text:
|Total population
|c. 16–20 million (estimates vary)
|Regions with significant populations
9,450,000–11,550,000 (2014)
|6,787,000 (2014)[3]
| Uzbekistan
1,420,000 (2012, official)
other, non-official, scholarly estimates are 8 – 11 million[4][5][6]
|United States
varieties of Dari and Tajiki
Predominantly Islam
Historically Zoroastrianism and Buddhism
Tajik (Dari: تاجيک: Tājīk , Tajik: Тоҷик) is a general designation for a wide range of Persian-speaking people of Iranian origin,[13] with traditional homelands in present-day Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Uzbekistan.
As a self-designation, the term Tajik, which earlier on had been more or less pejorative, has become acceptable only during the last several decades, particularly as a result of Soviet administration in Central Asia.[13] Alternative names for the Tajiks are Fārsī (Persian), Fārsīwān (Persian-speaker), and Dīhgān (cf. Tajik: Деҳқон, Dehqon, literally "farmer or settled villager", in a wider sense "settled" in contrast to "nomadic" and also described as a class of land-owning magnates during the Sassanid and early Islamic period).[14]
Not all Tajiks speak a variety of modern Persian. They may speak any one of the extant Iranian languages. For example, the Tajiks of China are actually Pamiris and speak the Eastern Iranic Pamiri languages and are distinct from more western Tajiks.[15][16]
The Tajiks are an Iranian people, speaking a variety of Persian, concentrated in the Oxus Basin, the Farḡāna valley (Tajikistan and parts of Uzbekistan) and on both banks of the upper Oxus, i.e., the Pamir Mountains (Mountain Badaḵšān, in Tajikistan) and northeastern Afghanistan (Badaḵšān and Kābol).[17] Historically the Tajiks were agriculturalists.[18]
The Bactrian and the Sogdian people are the principle ancestors of modern-day Tajiks.[19][20] Regarding Tajiks, the Encyclopædia Britannica states:
The Tajiks are the direct descendants of the Iranian peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the 1st millennium bc. The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwārezm (Khorezm) and Bactria, which formed part of Transoxania (Sogdiana). Over the course of time, the eastern Iranian dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way to Farsi, a western dialect spoken in Iran and Afghanistan.[21]
According to Richard Nelson Frye, a leading historian of Iranian and Central Asian history, the Persian migration to Central Asia may be considered the beginning of the modern Tajik nation, and ethnic Persians, along with some elements of East-Iranian Bactrians and Sogdians, as the main ancestors of modern Tajiks.[22] In later works, Frye expands on the complexity of the historical origins of the Tajiks. In a 1996 publication, Frye explains that many "factors must be taken into account in explaining the evolution of the peoples whose remnants are the Tajiks in Central Asia" and that "the peoples of Central Asia, whether Iranian or Turkic speaking, have one culture, one religion, one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them."[23]
The geographical division between the eastern and western Iranians is often considered historically and currently to be the desert Dasht-e Kavir, situated in the center of the Iranian plateau.
According to Encyclopaedia Iranica:[17]
The most plausible and generally accepted origin of the word is Middle Persian tāzīk 'Arab' (cf. New Persian tāzi), or an Iranian (Sogdian or Parthian) cognate word. The Muslim armies that invaded Transoxiana early in the eighth century, conquering the Sogdian principalities and clashing with the Qarluq Turks (see Bregel, Atlas, Maps 8–10) consisted not only of Arabs, but also of Persian converts from Fārs and the central Zagros region (Bartol'd [Barthold], "Tadžiki," pp. 455–57). Hence the Turks of Central Asia adopted a variant of the Iranian word, täžik, to designate their Muslim adversaries in general. For example, the rulers of the south Indian Chalukya dynasty and Rashtrakuta dynasty also referred to the Arabs as "Tajika" in the 8th and 9th century.[25][26] By the eleventh century (Yusof Ḵāṣṣ-ḥājeb, Qutadḡu bilig, lines 280, 282, 3265), the Qarakhanid Turks applied this term more specifically to the Persian Muslims in the Oxus basin and Khorasan, who were variously the Turks' rivals, models, overlords (under the Samanid Dynasty), and subjects (from Ghaznavid times on). Persian writers of the Ghaznavid, Seljuq and Atābak periods (ca. 1000–1260) adopted the term and extended its use to cover Persians in the rest of Greater Iran, now under Turkish rule, as early as the poet ʿOnṣori, ca. 1025 (Dabirsiāqi, pp. 3377, 3408). Iranians soon accepted it as an ethnonym, as is shown by a Persian court official's referring to mā tāzikān "we Tajiks" (Bayhaqi, ed. Fayyāz, p. 594). The distinction between Turk and Tajik became stereotyped to express the symbiosis and rivalry of the (ideally) nomadic military executive and the urban civil bureaucracy (Niẓām al-Molk: tāzik, pp. 146, 178–79; Fragner, "Tādjīk. 2" in EI2 10, p. 63).
According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, however, the oldest known usage of the word Tajik as a reference to Persians in Persian literature can be found in the writings of the Persian poet Jalal ad-Din Rumi.[27] The 15th century Turkic-speaking poet Mīr Alī Šer Navā'ī also used Tajik as a reference to Persians.[28]
An example for the usage of the word Tajik in Persian literature is, for example, the writing of Sa'adi:
شایَد کِه بَه پادشاه بگویند
ترک تو بریخت خون تاجیک
Šâyad ki ba pâdšâh bigoyand
Turke tu birext xune Tâjik
It's appropriate to tell the King,
Your Turk shed the blood of Tajik
The Tajiks are the principal ethnic group in most of Tajikistan, as well as in northern and western Afghanistan, though there are more Tajiks in Afghanistan than in Tajikistan. Tajiks are a substantial minority in Uzbekistan, as well as in overseas communities. Historically, the ancestors of the Tajiks lived in a larger territory in Central Asia than now.
According to the World Factbook, Tajiks make up about 27% of the population in Afghanistan,[2] but the Encyclopædia Britannica claims that they constitute about one-fifth of the population.[29] They are predominant in four of the largest cities in Afghanistan (Kabul, Mazar-e Sharif, Herat, and Ghazni) and make up the largest ethnic group in the northern and western provinces of Balkh, Takhar, Badakhshan, Samangan, Parwan, Panjshir, Kapisa, Baghlan, Ghor, Badghis and Herat.
In Afghanistan, the Tajiks do not organize themselves by tribes and refer to themselves by the region, province, city, town, or village that they are from; such as Badakhshi, Baghlani, Mazari, Panjsheri, Kabuli, Herati, Kohistani etc.[30] Although in the past, some non-Pashto speaking tribes were identified as Tajik, for example the Furmuli.[31][32]
Tajiks comprise around 79.9% of the population of Tajikistan.[3] This number includes speakers of the Pamiri languages, including Wakhi and Shughni, and the Yaghnobi people who in the past were considered by the government of the Soviet Union nationalities separate from the Tajiks. In the 1926 and 1937 Soviet censuses, the Yaghnobis and Pamiri language speakers were counted as separate nationalities. After 1937, these groups were required to register as Tajiks.[33]
In Uzbekistan, the Tajiks are the largest part of the population of the ancient cities of Bukhara and Samarkand, and are found in large numbers in the Surxondaryo Province in the south and along Uzbekistan's eastern border with Tajikistan. According to official statistics (2000), Surxondaryo Province accounts for 24.4% of all Tajiks in Uzbekistan, with another 34.3% in Samarqand and Bukhara provinces.[34]
Official statistics in Uzbekistan state that the Tajik community comprises 5% of the nation's total population.[35] However, these numbers do not include ethnic Tajiks who, for a variety of reasons, choose to identify themselves as Uzbeks in population census forms.[36] During the Soviet "Uzbekization" supervised by Sharof Rashidov, the head of the Uzbek Communist Party, Tajiks had to choose either stay in Uzbekistan and get registered as Uzbek in their passports or leave the republic for Tajikistan, which is mountainous and less agricultural.[37] It is only in the last population census (1989) that the nationality could be reported not according to the passport, but freely declared on the basis of the respondent's ethnic self-identification.[38] This had the effect of increasing the Tajik population in Uzbekistan from 3.9% in 1979 to 4.7% in 1989. Expert estimates suggest that Tajiks may make up 35% of Uzbekistan's population.[4][39]
According to the 1999 population census, there were 26,000 Tajiks in Kazakhstan (0.17% of the total population), about the same number as in the 1989 census.
According to official statistics, there were about 47,500 Tajiks in Kyrgyzstan in 2007 (0.9% of the total population), up from 42,600 in the 1999 census and 33,500 in the 1989 census.
According to the last Soviet census in 1989,[40] there were 3,149 Tajiks in Turkmenistan, or less than 0.1% of the total population of 3.5 million at that time. The first population census of independent Turkmenistan conducted in 1995 showed 3,103 Tajiks in a population of 4.4 million (0.07%), most of them (1,922) concentrated in the eastern provinces of Lebap and Mary adjoining the borders with Afghanistan and Uzbekistan.[41]
The population of Tajiks in Russia is about 200,303 according to the 2010 census, up from 38,000 in the last Soviet census of 1989.[42] Most Tajiks came to Russia after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, often as guest workers.
There are an estimated 220,000 Tajiks in Pakistan, mainly refugees from Afghanistan and Tajikistan.[43] Their number was higher in the 1990s, but in the last decade many have left Pakistan and returned to their native countries.[7] Some Tajiks are also living in Hunza, Ishkoman and along the border of Afghanistan and Pakistan called "Broghil".
Chinese Tajiks or Mountain Tajiks in China (Sarikoli: [tudʒik], Tujik; Chinese: 塔吉克族; pinyin: Tǎjíkè Zú), including Sarikolis (majority) and Wakhis (minority) in China, are an extension of the Pamiri ethnic group that lives in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China. They are Mountain Tajiks, unlike Plain Tajiks in Tajikistan and Afghanistan. They are one of the 56 nationalities officially recognized by the government of China.
Physical characteristics and genetics
On the whole, Tajiks are a genetically diverse population, displaying a wide range of phenotypes. Around 10% of Tajiks are said to have blond hair, more prevalent in the Zarafshan and Pamir region, where they are known as Pamiri people.[44] Some ethnic Tajiks, particularly those from Tajikistan, show clear Mongoloid admixture possibly originating from their Kyrgyz and Uzbek neighbors. The dominant haplogroup among modern Tajiks is the Haplogroup R1a Y-DNA. ~45% of Tajik men share R1a (M17), ~18% J (M172), and ~8% R2 (M124). Tajiks of Panjikent score 68% R1a, Tajiks of Khojant score 64% R1a.[45] The high frequency of haplogroup R1a in the Tajiks probably reflects a strong founder effect.[46]
|Part of a series on
The language of the Tajiks is an eastern dialect of Persian, called Dari (derived from Darbārī, "[of/from the] royal courts", in the sense of "courtly language"), or also Parsi-e Darbari. In Tajikistan, where Cyrillic script is used, it is called the Tajiki language. Historically, it was considered the local dialect of Persian spoken by the Tajik/Persian ethnic group in Central Asia, from where it spread westward only to drive the Arabic language out as the mother tongue of ethnic Persians. In Afghanistan, unlike in Tajikistan, Tajiks continue to use the Perso-Arabic script, as well as in Iran. However, when the Soviet Union introduced the Latin script in 1928, and later the Cyrillic script, the Persian dialect of Tajikistan came to be considered a separate (Persian) language. Since the 19th century, Tajiki has been strongly influenced by the Russian language and has incorporated many Russian language loan words.[47] It has also adopted fewer Arabic loan words than Iranian Persian, while retaining vocabulary that has fallen out of use in the latter language. In Tajikistan, in ordinary speech, also known as "zaboni kucha" (lit. "street language", as opposed to "zaboni adabi", lit. "literary language", which is used in schools, media etc.), many urban Tajiks prefer to use Russian loanwords instead of their literary Persian analogs.
The dialects of the Persians of Iran and of the Tajiks of central Asia have a common origin. This is underscored by the Tajiks' claim to such famous writers as Rudaki, Ferdowsi, Anwari, Rumi, Avicenna, Hafez and other famous Persian poets. Russian is widely used in government and business in Tajikistan as well. Since Tajikistan gained independence, there has been a public debate about whether Tajiki should revert to the Perso-Arabic script.
Various scholars have recorded the Zoroastrian, Buddhist, and Aryan pre-Islamic heritage of the Tajik people. Early temples for fire worship have been found in Balkh and Bactria and excavations in present-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan show remnants of Zoroastrian fire temples.[48]
Today, however, the great majority of Tajiks follow Sunni Islam, although small Twelver and Ismaili Shia minorities also exist in scattered pockets. Areas with large numbers of Shias include Herat, Bamyan, Badakhshan provinces in Afghanistan, the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in Tajikistan, and Tashkurgan Tajik Autonomous County in China. Some of the famous Islamic scholars were from East-Iranian regions lying in Afghanistan and Tajikistan today and therefore can arguably be viewed as Tajiks. They include Abu Hanifa, Imam Bukhari, Tirmidhi, Abu Dawood, Abu Mansur Maturidi, and many others. Since the Tajiks generally follow Islamic belief patterns. Belief in the supernatural, outside of formal Islam, falls into several categories: curative customs, fortune-telling, and ascription of bad fortune to the power of fate or of evil beings called jinn.
According to a 2009 U.S. State Department release, the population of Tajikistan is 98% Muslim, (approximately 85% Sunni and 5% Shia).[49] In Afghanistan, the great number of Tajiks adhere to Sunni Islam. The smaller number of Tajiks who may follow Twelver Shia Islam are locally called Farsiwan. The community of Bukharian Jews in Central Asia speak a dialect of Persian. The Bukharian Jewish community in Uzbekistan is the largest remaining community of Central Asian Jews and resides primarily in Bukhara and Samarkand, while the Bukharaian Jews of Tajikistan live in Dushanbe and number only a few hundred.[50] From the 1970s to the 1990s the majority of these Tajik-speaking Jews emigrated to the United States and to Israel in accordance with Aliyah. Recently, the Protestant community of Tajiks descent has experienced significant growth, a 2015 study estimates some 2,600 Muslim Tajik converted to Christianity.[51]
Tajikistan marked 2009 as the year to commemorate the Tajik Sunni Muslim jurist Abu Hanifa, whose ancestry hailed from Parwan Province of Afghanistan, as the nation hosted an international symposium that drew scientific and religious leaders.[52] The construction of one of the largest mosques in the world, funded by Qatar, was announced in October 2009. The mosque is planned to be built in Dushanbe and construction is said to be completed by 2014.[53]
Recent developments
Cultural revival
The collapse of the Soviet Union and the civil war in Afghanistan both gave rise to a resurgence in Tajik nationalism across the region. Tajikistan in particular has been a focal point for this movement, and the government there has made a conscious effort to revive the legacy of the Samanid empire, the first Tajik-dominated state in the region after the Arab advance. For instance, the President of Tajikistan, Emomalii Rahmon, dropped the Russian suffix "-ov" from his surname and directed others to adopt Tajik names when registering births.[54] According to a government announcement in October 2009, approximately 4,000 Tajik nationals have dropped "ov" and "ev" from their surnames since the start of the year.[55]
In an interview to Iranian news media in May 2008, Tajikistan's deputy culture minister said that Tajikistan would study the issue of switching its Tajik alphabet from Cyrillic to the Persian script used in Iran and Afghanistan when the government feels that "the Tajik people became familiar with the Persian alphabet".[56] More recently, the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan seeks to have the nation's language referred to as "Tajiki-Farsi" rather than "Tajik." The proposal has drawn criticism from Russian media since the bill seeks to remove the Russian language as the mode of interethnic communication.[57] In 1989, the original name of the language (Farsi) was added to its official name in brackets. However, Rahmon's government renamed the language to simply 'Tajiki' in 1994. On October 2009, Tajikistan adopted the law that removes Russian as the "language for interethnic communication."[58]
See also
Notes and references
- ↑ Country Factfiles. — Afghanistan, page 153. // Atlas. Fourth Edition. Editors: Ben Hoare, Margaret Parrish. Publisher: Jonathan Metcalf. First published in Great Britain in 2001 by Dorling Kindersley Limited. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2010, 432 pages. ISBN 9781405350396 "Population: 28.1 million
Religions: Sunni Muslim 84%, Shi'a Muslim 15%, other 1%
Ethnic Mix: Pashtun 38%, Tajik 25%, Hazara 19%, Uzbek, Turkmen, other 18%"
- 1 2 "Population of Afghanistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Retrieved 2012-08-09.
- 1 2 "Tajikistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. May 5, 2010. Retrieved 2010-05-26.
- 1 2 Richard Foltz (1996). "The Tajiks of Uzbekistan". Central Asian Survey. 15 (2): 213–216. doi:10.1080/02634939608400946.
- ↑ Karl Cordell, "Ethnicity and Democratisation in the New Europe", Routledge, 1998. p. 201: "Consequently, the number of citizens who regard themselves as Tajiks is difficult to determine. Tajikis within and outside of the republic, Samarkand State University (SamGU) academic and international commentators suggest that there may be between six and seven million Tajiks in Uzbekistan, constituting 30% of the republic's 22 million population, rather than the official figure of 4.7%(Foltz 1996;213; Carlisle 1995:88).
- ↑ Lena Jonson (1976) "Tajikistan in the New Central Asia", I.B.Tauris, p. 108: "According to official Uzbek statistics there are slightly over 1 million Tajiks in Uzbekistan or about 3% of the population. The unofficial figure is over 6 million Tajiks. They are concentrated in the Sukhandarya, Samarqand and Bukhara regions."
- 1 2 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2002-10-01). "Long-time Tajik refugees return home from Pakistan". UNHCR. Retrieved 2012-06-11.
- ↑ Russian 2010 Census results; see also Ethnic groups in Russia
- ↑ This figure only includes Tajiks from Afghanistan. The population of people from Afghanistan the United States is estimated as 80,414 (2005). United States Census Bureau. "US demographic census". Retrieved 2008-01-23. Of this number, approximately 65% are Tajiks according to a group of American researchers (Barbara Robson, Juliene Lipson, Farid Younos, Mariam Mehdi). Robson, Barbara and Lipson, Juliene (2002) "Chapter 5(B)- The People: The Tajiks and Other Dari-Speaking Groups" The Afghans – their history and culture Cultural Orientation Resource Center, Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C., OCLC 56081073.
- ↑ "Ethnic composition of the population in Kyrgyzstan 1999–2007" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-06-11.
- ↑ This figure only includes Tajiks from Afghanistan. The population of people with descent from Afghanistan in Canada is 48,090 according to Canada's 2006 Census. Tajiks make up an estimated 27% of the population of Afghanistan. The Tajik population in Canada is estimated from these two figures. Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada.
- ↑ State statistics committee of Ukraine – National composition of population, 2001 census (Ukrainian)
- 1 2 C.E. Bosworth; B.G. Fragner (1999). "TĀDJĪK". Encyclopaedia of Islam (CD-ROM Edition v. 1.0 ed.). Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV.
- ↑ M. Longworth Dames; G. Morgenstierne & R. Ghirshman (1999). "AFGHĀNISTĀN". Encyclopaedia of Islam (CD-ROM Edition v. 1.0 ed.). Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV.
- ↑ Arlund, Pamela S. (2006). An Acoustic, Historical, And Developmental Analysis Of Sarikol Tajik Diphthongs. PhD Dissertation. The University of Texas at Arlington. p. 191.
- ↑ Felmy, Sabine (1996). The voice of the nightingale: a personal account of the Wakhi culture in Hunza. Karachi: Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-19-577599-6.
- 1 2 "TAJIK i. THE ETHNONYM: ORIGINS AND APPLICATION".
- ↑ Zerjal, Tatiana; Wells, R. Spencer; Yuldasheva, Nadira; Ruzibakiev, Ruslan; Tyler-Smith, Chris (2002). "A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 71 (3): 466–482. doi:10.1086/342096. PMC 419996. PMID 12145751.
- ↑ Library of Congress: Country Studies; "Tajikistan – Historical & Ethnic Background": "Contemporary Tajiks are the descendants of ancient Eastern Iranian inhabitants of Central Asia, in particular the Soghdians and the Bactrians."
- ↑ Cambridge Encyclopedia Vol. 8, pg. 2246, "Bactria – Geography, History, Tokharistan, Archaeological sites", with this quote "The Bactrians are one of the ancestral lines of the modern-day Tajiks, of Central Asia."
- ↑ Tajikistan: History Britannica Online Encyclopedia
- ↑ Richard Nelson Frye, "Persien: bis zum Einbruch des Islam" (original English title: "The Heritage Of Persia"), German version, tr. by Paul Baudisch, Kindler Verlag AG, Zürich 1964, pp. 485–498
- ↑ Frye, Richard Nelson (1996). The heritage of Central Asia from antiquity to the Turkish expansion. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 4. ISBN 1-55876-110-1.
- ↑ Lena Jonson, Tajikistan in the new Central Asia, (I.B.Tauris, 2006), 18.
- ↑ Political History of the Chālukyas of Badami by Durga Prasad Dikshit p.192
- ↑ The First Spring: The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly p.91
- ↑ C.E. Bosworth/B.G. Fragner, "Tādjīk", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Online Edition: "... In Islamic usage, [Tādjīk] eventually came to designate the Persians, as opposed to Turks [...] the oldest citation for it which Schraeder could find was in verses of Djalāl al-Dīn Rūmī ..."
- ↑ Ali Shir Nava'i Muhakamat al-lughatain tr. & ed. Robert Devereaux (Leiden: Brill) 1966 p6
- ↑ "Tajik". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 6, 2011.
There were about 5,000,000 in Afghanistan, where they constituted about one-fifth of the population.
- ↑ Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress (1997). "Afghanistan: Tajik". Country Studies Series. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
- ↑ Bellew, Henry Walter (1891) An inquiry into the ethnography of Afghanistan The Oriental Institute, Woking, Butler & Tanner, Frome, United Kingdom, page 126, OCLC 182913077
- ↑ Markham, C. R. (January 1879) "The Mountain Passes on the Afghan Frontier of British India" Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography (New Monthly Series) 1(1): pp. 38–62, p.48
- ↑ Suny, Ronald Grigor (2006). "History and Foreign Policy: From Constructed Identities to "Ancient Hatreds" East of the Caspian". In Shaffer, Brenda. The Limits of Culture: Islam and Foreign Policy. MIT Press. pp. 100–110. ISBN 0-262-69321-6.
- ↑ Ethnic Atlas of Uzbekistan, Part 1: Ethnic minorities, Open Society Institute, table with number of Tajiks by province (Russian).
- ↑ "Uzbekistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. May 6, 2010. Retrieved 2010-05-26.
- ↑ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (February 23, 2000). "Uzbekistan". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – 1999. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
- ↑ Rahim Masov, The History of the Clumsy Delimitation, Irfon Publ. House, Dushanbe, 1991 (Russian). English translation: The History of a National Catastrophe, transl. Iraj Bashiri, 1996.
- ↑ Ethnic Atlas of Uzbekistan, Part 1: Ethnic minorities, Open Society Institute, p. 195 (Russian).
- ↑ Svante E. Cornell, "Uzbekistan: A Regional Player in Eurasian Geopolitics?", European Security, vol. 20, no. 2, Summer 2000.
- ↑ http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php?reg=14
- ↑ Population census of Turkmenistan 1995, Vol. 1, State Statistical Committee of Turkmenistan, Ashgabat, 1996, pp. 75–100.
- ↑ "2002 Russian census". Perepis2002.ru. Retrieved 2012-06-11.
- ↑ The ethnic composition of the 1.7 million registered Afghan refugees living in Pakistan are believed to be 85% Pashtun and 15% Tajik, Uzbek and others. "2012 UNHCR country operations profile – Pakistan". Retrieved 2012-08-08.
- ↑ Around the Roof of the World. Nicholas Shoumatoff, Nina Shoumatoff (2000). University of Michigan Press. p.9. ISBN 0-472-08669-3
- ↑ Wells, RS; Yuldasheva, N; Ruzibakiev, R; et al. (August 2001). "The Eurasian heartland: a continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity" (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98: 10244–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.171305098. PMC 56946. PMID 11526236.
- ↑ Zerjal, T; Wells, RS; Yuldasheva, N; Ruzibakiev, R; Tyler-Smith, C (September 2002). "A Genetic Landscape Reshaped by Recent Events: Y-Chromosomal Insights into Central Asia". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 71: 466–82. doi:10.1086/342096. PMC 419996. PMID 12145751.
- ↑ Michael Knüppel. Turkic Loanwords in Persian. Encyclopædia Iranica.
- ↑ Lena Jonson, Tajikistan in the New Central Asia: Geopolitics, Great Power Rivalry and Radical Islam (International Library of Central Asia Studies), page 21
- ↑ "Background Note: Tajikistan". State.gov. 2012-01-24. Retrieved 2012-06-11.
- ↑ J. Sloame, "Bukharan Jews", Jewish Virtual Library, (LINK)
- ↑ Johnstone, Patrick; Miller, Duane Alexander (2015). "Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census". IJRR. 11 (10): 1–19. Retrieved 30 October 2015.
- ↑ "Today marks 18th year of Tajik independence and success". Todayszaman.com. 2009-09-09. Retrieved 2012-06-11.
- ↑ Daniel Bardsley (2010-05-25). "Qatar paying for giant mosque in Tajikistan". Thenational.ae. Retrieved 2012-06-11.
- ↑ McDermott, Roger (2007-04-25). "Tajikistan restates its strategic partnership with Russia, while sending mixed signals". The Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 2007-10-14. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
- ↑ "Some 4,000 Tajiks opt to use the traditional version of their names this year". Asiaplus.tj. 1962-10-17. Retrieved 2012-06-11.
- ↑ "Tajikistan may consider using Persian script when the conditions are met", interview of Tajikistan's Deputy Culture Minister with Iranian News Agency, 2 May 2008.
- ↑ Tajik Islamic Party Seeks Tajiki-Farsi Designation.
- ↑ "Tajikistan Drops Russian As Official Language". Rferl.org. 2009-10-07. Retrieved 2012-06-11.
Further reading
- Dupree, Louis (1980). Afghanistan. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
- Jawad, Nassim (1992). Afghanistan: A Nation of Minorities. London: Minority Rights Group International. ISBN 0-946690-76-6.
- Rahmonov, Emomali (2001). The Tajiks in the Mirror of History: From the Aryans to the Samanids. Guernsey, United Kingdom: London River Editions. p. 272. ISBN 0-9540425-0-6.
- World Almanac and Book of Facts (2003 ed.). World Almanac Books. ISBN 0-88687-882-9.
External links
- Tajiks at Encyclopædia Britannica Online
- Tajik – The Ethnonym: Origins and Application at Encyclopædia Iranica


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The following text, and voice, is from: Malcolm X, as Told to Alex Haley. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: Ballantine Books, 1965. p 154-191:
Out of the blue one day, Bimbi told me flatly, as was his way, that I had some brains, if I'd use them. I had wanted his friendship, not that kind of advice. I might have cursed another convict, but nobody cursed Bimbi. He told me I should take advantage of the prison correspondence courses and the library.
When I had finished the eighth grade back in Mason, Michigan, that was the last time I'd thought of studying anything that didn't have some hustle purpose. And the streets had erased everything I'd ever learned in school; I didn't know a verb from a house. My sister Hilda had written a suggestion that, if possible in prison, I should study English and penmanship; she had barely been able to read a couple of picture post cards I had sent her when I was selling reefers on the road.
So, feeling I had time on my hands, I did begin a correspondence course in English. When the mimeographed listings of available books passed from cell to cell, I would put my number next to titles that appealed to me which weren't already taken.
Through the correspondence exercises and lessons, some of the mechanics of grammar gradually began to come back to me.
After about a year, I guess, I could write a decent and legible letter. About then, too, influenced by having heard Bimbi often explain word derivations, I quietly started another correspondence course—in Latin.
. . .
I never got a single reply. The average hustler and criminal was too uneducated to write a letter. I have known many slick, sharp-looking hustlers, who would have you think they had an interest in Wall Street; privately, they would get someone else to read a letter if they received one.
. . .
It was because of my letters that I happened to stumble upon starting to acquire some kind of a homemade education.
I became increasingly frustrated at not being able to express what I wanted to convey in letters that I wrote, especially those to Mr. Elijah Muhammad. In the street, I had been the most articulate hustler out there—I had commanded attention when I said something. But now, trying to write simple English, I not only wasn't articulate, I wasn't even functional. How would I sound writing in slang, the way I would say it something such as, "Look, daddy, let me pull your coat about a cat, Elijah Muhammad—"
Many who today hear me somewhere in person, or on television, or those who read something I've said, will think I went to school far beyond the eighth grade. This impression is due entirely to my prison studies.
It had really begun back in the Charlestown Prison, when Bimbi first made me feel envy of his stock of knowledge. Bimbi had always taken charge of any conversation he was in, and I had tried to emulate him. But every book I picked up had few sentences which didn't contain anywhere from one to nearly all of the words that might as well have been in Chinese. When I just skipped those words, of course, I really ended up with little idea of what the book said. So I had come to the Norfolk Prison Colony still going through only book-reading motions. Pretty soon, I would have quit even these motions, unless I had received the motivation that I did.
I saw that the best thing I could do was get hold of a dictionary—to study, to learn some words. I was lucky enough to reason also that I should try to improve my penmanship. It was sad. I couldn't even write in a straight line. It was both ideas together that moved me to request a dictionary along with some tablets and pencils from the Norfolk Prison Colony school.
I spent two days just riffling uncertainly through the dictionary's pages. I'd never realized so many words existed! I didn't know which words I needed to learn. Finally, just to start some kind of action, I began copying.
In my slow, painstaking, raged handwriting, I copied into my tablet everything printed on that first page, down to the punctuation marks.
I believe it took me a day. Then, aloud, I read back, to myself, everything I'd written on the tablet. Over and over, aloud, to myself, I read my own handwriting.
I woke up the next morning, thinking about those words—immensely proud to realize that not only had I written so much at one time, but I'd written words that I never knew were in the world. Moreover, with a little effort, I also could remember what many of these words meant. I reviewed the words whose meaning I didn't remember. Funny thing, from the dictionary first page right now, that "aardvark" springs to my mind. The dictionary had a picture of it, a long-tailed, long-eared, burrowing African mammal, which lives off termites caught by sticking out its tongue as an anteater does for ants.
I was so fascinated that I went on—I copied the dictionary's next page. And the same experience came when I studied that. With every succeeding page, I also learned of people and places and events from history. Actually the dictionary is like a miniature encyclopedia. Finally the dictionary's A section had filled a whole tablet—and I went on into the B's. That was the way I started copying what eventually became the entire dictionary. It went a lot faster after so much practice helped me to pick up handwriting speed. Between what I wrote in my tablet, and writing letters, during the rest of my time in prison I would guess I wrote a million words.
I suppose it was inevitable that as my word-base broadened, I could for the first time pick up a book and read and now begin to understand what the book was saying. Anyone who has read a great deal can imagine the new world that opened. Let me tell you something: from then until I left that prison, in every free moment I had, if I was not reading in the library, I was reading on my bunk. You couldn't have gotten me out of books with a wedge. Between Mr. Muhammad's teachings, my correspondence, my visitors—usually Ella and Reginald—and my reading of books, months passed without my even thinking about being imprisoned. In fact, up to then, I never had been so truly free in my life.
The Norfolk Prison Colony's library was in the school building. A variety of classes as taught there by instructors who came from such places as Harvard and Boston university. The weekly debates between inmate teams were also held in the school building. You would be astonished to know how worked up convict debaters and audiences would get over subjects like "Should Babies Be Fed Milk?"
Available on the prison library's shelves were books on just about every general subject. Much of the big private collection that Parkhurst had willed to the prison was still of old books. Some of them looked ancient: covers faded, old-time parchment-looking binding. Parkhurst, I've mentioned, seemed to have been principally interested in history and religion. He had the money and the special interest to have a lot of books that you wouldn't have in general circulation. Any college library would have been lucky to get that collection.
As you can imagine, especially in a prison where there was heavy emphasis on rehabilitation, an inmate was smiled upon if he demonstrated an unusually intense interest to books. There was a sizable number of well-read inmates, especially the popular debaters. Some were said by many to be practically walking encyclopedias. They were almost celebrities. No university would ask any student to devour literature as I did when this new world opened to me, of being able to read and understand.
I read more in my room than in the library itself. An inmate who was known to read a lot could check out more than the permitted maximum number of books. I preferred reading in the total isolation of my own room.
When I had progressed to really serious reading, every night at about ten P.M. I would be outraged with the "lights out." It always seemed to catch me right in the middle of something engrossing.
Fortunately, right outside my door was a corridor light that cast a glow into my room. The glow was enough to read by, once my eyes adjusted to it. So when "lights out" came, I would sit on the floor where I could continue reading in that glow.
At one-hour intervals the night guards paced past every room. Each time I heard the approaching footsteps, I jumped into bed and feigned sleep. And as soon as the guard passed, I got back out of bed onto the floor area of that light-glow, where I would read for another fifty-eight minutes—until the guard approached again. That went on until three or four every morning. Three or four hours of sleep a night was enough for me. Often in the years in the streets I had slept less than that.
. . .
I can remember accurately the very first set of books that really impressed me. I have since bought that set of books and have it at home for my children to read as they grow up. It's called Wonders of the World. It's full of pictures of archeological finds, statues that depict, usually, non-European people.
. . .
. . . my alma mater was books, a good library. Every time I catch a plane, I have with me a book that I want to read—and that's a lot of books these days.
. . .
I don't think anybody ever got more out of going to prison than I did. In fact, prison enabled me to study far more intensively than I would have if my life had gone differently and I had attended some college. I imagine that one of the biggest troubles with colleges is there are too many distractions, too much panty-raiding, fraternities, and boola-boola and all of that. Where else but in a prison could I have attacked my ignorance by being able to study intensely sometimes so much as fifteen hours a day?
. . .
Standing up and speaking before an audience was a thing that throughout my previous life never would have crossed my mind. Out there in the streets, hustling, pushing dope, and robbing. I could have had the dreams from a pound of hashish and I'd never have dreamed anything so wild as that one day I would speak in coliseums and arenas, at the greatest American universities, and on radio and television, programs, not to mention speaking all over Egypt and Africa, and in England.
But I will tell you that, right there, in the prison, debating, speaking to a crowd, was as exhilarating to me as the discovery of knowledge through reading had been. Standing up there, the faces looking up at me, the things in my head coming out of my mouth, while my brain searched for the next best thing to follow what I was saying, and if I could away them to my side by handling it right, then I had won the debate—once my feet got wet, I was gone on debating. Whichever side of the selected subject was assigned to me, I'd track down and study everything I could find on it. I'd put myself in my opponent's place and decide how I'd try to win if I had the other side and then I'd figure a way to knock down those points.
. . .
I had come to prison with 20/20 vision. But when I got sent back to Charlestown, I had read so much by the lights-out glow in my room at the Norfolk Prison Colony that I had astigmatism and the first pair of the eyeglasses that I have worn ever since.
It was in August when they gave me a lecture, a cheap L'il Abner suit, and a small amount of money, and I walked out of the gate. I never looked back, but that doesn't make me any different from a million inmates who have left a prison behind them.
By author, Alex Haley from the introduction to: Malcolm X, as told to Alex Haley. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: Ballantine Books, 1965. p ix-xiv.
Malcolm's attitude toward the white man underwent a marked change in 1964—a change that contributed to his break with Elijah Muhammad and his [Elijah's] racist doctrines. Malcolm's meteoric eruption on the national scene brought him into wider contact with white men who were not the "devils" he had thought they were. He was much in demand as a speaker at student forums in Eastern universities and had appeared at many by the end of his short career as a national figure. He always spoke respectfully and with a certain surprise of the positive response of white students to his lectures.
. . .
Assassins' bullets ended Malcolm's career before he was able to develop this new approach, which in essence recognized the Negroes as an integral part of the American community—a far cry from Elijah Muhammad's doctrine of separation. Malcolm had reached the midpoint in redefining his attitude to this country and the white-black relationship, a segment of the United States represented by overt white supremacists in the South and cover white supremacists in the North.
. . .
American autobiographical literature is filled with numerous accounts of remarkable men who pulled themselves to the summit by their bootstraps. Few are as poignant as Malcolm's memoirs. As testimony to the power of redemption and the force of human personality, the autobiography of Malcolm X is a revelation.
New York, June 1965
. . .
From actor, Ossie Davis, regarding his eulogy at Malcolm X's funeral from: Malcolm X, as told to Alex Haley. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: Ballantine Books, 1965. p 457-460.
Protocol and common sense require that Negroes stand back and let the white man speak up for us, defend us, and lead us from behind the scene in our fight. This is the essence of Negro politics. But Malcolm said to hell with that! Get up off your knees and fight your own battles. That's the way to win back your self-respect. That's the way to make the white man respect you. And if he won't let you live like a man, he certainly can't keep you from dying like one!
. . .
Malcolm kept snatching our lies away. He kept shouting the painful truth we whites and blacks did not want to hear from all the housetops. And he wouldn't stop for love nor money.
. . .
But in explaining Malcolm, let me take care not to explain him away. He had been a criminal, an addict, a pimp, and a prisoner; a racist, and a hater, he had really believed the white man was a devil. But all this had changed. Two days before his death, in commenting to Gordon Parks about his past life he said: "That was a mad scene. The sickness and madness of those days! I'm glad to be free of them."
And Malcolm was free. No one who knew him before and after his trip to Mecca could doubt that he had completely abandoned racism, separatism, and hatred. But he had not abandoned his shock-effect statements, his bristling agitation for immediate freedom in this country not only for blacks, but for everybody.
. . .
And if, to protect my relations with the many good white folks who make it possible for me to earn a fairly good living in the entertainment industry, I was too chicken, too cautious, to admit that fact when he was alive, I thought at least that now, when all the white folks are safe from him at last, I could be honest with myself enough to lift my hat for one final salute to that brave, black, ironic gallantry, which was his style and hallmark, that shocking zing of fire-and-be-damned-to-you, so absolutely absent in every other Negro man I know, which brought him, too soon, to his death.
For more on Malcolm X, please see the above link and below, my previous post:


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Holy Trinity
|This article forms part of the series
Introduction to
Orthodox Christianity
|Holy Tradition
|Holy Scripture
The Symbol of Faith
Ecumenical Councils
Church Fathers
|The Holy Trinity
|God the Father
Jesus Christ
The Holy Spirit
|The Church
Holy Mysteries
Church Life
|Edit this box
According to Saint John of Damascus, from the last paragaph of the section, "On Heresies", in his THE FOUNT OF KNOWLEDGE:
- "We believe in Father and Son and Holy Spirit;
- one Godhead in three hypostases;
- one will, one operation, alike in three persons;
- wisdom incorporeal, uncreated, immortal, incomprehensible, without beginning, unmoved, unaffected, without quantity, without quality, ineffable, immutable, unchangeable, uncontained, equal in glory, equal in power, equal in majesty, equal in might, equal in nature, exceedingly substantial, exceedingly good, thrice radiant, thrice bright, thrice brilliant.
- Light is the Father, Light the Son, Light the Holy Spirit;
- Wisdom the Father, Wisdom the Son, Wisdom the Holy Spirit;
- one God and not three Gods;
- one Lord the Holy Trinity discovered in three hypostases.
- Father is the Father, and unbegotten;
- Son is the Son, begotten and not unbegotten, for He is from the Father;
- Holy Spirit, not begotten but proceeding, for He is from the Father.
- There is nothing created, nothing of the first and second order, nothing of lord and servant;
- but there is unity and trinity - there was, there is, and there shall be forever - which is perceived and adored by faith - by faith, not by inquiry, nor by searching out, nor by visible manifestation:
- for the more He is sought out, the more He is unknown, and the more He is investigated, the more He is hidden.
- And so, let the faithful adore God with a mind that is not overcurious.
- And believe that He is God in three hypostases, although the manner in which He is so is beyond manner, for God is incomprehensible.
- Do not ask how the Trinity is Trinity, for the Trinity is inscrutable.
- But, if you are curious about God, first tell me of yourself and the things that pertain to you.
- How does your soul have existence?
- How is your mind set in motion?
- How do you produce your mental concepts?
- How is it that you are both mortal and immortal?
- But, if you are ignorant of these things which are within you, then why do you not shudder at the thought of investigating the sublime things of heaven?
- Think of the Father as a spring of life begetting the Son like a river and the Holy Spirit like a sea, for the spring and the river and the sea are all one nature.
- Think of the Father as a root, and of the Son as a branch, and of the Spirit as a fruit, for the substance in these three is one.
- The Father is a sun with the Son as rays and the Holy Spirit as heat.
- The Holy Trinity transcends by far every similitude and figure.
- So, when you hear of an offspring of the Father, do not think of a corporeal offspring.
- And when you hear that there is a Word, do not suppose Him to be a corporeal word.
- And when you hear of the Spirit of God, do not think of wind and breath.
- Rather, hold your persuasion with a simple faith alone.
- For the concept of the Creator is arrived at by analogy from His creatures.
- Be persuaded, moreover, that the incarnate dispensation of the Son of God was begotten ineffably and without seed of the blessed Virgin, believing Him to be without confusion and without change both God and man, who for your sake worked all the dispensation.
- And to Him by good works give worship and adoration, and venerate and revere the most holy Mother of God and ever-virgin Mary as true Mother of God, and all the saints as His attendants.
- Doing thus, you will be a right worshiper of the holy and undivided Trinity, Father and Son and Holy Spirit, of the one Godhead, to whom be glory and honor and adoration forever and ever. Amen."
Orthodox Christians worship the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—the Holy Trinity, the one God. Following the Holy Scriptures and the Church Fathers, the Church believes that the Trinity is three divine persons (hypostases) who share one essence (ousia). It is paradoxical to believe thus, but that is how God has revealed himself. All three persons are consubstantial with each other, that is, they are of one essence (homoousios) and coeternal. There never was a time when any of the persons of the Trinity did not exist. God is beyond and before time and yet acts within time, moving and speaking within history.
God is not an impersonal essence or mere "higher power," but rather each of the divine persons relates to mankind personally. Neither is God a simple name for three gods (i.e., polytheism), but rather the Orthodox faith is monotheist and yet Trinitarian. The God of the Orthodox Christian Church is the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, the I AM who revealed himself to Moses in the burning bush.
The source and unity of the Holy Trinity is the Father, from whom the Son is begotten and also from whom the Spirit proceeds. Thus, the Father is both the ground of unity of the Trinity and also of distinction. To try to comprehend unbegottenness (Father), begottenness (Son), or procession (Holy Spirit) leads to insanity, says the holy Gregory the Theologian, and so the Church approaches God in divine mystery, approaching God apophatically, being content to encounter God personally and yet realize the inadequacy of the human mind to comprehend Him.
The primary statement of what the Church believes about God is to be found in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed.


text:
National Dairy Development Board
The National Dairy Development Board's creation is rooted in the conviction that our nation's socio-economic progress lies largely on the development of rural India.The National Dairy Development Board was created to promote, finance and support producer-owned and controlled organisations. NDDB's programmes and activities seek to strengthen farmer cooperatives and support national policies that are favourable to the growth of such institutions. Fundamental to NDDB's efforts are cooperative principles and cooperative strategies.


text:
Right still reads Falwell's playbook: the religious language of the Moral Majority shapes today's political rhetoric analysis.
At the time of the American founding, there were a variety of religious accommodations in the different states. The Congregational church remained established by law in Massachusetts and Connecticut well into the 1800s. (The First Amendment prohibition against an established religion did not apply to the states until the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment after the Civil War.) In the Southern states, Americans had grown accustomed to an Anglican establishment during the colonial era, but most states chose disestablishment during the Revolutionary generation. Two states, and only two, Pennsylvania and Rhode Island, had long histories of religious tolerance.
In the antebellum period, the fight against slavery was born in the Christian churches. In the late 19th and early 20th century, such efforts as the YMCA and the temperance movement developed to inculcate Christian values, with a decidedly anti-Catholic emphasis. The Social Gospel movement, and the advent of the historical critical method of biblical studies, swept many churches of the Reformation, provoking a reaction in some circles that came to be known as fundamentalism. Fundamentalism denounced the Social Gospel movement and other efforts at social reform, but it largely kept to itself throughout most of the 20th century, building a vast network of churches and schools that were separated from the cultural mainstream.
In the 1960s, the most prominent religious figures in American life all hailed from the political left. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. led the civil rights movement, became a vocal critic of the Vietnam War, and died in Memphis, Tenn., where he had gone to fight for better wages for that city's sanitation workers. The Berrigan brothers--Dan a Jesuit and Philip a Josephite priest--were among the most famous antiwar protesters. William Sloane Coffin, chaplain at Yale University in New Haven, Conn., and subsequently senior minister at Riverside Church in New York, was a reliably lefty voice in the public square. In 1970, Jesuit Fr. Robert Dri-nan sought and won a seat in Congress on an antiwar platform, becoming the first Catholic priest to serve in Congress. He won re-election five times and was among the most visible progressive religious figures in America.
In 1979, Falwell formed the Moral Majority with the expressed purpose of organizing conservative Christians, registering them to vote and educating them about the issues the group thought most pressing. To justify his march into the public square, Falwell had to overcome the traditional Baptist belief in "the spirituality of the church," which held that the proper role of religion was to save souls and not to concern itself with "the externals." Falwell believed that America was beset by moral decline, as evidenced by legalized abortion, the sexual libertinism of the counterculture, and the spread of pornography and sex education in the schools. The final straw that broke the camel's back was a 1978 decision by the IRS regarding the tax-exempt status of racially segregated Christian academies. It was one thing to let the mainstream culture pursue un-Christian ways, but quite another when the federal government sought to change the rules of the road for private Christian schools. Conservative Christians saw this as a direct attack on the fundamentalist subculture that merited a response.
The Moral Majority sought to craft a political message that was open to non-fundamentalists by rooting itself in shared moral precepts rather than in doctrinal concerns. The group articulated a four-part agenda. The Moral Majority was pro-life, though it never opposed the death penalty and actively supported the Reagan administration's militaristic policies in Central America. It was pro-family, by which it meant opposed to gay rights, sex education in the public schools, and the Equal Rights Amendment. Antigay fundraising appeals consistently garnered the highest rate of return. The organization was "pro-moral," opposed to pornography, the drug culture, and all manner of sexual libertinism. Finally, the group proclaimed itself, in contradistinction with those who had protested the Vietnam War, to be "pro-American," firmly supportive of the Reagan administration's arms buildup and, most importantly, celebrating America as a nation with a divinely ordained mission.
At the time, and subsequently, most political observers focused on evangelical concerns about the so-called "social issues" like abortion and gay marriage. But, in fact, it was this last of the four agenda items that has had the most profound impact on U.S. politics. Falwell and his colleagues developed a specifically religious language of American exceptionalism. When you hear Newt Gingrich discuss the American founding as a religious event, or hear Mitt Romney dismiss President Barack Obama as a European-style socialist, or hear Sarah Palin deliver one of her "Gee, whiz, aren't we the most blessed nation on Earth" speeches, they are all reading from the Fal-well playbook.
Ignoring the influences of the Enlightenment, or of key Greek and Roman classics, or of the Country Whig ideology in Britain on the American founding, this religiously rich view of America's birth and ongoing, covenanted exceptionalism has had two principal consequences, one on politics and one on the Christian churches. First, American politics are seen as a battle between the God-fearing and the godless, those who recognize what is for fundamentalists and other conservative Christians the self-evident, divinely rooted call to American greatness, and those whose views are a bit more sophisticated and less jingoistic. This paints political opponents as betrayers of the American creed, as heretics and/or traitors, those who seek to undermine the country from within.
The second, and more frequently overlooked, consequence of Falwell's brand of American exceptionalism is that it reduces the Christian faith to a prop for Americanism. Religion became synonymous with patriotism.
Just as Falwell's career was, in part, a reaction to liberal clerics before him, there has been a counterreaction to conservative evangelical politics, although it was a long time coming. As late as 2004, Sen. John Kerry seemed allergic to discussing religious values and how they shaped his views. In Ohio, when a staffer wanted to organize an event directed at Catholic swing voters in that quintessential swing state, the upper management of the Kerry campaign famously said, "We don't do white churches." Kerry lost the Catholic vote and the presidency. In 2008, the Obama campaign mounted the most significant and successful outreach to religious voters any Democrat had managed in three decades. Once in office, his relations with religious voters have not been as well-managed or successful. He will have to prove himself again to that segment this year.
The GOP nomination appears to have come down to a contest between Gingrich, who embodies the kind of absolutist certainty that earned Fal-well his place in political lore, and Romney, whose relatively moderate political past demands that he find new ways to appeal to conservative white evangelicals. Both men will likely continue to paint the American founding as a distinctly religious event and America as a nation uniquely called by God to greatness. Some would call that bad religion and worse history, but it still makes for good politics among the American right that Falwell baptized.
[Michael Sean Winters writes about religion and politics on his Distinctly Catholic blog on the NCR website, at NCRoniine.org/blogs/distinctly-catholic. His latest book, God's Right Hand: How Jerry Falwell Made God a Republican and Baptized the American Right, has just been published by HarperOne.]
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What's your name & Your Company Name: Keenya Noble of She She Kouture
She She Kouture believes that looking good coincides with feeling good. We are pleased to introduce our new line of accessories and bath and body products. The accessories were created with luxury and affordability in mind. We offer these beautiful accessories that you would see in high-end stores, at a fraction of the cost because we use less expensive fabrics and adorn them with notions such as buckles, beads, zippers etc. She She Kouture prides itself because we offer products in faux-fur and will NEVER use real animal fur. Our products include Apparel and Accessories items such as T-shirts, Dresses, Denim wear, Handbags/Accessories, and Casual Wear. We have recently extended our product line to include handmade bath and body products. Our soft and silky lip butter are our best-sellers. The lip butter glides on smooth and leaves lip soft and smooth. These lip butters work great under your favorite lipstick for longer wear. They are made with all natural ingredients and enriched with sweet almond, castor, apricot kernel, and avocado oil. These lip butters also include aloe and almond butter for even more soothing properties. She She Kouture is your one stop consumer brand. Our bath and body products are available at www.sheshekouture.com. We will be constantly adding new products for our customers' satisfaction. We strive to bring our customers great products and superb customer service. Experience She She Kouture!
Lip butter made with Natures Garden lip balm base and flavoring oils
Your Website: www.sheshekouture.com
Facebook page: www.facebook/sheshekouture
Twitter: @shekouture


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Webmail can be accessed at www.calaisturbo.com.au/webmail Enter your FULL email address as you username (that is, firstname.lastname@example.com) or it will not log you in.
You will get a choice of several popular webmail products, they all have their advantages and disadvantages, neomail and squirrel mail are quite user friendly, while horde caters more to power users. Simply click on one of the icons to continue.
Be aware that webmail works over a secure port, some corperate firewalls may block this port if there are strict policies in place.
Setting Up an email Client
To set your email address up with your email client (ie outlook), you need to create a new account with the following details:Account Type: POP3
Incoming Mail Server: mail.calaisturbo.com.au
Outgoing Mail Server (SMPT): mail.calaisturbo.com.au (or alternativly, you can use your ISP's SMPT mail server in this field)
Username: firstname.lastname@example.com (once again, make sure this is your full email address!)
Password: (whatever your password is)


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Want to help get separated bikeways on three blocks of Fell and Oak Street between Scott and Baker? Take a few minutes today and ask Mayor Ed Lee and SFMTA Director Ed Reiskin to connect the Panhandle to the Wiggle with separated bikeways. As the SFMTA nears the end of it's community outreach and planning process and narrows in on likely options, it's important for our city leaders to hear your story and why separated bikeways on these three blocks of Fell and Oak are important to you. Click here to read the SFMTA's detailed project information and presentation
Please email email@example.com and firstname.lastname@example.com today. We've prepared the following email to help you voice your support. Please also cc: firstname.lastname@example.com.
Your email is important to show the diversity of support for three blocks of separated bikeway on Fell and Oak Street between Scott and Baker. The SFMTA is currently summarizing neighborhood feedback and narrowing in on options for this project. Stay tuned for updates and more ways you can help. Contact firstname.lastname@example.com for more information or to be added to our Fell and Oak email list.


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text: Tool Virtualization and Spatial Augmented Reality Published by Michael Marner My name is Michael, and this is my website. I am currently working as a Research Fellow at the University of South Australia's Wearable Computer Lab. I am also the chair of the board and an announcer at Adelaide based community radio station Three D Radio 93.7FM. View all posts by Michael Marner


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Linder Höhe
51147 Köln, fr
+33 (1) 5369-7299
Overview of ESA activities in 2012 of interest to media
First launch of Vega
Europe's family of launchers will welcome its smallest member, Vega.
Location: CSG, Europe's Spaceport (French Guiana)
Date: February
BepiColombo presentation to media
ESA's mission to explore Mercury will undergo extensive testing in 2012. The complete launch stack configuration (Structural and Thermal Model), composed of the European and Japanese orbiters, the Transfer Module and the Sunshield, will be assembled for mechanical testing and presented to the media.
Location: ESTEC, Noordwijk, (The Netherlands)
Date: February
James Webb Space Telescope: delivery of MIRI
The successor to the Hubble Space Telescope will feature several major ESA contributions, including the MIRI mid-infrared instrument. This scientific instrument will not only provide stunning astrophotography 'à la Hubble' but also allow the study of distant stellar populations and galaxies, as well as faint comets and the Kuiper Belt.
Location: UK
Date: February
Swarm press event after final testing
The multi-satellite Swarm mission will provide the best survey of Earth's magnetic field and its temporal evolution, and improve our knowledge of Earth's interior and climate. Media will be invited for a briefing and a last look at the satellites after completion of testing before shipping to the launch site. Swarm consists of a constellation of three satellites in three different polar orbits between 400 km and 550 km altitude. High-precision and high-resolution measurements of the strength and direction of the magnetic field will be provided by each satellite.
Location: IABG, Ottobrun (Germany)
Date: February
Envisat: 10 years in orbit
The largest Earth observation satellite ever built will mark 10 years in orbit on 1 March 2012. Having provided European scientists with environmental data, the applications are manifold and cover the land surface, the oceans, ice coverage and the atmosphere.
Location: Paris
Date: 1 March
Launch of ATV-3 by Ariane 5
Each Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) can deliver up to 7 tonnes of cargo to the International Space Station, including food, drinking water, gases, research and maintenance equipment and around 3 tonnes of propellants. The versatile craft also regularly boosts the Station's orbit and occasionally manoeuvres the complex to avoid collisions with space debris. With it, Europe is contributing in kind towards its share of the operational costs of the Station. The third ATV (ATV-3) is named Edoardo Amaldi after the Italian physicist and space pioneer.
Location: CSG, Europe's Spaceport (French Guiana); events at ESA establishments, in Germany and at the ATV Control Centre, Toulouse (France)
Date: 8 March
Docking of ATV-3 with the ISS
Equipped with its own propulsion and navigation system, ATV is a multifunctional spaceship, combining the fully automatic capabilities of an unmanned vehicle with human spacecraft safety requirements. ESA astronaut André Kuipers will be the prime operator, monitoring the ATV rendezvous and docking. André and his Russian crewmate Oleg Kononeko will monitor the ATV as it approaches the Station. They are trained to intervene in the event a problem prevents the ATV from docking. A high-precision navigation system guides ATV on a rendezvous trajectory towards the Space Station, where it docks automatically to Russia's Zvezda module.
Location: ATV Control Centre (Toulouse), ESTEC and ESRIN
Date: 19 March
End of in-orbit testing of the two first Galileo satellites
Since their launch on 21 October, the two Galileo satellites have undergone a detailed checkup from ESA's ground station in Redu (Belgium) to ensure their payloads are performing as specified.
Location: Redu (Belgium)
Date: March
CryoSat: presentation of first map of changes in sea-ice thickness
Presentation of the first map (and results) of the changes in ice thickness. Owing to the high rate of change in the Arctic Ocean, this has a special relevance for climate change research.
Location: UK
Date: April
Result of Cosmic Vision L-class mission down-selection
Three Large mission concepts have been redesigned and studied in 2011 to be down-selected by the Science Programme Committee in April. Location: press release on www.esa.int Date: April ISS User Symposium The ISS User Symposium will discuss research accomplishments on the International Space Station and debate in cooperation with international partners and other space-faring nations how space science should develop after 2020 and even after the Space Station. An open event will allow the general public to share in the fascination of science in space.
Location: Berlin, Germany
Date: 2-4 May
Landing of ESA astronaut André Kuipers
After completing the five-month 'PromISSe' mission on the International Space Station, André Kuipers will land on the steppes of Kazakhstan. During his mission, Andre will have performed several experiments, been involved in educational activities and been the prime operator of ATV, monitoring its rendezvous and docking.
Location: Baikonour Cosmodrome (Kazakhstan) and ESA establishments
Date: 16 May
Launch of MetOp-B meteorology mission
MetOp-B has been developed and built by ESA in a joint effort with Eumetsat. MetOp-B will follow MetOp-A, launched in October 2006. The MetOp satellites are a series of polar-orbiting meteorological satellites operated by Eumetsat. They complement the US polar-orbiting weather satellite network operated by NOAA. MetOp-B carries 11 instruments to improve numerical weather prediction and to contribute long-term climate data.
Location: Baikonur Cosmodrome (Kazakhstan). A joint ESA-Eumetsat launch event will be held at Eumetsat's premises in Darmstadt, Germany with supporting events at ESA premises.
Date: May
ECSITE Conference, the European Network of Science Centres and Museum
ESA will be present at the annual conference of ECSITE, which attracts over 1000 science communication professionals. For the first time, space will be the main theme of the conference, and it will be organised by the 'Cité de l'Espace' in Toulouse, one of the few permanent visitor centres dedicated to space in Europe, and a long-standing partner of ESA.
Location: Toulouse, France
Date: 25 May - 2 June
Launch: Meteosat Second Generation-3
The Meteosat Second Generation satellites have been developed and built by ESA and are exploited by Eumetsat. They are designed to fulfil user requirements for improved weather prediction. MSG-3 will continue the successful series of operational meteorological satellites that started with Meteosat-1 in 1977. The first second-generation (MSG-1) satellite with its improved capabilities was launched in 2004, followed by MSG-2 in December 2005.
Location: CSG, Europe's Spaceport (French Guiana). A joint ESA-Eumetsat launch event will be held at Eumetsat's premises in Darmstadt, Germany with supporting events at ESA premises.
Date: 15 June - 15 July
Toulouse Space Show
ESA will participate at this event, a show that focuses on space applications.
Location: Toulouse, France
Date: 25-28 June
Farnborough international air and space show
ESA will be present in a dedicated Space Zone, in coordination with the UK Space Agency and industry, and participate in a number of high-level events.
Location: Farnborough, UK
Date: 9-15 July
Launch: Swarm - ESA's magnetic field mission
The multi-satellite Swarm mission will provide the best survey of Earth's magnetic field and its temporal evolution, and improve our knowledge of Earth's interior and climate. The Swarm concept consists of a constellation of three satellites in three different polar orbits between 400 km and 550 km altitude. High-precision and high-resolution measurements of the strength and direction of the magnetic field will be provided by each satellite.
Location: Baikonur Cosmodrome (Kazakhstan). Main launch event to be held at ESOC.
Date: 16 July
Launch: second satellites pair of the Galileo constellation
Europe's Galileo satellite navigation system will see the launch of the second two In-Orbit Validation satellites. With the first four satellites of the constellation and their ground network, ESA will be able to validate the overall Galileo concept.
Location: CSG, Europe's Spaceport (French Guiana), with launch events at ESA premises
Date: August/ September
ILA international air and space show
ESA will exhibit in a joint space pavilion with national industry (BDLI) and, the German space agency (DLR), in the International Space Area on the new ILA exhibition grounds. Several thematic high-level events and a series of conferences will be held during the professional days.
Location: Berlin, Germany
Date: 11-16 September
63rd International Astronautical Congress (IAC)
The world's premier space gathering will feature ESA in the conference and will include an ESA exhibition where media opportunities will be arranged.
Location: Naples, Italy
Date: 1-5 October
Opening of the Deep Space Antenna 3
The third Deep Space Antenna will complete the ESA deep space network. It will allow current and future deep space missions to be conducted with three antennas spread around the globe.
Location: Malargüe, Argentina
Date: November
Gaia scientific instrument delivery
Scheduled for launch in 2013, Gaia is a global space astrometry mission that will make the largest, most precise three-dimensional map of our Galaxy by surveying an unprecedented number of stars - more than a thousand billion. The Gaia scientific instrument assembly will be ready and delivered end of 2012. It features the largest digital camera ever to be flown in space.
Location: EADS Astrium, Toulouse (France)
Date: November
James Webb Space Telescope: delivery of NIRSpec
The successor to the Hubble Space Telescope will feature several major ESA contributions, including the NIRSpec near-infrared spectrograph. This scientific instrument will allow the continuous observation of 100 faint galaxies to determine their chemical composition, and the rate at which stars are forming. It will also allow astronomers for the first time to detect water on planets around other stars.
Location: EADS Astrium, Ottobrunn (Germany)
Date: December
The ESA Council at Ministerial Level
The Ministers in charge of space activities in the Member States and Canada will conduct a two-day Council meeting, where ESA programmes for the years to come will be proposed for decision.
Location: Italy
Date: end of the year
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