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IT is a question with several, whether there be any essential difference between one form of government and another? and, whether every form may not become good or bad, according as it is well or ill administered?[1] Were it once admitted, that all governments are alike, and that the only difference consists in the character and conduct of the governors, most political disputes would be at an end, and all Zeal for one constitution above another, must be esteemed mere bigotry and folly. But, though a friend to moderation, I cannot forbear condemning this sentiment, and should be sorry to think, that human affairs admit of no greater stability, than what they receive from the casual humours and characters of particular men.
It is true; those who maintain, that the goodness of all government consists in the goodness of the administration, may cite many particular instances in history, where the very same government, in different hands, has varied suddenly into the two opposite extremes of good and bad. Compare the FRENCH government under HENRY III.[2] and under HENRY IV.[3] Oppression, levity, artifice on the part of the rulers; faction, sedition, treachery, rebellion, disloyalty on the part of the subjects: These compose the character of the former miserable æra. But when the patriot and heroic prince, who succeeded, was once firmly seated on the throne, the government, the people, every thing seemed to be totally changed; and all from the difference of the temper and conduct of these two sovereigns. Instances of this kind may be multiplied, almost without number, from ancient as well as modern history, foreign as well as domestic.
But here it may be proper to make a distinction. All absolute governments must very much depend on the administration; and this is one of the great inconveniences attending that form of government. But a republican and free government would be an obvious absurdity, if the particular checks and controuls, provided by the constitution, had really no influence, and made it not the interest, even of bad men, to act for the public good. Such is the intention of these forms of government, and such is their real effect, where they are wisely constituted: As on the other hand, they are the source of all disorder, and of the blackest crimes, where either skill or honesty has been wanting in their original frame and institution.
So great is the force of laws, and of particular forms of government, and so little dependence have they on the humours and tempers of men, that consequences almost as general and certain may sometimes be deduced from them, as any which the mathematical sciences afford us.
The constitution of the ROMAN republic gave the whole legislative power to the people, without allowing a negative voice either to the nobility or consuls. This unbounded power they possessed in a collective, not in a representative body. The consequences were: When the people, by success and conquest, had become very numerous, and had spread themselves to a great distance from the capital, the city-tribes, though the most contemptible, carried almost every vote: They were, therefore, most cajoled by every one that affected popularity: They were supported in idleness by the general distribution of corn, and by particular bribes, which they received from almost every candidate: By this means, they became every day more licentious, and the CAMPUS MARTIUS[4] was a perpetual scene of tumult and sedition: Armed slaves were introduced among these rascally citizens; so that the whole government fell into anarchy, and the greatest happiness, which the ROMANS could look for, was the despotic power of the CÆSARS. Such are the effects of democracy without a representative.
A Nobility may possess the whole, or any part of the legislative power of a state, in two different ways. Either every nobleman shares the power as part of the whole body, or the whole body enjoys the power as composed of parts, which have each a distinct power and authority. The VENETIAN aristocracy is an instance of the first kind of government: The POLISH of the second. In the VENETIAN government the whole body of nobility possesses the whole power, and no nobleman has any authority which he receives not from the whole. In the POLISH government every nobleman, by means of his fiefs, has a distinct hereditary authority over his vassals, and the whole body has no authority but what it receives from the concurrence of its parts. The different operations and tendencies of these two species of government might be made apparent even a priori.[5] A VENETIAN nobility is preferable to a POLISH, let the humours and education of men be ever so much varied. A nobility, who possess their power in common, will preserve peace and order, both among themselves, and their subjects; and no member can have authority enough to controul the laws for a moment. The nobles will preserve their authority over the people, but without any grievous tyranny, or any breach of private property; because such a tyrannical government promotes not the interests of the whole body, however it may that of some individuals. There will be a distinction of rank between the nobility and people, but this will be the only distinction in the state. The whole nobility will form one body, and the whole people another, without any of those private feuds and animosities, which spread ruin and desolation every where. It is easy to see the disadvantages of a POLISH nobility in every one of these particulars.
It is possible so to constitute a free government, as that a single person, call him doge, prince, or king, shall possess a large share of power, and shall form a proper balance or counterpoise to the other parts of the legislature. This chief magistrate may be either elective or hereditary; and though the former institution may, to a superficial view, appear the most advantageous; yet a more accurate inspection will discover in it greater inconveniencies than in the latter, and such as are founded on causes and principles eternal and immutable. The filling of the throne, in such a government, is a point of too great and too general interest, not to divide the whole people into factions: Whence a civil war, the greatest of ills, may be apprehended, almost with certainty, upon every vacancy. The prince elected must be either a Foreigner or a Native: The former will be ignorant of the people whom he is to govern; suspicious of his new subjects, and suspected by them; giving his confidence entirely to strangers, who will have no other care but of enriching themselves in the quickest manner, while their master's favour and authority are able to support them. A native will carry into the throne all his private animosities and friendships, and will never be viewed in his elevation, without exciting the sentiment of envy in those, who formerly considered him as their equal. Not to mention that a crown is too high a reward ever to be given to merit alone, and will always induce the candidates to employ force, or money, or intrigue, to procure the votes of the electors: So that such an election will give no better chance for superior merit in the prince, than if the state had trusted to birth alone for determining their sovereign.
It may therefore be pronounced as an universal axiom in politics, That an hereditary prince, a nobility without vassals, and a people voting by their representatives, form the best MONARCHY, ARISTOCRACY, and DEMOCRACY. But in order to prove more fully, that politics admit of general truths, which are invariable by the humour or education either of subject or sovereign, it may not be amiss to observe some other principles of this science, which may seem to deserve that character.
It may easily be observed, that, though free governments have been commonly the most happy for those who partake of their freedom; yet are they the most ruinous and oppressive to their provinces: And this observation may, I believe, be fixed as a maxim of the kind we are here speaking of. When a monarch extends his dominions by conquest, he soon learns to consider his old and his new subjects as on the same footing; because, in reality, all his subjects are to him the same, except the few friends and favourites, with whom he is personally acquainted. He does not, therefore, make any distinction between them in his general laws; and, at the same time, is careful to prevent all particular acts of oppression on the one as well as on the other. But a free state necessarily makes a great distinction, and must always do so, till men learn to love their neighbours as well as themselves. The conquerors, in such a government, are all legislators, and will be sure to contrive matters, by restrictions on trade, and by taxes, so as to draw some private, as well as public, advantage from their conquests. Provincial governors have also a better chance, in a republic, to escape with their plunder, by means of bribery or intrigue; and their fellow-citizens, who find their own state to be enriched by the spoils of the subject provinces, will be the more inclined to tolerate such abuses. Not to mention, that it is a necessary precaution in a free state to change the governors frequently; which obliges these temporary tyrants to be more expeditious and rapacious, that they may accumulate sufficient wealth before they give place to their successors. What cruel tyrants were the ROMANS over the world during the time of their commonwealth! It is true, they had laws to prevent oppression in their provincial magistrates; but CICERO informs us, that the ROMANS could not better consult the interests of the provinces than by repealing these very laws. For, in that case, says he, our magistrates, having entire impunity, would plunder no more than would satisfy their own rapaciousness; whereas, at present, they must also satisfy that of their judges, and of all the great men in ROME, of whose protection they stand in need.[6] Who can read of the cruelties and oppressions of VERRES without horror and astonishment?
And who is not touched with indignation to hear, that, after CICERO had exhausted on that abandoned criminal all the thunders of his eloquence, and had prevailed so far as to get him condemned to the utmost extent of the laws; yet that cruel tyrant lived peaceably to old age, in opulence and ease, and, thirty years afterwards, was put into the proscription by MARK ANTHONY, on account of his exorbitant wealth, where he fell with CICERO himself, and all the most virtuous men of ROME?[7] After the dissolution of the commonwealth, the ROMAN yoke became easier upon the provinces, as TACITUS informs us;[8] and it may be observed, that many of the worst emperors, DOMITIAN,[9] for instance, were careful to prevent all oppression on the provinces. In[10] TIBERIUS'S time, GAUL was esteemed richer than ITALY itself: Nor, do I find, during the whole time of the ROMAN monarchy, that the empire became less rich or populous in any of its provinces; though indeed its valour and military discipline were always upon the decline. The oppression and tyranny of the CARTHAGINIANS over their subject states in AFRICA went so far, as we learn from POLYBIUS,[11] that, not content with exacting the half of all the produce of the land, which of itself was a very high rent, they also loaded them with many other taxes. If we pass from ancient to modern times, we shall still find the observation to hold. The provinces of absolute monarchies are always better treated than those of free states. Compare the Païs conquis of FRANCE with IRELAND, and you will be convinced of this truth; though this latter kingdom, being, in a good measure, peopled from ENGLAND, possesses so many rights and privileges as should naturally make it challenge better treatment than that of a conquered province. CORSICA is also an obvious instance to the same purpose.[12]
There is an observation in MACHIAVEL, with regard to the conquests of ALEXANDER the Great, which I think, may be regarded as one of those eternal political truths, which no time nor accidents can vary. It may seem strange, says that politician, that such sudden conquests, as those of ALEXANDER, should be possessed so peaceably by his successors, and that the PERSIANS, during all the confusions and civil wars among the GREEKS, never made the smallest effort towards the recovery of their former independent government.[13] To satisfy us concerning the cause of this remarkable event, we may consider, that a monarch may govern his subjects in two different ways. He may either follow the maxims of the eastern princes, and stretch his authority so far as to leave no distinction of rank among his subjects, but what proceeds immediately from himself; no advantages of birth; no hereditary honours and possessions; and, in a word, no credit among the people, except from his commission alone. Or a monarch may exert his power after a milder manner, like other EUROPEAN princes; and leave other sources of honour, beside his smile and favour: Birth, titles, possessions, valour, integrity, knowledge, or great and fortunate atchievements. In the former species of government, after a conquest, it is impossible ever to shake off the yoke; since no one possesses, among the people, so much personal credit and authority as to begin such an enterprize: Whereas, in the latter, the least misfortune, or discord among the victors, will encourage the vanquished to take arms, who have leaders ready to prompt and conduct them in every undertaking.[14]
Such is the reasoning of MACHIAVEL, which seems solid and conclusive; though I wish he had not mixed falsehood with truth, in asserting, that monarchies, governed according to eastern policy, though more easily kept when once subdued, yet are the most difficult to subdue; since they cannot contain any powerful subject, whose discontent and faction may facilitate the enterprizes of an enemy. For besides, that such a tyrannical government enervates the courage of men, and renders them indifferent towards the fortunes of their sovereign; besides this, I say, we find by experience, that even the temporary and delegated authority of the generals and magistrates; being always, in such governments, as absolute within its sphere, as that of the prince himself; is able, with barbarians, accustomed to a blind submission, to produce the most dangerous and fatal revolutions. So that, in every respect, a gentle government is preferable, and gives the greatest security to the sovereign as well as to the subject.
Legislators, therefore, ought not to trust the future government of a state entirely to chance, but ought to provide a system of laws to regulate the administration of public affairs to the latest posterity. Effects will always correspond to causes; and wise regulations in any commonwealth are the most valuable legacy that can be left to future ages. In the smallest court or office, the stated forms and methods, by which business must be conducted, are found to be a considerable check on the natural depravity of mankind. Why should not the case be the same in public affairs? Can we ascribe the stability and wisdom of the VENETIAN government, through so many ages, to any thing but the form of government? And is it not easy to point out those defects in the original constitution, which produced the tumultuous governments of ATHENS and ROME, and ended at last in the ruin of these two famous republics? And so little dependance has this affair on the humours and education of particular men, that one part of the same republic may be wisely conducted, and another weakly, by the very same men, merely on account of the difference of the forms and institutions, by which these parts are regulated. Historians inform us that this was actually the case with GENOA. For while the state was always full of sedition, and tumult, and disorder, the bank of St. GEORGE, which had become a considerable part of the people, was conducted, for several ages, with the utmost integrity and wisdom.[15]
The ages of greatest public spirit are not always most eminent for private virtue. Good laws may beget order and moderation in the government, where the manners and customs have instilled little humanity or justice into the tempers of men. The most illustrious period of the ROMAN history, considered in a political view, is that between the beginning of the first and end of the last PUNIC war; the due balance between the nobility and the people being then fixed by the contests of the tribunes, and not being yet lost by the extent of conquests. Yet at this very time, the horrid practice of poisoning was so common, that, during part of a season, a Prætor punished capitally for this crime above three thousand[16] persons in a part of ITALY; and found informations of this nature still multiplying upon him. There is a similar, or rather a worse instance,[17] in the more early times of the commonwealth. So depraved in private life were that people, whom in their histories we so much admire. I doubt not but they were really more virtuous during the time of the two Triumvirates; when they were tearing their common country to pieces, and spreading slaughter and desolation over the face of the earth, merely for the choice of tyrants.[18]
Here, then, is a sufficient inducement to maintain, with the utmost ZEAL, in every free state, those forms and institutions, by which liberty is secured, the public good consulted, and the avarice or ambition of particular men restrained and punished. Nothing does more honour to human nature, than to see it susceptible of so noble a passion; as nothing can be a greater indication of meanness of heart in any man, than to see him destitute of it. A man who loves only himself, without regard to friendship and desert, merits the severest blame; and a man, who is only susceptible of friendship, without public spirit, or a regard to the community, is deficient in the most material part of virtue.
But this is a subject which needs not be longer insisted on at present. There are enow of zealots on both sides who kindle up the passions of their partizans, and under pretence of public good, pursue the interests and ends of their particular faction. For my part, I shall always be more fond of promoting moderation than zeal; though perhaps the surest way of producing moderation in every party is to increase our zeal for the public. Let us therefore try, if it be possible, from the foregoing doctrine, to draw a lesson of moderation with regard to the parties, into which our country is at present divided; at the same time, that we allow not this moderation to abate the industry and passion, with which every individual is bound to pursue the good of his country.[19]
Those who either attack or defend a minister in such a government as ours,[20] where the utmost liberty is allowed, always carry matters to an extreme, and exaggerate his merit or demerit with regard to the public. His enemies are sure to charge him with the greatest enormities, both in domestic and foreign management; and there is no meanness or crime, of which, in their account, he is not capable. Unnecessary wars, scandalous treaties, profusion of public treasure, oppressive taxes, every kind of mal-administration is ascribed to him. To aggravate the charge, his pernicious conduct, it is said, will extend its baleful influence even to posterity, by undermining the best constitution in the world, and disordering that wise system of laws, institutions, and customs, by which our ancestors, during so many centuries, have been so happily governed. He is not only a wicked minister in himself, but has removed every security provided against wicked ministers for the future.
On the other hand, the partizans of the minister make his panegyric run as high as the accusation against him, and celebrate his wise, steady, and moderate conduct in every part of his administration. The honour and interest of the nation supported abroad, public credit maintained at home, persecution restrained, faction subdued; the merit of all these blessings is ascribed solely to the minister. At the same time, he crowns all his other merits by a religious care of the best constitution in the world, which he has preserved in all its parts, and has transmitted entire, to be the happiness and security of the latest posterity.
When this accusation and panegyric are received by the partizans of each party, no wonder they beget an extraordinary ferment on both sides, and fill the nation with violent animosities. But I would fain persuade these party-zealots, that there is a flat contradiction both in the accusation and panegyric, and that it were impossible for either of them to run so high, were it not for this contradiction. If our constitution be really that noble fabric, the pride of BRITAIN, the envy of our neighbours, raised by the labour of so many centuries, repaired at the expence of so many millions, and cemented by such a profusion of blood;[21] I say, if our constitution does in any degree deserve these eulogies, it would never have suffered a wicked and weak minister to govern triumphantly for a course of twenty years, when opposed by the greatest geniuses in the nation, who exercised the utmost liberty of tongue and pen, in parliament, and in their frequent appeals to the people. But, if the minister be wicked and weak, to the degree so strenuously insisted on, the constitution must be faulty in its original principles, and he cannot consistently be charged with undermining the best form of government in the world. A constitution is only so far good, as it provides a remedy against mal-administration; and if the BRITISH, when in its greatest vigour, and repaired by two such remarkable events, as the Revolution and Accession, by which our ancient royal family was sacrificed to it;[22] if our constitution, I say, with so great advantages, does not, in fact, provide any such remedy, we are rather beholden to any minister who undermines it, and affords us an opportunity of erecting a better in its place.
I would employ the same topics to moderate the zeal of those who defend the minister. Is our constitution so excellent? Then a change of ministry can be no such dreadful event; since it is essential to such a constitution, in every ministry, both to preserve itself from violation, and to prevent all enormities in the administration. Is our constitution very bad? Then so extraordinary a jealousy and apprehension, on account of changes, is ill placed; and a man should no more be anxious in this case, than a husband, who had married a woman from the stews, should be watchful to prevent her infidelity. Public affairs, in such a government, must necessarily go to confusion, by whatever hands they are conducted; and the zeal of patriots is in that case much less requisite than the patience and submission of philosophers. The virtue and good intentions of CATO and BRUTUS are highly laudable; but, to what purpose did their zeal serve?[23] Only to hasten the fatal period of the ROMAN government, and render its convulsions and dying agonies more violent and painful.
I would not be understood to mean, that public affairs deserve no care and attention at all. Would men be moderate and consistent, their claims might be admitted; at least might be examined. The country-party might still assert, that our constitution, though excellent, will admit of mal-administration to a certain degree; and therefore, if the minister be bad, it is proper to oppose him with a suitable degree of zeal. And, on the other hand, the court-party may be allowed, upon the supposition that the minister were good, to defend, and with some zeal too, his administration. I would only persuade men not to contend, as if they were fighting pro aris & focis, and change a good constitution into a bad one, by the violence of their factions.1
I have not here considered any thing that is personal in the present controversy. In the best civil constitution, where every man is restrained by the most rigid laws, it is easy to discover either the good or bad intentions of a minister, and to judge, whether his personal character deserve love or hatred. But such questions are of little importance to the public, and lay those, who employ their pens upon them, under a just suspicion either of malevolence or of flattery.
1. For forms of government let fools contest,
Whate'er is best administer'd is best.
ESSAY on Man, Book 3.
[Written by Alexander Pope (1688-1744) and published in 1732-34.]
2. [French king whose reign (1574-89) was marked by civil and religious strife. He is remembered for his partiality, extravagance, and distaste for hard work as well as for his oppression of Huguenot Protestants.]
3. [King of France, 1589-1610. Henry IV succeeded in calming religious warfare, improving the realm's finances and administration, and curbing Spanish designs through alliances with England and the United Provinces. He won acceptance for the Edict of Nantes (1598), which extended religious toleration to the Huguenots.]
4. [A plain stretching from the Tiber River to the hills of Rome, which derived its name from the Altar of Mars that stood there. It was a site for public meetings, worship, and commerce.]
5. [As Hume uses the term in the Treatise, a priori reasoning compares ideas in abstraction from experienced relationships. Whereas some of his predecessors, such as Hobbes, had attempted to base moral or political philosophy on a priori reasoning, Hume sets out to establish moral science on the "experimental method of reasoning," which was introduced by Francis Bacon and utilized by Isaac Newton. Nevertheless, Hume sometimes claims in the Essays that political principles can be derived a priori, i.e., by general reasoning on our ideas or concepts of the things in question and without reference to particular examples.]
6. [See Cicero (106-43 B C ), In C. Verrem Actio Prima (First Part of the speech against Gaius Verres at the first hearing) 1.14.41.]
7. [Verres was Roman governor of Sicily from 73 to 70 B.C. He plundered the province and committed many acts of extreme cruelty. At the expiration of his term in 70, he was prosecuted before the senatorial Extortion Court at Rome by Cicero, who represented the Sicilians. Cicero's prosecution of Verres was conducted so brilliantly that Verres withdrew into voluntary exile before the trial could be completed. Cicero thereby established himself as the leading lawyer of Rome, replacing Hortensius, who had defended Verres. Both Verres and Cicero were assassinated, along with hundreds of senators and businessmen, on orders of the ruling Triumvirate (Octavian, Lepidus, Antony) in 43 B.C.]
8. Ann. lib. I. cap. 2. [Tacitus, Annals 1.8, in the Loeb edition.]
9. SUET. in vita DOMIT. [Suetonius (A.D. 70?- 141?), Lives of the Cæsars, in the life of Domitian, chap. 8. Domitian was emperor from A.D. 81 to 96.]
10. Egregium resumendæ libertati tempus, si ipsi florentes, quam inops ITALIA, quam imbellis urbana plebs, nihil validum in exercitibus, nisi quod externum cogitarent. TACIT. Ann. lib. 3. [Tacitus, Annals 3.40: "It was an unequalled opportunity for regaining their independence: they had only to look from their own resources to the poverty of Italy, the unwarlike city population, the feebleness of the armies except for the leavening of foreigners" (Loeb translation by John Jackson). Tiberius was emperor from A.D. 14 to 37.]
11. Lib. I. cap. 72. [Polybius (200?-120? B.C.), Histories 1.72.]
12. [For most of the period between the mid-fifteenth and the early seventeenth centuries, the island of Corsica was subjected to oppressive and corrupt rule by the republic of Genoa. Frequent revolts against Genoese authority occurred during the mid-seventeenth century. Recognizing that it could not subjugate Corsica and fearing its occupation by a hostile power, Genoa finally ceded the island to France in 1768. Although Corsica had sometimes sought French control, a war of conquest in 1768-69 was necessary to establish French authority.]
13. [See Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), The Prince, chap. 4. Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.) established a vast Macedonian-Greek empire after defeating the forces of the Persian Empire under the command of Darius III in 333-330 B.C.]
14. I have taken it for granted, according to the supposition of MACHIAVEL, that the ancient PERSIANS had no nobility; though there is reason to suspect, that the FLORENTINE secretary, who seems to have been better acquainted with the ROMAN than the GREEK authors, was mistaken in this particular. The more ancient PERSIANS, whose manners are described by XENOPHON, were a free people, and had nobility. Their omotimoi [chief nobles, peers. See Xenophon (428?-354? B.C.), Education of Cyrus 2.1.9] were preserved even after the extending of their conquests and the consequent change of their government. ARRIAN mentions them in DARIUS'S time, De exped. ALEX. lib. ii. [Arrian (A.D. 96?-180?), Expedition of Alexander.] Historians also speak often of the persons in command as men of family. TYGRANES, who was general of the MEDES under XERXES, was of the race of ACHMÆNES, HEROD. lib. vii. cap. 62. [Herodotus (484?-420? B.C.), History] ARTACHÆAS, who directed the cutting of the canal about mount ATHOS, was of the same family. Id. cap. 117. MEGABYZUS was one of the seven eminent PERSIANS who conspired against the MAGI. His son, ZOPYRUS, was in the highest command under DARIUS, and delivered BABYLON to him. His grandson, MEGABYZUS, commanded the army, defeated at MARATHON. His great-grandson, ZOPYRUS, was also eminent, and was banished PERSIA. HEROD. lib. iii. THUC. lib. i. [Herodotus, History 3.160; Thucydides (472?-after 400 B.C.), History of the Peloponnesian War 1.109.] ROSACES, who commanded an army in EGYPT under ARTAXERXES, was also descended from one of the seven conspirators, DIOD. SIC. lib. xvi. [Diodorus Siculus (1st cen. B.C.), Library of History 16.47.] AGESILAUS, in XENOPHON, Hist. GRÆC. lib. iv. [Xenophon, Hellenica (History of Greece) 4.1] being desirous of making a marriage betwixt king COTYS his ally, and the daughter of SPITHRIDATES, a PERSIAN of rank, who had deserted to him, first asks COTYS what family SPITHRIDATES is of. One of the most considerable in PERSIA, says COTYS. ARIÆUS, when offered the sovereignty by CLEARCHUS and the ten thousand GREEKS, refused it as of too low a rank, and said, that so many eminent PERSIANS would never endure his rule. Id. de exped. lib. ii. [Xenophon, Expedition of Cyrus, bk. 2.] Some of the families descended from the seven PERSIANS abovementioned remained during all ALEXANDER'S successors; and MITHRIDATES, in ANTIOCHUS'S time, is said by POLYBIUS to be descended from one of them, lib. v. cap. 43. ARTABAZUS was esteemed, as ARRIAN says, en tois protois Person ["among the highest of the Persians"]. lib. iii. [23]. And when ALEXANDER married in one day 80 of his captains to PERSIAN women, his intention plainly was to ally the MACEDONIANS with the most eminent PERSIAN families. Id. lib. vii. [4]. DIODORUS SICULUS says they were of the most noble birth in PERSIA, lib. xvii. [107]. The government of PERSIA was despotic, and conducted in many respects, after the eastern manner, but was not carried so far as to extirpate all nobility, and confound all ranks and orders. It left men who were still great, by themselves and their family, independent of their office and commission. And the reason why the MACEDONIANS kept so easily dominion over them was owing to other causes easy to be found in the historians; though it must be owned that MACHIAVEL'S reasoning is, in itself, just, however doubtful its application to the present case.
15. Essempio veramente raro, & da Filosofi intante loro imaginate & vedute Republiche mai non trovato, vedere dentro ad un medesimo cerchio, fra medesimi cittadini, la liberta, & la tirannide, la vita civile & la corotta, la giustitia & la licenza, perche quello ordine solo mantiere quella citta piena di costumi antichi & venerabili. E s'egli auvenisse (che col tempo in ogni modo auverrà) que SAN GlORGIO tutta quel la città occupasse, sarrebbe quella una Republica piu dalla VENETIANA memorabile. Della Hist. Florentinè, lib. 8. [Niccolò Machiavelli, The History of Florence 8.29: "A truly rare example, and one never found by the philosophers in all their imagined or dreamed of republics, to see in the same circle, among the same citizens, liberty and tyranny, the civil and the corrupt life, justice and license; because that order alone keeps that city full of ancient and venerable customs. And should it happen, which in time will happen anyway, that St. George will occupy all that city, it would be a republic more memorable than the Venetian one." The republic of Genoa, unable to pay its creditors after war with Venice, conceded to them the revenue of the customhouse until the war debt should be liquidated. The creditors, who took the title of the Bank of St. George, established a form of government among themselves, with a council and an executive body. Genoa came to rely on the bank for credit, assigning towns, castles, and territories as security, so that eventually the bank came to have under its administration most of the towns and cities in the Genoese dominion.]
16. T. LIVII, lib. 40. cap. 43. [Livy (59 B C.-A.D. 17), History of Rome (from the founding of the city) 40.43. The Punic Wars were fought between the Romans and the Carthaginians. The first began in 264 B.C. and the third and last ended in 146 B.C with the destruction of Carthage. The Tribunes were elected by the people (Plebeians) to represent their interests against the nobility (Patricians). A Prætor was a high judicial officer or a provincial governor.]
17. Id. lib. 8. cap. 18.
18. L'Aigle centre L'Aigle, ROMAINS contre
Combatans seulement pour le choix de tyrans.
[These lines are adapted loosely from the tragedy Cinna, act 1, sc. 3, which was produced by Pierre Corneille (1606-84) in late 1640 or early 1641. In the original, "Où l'aigle abattoit l'aigle" is followed eight lines later by: "Romains contre Romains, parents contre parents, / Combattoient seulement pour le choix des tyrans." Cinna, who is plotting to restore liberty to Rome by assassinating the emperor Augustus, describes his efforts to incite his followers thusly: "I painted pictures of those dreadful wars / When savage Rome was bent on suicide, / When eagle swooped on eagle, on all sides / Embattled legions stood against their freedom; / When the best soldiers and the bravest chiefs / Fought for the honor of becoming slaves; / When better to assure their fettered shame / All vied to fix the whole world to their chains; / And the base honor of giving it a master, / Making all hug a traitor's craven name, / Roman against Roman and kith against kin, / Fought only for the right to choose a tyrant." Translation by Samuel Solomon (New York: Random House, 1969). The "time of the Triumvirates" to which Hume refers extended from the formation of the so-called First Triumvirate (Julius Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus) in 60 B.C. until 31 B.C., when the Second Triumvirate (Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus) was finally broken, opening the way for Octavian to become the first Roman emperor (Augustus).]
19. [Later in this essay, Hume identifies the party division of his time as one between the court party and the country party. See note 21 on Bolingbroke's use of these terms. Hume discusses the British parties in several of the subsequent essays. See "Of the Parties of Great Britain," "Of Passive Obedience," "Of the Coalition of Parties," and "Of the Protestant Succession."]
20. [In what follows, Hume has in mind the debate that raged in his time over a particular minister, Sir Robert Walpole (1676-1745). As First Lord of the Treasury from 1721 to 1742, Walpole mastered Parliament by the skillful use of the patronage of the Crown to control a majority in the House of Commons. Walpole is usually considered to be England's first Prime Minister, although this term was applied to Walpole by his enemies. In the 1742 edition of Hume's Essays, there appeared an essay entitled "A Character of Sir Robert Walpole." In editions appearing between 1748 and 1768, it was printed as a footnote at the end of the present essay, "That Politics may be reduced to a Science." This footnote was dropped in the editions of 1770 and later. Hume's essay on Walpole can be found in the present volume under "Essays Withdrawn and Unpublished."]
21. Dissertation on parties. Letter 10. [Written by Henry St. John (1678-1751), who became Viscount Bolingbroke in 1712. Bolingbroke, a supporter of the Tory party in Parliament and Secretary of State from 1710 to 1714, went into exile in 1715, following the accession of George I and after articles of impeachment were brought against him in the House of Commons by Robert Walpole. His flirtation with James III, the Pretender, helped to bring the Tory party into disrepute during the period of Whig dominance from 1714 to 1760. After returning to London in 1725, he contributed over the next decade to The Craftsman, a periodical that opposed the Whig government under Walpole. Bolingbroke's Dissertation Upon Parties, which appeared in The Craftsman in 1733, is a vehement attack on Walpole. Bolingbroke argues that the ground for the old division between Tories and Whigs no longer exists. Both now form a constitutional or country party, which seeks to preserve the British constitution by securing the independency of Parliaments against the new influence of the Crown. Walpole's anticonstitutional or court party, on the other hand, is attempting to expand the power of the Crown and reduce Parliaments to an absolute dependency.]
22. [Hume refers here to the Revolution of 1688, which deposed James II, and to the subsequent accession of Mary, his daughter, and her husband, William of Orange, who was Stadtholder of Holland. William III ruled jointly with Mary from 1689 until her death in 1694 and then as sole sovereign until 1702. William was succeeded by Anne, the second daughter of James II and the last of the Stuart sovereigns. By the Act of Settlement of 1701, the royal line became fixed after Anne's death (1714) in the house of Hanover.]
23. [The reference is probably to Cato Uticensis (95-46 B.C.), great-grandson of Cato Censorius (234-149 B.C.), the noted statesman, writer, and orator. The younger Cato was the uncle of Marcus Junius Brutus (85?-42 B.C.). Brutus later married Cato's daughter, Porcia. Cato and Brutus supported Pompey against Julius Cæsar in the Civil War. Cato committed suicide in 46 B.C., following the defeat of the Pompeians at Thapsus. Brutus was pardoned by Cæsar, but later became a leader in the patriotic conspiracy that led to Cæsar's murder (44 B.C.).]
Contents | Text Version | Home | Constitution Society


text:
This recall involves Ideal-Air 175-pint industrial grade humidifiers. The recalled humidifiers are black and have the "Ideal-Air" logo printed near the bottom. There have been several incidents of the humidifier overheating.
This recall is something that all subrogation professionals should make note of. Additional information on the recall can be found at the Consumer Product Safety Commission website by clicking the button above.
Click Here for a list of Butler's Subrogation Attorneys.
Garia Recalls Golf & Courtesy Electric Vehicles Due to Fire Hazard...
Epson Recalls Power Adapters Sold with Epson Scanners Due to Burn and Fire Hazards...
This recall involves the Deluxe and Commercial models of the Grower's Edge Vaporizer sold by Hawthorne Hydroponics LLC for use in hydroponic growing...
This recall involves Honda EB2200i, EU2200i, EU2200i Companion and EU2200i Camo portable generators...
This recall involves three models of Lennox Ductless Single-Zone or Multi-Zone heat pumps...
This recall involves pedestal sump pumps that are used in residential de-watering. The sump pumps are sold under three brand names...
This recall involves the Spare Power Bank used to charge electronic devices...
The recall involves four and five burner models of MR. STEAK propane gas grills...
This recall involves Michaels' private brand Bead Landing tassel keychain mobile power banks which can be used to charge smart phones and other devices.
This recall involves Elan Shayla Mini Pendant Lights Models 83162, 83163, and 83164.
The recalled cooktop surface elements can turn on by themselves, posing burn and fire hazards.
This recall involves Garvin Pop-Up Floor Box Kits with a finish of either stainless steel or brushed brass that each include two electrical receptacles and two USB ports. The pop-up electrical outlet boxes are designed to be installed into floors with a metal lid that opens and closes to reveal the electrical receptacles and USB ports.
This recall involves the Profusion Heat electric garage heaters with model number HA22-48M. The heaters are red, have a grill on the front and a handle on the top. They measure about 13 inches high and 10 inches wide. The label, located on the back of the heater, contains the model number. The thermostat control is located at the bottom of the heater on the back.
This recall involves CHAMBORD® stove top espresso makers in a stainless steel finish. The recall includes 6-cup (12 ounce) espresso makers with SKU number 10617-16.
This recall involves the Tuff Smoke-Less Grill, a portable electric grill intended for use indoors. Tuff Smoke-Less Grill and TEK513 are printed on a label located underneath the handle.
This recall involves the T119 Elf power bank chargers. The portable battery-powered chargers are used for charging the battery of a mobile phone or other electronic device.
This recall involves Universal Rechargeable Power Banks for use with smart phones and tablets. The recalled chargers came in a variety of colors and shapes, including a unicorn head, a cat with sunglasses, and a rainbow between two clouds.
The recall expansion involves lithium-ion batteries for HP commercial notebook computers and mobile workstations were sold to businesses and other organizations.
This recall involves Emerson branded SensiWiFi thermostats with "Emerson" printed on the front and a date code from 1416 to 1536 on the back.
This recall includes A. O. Smith 30-gallon natural gas water heaters with model number G6-UT3030NV and serial numbers with the first four digits of 1805 through 1809.
This recall includes 30, 40 and 50 gallon natural or propane gas-fired Ultra-Low NOx emission gas water heaters.
Briggs & Stratton recalls portable generator fuel tank replacement caps. The fuel tank replacement caps lack ventilation holes which allow pressure to build up in the fuel tank, posing a fire hazard.
Cooper Lighting recalls solar/battery powered light fixtures due to fire hazard.
This recall involves Links Series chargers with model numbers 28080, 28090 or 28100. The chargers are used with golf carts. The recalled chargers are black or aluminum and measure approximately 11 inches long by 8 ¾ inches wide by 9 ½ inches tall.
On September 5, 2018 Toyota issued a recall for its Prius hybrid vehicles manufactured between 2016 and 2018 due to a risk of fire.
This recall involves approximately 2 million F-150 pickup trucks in North America due to a seat belt mechanism malfunction that has started fires.
This recall involves 20 inch and 30 inch All Living Things reptile strip light fixtures. These light fixtures simulate natural daylight and are attached to the top of the reptile's terrarium. PetSmart has received reports of the hood on the recalled light fixtures igniting.
The recalled propane gas does not contain sufficient levels of odorant to help alert consumers to a gas leak.
The recall involves rear insulation mats within the engine compartment that might deform, deteriorate and loosen over time that can come into contact with the hot exhaust system resulting in a fire.
This recall involves Michaels private brand Ashland 3-tier Haunted Townhouse candle holders. The candle holders were sold in black, measure about 20 inches tall and have two columns of three vertically stacked candle holders.
ALDI Recalls Deep Fryers Due to Fire and Burn Hazards. The deep fryer heating element can overheat, posing fire and burn hazards.
This recall involves the Re-fuel by Digipower Grab and Go Family Pack portable power bank charging stations. The power bank charger is a self-contained energy source used to charge cell phones and other devices when an electrical outlet is not available.
Vornado Air recalls electric space heaters due to fire and burns hazards. This recall involves Vornado VH101 Personal Vortex electric space heaters that have two heat settings (low and high) and a fan only/no heat setting. "Vornado" with a "V" behind it is printed on the front of the unit. Vornado has received 15 reports of the heaters catching on fire.
This recall involves Rural King's electric heated blankets and throws. The 100% polyester blankets and throws were sold in cream and brown colors and in two sizes: 50 x 60 inches (smaller than a twin size) and 84 x 90 inches (queen size).
This recall involves 14 inch ThinkPad X1 Carbon 5th Generation laptops. They were sold in silver and black. Laptops manufacture dates from 16/12 through 17/10 (for December 2016 through October 2017) are included in the recall. The manufacturing date codes can be found on the bottom of the laptop. See serial numbers included in the recall on the CPC Website.
This recall involves Panasonic lithium-ion battery packs for Fujitsu notebook computers and workstations. The product and serial numbers are printed on a white sticker on the battery.
This recall involves Vornado Sunny CS (cribside) model EH1-0090 electric space heaters. The model/type "SUNNY CS EH1-0090" and serial number are printed on a silver decal on the bottom of the unit under the elastic cord wrap.
This recall involves lithium-ion batteries for HP Notebook computers and mobile workstations. The batteries were shipped with or sold as accessories for HP ProBooks (64x G2 and G3 series, 65x G2 and G3 series), HPx360 310 G2, HP Envy m6, HP Pavilion x360, HP 11, HP ZBook (17 G3, 17 G4, and Studio G3) Mobile Workstations. The batteries were also sold as accessories or replacement batteries for the HP ZBook Studio G4 mobile workstation or for any of the products listed above.
The propane may not contain sufficient levels of odorant to help alert consumers to a gas leak. Failure to detect leaking gas can present fire, explosion and thermal burn hazards.
This recall involves Westinghouse iGen2500 and iPro2500 portable inverter generators used to power appliances, cell phones or other electronic devices.
This recall involves two styles of Kidde fire extinguishers: plastic handle fire extinguishers and push-button Pindicator fire extinguishers for failure to discharge and Nozzle detachment.
This recall expansion involves Bosch, Gaggenau, Jenn-Air and Thermador brand dishwashers sold in stainless steel, black, white and custom panel. BSH Home Appliances has received five reports of the power cords overheating and causing fires resulting in property damage.
Throughout the next few months, Butler will send you information that may be useful to your handling of Harvey claims. We will make this information as easy to review as possible because your time is important.
Speaking of "time," Texas law requires insurers to obey specific time requirements in the handling of claims. We have listed a few claims-handling time requirements below. Note that the statutes often reference "days" and "business days." For clarity, we substituted "calendar days" for "days" in our discussion of statutory time periods. Follow the hyperlink for the actual text of the statute.
This week Hurricane Harvey struck Texas with Category 4 winds and unprecedented rain. Harvey is the first major U.S. hurricane to make landfall in 12 years. Insurers will be working hard to investigate and settle property claims for their customers.
This recall involves Living Traditions mini barrel charcoal grills. The black steel grills measure about 18 inches by 15 inches by 18.5 inches. They have a black handle on the lid and one on each side and at the front a heat gauge and a silver latch. Model number SXB1501 and UPC code 00000 19877 are printed on the product's packaging.
The recall involves Hampton Bay 3-Light Crystal Chandeliers and Home Decorators Collection 4-Light Crystal Chandeliers.
The CPSC has received 12 reported incidents with the recalled lawn mowers including 5 reports of fires. No injuries have been reported.
The CPSC has received 14 incidents of the night lights smoking or smoldering. No injuries have been reported.
The CPSC has received 13 reports of the dehydrator overheating and the plastic unit melting, including six reports of fire and one report resulting in property damage to the counter top.
This expanded recall involves Philips Energy Advantage Ceramic Metal Halide Lamps model CDM330 manufactured from May 2011 through March 2014.
This recall involves three rock salt lamps sold under the Lumière brand. The lamps are pink in color and are mounted on a wooden base or in a black metal basket. Approximately 80,000 units have been recalled.
The recalled Masterbuilt 7-in-1 smoker comes in green or stainless steel with a Cabela's logo, or black with Masterbuilt logo. The three-piece cylindrical body design consists of a lid, center body, and base which sits on the LP gas burner stand. It also has a porcelain flame disk bowl, water bowl, cooking grates, 10- quart pot and basket, thermometer, burner, a PVC hose and weighs about 32 pounds. Approximately 41,000 units have been recalled.
The dehumidifiers can overheat, smoke and catch fire, posing serious fire and burn hazards.
Consumers should immediately unplug and stop using the recalled washers and contact GE Appliances for a free repair.
Fires have reportedly occurred while the Samsung Galaxy Note 7 handset is charging, as well as explosions.
This recall involves Whirlpool brand microwave hood combinations. The microwave ovens were sold in stainless steel, black and white.
Flammable vapors can gather inside the water heater's combustion chamber, posing a risk of fire or explosion.
The fan heaters can overheat, posing a fire hazard.
The lithium-ion battery packs can overheat, posing burn and fire hazards to consumers.
Microsoft Recalls AC Power Cords for Surface Pro Devices Due to Fire, Shock Hazards
Owners should immediately unplug the recalled creamer dispensers.
The candle's high flame can ignite the surface of the wax, posing a fire hazard.
The AC power cord can overheat, posing fire and burn hazards.
This recall presents a potential avenue of recovery about which subrogation professionals should be aware.
Brand names and model numbers can be located on the unit's rating plate or imprinted on the side of the unit.
The air purifier's circuit board can overheat and cause the air purifier to catch on fire.
The AC power cord can overheat and melt, posing a potential fire and burn hazard.
The involved dehumidifiers were sold nationwide in stores and online from January 2005 through August 2013.
A component in the dehumidifier's compressor can short circuit, posing a fire hazard.
DGL Group has received six reports of incidents involving melted parts, smoking, leaking batteries and fire resulting in reports of bursting power bars and minor property damage.
The black battery packs measure between 8 to 11 inches long, 1 to 3 inches wide and about 1 inch high.
The control board in the garage door openers can overheat, posing a fire hazard.
More than $2 million in property damage has been reported.
The involved 5-tray food dehydrators were sold nationwide from August 2010 through February 2013.
The ion generator in the air purifiers can overheat, posing a fire hazard.
More than a half a million energy-saving LED light bulbs are being recalled after failure reports involving fire, smoke, and lighting-fixture damage according to the CPSC.
The recall involves two models of Champion Power Equipment portable generators with model numbers 41332 and 41532.
An electrical failure in the dishwasher's heating element can pose a fire hazards.
This recall involves 35-, 50-, and 70-pint dehumidifiers with a Kenmore logo on the front of the unit, manufactured between 2003 and 2005.
The system can burst at or near the vessel weld seam releasing stored pressure.
Viking Range Corporation has announced a voluntary recall involving approximately 2,000 Viking dishwashers due to overheating.
The air heater's exposed and unshielded electrical components can cause the unit to overheat and melt, posing a fire hazard.
This recall involves HP Fax 1040 and 1050 models that were sold from November 2004 through December 2011.
The power connector for the dehumidifier's compressor can short circuit, posing fire and burn hazards to consumers and their property.
The bulbs were sold in two styles: spiral and the "3-Us" shape. The Telstar bulbs were sold in 20 and 23 watts with model number LB-1020 and LB-1023 printed on the packaging.

subset: commoncrawl


text: There's a scene in Ben Stiller's 2001 comedy 'Zoolander' where the eponymous male supermodel smashes up an architectural model of a new school that's due to be built in his honour upon seeing it for the first time. 'How are we supposed to teach kids to read, when they cannot fit inside the building?', rages the intellectually challenged fashion celebrity. His unfortunate misreading of scale is our comic delight.


text:
Mirrodin: a plane made entirely of metal. Here, thorny copper trees create artificial forests, great structures of iron and rust form mountains, and the blades of grass on the plains are literally blades. Five shining suns cast their light on the shining world below them, one for each color of mana. Humans, elves, and goblins dwell here, along with vedalken, leonin, and the zombies known as the nim.
Long ago, the metal plane was created by Karn, the silver golem built by Urza, as a test of his newfound power as a planeswalker. He populated his plane with golems created in his own image and also built a "Warden" to watch over his plane as he explored the Multiverse.
But something went wrong. Karn unwittingly introduced a dark contagion to his own world: Phyrexian oil. Over the course of centuries, the oil took hold on Mirrodin, changing it and its inhabitants. The Warden grew unstable, gaining sentience and calling itself Memnarch. Over time Memnarch grew paranoid and angry, feeling abandoned by his creator.
And as Memnarch's madness grew, so did his power. Using arcane devices called soultraps, Memnarch kidnapped countless living things from other planes and brought them to Mirrodin. His goal was to find a being with the planeswalker spark and take it for himself, enabling him to leave Mirrodin and find his creator.
The elf Glissa Sunseeker was the first being born with the planeswalker spark on Mirrodin. Glissa uncovered the secret of her world: that it was hollow, and that its mythical tyrant was real and dwelled inside. Through her own guile and power as well as the help of her allies, Glissa defeated Memnarch. The soultraps were destroyed, and instantaneously the first generations of Mirrans vanished, returned to the planes from which they were taken.
The remaining Mirrans were left to deal with the disappearance of their eldest forebears. Few had any idea what had transpired inside their world—only that their grandparents, elders, and chieftains were gone. When Glissa and her goblin ally Slobad returned to the surface, they were set upon by hordes of panicked goblins. Slobad fell, and Glissa retreated back into the interior, where the tiny constructs that still scurried there kept her safe, sound, and sleeping ...
Meanwhile life continued on the surface as the Mirrans worked to resume their lives. But inside the plane, the Phyrexian contagion that Karn long ago brought to his own world continued its quiet work. The oil spread, and everything changed when the mycosynth reached the mana core that still shone inside Mirrodin.


text:
Aviation bible: Whitehead first to fly
Smithsonian disputes claim
BRIDGEPORT -- The upcoming 100th anniversary edition of Jane's All the World Aircraft will credit Bridgeport's Gustave Whitehead as the first man to build an operational heavier-than-air aircraft, a move that for many will shatter the widely held view that the Wright brothers were the first to fly.
Jane's has been long considered the bible of just about every human-made object that got off the ground. News that the storied publication is backing Whitehead was received jubilantly by the small, but growing band of aviation buffs who for years have maintained that the Bridgeport man and German immigrant beat the Wright brothers into the air by more than two years.
"Jane's has solidified what we've known all along -- Gustave Whitehead was the first to fly a powered, manned aircraft before the Wright Brothers, and he did it right here in Bridgeport," said a beaming Mayor Bill Finch on Tuesday.
In his forward to the Jane's book, now online, editor Paul Jackson states that Whitehead's flight took place "... more than two years before the Wrights manhandled their Flyer from its shed and flew a couple of hundred feet in a straight line after lifting off from an adjacent wooden rail hammered into the ground."
The piece on Whitehead carries the sub-headline: "Justice delayed is justice denied."
According to an article in the Bridgeport Herald on Aug. 14, 1901, Whitehead piloted his No. 21 flyer in a flight that kept him airborne for about a half-mile and up to an altitude of about 40 feet.
The far more documented flight of the Wright brothers' Wright Flyer I was considerably shorter and took place on Dec. 17, 1903, in Kitty Hawk, N.C.
But Jackson points out there were scores of accounts, both in the popular press and in technical journals, of repeated flights by Whitehead between 1901 and 1903, one of which successfully navigated a circular course between Milford's Charles Island and the Bridgeport shoreline.
"Today, it seems impossible that a vast cache of documentary evidence, such as those newspaper reports, can be overlooked by the world at large," Jackson said, noting that historians have found more than 80 press articles about Whitehead's flights prior to December 1903 when the Wrights first flew.
Work of John Brown
Nearly all of the evidence cited by Jane's was recovered by aviation historian John Brown, who has amassed scores of supporting articles in newspapers and magazines of that era along with a number of period photographs.
"Jane's has been the bible of aviation, so for them to come down very solidly behind my work was very, very encouraging," Brown told the Post on Tuesday in a telephone interview from his home in Munich, Germany.
Brown said he worked for 14 months on his research, much of which can be seen on his website, www.gustave-whitehead.com. Brown said because he is a native of Australia, he harbors no patriotic fervor for the German-born Whitehead, who was never granted U.S. citizenship.
"I look at both the positive and the negative," Brown said. "But this particular case, there's a preponderance of evidence supporting the Whitehead argument."
Local reaction
"This is gigantic," said Andrew King, director of the Connecticut Air & Space Center in the former Chance Vought aircraft plant in Stratford. The plant churned out the vaunted Corsair F4U fighter-bomber during the 1940s, an example of which the center is now restoring.
"What this means is that it will remove Whitehead from being a footnote of history and give him the credit that he deserves," King said. "We're incredibly excited about this."
Andy Kosch, a teacher at Platt Technical High School in Milford, agreed.
Kosch built a full-size copy of the Whitehead flyer in 1986. The model was towed aloft by a car with Academy Award-winning actor Cliff Robertson at the controls.
"Other historians will now take a look at this, and say `Hey, look at this evidence,' " Kosch said. "Brown did an amazing job."
Also welcoming the news was Morgan Kaolian, a local aviator and former "eye in the sky" for radio station WICC.
"This is huge, really huge," he said of the Jane's assertion.
Early flights
Whitehead's first attempt took place in Fairfield. Another longer flight followed in Bridgeport near Wordin Avenue, not far from a current fountain sculpture of Whitehead's flyer at the corner of Fairfield Avenue and State Street that was dedicated in May.
That sculpture, removed after Hurricane Sandy, will be returned to its perch later this spring after it's repaired, city officials said.
More flights by Whitehead followed in Stratford's Lordship neighborhood. By all eyewitness accounts, the Whitehead flyer flew higher and longer than the first flight made by the Wright brothers in 1903 at Kitty Hawk.
Jackson also points to documents obtained by former U.S. Sen. Lowell Weicker from the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. The documents allege that the museum, in order to keep possession of the precious Flyer I, told the Wright family it would not support any claim that another aircraft took flight first.
"History is normally written by researchers who have dispassionately analyzed all relevant data and not, as here, by the lawyers of interested parties," Jackson states in his forward.
Jackson also points out that although Whitehead was an aeronautical success, he stumbled badly in both financing his creations and documenting his successes.
Orville Wright, meanwhile, often went out of his way -- even as late as 1945 -- to discredit Whitehead, calling the German-born inventor's efforts a "legend."
Smithsonian response
But Peter L. Jakab, associate director for collections and curatorial affairs and curator of early flight for the Smithsonian Air & Space Museum in Washington, D.C., disputes any secret deal between the museum and the Wright family.
In a telephone interview Tuesday, Jakab told the Post there is no "secret contract" between the Smithsonian and the Wright family. Furthermore, he said, if it could be shown that Whitehead was the first to get into the air, the institution would indeed change its display.
"We'll send a copy (of the agreement) to anyone who wants one," Jakab said, adding that it was written because the Smithsonian had an admittedly misleading display in the 1920s that seemed to argue that another air machine, the Langley Flying Machine of 1903, was "capable of flight," which, in fact, it was not.
"It's not a contract, but an agreement," Jakab said.
With regard to Brown's research, Jakab said the fact that there were a number of references in newspapers and magazines does not mean that there were dozens of eyewitnesses.
"I'm sure you can recognize that when something is cited in a publication, it gets picked up by others and it gets repeated again and again," he said. "Obviously, he does not have 85 original eyewitness accounts."
Jakab notes that there were "dozens" of early aviators who claimed to be the first in flight, but none have anywhere near the proof that the Wrights have.
"We have this agreement, but it certainly wouldn't govern how we would interpret this artifact or any other," he said.
firstname.lastname@example.com; 203-330-6403; http://twitter.com/johnburgeson


text:
NEA Executive Director John Stocks Urges Members to Fight for Excellence and Equity
Last year, at the 2012 NEA Representative Assembly, NEA Executive Director John Stocks challenged educators across the nation to become "social justice" patriots. The dangers posed by voter suppression laws, growing income inequality, and insidious new forms of racial discrimination, Stocks said, made it imperative that every NEA member fights for social justice and equal opportunity.
Stocks returned to the RA stage on Thursday to congratulate the 9,000 delegates for their tireless advocacy over the past year and to urge them to keep up the fight.
"NEA members have been shining examples of social justice patriotism, forging paths of greater opportunity for students, fighting against injustices, and standing with communities in the face of hardships and too many tragedies," Stocks said.
For their work in combatting voter suppression in partnership with the NAACP, Stocks gave a shout-out to educators in Pennsylvania, Florida, Michigan, North Carolina, Ohio, Virginia, and Wisconsin. He saluted NEA members in Texas for helping undocumented students pursue their dream of a higher education and educators in Maryland, New York and Colorado for their advocacy of common sense laws to protect students from gun violence. And for standing with the LGBTQ community for marriage equality, Stocks celebrated activists in Maine, Maryland, Rhode Island, Washington, and Minnesota and singled out NEA General Counsel Alice O'Brien and her legal team for joining with Change to Win and the AFL-CIO to submit a brief in the case that eventually led to the overturning of the Defense of Marriage Act by the U.S. Supreme Court.
"Thank you social justice patriots!" Stocks said to loud applause from the RA delegates.
With the 60th anniversary of the historic Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision just around the corner in May 2014, Stocks said the nation has made significant strides expanding opportunities to students. But he cautioned that progress has stalled and that the yawning income gap in the United States has never been wider.
"This means that the opportunity gap has never been more severe. It's immoral to sentence children to a lifetime of poverty. It contradicts our American values," Stocks said. "Equity of opportunity remains elusive and a good education remains out of reach for millions of students."
Why is the opportunity gap widening when every state constitution in the nation requires that the state provide education to all children? Citizens have gone to court -often successfully - to force their lawmakers to meet this critical obligation.
"What good is a constitution if its words are merely lofty rhetoric and its promises are hollow?" Stocks asked.
Stocks denounced proponents of market-based solutions who see crippling poverty and income inequality as unfortunate, but acceptable, byproducts of the economic system and who control the debate by pushing the "false dichotomy" that we need to focus on either poverty or teacher quality to improve student achievement.
"As educators, we know firsthand that equal access doesn't guarantee equity of opportunity," Stocks said. "And we also know equal access doesn't guarantee excellence.
To achieve both isn't easy, nor is it cheap. And despite what many in the media and the so-called 'reform' community say, the two are NOT mutually exclusive. We believe in closing opportunity gaps AND excellence gaps."
"So, every time there's a fight about investments in education, we need to stand up for more funding AND fair funding. Every time there's a fight about income inequality, we need to stand up and fight for our students AND their families. That's our responsibility. That's our calling."
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text:
what I've been doing
My shop has been staying busy and while I am so grateful, I am also so tired. It's not always easy to run a business and be a mom of a toddler as well as carve out time for my blog and any extra projects. Don't get me wrong, I love what I do and thankful it is something that helps to support my family but some days I could use an extra few hours.
I usually spend about 10 hrs a day working on some facet of the business while I juggle my other responsibilities. Typically I go to bed around 2:30 am and am up again before 8 or earlier. When I really have insane amounts to do, I eat terribly and look a mess.
I share this because I know there are some of you out there whose lives look similar.
The value of taking breaks cannot be underestimated. Just leaving the house and getting to the grocery store or going outside for a bit can do wonders to help me refocus and find new motivation. That along with spending some quality time with Israel and Jeremiah of course.
What do you do when your list of responsibilities seems to overwhelm you?
ps-those earrings are miniature version of my standard earrings. I've had a few custom requests for them but I was thinking of adding them as a regular style in the shop. They're really cute up close!
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27 comments:
Aw, sorry to hear this Jennifer! That is definitely not enough sleep! Hope you find balance (or an intern?!) and things get better soon. Just know that you're a rockstar!ReplyDelete
P.S. I would looove to see the mini earrings as a regular style!
I just recently discovered your blog and love it! I'm in the same boat...blog, shop, part time job, kiddo to take care of, etc, etc. Here lately I've felt so overwhelmed that I just don't get anything done at all. Writing myself notes seems to help! Then, when I can toss a post it or cross things off a list, I feel a bit accomplished. That and I make sure to read a little bit every day...keeps me sane :)ReplyDeleteReplies
Sounds like good things to me.Delete
I write endless notes. I have 2 different notes pads next to me at all times, one for my shop and one for other things. I also try to use icalendar for deadlines but seem to forget to check?!
I hope you're able to make more time to read. ;)
hi dear. got my earrings, today, thanks so much! and i think 2012 is the Year We All Get Interns. let's do it! xoReplyDelete
Oh! Those are my earrings! They are lovely. I can't wait to get them. Thanks so much, and believe me, the work you do is definitely appreciated.ReplyDelete
COMPLETELY EXHAUSTED with nothing to offer, except, I hear you and hang in there. Me too.ReplyDelete
I so know what you are talking about! I don´t know what to do when I get back to my dayjob???ReplyDelete
I wonder where I can find all that time then, if I have trouble finding it now... Well I go now and continue growing my eyebags:))
gosh i know how you feel, nights that I get the luxuary of having to sleep I can't because my brain doesn't want to, an eye mask and a camomile just isnt enough!!ReplyDelete
But I do think that my best ideas come when everyone is asleep its my most creative time of day
Well you know that the same is happening in my little home across the globe ;) I hope you get some time this weekend to have little break, or a slightly earlier night. Hugs from me :) xReplyDelete
p.s. love the earrings :)ReplyDelete
First off - I love my new jewelry. The earrings were a pleasant surprise!ReplyDelete
Second - when I start to get completely overwhelmed I employ a few tricks: 1) I SCHEDULE time off. It's not spontaneous or glamorous but it works. 2) I have a glass of wine. Or two. 3) I stop checking my email after I've had my glass or two of wine - nothing is going to get solved and no fires are needing to be put out at 8PM (typically). 4) I paint my nails. This sounds cheesy but the time it takes my nails to dry forces me to literally slow down so I don't smudge them.
I have the same problem, really. Confounded with insomnia. Unfortunately, I can't find the balance of work and rest, and even if it's not true I always feel like I'm behind. My way of coping? Once a month I have a period of about a week when I check out. As in, I keep telling myself I should work, but instead I either sleep all day, do the errands I kept postponing, or go stay over at my sister's. Just so I could say all the while 'I have so much to do, I should have brought my work with me!' It's an annoying, vicious cycle, I know...:)ReplyDelete
First, love the fist image, lovely earrings and second when I get overwhelmed I just take one day to do nothing, stay in my pajamas, play with my son, and stay late with my husband watching a movie. Hope you get some rest very soon, have a lovely day and weekend.ReplyDelete
your blog looks so beautiful, jennifer!! :) i'm the same as you, wishing for more hours in the day. i love just going outside, like you say. it puts everything in perspective when you're feeling overwhelmed. and chatting with friends at the playground:)ReplyDelete
Beautiful! I've been patiently waiting for my order to be shipped, so I know you are working hard behind the scenes. I look forward to getting them and appreciate your hard work! It looks great!ReplyDelete
I am just so glad it is finally the weekend and I don't do half the stuff you do.ReplyDelete
I love your blog and those earings are so pretty--what you do is really appreciated and inspiring.
as i am almost in the same spot... - do you work 10 hours with israel around? noa is at daycare for several hours a day, but when he is around there would be no way (or hardly) i could get anything else done than things around the house where he can "join in" :-) asking just out of curiosity - and admiration. ps: we also have an intern right now. and we will in the future :-)ReplyDelete
I know how that feels! I go to school full time and work two jobs so I'm always on the go... 24h is not enough hours in a day! I try to go out and spend time with friends at least once a week, even if it's a monday evening or going out for an ice cream cone!ReplyDelete
Saw them in person, <3'd them! Lovely meeting you Jennifer!ReplyDelete
When I am exhausted I either look a good movie or just read a book with a good cup of tea or cacao. Sometimes I like to go alone to a nice cafeteria to have breakfast, alone, with newspapers or new Elle Interiör. If I have more time I escape to my mother's country house for a good wine and a chat. I wish it was summer already, warmth and sun gives so much power!ReplyDelete
i reduce my list of responsibilities. i stopped blogging for etsy team blogs, left a team, & do the minimum for my treasury team. i stopped blogging every day and read fewer blogs. still need to work on that one. i stopped trying to list items in my shops every day. and i started working out instead, doing pilates and spending more time with my husband and son. much more rewarding than sitting in front of a computer all the time. i'd really like to be making jewelry & thrifting, but my 2 shops ended up having me spend more time in front of the screen. so i make things when i feel like it and thrift for myself instead of the shop. i figure my son is only young once.ReplyDelete
I LOVE!!! the mini version of your earrings!!ReplyDelete
Hope you are well :)
Hi! I just wanted to tell you how lovely and adorable your pieces are. It's so difficult to pick out which ones I want! Love, love, love!ReplyDelete
I've just started an etsy shop and although I'm at the very beginning of what I hope will be a big journey, I already feel like I've been on a huge journey just to get there! If I need to escape feeling overwhelmed, I either sloth about in my pj's and watch something that I can fall asleep to. Sometimes, sleep is all you need. If that doesn't help, I'll leave my little apartment ( the size probably doesn't help with the overwhelm ) and go for a walk in the city and buy my favourite gnache chocolate horn from the asian bakery. If that doesn't make me feel better, a hug from Mum does the trick :)ReplyDelete
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The training course, organised in cooperation with the Organisation of American States (OAS), aims to strengthen the capacity of Latin American Government officials in the negotiation, revision and renegotiation of sustainable development friendly international investment agreements (IIAs) and in the management of investor-State disputes. The course will do so by offering presentations by internationally recognized experts, simulation exercises and provide ample opportunity for sharing experiences and best practices among countries in the region. The course will benefit from the use of UNCTAD's most recently developed Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development (IPFSD), which offers a comprehensive set of policy options to operationalize sustainable development objectives when negotiating, revising or renegotiating IIAs. Closing date for applications 10th October 2012.
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The Via Baltica is a St. James' Way route from the Baltic region to Westphalia. It connects east and west for pilgrims who want to start at the Polish border and cross into five German federal states, bringing Europe a little closer together in the process.
Although it seems like an easy and accessible route with good infrastructure and very few hills, the Via Baltica in the St. James' Way network requires good fitness levels, both physically and mentally, to manage the daily average of 20 to 30 kilometres. On some days, the distance travelled even exceeds 30 km! The pilgrimage route is a total of more than 760 kilometres in length. It connects the Baltic states and Scandinavia to other routes heading to Spain. It starts in Usedom and goes to Greifswald and Rostock, through Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Schleswig-Holstein to Lübeck. It then continues on to Hamburg, Bremen and Lower Saxony. The route's final destination is in Osnabrück.
You need to allow at least one month if you want to do this route in one go. This route rewards pilgrims with beautiful backdrops, prominent churches, abbeys and monasteries and the charm of old Hanseatic cities steeped in history. Those who prefer the leisure and tranquillity of the Alster Valley to the hustle and bustle of city life can leave the historic pilgrimage route between Bad Oldesloe and Hamburg to take a detour via Nütschau Priory, the northernmost Benedictine monastery in Germany with a surprisingly young age: founded as recently as 1951. And for those who would rather go by bike than on foot, there is a cycling pilgrimage from Lübeck to Bremen via Hamburg.
Length of route: approx. 760 km, 34 stages
Pilgrim hostels along the route?: Yes; for churches with pilgrim accommodation (in German), visit: www.jakobswege-norddeutschland.de
Starts: Świnoujście/island of Usedom or Sassnitz/Jasmund peninsula/island of Rügen
Arrival options: seaside resort of Heringsdorf
Departure options: Osnabrück
About the route: easily accessible; continue on the St. James' Way route through Westphalia from Osnabrück
For GPS tracking information (in German), visit:
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If you are looking for a vacation close to home that offers variety, look no farther than Missouri state parks and historic sites in southwest Missouri. Sail away on Missouri's premier sailing lake at Stockton State Park near Stockton; tour the homestead settled by Nathan Boone and his wife, Olive, at Nathan and Olive Boone Homestead State Historic Site near Ash Grove; learn about Missouri's only United States President at Harry S Truman Birthplace State Historic Site in Lamar; and trek across Missouri's largest remaining tallgrass prairie at Prairie State Park near Liberal. This is just a sampling of what these state parks and historic sites have to offer. Spend a day or two or more with your family rediscovering the recreation and educational opportunities that await you.
A dependable southwest breeze makes Stockton Lake Missouri's premier sailing lake and a top 10 sailing lake in the nation. Bordering the lake, Stockton State Park offers more than just sailing opportunities. You can rent a personal watercraft to zoom across the water or a fishing boat to find a quiet cove to cast your line for bass, crappie, walleye, catfish or bluegill. Sailboats and pontoon boats are also available for rental or you can launch your own boat from the park's two boat ramps. For those in your family that would rather play in the water, a swimming beach is available.
After a day on the water, picnic in a shaded area of the park or let the park's grill fix you dinner. Spend the evening relaxing around a campfire at your campsite, or other lodging options include camper cabins, a cabin or duplex cabins with kitchenettes. Stockton State Park is located south of Stockton on Highway 215. Cost: Park admission is free. There are fees for camping and lodging.
From Stockton State Park, take Highway 215 to Highway 245 south and Highway 160 East to Ash Grove, where Nathan and Olive Boone Homestead State Historic Site is located just 1.5 miles north on Highway V. Here, you can take in a piece of Missouri's history as you tour the log house and grounds that once was the homestead of Nathan Boone. A son of Daniel Boone, Nathan carried his family's legacy deep into the Missouri Ozarks and the American West. He was a hunter, soldier, surveyor and entrepreneur. He operated a salt-making business, helped lay out some of Missouri's first roadways, was a member of Missouri's first constitutional convention and was captain of the Missouri Rangers during the War of 1812. The historic site includes the cabin, cellar, two cemeteries, picnic sites and an interpretive trail. The site hosts many interesting special events during the summer months that focus not only on the Boone family, but the lifestyles, work and play of early settlers. Cost: Click here for tour fees.
To visit the birthplace of Missouri's only elected United States President, travel west on Highway 160 to Lamar and Harry S Truman Birthplace State Historic Site. Truman was born on May 8, 1884, in the downstairs bedroom of this small frame house. To celebrate, his father proudly planted an Austrian pine tree at the southeast corner of the house, where it thrives today. Tours of the home, which is furnished to represent a typical home of its style during the time, are free.
Your discovery of Missouri state parks and historic sites in southwest Missouri should end where grasses grow tall and bison roam at Prairie State Park near Liberal. Trails wind through this sea of grass strewn with the colors of ever-changing wildflowers, including nearly 600 native prairie plant species. Enhance your "prairie" experience with a visit to the park's visitor center, which features nature programs, interpretive displays, hands-on exhibits, a bison exhibit and a diorama depicting the prairie from spring to fall. Picnic sites and a small primitive campground are also available. Cost: Park admission is free. Click here for camping fees.
The Missouri Department of Natural Resources preserves state parks and historic sites to give visitors the opportunity to rediscover Missouri's unique landscapes and heritage. State parks and historic sites are funded primarily by the one-tenth-of-one-percent parks, soils and water sales tax, which allows visitors to enjoy these resources at little or no cost, making them a great value. Your family will also value their time together exploring and enjoying Missouri's fascinating natural and cultural resources while creating lasting memories.


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InstallationYou can install the game over the web from the following page: Install MazeGame.
Gameplay Instructions
- Move around the map using the ASDF keys.
- The map actually has two sides. If you fall down a hole you'll end up in the maze on the opposite side.
- The aim of the game is to get from the bottom left of the map to the top right (on the same side).
- The map is randomly generated each time you play, but guaranteed to be solvable. There's always a path from bottom left to top right (even if it sometimes feels like there isn't).
- To solve the map, you'll need to fall down a hole or two (or probably more).
Keyboard controls
- Move around using the A,S,D and F keys for left, down, right and up respectively.
- Quit using the Escape key.
- Toggle fullscreen using Alt-Enter.
- MazeGame
Version 1.002 (20 Dec 2011) for Windows.
Simple XNA maze game used as a demonstration for first year games students. The game uses a grid-based world, with a random procedurally-generated 2-sided maze that's always guaranteed to have a solution path to the goal. More info...
Download: binary, screenshot.


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