text:
A laptop computer is a portable personal computer with a clamshell form factor, suitable for mobile use.[1] A laptop has most of the same components as a desktop computer, including a display, a keyboard, a pointing device such as a touchpad (also known as a trackpad) and/or a pointing stick, and speakers into a single unit. A laptop is powered by mains electricity via an AC adapter, and can be used away from an outlet using a rechargeable battery. Laptops are also sometimes called notebook computers or notebooks. Other terms, such as ultrabooks or netbooks, refer to specific types of laptop / notebook.
Portable computers, originally monochrome CRT-based and developed into the modern laptops, were originally considered to be a small niche market, mostly for specialized field applications such as the military, accountants and sales representatives. As portable computers became smaller, lighter, cheaper, more powerful and as screens became larger and of better quality, laptops became very widely used for all sorts of purposes.
As the personal computer (PC) became feasible in the 1970s, the idea of a portable personal computer followed. A "personal, portable information manipulator" was imagined by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968,[2] and described in his 1972 paper as the "Dynabook".[3]
The IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable (SCAMP), was demonstrated in 1973. This prototype was based on the IBM PALM processor (Put All Logic in Microcode or 128 bit).
The IBM 5100, the first commercially available portable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype.[4]
As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly. The Osborne 1, released in 1981, used the Zilog Z80 and weighed 23.6 pounds (10.7 kg). It had no battery, a 5 in (13 cm) CRT screen, and dual 5.25 in (13.3 cm) single-density floppy drives. In the same year the first laptop-sized portable computer, the Epson HX-20, was announced.[5] The Epson had a LCD screen, a rechargeable battery, and a calculator-size printer in a 1.6 kg (3.5 lb) chassis. Both Tandy/RadioShack and HP also produced portable computers of varying designs during this period.[6][7]
The first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in the early 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Australia in 1981–82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984–85. The US$8,150 (US$19,390 today) GRiD Compass 1100, released in 1982, was used at NASA and by the military among others. The Gavilan SC, released in 1983, was the first computer described as a "laptop" by its manufacturer.[8] From 1983 onward, several new input techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the touchpad (Gavilan SC, 1983), the pointing stick (IBM ThinkPad 700, 1992) and handwriting recognition (Linus Write-Top,[9] 1987). Some CPUs, such as the 1990 Intel i386SL, were designed to use minimum power to increase battery life of portable computers, and were supported by dynamic power management features such as Intel SpeedStep and AMD PowerNow! in some designs.
Displays reached VGA resolution by 1983 (Compaq SLT/286), and colour screens started becoming a common upgrade in 1991 with increases in resolution and screen size occurring frequently until the introduction of 17″-screen laptops in 2003. Hard drives started to be used in portables, encouraged by the introduction of 3.5″ drives in the late 1980s, and became common in laptops starting with the introduction of 2.5″ and smaller drives around 1990; capacities have typically lagged behind physically larger desktop drives. Optical storage, read-only CD-ROM followed by writeable CD and later read-only or writeable DVD and Blu-ray, became common in laptops early in the 2000s
The term "laptop" can refer to a number of classes of small portable computers:[10][11]
- Full-size Laptop: A laptop large enough to accommodate a "full-size" keyboard (a keyboard with the minimum QWERTY key layout, which is at least 13.5 keys across that are on ¾ (0.750) inch centers, plus some room on both ends for the case). The measurement of at least 11 inches across has been suggested as the threshold for this class.[12] The first laptops were the size of a standard U.S. "A size" notebook sheet of paper (8.5 × 11 inches)[citation needed], but later "A4-size" laptops were introduced, which were the width of a standard ISO 216 A4 sheet of paper (297 mm, or about 11.7 inches), and added a vertical column of keys to the right and wider screens. It can also be laid sideways when not in use.
- Netbook: A smaller, lighter, more portable laptop. It is usually cheaper than a full-size laptop, but sometimes has fewer features and less computing power. The smaller keyboards of a netbook can be more difficult to operate. There is no sharp line of demarcation between netbooks and inexpensive small laptops; some 11.6″ models are marketed as netbooks. Since netbook laptops are quite small in size and designed to be light and inexpensive they typically do not come with an internal optical drive. The Asus Eee PC launched this product class, while the term was coined later by Intel.
- Tablet PC: These have touch screens. There are "convertible tablets" with a full keyboard where the screen rotates to be used atop the keyboard, a "hybrid tablet" where the keyboard can be detached from the screen, and "slate" form-factor machines which are usually touch-screen only (although a few older models feature very small keyboards along the sides of the screen.)
- Ultra-mobile PC: An ultra-mobile PC (ultra-mobile personal computer or UMPC) is a small form factor version of a pen computer, a class of laptop whose specifications were launched by Microsoft and Intel in spring 2006. Sony had already made a first attempt in this direction in 2004 with its Vaio U series, which was only sold in Asia. UMPCs are smaller than subnotebooks, have a TFT display measuring (diagonally) about 12.7 to 17.8 cm, and are operated like tablet PCs using a touchscreen or a stylus. This term is commonly (if inaccurately) used for small notebooks and/or netbooks.
- Handheld PC: A Handheld PC, or H/PC for short, is a term for a computer built around a form factor which is smaller than any standard laptop computer. It is sometimes referred to as a Palmtop. The first handheld device compatible with desktop IBM personal computers of the time was the Atari Portfolio of 1989. Other early models were the Poqet PC of 1989 and the Hewlett Packard HP 95LX of 1991. Other DOS compatible hand-held computers also existed.
- Rugged: Engineered to operate in tough conditions (mechanical shocks, extreme temperatures, wet and dusty environments, etc.)
- Ultrabook: A very thin version of a laptop usually less than an inch thick. Most versions of Ultrabooks contain SSD, or Solid-State Drives, instead of the common Laptop Hard Disk Drives. Although this term (like Netbook) was coined and popularized by Intel, one of the most prominent examples is Apple's Macbook Air.
Desktop replacement[edit]
A desktop-replacement computer is a laptop that provides all of the capabilities of a desktop computer, with a similar level of performance. Desktop replacements are usually larger and heavier than standard laptops. They contain more powerful components and have a 15″ or larger display.[11] They are bulkier and not as portable as other laptops, and their operation time on batteries is typically shorter; they are intended to be used as compact and transportable alternatives to a desktop computer.[11]
Some laptops in this class use a limited range of desktop components to provide better performance for the same price at the expense of battery life; a few of those models have no battery.[13] In the early 2000s, desktops were more powerful, easier to upgrade, and much cheaper than laptops, but in later years laptops have become much cheaper and more powerful than before,[14] and most peripherals are available in laptop-compatible USB versions which minimize the need for internal add-on cards.
The names "Media Center Laptops" and "Gaming Laptops" are used to describe specialized notebook computers.[10]
A subnotebook or ultraportable is a laptop designed and marketed with an emphasis on portability (small size, low weight and often longer battery life) that retains performance close to that of a standard notebook. Subnotebooks are usually smaller and lighter than standard laptops, weighing between 0.8 and 2 kg (2 to 5 pounds);[10] the battery life can exceed 10 hours[15] when a large battery or an additional battery pack is installed. Since the introduction of netbooks, the line between subnotebooks and higher-end netbooks has been substantially blurred.
To achieve the size and weight reductions, ultraportables use 13″ and smaller screens (down to 6.4″), have relatively few ports (but in any case include two or more USB ports), employ expensive components designed for minimal size and best power efficiency, and utilize advanced materials and construction methods. Most subnotebooks achieve a further portability improvement by omitting an optical/removable media drive; in this case they may be paired with a docking station that contains the drive and optionally more ports or an additional battery.
The term "subnotebook" is reserved to laptops that run general-purpose desktop operating systems such as Windows, Linux or Mac OS X, rather than specialized software such as Windows CE, iOS, Palm OS or Internet Tablet OS.
At Computex 2011 Intel announced a new class for ultraportables called Ultrabooks. The term is used to describe a highly portable laptop that has strict limits for size, weight, battery life, and have tablet-like features such as instant on functionality. Intel estimates that by the end of 2012, 40 percent of the consumer laptop market segment will be Ultrabooks.[16]
Netbooks are laptops that are inexpensive, light-weight, economical, energy-efficient and especially suited for wireless communication and Internet access.[17][18] Hence the name netbook (as "the device excels in web-based computing performance").[19]
With primary focus given to web browsing and e-mailing, netbooks are intended to "rely heavily on the Internet for remote access to web-based applications"[19] and are targeted increasingly at cloud computing users who rely on servers and require a less powerful client computer.[20] A common distinguishing feature is the lack of optical disk (i.e. CD, DVD or Blu-ray) drives. While the devices range in size from below 5 inches to over 12,[21] most are between 9 and 11 inches (280 mm) and weigh between 0.9–1.4 kg (2–3 pounds).[19]
Netbooks are mostly sold with light-weight operating systems such as Linux, Windows XP and Windows 7 Starter edition.
Netbooks do have a few disadvantages. Because the netbooks are so thin, the first products introduced to the market utilized solid-state drives for internal storage instead of traditional hard disks, increasing cost and lowering storage space. Hard disk drive technology and form factors have since been adapted to fit into netbooks providing more hard drive space without increasing cost, a key point of a netbook. Another issue with netbooks is expansion. In order to produce small, inexpensive laptops, netbooks generally lack significant upgrade ability. A majority of netbooks only have a single memory slot and will not recognize any amount beyond 2 GB of RAM. This limits the capabilities of the netbook beyond basic functionality (internet, e-mail, etc.). Finally because of their size and use of more rudimentary components compared to notebooks and subnotebooks, netbooks also generally have a slower CPU[22]
In 2009, Google announced an operating system called Google Chrome OS for this market and in 2011 the Google Chromebook was released running on the Google Chrome OS.
The big breakthrough for netbook computers did not happen until the weight, diagonal form-factor and price combination of < 1 kg, < 9″, < U.S. $400, respectively, became commercially available in around 2008.
Rugged laptop[edit]
A rugged/ruggedized laptop is designed to reliably operate in harsh usage conditions such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, and wet or dusty environments. Rugged laptops are usually designed from scratch, rather than adapted from regular consumer laptop models. Rugged laptops are bulkier, heavier, and much more expensive than regular laptops,[23] and thus are seldom seen in regular consumer use.
The design features found in rugged laptops include rubber sheeting under the keyboard keys, sealed port and connector covers, passive cooling, superbright displays easily readable in daylight, cases and frames made of magnesium alloys that are much stronger than plastic found in commercial laptops, and solid-state storage devices or hard disc drives that are shock mounted to withstand constant vibrations. Rugged laptops are commonly used by public safety services (police, fire and medical emergency), military, utilities, field service technicians, construction, mining and oil drilling personnel. Rugged laptops are usually sold to organizations, rather than individuals, and are rarely marketed via retail channels.
Tablet laptop[edit]
Typical modern convertible laptops have a complex joint between the keyboard housing and the display permitting the display panel to swivel and then lie flat on the keyboard housing.
Typically, the base of a tablet laptop attaches to the display at a single joint called a swivel hinge or rotating hinge. The joint allows the screen to rotate through 180° and fold down on top of the keyboard to provide a flat writing surface. This design, although the most common, creates a physical point of weakness on the laptop.
Some manufacturers have attempted to overcome these weak points by adopting innovative methods such as a sliding design in which the screen slides up from the slate-like position and locks into place to provide the laptop mode. Newer iterations of tablet laptops are of hybrid design. Hybrid tablets incorporate a removable keyboard base allowing the user to easily choose between functioning as a laptop with the keyboard attached or as a slate device utilizing the touchscreen alone.
Although Tablets are touchscreen (with or without a stylus) they have the advantage to offer the keyboard and pointing device (usually a trackpad) of older laptops, for users who do not use the touchscreen display as the primary method of input.
The basic components of laptops function similarly to their desktop counterparts, but are miniaturized, adapted to mobile use. The design bounds on power, size, and cooling of laptops limit the maximum performance of laptop parts compared to that of desktop components.[24]
The following list summarizes the differences and distinguishing features of laptop components in comparison to desktop personal computer parts:[25]
- Central processing unit (CPU): Laptop CPUs have advanced power-saving features and produce less heat than desktop processors, but are not as powerful.[26] There is a wide range of CPUs designed for laptops available from Intel (Pentium M, Celeron M, Intel Core, Core 2 Duo) and Intel Atom; AMD (Athlon, Turion 64, and Sempron); VIA Technologies, Transmeta and others. On non-x86 architectures, Motorola and IBM produced the chips for the former PowerPC-based Apple laptops (iBook and PowerBook). Most laptops have removable CPUs, although the motherboard may restrict the processor to the specific models, limiting the processors that are compatible.[27] Some laptops use a desktop processor instead of the laptop version and have high performance gains at the cost of the potential for overheating problems, and less battery life. In other laptops the CPU is soldered on the motherboard and is non-replaceable.
- Memory (RAM): SO-DIMM memory modules that are usually found in laptops are about half the size of desktop DIMMs.[25] They may be accessible from the bottom of the laptop for ease of upgrading, or placed in locations not intended for user replacement such as between the keyboard and the motherboard. Currently, most mid-range laptops are factory equipped with 3–4 GB of DDR2 RAM, while some higher end notebooks (usually mobile engineering workstations) feature up to 32 GB of DDR3 memory. Netbooks are commonly equipped with only 1 GB of RAM and generally only expandable to 2 GB, if at all, to keep manufacturing costs low.
- Expansion cards: A PC Card (formerly PCMCIA) or ExpressCard bay for expansion cards is often present on laptops to allow adding and removing functionality, even when the laptop is powered on. Some internal subsystems such as: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or a Wireless cellular modem can be implemented as replaceable internal expansion cards, usually accessible under an access cover on the bottom of the laptop. Two popular standards for such cards are MiniPCI and its successor, the PCI Express Mini. In newer laptops it is not uncommon to also see a Mini SATA (mSATA) connection in addition to MiniPCI and PCI Express Mini.[28]
- Power supply: Laptops are typically powered by an internal rechargeable battery that is charged using an external power supply, which outputs a DC voltage typically in the range of 7.2– 24 volts. The power supply is usually external, and connected to the laptop through an AC connector cable. It can charge the battery and power the laptop simultaneously; when the battery is fully charged, the laptop continues to run on power supplied by the external power supply. The charger adds about 400 grams (1 lb) to the overall "transport weight" of the notebook.
- Battery: Current laptops utilize lithium ion batteries, with more recent models using the new lithium polymer technology. These two technologies have largely replaced the older nickel metal-hydride batteries. Typical battery life for standard laptops is two to five hours of light-duty use, but may drop to as little as one hour or less when doing power-intensive tasks. A battery's performance gradually decreases with time, leading to an eventual replacement in one to three years, depending on the charging and discharging pattern. This large-capacity main battery should not be confused with the much smaller battery nearly all computers use to run the real-time clock and to store the BIOS configuration in CMOS when the computer is off. Lithium-ion batteries do not have a memory effect as older batteries may have. The memory effect happens when one does not use a battery to its fullest extent, then recharges the battery. Innovations in laptops and batteries have seen situations which the battery can provide up to 24 hours of continued operation, assuming average power consumption levels. An example is the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its ultra-capacity battery.[29]
- Video display controller: On standard laptops the video controller is usually integrated into the chipset to conserve power. This tends to limit the use of laptops for gaming and entertainment. These two fields have constantly escalated hardware demands, and because the integrated chipset is very difficult to upgrade for a standard user, laptops may grow obsolete quickly for use in gaming and entertainment.[30] Higher-end laptops and desktop replacements in particular often come with dedicated graphics processors on the motherboard or as an internal expansion card. These mobile graphics processors are comparable in performance to low-end mainstream desktop graphic accelerator boards.[31] A few notebooks have switchable graphics with both an integrated and discrete card installed. The user can choose between using integrated graphics when battery life is important and dedicated graphics when demanding applications call for it. This allows for greater flexibility and also conserves power when not required.[32]
- Display: Most modern laptops feature 13 inches (33 cm) or larger color active matrix displays based on CCFL or LED lighting with resolutions of 1280×800 (16:10) or 1366 × 768 (16:9) pixels and above. Some models use screens with resolutions common in desktop PCs (for example, 1440×900, 1600×900 and 1680×1050.) Models with LED-based lighting offer lesser power consumption, and often higher brightness. Netbooks with a 10 inches (25 cm) or smaller screen typically use a resolution of 1024×600, while netbooks and subnotebooks with a 11.6 inches (29 cm) or 12 inches (30 cm) screen use standard notebook resolutions. Having a higher resolution display will allow more items to fit onscreen at a time, improving the user's ability to multitask.
- Removable media drives: A DVD/CD reader/writer drive is nearly universal on full-sized models, and is common on thin-and-light models; it is uncommon on subnotebooks and unknown on netbooks. CD drives are becoming rare, while Blu-ray is becoming more common on notebooks.[33]
- Internal storage: Laptop hard disks are physically smaller—2.5 inches (64 mm) or 1.8 inches (46 mm) —compared to desktop 3.5 inches (89 mm) drives. Some newer laptops (usually ultraportables) employ more expensive, but faster, lighter and power-efficient flash memory-based SSDs instead. Currently, 250 to 500 GB sizes are common for laptop hard disks (64 to 512 GB for SSDs).
- Input: A pointing stick, touchpad or both are used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, and an integrated keyboard is used for typing. An external keyboard and/or mouse may be connected using USB or PS/2 port, or Bluetooth (if present).
- Ports: several USB ports, an external monitor port (VGA, DVI, mini-DisplayPort or HDMI), audio in/out, and an Ethernet network port are found on most laptops. Less common are legacy ports such as a PS/2 keyboard/mouse port, serial port or a parallel port.
- Cooling: Waste heat from operation is difficult to remove in the compact internal space of a laptop. Early laptops used heat sinks placed directly on the components to be cooled, but when these hot components are deep inside the device, a large space-wasting air duct is needed to exhaust the heat. Modern laptops instead rely on heat pipes to rapidly move waste heat towards the edges of the device, to allow for a much smaller and compact fan and heat sink cooling system. Waste heat is usually exhausted away from the device operator, towards the rear or sides of the device. Multiple air intake paths are used since some intakes can be blocked, such as when the device is placed on a soft conforming surface like a chair cushion. It is believed that some designs with metal cases, like Apple's aluminum MacBook Pro and MacBook Air, also employ the case of the machine as a "gigantic" heat sink, allowing it to supplement cooling by dissipating heat out of the device core. Secondary device temperature monitoring may reduce performance or trigger an emergency shutdown if it is unable to dissipate heat, such as if the laptop were to be left running and placed inside a carrying case. Such a condition has the potential to melt plastics or ignite a fire.
Docking stations[edit]
A docking station is a laptop accessory that contains multiple ports, expansion slots, and bays for fixed or removable drives. A laptop connects and disconnects easily to a docking station, typically through a single large proprietary connector. A port replicator is a simplified docking station that only provides connections from the laptop to input/output ports. Both docking stations and port replicators are intended to be used at a permanent working place (a desk) to offer instant connection to multiple input/output devices and to extend a laptop's capabilities.
Docking stations became a common laptop accessory in the early 1990s. The most common use was in a corporate computing environment where the company had standardized on a common network card and this same card was placed into the docking station. These stations were very large and quite expensive. As the need for additional storage and expansion slots became less critical because of the high integration inside the laptop, port replicators have gained popularity, being a cheaper, often passive device that often simply mates to the connectors on the back of the notebook, or connects via a standardized port such as USB or FireWire.
Charging stations[edit]
Laptop charging trolleys, also known as laptop trolleys or laptop carts, are mobile storage containers to charge laptops, netbooks and tablet computers en masse. The trolleys are predominantly used in schools that have replaced their traditional static ICT[34] suites of desktop computers with laptops, but do not have enough plug sockets in their buildings to charge all of the devices.
The trolleys can be wheeled between rooms and classrooms so that anyone in a particular building can access fully charged IT[35] equipment. Laptop charging trolleys are also used to deter and protect against opportunistic and organized theft. Schools, especially those with open plan designs, are often prime targets for thieves and laptops, netbooks and tablets can easily be concealed and removed from buildings. Laptop charging trolleys were designed and constructed to protect against theft. They are generally made out of steel, and the laptops remain locked up while not in use. Although the trolleys can be moved between areas in buildings, they can often also be mounted to the floor or walls to prevent thieves walking off with investments, especially overnight.[34]
Solar panels[edit]
In certain laptops, solar panels are able to generate enough solar power for the laptop to operate. The One Laptop Per Child Initiative released the OLPC XO-1 laptop which was tested and successfully operated by use of solar panels.[36] Presently, they are designing a OLPC XO-3 laptop with these features. The OLPC XO-3 can operate with 2 Watts of electricity because its renewable energy resources generate a total of 4 Watts.[37][38] Samsung has also designed a NC215S Solar powered notebook that will be sold commercially in the US market.[39]
In general, components other than the four categories listed above are not intended to be replaceable; a few, such as processors, follow their own standards but are difficult to replace because of other factors (for example, in the case of processors cooling and access limitations can make upgrades very difficult or impossible.)
In particular, motherboards are almost always make and model-specific: locations of ports, and design and placement of internal components are not standard. Those parts are neither interchangeable with parts from other manufacturers (replaceable) nor upgradeable. If broken or damaged, they must be substituted with an exact replacement part. Those users uneducated in the relevant fields are those the most affected by incompatibilities, especially if they attempt to connect their laptops with incompatible hardware or power adapters.
Intel, Asus, Compal, Quanta and some other laptop manufacturers have created the Common Building Block standard for laptop parts to address some of the inefficiencies caused by the lack of standards.
Portability is usually the first feature mentioned in any comparison of laptops versus desktop PCs.[40] Physical portability allows that a laptop can be used in many places— not only at home and at the office, but also during commuting and flights, in coffee shops, in lecture halls and libraries, at clients' location or at a meeting room, etc. The portability feature offers several distinct advantages:
- Productivity: Using a laptop in places where a desktop PC can not be used, and at times that would otherwise be wasted. For example, an office worker managing their e-mails during an hour-long commute by train, or a student doing his/her homework at the university coffee shop during a break between lectures.[41][42]
- Immediacy: Carrying a laptop means having instant access to various information, personal and work files. Immediacy allows better collaboration between coworkers or students, as a laptop can be flipped open to present a problem or a solution anytime, anywhere.
- Up-to-date information: If a person has more than one desktop PC, a problem of synchronization arises: changes made on one computer are not automatically propagated to the others. There are ways to resolve this problem, including physical transfer of updated files (using a USB flash memory stick or CDRs) or using synchronization software over the Internet. However, using a single laptop at both locations avoids the problem entirely, as the files exist in a single location and are always up-to-date.
- Connectivity: A proliferation of Wi-Fi wireless networks and cellular broadband data services (HSDPA, EVDO and others) combined with a near-ubiquitous support by laptops[43] means that a laptop can have easy Internet and local network connectivity while remaining mobile. Wi-Fi networks and laptop programs are especially widespread at university campuses.[44]
Other advantages of laptops:
- Size: Laptops are smaller than desktop PCs. This is beneficial when space is at a premium, for example in small apartments and student dorms. When not in use, a laptop can be closed and put away.
- Low power consumption: Laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses 20–90 W, compared to 100–800 W for desktops. This could be particularly beneficial for businesses (which run hundreds of personal computers, multiplying the potential savings) and homes where there is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print server, etc.)
- Quiet: Laptops are often quieter than desktops, due both to the components (quieter, slower 2.5-inch hard drives) and to less heat production leading to use of fewer and slower cooling fans.
- Battery: a charged laptop can continue to be used in case of a power outage and is not affected by short power interruptions and blackouts. A desktop PC needs a UPS to handle short interruptions, blackouts and spikes; achieving on-battery time of more than 20–30 minutes for a desktop PC requires a large and expensive UPS.[45]
- All-in-One: designed to be portable, laptops have everything integrated into the chassis. For desktops (excluding all-in-ones) this is divided into the desktop, keyboard, mouse, display, and optional peripherals such as speakers.
Compared to desktop PCs, laptops have disadvantages in the following fields:
While the performance of mainstream desktops and laptop is comparable, and the cost of laptops has fallen less rapidly than desktops, laptops remain more expensive than desktop PCs at the same performance level.[46] The upper limits of performance of laptops remain much lower than the highest-end desktops (especially "workstation class" machines with two processor sockets), and "bleeding-edge" features usually appear first in desktops and only then, as the underlying technology matures, are adapted to laptops.
For Internet browsing and typical office applications, where the computer spends the majority of its time waiting for the next user input, even relatively low-end laptops (such as Netbooks) can be fast enough for some users.[47] As of mid-2010, at the lowest end, the cheapest netbooks—between US$200–300—remain more expensive than the lowest-end desktop computers (around US$200) only when those are priced without a screen/monitor. Once an inexpensive monitor is added, the prices are comparable.
Most higher-end laptops are sufficiently powerful for high-resolution movie playback, some 3D gaming and video editing and encoding. However, laptop processors can be disadvantaged when dealing with higher-end database, maths, engineering, financial software, virtualization, etc. Also, the top-of-the-line mobile graphics processors (GPUs) are significantly behind the top-of-the-line desktop GPUs to a greater degree than the processors, which limits the utility of laptops for high-end 3D gaming and scientific visualization applications.
Some manufacturers work around this performance problem by using desktop CPUs for laptops.[48]
Upgradeability of laptops is very limited compared to desktops, which are thoroughly standardized. In general, hard drives and memory can be upgraded easily. Optical drives and internal expansion cards may be upgraded if they follow an industry standard, but all other internal components, including the motherboard, CPU and graphics, are not always intended to be upgradeable. Intel, Asus, Compal, Quanta and some other laptop manufacturers have created the Common Building Block standard for laptop parts to address some of the inefficiencies caused by the lack of standards.
The reasons for limited upgradeability are both technical and economic. There is no industry-wide standard form factor for laptops; each major laptop manufacturer pursues its own proprietary design and construction, with the result that laptops are difficult to upgrade and have high repair costs. With few exceptions, laptop components can rarely be swapped between laptops of competing manufacturers, or even between laptops from the different product-lines of the same manufacturer.
Some upgrades can be performed by adding external devices, either USB or in expansion card format such as PC Card. Devices such as sound cards, network adapters, hard and optical drives, and numerous other peripherals are available, but these upgrades usually impair the laptop's portability, because they add cables and boxes to the setup and often have to be disconnected and reconnected when the laptop is on the move.
Ergonomics and health effects[edit]
Because of their small and flat keyboard and trackpad pointing devices, prolonged use of laptops can cause repetitive strain injury.[49] Usage of separate, external ergonomic keyboards and pointing devices is recommended to prevent injury when working for long periods of time; they can be connected to a laptop easily by USB or via a docking station. Some health standards require ergonomic keyboards at workplaces.
Neck, spinal[edit]
The integrated screen often requires users to lean over for a better view, which can cause neck and/or spinal injuries. A larger and higher-quality external screen can be connected to almost any laptop to alleviate that and to provide additional screen space for more productive work. Another solution is to use a computer stand.
For anyone not buying a new screen, a simple method to reduce risk of spinal injury is to position the laptop's screen in a manner that an obtuse angle (more than 90 degrees open) is formed. It is then possible for the neck to remain straight during use of the device.
Possible effect on fertility[edit]
A study by State University of New York researchers found that heat generated from laptops can increase the temperature of the lap of male users when balancing the computer on their lap, potentially putting sperm count at risk. The study, which included roughly two dozen men between the ages of 21 and 35, found that the sitting position required to balance a laptop can increase scrotum temperature by as much as 2.1 °C (3.78 °F). However, further research is needed to determine whether this directly affects male sterility.[50]
A 2010 study of 29 males published in Fertility and Sterility found that men who kept their laptops on their laps experienced scrotal hyperthermia (overheating) in which their scrotal temperatures increased by up to 2 °C. The resulting heat increase, which could not be offset by a laptop cushion, may increase male infertility.[51][52][53][54][55]
A common practical solution to this problem is to place the laptop on a table or desk, or to use a book or pillow between the body and the laptop.[citation needed] Another solution is to obtain a cooling unit for the laptop. These are usually USB powered and consist of a hard thin plastic case housing one, two or three cooling fans – with the entire assembly designed to sit under the laptop in question – which results in the laptop remaining cool to the touch, and greatly reduces laptop heat buildup.[citation needed]
Heat generated from using a laptop on the lap can also cause skin discoloration on the thighs known as "toasted skin syndrome."[56][57][58][59]
Equipment wears[edit]
Because of their portability, laptops are subject to more wear and physical damage than desktops. Components such as screen hinges, latches, power jacks and power cords deteriorate gradually from ordinary use. A liquid spill onto the keyboard, a rather minor mishap with a desktop system, can damage the internals of a laptop and result in a costly repair. One study found that a laptop is three times more likely to break during the first year of use than a desktop.[60]
Parts replacement[edit]
Original external components are expensive, and usually proprietary and non-interchangeable; other parts are inexpensive—a power jack can cost a few dollars—but their replacement may require extensive disassembly and reassembly of the laptop by a technician. Other inexpensive but fragile parts often cannot be purchased separate from larger more expensive components.[61] The repair costs of a failed motherboard or LCD panel often exceed the value of a used laptop.
Heating and cooling[edit]
Laptops rely on extremely compact cooling systems involving a fan and heat sink that can fail from blockage caused by accumulated airborne dust and debris. Most laptops do not have any type of removable dust collection filter over the air intake for these cooling systems, resulting in a system that gradually causes it to conduct more heat and noise as the years pass. In some cases the laptop starts to overheat even at idle load levels. This dust is usually stuck inside, where the fan and heat sink meet, where casual cleaning and vacuuming cannot remove it. Compressed air can dislodge the dust and debris but may not always remove it; after the device is turned on, the loose debris builds back up the cooling system by the fans. A complete dis-assembly is usually required to clean the laptop. Many laptops are difficult to disassemble by the normal user and contain components that are sensitive to electrostatic discharge (ESD).
Battery life[edit]
Battery life is limited because the capacity drops with time, eventually requiring replacement after as little as a year. A new battery typically stores enough energy to run the laptop for three to five hours, depending on usage, configuration, and power management settings. Yet, as it ages, the battery's energy storage will dissipate progressively until it lasts only a few minutes. The battery is often easily replaceable and a higher capacity model may be obtained for longer life. Some laptops (specifically ultrabooks) do not have the usual removable battery and have to be brought to the service center of its manufacturer to have its battery replaced. Replacement batteries can also be expensive.
Security and privacy[edit]
Because they are valuable, common, and portable, laptops are prized targets for theft. Every day, over 1,600 laptops go missing – and that's only from U.S. airports.[62] The cost of stolen business or personal data, and of the resulting problems (identity theft, credit card fraud, breach of privacy), can be many times the value of the stolen laptop itself. Consequently, physical protection of laptops and the safeguarding of data contained on them are both of great importance.
Most laptops have a Kensington security slot, which can be used to tether them to a desk or other immovable object with a security cable and lock. In addition, modern operating systems and third-party software offer disk encryption functionality, which renders the data on the laptop's hard drive unreadable without a key or a pass phrase. Some laptops also now have additional security elements added by the consumer, including eye recognition software and fingerprint scanning components.[63] Software such as LoJack for Laptops, Laptop Cop, and GadgetTrack have been engineered to help victims locate and recover a laptop in the event of theft.
In Robbins v. Lower Merion School District (Eastern District of Pennsylvania 2010), school-issued laptops loaded with special software afforded two high schools with the capability to take secret webcam shots of their students at home, via their students' laptops.[64][65][66]
Laptop Theft Recovery[edit]
Less than 5% of lost or stolen laptops are ever recovered by the companies that own them.[67] However, that number may decrease due to a variety of companies and software solutions specializing in laptop recovery. For example, LoJack for Laptops is security software that includes an Investigations and Theft Recovery Team made up of ex law enforcement officers who locate and recover stolen laptops. The service utilizes persistent technology, which means it can't be removed or disabled by a thief. The owner can also remotely delete files or lock their device, so no one can access their personal data.
Major brands and manufacturers[edit]
|Major laptop brands
|Acer / Gateway / eMachines / Packard Bell: TravelMate, Extensa, Ferrari and Aspire; Packard Bell Easynote; Chromebook
|Apple: MacBook Air and MacBook Pro
|Asus: Asus Eee, Lamborghini, Asus ROG
|Dell: Alienware, Inspiron, Latitude, Precision, Studio, Vostro and XPS
|Falcon Northwest: DRX, TLX, I / O
|Fujitsu: Lifebook
|HCL (India): ME Laptop, ME Netbook, Leaptop and MiLeap
|Hewlett-Packard / Compaq: HP Pavilion, HP Envy, HP ProBook, HP EliteBook, Compaq Presario
|Lenovo: ThinkPad, IdeaPad, and the Essential B and G Series
|LG: Xnote
|Medion: Akoya (OEM version of MSI Wind)
|MSI: E, C, P, G, V, A, X, U series and Wind Netbook
|Panasonic: Toughbook, Satellite, Let's Note (Japan only)
|Samsung: SENS: N, P, Q, R and X series; Chromebook
|Sony: Vaio
|TG Sambo (Korea): Averatec, Averatec Buddy
|Toshiba: Dynabook, Portege, Tecra, Satellite, Qosmio, Libretto
There are a multitude of laptop brands and manufacturers; several major brands, offering notebooks in various classes, are listed in the box to the right.
The major brands usually offer good service and support, including well-executed documentation and driver downloads that will remain available for many years after a particular laptop model is no longer produced. Capitalizing on service, support and brand image, laptops from major brands are more expensive than laptops by smaller brands and ODMs.
Some brands are specializing in a particular class of laptops, such as gaming laptops (Alienware), high-performance laptops (HP Envy), netbooks (EeePC) and laptops for children (OLPC).
Many brands, including the major ones, do not design and do not manufacture their laptops. Instead, a small number of Original Design Manufacturers (ODMs) design new models of laptops, and the brands choose the models to be included in their lineup. In 2006, 7 major ODMs manufactured 7 of every 10 laptops in the world, with the largest one (Quanta Computer) having 30% world market share.[68] Therefore, there often are identical models available both from a major label and from a low-profile ODM in-house brand.
Battery-powered portable computers had just 2% worldwide market share in 1986.[69] However, laptops have become increasingly popular, both for business and personal use.[70] Around 109 million notebook PCs shipped worldwide in 2007, a growth of 33% compared to 2006.[71] In 2008 it was estimated that 145.9 million notebooks were sold, and that the number would grow in 2009 to 177.7 million.[72] The third quarter of 2008 was the first time when worldwide notebook PC shipments exceeded desktops, with 38.6 million units versus 38.5 million units.[70][73][74][75]
When looking at operating systems, for Microsoft Windows laptops the average selling price (ASP) showed a decline in 2008/2009, possibly due to low-cost netbooks, drawing US$689 at U.S. retail in August 2008. In 2009, ASP had further fallen to $602 by January and to $560 in February. While Windows machines ASP fell $129 in these seven months, Apple (Mac) OS X laptop ASP declined just $12 from $1,524 to $1,512.[76]
Extreme environments[edit]
The ruggedized Grid Compass computer was used since the early days of the Space Shuttle program. The first commercial laptop used in space was a Macintosh portable in 1991 aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-43.[77][78][79] Mac and other laptop computers continue to be flown aboard manned spaceflights though the only long duration flight certified computer for the International Space Station is the ThinkPad.[80] As of 2011 over 100 ThinkPads were aboard the ISS. Laptops used aboard the International Space Station and other spaceflights are generally the same ones that can be purchased by the general public but needed modifications are made to allow them to be used safely and effectively in a weightless environment such as updating the cooling systems to function without relying on hot air rising and accommodation for the lower cabin air pressure.[81]
Laptops operating in harsh usage environments and conditions, such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures and wet or dusty conditions differ from those used in space in that they are custom designed for the task and do not use commercial off-the-shelf hardware.
A common accessory for laptops is a laptop sleeve, laptop skin or laptop case, which provides a degree of protection from drops or impacts. Sleeves, which are distinguished by being relatively thin and flexible, are most commonly made of neoprene, with sturdier ones made of LRPu (low-resilience polyurethane), with some wrapped in ballistic nylon to provide some measure of waterproofing. Bulkier and sturdier cases can be made of metal with polyurethane padding inside, and may have locks, for added security.
Another common accessory is a laptop cooler. This device helps lower the internal temperature of the laptop by using either active or passive methods. A general active method is plugging a laptop cooler into the laptop and using fans to draw heat away from the laptop. A common passive method is just propping the laptop up on some type of pad so it can receive more air flow.[82]
Former features[edit]
Features that certain early models of laptops used to have but not available anymore in most recent models of laptops include:
- Reset (Cold restart) button in a hole
- Instant power off button in a hole
- Integrated charger or power adapter inside the laptop
- Floppy disk drive
- Serial port
- Parallel port
- Modem
- Shared PS/2 input device port
- IrDA
See also[edit]
- ^ What is a laptop computer
- ^ John W. Maxwell (2006). Tracing the Dynabook: A Study of Technocultural Transformations (PDF). Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ Alan C. Kay (1972). A Personal Computer for Children of All Ages (PDF). Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ "IBM 5100 computer". oldcomputers.net. Retrieved 6 July 2009.
- ^ "Epson SX-20 Promotional Brochure" (PDF). Epson America, Inc. 1987. Retrieved 2 November 2008.
- ^ "Tandy/Radio Shack model 100 portable computer". oldcomputers.net. Retrieved 6 July 2009.
- ^ "Hewlett-Packard model 85″. oldcomputers.net. Retrieved 6 July 2009.
- ^ "Gavilian SC computer". oldcomputers.net. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
- ^ "Linus Write-Top". Retrieved 18 October 2008.
- ^ a b c "Types of Laptops: How Do You Compute". PC Magazine. Ziff Davis Publishing Holdings Inc. 18 September 2006. Retrieved 7 November 2008.
- ^ a b c "Laptop Buying Guide". CBS Interactive Inc. Retrieved 7 November 2008.
- ^ 11″ Macbook Air See "Keyboard and Trackpad"
- ^ "Desktop notebooks stake their claim". CBS Interactive Inc. 8 January 2003. Retrieved 7 November 2008.
- ^ "Desktop are Dying Slain by Laptops".
- ^ "Breaking the Mold: New Lenovo ThinkPad laptop and Tablet PCs Defy Ultraportable Computing". Lenovo. 23 September 2008. Retrieved 7 November 2008.
- ^ Intel's Maloney Talks Mobile Growth, Industry Opportunities at Computex
- ^ The Net Impact of Netbooks? It Depends on Who Uses Them for What
- ^ Bergevin, Paul (3 March 2008). "Thoughts on Netbooks". Intel.com.
- ^ a b c Netbook Trends and Solid-State Technology Forecast (PDF). pricegrabber.com. p. 7. Retrieved 28 January 2009.
- ^ Copeland, Michael (16 October 2008). "Disruptor: The 'netbook' revolution". CNNMoney/Fortune. Retrieved 29 December 2009.
- ^ Worlds First review of Inspiron Mini 12: Dell's super-slim netbook!
- ^ "Cheap PCs Weigh on Microsoft". Business Technologies. 8 December 2008.
- ^ "Rugged Laptop: Choices, Pointers & Specs of Buying Rugged Laptops". Linux-on-laptops.com. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
- ^ For an example, on a CPU-intensive task (video encoding), the fastest-performing mobile CPU as of early 2008 (Intel Core 2 Extreme X7800, 2.6 GHz) performed about 30% worse than the slowest-performing desktop CPU (AMD Sempron 64 3000+, at 1.6 GHz) in the surveyed selection. "Mobile CPU charts". Tom's Hardware. 2008. Retrieved 12 November 2008. "CPU charts Q1/2008″. Tom's Hardware. 2008. Retrieved 12 November 2008.
- ^ a b Catherine Roseberry. "What Makes Laptops Work – The Laptop Motherboard". About.com. Retrieved 15 November 2008.
- ^ "Laptop Buyer's Guide". 2008. Retrieved 15 November 2008.
- ^ The socketed CPUs are likely for the manufacturer's convenience, rather than the end-user, as some manufacturers try new CPUs in the previous year's laptop models with an eye toward selling upgrades rather than new laptops.
- ^ Gabriel Torres (25 November 2004). "Innovations in Notebook Expansion". Hardware Secrets, LLC. Retrieved 15 November 2008.
- ^ http://h10010.www1.hp.com/wwpc/ca/en/sm/WF06a/321957-321957-64295-89315-89315-3688868.html?dnr=1
- ^ "Game Hardware". Retrieved 10 May 2008.
- ^ Dustin Sklavos (18 July 2006). "Notebook Video Graphics Card Guide 2006″. NotebookReview.com. Retrieved 15 November 2008.
- ^ Inside the Box » Switchable Graphics
- ^ Yen Ting Chen, Esther Lam (2 April 2008). "Acer: BD notebooks to account for 10% of shipments in 2008″. Digitimes. Retrieved 12 November 2008.
- ^ a b Woods, Dough. "Getting rid of the ICT suite". Blog.
- ^ Wilce, Hilary (1 December 2000). "Welcome to Lapland". TES Magazine.
- ^ "OLPC XO laptop powered by a solar panel". YouTube. 9 January 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
- ^ Elizabeth Woyke (18 April 2012). "A Look at OLPC's XO 3.0 Tablet's Solar And Kinetic Chargers". Forbes. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
- ^ "One Laptop per Child (OLPC): Frequently Asked Questions". Laptop.org. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
- ^ "Samsung's Solar Powered Laptop Will Be First Sun Powered Laptop Sold in US | Inhabitat — Sustainable Design Innovation, Eco Architecture, Green Building". Inhabitat. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
- ^ "Should I buy a laptop or desktop?". IT Division – University of Wisconsin. 19 March 2008. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
- ^ "ECU Advantage: Why have a laptop?". ECU. Archived from the original on 18 July 2008. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
- ^ "Student Laptop Buying Guide". Pulsar Online. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
- ^ Almost all laptops contain a Wi-Fi interface; broadband cellular devices are available widely as extension cards and USB devices, and also as internal cards in select models.
- ^ Josh Fischman (7 August 2008). "Faster Wi-Fi Predicted for Colleges". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
- ^ A sample line of UPS devices and on-battery power: "Back-UPS RS". APC. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
- ^ In a comparison between laptop and desktop of equal cost, the desktop's System Benchmark Score was twice that of the laptop. "What to Buy, a Notebook or Desktop PC?". Tom's Hardware. 11 June 2008. Retrieved 28 November 2008.
- ^ For example, a review of the MSI Wind Netbook says that "The device is rarely sluggish in general use. It renders Web pages quickly, launches most applications without becoming too bogged down and generally doesn't feel like it's a budget laptop." Reid, Rory (7 July 2008). "MSI Wind Review". CNET Australia. Retrieved 28 November 2008.
- ^ Rock delivers BD / Core i7-equipped Xtreme 790 and Xtreme 840 gaming laptops – Engadget
- ^ Martin, James A. (9 June 2000). "The Pain of Portable Computing". PC World. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
- ^ Sheynkin, Y.; Jung M; Yoo P;Schulsinger D; Komaroff E (9 December 2004). "Increase in scrotal temperature in laptop computer users". Human Reproduction (Epub) 20 (2): 452–5. doi:10.1093/humrep/deh616. PMID 15591087.
- ^ Sheynkin, Yefim; Yefim Sheynkin, Robert Welliver, Andrew Winer, Farshid Hajimirzaee, Hongshik Ahn, Kyewon Lee (8 November 2010). "Protection from scrotal hyperthermia in laptop computer users". Fertility and Sterility 95 (2): 647–651. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.10.013. PMID 21055743.
- ^ Yin, Sara (11.08.2010). "Study: Laptop Pads Don't Prevent Male Infertility". PC Magazine. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
- ^ "Men, your laptop may be roasting your testicles". The Independent. 8 November 2010. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
- ^ Caulfield, Philip (7 November 2010, 6:09 pm). "Study finds men who place laptop computer on lap put testicles at risk of overheating, infertility". Daily News. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
- ^ Joelving, Frederik (8 Nov 2010 12:37 pm EST). ".". Reuters. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
- ^ Levinbook, WS.; Mallet J; Grant-Kels JM (October 2007). "Laptop computer—associated erythema ab igne". Cutis (Quadrant HealthCom) 80 (4): 319–20. PMID 18038695.
- ^ Diaz, Jesus (7 Oct 2010 09:40 am). "What Is Toasted Skin Syndrome?". Gizmodo. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
- ^ Hendrick, Bill (4 October 2010). "Laptop Risk: 'Toasted Skin Syndrome'". WebMD. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
- ^ Tanner, Lindsey (10/4/2010 8:05:40 am ET 2010-10-04T12:05:40). "Laptops lead to 'toasted skin syndrome'". Associated Press. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
- ^ "Gartner: Notebook PCs still prone to hardware failure". IDG News Service / ITWorld. 27 June 2006. Retrieved 27 November 2008.
- ^ For example, the video display cable and the backlight power cable that pass through the lid hinges to connect the motherboard to the screen will eventually break from repeated opening and closing of the lid. These tiny cables usually cannot be purchased from the original manufacturer separate from the entire LCD panel, with the price of hundreds of dollars, although for popular models an aftermarket in pulled parts generally exists.
- ^ [1], Ponemon Institute, Airport Insecurity: The Case of Lost Laptops, June 2008
- ^ "Biometric Devices".
- ^ Holmes, Kristin E. (31 August 2010). "Lower Merion School District ordered to pay plaintiff's lawyer $260,000″. Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved 20 September 2010.
- ^ "Main Line Media News". Main Line Media News. 18 September 2010. Retrieved 20 September 2010.
- ^ "A lawyer in the Lower Merion webcam case wants to be paid now", Philly.com
- ^ [2], Ponemon Institute, The Billion Dollar Lost Laptop Problem, September 2010
- ^ "Identical Laptops, Different Prices: Don't Be Fooled by Branding" (Registration required for the full article). Info-Tech Research Group. 10 October 2006. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
- ^ "Lap-top computers gain stature as power grows". Daily News of Los Angeles (CA). 12 April 1987. Retrieved 2001-01-01/2008.
- ^ a b "The Falling Costs of Mobile Computing". Falling Costs of Mobile Computing Drive Corporate Adoption. Computer Economics, Inc. December 2005. Retrieved 2001-01-01/2008.
- ^ Worldwide notebook shipments grow 33% on year in 2007, says IDC, 31 January 2008, Yen Ting Chen, DigiTimes, retrieved at 12 September 2011
- ^ Analysis: Did Intel underestimate netbook success?, Accessed at 10 January 2009
- ^ Notebook PC Shipments Exceed Desktops for First Time in Q3, isuppli.com, accessed at 13 January 2009
- ^ Randall Stross (18 April 2008). "The PC Doesn't Have to Be an Anchor". New York Times. Retrieved 20 April 2009.
- ^ "Intel: laptop/desktop crossover coming sooner than expected". The Register, UK. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
- ^ Netbooks Are Destroying the Laptop Market and Microsoft Needs to Act Now
- ^ "Macintosh Portable: Used in Space Shuttle". Support.apple.com. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
- ^ Linzmayer, Owen W. (2004). Apple confidential 2.0 : the definitive history of the world's most colorful company ([Rev. 2. ed.]. ed.). San Francisco, Calif.: No Starch Press. ISBN 1-59327-010-0.
- ^ "This Week in Apple History — August 22–31: "Welcome, IBM. Seriously," Too Late to License". The Mac Observer. 31 October 2004. Retrieved 2012-10-23.
- ^ IBM Archives: IBM ThinkPads in space
- ^ 2001: A Space Laptop | SpaceRef – Your Space Reference
- ^ Assourian, Elya. "Laptop Blog Author". http://www.laptopforcollegestudents.com/. Elya Assourian. Retrieved 17 August 2011.
External links[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Laptops
This article uses material from the Wikipedia article Laptop, which is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0.


text: A family contacted us this weekend to say their daughter was just diagnosed with GAN. As a Mom, I can't even think about what hearing that news must be like without tears welling in my eyes. Yet, as I communicated with the Aunt of the newest child we add to the group that we are fighting to save, it struck me that as hellish as the news must be for this family, those of us who have been throwing our hearts, time, energy and money into finding a cure, have given this family an infinitely priceless gift – and that gift is so important it is embedded in our name – Hannah's HOPE. This family has something that Lori and Matt, Hannah's parents, didn't have when they first received Hannah's diagnosis. Because Lori and Matt said, "Somebody has to be the first person to beat this disease," this family that is coping with this new diagnosis has hope. Once again, I say thank you, from the bottom of our family's heart for all you have done and continue to do for Hannah and all of the children with GAN. ~ Heather Burnell Tutwiler (Lori's cousin)

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Just drop us a line and let us discuss any issues that you may have - an idea for an app, strategies for business website development, a complex internal portal or any other IT solution.
Android App Development – The Perks Of Building A Mobile App For Your Small Business
If you're alive in the twenty-first century you should already know how popular mobile phones, and smart phones in particular, are becoming. These devices alone have singularly changed the way that we communicate and share information, and now they are beginning to change the way businesses represent themselves, too. App development might seem like an obscure discipline for a small business to get into, but there are many important perks to building a mobile app for your company, and the process is usually less technically complex and difficult than you might imagine. The following are a few reasons why building an app might be right for your company.
More Interactivity
These days it can be difficult to hold the attention of new or prospective clientele. They express an interest in your business but a few days later they are gone without a trace and you don't know how to contact them. With an Android app you can keep your clients engaged with your business so they are constantly getting new updates and new information about what you have to offer. Best of all this information is delivered in a highly relevant way, and is no longer the white noise of an e-mail newsletter which usually finds its way to the trash sometimes without being read. A mobile app is simply a more effective way to communicate with your customers and keep them interested in what's going on with your company.
More Exposure
The mobile apps world has grown significantly in the last two years and will continue to grow as the years go on. Every day millions of mobile apps are sold worldwide and the Android app marketplace is gaining a huge amount of prevalence with each passing month. What this amounts to is a large market that you could be leading. This would be your opportunity to get your business out there in a market that is constantly expanding. Imagine if your company was one of the first things locals saw when they searched for your type of business in a mobile app store? The exposure alone could make a big difference to your business. Magora
Run Effective Ad Campaigns
Let's say you have a mobile app developed and the majority of your existing clientele have downloaded it to their Android. Now you have a link to your customers that transcends many of the other forms of media that exist today. You can send a non-invasive alert to let them know about promotions that you may have going on at the time. If you are a retail store and you have a sale on select items, you can notify your clients by updating the app. If you're a restaurant and there is a special event coming up, once again you can use the mobile app to let your clients know. In the end, you might find them checking the app a lot more often than they will read through your newsletter or visit your website because an app is simply a more palatable way for them to receive information.
It's Easier Than You Think
The art of Android app development is probably not as difficult as you think. There are many different ways of going about this process, but if you consider your options you'll find that some routes are distinctly easier than others. If you can find an agency that will help you with the app development software this can be a quick and effective strategy for your business to implement. There are many advantages to building your own Android app, and you shouldn't think that it would be too difficult or too technically complex to achieve. With the right development company you will be able to design your own app with no difficulty.
If you're thinking about finding an Android app development company to build your own mobile app, you've come to the right place. We are an excellent mobile apps development company and we would be happy to help you build the perfect app for your small business. Contact us now to find out more about how we can help you.


text:
Desktop Linux doesn't have the best reputation when it comes to laptop battery life (or 'power efficiency' if you'd rather).
A laptop that might push 8 hours with Windows 10 might struggle to hit 4 hours with Ubuntu.
Quite why this is the case is a complex, caveated, and contentious issues. But given the multitude of laptops and PC set-ups out there that the Linux kernel has to support, it's not surprising either.
Linux users' propensity to extend the lives of older hardware — equipment whose battery packs have seen a fair few cycles — could also play a factor.
Don't misunderstand me though. Linux is super power efficient when it is fine tuned to the hardware it is running on, as seen with Chrome OS, Android, Tizen, Ubuntu Phone and Sailfish OS.
But running an off-the-disc OS with a catch-all configuration means you may need to do a bit more tweaking yourself to improve battery life on Linux.
So here's a few tips that will help extend battery life both when it's dwindling down and before and keep the power cord at bay in the process.
1. Set Ubuntu's Built-In Power Settings
You bought a powerful laptop and you want to use that power. But use it when it's needed; when you're just browsing Reddit on the sofa, or trolling us from a café don't need to have your fans working overtime.
Ubuntu includes a small set of power behaviour settings than you can adjust to suit your needs. E.g., what to do when you close the laptop lid, what to do when battery is critically low, and how to behave you're plugged in to AC power.
- Open 'System Settings'
- Select the 'Power' icon
- Adjust settings to suit your needs
2. Turn off Bluetooth
Most of us with mobiles know that bluetooth is a big drain on power levels. Linux is no exception so, when you don't need bluetooth, you should switch it off.
Obviously this tip isn't so hot if you use a wireless keyboard and mouse to get stuff done!
On Ubuntu you can toggle Bluetooth on/off through the bluetooth menu that shows in the system tray area. Simple click the Bluetooth icon and:
- Switch slider to 'off' (more recent versions of Ubuntu)
- Click 'turn off Bluetooth' (older versions of Ubuntu)
You can flick it back on the same way when you next need to use it.
Skip this tip if your laptop uses the newer, battery-friendly Bluetooth 4.0 LE (if it's a modern laptop chances are uses this).
3. Turn off Wi-Fi
If you're not going to be online for a while remember turn off your Wi-Fi as it can be a big hit on battery.
Even in the background as you idle your Wi-Fi card or dongle will be scanning for new available networks.
In Ubuntu (Unity) this is as simple as going to the Network Indicator in the system tray, clicking, and selecting the 'Enable Networking' menu item to disable.
- Click on the 'Wi-Fi' icon
- Select the 'Enable Wireless' entry
4. Lower Screen Brightness
Another obvious one: the brighter your screen is the more power you'll use.
One of the quickest and most effective ways to cut power usage is to turn down the brightness.
You don't need a digital tan.
If your keyboard has brightness control keys give them a tap to find a brightness level that works for you. You can also use the slider tucked away in the 'Brightness and Lock' section of Ubuntu's System Settings.
- Open System Settings
- Select Brightness & Lock
- Adjust the Brightness slider
You may also want to check the 'Dim screen to save power' option that's present beneath the slider, too.
Another offbeat suggestion is to use a lighter, brighter wallpaper. Why? The Ubuntu Kernel team once noted that LCD displays use more power to display dark colours than they do lighter ones:
'A full black background may consume ~0.5% to 1% more power than a fully white background.'
5. Unplug USB Drives, SD Cards, Discs, etc
You look totally l33t with your Linux laptop oozing peripherals from every available port.
But each USB drive, SD card and smart phone you have plugged in is suckling away on your laptop's precious juice.
Disconnect items you don't need, and safely eject USB drives, MTP items, etc through Nautilus, Unity or, if you use one, an indicator-applet like indicator unmount.
- Open a new File Manager window
- Click the eject button on attached USB drives/SD cards
6. Quit Apps You're Not Using
Running apps are making use of CPU and RAM, maybe network (however small) and maybe keeping your HDD awake — even if they don't seem to be doing anything.
I always seem to have a gazillion apps open on my workspace, most of which stay minimised. Google Chrome, VLC, Rhythmbox, and so on.
Some of these apps sit in the background actively using my laptop's resources, causing my device work harder, and thus use more power to keep itself cool.
If you're the same try to remember to close an app when you're done with it (at least until something like 'App Nap' comes to Linux proper).
Look in the Unity Launcher for apps with a small light beside them (this means they are open). Quit the ones you are no longer using by right-clicking on the respective launcher icon and selecting the 'Close/Quit' (wording may vary) option.
7. Avoid Adobe Flash (Where Possible)
Watching Flash video on a Linux laptop is… Well, you might as well drill a hole in your battery and let the lithium-ion innards leak all over the floor!
Okay, using Flash is not that bad but it is fair to say that its use does give a noticeable hit on battery life.
If you want (or need) to watch online Flash video try to use a browser that configures Flash content to show 'On Demand'.
Firefox will prompt you to 'enable' Flash elements, while Google Chrome has a hidden 'Plugin Power Saver' option in chrome:flags that you can try.
8. Install TLP
TLP is a popular tool that runs in the background.
It offers wealth of control over various power settings and hardware management processes. It lets you tune settings to your preferred levels.
Options include:
- Kernel laptop mode and dirty buffer timeouts
- Processor frequency scaling including "turbo boost" / "turbo core"
- Power aware process scheduler for multi-core/hyper-threading
- Hard disk power management level and spin down timeout
- Runtime power management for PCI(e) bus devices
- Wi-fi power saving mode
- Powering off disc drive
- Audio power saving mode
Overwhelmed? I'm not surprised.
For this reason TLP comes with a default configuration that should, for most, improve battery life a little.
Those who feel capable can tweak the available parameters or play with configurations further to suit the needs of their hardware. A full guide to using TLP can be found — shock — on the TLP wiki.
The app is available to install on Ubuntu 16.04 LTS and up from the official TLP PPA.
Sidenote: TLP is not something to play with idly. You may prefer to try the similarly focused by more approachable Laptop Mode Tools utility from the Ubuntu Software Center (though some debate exists as to whether this newer Linux kernels benefit from this).
Over to You
What are your tips for getting more battery life from your Linux laptop?


text:
ZOIC Warehouse Sale
ZOIC will be holding their much-anticipated warehouse sale for ONE DAY ONLY at their NEW location in Carlsbad!
Stop in to get screaming deals on cycling clothing samples, closeouts & overruns for men, women & kids. SDMBA members will receive 10% off the already steeply discounted prices. SDMBA will also be selling our new blue metallic STAINLESS pint cups for $10, which ZOIC will fill with "bottomless" beer, all proceeds to SDMBA. And the masters of the pie, Red Oven Pizza, will be serving from 11-3pm. So come grab lunch, have a beer, and head home with new gear for the trail or commute! Cash or credit
2013-10-25T00:00:002013-10-25T00:00:00Pacific/MidwayZOIC Warehouse Sale - CA - October 2013ZOIC Warehouse Sale - CA - October 20135611 Palmer Way, Carlsbad CA 92010
ZOIC New HQ
5611 Palmer Way, Suite F
Carlsbad, California 92010
(view in google maps)


text:
Georgia Private Investigator
Basic Training Course
How to Become a Private Detective in Georgia
How to Become a Private Detective in Georgia
Becoming a private detective (investigator) in Georgia can be an extremely rewarding career choice. It's a competitive profession, though, and there are many requirements you must meet and a few training steps you need to take to qualify for licensure. These requirements are governed by your licensing authority, the Georgia Board of Private Detectives & Security Agencies.
If you want to be a private investigator you should get used to research and fact-finding. The following web sites will provide more helpful information on your quest to becoming a private investigator in Georgia:
There are two ways to become a private investigator in Georgia. Either open and establish your own agency or find employment with an existing agency that licensed with the state board. Either way, the Board has the final authority to determine if you are qualified for licensure and you must take a 70 Hour Pre-Licensing Class during this process.
Starting your own private detective agency in Georgia has many advantages. You will have to meet many qualifications in order to establish your own agency. We recommend you visit the Georgia Board of Private Detective and Security Agencies (GBPDSA) and download the application packages available on their website. The application package contains an INFORMATION SHEET FOR COMPANY LICENSURE that explains the qualifications and process to obtain a Company License.
If you meet the requirements as mandated by the Board you fill out a Georgia Private Detective Agency application with the Georgia Board. Once the board reviews it they will determine if you are qualified to take the required Board examination and fulfill the insurance requirements prior to opening your agency.
It is important to understand that this process may take three to six months. But once the Board approves your application and a license has been supplied, you can go to work.
Getting hired to work for an existing agency in Georgia requires only that they hire you and submit an employee application to the Georgia Board of Private Detective and Security Agencies (GBPDSA) within 30 days.
Within your first six months of employment you must take the 70 Hour Pre-Licensing Class .
You are welcome to the take the basic training class prior to being hired by an agency. In fact, we HIGHLY recommend it. Private investigation specific education is the most important investment you can make in yourself as an up-and-coming professional.
As owners of an established and well-respected agency, Find Investigations, we get resumes all of the time; the first thing we look for before considering a candidate is, "How has this person invested in themselves before asking us to invest in them?"
Are you a certified instructor in the state of Georgia to teach this class?
Yes, any company providing continuing education and/or the private detective training course must have an instructor license issued by the Georgia Board of Private Detectives and Security Agencies.
PI Education's Director of Instruction, Thomas H. Humphreys, is a licensed classroom instructor in the state of Georgia. Mr. Humphreys' Georgia Training Instructor license number is CLTR001024. You can verify Mr. Humphreys as a licensed instructor and acceptable continuing education provider here: License Verification
You should also note that we have been teaching this class for YEARS and we have helped thousands of aspiring detectives become successful in their new career. If you want to know more about Mr. Humphreys you can check out his bio here: PI Education Faculty
Is your class all online?
Yes. This class is all online. You will read lectures, watch videos, listen to recorded webinars, study, and take tests. You can take your course anytime from anywhere. You must have regular, reliable internet access if you are to succeed in your course.
Our courses are developed in our state-of-the-art e-learning platform. We engage with all our students on a regular basis through our bulletin board and communication channels inside the platform. You are never alone. Our company is staffed with dedicated professionals who are very interested in your success. You can reach us by phone, email, chat anytime during our regular business hours.
How long do I have to complete the class?
To work as a private detective in Georgia you will need to complete a 70-hour basic training course. You have the option of completing this within six months of being hired by a licensed detective agency in Georgia.
Once you purchase our course you have 183 days (that is a full six months!) to complete if you need to.
How long does it take to complete the online class?
This class is 70 hours of training. If you dedicate 8 hours a day for the next two weeks it is possible to finish it then. Most of our students take about a month to go through the abundance of material in the class. Take your time! Enjoy! Learn at your own pace.
Is there a difference between a private investigator or private detective?
No. Some states, such as Georgia refer to private investigators as private detectives.
How much does a private investigator make?
For an occupational outlook and summary on private detectives and investigators see: Bureau of Labor Statistics
Why should I choose your course over all the other online and in-person providers?
PI Education has been the leading provider of continuing education and professional development for private investigators since 2001. This is our business. It is what we do. We take it very seriously.
Our course is professionally developed with reading lectures, webinars, video content, quizzes and a bulletin board open to all our students.
Some of the MANY benefits of taking this class online are:


text:
About Us
Action Games
Cheats & Tips
Customer Support
Home > About Us
customer support: CLICK HERE
business related communication please use this contact
Games 2 Download is one of the Internet's top destinations for safe and virus-free game downloads.
Established in September 2004, our mission is to publish high quality downloadable computer games, on an easy to use and family friendly website. We focus on high production values, story and personality, as well as addictive and original game play that everyone can enjoy.
Unlike most websites, we serve both casual and hardcore gamers. We have partnerships with a myriad of PC game developers, so we are able to offer a huge variety of games, across many genres.
With over 1,000 games listed in our directory, and 18 different genres, we have more variety than anyone on the web.
are located at:
2012 16th Street
San Francisco, CA 94103
Customer Support
| About
Us |
Business Contact
Policy |
Map |
Cheats & Tips |
Free Game Downloads
© 2004-2011 Games 2 Download. All Rights Reserved.
On our website you can download the best free downloadable games available on the Internet!


text:
The weather is changing; the days are getting colder which means there's not long until hockey heads indoors! Tickets are now on sale to one of the fans' favourite events in our hockey calendar, the Super 6s Finals. As always, it promises to be a perfect antidote to the winter blues with some sizzling hockey sure to be on offer.
We've picked out six reasons why we think you should come to the Super 6s. Read on to find out what they are!
1. It's one of the most sociable events in the calendar.
Fancy dress, big groups of supporters from all the teams playing as well as a huge following of interested neutrals. The gathering of hockey fans at the SSE Arena, Wembley for the Super 6s is always impressive. Colourful, eccentric, noisy, enthusiastic and making full use of the refreshment facilities on offer, this is a group you'll want to be part of!
2. It's indoors!
Hands up if you've bought a poncho or an umbrella at an outdoor event? Hands up if you've ever been caught out by an unseasonable monsoon by the side of the hockey pitch? No such concerns here. It's all indoors so you can sit back and enjoy cheering your team on without worrying about those nasty rainclouds gathering overhead.
3. Goals, goals goals.
The great thing about indoor is that there is rarely a shortage of goalmouth action. The qualifying stage of the Super 6s last year yielded 650 goals across 72 games (men's and women's). That's an average of just over nine goals a game. Finals day was pretty action packed, too, 41 goals across six games, means almost seven goals a game.
4. There aren't many more dramatic events.
Do you recall Reading playing with no goalkeeper for the entire second half, throwing everything at Canterbury to try and win a place in the final? Who remembers Malou Pheninckx's heroics in last year's women's final for East Grinstead? Can anyone top David Condon's goalscoring skills in the men's final? So many dramatic moments over the course of the day, it really is an event to keep you on the edge of your seat throughout.
5. A chance to welcome our Olympic Heroes home.
We all loved watching the Great Britain women bring home the gold from Rio this summer. Plenty of those Olympic stars will be in attendance throughout the day. You might get to show them your Hollie Webb celebration or your Crista Cullen battle scars or even pose for a photograph with your favourite players.
6. Value for money.
Your ticket will mean you get to watch a SUPER 6 full games of indoor hockey over the course of the day. With the drama of both men's and women's semi-finals packed into the earlier matches followed by the grand finale where the last teams standing fight it out to be crowned champions this is an action packed day that is well worth the price of entry!
So, what are you waiting for? Visit our ticketing pages and secure your seat for one of the most spectacular days in the hockey calendar!


text:
Hello! As you probably already know, I really like Adventure Time. In fact, I'm watching it right now. And getting very distracted from writing this blog post. Ahem, anyway, turning my back on the plight of Tree Trunks, I was hunting around my craft room for inspiration and found an old metal clock that was truly crying out for a makeover. I didn't take a photo of it before, but it was browny beige and very ugly. I gave it three layers of white spray paint as a primer and then I got to work with my acrylics!
I drew my BMO based on my tiny action figure, but I think the button placement is a little off. Ooops! Nonetheless, BMO is very cute and I like how excited he is! I used Kaisercraft colours for the entire painting; BMO's case cover was made by mixing together "Sea Breeze" and "Spearmint", his face is a mixture of "Spearmint" and "Lime". The buttons are the aforementioned colours, plus red, yellow, and black, and the background is "Hot Pink" mixed with a lot of white. I also gave his screen a coating of glow in the dark paint, so I'm hoping that this evening I will be able to see his screen glowing like he is a real computer ^___^
"Video Games" is written in Lobster font and "time to play" in TallAndSkinny font (which I can't find a link to unfortunately). To transfer the fonts onto the painting, I printed out the phrases and coloured in the back of the paper with a lead pencil. Then I placed the paper onto the painting, and traced around the letters with the pencil. You just have to make sure your paint is really, really dry before you do this, otherwise you might get some smudging around your words >___<
I saved the original hands from the clock and while they don't totally match the rest of my painting I think they still look ok. I am not sure where I will hang this new clock up, but I think it will be best in the lounge room, where Scott and I *do* spend a lot of time playing video games. The great thing about this clock is that it means that every time is video game playing time! ^___^
I'm really happy with how this clock has been transformed and it's great to have another Adventure Time piece in the house. There are so many great characters in Adventure Time, there are plenty of future projects left to create!
Do you have a favourite Adventure Time character? I've done three Lumpy Space Princess crafts so far (including a cosplay!) so I should continue to craft tributes to some different characters now I think! ^___^


text:
Recently added item(s) ×
You have no items in your shopping cart.
Please enter your email address below. You will receive a link to reset your password.
By creating an account with our store, you will be able to move through the checkout process faster, store multiple shipping addresses, view and track your orders in your account and more.
If you have an account with us, please log in.
* Required Fields
Checking "Remember Me" will let you access your shopping cart on this computer when you are logged out
Get all the latest information on Events,
Sales and Offers. Sign up for newsletter today.


text:
You have no items in your shopping cart.
Email to a Friend
Availability: In stock
How To Apply
Massage the foam directly to the scalp once a day, preferably in the evening before bedtime.
Pump the foam in to your hand and massage in to recommended areas.
It is recommended to apply one pump at the crown, one pump at the back of the head and one pump on each side of the head.
Can be applied to a towel-dried scalp (after washing and conditioning the hair as usual) or directly onto a dry scalp. Wash hands with soap and water immediately after use.
Apply neuHAIR every night. Once desired results are achieved, continue using neuHAIR every other night to maintain the healthy appearance of your hair.
Check items to add to the cart or select all
neuLASH 3.2ml
neuLASH 6ml
Next Prev
in the next series


text:
With a diversified local economy and vibrant, multicultural neighborhoods, it's easy to understand why Miami is the perfect place for SEI consultants to live and work.
Our consultants don't just work in Miami; we live here too. From rapidly growing technology and service industries to cutting-edge art and architecture, to year-round sunshine, our team is energized and committed to making a local impact. Within the urban hubs and seaside escapes, there's something for everyone in the mosaic of Miami. And whether we're applying our talents to helping our clients succeed or to building up the communities where we live, we bring the same level of passion to everything we do.
If this sounds like the right fit for you, please contact us. We look forward to hearing from you!
Our Community Involvement
We aren't just a consulting company, we're part of a community. At SEI, we believe in supporting our communities in every way we can, including donating to non-profit organizations, volunteering for charitable campaigns, and offering programs and incentives so that our employees can give back in their own way. Our office is proud to be an integral part of the neighborhood.
Let's Talk!
Questions about working with our Miami team? Get in touch!
We're always excited to talk about the exceptional service we deliver to our clients as well as the engaging company culture we offer to our consultants. Contact us anytime at:
SEI – Miami, LLC
777 Brickell Ave. Suite 500
Miami, FL 33131
Phone: 305.394.6014 | Fax: 513.459.1911


text:
Dear Jim: I Love You! You are the MAN! The hottest man on the planet! What a beautiful day with these awesome rate cuts from "blessed Ben"! My Cramer-inspired portfolio got a lovely lift yesterday! Thank you! We won! This bullish blonde is doing a touchdown dance right now! My sister is having a baby right now so I had better get my 'astronaut' to the hospital or my family will send me to "Wall Street Addicts Anonymous." I am going to offer her and her husband that I will pay for the baby's college education if they name him James. --Maria
Cramer says: "Maria, thank you very much and best wishes to your sister…"
Dear Jim: It's 4 a.m. at the Mu Beta Sigma fraternity house and the brothers have been partying all night. Brother Countrywide has been puking off the balcony and Brothers Hovnanian , Beazer and a few others are passed out in chairs in the basement. The bar ran dry a little while ago, but Brothers Lehman and Goldman rallied their roommates and they have been franticly collecting the half-empty drinks and pouring them into a bucket to be shared among those still standing and any late guests that happen by. Suddenly, out of the darkness, comes Brother Bernanke bearing a fresh half-keg. Can the party possibly be saved??? --John


text:
To effectively provide quality training and support services in order to contribute to safety and growth of the aviation industry.
To become a center of excellence in aviation training in the sub-region and beyond the borders by the year 2030.
Integrity, Honesty, Professionalism, Team Work, Courtesy, Creativity Time Management and dedication torwards work.
The Zambia Air Services Training Institute (ZASTI) is the only fully fledged aviation training institution in Zambia and beyond the borders. It offers a variety of programmes in the aviation sector and related industries. The institution promptly updates its programmes as dedicated by technological trends and changes and also as may be directed by relevant authorities.
Currently Zambia Air Services Training Institute is well positioned to provide specialised training in Aeronatical Electronics Engineering (AEE), Aircraft Maintenance Engineering (AME), Systems Engineering "R" and "X" (Avionics), Air Traffic Management (ATM), Flying, Aviation Security, Meteorology, Fire Fighting, Computer Systems Engineering and other related programmes.
Through ZASTI's high standards of training and irrefutable reputation, its graduates are more acceptable as some of the best trained and proven performers both locally and internationally. The institute`s operations have evolved over years to have global character that it has. It is a fact that aviation, in any nation contributes significantly to the promotion of economic growth, development and improvement of quality of life and increase in the social interaction of all citizens. The Institute is proud to be able to play a part to this development through various programmes available to the communities.
For the aviation industry to be sustained there is need to have a steady and reliable supply of experts to keep the systems running and meeting the Civil Aviation Authorities requirements. In order to address the above needs the Government of the Republic of Zambia, through the Ministry of Education, Science, Vocational Training and Early Education commits itself to ensuring that the TEVET System, as provided for in the TEVET Act No. 13 of 1998, provides the necessary training to the expectation of all stakeholders. The established Management Board guides the Institution in its operations so as not to lose track of its mandate to be able to meet the expectations of the various stakeholders.
It is important to note that the architecture has changed; operational procedures and requirements keep changing. All these require of the Institute to be relevant and keep updating its training to meet the new demands and needs.
Billieard C. Shingalili - Principal, Zambia Air Services Training Institute.