether we like it or not. To imagine that heaven follows life on earth almost as a matter of course is to delude oneself.
Here one might add that the Church needs to tread carefully: we need to challenge people's idea that salvation is automatic, without driving them away. We must of course stress God is Love and Mercy; but we must also stress that he is perfect Justice as well, and that in Him charity and justice coincide without any contradiction.
Fr Pinsent goes on:
Second, there has been a loss of any distinction between the life of nature and the life of grace. Much teaching and pastoral example today implies that being a Catholic is simply one way to cultivate civic virtue and good manners. What has largely been forgotten is the meaning and importance of sanctifying grace, by which we become adopted children of God, enjoying the gift of second-person relatedness to God, the ultimate fruit of which is to enter the communion of saints in heaven.
Again, I find myself in complete agreement. While it is true that religion is socially useful, we must resist all attempts to understand religion as purely a socially useful phenomenon. You become a Catholic to experience God's grace at first hand in the sacraments, not because Catholics are a nice bunch of people, or because they have good schools. All the social and secular activities of our parishes must be subordinate to this one end – the reception of divine grace; indeed that is the only reason behind the social structures, to make the sacraments more accessible to people.
Fr Pinsent concludes:
This combination of lethargic universalism and loss of grace, aided and abetted by certain perverted theological writings of the last century, drains much of the urgency out of Catholic life and mission and cuts us off from most Christians of previous ages. Unless we recover an appreciation of such principles, I fear that even serving better coffee after Mass will not arrest the decline.
I wonder which theologians he has in mind? But of our contemporaries, let me point the finger at whoever invented the phrase "faith-based initiatives". This implies that people have faith and so go on to found schools or hospitals. But it is the faith that matters more than the initiative. The phrase subordinates faith to socially useful works, which is dangerous. Faith matters.
This danger crops up in certain missionary ambiences, where the Church can be hugely successful in building schools, hospitals, and model farms, all great faith-based initiatives. But in the midst of this success, the missionaries can lose sight of what it was they came for: not any physical structure, but the proclamation of what Fr Pinsent so rightly terms "the drama of salvation".
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The digital transformation market has undergone changes in the current scenario. It has experienced rapid technological dependence in comparison to the former decade. This has spurred the sales of cellphones, tablets, personal computers, fitness trackers, and other technological devices. Furthermore, cloud computing has increased the personal space allotted to users.
Browse Report summary and TOC of "Digital Transformation Market" @
4G guarantees better data connectivity and internet speed and brings the future of digital economy even closer. Technology has bridged the communication gap owing to the presence of social networking. Various forms of technologies have been adopted by governments to address the issues of citizens. The digital transformation market is expected to witness growth in the years ahead.
Digital transformation focuses on technologies that aid in decision-making, product rollouts and promotions. It also furthers the incomes of businesses by providing technologies that aid in customer engagement. Some of the newest digital transformation market technologies that have drawn enough attention include 3D printing, cloud storage, and augmented reality (AR).
Although in their nascent stage, most of these technologies would be used in the future in the sectors of construction, transportation, industrial design, hospitals, and military. Banks are an important pillar of developing economies. They have joined the digital transformation market in conducting most of the transactions online. This has been done for the benefit of the customers.
The digital transformation market consists of various verticals according to the business conducted in each. Cloud storage provides space to clients who need huge servers to function. Retail, insurance, consumer packaged goods, pharmaceuticals, manufacturing, travel and tourism, and telecom will join the digital transformation market in maintaining online presence in the years ahead.
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Context Aware Computing (CAC) Market
Pico Projector Market
Rising demand for AR devices, heads up display (HUD) devices, and simpler user interfaces is also predicted to steer the market income. The digital transformation market was valued at around $983 billion in 2013. It is likely to grow at a CAGR of about 24% by 2020. Mobile apps gained lion's share (19%) in 2013. They are expected to grow at a CAGR of about 31% by 2020.
Some other new technologies of the digital transformation market are Internet of Things (IoT), cloud, big data, and other digital services.
North America dominated the market in 2013. It captured around 29% of the worldwide share. Online payment options and internet connectivity are the prime reasons for the growth of this region. Firms of the North American digital transformation market are using various technologies to promote their businesses through websites and social media.
This would greatly enhance the status of the regional market and drive its sales. The European Union (EU) had begun internet banking operations to reduce obstacles faced by businesses while conducting transactions. Latin America is expected to have good potential for the digital transformation market.
Boosting mobile network operators (MNOs) in India, China, and South Korea from the Asian Pacific (APAC) region are also estimated to raise the demand for the global market. Growing IT-enabled services in APAC will ensure a strong future for the digital transformation market.
The Middle East is an untapped region that's utilizing digital technologies on a knowledge-based approach. UAE, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia are becoming increasingly dependent on Internet communication technologies (ICTs). As such, the sectors of banking and insurance have had around 40% share in the MENA industry.
The key players of the digital transformation market include Persistent Systems, IBM, Accenture, Tata Consultancy Services, Cognizant, Capgemini Consulting Global, Deloitte, Booz & Co., PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), CGI Group Incorporation, and Econsultancy.
In the Middle East and North Africa, entrants, like Ystrat, Intel, and Elite Technologies are trying to gain a strong grip in the global digital transformation market.
Browse Related Category Reports @
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