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Economic appraisal provides a conceptual framework for assessing benefits arising from environmental mitigation measures and the costs they impose. This appraisal involves defining objectives, examining options, and summing costs and benefits (and uncertainties) associated with each option. All environmental regulations or market-based options aim to internalize external costs and are likely to raise the costs of production, leading to higher prices along with benefits resulting from reduced amounts of pollution and associated damage costs. In conducting an economic appraisal of an environmental mitigation measure, the loss of material benefits to those who purchase goods or services needs to be weighed against the benefits from reduced pollution.
CBA is a common method for assessing benefits arising from an investment project, regulation, or policy and the costs that it imposes. It seeks to quantify-in monetary terms, where possible-as many of the costs and benefits as possible, taking into account their timing. Other techniques include risk analysis, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact analysis; these approaches are generally not mutually exclusive, and in many cases they are used complementarily as part of a CBA framework. CBA has a long history as a useful aid to decisionmaking across many areas of economic activity. There are important obstacles, however, to its complete application-notably the lack of transparent information, where information is closely held for competitive reasons by private-sector companies; the difficulty of putting monetary values on environmental benefits; and the challenge of applying it to proposals that are implemented over a long time. Where benefits cannot be valued, it may be necessary to present them in physical units or to rely on some form of cost-effectiveness analysis (EASG, 1995; U.S. Department of Transportation and Federal Aviation Administration, 1998).
The following principles, set out in the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992) regarding the precautionary and "polluter pays" principles, are relevant to the economic analysis framework:
"In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by states according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation." (Principle 15)
"National authorities should endeavor to promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution...." (Principle 16)
The UNFCCC provides further guidance on the thinking underlying the precautionary principle (UNFCCC, 1992). Article 3 states:
"The Parties should take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent, or minimize the causes of climate change and [to] mitigate its adverse effects. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing such measures, taking into account that policies and measures to deal with climate change should be cost-effective so as to ensure global benefits at the lowest possible cost. To achieve this, such policies and measures should take into account different socio-economic contexts, be comprehensive, cover all relevant sources, sinks, and reservoirs of greenhouse gases and adaptation, and comprise all economic sectors. Efforts to address climate change may be carried out cooperatively by interested Parties."
The precautionary principle is a guideline that indicates when mitigation action should be taken. CBA is a useful analytical tool to guide policy decisions. The "polluter pays" principle establishes upon whom the cost should fall.
Studies examining the economic impact of environmental measures affecting aviation have included the ICAO policy framework for imposing operating restrictions on certain noisier aircraft, global implementation of CNS/ATM, and potential noise and emissions stringency reduction options available to ICAO. Although the precise methodologies have differed according to the circumstances and available information, the common approach in all of these studies has been the use of a cost-benefit framework.
The ICAO study, "The Economic Implications of Future Noise Restrictions on Subsonic Jet Aircraft," estimated operating cost and revenue loss implications of early replacement of Chapter 2 aircraft as a result of certain states' implementation of operating restrictions on these aircraft for noise reasons (ICAO, 1989). The benefit of the proposed noise restrictions was analyzed by estimating the land area and population around affected airports with and without the proposed restrictions on noisy aircraft. The cost of the phaseout to air carriers would be acceleration of the fleet modernization process, reducing the value of the operators' assets and requiring them to make capital commitments earlier than might be justified from purely commercial considerations. A similar study was conducted for Chapter 2 phaseout of noisy aircraft in the United States (U.S. Department of Transportation and Federal Aviation Administration, 1991). These types of issues would need to be examined if proposals for operating restrictions to limit emissions were put forward. Studies on the economic impact of implementation of CNS/ ATM are discussed in Chapter 8 and summarized in Table 8-1. Similarly, a report conducted for CAEP's third meeting (CAEP/3) (ICAO, 1996a) described steps required to carry out an economic analysis of environmental policy measures for aviation (EASG, 1995). It considered alternative methodologies for appraising policy options and judged that CBA was the most appropriate economic appraisal methodology to apply to aviation environmental issues. This methodology was applied to noise and emissions stringency options under consideration at CAEP/3. CBA methodology was also applied to the emissions stringency option considered at CAEP's fourth meeting (CAEP/4) (FESG, 1998).
A number of issues and uncertainties have arisen in the application of CBA to potential environmental issues affecting aviation:
. The absence of transparent cost data capable of independent validation
(related to industry commercial confidentiality)
. The need to forecast over a sufficiently long appraisal period to reflect the gradual buildup of benefits from emissions stringency measures
. Scientific uncertainties regarding the impact of aviation emissions, leading to the use of estimated reductions in the amount of pollutant emitted as a surrogate measure for benefits
. Uncertainties about future trends in technology, underlying trends in traffic growth, and aircraft fleet mix. This uncertainty is illustrated by recently revised projections for fleet NOx emission index (EI) made by Boeing for 2015, showing more than a 50% increase from its previous estimate, caused primarily by reassessment of technology likely to be present in the 2015 fleet (Sutkus, 1997).
In addition, uncertainty has arisen regarding whether new worldwide standards for aircraft engine emissions would encourage additional local rules by airports and governments, leading to a reduction in the value of the existing aircraft fleet. Two studies reported in the economic analysis subgroup (EASG) report to CAEP/3 (EASG, 1995) concluded that emissions stringency options under consideration would lead to a reduction in existing aircraft fleet values for this reason. Some subsequent studies commissioned by the forecasting and economic support group (FESG) and included in its report to CAEP/4 found that the limited quantitative data available provide inconclusive evidence of any material impact on aircraft fleet values arising from an earlier change in the worldwide emissions stringency standard agreed at CAEP/2 for NOx (ICAO, 1998a).
CBA may have to be applied somewhat differently in the context of environmental levies. All environmental mitigation measures aim to internalize external costs, but environmental levies achieve this internalization more explicitly and to a greater degree. External costs arise where, for example, the cost of pollution from an economic activity does not accrue to the party responsible for it. Placing monetary values on external costs may eliminate the need for CBA, so the focus of economic analysis can be compliance costs, economic distortion, and the environmental effectiveness of alternatives. With aircraft emissions, however, the monetary value of these external costs is subject to a wide range of uncertainty, as discussed in Section 10.4.3. In these circumstances-and in particular under a regime of emissions targets introduced on the basis of the precautionary principle-CBA techniques will be necessary in providing assistance to decisionmakers on the most economically efficient means of meeting such targets.
The extent to which cost increases arising from environmental mitigation policies are passed on to consumers and affect demand for aviation services depends on elasticity of demand (the responsiveness of consumers to fare increases).
Evidence regarding fare elasticities is particularly relevant in considering the impact of environmental levies (charges or taxes) that directly increase the cost of air travel. If demand is relatively unresponsive to fare increases (i.e., price is inelastic), such measures will have little impact in reducing emissions through dampening of demand. Conversely, if passenger responsiveness is high (i.e., price is elastic), policy measures will have a greater impact. This analysis can be illustrated as follows: A fare elasticity of -0.5 would mean that a 10% increase in fares would result in a 5% reduction in traffic volume; a fare elasticity of -2.0 would mean that a 10% fare increase would reduce traffic by 20%.
Estimates of fare elasticities differ by journey purpose; leisure travel generally is significantly more price elastic than business travel. Fare elasticities also exhibit some regional variation; for example, studies show comparatively higher price elasticities in North America than in other regions of the world. A study commissioned by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1995) reviewed more than 25 price elasticity studies and found that most presented elasticity of demand estimates in the range of -0.8 to -2.7.
Studies examining the effectiveness of environmental levies have had to make assumptions about the reaction of airlines and how the demand for air transport changes in response to a change in fare. Many commentators agree that in the long term, in addition to encouraging more energy-efficient technological alternatives, an increase in the price of fuel will lead to an increase in the cost of travel and consequent reduction in demand. However, airlines operate in a highly competitive environment, and in the short term many may absorb fare increases at a cost to profitability rather than pass them on to passengers.
Other reports in this collection


text: Dave's ESL Cafe's Student Discussion Forums :: View topic - Chinese guy get in and say hi Dave's ESL Cafe's Student Discussion Forums"The Internet's Meeting Place for ESL/EFL Students and Teachers from Around the World!" FAQ Search Memberlist Usergroups Register Profile Log in to check your private messages Log in Chinese guy get in and say hi Dave's ESL Cafe's Student Discussion Forums Forum Index -> English Schools View previous topic :: View next topic Author Message VolfnerJoined: 27 Dec 2004Posts: 8 Posted: Mon Dec 27, 2004 2:46 am Post subject: Chinese guy get in and say hi hey ! I am a chinese guy 23/M/Tianjin great to meet everyone here ! _________________http://www.blogcn.com/user22/nomad324/index.html Back to top weadingJoined: 06 Jan 2005Posts: 11Location: China Posted: Thu Jan 13, 2005 5:06 am Post subject: i'm chinese girl from nanning ,guangxi glad to see you Back to top echolglJoined: 26 Jan 2005Posts: 4 Posted: Wed Jan 26, 2005 11:35 pm Post subject: I am a Chinese boy.Now I am in Wuhan. I am very pleased to know you guys. My email address is always open to you. [email protected] Back to top Display posts from previous: All Posts1 Day7 Days2 Weeks1 Month3 Months6 Months1 Year Oldest FirstNewest First Dave's ESL Cafe's Student Discussion Forums Forum Index -> English Schools All times are GMT - 8 Hours Page 1 of 1 Jump to: Select a forum Student Forums----------------ComputersCurrent NewsCultureEnglish SchoolsFamilyFilm and CinemaFoodHealth and FitnessHelp CenterHobbiesHolidaysLearning EnglishLiteratureMaking FriendsMusicOpinionsPetsScienceSportsThe Strange and MysteriousTOEFL and Other English ExamsTravel You cannot post new topics in this forumYou cannot reply to topics in this forumYou cannot edit your posts in this forumYou cannot delete your posts in this forumYou cannot vote in polls in this forum Dave's ESL Cafe is maintained by the one and only Dave Sperling. Banner Advertising | Bookstore / Alta Books | FAQs | Articles | Interview with Dave Copyright © 2018 Dave's ESL Cafe | All Rights Reserved | Contact Dave's ESL Cafe | Site Map Teachers College, Columbia University: Train to Teach English Here or Abroad Powered by phpBB © 2001, 2002 phpBB Group

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text: It's not that the draft is not closely looked at. All fans are very interested in who the team picks and can't wait to see if they pan out. But for some casual fans, that's just about it. Wait until July Training Camp and the pre-season games and watch all the new players. [me too] But now with these message boards it is not hard to get a line on possible picks for the team and also a line on who the really future stars might be. Plus there is You Tube to further get a look at players mentioned. This really is making the Jan to Apr period very interesting. The only bad part is if the team doesn't get the player. But this year for me a new dimension was added. There was a thread last week started by STEELBLOOD which listed a number of players to watch for in the East West Shrine Game. This is of course just one of quite a few of these post season college all star type games which gives players of varying draft status the chance to showcase their skills. Next up is the Senior Bowl which is considered the top game of this type. This got me to thinking. Here are games [a half dozen or more] which gives everyone a chance to see just about every possible player compete and in the case of the pro teams, evaluate them for further use. Then there comes the Combine and more evaluation. Then all the teams have a Pro Day. More evaluation. Uhh! These players have been scrutinzied since they were junior high school kids, 4 years in HS, 4 years in college etc. Then comes the draft. Then how is it like say in 2006 Pittsburgh comes up with 1 25 Santonio Holmes WR Ohio State 3 83 Anthony Smith DB Syracuse 3 95 Willie Reid WR Florida State 4 131 Willie Colon T Hofstra 4 133 Orien Harris DT Miami (Fla.) 5 164 Omar Jacobs QB Bowling Green State 5 167 Charles Davis TE Purdue 6 201 Marvin Philip C California 7 240 Cedric Humes RB Virginia Tech Okay, toss out SH who is great and the only value pick there is Willie Colon. 4th rd pick. Capable starter for many years. One more example. 2008 1 23 Rashard Mendenhall RB Illinois 2 53 Limas Sweed WR Texas 3 88 Bruce Davis LB UCLA 4 130 Tony Hills T Texas 5 156 Dennis Dixon QB Oregon 6 188 Mike Humpal OLB Iowa 6 194 Ryan Mundy FS West Virginia Very possibly there will be none of these players here 2013. Maybe Mundy a 7th rd pick. Now to the point. It is absolutley not to be negative or critical about the teams drafts. It is only to point out how difficult it is to find true nfl calibre players. The Steelers actually do this better than anyone, yet as you can see the number of players who did not even make it at all are quite a few. But why? Why is the percentage of players nfl capable so low. Maybe it is the overall draft strategy? As I said earlier, the thread listing those players to watch in the Shrine game made me think. My draft strategy for this year is compile lists of only those players that perform well in these games.[plus their prior body of work] Screw the combine, screw the pro days screw the rankings etc. My opinion is the draft board should already be finalized at least 95% already. Only the character and integrity of the players on the list should now be double checked. It just seems like championship teams have a lot of smart, troublefree type players. But just out of curiousity, I am going to see how and/or if any of those players the Steelers drafted played in any of these post season games. And if they did how did they do. In other words were those players picked because of some pre-contrived listing of where they would be drafted said so. In other words does anyone really believe player ranked #273 is better for sure than player #397? Get real. Do you really believe anyone can grade these players 1 to 999 with any real accuracy? I don't. BTW: Where is the list of players to watch for in the Senior Bowl?


text: Going on or planning a motorbike uk/european/world road tour? Maybe an adventure tour? Need some advice from experienced tourers? Maybe a route map or details of biker friendly hostels/hotels/bed & breakfast? Need a rent/hire bike or insurance for yours while abroad? Need information on the legal quirks of different countries? In the TRC touring section you can ask these questions and more.


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HTTP Status Codes
Routing API supports the standard HTTP status codes
|Error code
|Indicates success, but may also be returned when an invalid resource name or an invalid parameter combination has been used in the request.
|400 Bad request
|Invalid parameter value in the request, for example
zoom out of range.
|401 Unauthorized
|Invalid authentication.
|403 Forbidden
app_code or
app_id in the request. See Acquiring Credentialsfor more information.
|404 Not found
|Unsupported parameter in the request.
|500 Internal error
|There is a server configuration issue.
|503 Service Unavailable
|Indicates that the service is temporarily unavailable due to system overload or maintenance.


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Whether you are just starting your family history research or are an experienced genealogist, free online resources are always a plus. And "Finding Family for Free" is a key emphasis of this blog, Relative Musings.
In that spirit, here is a helpful article by TJD with one proposed list of the "Top Five Free Genealogy Websites." Click here to read the details of each one. The 5 that TJD recommended are:
>> FreeBMD for ancestors in England,
>> RootsWeb with user-contributed family info,
>> Google News Archive,
>> Newspaper Archive, and
>> USGenWeb project.
While some of these are not totally free, all have some free resources are are worth using. For example, the Newspaper Archive offers free searches of the the front pages of newspapers in its database. But most of the others are totally free.
Of the five, new to me was the Google News Archive. I tried it out and immediately found a weath of information about my extended Bruce family in Milwaukee. It helps that William George Bruce, older brother of my great-grandfather, was a prominent figure in publishing and civic service in Milwaukee.
Given that success, I offer for your consideration a trio of Google resources for your genealogy research, each useful in its own way.
Google Books: Many older family genealogy books and histories of US towns, cities and counties have been scanned through the Google Books project. Some are there in full text, others in limited preview and others just indexed with brief snippets of text excerpted in the search results. But you have a good chance of finding ancestors in some of these books, especially earlier generations in New England.
Google Search: A basic Google search — if well crafted to be specific enough — can lead you to relevant family history Web sites created by other genealogists or other helpful information. Maybe your ancestor was an early settler in an American town and is mentioned in the town's history online.
Google News Archive: The news archive is a way to find articles about ancestors, as well as obituaries that fill in a gap in your family history.
Make it a habit to use all three Google strategies as you work to break down genealogy brickwalls or fill out the story of an ancestor's life. Your family history will benefit!
Other resources on using Google:
> Using Google for Genealogy, by Kathi Reid
> Easy Google Genealogy Searcher, a handy tool
> Using Google Books in Genealogy, a helpful video
There are entire handbooks in PDF format on using Google for genealogy. Just do a Google search on that phrase and you'll find a treasure trove of helpful resources!
Best wishes in your family history research!
This is one in a series of genealogy and family history research articles to help you find your family and ancestors, often for modest or no cost.


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