text:
The theory of evolution is a naturalistic theory of the history of life on earth (this refers to the theory of evolution which employs methodological naturalism and is taught in schools and universities). Merriam-Webster's dictionary gives the following definition of evolution: "a theory that the various types of animals and plants have their origin in other preexisting types and that the distinguishable differences are due to modifications in successive generations..."[3] Currently, there are several theories of evolution.
Since World War II a majority of the most prominent and vocal defenders of the evolutionary position which employs methodological naturalism have been atheists.[4] In 2007, "Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture...announced that over 700 scientists from around the world have now signed a statement expressing their skepticism about the contemporary theory of Darwinian evolution."[5]
In 2011, the results of a study was published indicating that most United States high school biology teachers are reluctant to endorse the theory of evolution in class. [6] A 2005 poll by the Louis Finkelstein Institute for Social and Religious Research found that 60% of American medical doctors reject Darwinism, stating that they do not believe man evolved through natural processes alone.[7] Thirty-eight percent of the American medical doctors polled agreed with the statement that "Humans evolved naturally with no supernatural involvement." [8] The study also reported that 1/3 of all medical doctors favor the theory of intelligent design over evolution.[9] In 2010, the Gallup organization reported that 40% of Americans believe in young earth creationism.[10] In January 2006, the BBC reported concerning Britain:
| Just under half of Britons accept the theory of evolution as the best description for the development of life, according to an opinion poll.
Furthermore, more than 40% of those questioned believe that creationism or intelligent design (ID) should be taught in school science lessons.[11]
The theory of evolution posits a process of transformation from simple life forms to more complex life forms, which has never been observed or duplicated in a laboratory.[12][13] Although not a creation scientist, Swedish geneticist Dr. Nils Heribert-Nilsson, Professor of Botany at the University of Lund in Sweden, stated: "My attempts to demonstrate Evolution by an experiment carried on for more than 40 years have completely failed. At least, I should hardly be accused of having started from a preconceived antievolutionary standpoint."[14]
The fossil record is often used as evidence in the creation versus evolution controversy. The fossil record does not support the theory of evolution and is one of the flaws in the theory of evolution.[18] In 1981, there were at least a hundred million fossils that were catalogued and identified in the world's museums.[19] Despite the aforementioned large number of fossils available to scientists in 1981, evolutionist Mark Ridley, who currently serves as a professor of zoology at Oxford University, was forced to confess: "In any case, no real evolutionist, whether gradualist or punctuationist, uses the fossil record as evidence in favour of the theory of evolution as opposed to special creation."[20] The fossil record will be discussed in greater detail in regards to why the fossil record does not support the theory of evolution and why the fossil record is counter evidence to the evolutionary position.
In addition to the evolutionary position lacking evidential support and being counterevidence, the great intellectuals in history such as Archimedes, Aristotle, St. Augustine, Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, and Lord Kelvin did not propose an evolutionary process for a species to transform into a more complex version. Even after the theory of evolution was proposed and promoted heavily in England and Germany, most leading scientists were against the theory of evolution.[21] The theory of evolution was published by naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or The Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life, in 1859.[22] In a letter to Asa Gray, Darwin confided: "...I am quite conscious that my speculations run quite beyond the bounds of true science."[23]Prior to publishing the book, Darwin wrote in his private notebooks that he was a materialist, which is a type of atheist.(see: religious views of Charles Darwin) [24] Charles Darwin's casual mentioning of a 'creator' in earlier editions of The Origin of Species appears to have been a merely a ploy to downplay the implications of his materialistic theory.[25] The amount of credit Darwin actually deserves for the theory is disputed.[26] Darwin's theory attempted to explain the origin of the various kinds of plants and animals via the process of natural selection or "survival of the fittest".
The basic principle behind natural selection is that in the struggle for life some organisms in a given population will be better suited to their particular environment and thus have a reproductive advantage which increases the representation of their particular traits over time. Many years before Charles Darwin, there were several other individuals who published articles on the topic of natural selection.[27] Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was a naturalist who supported the theory of evolution. Lamarck's theory of evolution asserted that evolution occurs because organisms are able to inherit traits acquired by their ancestors which is an idea rejected by the current scientific community.[28]
Darwin did not first propose in his book Origin of Species that man had descended from non-human ancestors. Darwin's theory of evolution incorporated that later in Darwin's book entitled Descent of Man.
As far as the history of the theory of evolution, although Darwin is well known when it comes to the early advocacy of the evolutionary position in the Western world, evolutionary ideas were taught by the ancient Greeks as early as the 7th century B.C.[29] The concept of naturalistic evolution differs from the concept of theistic evolution in that it states God does not guide the posited process of macroevolution.[30]
- 1 Theory of Evolution - Mutations and the Life Sciences in General
- 2 Evolution - Implications of Genetic Code and Processing of Biological Information
- 3 Theory of evolution and little scientific consensus
- 4 Evolutionary Theory and Cases of Fraud, Hoaxes and Speculation
- 5 Lack of Any Clear Transitional Forms
- 6 The Fossil Record and Evolutionary Theory
- 7 Paleoanthropology
- 8 Punctuated Equilibrium
- 9 The Issue of Whether the Evolutionary Position Qualifies as a Scientific Theory
- 10 Implausible Explanations and the Evolutionary Position
- 11 Statements of Design
- 12 Theory of Evolution and the Scientific Journals
- 13 Effect on Scientific Endeavors Outside the Specific Field of Biology
- 14 Richard Dawkins and Pseudoscience
- 15 Age of the Earth and the Theory of Evolution
- 16 Scientific Community Consensus and the Macroevolution Position
- 17 Social Effects of the Theory of Evolution
- 18 Creation Scientists Tend to Win the Creation-Evolution Debates
- 19 Theory of Evolution, Liberalism, Atheism, and Irrationality
- 19.1 Liberalism, Charles Darwin, and Denial of Creation
- 19.2 Ben Stein Interview with the Evolutionist Richard Dawkins
- 19.3 Creationist Video Interview of Richard Dawkins Being Stumped by a Creationist
- 19.4 Methodological Naturalism Ideology In Evolutionary Thought
- 19.5 Supppession of scientific inquiry concerning alternative theories of origins
- 20 Inflated claims of evolutionists growing in frequency and intensity
- 21 Creation vs. Evolution Videos
- 22 Poor health practices of some notable evolutionists
- 23 Further Reading (including free on-line versions)
- 24 See also
- 25 External Links and other links
- 26 References
Theory of Evolution - Mutations and the Life Sciences in General
See also: Theories of evolution
Evolutionist Theodosius Dobzhansky wrote concerning the theory of evolution: "The process of mutation is the only known source of the new materials of genetic variability, and hence of evolution."[31] In regards to the various theories of evolution, most evolutionists believe that the processes of mutation, genetic drift and natural selection created every species of life that we see on earth today after life first came about on earth although there is little consensus on how this process is allegedly to have occurred.[32] Pierre-Paul Grassé, who served as Chair of evolutionary biology at Sorbonne University for thirty years and was ex-president of the French Academy of Sciences, stated the following: "Some contemporary biologists, as soon as they observe a mutation, talk about evolution. They are implicitly supporting the following syllogism: mutations are the only evolutionary variations, all living beings undergo mutations, therefore all living beings evolve....No matter how numerous they may be, mutations do not produce any kind of evolution." Grassé pointed out that bacteria which are the subject of study of many geneticists and molecular biologists are organisms which produce the most mutants.[33] Grasse then points that bacteria are considered to have "stabilized a billion years ago!".[34] Grassé regards the "unceasing mutations" to be "merely hereditary fluctuations around a median position; a swing to the right, a swing to the left, but no final evolutionary effect."[35] In addition, Harvard biologist Ernst Mayr wrote: "It must be admitted, however, that it is a considerable strain on one's credulity to assume that finely balanced systems such as certain sense organs (the eye of vertebrates, or the bird's feather) could be improved by random mutations."[36]
Creation scientists believe that mutations, natural selection, and genetic drift would not cause macroevolution.[37] Furthermore, creation scientists assert that the life sciences as a whole support the creation model and do not support the theory of evolution.[38] Homology involves the theory that macroevolutionary relationships can be demonstrated by the similarity in the anatomy and physiology of different organisms.[39] An example of a homology argument is that DNA similarities between human and other living organisms is evidence for the theory of evolution.[40] Creation scientists provide sound reasons why the homology argument is not a valid argument. Both evolutionary scientists and young earth creation scientists believe that speciation occurs, however, young earth creation scientists state that speciation generally occurs at a much faster rate than evolutionist believe is the case.[41]
Critics of the theory of evolution state that many of today's proponents of the evolutionary position have diluted the meaning of the term "evolution" to the point where it defined as or the definition includes change over time in the gene pool of a population over time through such processes as mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift.[42] Dr. Jonathan Sarfati states the following in relation to the diluted definition of the word "evolution":
|...many evolutionary propagandists are guilty of the deceitful practice of equivocation, that is, switching the meaning of a single word (evolution) part way through an argument. A common tactic, 'bait-and-switch,' is simply to produce examples of change over time, call this 'evolution,' then imply that the GTE [General Theory of Evolution] is thereby proven or even essential, and creation disproved. The PBS Evolution series and the Scientific American article are full of examples of this fallacy.[43]
Biological diversity - evolution contrasted with biblical creation science
Creation scientist Dr. Jonathan Sarfati wrote:
| In contrast, creationists, starting from the Bible, believe that God created different kinds of organisms, which reproduced 'after their kinds' (Gen. 1:11–12, 21, 24–25). Each of these kinds was created with a vast amount of information. There was enough variety in the information in the original creatures so their descendants could adapt to a wide variety of environments.
All (sexually reproducing) organisms contain their genetic information in paired form. Each offspring inherits half its genetic information from its mother, and half from its father. So there are two genes at a given position (locus, plural loci) coding for a particular characteristic. An organism can be heterozygous at a given locus, meaning it carries different forms (alleles) of this gene... So there is no problem for creationists explaining that the original created kinds could each give rise to many different varieties. In fact, the original created kinds would have had much more heterozygosity than their modern, more specialized descendants. No wonder Ayala pointed out that most of the variation in populations arises from reshuffling of previously existing genes, not from mutations. Many varieties can arise simply by two previously hidden recessive alleles coming together. However, Ayala believes the genetic information came ultimately from mutations, not creation. His belief is contrary to information theory, as shown in chapter 9 on 'Design'.[44]
Evolution - Implications of Genetic Code and Processing of Biological Information
- See main articles: Creation science, Intelligent design, and creationism
Creation scientists and intelligent design advocates state the genetic code (DNA code), genetic programs, and biological information argue for an intelligent cause in regards the origins question and assert it is one of the problems of the theory of evolution.[46][47]
Dr. Walt Brown states the genetic material that controls the biological processes of life is coded information and that human experience tells us that codes are created only by the result of intelligence and not merely by processes of nature.[46] Dr. Brown also asserts that the "information stored in the genetic material of all life is a complex program. Therefore, it appears that an unfathomable intelligence created these genetic programs."[46]
To support his view regarding the divine origin of genetic programs Dr. Walt Brown cites the work of David Abel and Professor Jack Trevors who wrote the following:
|No matter how many "bits" of possible combinations it has, there is no reason to call it "information" if it doesn't at least have the potential of producing something useful. What kind of information produces function? In computer science, we call it a "program." Another name for computer software is an "algorithm." No man-made program comes close to the technical brilliance of even Mycoplasmal genetic algorithms. Mycoplasmas are the simplest known organism with the smallest known genome, to date. How was its genome and other living organisms' genomes programmed? - David L. Abel and Jack T. Trevors, "Three Subsets of Sequence Complexity and Their Relevance to Biopolymeric Information," Theoretical Biology & Medical Modelling, Vol. 2, 11 August 2005, page 8[48]
In the peer reviewed biology journal Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington Dr. Stephen Meyer argues that no current materialistic theory of evolution can account for the origin of the information necessary to build novel animal forms and proposed an intelligent cause as the best explanation for the origin of biological information and the higher taxa.[49] The editor of the Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, Dr. Richard Sternberg, came under intense scrutiny and persecution for the aforementioned article published by Dr. Meyer.
Theory of evolution and little scientific consensus
See also: Theory of evolution and little consensus and Theories of evolution
There is little scientific consensus on how macroevolution is said to have happened and the claimed mechanisms of evolutionary change, as can be seen in the following quotes:
|When discussing organic evolution the only point of agreement seems to be: "It happened." Thereafter, there is little consensus, which at first sight must seem rather odd. -(Simon Conway Morris, [palaeontologist, Department of Earth Sciences, Cambridge University, UK], "Evolution: Bringing Molecules into the Fold," Cell, Vol. 100, pp.1-11, January 7, 2000, p.11)[50]
|""The history of organic life is indemonstrable; we cannot prove a whole lot in evolutionary biology, and our findings will always be hypothesis. There is one true evolutionary history of life, and whether we will actually ever know it is not likely. Most importantly, we have to think about questioning underlying assumptions, whether we are dealing with molecules or anything else." - Jeffrey H. Schwartz, Professor of Biological Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, February 9, 2007[51]
|"If it is true that an influx of doubt and uncertainty actually marks periods of healthy growth in a science, then evolutionary biology is flourishing today as it seldom has flourished in the past. For biologists collectively are less agreed upon the details of evolutionary mechanics than they were a scant decade ago. Superficially, it seems as if we know less about evolution than we did in 1959, the centennial year of Darwin's on the Origin of Species." - Niles Eldredge, "Time Frames: The Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria," Simon & Schuster: New York NY, 1985, p.14[52]
Pierre-Paul Grassé, who served as Chair of Evolution at Sorbonne University for thirty years and was ex-president of the French Academy of Sciences, stated the following:
| Through use and abuse of hidden postulates, of bold, often ill-founded extrapolations, a pseudoscience has been created. It is taking root in the very heart of biology and is leading astray many biochemists and biologists, who sincerely believe that the accuracy of fundamental concepts has been demonstrated, which is not the case....
Today, our duty is to destroy the myth of evolution, considered as a simple, understood, and explained phenomenon which keeps rapidly unfolding before us. Biologists must be encouraged to think about the weaknesses of the interpretations and extrapolations that theoreticians put forward or lay down as established truths. The deceit is sometimes unconscious, but not always, since some people, owing to their sectarianism, purposely overlook reality and refuse to acknowledge the inadequacies and the falsity of their beliefs. - Pierre-Paul Grassé - Evolution of Living Organisms (1977), pages 6 and 8[53]
Recent clamour to revise the modern evolutionary synthesis
Modern evolutionary synthesis is a school of evolutionary thought which incorporates the concepts of natural selection, mutations, and studies in population genetics.[54]
In 2005, Massimo Pigliucci, in a book review for the prestigious science journal Nature, wrote: "The clamour to revise neo-darwinism is becoming so loud that hopefully most practising evolutionary biologists will begin to pay attention. It has been said that science often makes progress not because people change their minds, but because the old ones die off and the new generation is more open to novel ideas."[55] In July of 2008, Elizabeth Pennisi wrote in the prestigous science journal Science: "Seventy years ago, evolutionary biologists hammered out the modern synthesis to bring Darwin's ideas in line with current insights into how organisms change through time. Some say it's time for Modern Synthesis 2.0."[56]
Evolutionary Theory and Cases of Fraud, Hoaxes and Speculation
- See also: Theory of Evolution and Cases of Fraud, Hoaxes and Speculation and Atheism and deception and Theories of evolution
A notable case of a scientists using fraudulent material to promote the theory of evolution was the work of German scientist and atheist Ernst Haeckel. Noted evolutionist and Stephen Gould, who held a agnostic worldview[57][58] and promoted the notion of non-overlapping magesteria, wrote the following regarding Ernst Haeckel's work in a March 2000 issue of Natural History:
|"Haeckel's forceful, eminently comprehensible, if not always accurate, books appeared in all major languages and surely exerted more influence than the works of any other scientist, including Darwin…in convincing people throughout the world about the validity of evolution... Haeckel had exaggerated the similarities [between embryos of different species] by idealizations and omissions. He also, in some cases — in a procedure that can only be called fraudulent — simply copied the same figure over and over again.…Haeckel's drawings never fooled expert embryologists, who recognized his fudgings right from the start. Haeckel's drawings, despite their noted inaccuracies, entered into the most impenetrable and permanent of all quasi-scientific literatures: standard student textbooks of biology... Once ensconced in textbooks, misinformation becomes cocooned and effectively permanent, because…textbooks copy from previous texts.... [W]e do, I think, have the right to be both astonished and ashamed by the century of mindless recycling that has led to the persistence of these drawings in a large number, if not a majority, of modern textbooks!"[59]
An irony of history is that the March 9, 1907 edition of the NY Times refers to Ernst Haeckel as the "celebrated Darwinian and founder of the Association for the Propagation of Ethical Atheism."[60]
Stephen Gould continues by quoting Michael Richardson of the St. George's Hospital Medical School in London, who stated: "I know of at least fifty recent biology texts which use the drawings uncritically".[59]
Intelligent design theorist Michael Behe publicly exposed the fraudulent nature of Haeckel's embryos in a NY Times article.[61] It appears as if Stephen Gould was irritated that the fraud was exposed in manner that publicly embarrassed the evolutionary community - namely though a high profile NY Times article.[62]
Creation scientists have written regarding the fraudulent nature of Haeckel's work and how a prestigious German science journal published his dubious work.[63]
Dr. Jonathan Wells published a book in 2000 entitled Icons of Evolution. Dr. Wells contends that "the best-known 'evidences' for Darwin's theory have been exaggerated, distorted or even faked."[64]
Dinosaur extinction is a major enigma in terms of the evolutionary paradigm and many ill founded speculations have arisen within the evolutionary community.[65] Creation scientists maintain the fossil record, the evidence for the Genesis flood and post flood climate changes offers an excellent explanation for dinosaur extinction.[66]
Lack of Any Clear Transitional Forms
As alluded to earlier, today there are over one hundred million identified and cataloged fossils in the world's museums.[67] If the evolutionary position was valid, then there should be "transitional forms" in the fossil record reflecting the intermediate life forms. Another term for these "transitional forms" is "missing links".
Charles Darwin admitted that his theory required the existence of "transitional forms." Darwin wrote: "So that the number of intermediate and transitional links, between all living and extinct species, must have been inconceivably great. But assuredly, if this theory be true, such have lived upon the earth."[69] However, Darwin wrote: "Why then is not every geological formation and every strata full of such intermediate links? Geology assuredly does not reveal any such finely-graduated organic chain; and this perhaps, is the most obvious and serious objection which can be urged against my theory."[70] Darwin thought the lack of transitional links in his time was because "only a small portion of the surface of the earth has been geologically explored and no part with sufficient care...".[71] As Charles Darwin grew older he became increasingly concerned about the lack of evidence for the theory of evolution in terms of the existence of transitional forms. Darwin wrote, ""When we descend to details, we cannot prove that a single species has changed; nor can we prove that the supposed changes are beneficial, which is the groundwork of the theory."[72]
Scientist Dr. Michael Denton wrote regarding the fossil record:
|"It is still, as it was in Darwin's day, overwhelmingly true that the first representatives of all the major classes of organisms known to biology are already highly characteristic of their class when they make their initial appearance in the fossil record. This phenomenon is particularly obvious in the case of the invertebrate fossil record. At its first appearance in the ancient Paleozoic seas, invertebrate life was already divided into practically all the major groups with which we are familiar today.[73]
Creationists assert that evolutionists have had over 140 years to find a transitional fossil and nothing approaching a conclusive transitional form has ever been found and that only a handful of highly doubtful examples of transitional fossils exist.[74] Distinguished anthropologist Sir Edmund R. Leach declared, "Missing links in the sequence of fossil evidence were a worry to Darwin. He felt sure they would eventually turn up, but they are still missing and seem likely to remain so."[75]
David B. Kitts of the School of Geology and Geophysics at the University of Oklahoma wrote that "Evolution requires intermediate forms between species and paleontology does not provide them…".[76]
David Raup, who was the curator of geology at the museum holding the world's largest fossil collection, the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, observed:
|"[Darwin] was embarrassed by the fossil record because it didn't look the way he predicted it would .... Well, we are now about 120 years after Darwin, and knowledge of the fossil record has been greatly expanded. We now have a quarter of a million fossil species but the situation hasn't changed much. ... [W]e have even fewer examples of evolutionary transition than we had in Darwin's time." - David M. Raup, "Conflicts Between Darwin and Paleontology," Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin 50 (January 1979): 22-23, 24-25.
One of the most famous proponents of the theory of evolution was the late Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. But Gould admitted the following:
|The extreme rarity of transitional forms in the fossil record persists as the trade secret of paleontology. The evolutionary trees that adorn our textbooks have data only at the tips and nodes of their branches; the rest is inference, however reasonable, not the evidence of fossils...We fancy ourselves as the only true students of life's history, yet to preserve our favored account of evolution by natural selection we view our data as so bad that we never see the very process we profess to study.[77]
In a 1977 paper titled "The Return of Hopeful Monsters", Gould wrote: "The fossil record with its abrupt transitions offers no support for gradual change....All paleontologists know that the fossil record contains precious little in the way of intermediate forms; transitions between major groups are characteristically abrupt."[78][79]
The senior paleontologist at the British Museum of Natural History, Dr. Colin Patterson, put it this way:
|Gradualism is a concept I believe in, not just because of Darwin's authority, but because my understanding of genetics seems to demand it. Yet Gould and the American Museum people are hard to contradict when they say there are no transitional fossils....I will lay it on the line — there is not one such fossil for which one could make a watertight argument.[80]
According to Dr. Don Batten, Stephen Gould in 1970s made some admissions that there was a "lack of evidence for phylogeny in the fossils" and that Gould had also claimed a number of that were no indisputable intermediate forms. Dr. Batten states that Gould made these statements when Gould was less concerned about creationists.[78] Dr. Batten also states that "claimed examples of transitional series and intermediate forms received an incisive critique from Gould in the 1970s...."[78] However, Gould's admissions were subsequently widely quoted by creationists.[78] According to Dr. Batton, in 1981 Gould started making intemperate language towards creationists.[81] After having been incessantly quoted by creationist regarding the fossil record, Gould altered his public stance regarding the fossil record and without stating specific examples from the fossil record and using the ambiguous term "larger groups" Gould stated the following in 1981:
|Since we proposed punctuated equilibria to explain trends, it is infuriating to be quoted again and again by creationists - whether through design or stupidity, I do not know - as admitting that the fossil record includes no transitional forms. Transitional forms are generally lacking at the species level, but they are abundant between larger groups."[82]
In 1980, David Woodruff wrote in the journal Science the following: "But fossil species remain unchanged throughout most of their history and the record fails to contain a single example of a significant transition."[83] The late Ernst Mayr was a prominent Harvard biologist who also served as the director of Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology. Mayr was a staunch evolutionist and atheist[84] who maintained that evolution was a fact, yet in 1982 Mayr was compelled to make the following admission regarding the fossil record in relation to the theory of evolution: "Even the fossil record fails to substantiate any continuity and all novelties appear in the fossil record quite suddenly."[85]
In 1985, Gould was more specific regarding his claim that there were intermediate forms and asserted that Archaeopteryx was a intermediate form.[86] Also, according to Dr. Batten, in 1994 the following occurred in regard to Gould's stance on the fossil record:
|"[Gould] abandoned his earlier position that there are no indisputable examples of transitional fossil series, either inter-specific or between major designs, and has embraced the 'walking whale' story as evidence for transformation of one species into another. The evidence for this transition is scant, but Gould uncritically accepts the fanciful description of how Ambulocetus natans walked and swam, as given by Thewissen et al."[78]
In 2001, staunch evolutionist Ernst Mayr wrote the following:
|Given the fact of evolution, one would expect the fossils to document a gradual steady change from one ancestral form to the descendants. But this is not what the paleontologist finds. Instead, he or she finds gaps in just about every phyletic series. New types often appear quite suddenly, and their immediate ancestors are absent in the geological strata. The discovery of unbroken series of species changing gradually into descending species is very rare. Indeed the fossil record is one of discontinuities, seemingly documenting jumps (saltations) from one type of organism to a different type. This raises a puzzling question: Why does the fossil record fail to reflect the gradual change one would expect from evolution?[87]
As mentioned earlier, one of the more famous alleged transitional fossils claimed by evolutionists is Archaeopteryx. Dr. Alan Feduccia, a world authority on birds and an evolutionist himself, has stated the following regarding Archaeopteryx:
|Paleontologists have tried to turn Archaeopteryx into an earth-bound, feathered dinosaur. But it's not. It is a bird, a perching bird. And no amount of 'paleobabble' is going to change that.[88]
Creation scientists have a number of arguments against Archaeopteryx being a transitional fossil find.[88][89]
A second famous alleged transitional fossil claimed by evolutionists is Tiktaalik. Creation scientists have a number of arguments regarding the fossil find of Tiktaalik not being a transitional find.[90]
The Fossil Record and Evolutionary Theory
Creationists can cite quotations which assert that no solid fossil evidence for the theory of evolution position exists:
|"...I still think that to the unprejudiced, the fossil record of plants is in favour of special creation. - E.J.H. Corner (Professor of Botany, Cambridge University, England), "Evolution" in Anna M. MacLeod and L. S. Cobley (eds.), Contemporary Botanical Thought (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1961), p. 97[91][92]
|"We then move right off the register of objective truth into those fields of presumed biological science, like extrasensory perception or the interpretation of man's fossil history, where to the faithful anything is possible - and where the ardent believer is sometimes able to believe several contradictory things at the same time." - Lord Solly Zuckerman (professor of anatomy at Birmingham University in England and chief scientific adviser to the British government from the time period of 1964 to 1971), Beyond The Ivory Tower, Toplinger Publications, New York, 1970, p. 19.[93][94]
|"Fossil evidence of human evolutionary history is fragmentary and open to various interpretations. Fossil evidence of chimpanzee evolution is absent altogether". Henry Gee, "Return to the Planet of the Apes," Nature, Vol. 412, 12 July 2001, p. 131.[95]
For more fossil record quotes please see: Fossil record quotes
For more information please see: Paleoanthropology and Human evolution
Paleoanthropology is an interdisciplinary branch of anthropology that concerns itself with the origins of early humans and it examines and evaluates items such as fossils and artifacts.[96] Dr. David Pilbeam is a paleoanthropologist who received his Ph.D. at Yale University and Dr. Pilbeam is presently Professor of Social Sciences at Harvard University and Curator of Paleontology at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology.[97] In addition, Dr. Pilbeam served as an advisor for the Kenya government regarding the creation of an international institute for the study of human origins.[98]
Dr. Pilbeam wrote a review of Richard Leakey's book Origins in the journal American Scientist:
|...perhaps generations of students of human evolution, including myself, have been flailing about in the dark; that our data base is too sparse, too slippery, for it to be able to mold our theories. Rather the theories are more statements about us and ideology than about the past. Paleoanthropology reveals more about how humans view themselves than it does about how humans came about. But that is heresy.[99]
Dr. Pilbeam wrote the following regarding the theory of evolution and paleoanthropology:
|I am also aware of the fact that, at least in my own subject of paleoanthropology, "theory" - heavily influenced by implicit ideas almost always dominates "data". ....Ideas that are totally unrelated to actual fossils have dominated theory building, which in turn strongly influence the way fossils are interpreted.[99]
Evolutionist and Harvard professor Richard Lewontin wrote in 1995 that "Despite the excited and optimistic claims that have been made by some paleontologists, no fossil hominid species can be established as our direct ancestor...."[100] In the September 2005 issue of National Geographic, Joel Achenbach asserted that human evolution is a "fact" but he also candidly admitted that the field of paleoanthropology "has again become a rather glorious mess."[101][102] In the same National Geographic article Harvard paleoanthropologist Dan Lieberman states, "We're not doing a very good job of being honest about what we don't know...".[102]
Concerning pictures of the supposed ancestors of man featured in science journals and the news media Boyce Rensberger wrote in the journal Science the following regarding their highly speculative nature:
|Unfortunately, the vast majority of artist's conceptions are based more on imagination than on evidence. But a handful of expert natural-history artists begin with the fossil bones of a hominid and work from there…. Much of the reconstruction, however, is guesswork. Bones say nothing about the fleshy parts of the nose, lips, or ears. Artists must create something between an ape and a human being; the older the specimen is said to be, the more apelike they make it.... Hairiness is a matter of pure conjecture.[103][104]
In addition, the science magazine New Scientist reported the following:
|"A five million-year-old piece of bone that was thought to be a collarbone of a humanlike creature is actually part of a dolphin rib according to an anthropologist at the University of California-Berkeley." - Ian Anderson[105][106]
Dr. Tim White, anthropologist at the University of California-Berkeley, likened the incident on par with the "Nebraska man" and "Piltdown Man" incidents.[105] Dr. White stated regarding the fossil find, "Seldom has a bone been hyped as much as this one."[105] Anthropologist Dr. Noel Boaz from New York University who made the original classification of the fossil has countered, "I have not gone any further than the evidence allowed."[105][107] Dr. Boaz described the fossil find and defended his stance regarding the fossil find in the journals Nature, the American Journal of Physical Anthropology and Natural History. However, at a meeting of physical anthropologist his fellow anthropologist were skeptical of the find some stating that at first glance the bone looks nothing like a collar bone.[107] Dr. White stated that "to be a clavicle, the specimen should have an S...curve, but it does not.[105] Dr. White also stated the blunder may force a rethinking of theories among evolutionary theorists on when the line of man's ancestors separated from that of apes.[105]
Dr. White added "The problem with a lot of anthropologists is that they want so much to find a hominid that any scrap of bone becomes a hominid bone."[105] Dr. White has dubbed the "humanoid species" arising from the fossil find "Flipperpithecus".[107]
Creation scientists concur with Dr. Pilbeam regarding the speculative nature of the field of paleoanthropology and assert there is no compelling evidence in the field of paleoanthropology for the various theories of human evolution.[108][109][110]
Punctuated Equilibrium
See also: Theories of evolution
Because the fossil record is characterized by the abrupt appearance of species and stasis in the fossil record the theory of punctuated equilibrium was developed and its chief proponents were Stephen Gould, Niles Eldridge, and Steven Stanley.[78] According to the American Museum of Natural History the theory of Punctuated Equilibrium "asserts that evolution occurs in dramatic spurts interspersed with long periods of stasis".[111] Because Stephen Gould was the leading proponent of the theory of punctuated equilibrium much of the criticism of the theory has been directed towards Gould.[112][113] The development of a new evolutionary school of thought occurring due to the fossil record not supporting the evolutionary position was not unprecedented. In 1930, Austin H. Clark, an American evolutionary zoologist who wrote 630 articles and books in six languages, came up with an evolutionary hypothesis called zoogenesis which postulated that each of the major types of life forms evolved separately and independently from all the others.[114] Prior to publishing his work entitled The New Evolution: Zoogenesis, Clark wrote in a journal article published in the Quarterly Review of Biology that "so far as concerns the major groups of animals, the creationists seem to have the better of the argument. There is not the slightest evidence that any one of the major groups arose from any other."[115]
In 1995, there was an essay in the New York Review of Books by the late John Maynard Smith, a noted evolutionary biologist who was considered the dean of British neo-Darwinists, and Smith wrote the following regarding Gould's work in respect to the theory of evolution:
|The evolutionary biologists with whom I have discussed his [Gould's] work tend to see him as a man whose ideas are so confused as to be hardly worth bothering with, but as one who should not be publicly criticized because he is at least on our side against the creationists. All this would not matter, were it not that he is giving non biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory."[116][117]
Noted journalist and author Robert Wright , wrote in 1996 that, "among top-flight evolutionary biologists, Gould is considered a pest—not just a lightweight, but an actively muddled man who has warped the public's understanding of Darwinism."[118][119]
Creation scientist Dr. Jonathan Sarfati wrote regarding the implausibility of the theory of punctuated equilibrium and the implausibility of the idea of gradual evolution the following:
|...supporters of 'jerky' evolution saltationism and its relative, punctuated equilibria) point out that the fossil record does not show gradualism, and that the hypothetical transitional forms would be disadvantageous. But supporters of gradual evolution point out that large, information-increasing changes are so improbable that one would need to invoke a secular miracle. Creationists agree with both: punctuational evolution can't happen, and gradual evolution can't happen—in fact, particles-to-people evolution can't happen at all![120]
The evolutionary thinking of Richard Goldschmidt influenced Gould. In a 1977 in a paper entitled, 'The Return of the Hopeful Monsters Gould wrote that when he studied evolutionary biology in graduate school that "official rebuke and derision focused upon Richard Goldschmidt". Nevertheless, Gould also wrote:
|I do, however, predict that during this decade Goldschmidt will be largely vindicated in the world of evolutionary biology.....As a Darwinian, I wish to defend Goldschmidt's postulate that macroevolution is not simply microevolution extrapolated, and that major structural transitions can occur rapidly without a smooth series of intermediate stages....In my own, strongly biased opinion, the problem of reconciling evident discontinuity in macroevolution with Darwinism is largely solved by the observation that small changes early in embryology accumulate through growth to yield profound differences among adults.[121]
Harvard biologist and evolutionist Ernst Mayr wrote concerning the history of the theory of punctuated equilibrium: "Even though some of the statements of Eldredge, Gould, and Stanley, made in the 1970s, sounded as if they had favored the Goldschmidtian version, they clearly distanced themselves from it in their more recent discussions.[122] Creation scientist Don Batten wrote concerning the history of punctuated equilibrium (PE): "By the time of their 21st anniversary review of PE, Gould and Eldridge had retracted to proposing PE as 'a complement to phyletic gradualism'. This is a rather major backdown on the brashness of their claims in 1972, and especially Gould's claims up to 1980..."[123] Batten also wrote that Niles Eldredge had been "less dogmatic than Gould had been in the 1970s about the lack of gradual change in the fossil record".[124]
According to Stephen Gould, Daniel Dennet and Richard Dawkins, who hold to a traditional Darwinian gradualism view of the theory of evolution, trivialized the importance of the theory of punctuated equilibrium.[125] Dawkins called the theory of punctuated equilibrium "an interesting but minor wrinkle on the surface of Neo-Darwinism theory". Dennet went farther and stated that the theory of punctuated equilibrium was a "a false-alarm revolution that was largely if not entirely in the eyes of the beholders."[125]
The Issue of Whether the Evolutionary Position Qualifies as a Scientific Theory
Karl Popper, a leading philosopher of science and originator of the falsifiability as a criterion of demarcation of science from nonscience,[126] stated that Darwinism is "not a testable scientific theory, but a metaphysical research programme."[127] Leading Darwinist and philosopher of science, Michael Ruse declared the concerning Popper's statement and the actions he took after making that statement: "Since making this claim, Popper himself has modified his position somewhat; but, disclaimers aside, I suspect that even now he does not really believe that Darwinism in its modern form is genuinely falsifiable."[128]
The issue of the falsifiability of the evolutionary position is very important issue and although offering a poor cure to the problem that Karl Popper described, committed evolutionists Louis Charles Birch & Paul R. Ehrlich stated in the journal Nature:
|Our theory of evolution has become, as Popper described, one which cannot be refuted by any possible observations. Every conceivable observation can be fitted into it. It is thus outside of empirical science but not necessarily false. No one can think of ways in which to test it. Ideas, either without basis or based on a few laboratory experiments carried out in extremely simplified systems, have become part of an evolutionary dogma accepted by most of us as part of our training. The cure seems to us not to be a discarding of the modern synthesis of evolutionary theory, but more skepticism about many of its tenets.[129]
The Swedish cytogeneticist, Antonio Lima-De-Faria, who has been knighted by the king of Sweden for his scientific achievements, noted that "there has never been a theory of evolution".[130][131]
Implausible Explanations and the Evolutionary Position
Individuals who are against the evolutionary position assert that evolutionary scientists employ extremely implausible "just so stories" to support their position and have done this since at least the time of Charles Darwin.[133] [134]
A well known example of a "just so story" is when Darwin, in his Origin of the Species, wrote a chapter entitled "Difficulties on Theory" in which he stated:
|"In North America the black bear was seen by Hearne swimming for hours with widely open mouth, thus catching, like a whale, insects in the water. Even in so extreme a case as this, if the supply of insects were constant, and if better adapted competitors did not already exist in the country, I can see no difficulty in a race of bears being rendered, by natural selection, more and more aquatic in their structure and habits, with larger and larger mouths, till a creature was produced as monstrous as a whale."[135]
Even the prominent evolutionist and geneticist Professor Richard Lewontin admitted the following:
|"We take the side of science in spite of the patent absurdity of some of its constructs, in spite of its failure to fulfill many of its extravagant promises of health and life, in spite of the tolerance of the scientific community for unsubstantiated just-so stories, because we have a prior commitment, a commitment to materialism. It is not that the methods and institutions of science somehow compel us to accept a material explanation of the phenomenal world, but, on the contrary, that we are forced by our a priori adherence to material causes to create an apparatus of investigation and a set of concepts that produce material explanations, no matter how counter-intuitive, no matter how mystifying to the uninitiated. Moreover, that materialism is an absolute, for we cannot allow a Divine Foot in the door." - Richard Lewontin, 'Billions and billions of demons', The New York Review, January 9, 1997, p. 31[136]
Dr. Sarfati wrote regarding the theory of evolution the following:
|The same logic applies to the dinosaur-bird debate. It is perfectly in order for creationists to cite Feduccia's devastating criticism against the idea that birds evolved 'ground up' from running dinosaurs (the cursorial theory). But the dino-to-bird advocates counter with equally powerful arguments against Feduccia's 'trees-down' (arboreal) theory. The evidence indicates that the critics are both right — birds did not evolve either from running dinos or from tree-living mini-crocodiles. In fact, birds did not evolve from non-birds at all![137]
Opponents to the theory of evolution commonly point to the following in nature as being implausibly created through evolutionary processes:
- various symbiotic relationships found in nature.[138][139][140]
- bacterial flagellum[141]
- homing[142]
- the origin of flight in the animal kingdom[143]
- human brain[144][145][146]
- migration[147]
- the whale[148][149]
- the Venus flytrap[150]
- the Bombardier beetle[151]
- the woodpecker[152]
Lastly, biochemist Michael Behe wrote the following:
|"Molecular evolution is not based on scientific authority. There is no publication in the scientific literature—in prestigious journals, specialty journals, or book—that describes how molecular evolution of any real, complex, biochemical system either did occur or even might have occurred. There are assertions that such evolution occurred, but absolutely none are supported by pertinent experiments or calculations. Since no one knows molecular evolution by direct experience, and since there is no authority on which to base claims of knowledge, it can truly be said that—like the contention that the Eagles will win the Super Bowl this year—the assertion of Darwinian molecular evolution is merely bluster." - Michael J. Behe, Darwin's Black Box (New York: The Free Press, 1996), p. 186[153]
Statements of Design
- See main article: Intelligent design
Phillip E. Johnson cites Francis Crick in order to illustrate the fact that the biological world has the strong appearance of being designed:
|"One of the world's most famous scientists, probably the most famous living biologist, is Sir Francis Crick, the British co-discoverer of the structure of DNA, a Nobel Prize winner... Crick is also a fervent atheistic materialist, who propounds the particle story. In his autobiography, Crick says very candidly biologists must remind themselves daily that what they study was not created, it evolved; it was not designed, it evolved. Why do they have to remind themselves of that? Because otherwise, the facts which are staring them in the face and trying to get their attention might break through. What we discovered when I developed a working group of scientists, philosophers, et al., in the United States was that living organisms look as if they were designed and they look that way because that is exactly what they are." - Evolution And Christian Faith by Phillip E. Johnson[154]
Stephen C. Meyer offers the following statement regarding the design of the biological world:
|"During the last forty years, molecular biology has revealed a complexity and intricacy of design that exceeds anything that was imaginable during the late-nineteenth century. We now know that organisms display any number of distinctive features of intelligently engineered high-tech systems: information storage and transfer capability; functioning codes; sorting and delivery systems; regulatory and feed-back loops; signal transduction circuitry; and everywhere, complex, mutually-interdependent networks of parts. Indeed, the complexity of the biomacromolecules discussed in this essay does not begin to exhaust the full complexity of living systems. As even the staunch materialist Richard Dawkins has allowed, "Biology is the study of complicated things that give the appearance of having been designed for a purpose." Yet the materialistic science we have inherited from the late-nineteenth century, with its exclusive conceptual reliance on matter and energy, could neither envision nor can it now account for the biology of the information age." - The Origin of Life and the Death of Materialism by Stephen C. Meyer, Ph.D.[155]
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states the following regarding a candid admission of Charles Darwin:
| In 1885, the Duke of Argyll recounted a conversation he had had with Charles Darwin the year before Darwin's death:
In the course of that conversation I said to Mr. Darwin, with reference to some of his own remarkable works on the Fertilisation of Orchids, and upon The Earthworms, and various other observations he made of the wonderful contrivances for certain purposes in nature—I said it was impossible to look at these without seeing that they were the effect and the expression of Mind. I shall never forget Mr. Darwin's answer. He looked at me very hard and said, "Well, that often comes over me with overwhelming force; but at other times," and he shook his head vaguely, adding, "it seems to go away."(Argyll 1885, 244][156]
Theory of Evolution and the Scientific Journals
Advocates of the theory of evolution have often claimed that those who oppose the theory of evolution don't publish their opposition to the theory of evolution in the appropriate scientific literature (creationist scientists have peer reviewed journals which favor the creationist position).[157][158][159] Recently, there has been articles which were favorable to the intelligent design position in scientific journals which traditionally have favored the theory of evolution.[160]
Effect on Scientific Endeavors Outside the Specific Field of Biology
Stephen Wolfram in his book A New Kind of Science has stated that the Darwinian theory of evolution has, in recent years, "increasingly been applied outside of biology."[161]
Evolutionary theory played a prominent role in regards to atheistic communism.[162] Communists, in particular Stalinism, favored a version of Lamarckism called Lysenkoism developed by the atheist Trofim Denisovich Lysenko.[163] Lsyenko was made member of the Supreme Soviet and head of the Institute of Genetics of the Soviet Academy of Sciences.[164] Later Lysenko became President of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences.[165] Many geneticists were imprisoned and executed for their bourgeois science, and agricultural policies based on Lysenkoism that were adopted under the Communist leaders Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong caused famines and the death of millions.[166]
Medical Science
The theory of evolution has had a negative effect on the field of medical science. According to Dr. Jerry Bergman the list of vestigial organs in humans has gone from 180 in 1890 to 0 in 1999.[167] Furthermore, Dr. Bergman states the following:
| Few examples of vestigial organs in humans are now offered, and the ones that are have been shown by more recent research to be completely functional (and in many cases critically so, see Bergman and Howe)...
One popular book on the human body which discussed vestigial organs stated that next to circumcision
'… tonsillectomy is the most frequently performed piece of surgery. Doctors once thought tonsils were simply useless evolutionary leftovers and took them out thinking that it could do no harm. Today there is considerable evidence that there are more troubles in the upper respiratory tract after tonsil removal than before, and doctors generally agree that simple enlargement of tonsils is hardly an indication for surgery...'[168]
Young earth creation scientist Dr. Jonathan Sarfati states that evolutionary thought has been applied to the field of astronomy.[169] Sarfati's claim is supported by the fact that astronomers do refer to the "evolution of the universe".[170] Sarfati asserts the evolutionary view has had a negative effect on astronomy and that arguments to support the proposed evolutionary time scales of billions of years via the field of astronomy are invalid.[171] Creationists can cite examples of scientists stating that evolutionary ideas in astronomy have failed to have any explanatory power:
|""...most every prediction by theorists about planetary formation has been wrong." Scott Tremaine, as quoted by Richard A. Kerr, "Jupiters Like Our Own Await Planet Hunters," Science, Vol. 295, 25 January 2002, p. 605.[172]
|"Attempts to find a plausible naturalistic explanation of the origin of the Solar System began about 350 years ago but have not yet been quantitatively successful, making this one of the oldest unsolved problems in modern science." - Stephen G. Brush, A History of Modern Planetary Physics, Vol. 3 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 91.[172]
|"We don't understand how a single star forms, yet we want to understand how 10 billion stars form." Carlos Frenk, as quoted by Robert Irion, "Surveys Scour the Cosmic Deep," Science, Vol. 303, 19 March 2004, p. 1750.[173]
|"We cannot even show convincingly how galaxies, stars, planets, and life arose in the present universe." Michael Rowan-Robinson, "Review of the Accidental Universe," New Scientist, Vol. 97, 20 January 1983, p. 186.[174]
In 2001, Cristina Chiappini wrote concering the Milky Way galaxy:
- ". . . it is an elegant structure that shows both order and complexity. . . . The end product is especially remarkable in the light of what is believed to be the starting point: nebulous blobs of gas. How the universe made the Milky Way from such simple beginnings is not altogether clear. - Cristina Chiappini, "The Formation and Evolution of the Milky Way," American Scientist (vol. 89, Nov./Dec. 2001), p. 506.[175]
Dr. Walt Brown provides numerous citations to the secular science literature that cite the failings of current old universe paradigm explanations in regards to the planets, stars, and galaxies.[172][173][174]
Origin of Life
Evolutionary thought has had an influence on origin of life research as well. For example, a 2004 article in the International Journal of Astrobiology is titled On the applicability of Darwinian principles to chemical evolution that led to life.[176] It is also clear that early origin of life researcher Aleksandr Oparin who proposed materialist ideas regarding the origin of life was influenced by evolutionary thought.[177] However, the current naturalistic explanations for the origin of life are inadequate.
Richard Dawkins and Pseudoscience
- For more information please see: Richard Dawkins and pseudoscience and Atheism and deception
Within the evolutionary science community and the creation science community, evolutionist and atheist Richard Dawkins has faced charges of engaging in pseudoscience and also has faced charges of committing elementary errors.[178][179]
The website True Free Thinker notes:
| Moreover, note that with regards to "assertions without adequate evidence" evolutionary biologist and geneticist, Prof. Richard Lewontin, referenced Carl Sagan's list of the "best contemporary science-popularizers" which includes Richard Dawkins. These authors have, as Lewontin puts it, "put unsubstantiated assertions or counterfactual claims at the very center of the stories they have retailed in the market." Lewontin specifically mentions "Dawkins's vulgarizations of Darwinism" (find details here and here).
Even renowned evolutionary biologists H. Allen Orr, David Sloan Wilson, and Massimo Pigliucci have called into question the power that Dawkins once had as an intellectual, since he has made elementary errors in The God Delusion.[180]
In 2010, a new discovery regarding the eye further discredited the evolutionary quackery of Richard Dawkins.[181]
Age of the Earth and the Theory of Evolution
- See main articles: Young Earth Creationism, Geologic system
As far as the evolutionary timeline posited by the evolutionary community, the various theories of evolution claim that the earth and universe are billions of years old and that macroevolutionary processes occurred over this time period.[182][183] William R. Corliss is a respected cataloger of scientific anomalies and the science magazine New Scientist had an article which focused on Mr. Corliss's career as a cataloger of scientific anomalies.[184] Mr. Corliss has cataloged scores of anomalies which challenge the old earth geology paradigm.[185][186] Young earth creationist hold the earth and universe is approximately 6,000 years old.[182] Young earth creationist scientists state the following is true: there are multiple lines of evidence pointing to a young earth and universe; the old earth and universe paradigm has numerous anomalies and uses invalid dating methods, and there are multiple citations in the secular science literature that corroborate the implausibility of the old earth and universe paradigm (for details see: Young Earth Creationism).
Scientific Community Consensus and the Macroevolution Position
A 1997 Gallup poll indicated that 55% of United States scientists believed that humans developed over a period of millions of years from less developed forms of life and that God had no part in the process, 40% believed in theistic evolution, and 5% of scientists believed that God created man fairly much in his current form at one time within the last 10,000 years.[189] As noted earlier, in 2007, "Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture...announced that over 700 scientists from around the world have now signed a statement expressing their skepticism about the contemporary theory of Darwinian evolution."[190]
Poll results regarding the amount of scientists who are skeptical or opposed to the evolutionary view could be underreporting the actual amount of scientists who are skeptical of the evolutionary view or hold the creation science view. Poll results may not be as precise as they could be as creation science organizations report widespread discrimination against scientists who hold the creation science view.[191] On April 18, 2008 a film documentary by Ben Stein entitled Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed! was released to the public which documents the suppression of scientific freedom of scientists who are critical of the evolutionary position.[192][193] Such suppression is not surprising given that a poll among United States scientists showed that approximately 45% of scientists believed there was no God.[194] In addition, a survey found that 93% of the scientists who were members of the United States National Academy of Sciences do not believe there is a God.[195] Given this state of affairs, a future paradigm shift from the theory of evolution to a creation science position could be slow given the worldviews of many scientists.
Also, the current scientific community consensus is no guarantee of truth. The history of science shows many examples where the scientific community consensus was in error, was scientifically unsound, or had little or no empirical basis. For example, bloodletting was practiced from antiquity and still had many practitioners up until the late 1800s.[197] In his essay, A Paradigm Shift: Are We Ready? , Niranjan Kissoon, M.D. wrote the following: "...history is rife with examples in which our best medical judgment was flawed. The prestigious British Medical Journal begun in 1828 chose the name Lancet to signal its scholarly intent and cutting edge therapy."[198]Also, in regards to modern medical science, in a 1991 BMJ (formerly called the British Medical Journal) article, Richard Smith (editor of BMJ at the time) wrote the following: "There are 30,000 biomedical journals in the world...Yet only about 15% of medical interventions are supported byDavid Eddy professor of health policy and management at Duke University, told a conference in Manchester last week. This is partly because only 1% of the articles in medical journals are scientifically sound and partly because many treatments have never been assessed at all."[200] Next, alchemy was at one time considered to be a legitimate scientific pursuit and was studied by such notable individuals as Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle, Roger Bacon, and Gottfried Leibniz.[201][202] Given the aforementioned weaknesses in the evolutionary position and given that the history of science shows there have been some notable paradigm shifts,[203][204][205] the scientific consensus argument for the macroevolutionary theory certainly cannot be called an invincible argument.
In addition, biblical creationists can point out examples where the scientific community was in error and the Bible was clearly correct. For example, until the 1970s the scientific consensus on how lions killed their prey was in error and the Bible turned out to be right in this matter.[206] Also, for centuries the scientific community believed that snakes could not hear and the 1988 edition of The New Encyclopedia Britannica stated the snakes could not hear but that was mistaken and the Bible was correct in this matter.[207][208] In addition, 19th century European naturalists were wrong concerning a matter regarding ant behavior and the Bible was correct.[209] Many creationists such as the creationist at Creation Ministries International and CreationWiki assert that the Bible scientific foreknowledge|Bible contains knowledge that shows an understanding of scientific knowledge beyond that believed to exist at the time the Bible was composed.[210][211] In addition, Christianity had a profound influence in regards to the development of modern science.
Social Effects of the Theory of Evolution
For more information please see: Social effects of the theory of evolution and Evolutionary racism and Atheism and EvolutionSocial Darwinism, Nazism, Communism, and racism.[212]
The staunch evolutionist Stephen Gould admitted the following:
|Haeckel was the chief apostle of evolution in Germany.... His evolutionary racism; his call to the German people for racial purity and unflinching devotion to a "just" state; his belief that harsh, inexorable laws of evolution ruled human civilization and nature alike, conferring upon favored races the right to dominate others; the irrational mysticism that had always stood in strange communion with his brave words about objective science - all contributed to the rise of Nazism. - Stephen J. Gould, "Ontogeny and Phylogeny," Belknap Press: Cambridge MA, 1977, pp.77-78).[213]
Adolf Hitler wrote the following evolutionary racist material in his work Mein Kampf:
|If nature does not wish that weaker individuals should mate with the stronger, she wishes even less that a superior race should intermingle with an inferior one; because in such cases all her efforts, throughout hundreds of thousands of years, to establish an evolutionary higher stage of being, may thus be rendered futile.[214]
Hitler also wrote in Mein Kampf:
|The stronger must dominate and not blend with the weaker, thus sacrificing his own greatness. Only the born weakling can view this as cruel, but he, after all, is only a weak and limited man; for if this law did not prevail, any conceivable higher development (Hoherentwicklung) of organic living beings would be unthinkable.[216]
Robert E.D. Clark in his work Darwin: Before and After wrote regarding Hitler's evolutionary racism:
|The Germans were the higher race, destined for a glorious evolutionary future. For this reason it was essential that the Jews should be segregated, otherwise mixed marriages would take place. Were this to happen, all nature's efforts 'to establish an evolutionary higher stage of being may thus be rendered futile' (Mein Kampf). [217]
Dr. Robert E.D. Clark also wrote:
|"Adolf Hitler's mind was captivated by evolutionary teaching — probably since the time he was a boy. Evolutionary ideas — quite undisguised — lie at the basis of all that is worst in Mein Kampf — and in his public speeches."[218]
Richard Hickman, in his work Biocreation, concurs and wrote the following:
|It is perhaps no coincidence that Adolf Hitler was a firm believer in and preacher of evolutionism. Whatever the deeper, profound, complexities of his psychosis, it is certain that [the concept of struggle was important for]. . . his book, Mein Kampf clearly set forth a number of evolutionary ideas, particularly those emphasizing struggle, survival of the fittest and extermination of the weak to produce a better society.[219]
Noted evolutionary anthropologists Sir Arthur Keith conceded the following in regards to Hitler and the theory of evolution: "The German Fuhrer, as I have consistently maintained, is an evolutionist; he has consciously sought to make the practices of Germany conform to the theory of evolution".[221]
Dr. Josef Mengele's evolutionary thinking was in accordance with social Darwinist theories that Adolph Hitler and a number of German academics found appealing.[222] Dr. Joseph Mengele studied under the leading proponents the "unworthy life" branch of evolutionary thought.[223] Dr. Mengele was one of the most notorious individuals associated with Nazi death camps and the Holocaust.[224] Mengele obtained a infamous reputation due to his experiments on twins while at Auschwitz-Birkenau.[225]
Prominent evolutionist and atheist Richard Dawkins stated the following regarding Adolf Hitler in an interview: "What's to prevent us from saying Hitler wasn't right? I mean, that is a genuinely difficult question."[226] The interviewer of Richard Dawkins wrote the following regarding the Richard Dawkins comment about Hitler: "I was stupefied. He had readily conceded that his own philosophical position did not offer a rational basis for moral judgments. His intellectual honesty was refreshing, if somewhat disturbing on this point."[227]
B. Wilder-Smith wrote the following regarding Nazism and the theory of evolution:
|One of the central planks in Nazi theory and doctrine was …evolutionary theory [and] … that all biology had evolved … upward, and that … less evolved types … should be actively eradicated [and] … that natural selection could and should be actively aided, and therefore [the Nazis] instituted political measures to eradicate … Jews, and … blacks, whom they considered as "underdeveloped".'[228]
Pulitzer Prize winning author Marilynne Robinson wrote the following regarding Hitler's racism in the November 2006 issue of Harper's Magazine:
| While it is true that persecution of the Jews has a very long history in Europe, it is also true that science in the twentieth century revived and absolutized persecution by giving it a fresh rationale — Jewishness was not religious or cultural, but genetic. Therefore no appeal could be made against the brute fact of a Jewish grandparent...
There is indeed historical precedent in the Spanish Inquisition for the notion of hereditary Judaism. But the fact that the worst religious thought of the sixteenth century can be likened to the worst scientific thought of the twentieth century hardly redounds to the credit of science."[229]
As noted earlier, evolutionary ideas significantly influenced the thinking of the nineteenth and twentieth-century Communists.[231][232] Karl Marx wrote in a letter the following, ""Darwin's book is very important and serves me as a basis in natural science for the class struggle in history." Darwin's ideas also influenced the thinking of Engels, Vladimir Lenin, and Joseph Stalin.[233]
Governments under the banner of atheistic communism have caused the death of somewhere between 40 million to 260 million human lives.[234][235][236][237][238][239] Dr. R. J. Rummel, professor emeritus of political science at the University of Hawaii, is the scholar who first coined the term democide (death by government). Dr. R. J. Rummel's mid estimate regarding the loss of life due to communism is that communism caused the death of approximately 110,286,000 people between 1917 and 1987.[240]
Previously it was mentioned that evolutionary ideas contributed to the scourge of racism. [241][242] Charles Darwin and Thomas Huxley contributed greatly to the theory of evolution broadly being accepted in the 1900s. [243] Darwin, Huxley, and the 19th century evolutionists were racist in sentiment and believed the white race was superior. [244] For example, Charles Darwin wrote in his work The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex the following:
|At some future period not very distant as measured by centuries, the civilised races of man will almost certainly exterminate and replace the savage races throughout the world. At the same time the anthropomorphous apes...will no doubt be exterminated. The break between man and his nearest Allies will then be wider, for it will intervene between man in a more civilised state, as we may hope, even than the Caucasian, and some ape as low as the baboon, instead of as now between the Negro or Australian and the gorilla.[245]
John C. Burnham wrote, in the journal Science, the following in regards to the theory of evolution and racism:
|After 1859, the evolutionary schema raised additional questions, particularly whether or not Afro-Americans could survive competition with their white near-relations. The momentous answer was a resounding no.... The African was inferior — he represented the missing link between ape and Teuton."[246]
Harvard University's Stephen Jay Gould stated, "Biological arguments for racism may have been common before 1859, but they increased by orders of magnitude following the acceptance of evolutionary theory."[247] Recent racism directed at Michelle Obama was the result of evolutionary racism.[248]
Also, according to atheist philosopher David Stove the theory of evolution was influential in regards to the sexual revolution.[249]
Genetics, Homosexuality, Evolutionary Paradigm, and Creation Science
For more information please see: Genetics, Homosexuality, Evolutionary Paradigm, and Creation Science
In 1993, Professor Miron Baron, M.D., the renowned medical researcher and Professor at Columbia University, wrote in BMJ (British Medical Journal) that there is a conflict relative to the theory of evolution and the notion of genetic determinism concerning homosexuality. Dr. Baron wrote "...from an evolutionary perspective, genetically determined homosexuality would have become extinct long ago because of reduced reproduction."[250] In the United States, liberals are more likely to believe in the theory of evolution.[251] Also, in the United States, twice as many liberals as conservatives (46% versus 22%) believe people are born homosexual and liberals generally have more favorable opinions about homosexuality.[252] Given Dr. Miron Baron's commentary about homosexuality, many American liberals are inconsistent on the issues of evolution and homosexuality.
An individual's beliefs regarding creation science/creationism and the theory of evolution appear to influence their views on homosexuality. Creationist scientists and creationist assert that the theory of evolution cannot account for the origin of gender and sexual reproduction.[253][254] Creation Ministries International states: "Homosexual acts go against God's original design of a man and a woman becoming one flesh — see Genesis 1 and 2, endorsed by Jesus Himself in Matthew 19:3–6."[255] In addition, the vast majority of creation scientists reject the notion of genetic determinism concerning the origin of homosexuality.[256]
Common behavior of online evolutionists
In February of 2010, the news organization The Telegraph reported that atheist and evolutionist Richard Dawkins was "embroiled in a bitter online battle over plans to rid his popular internet forum for atheists of foul language, insults and 'frivolous gossip'."[257] Given that Wired Magazine and Vox Day declared for various reasons that atheists tend to be quarrelsome, socially challenged men, it is not surprising the online dispute was bitter. In addition, Richard Dawkins has a reputation for being abrasive.
In 2010, the Christian apologetics website True Free Thinker wrote:
|Scienceblogger Chad Orzel described the commentators on PZ Myers ' Scienceblogs.com site Pharyngula, and other Scienceblogs.com commentators, as "screechy monkeys."[258]
In addition, there is a widespread problem with atheist cyberbullying on YouTube toward Christian and creationist YouTube channels. CreationWiki has developed a web page entitled Creationist YouTube video designed to show creationists how to thwart atheist/evolutionist cyberbullies.
Creation Scientists Tend to Win the Creation-Evolution Debates
- For additional information please see the article: Atheism and Debate and Atheism and deception and Creation scientists tend to win the creation vs. evolution debates and Geographic Locations where evolutionary belief is in the minority or declining
Creation scientists tend to win the Creation-Evolution debates and many have been held since the 1970's particularly in the United States. Robert Sloan, Director of Paleontology at the University of Minnesota, reluctantly admitted to a Wall Street Journal reporter that the "creationists tend to win" the public debates which focused on the creation vs. evolution controversy.[259][260] In August of 1979, Dr. Henry Morris reported in an Institute for Creation Research letter the following: "By now, practically every leading evolutionary scientist in this country has declined one or more invitations to a scientific debate on creation/evolution."[260] Morris also said regarding the creation scientist Duane Gish (who had over 300 formal debates): "At least in our judgment and that of most in the audiences, he always wins."[260] Generally speaking, leading evolutionists no longer debate creation scientists because creation scientists tend to win the creation vs. evolution debates.[261] Also, the atheist and evolutionist Richard Dawkins has shown inconsistent and deceptive behavior concerning his refusal creation scientists. Evolutionists and atheists inconsistency concerning debating creationists was commented on by the Christian apologetic website True Free Thinker which declared: "Interestingly enough, having noted that since some atheists refuse to debate "creationists" but then go on to debate some of those people but not others, it is clear that they are, in reality, being selective and making excuses for absconding from difficulties..."[262] In an article entitled Are Kansas Evolutionists Afraid of a Fair Debate? the Discovery Institute states the following:
|Defenders of Darwin's theory of evolution typically proclaim that evidence for their theory is simply overwhelming. If they really believe that, you would think they would jump at a chance to publicly explain some of that overwhelming evidence to the public. Apparently not.[263]
In 1994, the arch-evolutionist Dr. Eugenie Scott made this confession concerning creation vs. evolution debates:
| During the last six or eight months, I have received more calls about debates between creationists and evolutionists than I have encountered for a couple of years, it seems. I do not know what has inspired this latest outbreak, but I am not sure it is doing much to improve science education.
Why do I say this? Sure, there are examples of "good" debates where a well-prepared evolution supporter got the best of a creationist, but I can tell you after many years in this business that they are few and far between. Most of the time a well-meaning evolutionist accepts a debate challenge (usually "to defend good science" or for some other worthy goal), reads a bunch of creationist literature, makes up a lecture explaining Darwinian gradualism, and can't figure out why at the end of the debate so many individuals are clustered around his opponent, congratulating him on having done such a good job of routing evolution -- and why his friends are too busy to go out for a beer after the debate.[264]
In 2010, the worldwide atheist community was challenged to a debate by Creation Ministries International as prominent atheists were speaking at a 2010 global atheist convention in Australia.[265] Richard Dawkins, PZ Myers and other prominent atheists refused to debate Creation Ministries International.[266]
Theory of Evolution, Liberalism, Atheism, and Irrationality
- See also: Evolution, Liberalism, Atheism, and Irrationality and
Theory of evolution and liberalism and Atheism and Evolution and Atheism and deception
As alluded to earlier, in the United States, CBS News reported in October of 2005 that the Americans most likely to believe only in the theory of evolution are liberals.[268]
| The CBS News reported the following:
Americans most likely to believe in only evolution are liberals (36 percent), those who rarely or never attend religious services (25 percent), and those with a college degree or higher (24 percent).
White evangelicals (77 percent), weekly churchgoers (74 percent) and conservatives (64 percent), are mostly likely to say God created humans in their present form.[269]
Given that liberalism is so prevalent in academia, it is not entirely surprising that college graduates are indoctrinated into the evolutionary paradigm via evolutionary propaganda.
Despite the aforementioned lack of evidence for the evolutionary position and the aforementioned counter evidential nature of the evolutionary paradigm, atheists and liberals persist in advocating the evolutionary paradigm. The continued support of the atheist and liberal community for the evolutionary paradigm is not surprising given the that the Wall Street Journal reported:
| ...a comprehensive new study released by Baylor University yesterday, shows that traditional Christian religion greatly decreases belief in everything from the efficacy of palm readers to the usefulness of astrology. It also shows that the irreligious and the members of more liberal Protestant denominations, far from being resistant to superstition, tend to be much more likely to believe in the paranormal and in pseudoscience than evangelical Christians....
This is not a new finding. In his 1983 book "The Whys of a Philosophical Scrivener," skeptic and science writer Martin Gardner cited the decline of traditional religious belief among the better educated as one of the causes for an increase in pseudoscience, cults and superstition. He referenced a 1980 study published in the magazine Skeptical Inquirer that showed irreligious college students to be by far the most likely to embrace paranormal beliefs, while born-again Christian college students were the least likely.[270]
Liberalism, Charles Darwin, and Denial of Creation
See also: Atheism and deceptionCharles Darwin (see: religious views of Charles Darwin ) who late in life is reported to often have overwhelming thoughts that the world was designed.[272] Creation Ministries International describes such irrational thinking in the following manner:
|Underpinning this abandonment of faith in God is the widespread acceptance of evolutionary thinking — that everything made itself by natural processes; that God is not necessary. There is 'design', such people will admit, but no Designer is necessary. The designed thing designed itself! This thinking, where the plain-as-day evidence for God's existence (Rom. 1:19–20) is explained away, leads naturally to atheism (belief in no God) and secular humanism (man can chart his own course without God). Such thinking abounds in universities and governments today).[273]
The evolutionist and immunologist Dr. Scott Todd, an immunologist at Kansas State University, perfectly epitomized the irrational evolutionary denial of the evidence for creation in his correspondence to the science journal Nature. Dr. Scott wrote: "Even if all the data point to an intelligent designer, such an hypothesis is excluded from science because it is not naturalistic".[274]
Ben Stein Interview with the Evolutionist Richard Dawkins
In the movie Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed, Ben Stein demonstrated the folly of evolutionism in his interview with the prominent evolutionist and atheist Richard Dawkins (A clip of the interview has been uploaded to YouTube ).
The Discovery Institute provides an transcript of part of the interview along with some commentary:
| BEN STEIN: "What do you think is the possibility that Intelligent Design might turn out to be the answer to some issues in genetics or in evolution?"
DAWKINS: "Well, it could come about in the following way. It could be that at some earlier time, somewhere in the universe, a civilization evolved, probably by some kind of Darwinian means, probably to a very high level of technology, and designed a form of life that they seeded onto perhaps this planet. Now, um, now that is a possibility, and an intriguing possibility. And I suppose it's possible that you might find evidence for that if you look at the details of biochemistry, molecular biology, you might find a signature of some sort of designer."
Years ago, everybody knew that the earth was flat. Everybody knew that the sun revolved around the earth. Today, everybody knows that life on earth is either the result of random evolution or the work of a supernatural God. Or is it? In "Message from the Designers", Rael presents us with a third option: that all life on earth was created by advanced scientists from another world.
Richard Dawkins and Rael; "clear thinking" kindred spirits! [276]
In the Ben Stein/Richard Dawkins interview, Richard Dawkins was also asked what the probability is of God's existence is and a rationale for that estimation. Dawkins gave a very inept reply to Ben Stein concerning this issue.[277]
Creationist Video Interview of Richard Dawkins Being Stumped by a Creationist
A video clip featuring Richard Dawkins became widely available to the public,[278] showing Dawkins being stumped by a question from the creationist interviewer. A shortened version has been translated into 10 languages. The clip was part of an interview included in the video and DVD From a Frog to Prince, produced by Creation Ministries International about the genetic information required by evolution, and the interviewer is asking Dawkins for an example of genetic information arising from a mutation.
In later interviews, Dawkins claims that he was not stumped, but instead shocked when he realized that the interviewer was a creationist, and the video was edited in a way to make him look like he was unable to answer the question.[279] However, the question came after he had that realization, and after the creationists negotiated with Dawkins and he agreed to continue.[280] Richard Dawkins still hasn't provide any examples of genetic information being created by evolution.
Methodological Naturalism Ideology In Evolutionary Thought
As mentioned earlier, evolutionary thought (which employs methodological naturalism) has had an influence on origin of life research as well (for example, a 2004 article in the International Journal of Astrobiology is titled On the applicability of Darwinian principles to chemical evolution that led to life).[281] The Nobel Prize winning biologist Francis Crick described himself as an agnostic with "a strong inclination towards atheism."[282]In 1992, the science magazine Scientific American published an interview which explored Sir Francis Crick's belief in the hypothesis Directed Panspermia as a proposed hypthesis for the origin of life on earth.[283] Directed panspermia posits concerning the question of origin of life on earth that "organisms were deliberately transmitted to the earth by intelligent beings on another planet."[284] Michael Behe wrote regarding the Scientific American interview the following:
|The primary reason Crick subscribes to this unorthodox view is that he judges the undirected origin of life to be a virtually insurmountable obstacle, but he wants a naturalistic explanation. [285]
When commenting on the hypothesis of Directed Panspermia Creation Ministries International wrote that Francis "Crick's atheistic faith leads to absurd pseudoscience".[286]
Supppession of scientific inquiry concerning alternative theories of origins
see also: Suppression of alternatives to evolution
There exists widespread suppression of creation science and intelligent design, ideas which offer alternative explanations of origins than do the various theories of evolution (for more information please see: Suppression of alternatives to evolution).
Inflated claims of evolutionists growing in frequency and intensity
- See also: Atheism and deception
In recent times, despite their being little consensus on how evolution allegedly occurred according to the various theories of evolution, evolutionists have tried to convince the public of the supposed validity of the evolutionary position by increasing and frequently using the term "overwhelming evidence" or similar terms in relation to the alleged existence of evidence that supports their position.[289] For example, prominent atheist and evolutionist Richard Dawkins claimed in an interview with journalist Bill Moyers that there is "massive evidence" for the theory of evolution.[290]
The atheist and evolutionist Carl Sagan was an avid marijuana smoker who claimed marijuana gave him scientific insights.[291] Given the lack of any real evidence for the evolutionary position and the aforementioned abundance of evidence against the evolutionary paradigm, Sagan's atheism and avid marijuana smoking no doubt helped inspire Sagan's atheistic pseudoscience fantasy that evolution was a "fact".[292] The Barna Group found concerning atheism and morality that those who hold to the worldviews of atheism or agnosticism in America were more likely, than theists in America, to look upon the following behaviors as morally acceptable: illegal drug use; excessive drinking; sexual relationships outside of marriage; abortion; cohabitating with someone of opposite sex outside of marriage; obscene language; gambling; pornography and obscene sexual behavior; and engaging in homosexuality/bisexuality.[293]
Creation vs. Evolution Videos
Poor health practices of some notable evolutionists
See also: Atheism and obesity and Atheism and Mental and Physical Health and Evolutionists who have had problems with being overweight and/or obese
A 2009 picture of a significantly overweight PZ Myers can be found HERE. A 2010 picture taken in Australia shows PZ Myers drinking ale/beer and he had excess weight in his abdominal area.[294] In 2010, PZ Myers had health problems related to his heart.[295] In addition, medical science research indicates that excess weight impairs brain function.[296][297] Given PZ Myers' biological training and the wide dissemination of the harmful health effects of being overweight in terms of cardiovascular health and brain function, it is unfortunate that preventative medicine was not used in greater measure in terms of his health.[298][299][300] PZ Myers' inattention to diligently implementing the recommendations of medical science is not entirely surprising given his vehement advocacy of evolutionary pseudoscience. There have been a number of notable evolutionists who have been overweight (see also: Evolution, Liberalism, Atheism, and Irrationality).
Also, as noted earlier, since World War II a majority of the most prominent and vocal defenders of the evolutionary position which employs methodological naturalism have been atheists.[301] For a list of overweight and/or obese notable atheists please see: Atheism and obesity
Further Reading (including free on-line versions)
- J.D. Mitchell, The Creation Dialogues - A Response to the Position of the American Association for the Advancement of Science on Evolution, Christianity and the Bible, Pleasant Word (Winepress Pub), 2010 ISBN 1414118007[302][303]
- Duane Gish, Evolution: The Fossils Still Say No!, El Cajon: Institute for Creation Research, 1996[304] ISBN 9780890511121
- Jonathan Sarfati, Refuting Evolution, Master Books, 1999 (Free on-line version) ISBN 0890512582
- Jonathan Sarfati, Refuting Evolution 2, Master Books, 2002,(Free on-line version) ISBN 0890513872
- Richard Weikart, Hitler's Ethic: The Nazi Pursuit of Evolutionary Progress ISBN 978-0-230-61807-7
- Richard Weikart, From Darwin to Hitler: Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics, and Racism in Germany ISBN 9781403972019
- R.L. Wysong, The Creation-Evolution Controversy, Inquiry Press (Midland, MI), 1976. ISBN 978-0-918-112-02-6[305]
- Phillip Johnson, Darwin on Trial. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois. 1991[306] ISBN 0-8308-1324-1
- R. C. Sproul, Not a Chance: The Myth of Chance in Modern Science and Cosmology, Baker Book House: 1994[307] ISBN 080105852X
See also
- Creation vs. Evolution Videos
- Suppression of alternatives to evolution
- Essay: Sharing your Christian/creationist videos on the internet
- Comedy and satires concerning atheism and evolution (large collection of comedy/satire concerning atheism and evolution)
- Humorous quotes about atheism and evolution
- Satires of evolution
- Poe's law
- Origin of life
- Atheism
- Creation
- Atheism and deception
- Young Earth Creationism
- Human evolution
- Arguments for a recent creation
- Atheism and Evolution
- Christianity and Science
- Counterexamples to Evolution
- Creation Science
- Creation vs. evolution debate
- Evolutionism
External Links and other links
- Evolution
- Human evolution
- Theory of evolution
- Evolutionist Richard Dawkins Being Stumped By a Creationists' Question - Video Clip
- Comedy and satires concerning atheism and evolution (large collection of comedy/satire concerning atheism and evolution )
- Theory of evolution by Windmill Ministries
- Intelligent Design vs. Evolution
- ↑ http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/teleological-arguments/notes.html
- ↑ http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-2109
- ↑ Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, Definition for "evolution"
- ↑
- Dr. Don Batten, A Who's Who of evolutionists Creation 20(1):32, December 1997.
- Jonathan Sarfati, Ph.D.,F.M., Refuting Evolution, Chapter 1, Facts and Bias
- ↑ http://www.discovery.org/a/2732
- ↑ http://voices.washingtonpost.com/answer-sheet/science/study-most-high-school-biology.html
- ↑ Nearly Two-Thirds of Doctors Skeptical of Darwin's Theory of Evolution
- ↑ Nearly Two-Thirds of Doctors Skeptical of Darwin's Theory of Evolution
- ↑ Nearly Two-Thirds of Doctors Skeptical of Darwin's Theory of Evolution
- ↑ http://www.gallup.com/poll/145286/Four-Americans-Believe-Strict-Creationism.aspx
- ↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4648598.stm
- ↑ Russell Grigg and Dr. Jonathan Sarfati, Intelligent Design—'A War on Science' says the BBC]
- ↑ Paul McHugh, The Weekly Standard, Teaching Darwin: Why we're still fighting about biology textbook. March 28, 2005
- ↑ Nilsson, Heribert, Synthetische Artbildung, Verlag CWK Gleerup, Lund, Sweden, 1953, page 1185
- ↑ http://creation.com/was-dawkins-stumped-frog-to-a-prince-critics-refuted-again
- ↑ http://creation.com/was-dawkins-stumped-frog-to-a-prince-critics-refuted-again
- ↑ YouTube video - Is Richard Dawkins Really Stumped? The Truth - In His Own Words - YES...he is!
- ↑
- ↑ Porter Kier, quoted in New Scientist, January 15, 1981, p. 129
- ↑ Mark Ridley, 'Who doubts evolution?', New Scientist, vol. 90, 25 June 1981, p. 831
- ↑
- ↑ Charles Darwin, (1859),The Origin of Species, Project Gutenberg online text
- ↑ http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-2109
- ↑
- http://www.creation.com/content/view/1877
- Barrett, Paul H. Darwin on Man 1974:276
- American Scientist May 1977:323
- ↑ http://creation.com/charles-darwin-s-real-message-have-you-missed-it
- ↑ Russell Grigg, Darwin's Illegitimate Brainchild: If You Thought Darwin's Origin Was Original, Think Again!
- ↑ Russell Grigg, Darwin's Illegitimate Brainchild: If You Thought Darwin's Origin Was Original, Think Again!
- ↑ MedicineNet.com, Definition of Lamarkism
- ↑ Dr. Jerry Bergman, Evolutionary Naturalism: An Ancient Idea First published: TJ 15(2):77–80 August 2001
- ↑ Dr. Werner Gitt, 10 Dangers of Theistic Evolution First published: Creation 17(4):49–51, September 1995
- ↑ NorthWest Creation Network, Quotes on Genetics
- ↑ Jonathan Sarfati, P.H.D., F.M., Climbing Mount Improbable:A Review of Climbing Mount Improbable by Richard Dawkins
- ↑ Pierre-Paul Grassé regarding mutations
- ↑ Pierre-Paul Grassé regarding mutations
- ↑ [ http://www.veritas-ucsb.org/library/origins/quotes/mutations.html Pierre-Paul Grassé regarding mutations]
- ↑ Ernst Mayr, Systematics and the Origin of Species (New York: Dover Publications, 1942), p. 296
- ↑
- Answers in Genesis, Mutations: Questions and Answers
- Dr. Jerry Bergman, Darwinism and the Deterioration of the Genome
- Jonathan Sarfati, P.H.D., F.M., Climbing Mount Improbable:A Review of Climbing Mount Improbable by Richard Dawkins
- Jonathan Sarfati, P.H.D., F.M., Refuting Evolution, Chapter 2, Variation and Natural Selection Versus Evolution
- Answers in Genesis, Natural Selection Questions and Answers
- ↑
- Dr. Walt Brown, Center for Scientific Creation, Life Sciences
- Jonathan Sarfati, P.H.D., F.M.,Who's Really Pushing 'Bad Science'?
- ↑ Dr. Jerry Bergman, Does Homology Provide Evidence of Evolutionary Naturalism?
- ↑
- Dr. Georgia Purdom, If Human and Chimp DNA Are So Similar, Why Are There So Many Physical and Mental Differences Between Them?
- Dr. Don Batten, DNA Similarity: Evidence for Evolutionary Relationship?
- Jonathan Sarfati, P.H.D., F.M., Refuting Evolution, Chapter 6, Humans: Images of God or Advanced Apes?
- ↑ Creation Ministries International, Speciation: Questions and Answers
- ↑
- ↑ Jonathan Sarfati,Ph.D., F.M. Refuting Evolution 2, Chapter 1, Argument: Creationism is religion, not science
- ↑ http://creation.com/refuting-evolution-chapter-9-is-the-design-explanation-legitimate
- ↑ http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/filesDB-download.php?command=download&id=1489
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 Dr. Walt Brown, Center For Scientific Creation, Codes, Programs, and Information
- ↑
- ↑
- Dr. Walt Brown, Center For Scientific Creationism, Notes and References: Codes, Programs, and Information
- PubMed Central (PMC), Three subsets of sequence complexity and their relevance to biopolymeric information by David L Abel1 and Jack T Trevors
- ↑ Dr. Stephen Meyer, Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 117(2):213-239. 2004, The Origin of Biological Information and the Higher Taxonomic Categories
- ↑
- ↑
- ↑ Stephen E. Jones, Creation/Evolution Quotes: Mechanisms #1
- ↑ http://bevets.com/equotesg3.htm
- ↑ http://creation.com/ariel-a-roth-biology-in-six-days
- ↑ http://www.arn.org/blogs/index.php/literature/2008/07/25/how_much_of_evolutionary_theory_needs_fi
- ↑ http://www.arn.org/blogs/index.php/literature/2008/07/25/how_much_of_evolutionary_theory_needs_fi
- ↑ http://www.worldviewtimes.com/article.php/articleid-1739
- ↑ http://www.billmuehlenberg.com/2007/03/20/a-review-of-the-dawkins-delusion-by-alister-mcgrath/
- ↑ 59.0 59.1 "Another Evolution Fraud Exposed" - Creationism.org, INVESTIGATING GENESIS SERIES.
- ↑ http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9C03EFDD123EE033A2575AC0A9659C946697D6CF
- ↑ http://www.discovery.org/articleFiles/PDFs/survivalOfTheFakest.pdf
- ↑ http://www.discovery.org/articleFiles/PDFs/survivalOfTheFakest.pdf
- ↑
- ↑
- ↑ http://creation.com/the-extinction-of-the-dinosaurs
- ↑ http://creation.com/the-extinction-of-the-dinosaurs
- ↑ Creation's Tiny Mystery: Chapter 7: Creation Science—a Public Issue
- ↑ Dr. Walt Brown, Center for Scientific Creationism, References and Notes: Distinct Types
- ↑ Charles Darwin, Origin of the Species, Chapter X: ON THE IMPERFECTION OF THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD
- ↑ Dr. Walt Brown, Center for Scientific Creationism, References and Notes: Distinct Types
- ↑
- ↑ Sir Edmund Leech, Addresing the 1981 annual meeting of the British Association for the advancement of Science, 'Men, bishop and apes'. Nature vol 293, 3 Sep. 1981, p. 19 and 20
- ↑ Bert Thompson, Ph.D. and Brad Harrub, Ph.D., 15 Answers to John Rennie and Scientific American's Nonsense—Argument #13
- ↑ Dr. Walt Brown, Center For Scientific Creationism, References and Notes: Fossil Gaps
- ↑ 78.0 78.1 78.2 78.3 78.4 78.5 Dr. Don Batten, Punctuated Equilibrium: Come of Age?, 1994
- ↑ Stephen Jay Gould, "The Return of Hopeful Monsters," Natural History 86 (June/July): 22-30
- ↑ Answers in Genesis, Those fossils are a problem
- ↑ Dr. Don Batten, Gould Grumbles About Creationist 'Hijacking'
- ↑ Stephen Jay Gould, "Evolution as Fact and Theory," Discover 2 (May 1981)
- ↑ Dr. Walt Brown, Center For Scientific Creationism, References and Notes: Fossil Gaps
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2003/1208mayr.asp
- ↑ Ernst Mayr, 1982a. Speciation and macroevolution. Evolution 36, page 1120
- ↑ Stephen Jay Gould, "Not Necessarily a Wing," Natural History 94 (October 1985): 12-25;
- ↑ Ernst Mayr, What Evolution Is, (New York: Basic Books, 2001), p. 14
- ↑ 88.0 88.1 Dr. Jonathan Sarfati, P.H.D., F.M., Archaeopteryx (unlike Archaeoraptor) is NOT a hoax — it is a true bird, not a "missing link"
- ↑
- ↑
- Jonathan Sarfati, P.H.D., F.M., Tiktaalik—a fishy 'missing link'
- Frank Sherwin, M.A., Tiktaalik: Our Ancestor?
- Dr. David Menton, Tiktaalik and the fishy story of walking fish
- ↑ Christian Answers Network, The Fossil Record - References
- ↑ Dr. Walt Brown, Notes and References: Fossil Gaps
- ↑ Sean Pitman, M.D., Early Man
- ↑ Solly Zuckerman: Biography
- ↑ Henry Gee, "Return to the Planet of the Apes," Nature, Vol. 412, 12 July 2001, p. 131.
- ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica (online): Paleoanthropology
- ↑ Dr. David Pilbeam: Brief Biography
- ↑ Answers in Genesis, Those Fossils Are A Problem
- ↑ 99.0 99.1 Sean Pitman, M.D., Thoughts on Evolution From Scientists and Other Intellectuals
- ↑ Brad Harrub, Ph.D., Bert Thompson, Ph.D., and Eric Lyons, M.Min., Human Evolution and the "Record of the Rocks"
- ↑ Brad Harrub, Ph.D., The "Glorious Mess" of Human Origins
- ↑ 102.0 102.1 National Geographic (online edition), Joel Achenbach, PALEOANTHROPOLOGY, Out of Africa, Are we looking for bones in all the right places?
- ↑ Frank Sherwin, M.A., "Human Evolution" An Update
- ↑ Bert Thompson, P.H.D. and Brad Harrub, P.H.D., 15 Answers to John Rennie and Scientific American's Nonsense
- ↑ 105.0 105.1 105.2 105.3 105.4 105.5 105.6 Ian Anderson, "Hominoid collarbone exposed as dolphin's rib", in New Scientist, 28 April 1983, page 199
- ↑ http://www.creationism.org/articles/quotes.htm
- ↑ 107.0 107.1 107.2 W. Herbert, Science News. 123:246 (1983)
- ↑ Creation Ministries International, Anthropology and Apeman Questions and Answers
- ↑ Answers in Genesis, Anthropology and Apeman Questions and Answers
- ↑ Brad Harrub, Ph.D., Bert Thompson, Ph.D., and Eric Lyons, M.Min., Human Evolution and the "Record of the Rocks"
- ↑ http://www.amnh.org/science/divisions/paleo/bio.php?scientist=eldredge
- ↑ http://dannyreviews.com/h/The_Dynamics_of_Evolution.html
- ↑ Yale Review of Book, Spring 2002 issue, Monograph: Punctuated Equilibrium
- ↑ http://creation.com/zoogenesis-a-theory-of-desperation
- ↑ http://creation.com/zoogenesis-a-theory-of-desperation#endRef4
- ↑ http://www.arn.org/ftissues/ft9801/johnson.html
- ↑ http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/shermer_sjgould.pdf
- ↑ http://dannyreviews.com/h/The_Dynamics_of_Evolution.html
- ↑ Yale Review of Book, Spring 2002 issue, Monograph: Punctuated Equilibrium
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/news/scientific_american.asp
- ↑ http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_hopeful-monsters.html
- ↑ Ernst Mayr, 1982a. Speciation and macroevolution. Evolution 36, page 1128
- ↑ http://creation.com/punctuated-equilibrium-come-of-age
- ↑ http://creation.com/punctuated-equilibrium-come-of-age
- ↑ 125.0 125.1 http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_structure.html
- ↑
- ↑ http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/PoE/pe05scnc.html
- ↑ http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/PoE/pe05scnc.html
- ↑ L.C. Birch and P.R. Ehrlich, Nature, vol. 214 (1967), p. 349
- ↑ Altenberg 16: An Exposé Of The Evolution Industry, July 6, 2008, by Suzan Mazur
- ↑ http://post-darwinist.blogspot.com/2009/05/more-tales-from-altenberg-suzan-mazurs.html
- ↑ Ernst Mayr, Systematics and the Origin of Species (New York: Dover Publications, 1942), p. 296
- ↑ http://www.uncommondescent.com/intelligent-design/two-just-so-stories/
- ↑ http://darwinstories.blogspot.com/
- ↑ http://www.literature.org/authors/darwin-charles/the-origin-of-species/chapter-06.html
- ↑ http://creation.com/refuting-evolution-chapter-1-evolution-creation-science-religion-facts-bias
- ↑ http://creation.com/new-four-winged-feathered-dinosaur
- ↑ http://www.creation.com/content/view/5044
- ↑ http://www.ucgstp.org/lit/booklets/evolution/cooperat.html
- ↑ http://www.icr.org/article/146/
- ↑ http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/2331
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/tj/v15/i2/ants.asp
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i1/planes.asp
- ↑ http://creation.com/the-brain-brainier-than-believed-before
- ↑ http://creation.com/the-human-bodygods-masterpiece
- ↑ http://creation.com/mind-by-design-peter-line-interview
- ↑ http://creation.com/the-magnificent-migrating-monarch
- ↑ http://creation.com/refuting-evolution-chapter-5-whale-evolution
- ↑ http://creation.com/whale-explodes-fossil-theory
- ↑ http://www.creation.com/content/view/4340
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/tj/v17/i1/beetle.asp
- ↑ http://www.creationism.org/heinze/Woodpecker.htm
- ↑ http://www.creationscience.com/onlinebook/ReferencesandNotes10.html#wp1033719
- ↑ http://www.ldolphin.org/ntcreation.html
- ↑ http://www.arn.org/docs/meyer/sm_origins.htm
- ↑ http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/teleological-arguments/notes.html
- ↑ http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=2640
- ↑ http://creationresearch.org/crsq.html
- ↑ http://www.creation.com/content/view/3873/
- ↑ http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&id=2640
- ↑ http://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline/page-14-text?firstview=1
- ↑ http://www.creation.com/content/view/3054/
- ↑ http://www.bookrags.com/research/lysenkoism-wog/
- ↑ http://www.bartelby.com/65/ly/Lysenko.html
- ↑ http://www.bartelby.com/65/ly/Lysenko.html
- ↑ http://www.bookrags.com/research/lysenkoism-wog/
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/tj/v14/i2/vestigial.asp
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/tj/v14/i2/vestigial.asp
- ↑ http://creation.com/refuting-evolution-chapter-7-astronomy
- ↑
- ↑ http://www.creation.com/content/view/3836
- ↑ 172.0 172.1 172.2 Strange Planets - Creationscience.com
- ↑ 173.0 173.1 Star Births? Stellar Evolution? - Creationscience.com
- ↑ 174.0 174.1 Galaxies - Creationscience.com
- ↑ http://www.icr.org/article/547/
- ↑ http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=240771
- ↑
- ↑ http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/send-clowns-–-richard-dawkins-obliges
- ↑ http://creation.com/the-greatest-hoax-on-earth/main.php
- ↑ http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/send-clowns-–-richard-dawkins-obliges
- ↑ http://creation.com/mueller-cells-backwardly-wired-retina-v-dawkins
- ↑ 182.0 182.1 Sarfati, 1999, Chapter 8, How old is the earth?
- ↑ http://creation.com/refuting-evolution-chapter-7-astronomy
- ↑ Adrian Hope, Finding a Home for Stray Fact, New Scientist, July 14, 1977, p. 83
- ↑ http://www.science-frontiers.com/sourcebk.htm
- ↑ http://www.apologeticspress.net/articles/184
- ↑ http://ed5015.tripod.com/BLions87.htm
- ↑ http://ed5015.tripod.com/BLions87.htm
- ↑ Views in U.S. Much Different Than Elsewhere, Kenneth Chang, ABCNews.com, 1999.
- ↑ http://www.discovery.org/a/2732
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/tj/v9/i2/suppression.asp
- ↑ http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=57840
- ↑ http://www.expelledthemovie.com/
- ↑ http://www.ovpr.uga.edu/researchnews/97su/faith.html
- ↑ http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v394/n6691/full/394313a0.html
- ↑ http://ed5015.tripod.com/BWilliamsvsAnon71to73.htm
- ↑ http://elane.stanford.edu/wilson/Text/5d.html
- ↑ http://www.dcmsonline.org/jax-medicine/2000journals/may2000/editorial.htm
- ↑ http://store.nwcreation.net/101scfafo.html
- ↑ [1]
- ↑ http://www.levity.com/alchemy/caezza4.html
- ↑ http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011664/Roger-Bacon
- ↑ http://www.jstor.org/view/03697827/ap020019/02a00050/0
- ↑ http://www.geoff-hart.com/resources/2006/intheory.htm
- ↑ http://www.easst.net/review/dec1998/bastos
- ↑ http://ed5015.tripod.com/BLions87.htm
- ↑ http://ed5015.tripod.com/BCobra94.htm
- ↑ http://ed5015.tripod.com/BBritannicaCobra38.htm
- ↑ http://ed5015.tripod.com/BWilliamsvsAnon71to73.htm
- ↑ Bible Scientific Foreknowledge at Creationwiki
- ↑ http://creation.com/content/view/1718/
- ↑
- http://www.icr.org/article/454/
- http://www.creationism.org/csshs/v09n1p04.htm
- http://www.creation.com/content/view/3031/
- http://www.creation.com/content/view/3054/
- http://creation.com/content/view/1804/
- http://creation.com/charles-darwins-impactthe-bloodstained-legacy-of-evolution
- http://www.icr.org/article/55/
- ↑ http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/social.html
- ↑ http://www.billmuehlenberg.com/2008/09/15/a-church-apology-to-darwin/
- ↑ http://creation.com/ota-benga-the-pygmy-put-on-display-in-a-zoo
- ↑ http://www.icr.org/index.php?module=articles&action=view&ID=268
- ↑ http://www.creation.com/content/view/1675
- ↑ http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_holocaust_why_did_it_happen
- ↑ http://www.creationism.org/csshs/v08n3p24.htm
- ↑ http://creation.com/obama-racism-row
- ↑ http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/read/the_holocaust_why_did_it_happen
- ↑ http://www.posner.com/book1.htm
- ↑ http://www.posner.com/book1.htm
- ↑ http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/joseph_mengele.htm
- ↑ http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/joseph_mengele.htm
- ↑ http://byfaithonline.com/page/in-the-world/richard-dawkins-the-atheist-evangelist
- ↑ http://byfaithonline.com/page/in-the-world/richard-dawkins-the-atheist-evangelist
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/tj/v13/i2/nazi.asp
- ↑ http://solutions.synearth.net/2006/10/20
- ↑ http://creation.com/the-darwinian-foundation-of-communism
- ↑ http://creation.com/content/view/1804/
- ↑ http://creation.com/charles-darwins-impactthe-bloodstained-legacy-of-evolution
- ↑ http://creation.com/the-darwinian-foundation-of-communism
- ↑ The Black Book of Communism
- ↑ The Black Book of Communism
- ↑ http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/COM.ART.HTM
- ↑ Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm
- ↑ Memory and Ideology
- ↑ The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression
- ↑ http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/COM.ART.HTM
- ↑ http://www.icr.org/article/55/
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/faq/racism.asp
- ↑ http://www.icr.org/article/55/
- ↑ http://www.icr.org/article/55/
- ↑ The Descent of Man, chapter VI
- ↑ http://www.icr.org/article/55/
- ↑ http://www.icr.org/index.php?module=articles&action=view&ID=268
- ↑ http://creation.com/obama-racism-row
- ↑ http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=18094
- ↑ BMJ. 1993 August 7; 307(6900): 337–338.
- ↑ http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/10/22/opinion/polls/main965223.shtml
- ↑ http://people-press.org/report/?pageid=764
- ↑ http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/136
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/pbs_nova/0928ep5.asp
- ↑ http://www.creation.com/content/view/2774
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/pbs_nova/0928ep5.asp
- ↑ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/7322177/Richard-Dawkins-in-bitter-web-censorship-row-with-fellow-atheists.html
- ↑ http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/pz-myers-and-pavlovs-monkeys
- ↑ Ankerberg, John, and Weldon, John, Truth in Advertising: Damaging the Cause of Science
- ↑ 260.0 260.1 260.2 Fraser, Bill,Who wins the Debates?
- ↑ http://www.icr.org/article/811/
- ↑ http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/speaking-assiduous-absconders%E2%80%A6yet-again-vox-day-challenges-pz-myers-debate
- ↑ http://www.evolutionnews.org/2005/02/are_kansas_evolutionists_afraid_of_a_fai.html
- ↑ http://www.skepticfiles.org/evo2/credebec.htm
- ↑ http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/richard-dawkins-cowardly-clown
- ↑ http://www.truefreethinker.com/articles/richard-dawkins-cowardly-clown
- ↑ http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122178219865054585.html
- ↑ http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/10/22/opinion/polls/main965223.shtml
- ↑ http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/10/22/opinion/polls/main965223.shtml
- ↑ http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122178219865054585.html
- ↑ http://creation.com/a-designer-is-unscientificeven-if-all-the-evidence-supports-one
- ↑ http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/teleological-arguments/notes.html
- ↑ http://creation.com/images/pdfs/cabook/chapter1.pdf
- ↑ http://creation.com/a-designer-is-unscientificeven-if-all-the-evidence-supports-one
- ↑ http://creation.com/was-dawkins-stumped-frog-to-a-prince-critics-refuted-again
- ↑ http://www.discovery.org/a/4589
- ↑ http://www.readyalways.org/Home/does-god-exist
- ↑ Was Dawkins Stumped? (Creation Ministries International) (The clip is viewable on this page).
- ↑ [2]
- ↑ Interview Timeline
- ↑ http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=240771
- ↑ Francis Crick, What Mad Pursuit: a Personal View of Scientific Discovery, Basic Books reprint edition, 1990, ISBN 0-465-09138-5, p. 145.
- ↑ http://www.genesispark.org/genpark/spongen/spongen.htm Reprint of an Creation Research Quarterly September 2001 article The Spontaneous Generation Hypothesis by David P. Woetzel
- ↑ http://www.spacedaily.com/news/life-04zzz.html
- ↑ http://www.genesispark.org/genpark/spongen/spongen.htm Reprint of an Creation Research Quarterly September 2001 article The Spontaneous Generation Hypothesis by David P. Woetzel
- ↑ http://creation.com/designed-by-aliens-crick-watson-atheism-panspermia
- ↑ http://cosmologytalk.tribe.net/thread/7e25b81c-2529-44c6-b388-f926c2475e6a
- ↑ http://www.creationdefense.org/57.htm
- ↑ http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2006/0612school-year.asp
- ↑ http://www.pbs.org/now/transcript/transcript349_full.html
- ↑ http://cosmologytalk.tribe.net/thread/7e25b81c-2529-44c6-b388-f926c2475e6a
- ↑ http://www.creationdefense.org/57.htm
- ↑ http://www.barna.org/barna-update/article/5-barna-update/58-practical-outcomes-replace-biblical-principles-as-the-moral-standard
- ↑ http://www.flickr.com/photos/reuvenim/4426093513/
- ↑ http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2010/08/thats_not_a_heart_its_a_flaili.php?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+scienceblogs%2Fpharyngula+%28Pharyngula%29&utm_content=Google+Reader
- ↑ http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/content/41/18/25.1.full
- ↑ http://health.usnews.com/health-news/family-health/brain-and-behavior/articles/2009/08/25/as-waistlines-widen-brains-shrink.html
- ↑ http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/content/41/18/25.1.full
- ↑ http://health.usnews.com/health-news/family-health/brain-and-behavior/articles/2009/08/25/as-waistlines-widen-brains-shrink.html
- ↑ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21121834
- ↑
- Dr. Don Batten, A Who's Who of evolutionists Creation 20(1):32, December 1997.
- Jonathan Sarfati, Ph.D.,F.M., Refuting Evolution, Chapter 1, Facts and Bias
- ↑ http://www.creationengineeringconcepts.org/index.php?p=1_35_THE-CREATION-DIALOGUES
- ↑ http://www.christianbook.com/dialogues-american-association-advancement-evolution-christianity/j-d-mitchell/9781414118000/pd/118002
- ↑ http://www.icr.org/store/index.php?main_page=pubs_product_book_info&products_id=2176
- ↑ http://www.grisda.org/origins/05105.htm
- ↑ http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/darwin.html
- ↑ http://www.ldolphin.org/chance.html