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Self-proclaimed "interface artist" Johannes P Osterhoff begins a new performance work, titled "Dear Jeff Bezos."
Screen. Image. Text.
Tauba Auerbach, RGB Colorspace Atlas. (2011)
I once heard Leon Botstein, the President of Bard College, compare books to stairs. "They've invented the elevator," he said, "but sometimes you still walk up." There are countless discussions on the future of the book—they are picked up in magazine feature articles, in trade conferences, and in academic roundtables—and in all of these, the future of the printed word seems certain: in a generation or two, print will become obsolete. In this age of changing habits, if print is the stairs and screens the elevator, then what could the escalator be?
This moment in time, and the awareness of the possibilities electronic publishing grant, affect the manner in which we relate to texts in a way that is under constant scrutiny. But images prove to be a different problem. The separation between text and images has a long history. In fact, images have posed a challenge for publishers from the early days of print—be it the cost of printing them; the payments for illustrators, photographers, and designers; or simply contextualizing the images and their relation to the text—but they have become crucial to our understanding of texts. When the Illustrated London News, the world's first illustrated weekly newspaper, began publishing in 1842, the relationship between the text and the engraved images in the paper was such a novelty that it took the weekly about a decade to stake a hold in that era's news distribution channels. Once it did, it became one of the most widely circulated newspapers in Victorian Britain. The marriage of text and the engraved image marked a new level of fluency in communication via images, which does away with staples of early print day, even though the separation between image and text lasted for many decades later, and can still be traced today. (Think, for example, of the plate pages, where color images were glued onto the paper, so that the book or magazine would be printed in black and white, adding the color pages later in a way that saves money on printing, but also generates a wholly different relationship with images. These are often associated with encyclopedias, but a large number of artist's monographs retained this design even after color printing became widely accessible, creating the odd text-image relationship where an artwork is described to the most minute detail, with a comment in parenthesis directing the reader to "color plate 3," where the mentioned piece could be seen in glossy print.)
The generations to come of age in the days of digital publishing and reading on screens have a much more complicated relationship with images. The human eye-brain system is capable of reading a large number of high quality images in a matter of split seconds, and this, alongside the hand-eye coordination—think about the pleasure of a touch screen versus inky newspaper pages—is rapidly developing to mirror our changing habits of consuming information. So much so that the contemporary heightened sensitivity to the way we read images can lead to an ability to, at times, ignore the quality of the images when inserted into a text, the way our brain glides over a typo in the flow of reading. The way we read images online is only one thing these magazines deal with in the process of publishing, but it is surely an element that dictates a large portion of the reading experience of these publications.
RECOMMENDED READING: Sarah Hromack on Paul Chan's new publishing venture in Frieze
No one mistakes a Kindle for a codex any more than they might an iPad for a canvas – that much is clear. Yet the impact of electronic publishing on the book itself is becoming increasingly relevant to the art world, where the recent advent of art e-book publishing has posed an entirely new set of challenges – technical, philosophical, political and otherwise – to the artist's book.
In the autumn of 2010, artist Paul Chan launched a publishing venture, Badlands Unlimited, out of his Brooklyn studio as a means of negotiating the rapidly shifting relationship between physical and virtual methods of book production. Aided by a cohort of designers and developers, Chan has since published a small catalogue of books, DVDs and artist-designed ephemera, rendered in both digital and print forms. 'We make books in the expanded field', claims the company's website, a deceptively simple mission statement that belies the implications of re-calibrating an entire process – and by proxy, the history of a genre – in order to broach the digital divide.
E-book publishing complicates the interplay between the image and virtual page; the limitations imposed by code and hardware alone necessitate a somewhat radical re-thinking of that relationship. For an image-heavy e-book to retain its visual legibility across platforms, its author must consider the image in service of the electronically produced book and not the other way around. Hallmarks of a well laid-out publication – a strong correlation between text and image; a sense of visual rhythm; considered choices in typeface, paper stock, printing and binding methods – are impossible to replicate in some cases, and in others elusive at best. Whereas the printed book bears its maker's mark more readily, the e-book places a comparatively stringent set of limitations on the endeavour from the outset; software and hardware developers dictate the platforms and products that publishers have to negotiate with during the production process.


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The purpose of institutional research at Maryville College is to enhance institutional effectiveness by creating and maintaining an ongoing system of data collection and analysis that supports and informs program planning and improvement.
- Collect, analyze and disseminate data relevant to the College mission and to specific program goals
- Report official institutional data to external agencies.
- Design and conduct internal studies as needed for informed decision making
- Develop and maintain student cohort databases for longitudinal comparisons and analysis
- Conduct benchmark analyses of College characteristics
- Coordinate the College institutional effectiveness program
- Serve as liaison to the regional accrediting agency SACSCOC

subset: commoncrawl


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|AR Travelers through Arkansas State Library - Traveler databases offer magazines, books, encyclopedias, and other resources to all Arkansas residents. Research current events, science, business, health, notable people, hobbies, and much more from your library, school, home or office.
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|Pope County Library
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|Central Arkansas Library System (CALS)
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Located in Little Rock, AR
|Courier News
Local newspaper for Russellville, AR. Covers news for Pope County as well as surrounding areas
|Arkansas Democrat Gazette
State newspaper located in Little Rock, AR
|River Valley Leader
Local online news covering all of Pope County and surrounding areas
|City of Russellville
Official webpage for the City of Russellville, AR


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AP Source: NSA phone data control to come to end
WASHINGTON (AP) -- President Barack Obama on Friday will call for ending the government's control of phone data from millions of Americans, a senior administration official said. The move marks a significant change to the National Security Agency's controversial bulk phone record collection program.
Obama will announce the move in a highly anticipated speech at the Justice Department. However, the official said Obama will not recommend who should control the phone data and will instead call on the attorney general, intelligence community and Congress to make that determination. He's asked for a recommendation on where to move the data before March 28, when the collection program comes up for reauthorization.
A presidential review panel proposed moving the data to the telephone companies or a third party. But the phone providers have balked at changes that would put them back in control of the records, citing liability concerns if hackers or others were able to gain unauthorized access to the records.
For now, the government will retain control of the telephone data. But the official said Obama is also ordering that, effective immediately, a judicial finding will be required to access that database.
The moves are more sweeping than what many U.S. officials had been anticipating about the president's surveillance decisions. People close to the White House review process say Obama was grappling with the key decisions on the phone record collections -- known as Section 215 of the USA Patriot Act -- even in the days leading up to Friday's speech.
The changes are expected to be met with pushback from some in the intelligence community, who have been pressing Obama to keep the surveillance programs largely intact.
The official insisted on anonymity because this person was not authorized to discuss the president's decisions, by name, ahead of his speech.
Reacting to reports of Obama's plan, retired Gen. Michael Hayden, a former NSA director, said "no one will hold it (the phone data) as well."
Appearing on NBC's "Today" show Friday, Hayden said there has been "serious, irreversible harm to the ability" of the National Security Agency to collect intelligence. Obama's review of the nation's surveillance apparatus was spurred by disclosures about the government's sweeping surveillance programs by former National Security Agency analyst Edward Snowden.
But the president's address will still leave many questions about reforms to the surveillance programs unanswered. He is expected to recommend further study on several of the 46 recommendations he received from a presidential review group, including ideas for expanding privacy protections to foreigners.
Obama is also expected to call for the creation of an independent privacy advocate on the secretive court that approves the phone record collections. The court currently hears arguments only from the government.
While the privacy advocate post has broad support, a U.S. district judge this week panned the recommendation as unnecessary and possibly counterproductive.
Many of the changes Obama was expected to announce appeared aimed at shoring up the public's confidence in the spying operations.
In previewing Obama's speech, White House spokesman Jay Carney had said Thursday the president believed the government could make surveillance activities "more transparent in order to give the public more confidence about the problems and the oversight of the programs."
The president also was expected to announce changes in U.S. surveillance operations overseas, including ratcheting up oversight to determine whether the government will monitor communications of friendly foreign leaders. It's unclear whether there will be any changes to how the government access or holds communications records collected from foreigners living overseas.
The leaks from Snowden, a fugitive now living in Russia, sparked intense anger in Europe, particularly the revelations that the U.S. was monitoring the phone of German Chancellor Angela Merkel.
AP Intelligence Writer Kimberly Dozier contributed to this report.
Follow Julie Pace on Twitter at http://twitter.com/jpaceDC and Kimberly Dozier at http://twitter.com/kimberlydozier


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Early Years
Washington was born on February 22, 1732, at Popes Creek farm in Westmoreland County on the Northern Neck. (By the Julian, or Old Style, calendar, in effect in England until 1752, he was born on February 11.) His father, Augustine Washington, owned nearly 3,000 acres of tobacco land (including the site of Mount Vernon, overlooking the Potomac River) and properties containing iron ore, while managing an iron furnace for an English company. After the death of his first wife, Augustine Washington married Mary Ball, whose first child was George.
When Washington was six his family moved to Ferry Farm, across the Rappahannock River from Fredericksburg. His older half-brothers, Lawrence and Austin, studied in England, but the death of Augustine Washington when George was eleven eliminated his chance for schooling abroad. He had an irregular education under different schoolmasters and tutors, and learned the basics of surveying. Many years later, John Adams directed an ungenerous remark at Washington, disparaging the first president as "too illiterate, unread, unlearned for his station." Washington himself admitted to his "consciousness of a defective education."
In 1751, Washington made his only journey outside the continent, traveling to Barbados with Lawrence Washington, who was seeking relief from tuberculosis. There Washington survived a case of smallpox, gaining immunity to a disease that became epidemic during the Revolution. It is often said that this dose of smallpox rendered him sterile, but the only modern medical study of smallpox and male infertility found no correlation between the two.
French and Indian War
Though the French rejected Dinwiddie's ultimatum, Washington returned to Williamsburg with valuable intelligence about the capability of their forces. In 1754 Washington set out with about 140 men for the Forks of the Ohio. In a brief skirmish the Virginians and their Indian allies killed several French soldiers and their commander, Joseph Jumonville, in an incident portrayed as an assassination by the French. The firefight in the woods elated Washington, who wrote to his brother, "I can with truth assure you, I heard Bulletts whistle and believe me there is something charming in the sound." The firefight also ignited the French and Indian War.
This engagement gave rise to the legend that the British had been slaughtered because Braddock refused to take Washington's advice to break ranks and fight as irregulars, "Indian-style." As the historian Edward G. Lengel has pointed out, the disaster resulted not from overly rigid discipline but from the collapse of discipline under fire. "Those who stood in formation like the Virginians," Lengel noted, "had more success in fending off the attackers."
Dinwiddie appointed Washington commander in chief of all militia forces in Virginia with authority over about fifty officers, many of them older and more experienced than Washington. He raised a fresh regiment, established supply lines, and conducted a three-year campaign along a 350-mile frontier defending against, in his words, "the cruel Incursions of a Crafty Savage Enemy." On the frontier, Washington honed the iron discipline that he imposed for the rest of his life on himself and on others. On one occasion he ordered a mass execution of deserters, but relented and hanged only two. He also squabbled with Dinwiddie, whose support he found fickle, and irritated the British chain of command by forcefully pushing his own plans while deriding those of superior officers. As Lengel observes: "Some unattractive facets of Washington's personality arose during the French and Indian War, and they would continue to mark his conduct twenty years later. Highly sensitive and easily hurt, he sometimes overreacted to his military, political, or social failures by lashing out at perceived enemies, or by falling into a despondency that made him yearn for the simplicity of farm life … only action could raise his spirits."
Marriage, Politics, and the Run-Up to War
The couple had no children, but Washington doted on his young stepchildren. Jacky Custis, indolent, willful, and spoiled by his mother, resisted Washington's attempts to instill discipline. Though a poor student, he enrolled at King's College in New York (later Columbia University), but abandoned his schooling to get married. Washington's stepdaughter, Patsy, suffered from epilepsy and succumbed to a seizure in 1773. Her death reduced Martha Washington "to the lowest ebb of Misery."
When Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765, imposing a tax on every sheet of official paper and every newspaper, the colonies seethed, but Washington predicted it would be repealed if enough planters and lawyers defied it. If lawyers refused to buy tax stamps to affix to their legal papers, then no papers could be filed and court proceedings would halt, with the heaviest losers being British merchants suing for debts. As Washington had foreseen, the government revoked the Stamp Act when merchants complained that it cost them colonial revenue.
In 1774 Washington predicted that if war with Great Britain broke out, "more blood [would] be spilt [than] history has ever yet furnished instances of in the annals of North America." By the winter of 1775 he was drilling the Fairfax County militia for a possible confrontation. An English traveler wrote that the 150 men under Washington's command made "a formidable appearance." Amid "utmost confusion," the traveler described patriot committees seizing and reading foreign mail, intimidating tradesmen to stop buying British goods, and harassing suspected loyalists, who "have been tarred and feathered, others had their property burnt and destroyed by the populace."
When news reached Virginia in April 1775 that shots had been fired at Lexington and Concord, Washington wrote to his friend George William Fairfax, a loyalist, "you must, undoubtedly, have received an Account of the engagement in the Massachusetts Bay … General [Thomas] Gage [the British commander] acknowledges, that the detachment … was sent out to destroy private property; or, in other Words, to destroy a Magazine which self-preservation obliged the Inhabitants to establish … Unhappy it is … to reflect, that a Brother's Sword has been sheathed in a Brother's breast, and that, the once happy and peaceful plains of America are either to be drenched with Blood or Inhabited by Slaves. Sad alternative! But can a virtuous Man hesitate in his choice?"
Washington traveled to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for the Second Continental Congress in May 1775 wearing his military uniform. After the delegates elected him commander in chief on the first ballot, Washington departed for Massachusetts to take charge of the Continental army at Cambridge. In a farewell letter to his wife he said he expected to be home for Christmas. In another letter he wrote, "I am now embarked on a tempestuous ocean, from, whence, perhaps, no friendly harbor is to be found."
Revolutionary War
After driving the British from Boston, Washington was ordered by Congress to defend New York, where the British landed a powerful invasion force that dealt Washington a disastrous defeat in a series of battles between August and November of 1776. Washington barely escaped with his army into New Jersey. With popular support for the war waning rapidly in the autumn of 1776 and enlistments about to expire, Washington gambled on a bold stroke, crossing the ice-choked Delaware River for a successful surprise attack on the Hessian outpost at Trenton, New Jersey, on December 26. He followed this victory with a thrust at Princeton, New Jersey, on January 3, 1777.
Washington's record as a field commander is decidedly mixed, and scholars still debate his qualities as a general, reflecting disagreements evident in Washington's time. Dissatisfied with Washington's leadership and seeking command for himself, the English-born general Charles Lee proposed to Congress that the army adopt guerrilla tactics. As historian John Shy writes, Lee "sought a war that would use the new light-infantry tactics already in vogue among the military avant-garde of Europe, the same tactics the free men at Lexington and Concord had instinctively employed." To Washington, however, "this was all madness. He never seriously considered resorting to a war of guerrilla bands drawn from the militia … A strategy of that kind would change the war for independence into a genuine civil war with all its grisly attendants—ambush, reprisal, counter-reprisal. It would tear the fabric of American life to pieces."
Washington also faced demands from Congress that he engage the British in a major battle that would quickly decide the war. Washington replied, "we should on all occasions avoid a general action or put anything to the risk, unless compelled by necessity, into which we ought never to be drawn." His aim, he said, was to "protract the war" until the British wearied of it.
In September 1777 the British soundly beat Washington at the Battle of Brandywine in Pennsylvania, an engagement that his biographer Douglas Southall Freeman said Washington conducted "as if he had been in a daze." On October 4, Washington led 8,000 Continentals and 3,000 militia in a surprise attack on 9,000 British regulars camped at Germantown in Pennsylvania, trying to follow a complicated plan of coordinated maneuvers by different columns. But when a dense fog descended, the American units collided and fired on each other. What had promised to be an American victory dissolved into a panic-stricken rout.
Nevertheless, Washington's boldness and determination echoed across the Atlantic. The biographer James Thomas Flexner wrote: "In Europe, it seemed almost inconceivable that an untrained rabble would attack a mighty regular army so effectively and so soon after they had been defeated." In October 1777, American general Horatio Gates captured a British army under General John Burgoyne at Saratoga, New York—an enormous victory that stunned Europe and helped convince the French to enter the war on the American side the following spring. But in the meantime, Washington and his men had to endure a harrowing winter.
Washington's army emerged from Valley Forge stronger in several respects. Early in the war, Washington had banned all blacks from his army, then very quickly countermanded that order and accepted free blacks in 1776. At Valley Forge, desperate for manpower, Washington gave approval to recruit black troops in Rhode Island. Recognizing the pernicious effects of segregation in a fighting force, he ordered that black and white troops be mixed in the same units: "so arrange and model them, as to level the Regiments … abolish the name and appearance of a Black Corps."
Washington's circle of officers had been augmented the previous summer by the arrival of Gilbert du Motier, marquis de Lafayette, a French aristocrat burning with admiration for the cause of liberty. He was given command of a division of Virginia troops. The Prussian drill master Friedrich Wilhelm Augustus von Steuben arrived at Valley Forge in February. His drills in the battlefield maneuvers of Europe transformed the army, as did fresh rations of food, clothing, and equipment, and the official announcement in May 1778 that France had joined the American side. Steuben's training stiffened the army's discipline and resolve at the Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey, in June 1778. With the Americans fleeing in disorder, Washington exposed himself to enemy fire to rally his retreating troops, extracting a draw from looming defeat. The Battle of Monmouth was the last major engagement in the North as the British shifted their attentions south.
Constitutional Convention and Presidency
Chosen to be president of the convention, Washington occupied, both literally and figuratively, an august position. The historian Max Farrand described Washington as almost a godlike figure: "He sat on a raised platform; in a large, carved, high-backed chair, from which his commanding figure and dignified bearing exerted a potent influence on the assembly." Washington's direct influence on the formation of the Constitution can only be a matter of speculation, because as president of the convention he did not participate in the debates. But there can be little doubt that behind the scenes he exerted his influence to shape a strong central government. Inevitably, a clamor arose for him to become the first president of the newly constituted nation. The office, after all, had been tailored for him specifically. As Pierce Butler of South Carolina said, the delegates at the Constitutional convention had "cast their eyes toward General Washington as President and shaped their ideas of the powers to be given to a President, by their opinions of his virtue."
Washington dreaded assuming the presidency, and his two terms were filled with acrimony and punctuated by civil strife. The British refused to vacate their western forts and instigated Indian assaults on the U.S. frontier. Spain held the Mississippi. The French Revolution (1789–1799) stirred fears of violent mob action on these shores. The national and state governments faced bankruptcy from war debts—debts held largely by wealthy speculators whose interest payments had to be met by taxes that fell largely on farmers and workers, arousing bitter class conflict. A new federal excise tax provoked Pennsylvania's Whiskey Rebellion (1791–1794), an event easy to mischaracterize as a colorful uprising of moonshiners when it was actually an armed backcountry revolt against a crippling levy on a vital agricultural commodity. To suppress the rebellion, Washington called out a military force equal in size to the army he led against the British Crown.
Almost everything he did in office set a precedent. "I walk on untrodden ground," Washington wrote. "There is scarcely any part of my conduct which may not hereafter be drawn into precedent." Respecting the separation of powers, he refrained from meddling in the legislative process and used his veto only twice. He guarded executive power, refusing a congressional request to share diplomatic instructions, declaring them to be privileged communications of the president. To grant Congress the right to examine "all the Papers respecting a negotiation with a foreign power, would be to establish a dangerous precedent."
Despite Washington's great popularity, the seeds of Jefferson's 1800 electoral triumph were planted during Washington's administration, when a grassroots democratic movement sprang up in opposition to the Federalists, who unabashedly promoted rule by an educated, propertied elite. Always claiming to be above partisanship and portraying himself as the disinterested champion of American unity, Washington nonetheless stood at the head of a partisan faction destined to be rejected in 1800 by a deeply divided electorate. Jefferson lost the election of 1796 to the Federalist vice president, John Adams, very narrowly.
During his long absences on public service, a constant stream of letters carried his detailed instructions to Mount Vernon's farm managers. Like Thomas Jefferson, another presidential plantation owner, Washington tried to manage from a distance, retaining an almost photographic mental image of his properties. In the 1780s Washington was so desperately short of cash that he could not pay his taxes and had to borrow money to get to his first inauguration in New York. Hordes of unwanted guests and curiosity seekers descended on him after the war and his presidency, imposing enormous expenses. Even though cash remained short, with his substantial landholdings Washington was unquestionably very wealthy.
Enslaved labor kept Mount Vernon going through the long war and the many difficulties that followed, and while Washington fed and housed his slaves poorly, his writings do not contain references to black people as being inferior to, or even different from, whites. Judging by his actions, by the end of the 1780s, a sense of slavery's injustice began to come over him. He looked for ways to "liberate" his slaves, but encountered opposition from the Custis family.
Washington died on December 14, 1799, from an acute throat infection that occluded his windpipe, causing a slow death. His final day was agonizing: "I die hard," he murmured, "but I am not afraid to go." On his deathbed he looked over two wills he had written. One he ordered burned; the will he chose to execute contained a long, detailed clause that freed all his slaves. He was laid to rest in a temporary tomb and then moved to an imposing above-ground mausoleum at Mount Vernon, where his wife and other family members would also lie. Martha Washington refused requests to have him buried in the national capital.
Hailed in a eulogy as "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen," George Washington retains his place as the preeminent Founding Father. Born in Virginia, he transcended sectional divides and interests, acquiring a national perspective that made him the agent and the symbol of the American union, the "indispensable man," as one biographer called him, in the formation of the United States.
Time Line
February 22, 1732 - George Washington is born at Popes Creek farm in Westmoreland County on the Northern Neck, the son of Augustine Washington and his second wife, Mary Ball Washington. By the Julian, or Old Style, calendar, in effect in England until 1752, Washington is born on February 11.
1748 - At the age of sixteen, George Washington accompanies surveyors working for William Fairfax on a month-long trek through the Shenandoah Valley.
1751 - George Washington makes his only journey outside North America, traveling to Barbados with his elder half-brother Lawrence Washington, who is seeking relief from tuberculosis. While in Barbados, Washington survives a case of smallpox, granting him a lifelong immunity to the disease.
November 6, 1752 - Virginia lieutenant governor Robert Dinwiddie appoints George Washington a district adjutant of the Virginia militia, with the rank of major.
October 31, 1753 - Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie dispatches George Washington, with only six frontiersmen at his side, to demand the departure of a French military force in the Ohio country, a region claimed by Britain.
May 28, 1754 - Virginia militia, numbering about 140 men under the command of George Washington and allied with a number of Indians, skirmish with French forces in the Ohio country. Several French soldiers are killed, including their commander, Joseph Jumonville.
July 3–4, 1754 - French forces under Louis Coulon de Villiers and their Indian allies defeat Virginia militia under George Washington and British regulars under James Mackay at the Battle of Fort Necessity in present-day Fayette County, Pennsylvania.
May 10, 1755 - George Washington is appointed to serve as an aide to British general Edward Braddock.
July 9, 1755 - At the Battle of Monongahela in Pennsylvania during the French and Indian War, George Washington acquits himself bravely even as French forces decisively rout the British, killing their commander, General Edward Braddock.
August 14, 1755 - Virginia lieutenant governor Robert Dinwiddie appoints George Washington commander of Virginia forces during the French and Indian War.
July 24, 1758 - On his third attempt at public office, George Washington is elected to the House of Burgesses, representing Frederick County in the Shenandoah Valley.
January 6, 1759 - George Washington and Martha Dandridge Custis marry at a Custis house on the Pamunkey River. Custis is the widow of Daniel Parke Custis and brings to the marriage his large estate and her two children.
February 10, 1763 - Great Britain, France, and Spain sign the Treaty of Paris, ending the Seven Years' War, known in North America as the French and Indian War.
April 5, 1764 - Parliament passes the Sugar Act, which imposes new taxes on mainland imports, and increases the authority of vice admiralty courts to hand down decisions regarding customs violations without a jury.
March 22, 1765 - Parliament passes the "Duties in American Colonies Act 1765," better known as the Stamp Act, a piece of legislation introduced by George Grenville, the British prime minister. It requires all printed materials in the American colonies to be produced on specially stamped paper manufactured in London, England.
March 18, 1766 - Parliament passes the Act Repealing the Stamp Act.
March 18, 1766 - Parliament passes the Declatory Act, asserting its authority to make binding law for the American colonies.
June 29, 1767 - Parliament passes the Townshend Revenue Act, which taxes goods imported to the American colonies, such as paper, paint, lead, glass, and tea.
October 1768 - A British military force lands in Boston, Massachusetts, to compel compliance with the Townshend Acts, a series of taxes on goods imported into the American colonies.
September 5, 1774 - The First Continental Congress convenes in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Seven Virginia delegates are in attendance, including Richard Bland, Benjamin Harrison, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, Edmund Pendleton, and George Washington.
September 5–October 26, 1774 - The First Continental Congress meets at Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Fifty-six representatives of twelve of the thirteen English colonies in North America debate the means by which to protest British taxation.
May 10, 1775 - The Second Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Representing Virginia throughout the Congress are Richard Bland, Benjamin Harrison, Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, Francis Lightfoot Lee, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Nelson Jr., Edmund Pendleton, Peyton Randolph, George Washington, and George Wythe.
June 15, 1775 - The Second Continental Congress appoints George Washington commander in chief of the Continental army.
July 3, 1775 - George Washington takes command of the Continental army at Cambridge, Massachusetts. The army numbers 14,000 men instead of the 20,000 Washington expects.
March 17, 1776 - British forces evacuate Boston, Massachusetts, after George Washington places artillery in a commanding position atop Dorchester Heights.
August 27–29, 1776 - British forces under William Howe, fifth viscount Howe, defeat George Washington and the Continental army at the Battle of Long Island in New York. A small flotilla evacuates the Americans from Brooklyn to Manhattan.
September 12, 1776 - George Washington and the Continental army evacuate New York City.
October 28, 1776 - British forces under William Howe, fifth viscount Howe, defeat George Washington and the Continental army at the Battle of White Plains, in New York.
November 16, 1776 - British forces under William Howe, fifth viscount Howe, defeat George Washington and the Continental army at the Battle of Fort Washington in upper Manhattan. Nearly 3,000 Americans are taken prisoner.
November 20, 1776 - George Washington and the Continental army abandon Fort Lee, in New Jersey, ending the New York campaign and leaving New York City in British control. Washington retreats southward through New Jersey.
December 19, 1776 - Thomas Paine issues The Crisis, the first in a series of pamphlets written to inspire American patriots. It begins, "These are the times that try men's souls."
December 25–26, 1776 - After crossing the Delaware River by night, George Washington and the Continental army attack and defeat Hessian forces under the command of Johann Rall at Trenton, New Jersey.
January 3, 1777 - George Washington and the Continental army defeat British forces under Charles Mawhood near Princeton, New Jersey.
January 6–May 28, 1777 - The Continental army, under the command of George Washington, encamps for the winter at Morristown, New Jersey.
September 11, 1777 - British forces under William Howe, fifth viscount Howe, defeat George Washington and the Continental army at the Battle of Brandywine near Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania.
September 22–26, 1777 - British forces under William Howe, fifth viscount Howe, begin their occupation of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
October 4, 1777 - British forces under William Howe, fifth viscount Howe, defeat George Washington and the Continental army at the Battle of Germantown in Pennsylvania.
October 17, 1777 - Surrounded at Saratoga, New York, British general John Burgoyne surrenders his army to American forces under Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold after a British victory on September 19 and then an American victory on October 7.
December 1777–June 1778 - The Continental army, under the command of George Washington, encamps for the winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania.
June 28, 1778 - The Continental army, under the command of George Washington, battles British forces under Sir Henry Clinton at Monmouth Court House, New Jersey.
January 1781 - After a mutiny of Pennsylvania and then New Jersey troops, George Washington orders the execution of several Continental army soldiers.
October 19, 1781 - Combined American and French forces compel the surrender of a British army under Charles Cornwallis, first marquess Cornwallis at Yorktown, ending the major fighting in the Revolutionary War.
March 15, 1783 - George Washington issues the Newburgh Address, a short speech to officers of the Continental army advising them to have patience with Congress, which had not paid them the pensions they were due. Washington's intervention ended the threat of a mutiny against civil authorities.
September 3, 1783 - The Treaty of Paris is signed in Paris, France, by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, John Jay, and David Hartley. In the document, Britain formally recognizes American independence and cedes to America all lands south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River except for the Florida colonies.
December 23, 1783 - George Washington presents his resignation as commander in chief of the Continental army to Congress in Annapolis, Maryland.
August 1786 - Shays' Rebellion, an armed revolt by debt-stricken farmers, begins in Massachusetts.
May–September 1787 - The Constitutional Convention of 1787 meets in Philadelphia to amend the Articles of Confederation. Virginia delegates include George Washington, John Blair, James Madison, George Mason, Edmund Randolph, and George Wythe. Patrick Henry is elected to the convention but declines to attend, later explaining, "I smelt a rat."
May 25, 1787 - The Constitutional Convention, convened in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, elects George Washington to preside over its proceedings.
June 21, 1788 - New Hampshire votes to ratify the U.S. Constitution, meeting the requirement that at least nine states ratify it.
September 13, 1788 - The Continental Congress passes a resolution putting the newly ratified U.S. Constitution into effect.
February 4, 1789 - George Washington is unanimously elected the first U.S. president by electors chosen by votes of individual state assemblies.
April 30, 1789 - George Washington is inaugurated the first U.S. president at Federal Hall in New York City. Robert Livingston, the chancellor, or highest judicial officer, of New York, administers the oath of office.
December 5, 1792 - George Washington is, for the second time, unanimously elected U.S. president by electors chosen by votes of individual state assemblies.
March 4, 1793 - George Washington is inaugurated for a second term as U.S. president in the Senate Chamber of Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. William Cushing, associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, administers the oath of office.
September 19, 1796 - "The Address of General Washington to the People of the United States" in published in David C. Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. George Washington's farewell address explains his reasons for quitting the presidency after two terms.
March 4, 1797 - George Washington's second term as U.S. president ends and he retires from public life.
December 14, 1799 - George Washington dies at Mount Vernon after a short illness.
Further Reading
Cite This Entry
- APA Citation:
Wiencek, H. George Washington (1732–1799). (2017, July 27). In Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved from http://www.EncyclopediaVirginia.org/George_Washington_1732-1799.
- MLA Citation:
Wiencek, Henry. "George Washington (1732–1799)." Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities, 27 Jul. 2017. Web. READ_DATE.
First published: October 27, 2011 | Last modified: July 27, 2017
Contributed by Henry Wiencek, an affiliate fellow at the Virginia Foundation for the Humanities, and the author of An Imperfect God (2004), which won the Los Angeles Times Book Prize in History and the Best Book of the Year award from the Society for Historians of the Early Republic.


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Topic: iRedMail-0.8.0-beta3 has been released
Dear all,
iRedMail-0.8.0-beta3 is now available for testing, you can download it here: iRedMail-0.8.0-beta3.tar.bz2.
Please do NOT install beta releases on production server, there's no upgrade tutorials available for beta releases.
Drops support for several old releases in 0.8.0-beta3
Debian 5 (Lenny)
Ubuntu 8.x, 9.x, 10.10, 11.04
openSUSE: 11.x
FreeBSD: 7.x
iRedMail-0.8.0-beta3 supports below Linux/BSD distributions and releases:
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5.x, 6.x
CentOS 5.x, 6.x
Scientific Linux 5.x, 6.x
Debian 6.x (Squeeze)
Ubuntu 10.04 (LTS), 11.10, 12.04 (LTS)
Linux Mint 12 (based on Ubuntu, code name 'lisa')
openSUSE 12.1
Gentoo, the latest official release (or daily build) with the latest portage
FreeBSD 8.x, 9.x
Major changes since iRedMail-0.8.0-beta2
It now works on Ubuntu Linux 12.04 (code name 'precise'). Tested with Ubuntu 12.04 Beta 1. [0.8.0-beta3]
Works on Linux Mint 12 (based on Ubuntu, code name: lisa) [0.8.0-beta3]
PostgreSQL support is now available on RHEL/CentOS 6.x, Ubuntu (11.10, 12.04) and FreeBSD (8.x, 9.x). PostgreSQL edition of iRedAdmin will be available soon. [0.8.0-beta3]
It now will setup cron job with shell scripts to backup OpenLDAP data and/or MySQL databases daily by default, backup directory is /var/vmail/backup by default. [0.8.0-beta3]
Use Dovecot-2.0 instead of 1.2.x on openSUSE-12.1. [0.8.0-beta3]
Enable greylist opt-in in Policyd-1.x by default. Next release of iRedAdmin-Pro will support managing greylist opt-in, please be patient. [0.8.0-beta3]
Add share folder support within Dovecot 2. [0.8.0-beta3]
0.8.0-beta3 also fixes two minor bugs
Fixed incorrect postrotate command for dovecot log files. Thanks raffayellow@gmail for the report. [0.8.0-beta3]
Fix file permission of two dovecot config files which are world readable: used_quota.conf, share-folder.conf. Thanks Martin Kuchar for the report. [0.8.0-beta3]
Some packages are updated to the latest version
Roundcube -> 0.7.2
iRedAPD -> 1.3.7, with PostgreSQL support. No new features.
MySQL -> 5.5 (FreeBSD)
Dovecot -> 2.0 (FreeBSD)
Addition Notes
There will be one more beta release available soon for new features:
PostgreSQL support in iRedAdmin, both open source edition and iRedAdmin-Pro
Policyd-2 (code name: cluebringer) support will not be available in next release of the iRedAdmin-Pro admin panel.
Also, we need your help to make iRedMail work on Arch Linux, please refer to this post:
- Call for help: Missing two required packages in Arch Linux
http://www.iredmail.org/forum/topic2836 … linux.html
See also:


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Rods Away: Emergency Drain Unblocker and Blocked Drain Cleaner in Newport
We understand the importance of getting a blocked drain or pipe cleared as quick as possible.
Here at Rods Away©, we believe the importance of getting it done as quick as possible. The last thing anyone wants is the smell of sewerage over their garden or even coming up into their house.
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These prices are only a guideline and don't include parts. We quote for all our work upfront, so you know exactly how much you'll pay from the outset. If you would like a quote for our services please click HERE, or call us on 01495 687667 to book a call out.
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If you have a drain that seems to be blocked and you live in the Newport area, please do not hesitate in getting in touch with us on our local rate number where we will be ready to assist you with your blockage and get you flowing again as quickly as possible.


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Parker Hannifin Corporation introduces a low energy wireless sensor platform for monitoring pressure, temperature, and humidity in liquid and gas applications. Small in size and easily installed, the wireless sensors offer a sealed sensor housing to facilitate sensor location in challenging environments where a wired sensor platform is impractical or impossible. There are three individual sensor options that can monitor pressure, temperature, and humidity in a wide range of liquid and gas applications. Markets include medical devices, laboratory and analytical equipment, food and beverage, hydraulic and pneumatic equipment, and industrial manufacturing processes. The sensors can be attached to the equipment being monitored via either standard pipe thread (NPT) ports or through the use of a quick connect coupling. They operate on a common coin cell battery for extended periods of time.
Parker Hannifin


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By Jamie Gumbrecht, CNN
(CNN) - To guess the education plans in Barack Obama's State of the Union speech Tuesday night, look no further than the guests in first lady Michelle Obama's box.
Obama's action points often reflected their stories: an undocumented college student who took part in Obama's "deferred action" plan; a 16-year-old winner of the 2012 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair; a recent community college graduate who now works on wind turbines; a young machinist who laid the foundation for his manufacturing career at his Kentucky high school; a first-grade teacher from Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Connecticut; an early childhood educator from Norman, Oklahoma, and a NASA Mars Curiosity rover team member who volunteers to mentor students in FIRST robotics.
Here are the education ideas that rippled through Obama's State of the Union speech - and afterward, in Republican Sen. Marco Rubio's response:
Yes, another rating system: the "College Scorecard"
There was talk of money-crunching "scorecard" last year, but Obama announced during his speech that it would be released Wednesday - it's up now at whitehouse.gov/scorecard. The "College Scorecard" will show which schools offer the best value, "where you can get the most bang for your educational buck," he said. That wasn't all: Obama also asked Congress to change the Higher Education Act to attach schools' federal aid to their "affordability and value."
Preschool for all kids
Obama said investing in high-quality early childhood education saves money later, boosts graduation rates and reduces teen pregnancy and violent crime. "I propose working with states to make high-quality preschool available to every child in America," he said.
He gave a shout-out to Georgia and Oklahoma, states he said make early childhood education a priority. Obama will be visiting a pre-Kindergarten school in Georgia this week, and Susan Bumgarner, an early childhood educator from Oklahoma City, watched the speech with Michelle Obama.
Higher rewards for high-tech education
Some states and schools have discussed charging students less to pursue majors in science, technology, engineering and math fields, and more for majors like English or anthropology. Obama wasn't so specific, but he said he wants to "resdesign America's high schools" to gear-up grads for a high-tech economy.
"We'll reward schools that develop new partnerships with colleges and employers, and create classes that focus on science, technology, engineering, and math – the skills today's employers are looking for to fill jobs," Obama said.
Rewarding high schools for high-tech curriculum doesn't mean every student will head to college. Obama mentioned "those German kids" who come up through schools that make sure they've got the skills for a job by the time they graduate. He pointed to P-Tech in Brooklyn, where graduates leave with a high school diploma and associate's degree in a high-tech field.
Better school buildings
Obama proposed a "Fix-It-First" program to create jobs fixing bridges and other infrastructure, along with a "Partnership to Rebuild America" to attract private capital to help. On the list of what it could help with? "Modern schools worthy of our children."
Rubio's response: More school choice, clearer financial aid
In the GOP response, Rubio, R-Florida, listed some education ideas of his own - in particular, offering incentives for schools to provide Advanced Placement courses and more vocational training and increasing school choice, especially for parents of kids with special needs.
Rubio said he'd only recently paid off his student debt of more than $100,000, and that students need more information about loans before they sign on. He pointed out that students are single parents, veterans and people who've lost jobs, not just teens. Financial aid shouldn't "discriminate against programs that non-traditional students rely on – like online courses, or degree programs that give you credit for work experience," he said.
What did you think of Obama and Rubio's remarks on education? Share your thoughts in the comments, or tweet us @CNNSchools.
Hello All:
The problem with education in America (her I go) is that we as a country have not agreed to the outcomes of public secondary and higher education. Some people want career preparedness, others job training, still more college readiness, and others world citizens. Students are fought over by these competing ideologies while educators are left trying to appease everyone. The rules change constantly. Until we decide on the purpose, specifically, of education, these debates will continue as our students (and future) deteriorate.
European education (I lived and taught in England and Germany and Costa Rica) is standardized in each country. England, for example, has definitive goals for their education. Students are either tracked into the work-force or the universities. In the United States, we have traditionally been against that approach, Yet, our approach does not seem to work either.
Since Nixon vetoed the Comprehensive Child Care Act of 1971 (which passed the House & Senate), there have been three longitudinal studies (30-40 years) of highest quality which show that in Michigan, Chicago, and North Carolina children from homes in poverty do better as adults (fewer in jail, more graduate from High School, better jobs, better decisions in many areas of life). According to a University of Chicago economist this payment for preschool saves money later. From birth to age 8 children develop vocabulary, a sense of story, phonological awareness, decisionmaking skills and other skills necessary to succeed in reading, school and in life...or they don't. If their lives are language-poor in preschool, they never catch up. Two red states, Oklahoma and Georgia, looked at this research and put their money on the line. Their education system improved. Where are statesmen who will work together to make preschool happen in all the states? Pouring money into prisons seems like the backwards way when we know how to provide children the skills not to end up in prison.
Concerning the Georgia preschool program. – A point that is rarely emphasized – when Georga legislators considered the specifics of their state lottery , they insisted that the $ would ONLY go to education BUT A L S O that the %( !) of the regular state budget for education , would stay constant ! As a result , Georgia went from an educational backwater to an educational leader !
Origionally only public K thru 12 was to be funded but with so many extra $ ,they were able to "leak" some $ to preschool & junior college programs (some private & parochial programs too).
All this took biparticin (?) leadership backbone , which is obviously missing at too many levels of government today !
I looked up a couple of local colleges on the White House Scorecard site and the information is useless. All it gives is annual cost, graduation rate, loan default rate and monthly borrowing. The benefits block is to be determined by the DOEd. It doesn't describe the schools. So the local technology school would be rated lower than the state liberal arts school because it cost more to go there.
I think all of these suggestions have merit and should be examined. Our schools are in need of radical change. We need a complete re-visioning of how we think about education, from the buildings/structure of the classrooms to the curriculum itself. Our current educational system is anachronistic.
James Mulhern, http://www.synthesizingeducation.net
It was encouraging to hear President Obama endorse the idea of universal Pre-K. There's a lot of research showing that early childhood education does make a long-term difference. And the Montessori education community has been practicing this approach for more than 100 years.
Sorry, Folks. Our education problem is a PARENTING problem. Somewhere parents abandoned the idea that they were their kids primary teacher and responsible for producing a well-mannered, respectful member of society. Kids perform below standard because there is no initiative, discipline or reinforcement from home. Parents do not set expectations for achievment or behavior therefore kids come to school for everything but an education. This creates a difficult teaching environment that drives away qualified teachers and discourages prospective teachers from even considering the field. Unfortunately, I believe we are now shifting from parental abdication to just plain ignorance, as a generation of kids are being born to teenage parents who have little experience or social savvy to pass on. No amount of money can make a child value education or respect their teacher. That has to be taught at home.
Agree with you 100% on parenting, and there is no doubt that is the key to why students aren't performing up to the expectations placed on them, but there's no doubt that America's K-12 education system is also sub-par. At my high school, 4 years of "English" were required, which was actually all looking at literary themes and very little emphasis placed on grammar or reading skills, 4 years of phys. ed (didn't help with the fat kids at all), 4 years of civics (geography, U.S. history, World History, Government/Issues) not bad actually, probably the best designed curriculum by department, but in practice, very little was learned that wasn't already known, 2.5 years of Math, 2 years of science and biology and physics were required......that about sums up the big problem right there.......to think that it's actually possible to graduate high school in 2013 in the United States with no requirement to learn chemistry as well is sad.....then there was 2 years required of some kind of foreign language OR art OR music, the rest was filled with joke classes like creative writing, cooking, and shop. Don't get me wrong, I had a blast in high school, I'm glad I learned how to cook and use a reciprocating saw but I'm sure glad I took 6 years worth of science and 5.5 worth of math so that I'm doing fine now, meanwhile half of the kids who graduated in the top 10% of my high school class by taking the cupcake classes are still having trouble finding work.
I want to start by disagreeing, but I'll eventually get more friendly.
First of all, that just sounds like a poorly designed curriculum. There's a good reason colleges expect 4 years of English (even MIT, which is about as STEM-centric as colleges get) - it teaches a wide, wide range of topics that span all different academic fields, if taught correctly. But if you get a teacher who just teaches love of literature, yes, it goes poorly.
Now, I agree with the PE requirement being foolish and useless (what do you even learn in PE?), but I disagree with making chemistry a requirement. Why chemistry? I do think that at least 3, if not 4, years of science should be required, but I'm fine with having choice come into play there. I took O-Chem as an elective and set the curve despite being an English Ed major, so it's not that I'm bad at chemistry, I just don't like or use it much. The information is helpful when I get to musing about things occasionally, but I see no life-altering foundation it provides. Math is another subject that should have 4 years, as well as the expectation of graduating bilingually. I did not take a foreign language in HS, as I was a slacker, but I have since learned Latin and Italian and will soon begin working on French.
So yes, you're both right. Parents are a huge issue, but so is the way the school system is set up. The problem is that nobody really knows how to make a perfect education system. Honestly, I believe the problem has to do with the aforementioned "love of literature." I love literature, but my class is not a Lit knowledge class, it is a skills class. All classes should focus on developing skills, not knowledge, except that knowledge that is required for developing the skill (some things literally just have to be memorized).
Great conversation....do we really need to spend more? Vouchers have a history of improving the performance in the areas that have tried them....why not. It will ultimatlly cost less. Talk about needing more preschool...how bout more parents educating their children prior to K or first grade? Maybe a little focus on the family would have a big and less expensive impact.
Why do hostile globalist elite support Israel as a Jewish ethnostate with Jewish only immigration, but vigorously undermine white majority Europe and America with mass 3rd world immigration?
One question for gullible whites:
Why do you support hostile Jews like puppies, even when it costs trillions in debt, Jewish stranglehold on our banks, media, espionage, and maims millions of white soldiers' in useless wars?
Whereas East Asia is 99% yellow, Africa is 99% Black, white people are being annihilated.
Vouchers have zero history of improving anything except the pockets of private schools and CEOs. Look at Milwaukee which has had vouchers for decades. THe voucher schools in Louisiana are a joke. There is no difference in student outcomes except that private schools take the kids who are easy to educate. Look at the international PISA study which found that private schools do not educate kids better than public. Most recent voucher proposals do not even allow for a comparison. Here is PA, proponents of vouchers will not require the private schools to take the same NCLB exam, so there will be no accountability.
Investment in education is the place to start. Understandably it costs money to improve our schools, the curriculum and pay for our teachers. The cost to not do these things is much greater. The less educated the population the higher the crime rate, therefore we spend more in the law enforcement, court and prison systems. The less educated the population the more people will depend on the government for basic necessities such as housing and food or we have more people begging in the streets. An investment in education would, in the long run, less expensive than any other proposal I have heard.
President Obama was remarkably clear and eloquent last night. What disturbs me is that we, as a nation, lack the art of objective contemplation before we respond to anything. Rather, within a few minutes after his complex and extended speech, we have some opposition politician dismembering, rebutting and basically playing the contrarian. It's like everything else we do...try to shovel in another mouthful before letting the first one even pass the throat. We don't think before we react, thus we have a nation on the strings of talking-heads and puppeteers.
Elevate teacher's pay and status to attract the caliber of people who take high paying jobs in other elevated careers.
I like President Obama's ideas; I just wish he had talked more about reading. As a high school teacher for 35 years, I see the education crisis as a reading crisis. It was only the avid readers who had sophisticated reading skills, who could write fluently and persuasively, who could concentrate and follow oral arguments, and who could do well across the board, in all of their subjects. Yet, according to SAT scores, the number of advanced readers has declined over the last forty years.
One of my books adresses this issue, and is free today and tomorrow on Amazon. There is a link to it on my website.
Thanks for you post, Mary. I am sharing your book with my colleagues this morning since we are all in agreement that administrations are knowingly and willingly graduating students who are well below grade level in reading. This is a complicated and persistent issue and no one seems to be consulting actual 'boots on the ground' teachers about what needs to be done.


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Illinois Council of Teachers of Mathematics Scholarships in Mathematics Education
The Illinois Council of Teachers of Mathematics will be presenting its annual Scholarships in Mathematics Education in October of 2010.
There will be a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 5 awards granted of $1500.00 to help defray educational expenses of the recipients.
To be eligible, a student must:
- Be enrolled in an accredited university or college in Illinois during Spring 2010.
- Have junior or senior status as of Spring 2010 with graduation during May 2010 or later and must be working on her/his first bachelor's degree.
- Be a mathematics education major, a mathematics major with an education minor, or an education major with an official mathematics concentration.
- Have a total over all GPA of at least 3.00 from all colleges attended (based on 4.00).
- Submit the following:
- A completed ICTM scholarship application form.
- Transcripts from ALL COLLEGES ATTENDED (these may be student copies).
- Letters of recommendation from two mathematics teachers, high school or college. These letters must state the capacity in which the writer knew the applicant and address her/his potential as a mathematics teacher.
- A 200-300 word essay on why the student wishes to teach mathematics and what s/he sees as her/his contribution to the profession.
- Completed lesson planning form.
Students can find applications and information at http://www.ictm.org or email:
|Randy and Sue Pippen
ICTM Scholarship
24807 Winterberry Ln.
Plainfield, IL 60585
The completed application forms must be emailed or postmarked no later than March 6th, 2010. The recipients of the scholarship awards will be announced in June 2010 and awarded at the October 2010 Annual ICTM Conference banquet.


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The 55-Gallon Water Barrel Combo is a great option to give you peace of mind during an emergency or city/county-wide boil order. During the month of October, this combo is on sale for $81.99, a $124.85 value. This combo will allow you to have clean, usable water stored right in your home if your normal water supply is disrupted or contaminated. This combo includes:
- 55-Gallon Water Barrel: The minimum recommended amount of water for an emergency situation is one gallon per day per person for two weeks. This includes water for drinking, minimal cooking, and simple hygiene needs (sponge bath and teeth brushing). This means the 55-gallon barrel will provide:
- 1 Emergency Siphon: Allows you to access your water quickly from your 55-gallon barrel.
- 1 Barrel Buddies II Bung and Gas Wrench: This tool will help you to open the barrel bungs with ease, giving you easier access to your water and allowing you to siphon water out. This tool is great because it can also be used as a wrench to turn off your gas valve during an emergency.
If you're interested in getting a 55-Gallon Water Barrel Combo, but you're a first time barrel buyer, there are a couple of things that you should know about how to safely store and retrieve your water. Here are 5 frequently asked questions that first-timers often ask: What are the barrels made of? The barrels are constructed of sturdy, food-grade, # 2 BPA-free polyethylene plastic. Each barrel is dark blue, limiting light exposure that can encourage algae growth in your water. Where should I keep my barrel? If you have a basement, storing your barrel there would be ideal. In the basement, your barrel would be protected from excess heat and light. But if you don't have a basement, you can keep your barrel anywhere you have room for it—on a back porch, in a carport, laundry room, or mud room. However, we do not recommend keeping it in the garage near engine fumes and where products such as fuels, oils, and paints are stored. Even though thick plastic seems impermeable, it is actually porous and will eventually absorb any chemical odors in the environment. These odors could then leach into your water making its taste unpleasant. We also caution against placing your barrel directly on a concrete floor. We recommend placing planks or a sturdy wooden pallet under the barrel before filling. This provides a breathable barrier to help prevent mold and mildew growth. Once it's filled, it's not going anywhere--the water itself will weigh 440 lbs.! If you keep your barrel outdoors, you might want to get a [Barrel Bag] to slip over it to reduce accidental contamination from soil, bird droppings, and dust. What in the world is a bung? Bungs are the two white plugs on top of the barrel that allow you to fill your barrel and access your water. They are nearly impossible to remove without the proper tool. That's why the 55-gallon combo comes with a bung wrench to help you open your barrel without breaking the bungs. Do I need anything else? Additional tools available include the Siphon Hose Adapter, which allows you to attach your siphon hose to a regular garden hose—useful for filling your barrel or emptying it to your yard, garden, bathtub, or wherever you choose. We also offer a [Drinking Water Safe Hose] in 25 and 50-foot lengths, which would be helpful in filling your barrel from your kitchen or bathroom water source, and the Bung Seal Cap, which fits over the bung opening and helps prevent contamination. You might also want a jug for transporting water from your barrel into your kitchen or bathroom. For this purpose, we offer a Standard Five-Gallon Jug made of #2 food-grade plastic, with a separately sold spigot, and both a 5-Gallon and 2.5-Gallon Collapsible Jug that come with spigots. You'll also need Aquamira Water Treatment that can keep a water barrel free from "bugs" for 5+ years. How long will my water last stored in a barrel? Water, unlike food, doesn't spoil or "go bad" with time. However, we recommend rotating your water once a year or using Aquamira Water Treatment to make sure that your water is absolutely fresh when it comes time to use it. If it was clean when you put it into a clean barrel, and hasn't been contaminated since, it will last indefinitely. If it tastes "flat," just pour it back and forth between containers to aerate it before drinking. If you notice any strange odor to your water, however, you can of course change it out or treat it with a purifying agent. (See our blog post on water filtration and purification.) One of the easiest ways to begin or increase your water storage reserves is to purchase a water barrel combo to help you with your water storage maintenance. The 55-gallon combo is a great introduction to water storage for beginners, but it is also perfect for those who have water storage experience, making it easier to store and retrieve your water. For more information on water storage, filtration, and treatment visit these links: Water Storage Insight Articles Water-related Blog Posts "Water" Search results on Beprepared.com