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When Revolutions Roll Out Of Control
Filed Under (The HELL You Say!) by John Myers on 26-10-2011
This is the autumn of our discontent. I believe something sinister is coming down the pipe. Week after week of demonstrations around the world could be a harbinger of revolt and even mass violence. I am in the second half-century of my life. All my life, I followed the news because I was at the side of my father, a writer and publisher whose job was to predict investment trends. Not once in all these decades have I seen such troubled times, and that includes my memories of the 1960s.
I suspect a spark has been struck and we are all headed down a very destructive path, one that will not only destroy wealth through economic deflation but something worse: a period of violence wrought by tough times and widespread anger.
It will be up to historians to decide if the genesis of economic and social implosion began with the crash of 2008, the discontent that followed in Europe, or recent events — the mass protests that have been visited on major centers from Wall Street to Warsaw, Poland.
What is certain is that Western democracies are reaping what they sowed, especially in the United States. What began as a small group of protesters in Manhattan's financial district has grown steadily. It now encompasses student groups, labor unions and, in some cases, the dregs of society.
The protesters in the United States call themselves "the 99 percent." They say they represent the vast numbers of Americans struggling to pay their bills, while the income gap between the rich and the middle class widens. Throughout the ages, we have seen how small protests can turn into whirlwinds of violence.
Henry Ford said, "History is bunk." I am convinced that the good and evil that have been expressed throughout the ages reside in today's world. The worst evils are committed by "the crowd." It is "the crowd" that rolls forward like a hand grenade with its pin set to slip out any second. It is "the crowd" that created the bloody madness that was the French Revolution.
The similarities between those events that lead to The Terror in France and what is occurring in the citadels of today's civilization should not be ignored. Key to anticipating the future is an understanding of the past.
Like the United States that fought both the Cold War and decade-long wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, 18th century France spent decades fighting wars it could not afford. This overextended King Louis XVI's treasury. Rather than taxing the elite of French society in an attempt to make up the imbalance, the king taxed the commoners who faced higher inflation as well as greater demands from the crown. The Bourbon Dynasty, which had persisted for 500 years, was forced to make compromises to the French people in 1789 because masses of unemployed people drifted toward urban centers where they were stirred into a frenzy.
In 1781 Louis approved a new council. A year later, the monarchy was abolished. However, that did not save the king's head or the head of his wife, Marie Antoinette.
France had all the ingredients for revolt that we see in the United States. It had a leader who was impotent, and an economic crisis that could not be corrected. Only the wealthy elite were protected from the ravages of rising taxes and higher inflation.
One final link: The Court of King Louis XVI was hamstrung when it came to the nation's energy needs. Coal was in short supply in France and had to be imported at great expense from other countries, many of which were seeking France's ruination. It sounds much like America's reliance on Arab oil today.
Wars were crucial in the demise of Bourbon France. In his book, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, famous historian Paul Kennedy writes:
The cost of a sixteenth-century war could be measured in millions of pounds; by the late-seventeenth century, it had risen to tens of millions of pounds; and at the close of the Napoleonic War the outgoings of the major combatants occasionally reached a hundred million pounds a year.
Kennedy adds that, "the link between national bankruptcy and revolution was all too clear."
No sooner had I read this than I watched Republican presidential candidate Representative Ron Paul, R-Texas, on CNN. According to Paul, military expenditures have cost the United States $4 trillion over the past decade.
The Second American Revolution
I do not believe that what is going on today around Wall Street is what Thomas Jefferson had in mind when he wrote in a letter to James Madison on Jan. 30, 1787, in reference to Shay's Rebellion: "I hold it that a little rebellion, now and then, is a good thing, and as necessary in the political world as storms in the physical."
I don't think we are facing a little rebellion. All rebellions start small; but some, like the one France experienced and what we may have to endure, could be earth-shattering.
The reasons are simple: too much debt and too little economic growth. Consider the facts:
■The U.S. unemployment rate stands above 9 percent. The true unemployment rate, which takes into account people who have given up looking for work, is close to 17 percent.
■For the past decade, U.S. stock indexes have been flat. Accounting for inflation, they have actually declined. Many Americans have lost a lifetime of savings.
■The U.S. money supply has grown threefold in the past three years. If the investment banks ever stop collecting bonuses and lend this money, it will trigger double-digit inflation; an event which will make Americans even more angry.
■Since the stock indexes peaked in 2007, real income for Americans has dropped 10 percent. Despite the addition of trillions of new dollars courtesy of the Federal Reserve, many Americans are undergoing the greatest loss of wealth since the Great Depression.
The U.S. and other Western democracies stand at a precipice. It is a situation that is sending citizens to the streets in protest. Economic collapses and protests can quickly spill over with violence.
In case you think I am exaggerating the danger, consider these recent words from columnist Frank Miele of Daily Inter Lake:
The Russian Revolution (which coincidentally was another October Revolution) started out with slogans and protests, too, just like "Occupy Wall Street." Of course, life in 1917 Petrograd was a lot harder and a lot more desperate than it is today in Philadelphia or New York — but the ruffians on the streets don't care about that because they don't study history. If they did, they might be more apt to follow the Russian example and overthrow Obama's czars who have imposed absurd and unwieldy regulations on banking and business instead of trying to destroy the capitalists who actually have the capacity to create wealth — and jobs.
Action to take: I usually sign off suggesting you buy precious metals or a resource stock that looks good. This week, I urge you to consider what you will do if you and your family are beset by an emergency. In that case, Krugerrand gold or American Silver Eagle coins will not be of much use. I suggest you store lots of fresh water, canned foods, guns and ammunition. I hope I am dead wrong, but these items may be critical. In 30 years, I have never written such extreme advice. However, we may be entering the most extreme period of our lifetimes.
Yours in good times and bad,
–John Myers
Editor, Myers' Energy & Gold Report


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Let's start with the final goodie winner, shall we? Via random number, the winner is #14, KatieQ.
We have a very busy bird feeder in our yard, so I'm sure the partridge would feel right at home. I would love to have a pear tree and smell the sweet blossoms in the spring and taste the pears in the fall. Perhaps, the partridge will eat the pears and get so fat that I'd have to eat him on Christmas Eve. This comment definitely took a wrong turn.
There was a comment yesterday from SassyCathy who told me about a sweet little boy named Trey who was having trouble with the 12 days song.
At Sunday School on Sunday, he sang a new rendition of the 12 days of Christmas. Perfectly in tune and time - but just a bit confused on the words.
On the first day of Christmas my true love gave to me
4 crunched hens,
3 turtle ducks,
2 lords a leaping,
and a Poodledop in a pear tree.
Totally darling, isn't it? Poodledop. So sweet.Cathy, thank so much for sharing Trey's rendition. I'm also sending you a FQ pack of Modern Whimsy. :)
And then there's our version of the song. Less sweet but plenty of sassy :) Pretty challenging to sing in the tune of the song of course (I tried...and it wasn't pretty people...). But pretty darn funny. All of the new lines are based on some of my favorite comments from you guys over the course of the last 12 days. And without further ado...

subset: commoncrawl


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HDD Pictures of Kitchen Shelving Designs
How to arrange your kitchen shelving?
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Here we have 27 great photos about Kitchen Shelving Designs. We hope you enjoyed it and if you want to download the pictures in high quality, simply just click the image and you will be redirected to the download page of Kitchen Shelving Designs.


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EFA plus monte carlo question
Mplus Discussion
Exploratory Factor Analysis
Guy Cafri
posted on Friday, December 12, 2008 - 1:21 pm
I am running an EFA with 19 factors and 127 items (a lot I know) and missing data. I want to handle the missing data using FIML and so am using ML estimation. The program took a while to run, and although it said input terminated normally in the output statement, there was no output thereafter. Can you give any suggestions about what I should?
Another question I have that is unrelated has to do with the monte carlo facility.
I am just getting started using this and had a question about the way in which to set up the simulation. For regression
example 3.1 I did the following:
x1 with x3*.5;
y1 with x1*.3;
y1 with x3*.3;
y1 ON x1 x3;
Specifically, I am wondering whether it is generally reasonable to set
up the variables as standard normal, enter the correlations among the
variables using a bunch of WITH statements, then analyze as a
regression model. Also, can you recommend a reference for using the monte carlo facility with relatively simple models, examples in the manual and your SEM article are quite advanced. Thanks.
Linda K. Muthen
posted on Sunday, December 14, 2008 - 10:37 am
Regarding the analysis problem, please send your input, data, output, and license number to
I would not recommend generating data according to the correlations. I would generate the data according to the regression model. Each example in the user's guide has a Monte Carlo counterpart. I would start with one of these. They are all very simple.
Guy Cafri
posted on Wednesday, December 17, 2008 - 11:26 am
Thank you for the advice Linda. Are you saying that what I did was wrong or just not an advisable strategy because as the number of observed variables increases this approach would be too cumbersome? What I did seems to give the right answer, the average of the regression coefficients across replications is .23, which is the expected value of these coefficients if I do it manually with matrix algebra. Also, the power estimates are fairly close to what you would get using something like sas proc power.
Linda K. Muthen
posted on Wednesday, December 17, 2008 - 12:48 pm
No, I am not saying you are wrong. I was just suggesting a more simple approach.
Guy Cafri
posted on Tuesday, December 23, 2008 - 5:58 pm
Hi Linda,
I wanted to follow up on my original question regarding doing an EFA with 19 factors and 127 items with missing data. I was thinking about using multiple imputation as a way of getting around the convergence problem with ML estimation we talked about offline. In looking at one of the comments on the discussion board it sounded like type=imputation can't be used with efa. However, in another comment on the discussion board it sounded like type=imputation can be used with complex efa. The data I have are actually nested so using the complex option would be more appropriate. Can you please clarify what mplus can and can't do in terms of efa with imputed data sets? Thanks again for the help.
Linda K. Muthen
posted on Friday, December 26, 2008 - 2:23 pm
You cannot do TYPE=EFA with the IMPUTATION option. However, you can do EFA using a special feature added to the MODEL command in Version 5.1. See the Version 5.1 Language and Examples Addendems on the website with the user's guide.
posted on Monday, March 21, 2011 - 8:38 am
Hello Linda,
I have 20 multiply imputed data sets and want to run efa. When using type=imputation and type=efa, the model did not run in Mplus 6.1.
From your note about a special feature of EFA above, did you refer to page 529 in current UG? But the page does not say much about how to do EFA with imputed data sets. What would be a command for my case? I will appreciate any suggestions.
Linda K. Muthen
posted on Monday, March 21, 2011 - 12:58 pm
A post in 2008 would refer to the pages of the user's guide that was current them.
TYPE=EFA and TYPE=IMPUTATION cannot be used together. You can use TYPE=IMPUTATION with ESEM factors that are described in Examples 5.24 through 5.27 of the Version 6 user's guide and pages 575-578 of that guide.
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So, despite my lack of blogging, I have been doing a bit of sewing lately. As I mentioned in an earlier post, I can't share much of it with you yet. However, I can share a cool new quilt top that I recently finished up.
I was excited to be asked by Kimberly, Chelsea, and the team at the Fat Quarter Shop to help celebrate the launch of their newest free quilt pattern, Layer Cake Lemonade. This pattern is part of the FQS' Shortcut Quilts series, featuring patterns for quilts that are quick to piece and make good use of fabric pre-cuts. You can find the free quilt pattern here.
For my version of the Layer Cake Lemonade quilt, I decided to use the recent reprint of two of my favorite fabric lines -- Lush Uptown by Erin Michael for Moda. I knew it would be a great collection to showcase its beautiful large focal prints.
The pattern was well-written and a breeze to put together. In fact, I both cut and pieced this quilt top in just one afternoon. A Shortcut Quilt indeed!
The quilt top finishes at 48" x 61". I added a narrow 1" border using a solid Moda Bella solid in teal to frame the prints a bit more. I'm also planning on adding some additional solid borders in other colors pulled from the collection to make this more of a sizable throw quilt -- after all, I am 6'5" and I want to keep this one for myself. I'll post more pictures of the quilt top after I add those extra borders.
I'm always a big fan of quick quilt projects. And of free patterns. Lucky for us, this one hits on both counts!
Once again, here is the link to the free quilt pattern.
Also, in honor of the release of the Layer Cake Lemonade pattern, the Fat Quarter Shop is offering 20% off of all layer cakes this week only for all of you that want to make your own version. Happy shopping!
Want to see a bunch more variations of the Layer Cake Lemonade quilt? Check out some other bloggers' awesome versions of the pattern:
Thanks again to Kimberly and the entire team over at the Fat Quarter Shop for inviting me to be part of the celebration!


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A poem by Charlie Chaplin on his 70th birthday (April 16, 1959), originally written by Kim McMillen:
When I started to love myself, I found that fear and emotional suffering are only warning signs that I'm living against my own truth. Today I know that's "AUTHENTICITY".
When I started to love myself, I understood how much it can offend someone when I try to force my desires on that person, even though I knew the time was not right and the person was not ready and although that person was me. Today I call it "RESPECT".
Lately I had an opportunity to revisit the space of indifference and it felt like a great opportunity to find more clarity about it.
Indifferent is a quality that we often encounter in our lifes. People who show this trait appear to be strong and in control. It feels as if they are able to stay unattached, objective & nonchalant. They are not swayed by emotions of others which is in itself a beautiful quality. However I might beg to differ as often they leave you with a feeling of coldness, lonelyness & rejection.
There is currently a change, a shift in progress, that affects every aspect of our reality in the third dimension. This change is so far-reaching that our limited imagination does not even begin to grasp the transition and change we are in at the moment. This change affects every aspect of life on our planet; political, social and economic structures, the environment, all institutions, the wars, how we see our relationships with others, our work, every thought we think and every feeling we feel. It changes time, our memory, our DNA, the wiring of our physical and emotional body, our beliefs, our perception of good and bad, right and wrong, and above all, our awareness of what's possible.
More and more I observe people who have always been very organized, that they lose their cords from their hands. They are jerky and they do not know each other anymore. They are afraid that they will lose everything if they do not stay close and make an effort.
In spiritual circles one often hears then to let everything flow simply, to give the reins. Yes, what does that really mean and how can we do that?
Alchemy is not magic, but it can produce wonderful and magical results. When you are attuned, alchemy is the universal wisdom that helps mental creations to become tangible reality. It is the science of spirituality. It is the dance that weaves universal elements in conscious form. Alchemy is the ability to turn one possibility into another.
Note by Petra Webstein: Having gone through these changes myself which are often just put down as menopausal changes, having experienced all the excruciating fear and anxiety about loss of what has been, what was close and dear to me, I found myself coming out at the other end not even richer than imagined but also seeing that everything that I was afraid to loose (and it seemed at times that I have lost it) has come back to me in a much more expanded, loving and unconditional way than I ever would have expected.
Is it worth it? Oh, yes, you bet it is to allow the process to happen graciously, courageously and in ease.
Our body is an important tool on our way to a new dimension.
Many people practice meditation and experience wonderful worlds on these trips. They long to integrate these worlds into our physical world. However, often when people come back from their meditation, they feel comfortable, but this usually lasts only for a while, then it captures the outside world again and again.
How does gratitude feel to you? Yes, take a moment and feel gratitude, right now. Continue reading after you have done that.
Well, how well have you managed to just feel the feeling of gratitude? The feeling of being right in your body? To feel the warmth, the happiness and the well-being of this feeling? A real fountain of youth for body, mind and soul.
Even though we are living in a world that is more networked than ever, the feelings or loneliness & emptiness seem to surface more and more often. It appears to be very difficult to face them head on and we have a mulitude of choices practically every second of our day to distract us from them.
Do you feel a constant unease in your space? No matter how much you try to keep yourself on an even keel it feels like your world is falling apart and you don't seem to be able to do anything about it. You are feeling raw, vulnerable and at the merrit of your environment. You don't seem to know yourself anymore. And this is scary.
What is empathy really and how does empathy work?
There are many people who do not understand what empathy is and how it works. Let us explain this with a small example.
As you know, our minds can often be very loud. As this shift of consciousness unfolds and causes more of the "who we are not" to come to the surface and move out of us, understanding the steps or levels through which our thoughts move may be helpful to manage them. We move toward better mastering each of our thoughts, every emotion, every action, every moment. There are thoughts on many levels of volume, from the perfect silence of knowledge to the screaming and quarreling inner voice. Although there are many levels or layers of thought, let's keep this simple and talk about the seven distinctive levels that are accessible to all of us.
We are all experts in letting go of what has shaped our human experience. We have let go of identities, ancestors, health, relationships, mass consciousness and even our fear of death. How many times have we thought: Surely there is nothing left to let go now?
Permission is the opposite of the doubt. If we allow everything without control, the doubt can not exist. On the other hand, if we hold on to doubts, we do not really allow. If allowing can be compared to the accelerator pedal of our embodied enlightenment experience, then doubt is the brake.
Thanks for hauling me out of the slog, washing me off, and raising me into the light!!!!
Dear Petra, I really liked your workshop! It was nice to get together with the other students to see how much each of us has moved! There were two educational, super beautiful and heartfelt days. You have given us in simple exercises valuable and powerful tools on the way! Thank you very much for the strong power you have given us. In the future, I can become even more aware of how my energy can make my everyday life positive.
I found the workshop very exciting and fulfilling. With just a few tools, life can be so much easier. My energy is better focused and I can be more relaxed. We were a great group with a wonderful teacher. There is a new found serenity in my space. With the tools learned to reduce my fears and let the energy flow. Thanks Petra!
The workshop was just magical. I am very excited about you Petra and I thank you from the bottom of my heart for your great knowledge that you have shown me ... It is a dream that I have been able to implement everything of it. My daughter is completely excited about the grounding in this way and the circle of protection is insane. I have not had any pain in my joints since your seminar and am on my way going ahead with full energy. I thank you very much and hope that I meet you again and then in Australia.
It was an incredible experience for me, for which I am very grateful. .... and the course was a lot of fun! I am much more relaxed than before the course. That helps me in a lot of life situations. And I feel much safer ..... I have definitely gained a lot more quality of life.
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Scroll through our monthly calendar below or view upcoming events on the right to see upcoming golfing, social, public and private events. On days of golfing events there are often tee times available early in the morning or in the evening of the event. Please call our Pro Shop to confirm whether tee times are available.
We host tournaments throughout the season and the course is available for golf outings of all sizes. If you have a group that would like to golf or plan an outing, please call the Pro Shop for information.
See our Clubhouse page for information on our facilities for hosting social and business events.
March 12, 2020
Wawonowin Country Club
3432 Co Rd 478
Champion, MI 49814
United States
(906) 485-5660


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2008 Audi A6
The Audi A6 continues a legacy of dynamic excellence and exceptional comfort. The A6 is packed with technology, enhancing convenience and driving dynamics. The attention to detail inside and out is impressive.
There is much to love about the A6. Its cabin is airy and comfortable, with firm, supportive seats. Its styling is crisp, clean and modern, though the front is dominated by a massive grille.
Underway, the A6 boasts sharp, precise steering, and a firm but comfortable ride. In high-speed corners the quattro models feel like they're on rails, a benefit of Audi's superb all-wheel-drive system. Braking and handling are excellent, whether on dry pavement or when hurtling through a torrent of rain.
V6, V8 and V10 versions of the A6 are available. The well-equipped V6 model delivers brisk acceleration, while the V8 qualifies the A6 as a performance sports sedan. The V10-powered S6 is for serious drivers who don't mind trading comfort for high performance.
Most cars are redesigned every five years or so; this latest-generation A6 was launched as a 2005 model so it's about midway through the design cycle. It's larger and roomier than the previous-generation version, and features dramatically changed styling.
For 2008, an Audi Lane Assist feature is offered that warns drivers when they drift out of their lanes without the use of a turn signal. Every A6 also gets headlight washers, Sirius satellite radio. For 2008, the S line exterior equipment is standard; this includes more aggressive front and rear bumpers, S line badging for the front grille, and 18-inch wheels. Quattro models are available with 19-inch wheels; chrome-finish 18-inch wheels with summer performance tires are optional.
Model Lineup
The 2008 Audi A6 line includes the 3.2 ($42,950), 3.2 quattro sedan ($46,100), 4.2 quattro ($56,300) sedan, 3.2 quattro Avant wagon ($49,000), and S6 quattro sedan ($72,350).
The A6 3.2 models take their name from a 3.2-liter V6 that delivers 255 horsepower. The A6 4.2 has a 4.2-liter V8 that generates 350 horsepower. The S6 has a 5.2-liter V10 that puts out 435 horsepower. Quattro models feature Audi's all-wheel drive system and come with a six-speed automatic transmission. The 3.2 model has front-wheel drive and comes with a continuously variable automatic transmission (CVT) with seven preset gear ratios for manual shift capability.
The A6 3.2 and 3.2 quattro come loaded with standard features: leather upholstery; cruise control; wood trim; dual-zone automatic air conditioning with pollen filters; heated power mirrors with passenger-side tilt-down back-up aid; power windows; power door locks; remote keyless entry; 12-way power driver's seat with four-way adjustable power lumbar support; 60/40 split-folding rear seats; tilt/telescoping steering column; leather-wrapped, multi-function steering wheel; leather-wrapped shift knob; trip computer; theft deterrent system; AM/FM/6CD/MP3 with 10 speakers; Sirius satellite radio; Bluetooth wireless cell phone link; rain-sensing variable-intermittent wipers; automatic headlights; headlight washers; front and rear fog lights; and P245/40R18 tires on alloy wheels. The Avant also gets heated front seats, roof rails, rear cargo cover, and a power sunroof.
Options for 3.2 models start with a Premium package for the sedan ($3,550) and Avant wagon ($2,550). The wagon version includes daytime running lights, memory for the driver's seat and exterior mirrors, power-folding auto-dimming exterior mirrors, Bose surround sound system, auto-dimming rearview mirror, compass, power liftgate, and bi-xenon headlights. The sedan version adds a power sunroof and heated front seats, and deletes the power liftgate. An S line Interior Package ($2000) includes steering wheel shift paddles, Milano leather upholstery, front sport seats, perforated leather shift knob, black cloth headliner, aluminum door sills, and Gray Birch wood trim. A Cold Weather package ($600) adds heated rear seats, a heated steering wheel and a removable ski sack. A Technology Package ($2500) includes voice recognition, Advanced Key keyless access and starting, an Advanced Parking System with rear park assist and a rearview camera, adaptive cornering lights, universal garage door opener, and a power tilt/telescoping steering column. Options for 3.2 models include premium Milano leather upholstery ($1,000); manual rear and side window sunshades ($250); manual side sunshades plus a power rear sunshade ($400); rear side airbags ($350); DVD-based navigation system ($1,600); leather-segmented steering wheel with shift paddles ($690); iPod adaptor ($290); sport suspension ($500); leather dashboard trim ($1,275); chrome wheels with summer performance tires ($1180); and Audi Lane Assist ($900). Customers can also choose P245/45R17 tires on alloy wheels as a no-cost option. Also available for the 3.2 quattro Avant are P255/35R19 summer performance tires on alloy wheels, adaptive cruise control ($2,000), and an adaptive air suspension ($2,300).
The A6 4.2 quattro adds premium leather, adaptive bi-xenon headlights, daytime running lights, power tilt/telescoping steering column, heated front seats, memory for the driver's seat and mirrors, power sunroof, Bose sound system, auto-dimming rearview and exterior mirrors, compass, and a universal garage door opener. Options are similar to those for the 3.2; the 4.2 also offers a solar sunroof ($790) that uses a solar panel to operate a fresh air fan when the vehicle is parked in the sun.
The S6 gets a sports suspension, P265/35R19 tires, and a rear spoiler, in addition to the equipment listed for the 4.2. Options exclusive to the S6 include carbon-fiber interior trim ($400);
The Audi A6 is a study in excellent design. It has the look of a four-door coupe, with clean, flowing lines. The overall look is upscale, masculine. A giant trapezoidal grille dominates the front of the car. Some like it, some don't. The car's completely modern shape has a slippery drag coefficient of 0.29. Aluminum was used for key body panels to save weight, though not to the extent of the expensive all-aluminum A8.
The A6 Avant is an especially sleek looking wagon, distinguished by a sloping roofline. The arching shoulder line and relatively narrow glass create a dynamic profile that terminates in a gently sloped tail marked by distinctive two-piece LED taillights. Overall the design language says European elegance.
Much of the beauty of the A6 is in the details: Body panels fit closely together around the doors, hood and trunk lid, as well as along places such as the bottom edge of each tail lamp. It's a result of close tolerances. You won't even find a rubber strip at the top of windshield, nor strips on the sides of the roof. Door jams, the trunk flange and other areas normally hidden are Class A surfaces, smooth and painted as on the exterior body panels. Not everyone will notice this level of detail, but most will sense a general look of quality.
All A6 models (except S6) gain S line styling cues for 2008. An air inlet is added beneath the grille, the front and rear bumpers are changed, and 18-inch wheels become standard versus the 16s and 17s on 2007 models.
The S6 is distinguished from its less-powerful stablemates by special exterior and interior elements. Audi's striking trapezoidal grille gets an S6 badge. The front bumper's unique look comes from the strip of separate LED daytime running lights situated a the top of two larger lower cooling ducts. The front foglamps are incorporated into the main headlights, which feature gray-tinted covers. The rear tailights also feature distinctive LED brake lights. An integrated spoiler juts from the trunk lid, bright aluminum trim surrounds the side windows, the door handles are body color, and the rearview mirror housings are brushed aluminum. The S6 also has black brake calipers, dual exhaust oval polished quad tailpipes, and a chrome strip on the trunk lid.
The lever-style outside door handles are stylish, but we found they aren't as easy to operate as the grab handles that don't require flipping your hand over.
Overall, the A6 sets a benchmark in quality of materials and build quality.
Interior Features
The Audi A6 cabin is light and airy, particularly with the lighter-colored leather choices.
The leather that comes standard in the A6 3.2 is nice, distinguished by a handsome two-tone treatment of light-colored seats and door inserts and charcoal dash and door trim. Wood trim comes standard on all models.
Premium Milano leather is standard on 4.2 models and optional on 3.2 models. We particularly like the gray birch trim in the S line Interior Package. Additional leather covering for the dashboard is also offered. It looks and feels nice, but is an expensive proposition.
The front seats are comfortable and supportive. We never gave them much thought during a drizzly day of driving from Milan to Lake Como, a good sign. The quiet cabin allows for easy conversation even when driving quickly.
The rear seats are comfortable, too. Head and leg room are expansive enough to tote around two clients in comfort. Audi designed room in the rear-seat footwell for bulky shoes, like sneakers on teenage boys, to be able to easily swing by the B-pillar when getting in and out. The current A6 is much roomier than pre-2005 models.
Up front, everything is oriented around the driver. A center console with a control panel separates driver and passenger, and their legs go into separate tunnels. The driver benefits from a nice four-spoke steering wheel or a nicer, sportier three-spoke wheel and a straightforward instrument panel surrounded by flex-metallic trim. The center stack is angled toward the driver. Climate controls are located at the bottom of the center stack that are sophisticated but straightforward and easy to operate. At the top of the stack, above the vents, is a crisp seven-inch screen that displays navigation and other functions. The standard trip computer and Driver Information Center features a digital speed indicator.
Audi's Multi Media Interface, or MMI, features a large knob and 15 buttons set horizontally on the center console to control most interior functions. This eliminates a lot of switches, making for a clean-looking dash. To further reduce clutter, the switch for the glovebox is located on the center of dash. Mastering the MMI takes time and requires reading the owner's manual. Too many times, we've found it a distraction, as it makes simple tasks like programming a radio station a multi-step process. At least the main controller and buttons fall easily to hand.
High technology can also be found in what have been traditionally mundane controls. The parking brake is electronic; pull the switch up to set it, press to release it. The hood release operates only when the door is open. The wipers are speed sensitive. A Bluetooth-enabled interface integrates compatible cell phones.
The A6 does not offer many places to put stuff. The glovebox is small, especially with the available CD changer. The cup holders are positioned well, however.
The trunk is deep. Luggage capacity is nearly 16 cubic feet, more than the BMW and comparable to the Mercedes, but the trunk opening is small. Attention to detail can be seen inside the trunk. Raise the floor panel to get at the spare tire and you'll note that it can be hooked up in place, making it easier to remove or replace the spare.
The Avant sport wagon offers the road manners of a European-bred sports sedan and the versatility of a sport utility. The luggage compartment offers a variety of configurations and features two securing rails recessed into the floor of the load area, while four lashing eyes and a luggage net are provided to secure objects. The load floor can be folded up and locked in several ways, which provides access to a lower load area lined by a plastic tray, an ideal cubby for stowing wet or muddy gear.
The S6 cockpit features sport seats upholstered in Nappa leather, with integral head restraints and pronounced lateral support. Electrically adjustable in multiple directions and including lumbar support, they offer multi-st
Driving Impressions
The Audi A6 is dynamically superb. Quattro models deliver a feeling of being on rails, benefits of a rigid chassis, a well-engineered sports suspension, and Audi's superb all-wheel drive.
The A6 ride feels firm but is nicely damped for sharp bumps. It's among the best in class in comfort and near the top of class in handling (bested only by BMW). The ride is notably firmer for 2008, thanks to the 18-inch wheels that come standard (instead of 16s or 17s). Those who prefer a more comfortable ride will want to opt for the no-charge 17-inch wheels. Those who prefer a firmer ride with more responsive handling can choose the sports suspension, 19-inch wheels, or both.
The adaptive air suspension optimizes road holding and comfort. It's a marvelous invention that really helps keep the car securely fastened to the ground.
The Servotronic steering allows precise control and the A6 goes exactly where the driver wants it. Grip is excellent. Drive the car to its limit and you'll encounter a small amount of understeer. The highly rigid chassis gives the car the feeling of being carved from one block of material. This rigidity allowed Audi engineers to precisely tune the suspension. The A6 uses Audi's proven four-link front suspension and the self-tracking trapezoidal-link rear suspension adapted from the A8.
The flat torque curve of both the V6 and V8 engines gives the A6 a feeling of smooth, sophisticated power and responsiveness at all speeds.
The 3.2 V6 delivers strong response from 2000 to 6000 rpm. It offers lots of torque, giving it quick acceleration off the line and responsive performance at all speeds. Audi says the 255-hp 3.2-liter V6 is capable of propelling the A6 from 0 to 60 mph in 6.8 seconds, which is reasonably quick. We were able to easily work through traffic between Milan and Lake Como in an A6 3.2 sedan and felt no need for the more powerful V8. This impression was reaffirmed in a subsequent drive of the A6 Avant 3.2 in Italy's Dolomite Mountains. Not only was the V6 in full compliance with our lead-footed driving habits, if we hadn't occasionally looked in the mirror, we couldn't have told whether we were driving the sedan or the wagon as we raced up and down the twisting alpine roads. The V6 gets an EPA-rated 18/27 mpg City/Highway with front-wheel drive and 17/25 mpg with quattro.
The 4.2 V8 features direct injection and produces 350 horsepower, enough to propel the A6 4.2 from 0 to 60 in 5.8 seconds, which is quite quick indeed. Better yet, the increased power comes without much of a penalty in fuel mileage. The 4.2 gets an EPA-estimated 16/23 mpg City/Highway, respectable for a sports sedan. The A6 mounts its engine longitudinally, rather than sideways, improving the flow of power between front and rear wheels and improving driving dynamics.
The six-speed automatic transmission is super smooth and adds considerably to the joy of driving the A6 with its responsive performance. If the mood strikes you, select the Tiptronic mode and shift manually via the gearshift or steering wheel paddles. We found it worked exceptionally well in Drive: It always seems to be in the right gear, whether quick acceleration is wanted or smooth cruising is preferred. The CVT in the front-drive model is surprisingly sporty and is the perfect choice for the owner whose driving terrain is mostly urban streets.
The S6's V10 is refined and forceful. It is perfectly happy cruising in traffic, but is more than willing to launch the car ahead of traffic if you find a gap. The S6 is capable of a 5.1-second 0-60 mph sprint and can cover the quarter mile in 13.4 seconds. While these are certainly impressive numbers, some V8s do as well without the V10's high level of technology. The V10 suffers a fuel mileage penalty, as it is EPA-rated at 14/19 mpg City/Highway. While the V10 performs admirably, we found either the V6 or the V8 to be plenty powerful and not nearly as expensive.
The Audi A6 excels at driving dynamics. It's a wonderful car for quick commuting, smooth high-speed travel, and spirited driving. It's smooth and quiet, good for easy conversation and listening pleasure. It's right up there with the Mercedes-Benz E-Class and BMW 5 Series in terms of safe and secure motoring, particularly when weather enters the picture. When conditions get really slick, you can't beat quattro.
NewCarTestDrive.com editor Mitch McCullough filed this report from Milan, with Greg Brown in Italy's Dolomites. Correspondent Kirk Bell tested the S6 in Chicago.
|Model Line Overview
|Model lineup:
|Audi A6 3.2 FrontTrak ($42,950); 3.2 quattro ($46,100); 4.2 quattro ($56,300); Avant 3.2 quattro ($49,000); S6 quattro ($72,350)
|3.2-liter V6; 4.2-liter V8; 5.2-liter V10
|6-speed automatic with Tiptronic; 7-speed multitronic CVT
|Safety equipment (standard):
|ABS with EBD and Brake Assist; traction control, ESC, two-stage frontal airbags, front side-impact airbags, curtain side airbags, active front head restraints; tire-pressure monitoring system
|Safety equipment (optional):
|dual rear seat-mounted side airbags, rear park assist, rearview camera, Audi Lane Assist
|Basic warranty:
|4 years/50,000 miles
|Assembled in:
|Specifications As Tested
|Model tested (MSPR):
|Audi A6 Avant 3.2 quattro ($49,000)
|Standard equipment:
|leather seating surfaces, wood interior trim, automatic dual-zone climate control with filter, Multi Media Interface (MMI) with 7-inch color screen, electromechanical parking brake, cruise control, power windows with one-touch up and down, remote keyless entry, power remote door locks, remote trunk unlock, heated power mirrors with passenger-side tilt-down back-up aid, illuminated vanity mirrors, rear window and side mirror defogger, 12-way power and heated front seats, 60/40 split folding rear seat, floor mats, tool kit, trip computer, anti-theft system, variable intermittent wipers with heatable washers, 10-speaker AM/FM stereo with CD 6-disc changer, Sirius satellite radio, Servotronic power rack-and-pinion steering, leather-covered steering wheel and shift knob, tilt and telescope steering wheel, Bluetooth wireless cell phone link, rain-sensing variable-intermittent wipers, automatic headlights, headlight washers, front and rear fog lights, roof rails, rear cargo cover, power sunroof, P245/40R18 tires on alloy wheels
|Options as tested (MSPR):
|Premium package ($2550) with daytime running lights, memory for the driver's seat and exterior mirrors, power-folding auto-dimming exterior mirrors, Bose surround sound system, auto-dimming rearview mirror, compass, power liftgate, and bi-xenon headlights; S line Interior Package ($2000) with steering wheel shift paddles, Milano leather upholstery, front sport seats, perforated leather shift knob, black cloth headliner, aluminum door sills, and Gray Birch wood trim; Technology Package ($2500) with voice recognition, Advanced Key keyless access and starting, Advanced Parking System with rear park assist and a rearview camera, adaptive cornering lights, universal garage door opener, and power tilt/telescoping steering column; rear side airbags ($350); sport suspension ($500); navigation system ($1600)
|Destination charge:
|Gas guzzler tax:
|Price as tested (MSPR):
|four-wheel drive
|3.2-liter dohc 24v V6
|Horsepower (lb.-ft @ rpm):
|255 @ 6500
|Torque (lb.-ft @ rpm):
|243 @ 3250
|6-speed automatic with Tiptronic
|EPA fuel economy, city/hwy:
|17/25 mpg
|111.9 in.
|194.2/79.2/58.2 in.
|Track, f/r:
|62.7/62.9 in.
|Turning circle:
|39 ft.
|Seating Capacity:
|Head/hip/leg room, f:
|37.5/57.1/41.3 in.
|Head/hip/leg room, m:
|Head/hip/leg room, r:
|Cargo volume:
|68.4 cu. ft.
|Towing capacity:
|Suspension, f:
|independent four-link
|Suspension, r:
|independent self-tracking trapezoidal-link
|Ground clearance:
|4.6 in.
|Curb weigth:
|4211 lbs.
|Brakes, f/r:
|disc/disc with ABS, EBD, Brake Assist
|Fuel capacity:
|21.1 gal.
|Unless otherwise indicated, specifications refer to test vehicle. All prices are manufacturer's suggested retail prices (MSPR) effective as of July 1, 2008.Prices do not include manufacturer's destination and delivery charges. N/A: Information not available or not applicable. Manufacturer Info Sources: 800-FOR-AUDI - www.audiusa.com
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South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences
versão On-line ISSN 2222-3436
versão impressa ISSN 1015-8812
S. Afr. j. econ. manag. sci. vol.15 no.1 Pretoria Jan. 2012
Knowledge work difficulty factors: an empirical study based on different groups of knowledge workers
Jalil Heidary DahooieI; Abbas AfrazehI; Seyed Mohammad Moathar HosseiniI; Mohammad Reza Ghezel ArsalanII
IDepartment of Industrial Engineering & Management Systems, Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran
IIDepartment of Industrial Engineering, University of Tehran, Iran
The determination of the difficulty factor in knowledge work can be important for improving the performance of knowledge workers. In this article a regression model for investigating the difficulty of knowledge based activities (KBAs) is proposed. Four factors are considered in the model: Uncertainty, Variability of information, Amount of information and Level of skill and expertise. An empirical study based on 119 jobs from three different groups of knowledge workers (i.e. managerial, professional and clerical) shows that there are significant differences between the difficulty of the KBAs in managerial, clerical and professional jobs, and that managerial KBAs are more difficult than the KBAs of the other two groups. Furthermore, regression models indicate that Level of skill and expertise is the most influential factor in the difficulty of the KBAs in each of the three groups.
Key words: knowledge work, difficulty index, knowledge based activities (KBAs), variability of information, amount of information, uncertainty, level of skill and expertise
1 Introduction
The business environment today consists of a knowledge-based economy. In this economy, knowledge work (KW) and knowledge workers (KWrs) are one of the main resources for the preservation and preferment of a firm's competencies (Lavoie, Roy & Therrien, and 2003:832), so it is important to improve the performance of knowledge workers.
Drucker states that:
"The most important, and indeed the truly unique, contribution of management in the 20th century was the fifty-fold increase in the productivity of the manual worker in manufacturing. The most important contribution management needs to make in the 21st century is similarly to increase the productivity oj knowledge work and knowledge worked' (Peter Drucker, 1999:79).
Fritz Machl and Peter F. Drucker were the first people to define the knowledge work concept (Cortada, 1998:16; Okkonen, 2003:55; Pyoria, 2005:116). Drucker (1959) described special workers as Knowledge workers and introduced them as people who apply knowledge to work, rather than manual skill and muscle (Nickols, 2000:1). Since then, knowledge work has been one of the main focus points of research. The reason is the growing population of knowledge workers in today's business environment. The number and proportion of knowledge workers are increasing rapidly in comparison with those of manual workers (Drucker, 1999:80; Nickols, 2000:1; Ramirez & Steudel, 2008:564).
Several definitions have been presented in the literature, provided definitions of KW and KWrs. But in most of the cases, they are so different that no consensus is reached (Guns & Vahkangas, 1998; Pyoria, 2005; Shi-You, 2008; Heidary et al, 2011).
Heidary et al. (2011) examined 70 definitions of KW and 82 definitions of KWr and classified them in two main paradigms and four streams. They assumed knowledge work as a continuum and defined it as a job which is comprised of knowledge based activities (KBAs) and tasks. Finally, they proposed a framework for quantitative definition and segmentation of knowledge works (Heidary et al., 2011).
Therefore, in this article, we define knowledge work as a job that consists of working with knowledge and performing activities like knowledge and information creation, finding, development and use (Drucker, 1993; Hammer, Leonard & Davenport, 2004:17; Davenport, 2005:28; Turner & D'Art, 2008:703).
As knowledge work is a cognitive process, the main characteristic of knowledge work is not the quantity, because quality is more important and difficulty is the key index of quality (Drucker, 1999; Cao & Li, 2008:1).
The main purpose of this article is to propose a model for determining the factors influencing the difficulty of KBAs. Empirical research shows there are significant differences between the difficulty of jobs in managerial, clerical and professional KBAs. For this reason it is appropriate to model each group separately. Three regression models are applied, based on four factors: Uncertainty, Variability of information, Amount of information and Level of skill and expertise.
We define different types of knowledge work tasks and activities, and then propose a method for calculating the difficulty index (DI) of knowledge based activities. Following that, we compare the difficulty index for the knowledge based activities (KBAs) of three different groups of knowledge workers (managers, professionals and clerks). Data for the analysis were obtained from 119 jobs in 11 organisations and the data are analysed by ANOVA. Finally, regression models for investigating the difficulty of KBAs are proposed, based on the four job characteristics: Uncertainty, Level of skill and expertise, Variability of information and Amount of information.
The rest of this paper is organised as follows: Section 2 reviews, in the literature, definitions of work complexity and difficulty. Section 3 defines suitable levels for measuring work difficulty. Section 4 defines knowledge work tasks and explains different activity types. Sections 5-7 discuss a methodology for calculating the difficulty index of KBAs in different types of knowledge work. Empirical study and the results of ANOVA and Regression models will be given in Sections 8-10. The results will be discussed in Section 11. Finally, in Section 12 we draw conclusions and outline future research.
2 Literature review
The difficulty of knowledge work is one of the most important attributes of knowledge work that is investigated by academics and practitioners. If we compute the process difficulty of knowledge work, it could further improve the efficiency of the knowledge work (Cao & Li, 2008:1). This number can be used for effective management of knowledge workers. For example, this index can be used in training systems for education priority or in job design for determining important tasks that form each job.
Thomas & Baron used the complexity index as one of the knowledge work components, and they drew an Expected Graph Area of Knowledge Work based on this component. They defined complexity as the difficulty of the job. They said, 'This component involves the number and difficulty of decisions, and the amount of knowledge that is needed' (Thomas & Baron, 1994:10).
Davenport used complexity of knowledge work as a dimension for presenting a classification structure for knowledge-intensive processes, and proposed managerial solutions for improving productivity of each category of knowledge worker. He defined complexity as the interpretation and judgment required in the process (Davenport, 2005:27).
The purpose of Lee's PhD thesis was to explore the perceived job change in four dimensions of knowledge work (information input, mental process, work output, and interaction with others) among frontline employees, middle managers, and senior managers in a large Korean bank. His study examined the perceived levels of importance, frequency, and difficulty for each of the four dimensions of knowledge work performed three years ago. He said that 'difficulty of the job activities is the degree of difficulty to learn the work activity in order to perform successfully' (Lee, 2005:59).
Ramirez and Steudel used complexity as one of eight measures for quantification of knowledge work. They define complexity as the degree to which a task offers great difficulty in understanding or has confusing interrelated sub-tasks (Ramirez & Steudel, 2008).
In addition, articles in psychology, medicine, management, etc. use task complexity and difficulty as important dimensions in their analysis, and they discuss their effects (Huber, 1985; Harkins & Petty, 1982; Veltman & Gaillard, 1998; Philiastides, Ratcliff & Sajda, 2006), but few try to quantify this concept.
The main research for identification of task complexity was done by Cao and Li (2008). Based on 188 questionnaires and confirmatory factor analysis, they show that the process difficulty of knowledge work was influence by four factors: complexity, uncertainty, structure and ambiguity (Cao & Li, 2008).
3 What is an appropriate level for measuring difficulty?
The measurement of knowledge work difficulty at job level is very complex. Conducting measurement at lower levels of a job (i.e. subprocesses and activities) is more practical (Thomas & Baron, 1994:14). We must therefore select an appropriate order of work unit for measuring job difficulty. Although there is no solid agreement about the taxonomy of work, each perspective is somewhat similar (Lee, 2005:36).
Denise Ford Jackson examines the structure offered by Mundel (Mundel, 1983:34) and reached the conclusion that this structure is not applicable for knowledge work, because knowledge work rarely results in a physical product. She recommended a structure which was more applicable for describing knowledge work (Jackson, 1989:50). Table 1 presents her recommended structure.
Norton (2003) described taxonomy of work with four levels: job, duty, task and step, which are shown in Figure 1 (Lee, 2005:36).
Brannick and Levine (2002) described a work taxonomy in more detail as is shown in Table 2 (Lee, 2005:36). As these levels are pro-portionate with most job analysis methods, this taxonomy seems to be suitable for our objectives in this article.
With respect to these levels, we select the activity level for determining the difficulty index of the knowledge work. The next section defines knowledge work tasks and activities.
4 Knowledge work tasks and activities
Knowledge work is, to a great extent, self-managed. The knowledge worker is expected to know how to organise and manage his/her work. He/she is also expected to have knowledge or know where to find it. This means a knowledge worker has three types of tasks (Davis, 2002: 68).
Job-specific tasks: what the workers are working on for the organisation. Examples of these tasks include preparing a budget, planning and scheduling a project, eliciting and documenting system requirements, and writing application software.
Knowledge building and maintenance tasks: these are tasks that create value in knowledge workers and maintain existing knowledge. Some examples of these tasks are scanning and reading professional literature, attending professional meetings, learning new technologies, and building a network of colleagues.
Work management tasks: these tasks help knowledge workers to manage knowledge work to achieve effective results using time and mental resources efficiently. These tasks include the following: maintaining work motivation; maintaining readiness to work, plan, sequence, and schedule activities; and managing collaboration.
Furthermore, each of these tasks can have three types of activities: knowledge based activities (KBAs), communication based activities (CBAs), and supplementary activities (Davis, 2001:14-16). This means that the main activities of each task are usually knowledge based (like getting information, analysing data or information, and thinking creatively).
Although knowledge work can be done individually, it is often done in teams or by interacting with others. Activities like assisting and caring for others, selling or influencing others, training and teaching others, and staffing organisational units can be classified in this category.
In addition, knowledge workers sometimes do some supplementary activities. This group constitutes activities like typing reports, archiving documents, and physical activities. There are three reasons for performing these activity types: 1) it is more efficient to do the supplementary activities as part of the knowledge work; 2) the time performing these activities may be a form of rest for a knowledge worker; 3) the organisation does not provide support for these activities (Davis, 2001:14-16).
Figure 2 shows knowledge work tasks and the relationships between them and different types of knowledge work activities.
Knowledge based activity (KBA) is the main focus of this article; for determining this activity, a literature review was conducted and 66 definitions of knowledge work and 80 definitions of knowledge workers were gathered by reviewing existing references up to 2010. Then, knowledge work activities were extracted from these definitions. Since this list was not complete, activities extracted from definitions were then matched with O*NET (National center for O*NET development, 2010) generalised work activities. This analysis determined the final list of knowledge based activities (see Appendix 1).
5 Measuring difficulty of KBAs
Although all activities in the knowledge based category (Appendix 1) are knowledge intensive, they differ in difficulty. These differences can be derived from two factors:
- Complexity weight: Firstly, each activity does not have the inherent equal difficulty that the others have. For example 'getting information' and 'Thinking Creatively' are both knowledge based activities, but they have different degrees of difficulty. This means each KBA has an inherent weight of difficulty.
- Level of difficulty: Secondly, each activity has different difficulty levels in itself. For example, the difficulty of 'making decisions and solving problems' can differ between 'determining the meal selection from a cafeteria' and 'making the final decision about a company's five-year plan'.
Each of these two factors mentioned above will now be investigated further.
Measuring complexity weight
Knowledge based activities have different degrees of complexity and these differences must be considered for accurately determining difficulty.
We have considered worker functions that are defined in the Dictionary of Occupational Title (DOT), as complexity weights for each activity type (Jackson, 1989; Fine, Harvey & Cronshaw, 2004).
The worker functions are based on the premise that every job requires a worker to perform in some degree with data, people and things, and that the involvement with each of these can be expressed as a hierarchy (Jackson, 1989: 55; Fine, Harvey & Cronshaw, 2004).
The functions are ordered within each category from the most complex to the simplest, in increasing number. Thus function order 1 is more complex than function order 6 in each category (see Table 3).
For assigning weight to each KBA based on worker function, we used an extended table of worker function which was developed by Denise Ford Jackson (Jackson, 1989:55). For each KBA, a proportionate worker function was found and, based on this worker function, a weight was assigned to the KBA (Weight 7 for d0 and 1 for d6).
Measuring level of difficulty
For measuring the level of difficulty of activities, the O*Net standard of activity level was used. In this standard, the difficulty level of each activity can vary from 1 to 7, and for directing the determination of this level, three examples (anchors) were put in this interval. In Figure 3 this standard showed for the activity 'getting information'. Anchors of this activity are 'follow a standard blueprint', 'review a budget' and 'study international tax laws'.
To decide the difficulty level of a specific activity for a specific job, subject matter experts (SMEs) like knowledge workers were asked, 'What level of the activity is needed in his/her job tasks?'
As illustrated in the above example, it is important to note that the anchors of the level scale are unique for each activity.
Calculating the difficulty index (DI)
According to the two parameters mentioned above, we define the difficulty index (DI) of an activity as follows:
CI: Complexity weight of the activity
LI: Level of difficulty of the activity
The difficulty index (DI) is a number between 1 and 49. An activity can have a difficulty index of 49 only if it has a complexity weight equal to 7 (the worker function must be 6 in the data) and the difficulty level index must also be equal to 7.
6 Identifying factors influencing difficulty
Identification of factors that affect the difficulty of KBAs can be worthwhile for dealing with different issues in knowledge work, like productivity and training needs assessment. A comprehensive literature review was conducted and the following four factors were elicited:
- Variability of information: this factor shows the similarity of information that knowledge workers use for changing it to knowledge (Hashemian Bojnord & Afrazeh, 2006:3407).
- Amount of information: this factor shows the amount of information that the knowledge workers manipulate (Hashemian Bojnord & Afrazeh, 2006:3407).
- Uncertainty: this factor is frequently defined as a knowledge inadequacy which may arise from several sources. The result of uncertainty may be the individual's inability to predict correctly and hesitating to make the decision (Cao & Li, 2008:2).
- Level of skill and expertise: This shows the level of skill and expertise that is needed for changing information to knowledge and performing each task (Pan, Liu & Hawryszkiewycz, 2008:47).
7 Comparing the difficulty index between different groups of knowledge work
As Davenport et al. (2002) mentioned, 'Our first conviction is that it is a mistake to lump all knowledge workers into one category'. Not all knowledge workers are alike and they need to be segmented (Hammer et al., 2004:17). Researchers use different approaches for the categorisation of knowledge workers. For example, they may be categorised according to the level of responsibility they have in the company. (Thomas & Baron, 1994; Dove, 1998; Iivari & Linger, 1999:7; Davenport, 2002:4; Davenport, 2005:27; Hampson & Junor, 2005: 169).
To gain more reliable results in this research, we also need segmentation of knowledge work. In considering the practical point of view, knowledge workers were divided into three broad categories: managers, defined as workers with supervisory or coordination roles; professionals, defined as workers in charge of specialised activities; and clerks, defined as workers in charge of administrative support activities (Francalanci & Galal, 1998: 230; Coates, 1986:7). However, some researchers believe that professional and clerical attributes are the same and then categorise knowledge workers in two categories: managerial and non managerial workers (Leigh, 1984).
Some research has been done for determining differences between these groups of workers. For example, Francalanci and Galal test the effect of an increase in IT investment on the productivity of each of these three groups (Francalanci & Galal, 1998). Lee explores the perceived job change toward dimensions of knowledge work among frontline employees, middle managers, and senior managers in a large Korean bank (Lee, 2005).
In this article, we want to test differences between the difficulty index (DI) of these three classes of knowledge workers. Thus, the following hypothesis concerning DI was generated:
H0 = difference of difficulty index between different groups is not significant
H1 = otherwise (difference of difficulty index between different groups is significant)
Based on this hypothesis, if H0 is rejected, we shall develop a specific regression model for each of the three groups of knowledge work.
8 Methodology
In this part of the article we want to introduce our research methodology. The steps of the methodology are as follows (Figure 4).
Selecting knowledge work jobs
In the first step we had to select some knowledge work jobs for analysis. As there is no exact method for identification of knowledge work types, we selected some jobs from the literature review that were mentioned as knowledge workers (engineers, researchers, etc.). In this step, 119 jobs in 11 organisations were selected in our empirical study. The sample profile is given in Table 4.
Identifying the KBAs of each task
For identifying KBAs we first needed to determine the tasks of each job. Tasks are the main part of the job description, so we tried to gather descriptions of the 119 jobs mentioned above. If a description of a job didn't exit, we would have implemented job analysis to elicit tasks (like functional job analysis (FJA) or the Hay method). In this step KBAs which comprise each task were extracted. As discussed in Part 4, we developed extensive lists of KBAs (Appendix 1) for identifying them in each task. For this reason, subject matter experts (SMEs) in each job were interviewed and KBAs of each task were elicited.
Measuring difficulty index for each KBA and assessing difficulty factors
For assessing difficulty factors for each KBA, a questionnaire was developed and a trained team were the custodians of data collection.
Detailed requested data are listed below:
- Activity level
- Uncertainty for each activity (X1)
- Level of skill and expertise for each activity (X2)
- Variability of information for each activity (X3)
- Amount of information for each activity (X4)
Based on the method described in Section 5 for the determination of each activity level, each SME needed to determine the levels of their KBAs.
Furthermore, each SME was required to estimate four difficulty factors (X1 to X4) for each of the knowledge-based activities (KBA), considering his/her job. Each factor could be given an ordinal score between 1 and 9.
Following that, complexity weights were extracted, based on the approach described in Section (5), using worker functions. Finally, the difficulty index (DI) for each KBA was calculated by formula (1).
9 Statistical analysis
Descriptive results of the research data are reported in Table 5. As this table shows, there are more knowledge based activities for managerial jobs than there are for the other two groups (N = 3581).
Table 5 shows that there are fewer managerial jobs in our sample than professional jobs, and that there are the same number of clerical jobs (number of managerial jobs = 34). The data showed that managers may, on average, be required to perform more knowledge-based activities in performing their tasks than either professional or clerical workers do.
Table 5 also shows the mean of the DI for each group. The Difficulty index (DI) for clerical KBAs varies between 4 and 42 and their mean is equal to 18.92 (Max DI = 49). However, managerial and professional knowledge based activities change between 2 and 49 and their mean is equal to 24.2 and 23.2, respectively.
For testing differences between the DI of knowledge based activities (KBAs) in these three groups, we use one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results are reported in Table 6. With respect to results, as sig = 000, then the difference between groups is significant and H0 is rejected. We can conclude that there are differences between the DI of knowledge based activities in these three groups.
The ANOVA table does not show details of difference between these three groups of knowledge workers. For recognising these differences, multiple range tests like Duncan are used.
As Table 7 shows, Duncan's multiple range test indicates that each one of these three groups is classified in one distinct category. This indicates that there are significant differences between managerial jobs, clerical jobs and professional jobs in difficulty index, and managerial knowledge based activities (KBAs) are more difficult than those in the other two groups.
10 Fitted regression models
For analysing the effect of independent variables (X1: Uncertainty; X2: Level of skill and expertise; X3: Variability of information; and X4: Amount of information) on the dependent variable (difficulty index, DI) the following regression model is considered:
As regards the difference between difficulty indexes of our three groups of knowledge workers, we must examine one different linear regression for each one.
The analysis of variance for this model is summarised in Tables 8-10. The F-test for overall regression is significant for all of the three groups whereas a lack-of-fit test is nonsignificant, therefore we have no reason to question the adequacy of this order of models.
The statistical analysis is done by SPSS software application. Tables 11-13 show coefficients for these three groups of jobs. Based on these results (Tables 11 and 12) the factor effect of X1 to X4 is significant. We present results for statistical analysis of managerial and professional jobs by following first-order regression models.
Managerial knowledge based activity difficulty index (DI):
Professional knowledge based activity difficulty index (DI):
However, as Table 13 shows, the main factor effects of clerical knowledge based activities DI for X2 to X4 are significant while X1 is not significant. DI for clerical jobs can be presented by formula (5).
Clerical knowledge based activity difficulty index (DI):
We can justify these results as clerical jobs are usually specified and then uncertainty has a low effect on the difficulty index for this group of jobs.
11 Analysis and applications
We now analyse the results that were obtained in the previous section. As Tables 11-13 show, the main factor for determining the difficulty index of KBAs in all three groups is Level of skill and expertise needed for performing this type of activity. This means that most tasks of these three groups of workers require expertise and skill for performing them, and this parameter has the main effect on the difficulty of their job. This result is appropriate within our definition of knowledge work.
However, the amount of information that must be analysed in managerial tasks is more extensive than in professional jobs, and this parameter has a secondary effect on the difficulty of managerial jobs; the secondary effect in professional jobs is the uncertainty factor.
On the other hand, based on the results that are presented in Table 13, the amount of information has a secondary effect on the difficulty index for clerical jobs, and this means that clerical staff must gain more information than is needed by managers, because they have to cooperate and interact with managers.
In addition, with respect to the results that are presented in Table 12, variability of information has more effect in professional jobs than in the jobs of managers and clerks. This can be justified according to their innovative and designing activities.
As mentioned before, the main characteristic of knowledge work is quality, and difficulty is the important index of quality (Drucker, 1999). Exploring the process difficulty of the knowledge work is a potential way to improve the performance of this work (Cao & Li, 2008:1).
On the other hand, managers need different methods, theories, and measures to manage the performance of KWrs who belong to different categories (Heidary et al., 2011). Three major factors (management and Organisation, information technology and workplace design) influence the performance of knowledge workers and knowledge-based Organisations (Davenport, 2002; 2005). Difficulty index of KBAs that defined in this article can be used for planning appropriate managerial solutions and selecting suitable IT solutions for different groups of knowledge workers.
Difficulty index of KBAs can be used for redesigning HRM systems commensurate with the characteristics of knowledge workers. Some applications related to this target are:
(1) Precise identification of activities (and proportionally the knowledge, skills and abilities needed) which should be considered in recruitment of knowledge workers; (2) Identification of Knowledge domains that must be considered in knowledge workers' training need assessment; (3) Redesigning complex and difficult jobs with respect to difficulty of different tasks and activities that comprised the job; (4) Give consideration to difficulty index in payroll system (especially in reward system and performance evaluation coefficients).
In addition, factors identified for determining the difficulty index of KWs and their importance in each three categories of KW, can be used as a guide for selecting appropriate IT solutions.
The main factor for determining the difficulty index of KBAs in all three groups is level of skill and expertise, and these means that appropriate knowledge management systems must be designed for each one of these groups. Uncertainty and variability of information are two main factors (after skill and expertise) in determining difficulty of professional works. Due to this, some solutions for finding up to date knowledge and using their colleagues' experience are very important for these group of KWrs (like: knowledge bases and effective communication tools).
In managerial work, after skill and expertise, the other three factors have an important role in determining the difficulty index. Therefore, they need technologies that can summarise large amounts of data and information and help them in decision-making process (like: DSS Systems). In clerical work, the amount and variability of information are major factors (after skill and expertise). Then, enhancing the speed and accuracy in this category of KW needs process application and work flow to routinise the work.
12 Conclusions and future work
The current work focuses on determining the factors influencing the difficulty of knowledge based activities (KBAs), and comparing these factors for three groups of knowledge workers: managers, professionals and clerks. These factors are variability of information, amount of information, uncertainty and level of skill and expertise. The difficulty index of KBAs was defined, and regression models were developed based on empirical data that had been collected. These factors can be used for redesigning HRM systems commensurate with the characteristics of knowledge workers and as a guide for selecting appropriate IT solutions.
This work can be continued by applying it to more empirical studies and more jobs. Other multivariate data analysis methods (like canonical analysis) can be used for evaluating the results of this article. Also, more effort will be required to design systems tailored to each of the applications introduced in this article.
The authors would like to thank Mr Attarian, Mr Madani and Mr Blight for their help with this research. Although taking responsibility for any of the remaining errors, the authors would like to thank two anonymous reviewers for a number of comments that have greatly improved our article.
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Accepted: December 2011


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