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Journal of soil science and plant nutrition
versión On-line ISSN 0718-9516
J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. vol.12 no.1 Temuco 2012
Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 2012, 12 (1), 125-142
Micronutrient application through seed treatments - a review
M. Farooq1,2*, A. Wahid3 and Kadambot H. M. Siddique1,4
1The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Crawley WA 6009, Australia ."Corresponding author: email@example.com email@example.com
2Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan.
3Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan.
4College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh "451, Saudi Arabia.
Micronutrients are vital for plant growth and human health. Soil and foliar applications are the most prevalent methods of micronutrient addition but the cost involved and difficulty in obtaining high quality micronutrient fertilizers are major concerns with these in developing countries. Micronutrient seed treatments, which include seed priming and seed coating, are an attractive and easy alternative. Here in this review, we discuss the potential of micronutrient seed treatments for improving crop growth and grain nutrient enrichment. Micronutrient application through seed treatments improves the stand establishment, advances phenological events, and increases yield and micronutrient grain contents in most cases. In some instances, seed treatments are not beneficial; however, the negative effects are rare. In most cases, micronutrient application through seed treatment performed better or similar to other application methods. Being an easy and cost effective method of micronutrient application, seed treatments offer an attractive option for resource-poor farmers.
Keywords: Boron, cobalt, grain enrichment, manganese, molybdenum, seed coating, seed priming, zinc.
1. Introduction
For optimal growth and development, 17 essential elements are required by crop plants. These minerals, when required in relatively high amounts, are called macronutrients or, in trace amounts, micronutrients. While micronutrients are required in relatively smaller quantities for plant growth, they are as important as macronutrients. If any element is lacking in the soil or not adequately balanced with other nutrients, growth suppression or even complete inhibition may result (Mengel et al., 2001). Micronutrients often act as co-factors in enzyme systems and participate in redox reactions, in addition to having several other vital functions in plants. Most importantly, micronutrients are involved in the key physiological processes of photosynthesis and respiration (Marschner, 1995; Mengel et al., 2001) and their deficiency can impede these vital physiological processes thus limiting yield gain. For example, boron (B) deficiency can substantially reduce yield in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (Rerkasem and Jamjod, 2004) chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) (Johnson et al., 2005) and lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) (Srivastava et al., 2000); while for rice (Oryza sativa L.), zinc (Zn) deficiency is a major yield-limiting factor in several Asian countries (Wissuwa et al., 2006; Rehman H et al., 2012)
'Hidden hunger', mineral deficiency in edible grains, is a major health issue for human being in most of the developing world (Buyckx, 1993; Ramalingaswami, 1995). For example, dietary Zn deficiency in humans may result in loss of immunity, poor wound healing and dermatitis (van Campen, 1991). Zn nutrition, however, helps to improve resistance to some infectious diseases such as diarrhoea (Black, 1998; Fuchs, 1998) and immunity (Shankar and Prasad, 1998).
Improving plant micronutrient status in situations where micronutrient nutrition is inadequately supplied from the soil would increase yield. This, however, requires application of higher doses of fertilizer to soils because of low nutrient-use efficiency (Singh, 2007). In crop plants, micronutrients may be applied to the soil, foliar sprayed or added as seed treatments. Although the required amounts of micronutrients can be supplied by any of these methods, foliar sprays have been more effective in yield improvement and grain enrichment; but high cost has restricted its wider adaption, particularly by resource-poor farmers (Johnson et al., 2005). Moreover, foliar application occurs at later growth stages when crop stands are already established. Seed treatment is a better option from an economical perspective as less micronutrient is needed, it is easy to apply and seedling growth is improved (Singh et al., 2003).
Seeds may be treated with micronutrients either by soaking in nutrient solution of a specific concentration for a specific duration (seed priming) or by coating with micronutrients. Seed invigoration is a relatively new term and has been interchangeably used for both methods of seed treatment (Farooq et al., 2009). Although several comprehensive reviews on seed enhancements (Taylor et al., 1998), priming (McDonald 2000), on-farm priming (Harris, 2006) and invigoration (Farooq et al., 2009) for successful crop production under optimal and stress (Farooq et al., 2010) environments are available, in this review, we discuss micronutrient application through seed treatments. The potential and prospects of seed treatments with Zn, B, molybdenum (Mo), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu) and cobalt (Co) for improving growth, yield and grain enrichment of respective nutrients are discussed.
2. Seed priming with micronutrients
In seed priming, seeds are partially hydrated to allow metabolic events to occur without actual germination, and then re-dried (near to their original weight) to permit routine handling (Bradford 1986). Such seeds germinate faster than non-primed seeds (Farooq et al., 2006, 2009). In micronutrient seed priming (nutripriming), micronutrients are used as osmotica (Imran et al., 2004; Singh 2007). Primed seeds usually have better and more synchronized germination (Farooq et al., 2009) owing simply to less imbibition time (Brock-lehurst and Dearman, 2008; McDonald, 2000; Taylor et al., 1998) and build-up of germination-enhancing metabolites (Basra et al., 2005; Farooq et al., 2006).
Several reports indicated the potential of nu-tripriming in improving wheat yields (Marcar and Graham, 1986; Wilhelm et al., 1988), rice (Peeran and Natanasabapathy, 1980) and forage legumes (Sherrell 1984). However, one report suggests seed damage and germination inhibition by priming at higher nutrient concentrations (Roberts 1948). In the following sections, seed priming using Zn, B, Mo, Mn, Cu and Co is discussed.
2.1. Zinc
With increases in soil pH, Zn solubility in soil and its uptake decreases concomitantly. In several crops, higher soil phosphorus (P) contents may induce Zn deficiency (Chang, 1999; Foth and Ellis, 1997). Poor growth and small brown spots on leaves are common symptoms in rice and maize plants grown on Zn-deficient soils (Marschner, 1995; Sharma, 2006). Zn-deficient fruit trees may have profuse growth at shoot tips with rosette-like appearance (Marschner, 1995). Interveinal leaf chlorosis and leaf mottling has also been observed in Zn-deficient citrus trees (Chang, 1999; Marschner, 1995).
Seed priming with Zn can improve crop emergence, stand establishment, and subsequent growth and yield. For example, priming Echinacea purpurea (L.) seed with 0.05% ZnSO4 solution increased germination and field emergence by 38 and 41%, respectively (Babaeva et al., 1999). Likewise, in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), seed priming with Zn significantly improved yield and related traits (Kaya et al., 2007). In barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), seed priming with Zn improved germination and seedling development (Ajouri et al., 2004). Ozturk et al. (2006) found that Zn in newly-developed radicles and coleoptiles during seed germination was much higher (up to 200 mg kg-1) thus highlighting the involvement of Zn in physiological processes during early seedling development, possibly in protein synthesis, cell elongation membrane function and resistance to abiotic stresses (Cakmak, 2000). In addition, higher seed Zn contents may better resist invasion of soil-borne pathogens during germination and seedling development thus ensuring good crop stands (Marschner, 1995) and ultimately better yield. Seed priming substantially improved mineral (Zn and P) uptake and dry matter accumulation in barley and also enhanced water use efficiency by 44% in drought stressed plants (Ajouri et al., 2004).
Harris and his team, in their preliminary trials, demonstrated that seed priming with ZnSO4 (0.4%) was effective to meet Zn requirements of wheat with a mean yield (mean of eight on-farm trials) increase of 615 kg ha-1 (21%) compared with crops from non-primed seed. Seed priming was also cost effective compared with soil application with benefit:cost ratio of 8 and 360 from soil application and seed priming, respectively (Harris et al., 2005). For chickpea, however, priming in a diluted solution of ZnSO4 (0.05%) was effective, yielding 10 to 122% more (with an average value of 48% from nine trials) compared with non-primed seeds with a benefit:cost ratio of 1500 (Harris et al., 2005). In maize, priming in 1% ZnSO4 solution (for 16 h) substantially improved crop growth, grain yield and grain Zn content (Harris et al., 2007). Results of seven field trials showed yield increase of 27% with seed priming compared with non-priming controls (Table 1; Harris et al., 2007). It is interesting to note that the benefit:cost value was substantially higher from Zn priming compared to soil application (Harris et al., 2007). The same team, in a series of on-farm trials, reported a 14% increase in wheat yield after seed priming with 0.3% Zn (Table 1), whereas chickpea yield increased by 19% after seed priming with 0.05% Zn. In addition to increased yield, seed priming with Zn increased grain zinc content by 12% in wheat (mean of three trials) and by 29% in chickpea (one trial) (Harris et al., 2008). Similarly in rice, seed treatment with Zn substantially improved growth and grain yield, which was cost effective and economically more viable than soil application and no application (Slaton et al., 2001). Likewise in another study, seed priming with Zn was more effective in increasing grain yield of wheat grown on Zn-deficient soils than foliar and soil application nonetheless seed priming did not affect the grain Zn concentration in contrast to foliar and soil application (Yilmaz et al., 1997, 1998).
Seed soaking in Borax (0.50%) along with ZnSO4 (0.25%) improved stand establishment and growth of papaya (Carica papaya L.) in the field (Deb et al., 2010). Kaur et al. (2009) also reported improved germination of Chlorophytum borivilianum (L.) from seeds soaked in Zn (ZnSO4) for 12 h. Likewise, seed soaking with solutions of Zn-EDTA and fritted Zn improved yield and Zn uptake; however, both sources differed in their efficiency to uptake Zn (Kang and Okoro, 1976). In another study, seed priming with ZnSO4 (0.1%) for 24 h increased stand establishment by 29% compared with the untreated control (Foti et al., 2008).
In a two-year trial on chickpea, lentil, rice and wheat, seed priming with Zn had no effect on grain yield (Johnson et al., 2005). Chickpea seeds primed with Zn failed to emerge at all experimental sites, resulting in complete crop failure. However, in the second season, seeds germinated with the same priming treatments, but there was no yield gain. Nonetheless, priming seeds in Zn solution increased grain Zn contents in all tested crops (Johnson et al., 2005). The failure of crop stand establishment during the first season indicates the risk involved in practicing micro-nutrient priming. It would be wise to optimize micro-nutrient seed priming treatment in the laboratory and then test in soil for germination prior to priming the whole batch (Johnson et al., 2005).
Despite the above beneficial effects of Zn-priming, some studies have indicated that seed priming with Zn may not be effective in fulfilling Zn requirements of different crops. For example, in kidney beans seed priming with Zn alone did not fulfil crop Zn requirements (Rasmussen and Boawn, 1969). However it depends on soil Zn status; for instance, in the case of moderate deficiency, seed priming was a cost-effective method of Zn application (Harris et al., 2007, 2008; Slaton et al., 2001), while in the case of severe deficiency, seed priming may not meet the crop Zn requirement (Rasmussen and Boawn, 1969; Rehman H et al., 2012).
2.2. Boron
Deficiency of B causes severe reductions in crop yield, due to severe disturbances in B-involving metabolic processes, such as metabolism of nucleic acid, carbohydrate, protein and indole acetic acid, cell wall synthesis, membrane integrity and function, and phenol metabolism (Dell and Huang, 1997; Tanaka and Fujiwar, 2008). B is also functionally associated with one or more of the processes of calcium utilization, cell division, flowering and fruiting, carbohydrate and nitrogen metabolism, disease resistance, water relations, and catalyst for certain reactions (Sprague, 1951).
Common B deficiency symptoms in crop plants are interruption in flowering and fruiting (Ho, 1999) and poor yields, with deformed or discolored fruit or grain (Shorrocks, 1997). However, B deficiency symptoms vary amongst species. For instance, in soybean (Glycine max L.) or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), B deficiency causes empty seeds also known as 'hollow heart'. In black gram (Vigna mungo L.), no symptoms of B deficiency may be visible in seeds, yet grain yield may be reduced by up to 50% (Keerati-Kasikorn et al., 1987).
Concentration of priming solution is perhaps the most critical factor while priming with B. For example in Russia, experiments on seed priming in boric acid solutions (2 to 20 mM) had both germination stimulating and suppressing effects in several crops including turnip (Brassica rapa L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), soybean, sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris L.), alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), wheat and barley (Shorrocks, 1997). Seeds (of the above species) primed in the most concentrated B solution (0.5%) were unable to emerge. Likewise, rice seeds primed in 0.5% B solution did not germinate (Rehman A et al., 2012), whereas priming in 0.001% and 0.1% B solutions improved stand establishment in rice (Rehman A et al., 2012). In another recent study, seeds of fine-grain aromatic rice cultivars Super Basmati and Sha-heen Basmati were primed in aerated B (0.001, 0.01, 0.1 and 0.5%) solutions (Farooq et al., 2011a). Stand establishment improved substantially from seed priming in 0.001 and 0.01% solutions; beyond this, emergence was suppressed (Farooq et al., 2011a). However in papaya, substantial improvement in germination and early seedling growth was observed when seeds were primed in 2 mg L-1 B solution for 6 h (Deb et al., 2010).
In oats (Avena sativa L.), seed priming with B (0.02% solution of H3BO3) had no marked effect on seed germination, yet tillering, panicle length and grain weight were increased by seed priming with B contributing to a grain yield increase of 8.42% compared with untreated seeds (Table 2; Saric and Saciragic, 1969). Similarly in rice, rates of leaf emergence, leaf elongation and tiller appearance substantially improved in seedlings raised from seeds primed in 0.001% B solution (Rehman A et al., 2012). Seed priming with B also has a profound influence on advanced growth stages. In a study on pea (Pisum sativum L.), Kumar et al. (2008) reported increased plant height, fruiting and pod yield when seeds were primed in 0.5% B solution with a concomitant reduction in days to 50% flowering.
As for Zn, there was no visible effect of seed priming with B on yields of chickpea, lentil, rice or wheat; yet priming seeds in B solution increased grain B content in all tested crops (Table 2; Johnson et al., 2005). However in pigeonpea, B application through seed treatment (4 g kg-1 seed) was more effective and economical in increasing seed yield by 10.53% compared with the control; soil application (10 kg ha-1) increased yield by 5.26% (Malla et al., 2007).
Although seed priming with B is the most convenient and cost-effective method of B application, solution concentration is of vital significance and must be tested and optimized before field application.
2.3. Molybdenum
In plants, Mo is involved in nitrogen nutrition and assimilation. Mo helps non-legume plants to use nitrates taken up from the soil. In plants with insufficient Mo, nitrates accumulate in leaves, which are then not assimilated into proteins. In legumes, Mo serves an additional function: to help root nodule bacteria to fix atmospheric N (Campo et al., 2000). Mo deficiency symptoms are often similar to N deficiency. In legumes, the nitrogen-fixing ability of soil microorganisms is severely hampered by Mo deficiency, rendering them N-deficient. 'Blue-chaff' in oats, 'yellow-spot' in citrus and 'whiptail' in cauliflower are some other examples of Mo deficiency (Chang, 1999).
Several studies indicate that seed treatment is a more effective method for Mo application than soil application (Donald and Spencer, 1951; Johansen et al., 2006a,b). For instance, in 48 trials conducted in eastern India, Mo applied through seed priming increased mean yield by 17-22% compared with the control (without Mo) and 20-25% when Mo was applied to the soil (Johansen et al., 2006a). Likewise, Mo application through seed treatment (4 g kg-1 seed) was more effective and economical in increasing seed yield by 15.79% over no application control; soil application (1.5 kg ha-1) increased yield by 10.53% (Malla et al., 2007). In a Mo-deficient soil, priming of subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) seeds in 0.1 or 1% sodium molybdate solution was as equally effective as soil application in improving growth and yield. At application levels in excess of the requirements for maximum yield, seed priming resulted in higher Mo and N contents in grains than equivalent soil applications (Donald and Spencer, 1951). Common bean seeds primed in sodium molybdate improved nodulation, dry matter accumulation, nitrogen fixation and yield (Table 3; Mohandas, 1985). Kumar Rao et al. (2004), in a pot study on chickpea, reported a yield increase of 27% by seed priming with Mo (0.5 g l-1 solution of sodium molybdite) for 8 h compared with Mo soil application. However in a field trial, the yield increase in chickpea was 20% from the same treatment (Khanal et al., 2005).
The efficiency of seed priming with Mo may be further enhanced by adding rhizobium to the priming solution. For instance, in multi-locational trials at farmers' fields in Bangladesh, yield increases were 37%-90% over untreated control and up to 50% more than water-soaked control (Johansen et al., 2006b). Likewise, in green gram (Vigna radiata L.), seed priming in sodium molybdate and rhizobia significantly improved nodulation, N fixation, nutrient uptake, plant growth and crop yield. Combining seed treatments also increased fertilizer application efficiency, indicating better use of resources (Pattanayak et al., 2000). Although incorporation of rhizobial strains in the priming media was synergistic, the protocol should be fine-tuned for individual crops and micronutrient requirements.
In crux, Mo application through seed priming is more effective, pragmatic and economical compared with soil application in fulfilling Mo requirements of many crops, however its integration with rhizobia needs to be further investigated and fine-tuned.
2.4. Manganese
Manganese (Mn) plays a vital role in nitrogen metabolism, photosynthesis, and forms several other compounds required for plant metabolism (Stout and Arnon, 1939). Mn deficiency is usually indicated by interveinal chlorosis; however, in some species, maturity is delayed (Park et al., 1999). Under conditions of acute Mn deficiency, brown necrotic spots may appear on leaves leading to premature leaf shedding. White and grey spots on some cereal leaves are signs of Mn deficiency (Chang, 1999; Stout and Arnon, 1939).
Priming wheat seeds in MnSO4 solutions significantly improved growth, grain yield and grain Mn contents (Khalid and Malik, 1982). Grain yield and grain Mn contents increased linearly with increasing priming solution concentration up to a maximum of 0.2% MnSO4 solution for 12 h (Table 3; Khalid and Malik, 1982). Increased grain yield and grain Mn content in wheat from priming with MnSO4 has also been observed in other studies (Marcar and Graham, 1986). Mn seed priming also has the potential to improve stand establishment. For instance, priming Echinacea purpurea (L.) seed with 0.1% MnSO4 solution increased germination by 36% and field emergence by 27% over untreated control (Babaeva et al., 1999). Of the studies conducted on seed priming with Mn, all have indicated substantial improvement in stand establishment, growth, yield, and grain enrichment, compared with soil application (Babaeva et al., 1999; Khalid and Malik, 1982; Marcar and Graham, 1986).
2.5. Copper
Copper (Cu) is involved in carbon assimilation and nitrogen metabolism; its deficiency results in severe growth retardation. Cu is also involved in lignin biosynthesis, which not only provides strength to cell walls but also prevents wilting (Taiz and Zeiger, 2010). Leaf chlorosis, stunted growth, and stem and twig dieback are common deficiency symptoms of Cu (Chang, 1999; Osotsapar, 1999; Stout and Arnon, 1939).
Priming wheat seeds in CuEDTA solution (0.04 to 0.16 kg Cu ha-1) substantially increased grain yield, but suppressed seedling emergence (Malhi, 2009). Priming wheat seeds in CuEDTA solution at very low rates (0.04 kg Cu ha-1) prevented Cu deficiency in wheat with significant increases in seed yield (Malhi, 2009). In another experiment on oats, seed priming with Cu (0.001% solution of CuSO4) had no effect on germination; yet the number of grains (per panicle) and grain weight increased resulting in yield increase of 16.53% compared with untreated control (Table 3; Saric and Saciragic, 1969). However, in a recent study, seed priming with copper sulphate (0.1%) for 24 h improved stand establishment by 43% compared with the untreated control (Foti et al., 2008).
2.6. Cobalt
Although cobalt (Co) is beneficial for some plants, for others it is essential; for instance, in legumes Co is required for nitrogen fixation. Co affects metabolism and plant growth and is an essential component of several enzymes and co-enzymes (Palit et al., 1994). Its beneficial effects include retardation of leaf senescence, inhibition of ethylene biosynthesis, and stimulation of alkaloid biosynthesis (Palit et al., 1994).
In pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.), seed priming with cobalt nitrate substantially increased plant height, branch and leaf numbers, dry matter accumulation, and grain yield (Raj, 1987). Likewise in peanut, seed priming with cobalt nitrate significantly increased growth, pod yield, shelling percentage, seed weight and harvest index (Raj, 1987). In both pigeon pea and peanut, leghemoglobin content and nodule density increased (Raj, 1987). In summer squash (Cucurbitapepo L.), seed priming with cobalt sulfate substantially increased dry matter accumulation, femaleness and fruit yield compared with water-soaked seeds (Table 4; Atta-Aly, 1998). In addition, priming with CoSO4 triggered endogenous ethylene synthesis during early seedling stages (14 days after sowing), which continued until flower initiation (30 days after sowing). Seeds soaked in 0.25, 0.50 and 1.00 ppm CoSO4 produced 26, 40, and 56% more fruit yield, respectively, than the control (Atta-Aly, 1998). In common bean, priming seeds with cobalt nitrite at 1 and 5 mg L-1 significantly improved nodulation, dry matter, nitrogen and grain yield (Mohandas, 1985). In oat, seed priming with Co (0.001% solution of CoSO4) had no effect on germination; yet panicle length, number of grains (in a panicle) and grain weight increased contributing to substantial yield increase of 11.17% compared with untreated control (Table 4; Saric and Saciragic, 1969).
Seed priming with a combination of micronutrients (0.16 mg g-1 Mo as sodium molybdate and 0.008 mg g-1 Co as cobalt chloride) and rhizobium significantly improved nodulation, N fixation, nutrient uptake, plant growth and yield (Pattanayak et al., 2000). Combining seed treatments also increased fertilizer application efficiency, indicating better use of resources (Pattanayak et al., 2000). Although seed priming with Co at specific concentrations for specific durations effectively improves plant performance, further studies are needed to establish these effects on plant performance.
2.7. Factors affecting nutripriming
Seed priming is affected by various environmental variables and other factors (Farooq et al., 2009). Oxygen, temperature and solution concentration (water potential) are amongst the most important factors affecting seed priming (Corbineau and Come, 2006).
In seed priming, oxygen supply during seed soaking improved its effectiveness (Farooq et al., 2009). However, the effects of aeration during seed priming have not been considered in previous studies on nutrient priming. In our recent research, there was a substantial difference in the performance of aerated vs. non-aerated solutions during seed priming in various crops. Provision of aeration (oxygen) improved seed performance upon sowing (Farooq et al., 2011b).
Temperature of the priming media also regulates the effectiveness of seed priming. For example, low temperature during priming can delay the physiological processes of germination, even though seeds absorb water in optimal amounts (Lee et al., 1998). Nonetheless, lower temperatures lessen the possibility of microbial contamination during priming (Lee et al., 1998).
Solution concentration and solution water potential are perhaps the most important factors determining the effectiveness of seed priming. This has even more significance for micronutrient seed priming as the range between deficiency and toxicity of micronutrients is very narrow (Farooq et al., 2011a; Rehman A et al., 2011; Shorrocks, 1997). Seed germination is initiated when a critical level of water potential is reached in the seed. Although inter- and intra-specific variation exists, germination most often starts when seed water potential ranges from 0 to -2 MPa (Corbineau and Come, 2006; McDonald, 2000). Seeds with hard seed coats or dormancy may be exceptions.
3. Seed coating and pelleting
In seed coating, materials that influence the seed or soil at the seed-soil interface are applied to the seed coat. Seed coating generally refers to the application of finely-ground solids or liquids containing dissolved or suspended solids to form a more or less continuous layer covering the natural seed coat; it includes pelleting and many other seed treatments (Scott, 1989). Strictly speaking, seed pelleting involves the addition of inert materials to modify seed shape and size for precision planting, while in seed coating, useful materials like microorganisms, plant growth regulators, nutrients and other chemicals are adhered around the seed with the help of some sticky material. However, both of these terms are being used interchangeably.
The success and effectiveness of seed coating with micronutrients depends on the nutrient used, coating material, soil type, moisture and fertility status, and the nutrient:seed ratio (Halmer, 2008).
3.1. Zinc
There are several reports available on Zn seed coating, which show promise for crop improvement (Masuthi et al., 2009; Singh, 2007). For example, Zn seed pelleting significantly increased seed yield and yield-related traits in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.). Seed pelleted with ZnSO4 (250 mg kg-1 seed) produced significantly higher 100 seed weights, seed weight/ plant leading to 32.1% seed yield increase over non-pelleted control (Masuthi et al., 2009). In a series of experiments, seed coating with commercially-available formulations 'Teprosyn-ZnP' or 'Teprosyn-Zn' effectively corrected Zn deficiencies and improved growth and grain yield of sunflower, maize, wheat, soybean and peanut (Singh, 2007). However, further research must be initiated in this regard.
3.2. Boron
In cowpea, seed pelleting with Borax (100 mg kg-1 seed) substantially improved pod weight, seeds/pod and pod weight/plant resulting in 37.25% pod yield gain over non-pelleted control (Masuthi et al., 2009). In rice, none of the B sources (borax, boric acid and sodium tetraborate) used for seed coating and B:seed ratios (0.5-2 g kg-1 seed) improved the germination (unpublished data). However further work with a range of B:seed ratios is needed to explore its possible worth.
3.3. Molybdenum
Several studies indicated the effectiveness of Mo seed coating (Biscaro et al., 2009; Ramesh and Thirumuru-gan, 2001). For instance, Biscaro et al. (2009) treated common bean seeds with Mo (80 g ha-1) resulting in increased relative chlorophyll index, pod number, seed weight and grain yield. Soybean seeds pelleted with 250 mg ammonium molybdate + 500 mg ferrous sulfate kg-1 were most effective in improving plant height, leaf area index, dry matter production and growth rate (Ramesh and Thirumurugan, 2001). Likewise in field experiments evaluating the effectiveness of several pelleting materials to increase cowpea and soybean yields on acid soils, the benefits from Mo application, alone or in combination with rock phos- phate, were comparable or greater than the effect of liming (Rhodes and Nangju, 1979).
There are, however, several reports indicating no improvement or toxicity from Mo seed-coating. For example, bacterial survival, nodulation and N fixation were strongly suppressed when seeds were pelleted with sodium molybdate. About 99% of inoculated bacteria died 4 days after seed treatment with inocu-lant and Mo (Burton and Curley, 1966). Several other researchers observed suppressive effects of salts used as Mo sources on bradyrhizobium (Albino and Campo, 2001; Campo et al., 2000).
Although some reports indicate that Mo seed coating is effective in improving crop performance, it may have toxic effects from bacterial strains used for inoculation. Therefore, the efficacy of Mo seed coating with bacterial strains must be evaluated before using Mo seed coating.
4. Conclusion
Seed treatment with micronutrients has the potential to meet crop micronutrient requirements and improve seedling emergence and stand establishment, yield, and grain micronutrient enrichment. Seed treatment, by seed priming or seed coating, seems pragmatic, inexpensive and an easy method of micronutrient delivery especially by small landholders in developing countries. Variation exists within crops and varieties/ genotypes/hybrids in their response to various treatments, which will help researchers to identify useful accessions for further work such as:
â¢Â developing techniques using a range of micronutrient sources at varying concentrations and durations
â¢Â optimizing the temperature range, oxygenation requirements and water potential
â¢Â using commercially-available fertilizers for seed coating and priming osmoticum
â¢Â appraising large-scale field trials using nutriprimed seeds
â¢Â integrating inoculation and micronutrient seed in-vigoration
â¢Â storage potential of nutriprimed seedsâprolonged storage of primed seeds may be critical for technology transfer and marketing of primed seeds.
Endeavour Research Fellowship for Postdoctoral Research to M. Farooq from The Department of Education, Science and Training, Australia is greatly acknowledged.
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text:
Ever wonder what would happen if Breaking Dawn Part 2, the final chapter in the Twilight saga, were recast with dogs? Or how to get a gigantic St. Bernard down from an attic when he's too frightened to step on a ladder? Our favorite online videos this week include answers to those questions, as well as kittens watching tennis, Long Island residents using "Gangnam Style" to lament the fact that they're still without power after Hurricane Sandy, and a brilliantly-edited version of President Obama covering "U Can't Touch This."
Which of the clips below is your favorite? And which awesome videos did we miss this week?
Top Videos of the Week: Karl Rove's avalanche and voting puppies
Barking Dawg Paw 2: The trailer for the final Twilight film, Breaking Dawn Part 2, is recreated shot for shot — only with dogs instead of humans. Are we the only ones who prefer Bella the pug to Kristen Stewart? It's those soulful eyes!
Jimmy Fallon and Robert Pattinson Play "Water War": Why is it so funny watching these two play a trivia game that involves throwing water on each other after a wrong answer? We honestly can't tell you. It just is.
Fraidy St. Bernard: What goes up must come down! A Polish St. Bernard learned that lesson the hard way, after climbing up a ladder into an attic and then being too skittish to come back down. After several failed attempts to coax the giant dog down, the owner is forced to — literally — take matters into his own hands.
"It's Thanksgiving": We know, we know. We're a week early with this one. But that just gives you seven extra days to enjoy(?) this truly horrible video from the latest tweener flash-in-the-pan, Nicole Westbrook, singing about her love of all things Turkey Day. Is she the new Rebecca Black? Let's hope not.
Gay Men Will Marry Your Girlfriends: Listen up, straights! In this short from College Humor, a handful of gay guys make the most compelling argument in favor of same-sex marriage yet: If they can't marry each other, gay guys will start marrying your girlfriend. (Warning: NSFW due to language.)
Kittens Are Mesmerized by Tennis Match: These two adorable kittens are absolutely transfixed by a tennis match. But we can't tell if they're more intrigued by the back-and-forth motion of the ball or by the excessive grunting.
Supercut: (S)He's Behind Me, Isn't (S)He?: That awkward moment when you've just said something horrible about a person, thinking they're out of earshot, only to find out they're just a foot or so away. Here's a best of the best mashup, from TV and movies.
"Gangnam Style" Takes Long Island: Yes, the 15 minutes of Psy's K-pop juggernaut probably expired a while ago, but the past two weeks have been an exercise in patience for many Long Island residents — believe it or not, some have not yet regained power after Hurricane Sandy, which was more than two weeks ago. What better way to express frustration than parodying "Gangnam Style" as a plea to the Long Island Power Authority?
M.C. Obama: In honor of President Obama's re-election last week, behold this dubbed version of our commander-in-chief's rendition of M.C. Hammer's "U Can't Touch This." (Also check out the president taking on everyone from Katy Perry to Justin Bieber, courtesy of the YouTube channel BaracksDubs.)

subset: commoncrawl


text:
New DNG Codec Released to Labs
The DNG Codec release candidate was revised and a new version is available to download.
The DNG Codec provides a method for Windows 7 customers to view DNG files in the Windows Explorer and Photo Gallery.
- Learn more
- Visit the DNG pages on Adobe.com


text:
We have a wide range of crystals, resonators and oscillators from leading manufacturers such as Abracon, Murata, Interquip, EPCOS and AVX, to suit all applications.
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A Crystal creates an electric charge when pressure is applied to certain materials, such as quartz, and is known as the piezoelectric effect. Its a passive component that produces a very precise frequency output and is often used with oscillators to provide an accurate timing device in digital integrated circuits.
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- Silicon Oscillators – Brands include Linear Technology, Maxim, Abracon and Microchip Technology offering a comprehensive range.
- Sine Wave Oscillators – Used in circuits for test waveforms
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What are Crystals, Oscillators and Resonators used for?
These are commonly used as timing devices in applications such as computers, watches, phones, microprocessors, digital circuits and microcontrollers.


text:
In my previous two A.C.T.A. posts, A.C.T.A. is BAD and errata: A.C.T.A. is BAD, I passed along the sad tale of the 22 year old Chicago woman who made the terrible mistake of attending her sister's birthday party at a screening of the movie New Moon.
Maybe ten or fifteen years ago I first noticed movie theatres promoting the idea of holding birthday or other parties at the movies. Many of them offer special deals and party facilities. Just like MUVICO, the theatre where this incident took place. And many people have unofficial birthday parties at the movies too. Even though I haven't, I have taken my camera to movie theatres and taken photographs of family members gathered to watch a movie inside the theatre on more than one special occasion.
Samantha Tumpach's crime was taking home video of her sister's 29th birthday party. Less than four minutes of footage on her camera showed the movie screen. Maybe I empathize so very much because I am the photo nut in my family. It might have been me dragged off in handcuffs.
TorrentFreak reports that the charges have now been dropped, and she is free again. This young woman should not have had to spend two nights in jail for going to a movie theatre birthday party.
I've made plenty of amazing Hallowe'en costumes for my son over the years, many based on movie characters. The year my son decided he wanted to be Zorro for Hallowe'en was the year that The Legend of Zorro was released theatrically. So naturally my small Zorro wanted to see the new movie in his awesome (Don Alejandro) Zorro costume.
So of course I took the camera to the theatre and took lots of photos of my Zorro.
And of course I was using my very first digital camera which had video capabilities.
Had I not been enjoying the movie, I could easily have taken photos or video of my little Zorro watching the big Zorro onscreen.
I wasn't detained by theatre staff or arrested. Seems I was lucky.
It doesn't matter if the staff actually believes the MPAA copyright propaganda, or whether they acted out of fear of MPAA, the result is the same.
The movie industry put a patron in jail.
Kudos to New Moon director Chris Weitz, who contacted the Samantha Tumpach and offered his support.
The three minutes of footage she shot inside the theater, Tumpach said, also included film previews and ads, along with short segments of the film — and her talking about the camera and the movie.
"It was never my intention to record the movie," Tumpach said. "You can hear me talking the whole time."
—Chicago Sun-Times:'New Moon' director defends woman accused of piracy
Most people working in the movie business probably don't support the draconian copyright laws the MPAA is lobbying for. But they need to make a living, and so I can understand why feel they can't speak out against MPAA lobbying or A.C.T.A. Most are probably just as much in the dark about A.C.T.A. as the rest of the world, since most elected representatives in the countries negotiating A.C.T.A. appear to be uninformed. This would be why A.C.T.A. has already sprung so many leaks. Since President Obama has labelled A.C.T.A. a national security issue, it is probably far too dangerous for Americans to risk leaking further documents. Yet being an international treaty there are many parties to the negotiations so I expect leaks will continue to be provided by people of conscience.
Stories like this reflect very badly on the movie industry.
More and more consumers are coming to realize that the media industry has effectively declared war on us. Which is precisely why the major media companies are lobbying so hard to have governments around the world enact A.C.T.A. The want the government to be the "bad guy".
It is the real reason why A.C.T.A. is secret: so that no one will be accountable for drafting or implementing the draconian copyright laws that will necessarily result from ratification.
Yet if A.C.T.A. was in place NOW, there is a very strong probability that Samantha Tumpach would not have been released after a mere two nights in jail.
Tumpach dared to infringe copyright, even though it clearly was not for the purpose of "bootlegging". Under the laws that A.C.T.A. is seeking, innocuous personal use "infringements" like this one will be treated the same as "for profit infringements". Even in the face of contrary evidence, MPAA and other A.C.T.A. lobbyists claim that file sharing damages their business.
Whether this is because the MPAA is actually so ignorant of what is happening that they don't understand the phenomenon, or if this position is assumed to convince their shareholders that they are doing something to combat bootlegging doesn't really matter. Not only will laws like this fail to prevent criminals from continuing to profit from bootlegging, but the result will be uniformly bad for consumers and citizens.
Although A.C.T.A. means "Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement" it seems clear that the name is a product of doublespeak since it actually seeks to criminalize personal use "copyright infringements".. They have tried to change the way people think by including anti-piracy commercials in theatres and on DVDs. Since that has not worked, they're playing hardball.
Why Secrecy is So Essential
The copyright lobby believes hiding behind A.C.T.A. secrecy will keep us from knowing that they are responsible for having our young people locked up for sharing.
- They think that we will instead blame the lawmakers. After all, they will have made the laws.
- And the law enforcement officials. They will be the ones investigating, arresting, prosecuting and jailing these copyright infringers.
The politicians also believe hiding behind A.C.T.A. secrecy will absolve them from blame. They think they will be able to escape blame by saying:
"But you can't blame us for this… all the other governments did it so we had to do it too".
Every parent knows the classic parry to the "Everybody's doing it" argument: "If everybody else was jumping off a cliff would you do it too?"
Since we don't buy that excuse from our children, why would they think we'd accept such a feeble excuse from our government?
Do they think we're stupid?
Because we will know who to blame.
Maybe I am just not subtle enough for this. Maybe I think too much in terms of black and white. After all, in the "mom" game, you quickly learn to skip over the shades of gray. You teach your two year old, "people are not for hitting", because a two year old doesn't have the life experience to be able to judge when hitting can be justified (as self defense, say).
Cut to the chase: right and wrong.
But then again, what do I know?
I thought part of being a mother was teaching kids the value of sharing.
Something else parent need to consider is possible consequences. So I began wondering what the consequences of A.C.T.A. might be.
A.C.T.A. Introduces a New Criminal Class
The special interest group behind A.C.T.A. believes that they will be held blameless for the fallout.
They think that once people know file sharing would will send them to jail, they'll stop. And that will frighten other people so they won't do it anymore either. Right.
It seems to me that now the people who are prepared to go to jail for copyright infringement are the criminal bootleggers. Like the alcohol bootleggers before them there are enormous profits to be made. They feel it is worth the risk to make such enormous profits.
The people who are file sharing don't believe they are doing anything wrong. They believe that they can share music and movies they've bought with their friends. I doubt any of them expect to go to jail. (After all… everybody is doing it…)
But once A.C.T.A. passes and the laws of all our lands change, I think that many of the young people who feel so strongly about this will start expecting to go to jail. I rather think that A.C.T.A. will increase filesharing. I wouldn't be the least bit surprised to see the evolution of an A.C.T.A. underground resistance movement. A war could well be fought between the forces of idealism and the forces of greed. Sooner or later the young people who believe that file sharing is a good thing will be in charge.
Insult and Injury
Of course the ways to bring these nasty file sharing criminals to justice would certainly involve "3 Strikes" laws, where allegations of copyright infringement can result in websites being taken off the internet. Even without A.C.T.A. currently the U.K. is looking at doing this with only 2 strikes, and huge fines. This is being challenged by the British ISP talktalk who have launched a petition in an effort to prevent this bad law from being passed.
Every example I have heard of this type of law includes making the Internet Service Providers spy on our internet activity. None of these laws seem to require mundane things like search warrants or evidence. The accused is guilty until proven innocent.
Who will pay for this?
The jails are full. In a world where murderers rarely serve as many as ten years, my question is, where are they going to put this new criminal class? It will cost as much to incarcerate a personal use copyright infringer as it will to incarcerate a rapist. It costs a lot of money to keep people in jails. Because the criminal justice system is so expensive, plea bargains are already putting dangerous offenders back on the streets too quickly. What about the overextended law enforcement agencies? Where will the money come from to pay for the police man hours and court overheads?
Who will pay to draft and enforce these laws? Governments will have to foot the bill.
For the MPAA and the Canadian Recording Industry Association this is an excellent reason to put personal use copying under criminal law rather civil because that puts the onus for investigating and prosecuting (and just as importantly, paying for investigating and prosecuting personal use copyright infringements on to the government.
And since government money really comes from the citizens, the reality is that we will be paying for this.
In order for ISPs to spy on our internet connections and computers, they will need large outlays of cash pay for the specialized equipment and personnel to run it and correlate the huge quantities of data required. Who will pay for this? The ISPs. Of course they will have to pass along the cost so…the reality is that we will be paying for this.
Who will pay for this erosion of civil liberties and human rights? The reality is that we will all be paying for this… especially our children.
Bootlegging is wrong. Videotaping a movie in a theatre or duplicating a DVD you purchased in order to press your own counterfeit copies to sell is theft. As a law abiding citizen, I do not purchase bootleg merchandise from flea market stalls or retail stores. If the vendor was aware that the merchandise was bootleg, I might even be inclined to complain.
But it seems that Hollywood isn't even bothering about professional bootleggers. So why should we?
Hooray for Hollywood
In the 1950's Hollywood lived in fear of government witch hunts.
In the 21st century will we all have to live in fear of Hollywood?


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Analysis: A few open, or not so open, questions
After more than a year of study and writing, the Supreme Court on Thursday produced a ruling that may make the hundreds of millions spent in past presidential and congressional elections look like a pittance. By removing existing restraints on what and when profit-making and non-profit corporations may say during federal election campaigns, the Court has significantly raised the financial stakes for all such elections, beginning with the primaries this year — the first of which occurs in 12 days, in Illinois. But the Court did not directly settle everything with its release of 176 pages of opinions at 10:01 a.m. Thursday.
Some of the questions that linger are truly open questions after the ruling, some may have been partly settled, and some may actually have been settled, if only by implication. Justice Anthony M. Kennedy's controlling, 57-page opinion sweeps broadly, but it does not reach every issue that the highly complex mechanism of federal campaign finance regulation has raised.
Perhaps the most important question that one might ask in the wake of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission is: are labor unions as free as corporations to spend as much as they wish — independently of candidates — to influence elections to Congress and the White House? The likely answer is: Probably, but check back later.
The parts of the federal law that the Court struck down, barring corporations from using their own in-house cash to spend on politics, are written to apply equally to labor unions. And there are sections of the Kennedy opinion that seem to treat corporations and labor unions interchangeably. For example, the most important single conclusion the Court draws is that the identity of the political speaker (spending money on politics is, to the Court, speaking) cannot be the basis for restrictions on their independent political spending. Thus, it would seem, the same limitation that was nullified today for corporations may be gone for unions, too.
But that was not an explicit issue in the case, and the Kennedy opinion never says explicitly that the curbs are lifted for unions. Even so, that is an issue that may well be settled, but only by applying the rules of logic, rather than anything conclusive that the Court said.
Another question, and this one the Court explicitly said it was not deciding, was whether foreign corporations with operations in the U.S. — placed under the same restrictions as domestic ones — might now be able to claim the same First Amendment protection if they want to spend large sums to try to influence U.S. federal elections. Perhaps that is one example of the next generation of campaign finance lawsuits.
The Court also did not rule on the flat ban — in effect for corporations since 1907, and for labor unions since 1947 — on donations that they might want to make directly to a federal candidate or a candidate's campaign organization. That was not an issue in the Citizens United case, and it was discussed only briefly in the Kennedy opinion. With the Court speaking with such fervor about the need for open and robust political spending, one might wonder whether a donation to a candidate is all that different, constitutionally, from paying for an independent ad that says vote for that candidate or vote against the opponent. Does anyone in political finance have a yen to bring that challenge? That is not clear.
And that last question gives rise to an even broader one: might this Court be willing, sooner rather than later, to cast aside the clear distinction it has drawn since 1976, declaring that political spending gets more constitutional protection than political donating? In terms of message to the voters, does writing a check for an advertising campaign to help out a candidate speak any more loudly than writing a check to the candidate directly? Or differently? Justice Kennedy nowhere even alludes to this distinction, and whether it might now be drawn into question under the sweeping freedom-to-spend rhetoric of this opinion.
There is another broad question that largely goes unaddressed in this ruling, but it perhaps should be asked anew in the wake of this decision. It involves a project that the Court, the Federal Election Commission, and politicians and their lawyers have been dealing with for years — defining the difference between a political message (in an ad, for example) that involves "express advocacy" and one that involves "issue advocacy." The former might well be an ad that says explicitly "vote for" or "vote against" Candidate X. The latter might well be an ad that says write to Senator X (a pro-choice lawmaker) and tell her you are a pro-life voter. The Court has said repeatedly that Congress has more power to curb the former than the latter.
But Thursday's decision, using a broad free-speech rationale, struck down an explicit ban on use of corporations' in-house funds to pay for an ad that would say "vote for" or "vote against" Candidate X (a ban that applied only during election season, fairly close to a primary or general election day). One question is whether there is anyone in politics to whom that "express versus issue" distinction still applies? That is a truly open question.
Given that there is always someone in American politics interested in testing any limit that any part of the government imposed on political expression, one can easily imagine that Citizens United is not the last word on questions it did not resolve.


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Chuck, I was recently watching a health segment on television. The university professor who was interviewed said our faces can tell us about the condition of our health. What do you think about that? – "Facing Reality" in Fredericksburg, Va.
This is a fascinating issue because it's true – or most of it. Your face can be a road map to your health, and it can help you to be a detective of what's going on inside your body.
The process is called face mapping or face reading, and it originated in China roughly 3,000 years ago.
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During a recent interview on television, Dr. Philippa Cheetham from the urology department at Winthrop-University Hospital spoke for many in the medical community when she said: "One of the first things that I learned at medical school was how to look at the face to look for signs of disease. ... The face can tell us so much about your medical health."
Similarly, cardiologist David Friedman from Plainview Hospital said that the face is an important diagnostic he uses every day in his practice and that it is "a clue that something is happening internally."
TRENDING: Employees melt down after learning company is publishing prominent conservative Jordan Peterson's book: Report
So how do some of our external facial features reveal our internal health? Here are a few examples:
- Eyes. Cheetham explained: "In the eyes, we can see signs of anemia. ... We can see signs of jaundice when the whites of the eyes go yellow. If you have a white circle around the colored part of your eye, that can be a sign of high cholesterol. If you lose the outer thirds of your eyebrows, that can be associated with an underactive thyroid." Lillian Pearl Bridges, a professor of Chinese medicine and a leading authority on Chinese facial reading, explained that puffy eyelids might be a sign of a cholesterol problem. Fatty deposits in eyelids can be a sign that your kidneys and gallbladder are not processing fats properly. And dark circles under the eyes could be a sign of lack of sleep, dehydration or even kidney problems.
- Skin. Deposits of cholesterol under the skin (xanthelasmata), slightly yellow or skin-colored lumps (often found on hands and ankles, too), are one of the strongest signs for both heart attacks and heart disease.
- The condition reveals that the body is overrun with low-density lipoproteins, which carry cholesterol in the blood and increase the risk of coronary artery disease. And visible small spider veins or jaundice-colored skin or whites of the eyes can be associated with liver problems, too.
- Cheeks. The cheeks are associated with the lungs. Doctors know that people who suffer from emphysema or chronic bronchitis could have puffy and rosy cheeks or bluish lips, which are signs that someone is struggling to get oxygen. Puffy cheeks also can be a sign of an underactive thyroid.
- Lips. The Daily Mail cited several aspects of lip health as it relates to other bodily ailments. Bluish lips could be a sign of heart and lung problems. Pale pink lips could be a sign of anemia. Swollen lips could be a sign of food sensitivity, which can lead to Crohn's disease. Cracked lips could be a sign of anemia or diabetes – the latter because the elevated blood glucose levels associated with it foster the growth of candidiasis, an infection caused by yeast that often attacks the corners of the mouth. And burning lips could be a sign of depression or chemical imbalances.
- Nose. Professor Bridges further explained that the nose is a sign of heart health. If the tip of the nose is multicolored, there could be a cardiac problem. She says the area and groove under the nose can tell one about his or her reproductive health and even whether one is pregnant.
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You've heard the adage that something might be as plain as the nose on your face. That just might be the case with your health, so make an appointment to see your physician or health practitioner to discuss what you see in the mirror.
Reading faces for health gives a whole new meaning to the saying, "It's written all over your face."
Like it or not, when it comes to our health, we need to face the music!
Next week, I will not only discuss other features – such as earlobes and receding hairlines – and their correlations to internal health but also tell you what your face reveals about your personality.
Write to Chuck Norris with your questions about health and fitness. Follow Chuck Norris through his official social media sites, on Twitter @chucknorris and Facebook's "Official Chuck Norris Page." He blogs at ChuckNorrisNews.blogspot.com.


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Any person may inspect the public records of the Library at reasonable times during the regular business hours of the office in which those records are kept. Upon request, a person may receive copies of public records, at cost, within a reasonable period of time. The Library Director is authorized to grant or refuse access to Library records in accordance with applicable law.
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When the US Supreme Court rules on President Obama's Affordable Care Act, there's a distinct possibility that the federal mandate requiring most people to buy health insurance – a pillar of the law – will be declared unconstitutional.
So if just the mandate goes, does the rest of the law fall apart?
In a word, no. Health-care experts, gaming out scenarios for how the court might rule, say the end of the mandate indeed means that some people wouldn't buy insurance – but if the court lets stand other provisions of the law, the ranks of the insured will still go up.
If the law is not upheld in its entirety, health-insurance coverage "and how that influences the cost of health care, and whether everyone gets a fair shot at getting coverage – those will be challenges. But I don't think it will be chaotic," Dr. Jeremy Lazarus, incoming president of the American Medical Association, recently told The Associated Press.
Even without the mandate, the law's expansion of Medicaid eligibility would cover some 16 million people, about half the total number of people who would gain insurance if the whole law is upheld, according to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO).
In addition, federal subsidies and tax credits for low- and middle-income people to buy insurance in the new marketplaces, or "exchanges" – think Travelocity for health care – will make coverage more affordable.
The real disconnect comes if the Supreme Court strikes down the individual mandate but lets stand the guarantees of coverage for people with preexisting conditions and the "community rating" provision that bars plans from charging more on the basis of gender or health status.
"If just the mandate goes, there's no question that there are implications in that for how well the law works," says Larry Levitt, a senior vice president at the Kaiser Family Foundation in Menlo Park, Calif. "There's a consensus that premiums will go up, though by no means a consensus around how much they'll go up."
The CBO has estimated that the Affordable Care Act, minus the mandate, would result in premiums that are 15 to 20 percent higher than if the whole law had gone into effect.
"It's far from ideal, but it doesn't mean that the law is a failure or unworkable," says Mr. Levitt. "People would still be getting benefits; there would still be lots of consumer protections going into effect. I don't think it cuts out the heart of the law. But it would be a challenge."
"I don't think it would create chaos in the insurance system," he concludes.
Still, all the talk of chaos is for a reason. Some is based on fear of what insurance experts call a "death spiral." If there's no mandate, but if there are guarantees of coverage, sick people come into the system while many healthy people stay out. Premiums go up; and the more they do, the more people drop out. The result is a system skewed toward people with serious health issues, which is unworkable.
At the state level, there's some experience with this scenario. New York has guaranteed access to insurance without a mandate, and insurance there is some of the most expensive in the country.
The key difference with Mr. Obama's health reform is the subsidies. "They make insurance a very good deal for low- and middle-income people, even if they're healthy," says Levitt.
Ultimately, the Obama administration plans to "move ahead with major parts of the president's health-care law" even if the mandate is thrown out, according to the AP in a story published June 18.
The story cites two unnamed Democratic sources "closely involved with the legislation" who spoke on condition of anonymity. The Obama administration has not publicly discussed contingency plans in the event some or all of the law is struck down, instead expressing confidence that it will be upheld.
At closed-door fundraisers, though, Obama has told donors that he may have to revisit health care in a second term, depending on what the court does.
But even if the entire law is struck down, the president can take heart in recent announcements by major insurance companies that they plan to keep some of the popular provisions of the law regardless of how the Supreme Court rules.
UnitedHealthcare, Aetna, and Humana have all promised to allow children up to age 26 to stay on their parents' health plan. They have also promised not to reinstate lifetime limits on coverage and would continue to provide some preventive care without copays. Insurers in the Massachusetts Association of Health Plans made a similar announcement on Monday.
The Supreme Court could rule on health-care reform as early as Thursday.


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Under our green sign, everyone is welcome!
Welcome to the Holiday Inn & Suites Oakville @ Bronte, a proud member of the IHG brand family. The Holiday Inn Oakville @ Bronte hotel is ideally located in beautiful Oakville, Ontario, halfway between Toronto and Niagara Falls. When you stay with us, you'll enjoy friendly, superior service, top-quality amenities and award winning accommodations.We know business travelers, and we do everything we can to go above and beyond other Oakville hotels in meeting your needs. We feature a 24-hour Business Centre and offer free WIFI access in all rooms and throughout the hotel. We feature more than 7,000 sq. ft. of flexible event space and provide superb food & beverage facilities, we are also adjacent to the Oakville Conference Centre should you require additional event space. We are also in close proximity to major transportation arteries and area businesses, including 6 KM from GE Water & Process Technologies, 8 KM from the Oakville Ford Plant, 6 KM from Tim Hortons head office, and 9 KM from Siemens Canada Head Office. We are located on Bronte Road and the QEW which offers the quickest and easiest route to Milton, Ontario. We are also the closest full service hotel to the recently opened New Oakville Hospital located at 3rd line and Dundas, just 6 KM from the hotel.
Real Service. Really.
The Service Experience. At Holiday Inn we'll always recognize you for the individual that you are. We promise to deliver genuine service, focused on your real-world needs, no matter what you want - or don't want - while you're here.
Meetings matter here!
In addition to our superlative hospitality, The Holiday Inn & Suites Oakville @ Bronte Conference Facilities makes the ideal setting for all your meetings, conferences, weddings and other special events. Whether you are hosting a small gathering or a large event, our warm and professional staff is ready to accommodate you and your group. With more than 7,000 square feet of flexible function space, including boardrooms and exhibit space, we are THE Best Place to Meet! Earn More With Meetings! Did you know you can earn points on business bookings? Earn 3 points for every $1 USD spent on qualified meetings. Learn More
Eat, Drink, Relax
You really don't have to leave. You don't have to go far to grab a drink or find a meal with our restaurant and bars all on-site. Of course, there's always room service, too. The Marquis Bistro offers a relaxing environment with great drinks, excellent food and first class service. Marquis Bistro is open daily for Breakfast and dinner.
Refresh, Renew & Revitalize
When it's time to unwind and restore yourself enjoy our heated indoor pool. Let your body revitalize in our on-site fitness facilities or enjoy one of Bronte?s beautiful lakefront trails for a brisk walk or invigorating run.
At Holiday Inn hotels, everyone is welcome. Whether you're on a trip with family, off to a business meeting or on an adventure with a friend, enjoy the joy of travel in a fun, comfortable and affordable hotel. You deserve a clean, comfortable guest room. Climb into a cozy bed, pull up a fluffy comforter and pick between a firm or soft pillow.