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This module provides the basic infrastructure for writing asynchronous socket service clients and servers.
There are only two ways to have a program on a single processor do ``more than one thing at a time.'' Multi-threaded programming is the simplest and most popular way to do it, but there is another very different technique, that lets you have nearly all the advantages of multi-threading, without actually using multiple threads. It's really only practical if your program is largely I/O bound. If your program is processor bound, then pre-emptive scheduled threads are probably what you really need. Network servers are rarely processor bound, however.
If your operating system supports the select() system call in its I/O library (and nearly all do), then you can use it to juggle multiple communication channels at once; doing other work while your I/O is taking place in the ``background.'' Although this strategy can seem strange and complex, especially at first, it is in many ways easier to understand and control than multi-threaded programming. The module documented here solves many of the difficult problems for you, making the task of building sophisticated high-performance network servers and clients a snap.
The direct interface between the select loop and the socket object are the handle_read_event() and handle_write_event() methods. These are called whenever an object `fires' that event.
The firing of these low-level events can tell us whether certain higher-level events have taken place, depending on the timing and the state of the connection. For example, if we have asked for a socket to connect to another host, we know that the connection has been made when the socket fires a write event (at this point you know that you may write to it with the expectation of success). The implied higher-level events are:
|Implied by a write event
|Implied by a read event with no data available
|Implied by a read event on a listening socket
This set of user-level events is larger than the basics. The full set of methods that can be overridden in your subclass are:
def handle_write(self): sent = self.send(self.buffer) self.buffer = self.buffer[sent:]
indicating that by default, all channels will be interested.
indicating that by default, all channels will be interested.
In addition, there are the basic methods needed to construct and manipulate ``channels,'' which are what we will call the socket connections in this context. Note that most of these are nearly identical to their socket partners.
(conn, address) where conn is a
new socket object usable to send and receive data on
the connection, and address is the address bound to the
socket on the other end of the connection.


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The Centre for Language Studies was established in 2001 to serve the foreign language needs of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences and has today over 80 full-time and part-time faculty members. It teaches thirteen different languages - Arabic, Bahasa Indonesia, Chinese, French, German, Hindi, Japanese, Korean, Malay, Spanish, Tamil, Thai and Vietnamese - to app. over 3,300 students per semester and thus helps them acquire a very valuable economic and social resource in today's world of growing globalisation and internationalisation. Having produced numerous teaching award winners in recent years, the Centre is firmly committed to excellence in teaching and seeks to maintain, and improve, its high teaching standards by engaging in research and facilitating professional development in foreign language teaching.
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subset: commoncrawl


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Weekly Dispatches from the Frontlines of World LiteratureAsymptote
2017/5/1 — 13:49
【Text by M. René Bradshaw, Maíra Mendes Galvão, and Poupeh Missaghi】
Your latest updates from Brazil, Iran, and the UK
This week, Brazilian Editor-at-Large Maíra Mendes Galvão reports from Brazil's vibrant literary scene. Poupeh Missaghi writes about how Iranians celebrated a revered literary figure's birthday and gives us a peep into the preparations for the Tehran International Book Fair. And M. René Bradshaw has much to report from London's literati! Hope you're ready for an adventure!
Maíra Mendes Galvão, our Editor-at-Large for Brazil, brings us the latest from literary events:
The capital of the Brazilian state of Ceará, Fortaleza, hosted the 12th Biennial Book Fair last weekend. The very extensive and diverse programincluded the presence of Conceição Evaristo, Ricardo Aleixo, Marina Colasanti, Joca Reiners Terron, Eliane Brum, Luiz Ruffato, Natércia Pontes, Daniel Munduruku, Frei Betto and many others. The event also paid homage to popular culture exponents such as troubadour Geraldo Amâncio, musician Bule Bule, and poet Leandro Gomes de Barros. One of the staples of Ceará is "literatura de cordel", a literary genre (or form) that gets its name from the way the works (printed as small chapbooks) have traditionally been displayed for sale: hanging from a sort of clothesline (cordel). It was popularized by a slew of artists, including a collective of women cordel writers, Rede Mnemosine de Cordelistas, who marked their presence in a field originally dominated by men.
The northeast of Brazil is bubbling with literary activities: this week, from April 26-28, the city of Ilhéus, in the state of Bahia, hosts its own literary festival, FLIOS. There will be talks and debate about local literature and education as well as a book fair, workshops, book launches, performances, and readings.
The other upcoming literary festival is Flipoços, hosted by the city of Poços de Caldas in the south eastern state of Minas Gerais. Milton Hatoum, celebrated writer from the state of Amazonas, will be the patron of this edition of the festival, which will also pay homage to the literature of Mozambique. Guests include Rafael Gallo, Roberta Estrela D'Alva, Tati Bernardi, Ungulani Ba Ka Khosa, and others.


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Make no mistake about who Katy Perry is voting for. Her fashion speaks of her political choices.
In her latest political performance combining her singing with her presidential choice, Perry played in Milwaukee over the weekend wearing a tight-fitting blue dress with President Barack Obama's "Forward" slogan on it. Coincidentally, Obama's slogan "Forward" is also Wisconsin's state motto.
Reports indicate that the singer came on stage at Saturday's event wearing a red, white and blue dress and holding a microphone shaped like the Statue of Liberty's torch.
She then sang a cover Al Green's soul hit "Let's Stay Together," which was also sung by the President earlier this year.
Perry, who seems to wear campaign-friendly fashions, wore a white dress imprinted with a ballot on it last week when performing for Obama in Las Vegas. On her right hip, a square was marked Obama/Biden.
Obama's rally with Perry comes on the heels of his Madison, Wisconsin, visit which is scheduled for Monday with singer Bruce Springsteen.
-Cicely C. Mitchell, Hot 95.7/ Houston
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TORONTO – The real-life Canadian hero portrayed in the popcorn thriller Argo says the film's Oscar-nominated screenwriter "had no idea what he's talking about."
Canada's former ambassador to Iran, Ken Taylor, took sly jabs at the Ben Affleck-directed box office hit during a talk with Ryerson University students on Thursday.
He took issue with a myriad of creative liberties that included the "black and white" portrayal of Iranian people, fabricated scenes and the suggestion he was little more than a meek observer to CIA heroics.
Argo traces the high-risk rescue of six U.S. citizens caught in the Iran hostage crisis of 1979, a daring operation commonly referred to as the "Canadian Caper."
The crisis made a hero out of Taylor, who kept the escapees hidden in a riotous Tehran until they could be whisked out of the country in a joint Canada-U.S. operation.
While recognizing that Argo's primary goal was entertainment, Taylor says an upcoming documentary will present a more balanced picture of his role and the situation in Iran.
"After I saw the movie I decided that I did bring one particular skill to this movie: That was opening and closing a door," Taylor said to laughs, referring to the relatively small role he seemed to play, as portrayed by Canadian actor Victor Garber.
"We could go on but the amusing side is the script writer in Hollywood had no idea what he's talking about."
Taylor pointed to a scene toward the end in which he's asked what he will do as escapees head to the airport. The movie version of himself responds that he'll leave by train in half an hour.
"A train hasn't left Tehran station for anywhere for three years," he noted.
Screenwriter Chris Terrio is up for a best adapted screenplay Oscar.
Nonetheless jovial and full of compliments for the film's sheer entertainment value, Taylor's comments were offered alongside a more critical Robert Wright, author of Our Man in Tehran: Ken Taylor and the Iran Hostage Crisis.
Argo has swept recent awards bashes and heads into the Oscars later this month as a front-runner in the race for best picture.
Affleck directs and also stars as CIA agent Tony Mendez, who teams up with a Hollywood producer (Alan Arkin) to disguise the six U.S. citizens as a Canadian film crew working on a fake science-fiction film called "Argo."
Taylor said the film does little to dissuade notions that Iran is "one long revolution and riot," noting that "it characterizes people in a way that isn't quite right."
He said he spent almost three years in Tehran and never felt in jeopardy, describing Iranian hospitality as "warm and genuine."
"The movie maybe didn't give a chance that there's another side to Iranian society which is unfortunate – that is a more conventional side, a more hospitable side and an intent that they were looking for some degree of justice and hope and that it all wasn't just a violent demonstration for nothing," he said.
Taylor said he addresses some of these issues in a two-hour interview he did alongside his wife and Affleck for the DVD release, slated for Feb. 19.
Meanwhile, the documentary will offer more context, a greater sense of Canada's role abroad and the true nature of an embassy, he said.
"It's not only a story about diplomats, about my colleagues and myself but it's also a chance to look at Iranian society in some depth," he said, adding he hopes to have it ready for a fall release.
Producer Elena Semikina said it will include interviews with former prime minister Joe Clark and former U.S. president Jimmy Carter.
"Argo's a great movie but it's a completely different industry. It's entertainment…. The story should be told from a historical perspective," said Semikina, who is also working on a documentary about transgender beauty queen Jenna Talackova.
"We just want to get the right story, the full story of what actually happened."
And while Taylor recognized the success of Argo could make it a lasting record of Canada's role in the Iran hostage crisis, he said he believes enough people know the bigger story.
"To some extent it will be my legacy," he allowed.
"Among my friends, they know differently. And I think as time goes on there's a broadening impression that that really isn't the case in the movie. But at the same time… maybe 20 years from now, it will be. But I can live with that."
And despite the dangers involved more than 30 years ago, Taylor says there was no question that he had to step in and do what he could.
"Canada, I think, had a responsibility to respond. We were asked to respond," he said.
"And sure there's risks or what have you, but the alternative for the six was something you wouldn't want to find yourself in. Not that there's much in hindsight, but I really would have trouble if in fact, on one way or another, the Canadian embassy hadn't taken them. That's something that would really haunt you."


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July 20, 2012
Here is a quick clip that showcases our line of Hexcore System Fins. These ultra light fins are available in FCS compatible and Futures Compatible. We use the Resin Transfer Method that allows us to construct a composite fin, inside which hexagonal pieces of lightweight coremat displace fiberglass and resin. The result is a fin that is up to 25% lighter than a normal fiberglass fin, yet retains the same positive flex and amazing drive! Whether you are surfing small beach breaks or solid reef breaks, we've got you covered with a wide variety of fins to fit your board and type of surfing.
April 17, 2019
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April 11, 2019
April 05, 2019


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This paper looks at mapping covert networks using data available from news sources on the World Wide Web. Specifically, we examine the network surrounding the tragic events of September 11th 2001. Through public data we are able to map a portion of the network centered on the 19 dead hijackers. This map gives us some insight into the terrorist organization, yet it is incomplete. Suggestions for further work and research are offered.
Introduction and Background
Data Gathering
Prevention or Prosecution?
Introduction and Background
We were all shocked by the tragic events of September 11, 2001. In the non-stop stream of news and analysis one phrase was continuously repeated - "terrorist network." Everyone talked about this concept, and described it as amorphous, invisible, resilient, and dispersed. But no one could produce a visual. Being a consultant and researcher in organizational networks, I set out to map this network of terrorist cells that had so affected all of our lives. My aim was to uncover network patterns that would reveal Al Qaeda's preferred methods of stealth organization. If we know what patterns of organization they prefer, we may know what to look for as we search them out in countries across the world.
I soon realized I would be mapping a 'project team', much like the legal, overt groups I had mapped in hundreds of consulting assignments. Both overt and covert project teams have tasks to complete, information to share, funding to obtain and disburse, schedules to meet, and an objectives to accomplish.
My data sources were publicly released information reported in major newspapers such as the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post, and the Los Angeles Times. As I monitored the investigation, it was apparent that the investigators would not be releasing all pertinent network/relationship information and actually may be releasing misinformation to fool the enemy. I soon realized that the data was not going to be as complete and accurate as I had grown accustomed to in mapping and measuring organizational networks.
For guidance I turned to previous work by social network theorists who had studied covert, secret, or illegal networks. I found three excellent papers that formed a working foundation for the knowledge I would use to pursue this project. Malcolm Sparrow (Sparrow, 1991) examines the application of social network analysis to criminal activity. Sparrow describes three problems of criminal network analysis that I soon encountered.
- Incompleteness - the inevitability of missing nodes and links that the investigators will not uncover.
- Fuzzy boundaries - the difficulty in deciding who to include and who not to include.
- Dynamic - these networks are not static, they are always changing.
Instead of looking at the presence or absence of a tie between two individuals, Sparrow suggests looking at the waxing and waning strength of a tie depending upon the time and the task at hand.
Wayne Baker and Robert Faulkner (Baker and Faulkner, 1993) suggest looking at archival data to derive relationship data. The data they used to analyze illegal price-fixing networks were mostly court documents and sworn testimony. This data included accounts of observed interpersonal relationships from various witnesses.
Bonnie Erickson (Erickson, 1981) reveals the importance of trusted prior contacts for the effective functioning of a secret society. The 19 hijackers appeared to have come from a network that had formed while they were completing terrorist training in Afghanistan. Many were school chums from many years ago, some had lived together for years, and others were related by kinship ties. Deep trusted ties, that were not easily visible to outsiders, wove this terror network together.
Data Gathering
Within one week of the attack, information from the investigation started to become public. We soon knew there were 19 hijackers, which planes they were on, and which nation's passports they had used to get into America. As more information about the hijackers' past was uncovered I decided to map links of three strengths (and corresponding thickness). The tie strength would largely be governed by the amount of time together by a pair of terrorists. Those living together or attending the same school or the same classes/training would have the strongest ties. Those traveling together and participating in meetings together would have ties of moderate strength and medium thickness. Finally, those who were recorded as having a single transaction together, or an occasional meeting, and no other ties, I classified as weak ties that were shown with the thinnest links in the network.
I started my mapping project upon seeing several summaries of data about the hijackers in major newspapers (Sydney Morning Herald, 2001; Washington Post, 2001). These data collections contained information about the nodes/hijackers and their links/relationships. From two to six weeks after the event, it appeared that a new relationship or node was added to the network on a daily basis. Several false stories appeared about a cell in Detroit. These stories, originally reported with great fanfare, were proven false within one week. This made me very cautious about adding a link or a node to the network.
The network was created iteratively as data became available. Everyday I checked the major news sources for updated information. Figure 1 shows my computer screen during this process. The browser window shows the news story, the other window shows the network mapping and measuring software. I would add nodes and links to the map as I read the news accounts. Figure 1 shows a link being added between one of the hijackers and an accomplice.
Figure 1
By the middle of October enough data was available to start seeing patterns in the hijacker network. Initially, I examined the prior trusted contacts (Erickson, 1981) - those ties formed long ago through living and learning together. The network self-organized (via a network layout algorithm) into the shape of a serpent - how appropriate, I thought.
Figure 2
I was amazed at how sparse the network was and how distant many of the hijackers on the same team were from each other. Many pairs of team members were beyond the horizon of observability (Friedkin, 1983) from each other - many on the same flight were more than two steps away from each other. A strategy for keeping cell members distant from each other, and from other cells, minimizes damage to the network if a cell member is captured or otherwise compromised. Usama bin Laden even described this plan in his infamous videotape, which was found in Afghanistan. In the transcript (U.S. Department of Defense, 2001) Usama bin Laden mentions:"Those who were trained to fly didn't know the others. One group of people did not know the other group."
The network metrics for the network in Figure 2 are found in Table 1. For a small network of less than 20 nodes, we see a long average path length of 4.75 steps. Several of the hijackers are separated by more than 6 steps. From this metric and bin Laden's comments above we see that covert networks trade efficiency for secrecy.
Table 1: Small-World Network Metrics
Clustering Coefficient Average Path Length Contacts 0.41 4.75 Contacts + Shortcuts 0.42 2.79
Yet, work has to be done, plans have to be executed. How does a covert network accomplish its goals? Through the judicious use of transitory shortcuts (Watts, 1999) in the network. Meetings were held that connected distant parts of the network to coordinate tasks and report progress. After coordination was accomplished, the cross-ties went dormant. One well documented meeting of the hijacker network took place in Las Vegas. The ties from this and other meetings are shown in gold in Figure 3.
Figure 3
Six (6) shortcuts were added to the network temporarily in order to collaborate and coordinate. These shortcuts reduced the average path length in the network by over 40% thus improving the information flow in the network - see Table 1. When the network is brought closer together by these shortcuts, all of the pilots ended up in a small clique - the perfect structure to efficiently coordinate tasks and activities. There is a constant dynamic between keeping the network hidden and actively using it to accomplish objectives (Baker and Faulkner, 1993).
The 19 hijackers did not work alone. They had other accomplices that did not get on the planes. These co-conspirators were conduits for money and also provided needed skills and knowledge. Figure 4 shows the hijackers and their network neighborhood - their direct and indirect associates.
Figure 4
After one month of investigation it was 'common knowledge' that Mohamed Atta was the ring leader of this conspiracy. Again, bin Laden verified Atta's leadership role in the video tape (U.S. Department of Defense, 2001). Looking at the diagram he has the most connections. In Table 2 we see that Atta scores the highest on all network centrality metrics - Degrees, Closeness, and Betweenness (Freeman, 1979). The network metric Degrees reveals Atta's activity in the network. Closeness measures his ability to access others in the network and monitor what is happening. Betweenness shows his control over the flow in the network - he plays the role of a broker in the network. These metrics support his leader status.
Table 2: Hijacker Network Neighborhood
* possible false ID
Betweenness Closeness 0.361 Mohamed Atta 0.588 Mohamed Atta 0.587 Mohamed Atta 0.295 Marwan Al-Shehhi 0.252 Essid Sami Ben Khemais 0.466 Marwan Al-Shehhi 0.213 Hani Hanjour 0.232 Zacarias Moussaoui 0.445 Hani Hanjour 0.180 Essid Sami Ben Khemais 0.154 Nawaf Alhazmi 0.442 Nawaf Alhazmi 0.180 Nawaf Alhazmi 0.126 Hani Hanjour 0.436 Ramzi Bin al-Shibh 0.164 Ramzi Bin al-Shibh 0.105 Djamal Beghal 0.436 Zacarias Moussaoui 0.164 Ziad Jarrah 0.088 Marwan Al-Shehhi 0.433 Essid Sami Ben Khemais 0.148 Abdul Aziz Al-Omari* 0.050 Satam Suqami 0.424 Abdul Aziz Al-Omari* 0.131 Djamal Beghal 0.048 Ramzi Bin al-Shibh 0.424 Ziad Jarrah 0.131 Fayez Ahmed 0.043 Abu Qatada 0.409 Imad Eddin Barakat Yarkas 0.131 Salem Alhazmi* 0.034 Tarek Maaroufi 0.409 Satam Suqami 0.131 Satam Suqami 0.033 Mamoun Darkazanli 0.407 Fayez Ahmed 0.131 Zacarias Moussaoui 0.029 Imad Eddin Barakat Yarkas 0.404 Lotfi Raissi 0.115 Hamza Alghamdi 0.026 Fayez Ahmed 0.401 Wail Alshehri 0.115 Said Bahaji 0.023 Abdul Aziz Al-Omari* 0.399 Ahmed Al Haznawi 0.098 Khalid Al-Mihdhar 0.022 Hamza Alghamdi 0.399 Said Bahaji 0.098 Saeed Alghamdi* 0.017 Ziad Jarrah 0.391 Agus Budiman 0.098 Tarek Maaroufi 0.015 Ahmed Al Haznawi 0.391 Zakariya Essabar 0.098 Wail Alshehri 0.013 Salem Alhazmi* 0.389 Mamoun Darkazanli 0.098 Wail Alshehri 0.013 Salem Alhazmi* 0.389 Mamoun Darkazanli 0.098 Waleed Alshehri 0.012 Lotfi Raissi 0.389 Mounir El Motassadeq 0.082 Abu Qatada 0.012 Saeed Alghamdi* 0.389 Mustafa Ahmed al-Hisawi 0.082 Agus Budiman 0.011 Agus Budiman 0.372 Abdelghani Mzoudi 0.082 Ahmed Alghamdi 0.007 Ahmed Alghamdi 0.372 Ahmed Khalil Al-Ani 0.082 Lotfi Raissi 0.007 Ahmed Ressam 0.365 Salem Alhazmi* 0.082 Zakariya Essabar 0.007 Haydar Abu Doha 0.361 Hamza Alghamdi 0.066 Ahmed Al Haznawi 0.006 Kamel Daoudi 0.343 Abu Qatada 0.066 Imad Eddin Barakat Yarkas 0.006 Khalid Al-Mihdhar 0.343 Tarek Maaroufi 0.066 Jerome Courtaillier 0.004 Mohamed Bensakhria 0.339 Ahmed Alghamdi 0.066 Kamel Daoudi 0.003 Nabil al-Marabh 0.335 Waleed Alshehri 0.066 Majed Moqed 0.002 Jerome Courtaillier 0.332 Djamal Beghal 0.066 Mamoun Darkazanli 0.002 Mustafa Ahmed al-Hisawi 0.332 Khalid Al-Mihdhar 0.066 Mohamed Bensakhria 0.002 Said Bahaji 0.332 Saeed Alghamdi* 0.066 Mounir El Motassadeq 0.002 Wail Alshehri 0.328 Majed Moqed 0.066 Mustafa Ahmed al-Hisawi 0.001 Abu Walid 0.324 Ahmed Ressam 0.066 Nabil al-Marabh 0.001 Mehdi Khammoun 0.323 Ahmed Alnami 0.066 Rayed Mohammed Abdullah 0.001 Mohand Alshehri* 0.323 Nabil al-Marabh 0.049 Abdussattar Shaikh 0.001 Raed Hijazi 0.321 Haydar Abu Doha 0.049 Abu Walid 0.001 Rayed Mohammed Abdullah 0.319 Mohamed Bensakhria 0.049 Ahmed Alnami 0.001 Waleed Alshehri 0.316 Essoussi Laaroussi 0.049 Haydar Abu Doha 0.000 Abdelghani Mzoudi 0.316 Jerome Courtaillier 0.049 Mehdi Khammoun 0.000 Abdussattar Shaikh 0.316 Kamel Daoudi 0.049 Osama Awadallah 0.000 Abu Zubeida 0.316 Seifallah ben Hassine 0.049 Raed Hijazi 0.000 Ahmed Alnami 0.314 Rayed Mohammed Abdullah 0.033 Ahmed Ressam 0.000 Ahmed Khalil Al-Ani 0.313 Raed Hijazi 0.033 Bandar Alhazmi 0.000 Bandar Alhazmi 0.311 Abdussattar Shaikh 0.033 David Courtaillier 0.000 David Courtaillier 0.311 Bandar Alhazmi 0.033 Essoussi Laaroussi 0.000 Essoussi Laaroussi 0.311 Faisal Al Salmi 0.033 Faisal Al Salmi 0.000 Faisal Al Salmi 0.311 Mohand Alshehri* 0.033 Lased Ben Heni 0.000 Faisal Al Salmi 0.311 Osama Awadallah 0.033 Mohammed Belfas 0.000 Jean-Marc Grandvisir 0.308 Mehdi Khammoun 0.033 Mohand Alshehri* 0.000 Lased Ben Heni 0.308 Mohamed Abdi 0.033 Seifallah ben Hassine 0.000 Madjid Sahoune 0.307 David Courtaillier 0.016 Abdelghani Mzoudi 0.000 Majed Moqed 0.307 Mohammed Belfas 0.016 Abu Zubeida 0.000 Mamduh Mahmud Salim 0.305 Lased Ben Heni 0.016 Ahmed Khalil Al-Ani 0.000 Mohamed Abdi 0.303 Fahid al Shakri 0.016 Fahid al Shakri 0.000 Mohammed Belfas 0.303 Madjid Sahoune 0.016 Jean-Marc Grandvisir 0.000 Mounir El Motassadeq 0.303 Samir Kishk 0.016 Madjid Sahoune 0.000 Nizar Trabelsi 0.281 Mamduh Mahmud Salim 0.016 Mamduh Mahmud Salim 0.000 Osama Awadallah 0.264 Abu Walid 0.016 Mohamed Abdi 0.000 Samir Kishk 0.250 Abu Zubeida 0.016 Nizar Trabelsi 0.000 Seifallah ben Hassine 0.250 Jean-Marc Grandvisir 0.016 Samir Kishk 0.000 Zakariya Essabar 0.250 Nizar Trabelsi 0.081 Average 0.032 Average 0.052 Average 0.289 Centralization 0.565 Centralization 0.482 Centralization
Yet, we are obviously missing nodes and ties in this network. Centrality measures are very sensitive to minor changes in network connectivity. A discovery of a new conspirator or two, or the uncovering of new ties amongst existing nodes can alter who comes out on top in the centrality measures. We must be wary of incomplete data.
Prevention or Prosecution?
Currently, social network analysis (SNA) is applied more successfully to the prosecution, not the prevention, of criminal activities. SNA has a long history of application to evidence mapping in both fraud and criminal conspiracy cases.
As was evident with the September 11th hijackers, once the investigators knew whom to look at, they quickly found the connections amongst the hijackers and also discovered several of the hijackers' associates. We must be careful of 'guilt by association'. Being linked to a terrorist does not prove guilt - but it does invite investigation.
The big question remains - why wasn't this attack predicted and prevented? Everyone expects the intelligence community to uncover these covert plots and stop them before they are executed. Occasionally plots are uncovered and criminal networks are disrupted. But this is very difficult to do. How do you discover a network that focuses on secrecy and stealth?
Covert networks often don't behave like normal social networks (Baker and Faulkner, 1993). Conspirators don't form many ties outside of their immediate cluster and often minimize the activation of existing ties inside the network. Strong ties between prior contacts, which were frequently formed years ago in school and training camps, keep the cells linked. Yet, unlike normal social networks, these strong ties remain mostly dormant and therefore hidden to outsiders.
In a normal social network, strong ties reveal the cluster of network players - it is easy to see who is in the group and who is not. In a covert network, because of their low frequency of activation, strong ties may appear to be weak ties. The less active the network, the more difficult it is to discover. Yet, the covert network has a goal to accomplish. Network members must balance the need for secrecy and stealth with the need for frequent and intense task-based communication (Baker and Faulkner 1993). The covert network must be active at times - it has goals to accomplish. It is during these periods of activity, and increased connectedness, that they may be most vulnerable to discovery.
Ties between members of the hijacker network and outsiders were non-existent. It was often reported that the hijackers kept to themselves - they did not make friends outside the trusted circle. They would rarely interact with others, and then often one of them would speak for the whole group. Eliminating boundary-spanning ties reduces the visibility into the network, and chance of leaks out of the network.
The hijacker's network had a hidden strength - massive redundancy through trusted prior contacts. These ties made the network very resilient. These ties were solidly in place as the hijackers made their way to America. These strong ties were rarely active - they were mostly invisible during their stay in America. It was only after the tragic event that intelligence from Germany and other countries, revealed the apparent center of this violent network. The dense connections of the 'Hamburg cell' are now obvious in Figure 4.
This dense under-layer of prior trusted relationships made the hijacker network both stealth and resilient. Although we do not know all of the internal ties of the hijackers' network it appears that many of the ties were concentrated around the pilots. This is a risky move for a covert network. Concentrating both unique skills and connectivity in the same nodes makes the network easier to disrupt - once it is discovered. Peter Klerks (Klerks, 2001) makes an excellent argument for targeting those nodes in the network that have unique skills. By removing those necessary skills from the project, we can inflict maximum damage to the project mission and goals. It is possible that those with unique skills would also have unique ties within the network. Because of their unique human capital and their high social capital the pilots were the richest targets for removal from the network. Unfortunately they were not discovered in time.
To draw an accurate picture of a covert network, we need to identify task and trust ties between the conspirators. The same four relationships we often map in many business organizations would tell us much about illegal organizations. This data is occasionally difficult to unearth with cooperating clients. With covert criminals, the task is enormous, and may be impossible to complete. Table 3 below lists multiple project networks and possible data sources about covert collaborators.
Table 3: Networks to Map
Relationship/Network Data Sources 1. Trust Prior contacts in family, neighborhood, school, military, club or organization. Public and court records. Data may only be available in suspect's native country. 2. Task Logs and records of phone calls, electronic mail, chat rooms, instant messages, Web site visits. Travel records. Human intelligence: observation of meetings and attendance at common events. 3. Money & Resources Bank account and money transfer records. Pattern and location of credit card use. Prior court records. Human intelligence: observation of visits to alternate banking resources such as Hawala. 4. Strategy & Goals Web sites. Videos and encrypted disks delivered by courier. Travel records. Human intelligence: observation of meetings and attendance at common events.
Of course, the common network researcher will not have access to many of these sources. The researcher's best sources may be public court proceedings, which contain much of this data (Baker and Faulkner, 1993; U.S. Department of Justice, 2001).
The best solution for network disruption may be to discover possible suspects and then, via snowball sampling, map their individual personal networks - see whom else they lead to, and where they overlap. To find these suspects it appears that the best method is for diverse intelligence agencies to aggregate their individual information into a larger emergent map. By sharing information and knowledge, a more complete picture of possible danger can be drawn. In my data search I came across many news accounts where one agency, or country, had data that another would have found very useful. To win this fight against terrorism it appears that the good guys have to build a better information and knowledge sharing network than the bad guys (Ronfeldt and Arquilla, 2001).
About the Author
Valdis Krebs leads his own firm, orgnet.com, which provides social network analysis software and services to the consulting community. He has been mapping and measuring human networks within and between organizations since 1988. He is also involved in the following research: networks in adaptive organizations, industry clusters/ecosystems, and network vulnerability.
E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
An earlier version of this paper was originally published in volume 24, number 3 (2001) of Connections, the official journal of the International Network for Social Network Analysis and appears here with the kind permission of Connections and the International Network for Social Network Analysis. Copyright © 2001, INSNA and Valdis E. Krebs.
Wayne E. Baker and Robert R. Faulkner, 1993. "The Social Organization of Conspiracy: Illegal Networks in the Heavy Electrical Equipment Industry," American Sociological Review, volume 58, number 6 (December), pp. 837-860. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2095954
Bonnie H. Erickson, 1981. "Secret Societies and Social Structure," Social Forces, volume 60, number 1 (September), pp. 188-210.
Linton C. Freeman, 1979. "Centrality in Social Networks: Conceptual Clarification," Social Networks, volume 1, pp. 215-239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(78)90021-7
Noah E. Friedkin, 1983. "Horizons of Observability and Limits of Informal Control in Organizations," Social Forces, volume 62, pp. 54-77.
Peter Klerks, 2001. "The network paradigm applied to criminal organizations," Connections, volume 24, number 3, pp. 53-65.
Valdis E. Krebs, 2001. "Network Metrics." InFlow 3.0 Users' Manual.
Valdis E. Krebs, 1996. "Visualizing Human Networks," Release 1.0 (February), pp. 1-25.
David Ronfeldt and John Arquilla. 2001. "Networks, Netwars, and the Fight for the Future," First Monday, volume 6, number 10 (October), at http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue6_10/ronfeldt/, accessed 25 March 2002.
Tom Stewart, 2001. "Six Degrees of Mohamed Atta," Business 2.0 (December), p. 63, and at http://www.business2.com/articles/mag/0,1640,35253,FF.html, accessed 25 March 2002.
Malcolm K. Sparrow, 1991. "The application of network analysis to criminal intelligence: An assessment of the prospects," Social Networks, volume 13, pp. 251-274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(91)90008-H
Sydney Morning Herald, 2001. "The hijackers ... and how they were connected," (22 September), at http://www.smh.com.au/.U.S. Department of Defense. 2001. "Transcript of bin Laden Video Tape," (13 December), at http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Dec2001/d20011213ubl.pdf, accessed 25 March 2002.
U.S. Department of Justice, 2001. "Indictment of Zacarias Moussaoui," (11 December), at http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/moussaouiindictment.htm, accessed 25 March 2002.
Washington Post, 2001. "The Plot: A Web of Connections," (24 September), at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/graphics/attack/investigation_24.html, accessed 25 March 2002.
Duncan J. Watts, 1999. "Networks, Dynamics, and the Small-World Phenomenon," American Journal of Sociology, volume 13, number 2, pp. 493-527. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/210318
Editorial history
Paper received 20 March 2002; accepted 25 March 2002.
Copyright ©2002, First Monday
Uncloaking Terrorist Networks by Valdis E. Krebs
First Monday, Volume 7 Number 4 - 1 April 2002


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Pergo flooring is really in demand, and Pergo wood flooring is even more sought-after in Glen Rose TX because it does something quite well: it appears to be wood flooring without having the cost and without some of the servicing. Pergo wood flooring was produced a few decades ago for the reason that the interest for wood flooring dropped as fewer people could spend for it. Today, Pergo flooring developers have improved their practices and increased their quality when it comes to the flooring creation, manufacturing, installation, and maintenance. They can copy almost any style of wood varieties, from some of the most common to those that are more extraordinary.
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Pergo wood flooring has definitely come a very long way in the last few years. Now, you can get it in tiles or planks of assorted sizes and shapes. The edges and ends are created to make sure that you can conveniently replace any areas where you may see the harm, and they are designed for easy install. The Pergo construction has also improved to ensure the pieces are more secure and able to withstand changes in humidity and moisture in the air– perfect for Glen Rose TX. This type of construction also eliminates the need for glues which contain hazardous chemicals or VOCs.
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Pergo Wood Flooring Glen Rose TX: Cons
Pergo flooring is vulnerable to moisture, so it really isn't the perfect choice for laundry rooms or washrooms where there will be excessive exposure to moisture. While this has strengthened throughout the years, it is still one thing to think of. Speak with a Pergo wood flooring installation firm in Glen Rose TX because some do have different approaches to Pergo wood flooring installation that will really help in these types of room.
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There's just no stopping this Lin fellow. Here he is taking over what appears to be the 2009 Harvard intramural flag football championship between Winthrop House and Leverett House (respect). A two-way threat, Lin can be seen flying all over the field. Just chuck the ball in his direction and let him go up and get it. Total Linsanity. (To note: The highlight reel was produced by some outfit called LevSPN, which tempers our excitement somewhat.)
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Konerko gets breather as he deals with back pain
CHICAGO -- Paul Konerko had an MRI on his sore lower right back Thursday, and then got six injections Friday in the painful area to potentially calm down the problem.
The captain wasn't scheduled to play in either of Friday's doubleheader contests against the Indians, marking the third and fourth straight games he would have missed. Konerko hoped to get back in action before the four-game weekend set was complete.
"I want to play Sunday, if not tomorrow, but I don't think that's going to happen," Konerko said. "I'd like to take some swings tomorrow and just get right back in it.
"We have a day off Monday, so if I was sore after Sunday, I'd have Monday to rest. But that's at least my goal. I don't know if it's realistic, but that's what I'm shooting for."
After receiving Friday's injections, Konerko said the recommendation was 48 hours of rest. But he quickly added that they would "play around with that" and see how he felt Saturday.
"I'm counting today because we're already on today, so I'm counting today as the first 24," Konerko said. "It was a weird thing. I played Sunday in Kansas City. It was a long, tough game, but there was nothing in that game that made me think I did anything to anything. It was just a game.
"Got up Monday morning and couldn't even erect myself, standing up tall for most of the day. The three days after that were pretty much the same. Just a lot of soreness, no stability, no ability to really move. Really, really bound up.
"Just kind of came out of nowhere. Felt a little improvement Thursday and more today, but not enough where I can play tonight. These injections, I actually kind of had them back in '06 when I had a little bit of a back problem then and they seemed to help out then."
White Sox manager Robin Ventura listed Konerko as day to day before Konerko spoke to the media, but the first baseman admitted that if the pain continues, a trip to the disabled list could be possible.
"If I do get to swing a bat tomorrow or test it out, I'd think at that point I would know, just knowing what you need when you go out there to play, to be honest with them," said Konerko, who is batting .378 over his last 10 games. "If I couldn't do it, I don't want to hold them up. I don't want to be holding the team hostage with one less guy, but we'll see. I haven't tested it really at all.
"But I'll be honest with them and let them really know. If that's what needs to be done, that's what needs to be done, but I don't want to do that. I want to try and stay away from that."


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South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences
On-line version ISSN 2222-3436
Print version ISSN 1015-8812
S. Afr. j. econ. manag. sci. vol.14 n.2 Pretoria Jan. 2011
A critical analysis of the contents of the IFRS for SMES a South African perspective
Danie Schutte; Pieter Buys
School of Accounting Sciences, North-West University
The IFRS for SMEs was developed to address the reporting needs of SMEs worldwide. SMEs however do not necessarily have a global focus. Furthermore, SMEs from different parts of the world are exposed to different conditions and environments.
Although the IFRS for SMEs was not intended for a specific user group, the majority of the respondents to the Exposure Draft on IFRS for SMEs were from Europe and other developed countries while only limited respondents from Africa and developing countries were involved.
This study considered the relevance of the contents of the IFRS for SMEs in the South African environment based on user requirements. Since SMEs do not necessarily have functional accounting departments and because they rely on external accountants to compile financial statements, we included accounting practitioners and trainee accountants from the SME sector in our survey. As a result we classified the contents of the IFRS for SMEs, from a South African perspective, into different levels of importance or relevance.
Keywords: accounting, generally accepted accounting practice, international financial reporting standards, small and medium entities.
1 Introduction
Proper and relevant disclosure of financial information has been called for by a number of observers in recent times. According to Wömpener and Köhrmann (2006:2) appropriate reporting of financial measures not only facilitates company performance appraisal, but also enhances transparency. In addition, the adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) is intended to facilitate cross-border investments and access to global capital markets (AICPA, 2008:2). Since many public companies are required to apply IFRS for stock-exchange listing purposes, the adoption of IFRS became a necessity for international business. As a result IFRS was adopted by many listed companies in Europe and elsewhere (ICAS, 2008:1).
A different scenario, however, prevails at non-listed and/or small and medium entities (SMEs). Dixon, Thompson and McAllister (2002:27) argued that matters pertaining to large firms are not necessarily applicable to SMEs. In 1995 the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) rated certain generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) requirements, from the perspective of SMEs, as low on decision, relevance and usefulness (Zanzig & Flesher, 2006:4). In addition, the emphasis on global financial reporting standards due to international harmonisation and business might not be a priority for SMEs because only a small percentage of the SME sector has a global focus. Van Mourik (2007:193) concluded that globalisation and inter-nationalisation are products of multinational companies. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) approximately one per cent of SMEs can be considered global. SMEs' involvement in globalisation is often limited to those that engage in some form of exporting to economies that are geographically close to each other and culturally similar (OECD, 1997:89). It is therefore suggested that the accounting and related disclosure functions of SMEs are limited to transactions encountered by SMEs in individual countries.
Nonetheless, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) developed a global accounting standard for use by the SME sector. In developing the IFRS for SMEs, one of the objectives was to develop, in the public interest, a single set of high quality, understandable and enforceable global accounting set of standards for the SME sector. The IASB (2007:11) was committed to take into account the special needs of SMEs, and in deciding the content of the proposed IFRS for SMEs, the IASB focused on the types of transactions and other events and conditions typically encountered by SMEs with approximately 50 employees (IASB, 2007:6). SMEs worldwide do however not necessarily engage in similar activities; UK SMEs are mainly involved in the agricultural, business and construction sectors; South African SMEs are prominent in community, social and personal services and the finance, real estate, wholesale and agriculture sectors; and in Kenya SMEs are mainly involved in agricultural activities (ACCA, 2000:1-4). Due to these differences it is suggested that the different conditions and transactions encountered by different countries are not conducive to a global set of accounting standards for the SME sector. Accordingly, in order to assess the relevance of the IFRS for SMEs, the contents of the proposed IFRS for SMEs should be compared to transactions and events disclosed by SMEs from different countries.
2 Theoretical framework
2.1 Development of an accounting reporting standard for SMES
The debate around Big GAAP and Small GAAP, or accounting practices pertaining to large and small entities, has been an ongoing issue since the 1800s. In 1886 the Senate Select Committee in Interstate Commerce based in the United States (US) considered the question whether corporations should be required to adopt a uniform system of accounts (Ho & Shying, 2007:1). Since then a number of commentators supported such a uniform set of accounts for reasons of comparability, while commentators opposing uniformity based their arguments on the fact that the benefits derived from information should exceed the cost of providing it. In 1995 the Private Company Financial Reporting Task Force of the AICPA concluded that the benefits for SMEs in complying with GAAP outweigh the costs (Zanzig & Flesher, 2006:4). Elsewhere, many national standard-setters have introduced differential reporting for SMEs, resulting in diverse practices by standard-setters, preparers and users of SME financial statements (Cordery & Baskerville, 2006:2).
The development of a global, uniform set of financial reporting standards for SMEs commenced in 2004 when the IASB published a discussion paper on the preliminary views on financial reporting standards for SMEs. In 2007 the IASB published a document for public comment entitled "The Exposure Draft (ED) of International Financial Reporting Standard for Small and Medium-sized Entities" (IFRS for SMEs) which incorporated approximately 15 per cent of the reporting standards applicable to large and listed entities (SAICA, 2007a:2).
Approximately five years after the initial discussion paper the IASB formally adopted the ED on IFRS for SMEs as an International Financial Reporting Standard (IASB, 2009a:1). The IFRS for SMEs was therefore a result ofa five-year development process during which the IASB considered 162 letters of comment on the ED (IASB, 2009b:1).
In 2004 the Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants expressed their concern with the IASB's preliminary views on accounting standards for SMEs and suggested that the IASB should conduct a survey to ascertain to what extent the accounting standards for SMEs would result in compliance cost saving for SMEs (HKICPA, 2004:1).
The European Accounting Association Financial Reporting Standards Committee commented that the financial reporting regulations of the IASB are influenced by the user needs of a traditionally Anglo-American corporate governance tradition, and, since the Continental model applies to most of Europe, the IFRS for SMEs will not address the reporting needs of SMEs in Europe (EAAFRSC, 2004:20; Joos & Lang, 1994; Zeghal & Mhedhbi, 2006).
The Association of Finnish Accounting Firms (2007:1) commented to the IASB that the ED on IFRS for SMEs had a very strong focus on the needs of capital markets and investors and that the needs of small unlisted companies were ignored. They concluded that, because the ED on IFRS for SMEs was mere a scaled-down version of IFRS for listed companies, its focus was still too much on the IFRS for listed companies, and therefore still too complex. The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia (2007:1) also commented to the IASB that the ED on IFRS for SMEs is too complicated for SMEs in the Australian context. In addition the Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia (2007:1) concluded that the recognition, measurement and disclosure needs ofthe key stakeholders of SMEs were not taken into consideration by the IASB. The following additional points were revealed by RSM International (2008:22-30) in connection with the comments received by the IASB:
The European Union (EU) commented that the ED was not applicable for the bulk of SMEs in the EU;
The Institute for Chartered Financial Analysts commented that the proposed IFRS for SMEs would create non-comparable information;
The Italian Organismo Italiano di Contabilita and The Hundred Group of Finance Directors suggested that fair value accounting is not applicable to SMEs;
The Accounting Standard Board of the UK commented that the ED is only applicable to larger companies in the SME sector;
More simplifications were called for by, among others, the Mouvement des Entreprises de France and ICAC (Spain); and
The Dutch Accounting Standards Board commented that the ED did not address the needs of the users of SME financial statements.
On 7 August 2007, in the midst of the aforementioned development process, South Africa became the first country in the world to formally adopt the IASB's ED on IFRS for SMEs, without any changes to the ED's original text, as the Statement of GAAP for SMEs (Carte, 2007:1). However, two months after the adoption of the ED on IFRS for SMEs the South African Institute of Chartered Accountants commented to the IASB that: i) significant simplifications are needed, ii) the scope should be more clearly defined and iii) the requirements in the proposed IFRS for SMEs are too onerous given the level of accounting knowledge of preparers and the needs of the users of the financial statements (SAICA, 2007b). The comments by the South African Institute of Chartered Accountants could be indicative of the fact that the adoption of the ED on IFRS for SMEs in the South African context was premature. The possibility that the ED on IFRS for SMEs was implemented too early in the South African context was further supported when the South African Institute of Chartered Accountants suggested, in addition to IFRS and IFRS for SMEs, a third level of reporting for non-public interest entities (SAICA, 2008:1) which resulted in the commissioning of a South African working group to draft a proposed financial reporting framework for non public entities and to address the concerns that were raised against IFRS for SMEs (Lombard, 2008:20; SAIPA, 2009:1).
2.2 Users of SME financial statements
The main purpose of financial statements is to address the needs of the users thereof (FERF, 2006:4). Although the IFRS for SMEs was not developed for a specific group of users (Lombard, 2008:19), the IASB acknowledged a wide range of users of SME financial statements as well as distinct information needs compared to users of financial statements prepared in accordance with full IFRS (IASB, 2009c:18). The extent to which the IFRS for SMEs will address the information needs of all the user groups of SME financial statements remains, however, uncertain. Anacoreta and Silva (2005:17) could not identify statistically significant patterns from the responses received in connection with the IASB's preliminary views on international accounting standards for small and medium-size entities. This led them to conclude that the significant intrinsic issues of the IASB questions are not distinctive enough to shape a pattern of answers or group of respondents. In response to the ED on IFRS for SMEs the European Accounting Association's Financial Reporting Standards Committee suggested that user groups of large public-interest enterprises and SMEs are not the same, and advocated that user groups may even differ between larger SMEs and smaller SMEs (EAAFRSC, 2008:29). Deaconu, Nistor and Popa (2009:8) examined SME stakeholders' needs and their inference upon SME financial reports. Their research contained the following main user groups of SME financial statements:
Public or tax authorities;
Financial creditors (banks);
Shareholders; and
Although tax authorities are key recipients of SME financial statements (Sian & Roberts, 2009:302), accounting standards are, due to different tax jurisdictions worldwide, not intended to meet the reporting needs of tax authorities in different countries (IFAC, 2006:17; IASB, 2009c:20). Apart from tax authorities, the most frequent users of small company financial reports include owner-managers and providers of finance (Saracina, 2005:2). Providers of finance include banking institutions and investors while internal users of financial statements are mainly concerned with the management of businesses. According to the European Commission (2010:8) financial statements constitute only one of many factors that are considered in the credit-granting process by banking institutions. The European Commission (2010:8) concluded that the adoption of the IFRS for SMEs, if compared to prevailing national accounting practices, will not provide additional benefits to banks. Moreover, banks usually do not depend on published financial statements since they have the right or power to demand the information they require (EAAFRSC, 2008:37). While bankers require financial statements for accuracy and comparability purposes, and since investors consider trend lines and year-over-year comparisons to be important, relatively little is known about the actual views and needs of owner-managers (EAAFRSC, 2004:2). Schiebel (2008:1) concluded that the ED on IFRS for SMEs is biased towards the opinions of auditors and accountants, implying that the views of internal users of SME financial statements were not considered by the IASB. Even though Saracina (2005:2) listed owner-managers as frequent users of SME financial statements, Sian and Roberts (2009:289, 301) concluded that many SME owners have limited or no formal accounting training, they rely on external accountants to prepare their financial statements and accordingly they are often left bewildered by the complexity of the information provided. In addition, Sian and Roberts (2009:301) concluded that SME owners utilise computerised accounting programs, and not the financial statements, to interpret data for managerial purposes. The omission of the views of owner-managers, as internal users of financial statements, was also confirmed by the IASB's (2009c:20) statement that it is not the purpose of the IFRS for SMEs to provide information to owner-managers to help them make management decisions. The evidence therefore suggests that the views of internal users of SME financial statements were omitted due to no formal accounting training, as well as limited interest by this group of users due to no reliance on financial statements for managerial purposes.
Furthermore, as far as external users are concerned, Schiebel (2007:17) reported that only eight percent of respondents to the ED on IFRS for SMEs were external users of SME financial statements. Accordingly, even though the IFRS for SMEs is intended for non-publicly accountable entities that publish general purpose financial statements for external users, the benefits of the IFRS for SMEs for the different user groups remain to be tested.
2.3 Worldwide empirical analysis
In respect of global research, Schiebel (2007:17) concluded that the IASB did not conduct serious worldwide empirical analyses in deciding the contents of the ED on IFRS for SMEs. The summary of responses to the ED on IFRS for SMEs in Annexure A suggests that a substantial number of responses was received from within the UK. Furthermore, if the responses are grouped per continent it is evident that 58 per cent of the responses were from Europe alone (refer to figure 1 below).
Even though the majority of the responses to the ED on IFRS for SMEs was from Europe, the process of adopting IFRS in Europe alone appears to be burdensome. According to ACCA (2004:1) individual member states of the European Union will move at different speeds to take their national standards for unlisted companies towards IFRS, resulting in a too slow convergence process for some member countries. A possible explanation for the low level of response by the Americas might be attributable to the fact that listed companies in the US are required to compile financial statements in accordance with US GAAP and not IFRS. In addition, SMEs in the US are not legally required to file statutory financial statements in accordance with GAAP or any other relevant reporting standard (Epstein & Jermakowicz, 2007:1). The continent with the lowest number of responses was Africa with eight percent of the total responses received. Compared to the continent with the highest number of responses, Europe (58 per cent), where the convergence process to IFRS was reported to be too slow, it is suggested that the process in Africa will be even more burdensome due to unique challenges such as lower levels of development.
2.4 Different levels of development
The concept of applying global reporting standards to SMEs in developing countries is believed to be more difficult than elsewhere (United Nations, 2008:2). Oberholster (1999: 232) suggested that the unique challenges and the heterogeneous nature of developing countries are not necessarily accommodated when International Accounting Standards are adopted by these countries. Simpson (2008:1) also suggested that the IASB did not take into account the uniqueness and challenges of SMEs in developing countries and advocated that the term SME in the ED on IFRS for SMEs is aligned to the US definition of an SME and therefore not necessarily relevant to developing countries. Sacho and Oberholster (2008:128-130) concluded that the implementation of IFRS is not necessarily a "one-sizefits-all" solution for the accounting needs of developing countries. They argued that developing countries do not have historically developed accounting standards and are often required by global market players to apply IFRS, which, according to them, might result in distorted and incongruous results. Although there is no uniform definition available to distinguish developing countries from developed countries, the United Nations developed the Human Development Index (HDI) to measure the level of human development for a specific country. Countries with low to medium HDIs are classified by the United Nations as developing countries. If the responses to the ED on IFRS for SMEs is analysed according to the HDI of each country the number of respondents/commentators from developing countries is only 12 per cent.
According to Correa-Cortes (2008:1), SMEs from developing countries find it more difficult to cope with typical SME challenges such as limited financial and human resources. Zeghal and Mhedhbi (2006:376) suggested that the decision to adopt IFRS by developing countries, in particular, is influenced by: (i) economic growth; (ii) educational levels; (iii) the degree of external economic openness; (iv) cultural considerations; and (v) the existence of capital markets. It is therefore possible that the IASB did also not incorporate the distinctive and unique SME attributes from developing countries, as opposed to SMEs from developed countries.
3 Development of hypothesis
As was mentioned earlier, South Africa was the first country in the world to formally adopt the ED on IFRS for SMEs, which was developed to address the reporting needs of SMEs worldwide. A limited number of responses in connection with the ED on IFRS for SMEs were however from developing countries and the African continent. Moreover, the responses were not necessarily from institutions and other bodies with an exclusive SME focus and no statistical evidence exists that the views of SME accountants were considered in developing the IFRS for SMEs. Based hereupon the following hypothesis can be formulated:
H1: The IFRS for SMEs will not adequately address the reporting needs of South African SMEs.
As a result we intend to evaluate the contents of the IFRS of SMEs against the SME reporting environment in South Africa. This comparison might be an indication of the extent to which the IFRS of SMEs is applicable and acceptable to SMEs within the South African context.
4 Data and methodology
The research encompassed both a literature and an empirical study. The literature review considered the unique nature of SMEs, the development of the IFRS for SMEs and the various SME role-players. Our literature review revealed that SME environments in different parts of the world are diverse, and that SMEs in different parts of the world do not always engage in similar types of activities, warranting differences in accounting practices by SMEs worldwide.
Our empirical study was conducted to evaluate the contents of the IFRS for SMEs against the actual disclosure practices of SME accountants in South Africa. Our decision to include accounting practitioners was based on the findings by Sian and Roberts (2009:289) that SME owners rely on external accountants to prepare financial statements as well as the conclusion by Schiebel (2008:1) that the IASB considered opinions of mainly auditors and accountants in developing the IFRS for SMEs. We therefore suggest that, in contrast to most large and listed companies with effective inhouse accounting functions, SME accountants, as preparers of the financial statements, should be considered when evaluating accounting transactions encountered by SMEs. The views and perceptions of accounting practitioners were also considered important by Van Wyk and Rossouw (2009:102), who argued that accounting practitioners, as preparers of SME financial statements, are involved in the day-to-day transactions of smaller entities and are therefore a reliable source for their study. They also argued that users of these financial statements should not be involved due to a lack of understanding of the technical nature of the accounting principles contained in the accounting regulation. The omission of other users of SME financial statements for purposes of our empirical study was further supported by Day (1986:295), who suggested that users of financial statements do not understand the accounting processes, as well as the proposition by Schuetze (2001:2) that users of financial statements and reports have almost no grip on the rules governing financial reporting.
Accordingly, in November 2008 responses were obtained from trainee accountants at a preparation course for the South African Institute of Professional Accountants (SAIPA) qualifying exam. In addition to a university qualification these participants gained three year practical experience at a SAIPA-accredited training office. Approximately one year later, in November 2009, SME accountants participated in our study at a SAIPA national accounting update seminar. Respondents from large and public entities were omitted and not considered for this study. The participants responded to the contents of the IFRS for SMEs using a five-point Likert scale (refer to Annexure F). With regard to the analysis stage, the use of Likert scales requires the use of a ranking procedure with 1 minimum and 5 maximum score. According to Annexure B and C the survey consisted of 31 trainee accountants and 126 practitioners. With regard to the unequal split between the number of trainee accountants and practitioners included in the survey, it was not our intention to compare and interpret differences in results between the two groups in detail. In addition to the fact that the survey of the trainee accountants was conducted as a pre-test for our survey of accounting practitioners, and even though this group might not have the same level of experience, we included their responses as a control group in our study. Our decision to include this group was further supported by their practical exposure to the SME accounting environment as well as the fact that they, subject to passing the qualifying exam, are entitled to practice as SME accountants. Accordingly we calculated the mean ranking by practitioners and trainee accountants pertaining to the contents of the IFRS for SMEs. In addition, for purposes of an analysis of commonality amongst the alternative sample groups, and to assess whether the means of the two groups are statistically different from each other, we performed an independent group t-test at a 95 per cent confidence level.
Based on the above mean ranking by practitioners and trainee accountants we arranged the contents of the IFRS for SMEs in a sequential hierarchy of importance. As a result we considered the appropriateness of the contents of the IFRS for SMEs pertaining to the South African SME environment.
5 Results
When the responses of the two groups were considered we noted that the mean answers in Annexure D were very similar ranging from the lowest difference of 0.047 for provisions and contingencies to an uppermost difference of 1.186 for leases. Only two components, leases and share-based payments, revealed a mean difference in excess of one ranking. The standard deviation between the mean scores of the two groups of respondents amounted to 0.554.
Furthermore, t-tests performed per IFRS for SME component in Annexure E revealed no significant difference, except for lease transactions, between the mean answers of the two groups.
As a result, we combined the results of the two groups and calculated a combined mean in Annexure D, expressed as:
where n represents the number of answers per group and i represents the component of IFRS for SMEs. Based hereupon we ranked the contents of the IFRS for SME in sequence of importance. Firstly, from our analysis in Table 1, we noted that the general structure or format in which the financial statements should be compiled is considered necessary and essential as the mean ranking was between very important and of utmost importance.
We noted that the statement of changes in equity (4.382) and the statement of cash flows (4.274) as well as the notes to the financial statements (4.389) were not rated as important as the balance sheet/statement of financial position (4.860) and income statement/ statement of comprehensive income (4.841). The statement of cash flows, statement of changes in equity and the notes to the financial statements were ranked slightly less important than the balance sheet and income statement. These sections also revealed significantly higher standard deviations suggesting variances in opinions concerning the importance of components of SME financial statements other than the balance sheet and the income statement.
Secondly, from the perspective of business combinations and related inter-group transactions, the results in Table 2 revealed a mean ranking of between limited and average importance. It is therefore evident that SMEs do not often engage in these types of transactions.
Our results suggest that consolidated and separate financial statements (2.866); business combinations and goodwill (2.777); related party disclosures (2.745); investments in joint ventures (2.675); and investments in associates (2.669) are not typical SME transactions as the ranking for all the components was below the centre option (3.000). Our results suggest that the South African SMEs included in our sample do not prepare consolidated financial statements, albeit on a national or international level. This provided support for the statement by Van Mourik (2007:193) that SMEs do not have a global focus. Moreover, our results revealed that South African SMEs do not invest directly in other businesses and that the activities of SMEs are therefore not diverse, but limited to a single product line or business purpose.
In the third instance we analysed the IFRS for SMEs pertaining to specific types of transactions in Table 3. Our results revealed that guidance in connections with specific transactions were ranked from limited to very important.
We noted that financial assets/liabilities (4.287) and property, plant and equipment (4.121) were considered the most important. These two items were considered even more important than income taxes (4.102). accounting policies, estimates and errors (3.573) were ranked tenth while extracting activities (2.210) and service concessions (2.210) were not considered important.
Due to different levels of perceived importance of the components as presented in Table 3, we attempted to classify these components into three main categories. These categories were determined based on the mean answer of each component rounded off to the nearest ranking, classified as highly important, moderately important and of less importance in Table 4.
6 Conclusions
Firstly, the results in Table 1 confirmed the relative importance of the components of the financial statements, as a typical set of financial statements comprise a balance sheet or statement of financial position; income statement or statement of comprehensive income; statement of changes in equity; statement of cash flows; and notes to the financial statements. However, the fact that all the components of the financial statements were not ranked equally might be indicative of the fact that certain components are compiled for purposes of formality only and not necessarily for informational and decision-making purposes. In support of the statement by Sian and Roberts (2009:299) our results also suggest that the balance sheet and income statement is more often used than the statement of cash flows, statement of changes in equity and the notes to the financial statements.
Secondly, our analysis in Table 2 suggested that South African SMEs do not engage in investments in subsidiaries, associates or joint ventures. The fact that SMEs in South Africa do not engage in these types of transactions implies that SMEs do not invest directly in other businesses and product lines; and the fact that South African SMEs do not engage in a diverse range of activities might be indicative of exaggerated dependence on a single range of products or activities and vulnerability to specific market risks. Our analysis in Table 2 also provided support for the OECD in connection with SMEs' involvement in international business. South African SMEs' involvement in investments in subsidiaries, associates and joint ventures, albeit national or international, is limited. The fact that SMEs' shares are not publicly traded implies that international investors are also not investing in South African SMEs. Furthermore, the fact that foreign exchange translation was ranked low in terms of importance confirmed to us that SMEs are mainly involved in economies that are geographically and culturally close.
Thirdly, we observed from Table 3 and Table 4 that seven of a total 33 components were rated of moderate importance. Included in this group were provisions as well as impairment of non-financial assets. In the wake of the global financial crisis we believe that these two components should be more important. The results might suggest that accountants do not realise their obligation to account for impairment in values and to account for provisions or that SMEs follow alternative procedures to deal with financial uncertainty.
In the fourth place, the components pertaining to specialised activities were ranked of moderate to limited importance. Apart from agriculture, that was ranked moderately important, the remaining two specialised activities, extracting activities and service concessions, were ranked as of limited importance, perhaps indicative of the fact that SMEs in South Africa are involved in different or alternative specialised activities. The fact that a limited importance ranking was obtained for hyperinflation economies might be attributable to the fact that South Africa did not experience hyperinflationary conditions in recent times.
In conclusion, due to the fact that most of the components (70 per cent) were either of high or moderate importance, while only 30 per cent were considered less important, it appears as if the IFRS for SMEs is likely to adequately address the reporting requirements of SMEs in South Africa, therefore our hypothesis is rejected. We suggest however that, based on the results in Table 2, the adoption of the IFRS for SMEs will be complicated by the dissonance between a global/international focus and limited involvement in international business by South African SMEs.
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FERF see Financial Executives Research Foundation. [ Links ]
FINANCIAL EXECUTIVES RESEARCH FOUNDATION. 2006. What do users of private company financial statements want? [Online] Available at: http://www.pcfr.org/downloads/05_07_Meet_Materials/FERF_Private_Co_User_Survey.pdf [Accessed 2009-05-13] [ Links ].
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Accepted October 2010


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Knowledge and Training in Paediatric Medical Traumatic Stress and Trauma-Informed Care Among Emergency Medical Professionals in Low- and Middle-Income Countries." Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2018;9(1):1468703."
Perspectives of hospital emergency department staff on trauma-informed care for injured children: An Australian and New Zealand analysis." J Paediatr Child Health. 2017;53(9):862-869."


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NYC Food Events for the Weekend and Beyond
Thursday (September 27)
Thursday September 27th, 5 p.m. to 12 a.m. This large-scale, 16 day long beer pop-up continues this week. Celebrate Bavarian culture by having beer and pretzels served to you by people in dirndls. Free. 1 Penn Plaza, New York NY; event website
Saturday (September 29)
Octoberfest at Smorgasburg
Saturday September 29th, all day It's Octoberfest at Smorgasburg, with a wide variety of local beers to go with the snacks.Williamsburg Waterfront, Brooklyn NY; event website
Travel + Leisure Global Bazaar
Saturday September 29th, 1 p.m. to 5 p.m. and 8 p.m. to 11 p.m. Travel + Leisure's global bazaar will have music, shopping, and food from all over the world. Well-known chefs such as Masharu Morimoto and Scott Conant will be participating in the event, and food trucks will be parking all over the Lexington Armory. $75 for afternoon tickets, $125 for evening tickets. 68 Lexington Avenue, New York NY; event website
Oyster Fest at Back Forty
Saturday September 29th, 3:30 p.m. to 5:30 p.m. Starting this Saturday, Back Forty's monthly Oyster Fests resume. Unlimited local beer and hors d'oeuvres, with $2 pay as you go oysters. $25. 190 Avenue B, New York NY; event website
Le Taste of France
Saturday September 29th, 6:30 p.m. to 12 a.m. A two-day exhibition of French food and culture, presented by renowned French food personalities and chefs. $30 entry, food $8-10, drinks $2. Hudson River Park's Pier 54, West Street and 13th Street, New York NY; event website
Grand Central Oyster Frenzy
Saturday September 29th, 12 p.m. to 6 p.m. An oyster eating event, with an oyster shucking competition for the professionals and oyster slurping competitions for the visitors. Free. 89 East 42nd Street, New York NY; event website
Sunday (September 30)
Octoberfest at the Frankie's Garden
Sunday September 30th, 12 p.m. to 4 p.m. Celebrate Octoberfest with traditional German food, like a whole roasted pig, homemade sausage, pretzels, and mulled wine in the garden at Frankie's 457 Spuntino. Buy tickets redeemable for food at the door or ahead of time at Frankie's. 457 Court Street, Brooklyn NY; event website
Maharlika Cebuano Lechon Roast at DeKalb Market Goodbye Party
Sunday September 30th, 3 p.m. to 9 p.m. DeKalb market ends with the summer. They're hosting a whole bunch of activities to say goodbye, notably Maharlika's Cebuano Lechon roast. $30 a plate. 138 Willoughby Street, Brooklyn NY; event website
Monday (October 1)
Tasting Menu at Aquavit
Monday October 1st, 5:30 p.m. to 10 p.m. Aquavit is hosting chef Daniel Berlin of Skåne, Sweden, and for a week will be offering an eight course tasting menu of Skåne cuisine. $125 or $200 with beverage pairings. 65 East 55th Street, New York NY; event website
Oktoberfest Dinner Series at Perilla
Monday October 1st, 5:30 p.m. to 10 p.m. In celebration of Oktoberfest, Perilla will be offering a three-course menu of German fare paired with beers every Monday for the rest of the month. $60. 9 Jones Street, New York NY; event website
Tuesday (October 2)
Baking Out Loud Book Party at Red Rooster
Tuesday October 2nd, 7 p.m. to 11 p.m. Marcus Samuelsson hosts this dinner at his restaurant Red Rooter for Hedy Goldsmith's new book Baking Out Loud with a three course tasting menu. Goldsmith will be there to talk about the book as well. $95, $125 with wine pairings. 310 Lenox Avenue, New York NY; event website
Brooklyn Shaken & Stirred
Tuesday October 2nd, 6 p.m. to 9 p.m. Brooklyn Exposed and Tasting Brooklyn present tastings of cocktails from restaurants including Pok Pok, Maison Premiere, and Fort Defiance, with food from Allswell, Mable's Smokehouse, Robicelli's, and more. $45. 452 Union Street, Brooklyn, NY; event website
Tibet Fund Dinner
Tuesday October 2nd, 6:30p.m. to 11 p.m. The Tibet Fund is having a special dinner at Le Cirque, hosted by Eric Ripert, Laurent Manrique, and other top chefs. All proceeds go to the Tibet Fund. $1,000. 151 East 58th Street, New York NY; event website
Green Giant's One Giant Pledge
Tuesday October 2nd, 11 a.m. to 6 p.m. Families can bring their children to Grand Central on Tuesday to interact with a larger-than-life augmented reality Jolly Green Giant and take One Giant Pledge, an oath to eat just one more veggie a day. Grand Central Terminal, 89 E 42nd Street New York, NY; event website
Thursday (October 4)
Enlightenment Wines Pop-Up Shop
Thursday October 4th, 7 p.m. to 12 a.m. Another pop-up shop from the state's smallest winery, Enlightenment Wines. They will be showcasing their limited edition series of wines. Free. 254 South 2nd Street, Brooklyn NY; event website
Aki Matsuri 2012 at The Brooklyn Brewery
Thursday October 4th, 6:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. The Gohan Society presents this Japanese tasting event. Artisan sake and Japanese whiskey, as well as beer, will be offered, along with food using Japanese ingredients created by a variety of well-known restaurants. Iron chef Masharu Morimoto will perform a cooking demonstration and a taiko drum group will perform. $125, $100 for Gohan Society Members. 279 North 11th Street, Brooklyn NY; event website


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So we conservative Christians want to deregulate…. right?
OD_Mafia believes that a truly free country must be under the oppressive foot of (deregulated) capitalism and our tax dodging corporate overlords. We also believe in RIGHT TO WORK states that give YOU and I the privilege to be overworked, and severely underpaid (this is to ensure that CEO's will make several hundred times what we make – on our labour!) We entirely reject communist ideas (or did Jesus have that idea first???) like sharing (see Acts), giving (see Jesus), or expecting a society supposedly formed by Christian ideals …to act on them.
A true Christian never critiques thy holy Capitalism. To criticize capitalism is to be a communist. Just like when art critics criticize art – they really hate art.
Yours truly,
for more information:
Human rights abuses rife in Cambodian garment factories, report says


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