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MG2, Reviewed July 2016
Plants are living organisms that contain chlorophyll and use it to manufacture their own food. Their cell walls are more or less rigid and support both the individual cells and the whole structure. Even when plants have reached what we regard as their full, mature size, they continue to expand and develop new leaves, flowers, fruit and shoots.
Unlike animals, plants cannot move when the environment changes. They are at the mercy of the climate and the gardener because they are rooted in place. Even though it appears that many plants, especially larger ones, are quite tolerant of change, they sometimes do not show adverse effects until long after the event. For example, tree roots are often damaged or killed by suffocation during building projects or flooding. An established tree may still have strength to leaf out and may appear to thrive for several years. But in its weakened state, the tree is more likely to blow down, become infested or simply decline.
To understand why plants respond as they do to natural influences and to cultivation, gardeners must understand something about their structure and how they grow. This publication provides such an introduction.
Gardeners tend to group plants by their horticultural uses: fruits, vegetables, flowers, trees, shrubs, turf and so on. These categories are a convenient way to think and learn about plants.
Plants can also be categorized by the length of their life cycles. Annual, biennial and perennial are terms that describe how long a plant will live and also indicate when it is likely to bloom.
An annual plant's entire life cycle from seed germination to seed production occurs in one growing season, and then the plant dies. Many flowering plants that we consider to be annuals are not annuals in their native habitats. They would continue to grow and flower in future years if freezing temperatures did not kill them. Tuberous begonia (Begonia × tuberhybrida) is an example of an ornamental plant treated as an annual in the Midwest, although it is a perennial in the southern states.
Annuals may be further subdivided into summer and winter annuals:
A biennial plant starts from seed and produces vegetative structures and food storage organs in its first full season. A rosette of basal leaves persists through winter. During the second season, the plant's life cycle is completed with flowers, fruit and seed. The plant then usually dies. These plants will often reseed themselves. Examples of biennials are carrots, beets, cabbage, celery, onions, hollyhock, Canterbury bells and Sweet William.
Sometimes plants that typically develop as biennials may complete their entire cycle of growth from seed germination to seed production in only one growing season. Conditions of drought, unusual variations in temperature or other climatic changes can cause the plant to pass through the physiological equivalent of two full growing seasons in one year.
A perennial plant is a plant that lives for more than two years. Typically, perennials die back in the fall and return in the spring because of some sort of overwintering structure, such as a rhizome or crown. Examples include flowers such as daylilies, blackeyed-susan and coneflower; and vegetables such as asparagus and rhubarb.. Plants often characterized as weeds such as common milkweed and morning glory are also perennials.
Perennials are classified in various ways:
The structure and appearance of plants' flowers, leaves, fruit and seed play a large part in how we think of them and also provide useful information about their classification. For example, the flowers of a daisy indicate a probable relationship with other plants that have similar flowers. The majority of grasses are easily recognized by their long leaf blades.
More than 500,000 different kinds of plants and plantlike organisms exist in the world. Of these, the flowering plants classified as angiosperms are the most abundant and familiar to us. Gymnosperms are the other main group of seed-bearing plants. There are also more primitive plants such as mosses and ferns that reproduce by spores.
Angiosperms have seeds encased in closed ovaries that become plants' familiar fruits, pods, grains or capsules. They represent virtually all crop plants and those we think of as flowers.
The angiosperms are further classified into two groups according to the number of seed leaves, called cotyledons, that emerge from a germinating seed:
Gymnosperms are plants that develop exposed or naked seeds. These include the coniferous plants such as fir, pine and spruce. Ginkgo and the tropical cycads are also gymnosperms.
The science of classifying plants and animals according to their morphology (form and structure), and morphological relationships and principles.
Modern plant taxonomy is based on a system developed by the Swedish physician and botanist Carl von Linné, who later changed his name to Carlos Linneaus. His classification is based on the flowers and reproductive parts of a plant. Because these are the parts of a plant least influenced by environmental changes, this system has been found to be the best.
Grouping plants with similar botanical structure helps us to understand how they are related to one another. Close relatives often have similar pest problems. Botanical similarities may also show, for example, how long certain plants can be expected to live and why they react as they do to certain conditions. In addition, their botanical, Latin or "proper" names help to avoid confusion when the same or similar common names exist for different plants.
Each plant is assigned two names. The genus or generic name can be likened to a person's last name, as in "Doe." The specific epithet or species name is that person's given name, "Jane" or "John." This combination of two names is the plant's botanical, scientific or Latin name.
For example, the botanical name for sugar maple is Acer saccharum (pronounced AY-ser sa-KAH-rum). The genus name Acer is a classical (Latin) name. The genus name for the Indian bean tree Catalpa is a Native American name. Other botanical names provide descriptions of the flower: for example, Antirrhinum (snapdragon) is from the Greek anti, which means "like," and rhinos meaning nose or snout. One familiar genus is Narcissus (daffodil) named for the mythological character who was turned into this flower when he drowned attempting to reach the person he saw reflected in a pool of water.
Specific epithets may have similar descriptive value, such as rubra for red and major for large or larger. In the sugar maple example, the word saccharum is from the Latin for sugar cane, and it is similar to words we know that mean sweet. Some species commemorate a botanist or plant explorer. The late 18th century Swedish naturalist Carl Peter Thunberg introduced many Asian plants. He is remembered in plant names, including the species Berberis thunbergii, the Japanese barberry, and a genus of the warm-climate, climbing blackeyed-susan, Thunbergia.
Words in many complete Latin names include botanical variety, subspecies and cultivar. These build upon the basic binomial naming system to further separate individuals that differ from one another in, for instance, flower color or growth habit. They are not so different as to require new specific names.
Botanical classification of four plants
Every living organism — plant, animal, insect and so forth — can be classified into the following categories or taxa:
For plants, the kingdom is Plantae and division is Tracheophyta. Class is usually either Angiospermae or Gymnospermae, the angiosperms and gymnosperms that make up most of our cultivated plants. At the subclass and order level, further groupings of similar plants are named.
A family of plants shares similar characteristics. For example, the spring-flowering magnolia trees, whose deciduous forms are best known in the north, and the evergreen southern forms are in the same family, not surprisingly called Magnoliaceae. Different magnolia specimens can be "keyed out" using a botanical key. The combination of characteristics that identify this family are enclosed ovules, flowers that are not catkins, flowers with calyces, clear and separate "distinct" carpels (reproductive portion of flower), overlapping or imbricate sepals, and alternate, simple leaves.
In another example, peas belong to a large family of legumes called Fabaceae (formerly named Leguminosae). The edible pea flower is shaped much like the flower of a tree in the same family commonly referred to as redbud (Cercis canadensis). All legumes have similar flowers and fruiting structures even though they may be vastly different in form. Other legumes include alfalfa, beans, clover, honeylocust, Kentucky coffee tree, Siberian pea shrub and wisteria.
What do roses have in common with apple trees? They are members of the same family, Rosaceae. Their fruits are pomes. Plants in this family share susceptibility to the same diseases. For example, pears and roses are susceptible to fire blight, and both are subject to mildew during humid weather. Other plants in the Rosaceae family include cotoneaster, spirea, juneberry, quince and mountain ash.
When groups of similar plants are categorized into families, the next lower level of classification is the genus. Plants in the same genus often share similar fruits, flowers, roots, stems, buds and leaves. The genus name is always capitalized and italicized or underlined. Examples:
Specific definition comes with the species name, or specific epithet. At this level, marked features that are carried from generation to generation distinguish the group. Specific names are not capitalized, but they are italicized or underlined. Examples:
Variety (botanical), subspecies, form
Sometimes the specific name is followed by a botanical variety, subspecific name or form that denotes a fairly consistent, naturally occurring variation within the species. This second specific name is preceded by the abbreviation var., ssp., or forma (f.).
Cultivars, short for cultivated varieties, are variations on plants that originated in cultivation. Cultivar names are even more defining than species names. Some cultivar names are Latinized, and others are not. Cultivars can be confusing because there may be hundreds within one species.
Cultivar (short for cultivated variety)
A cultivar is a group of plants that is clearly distinguished by certain characteristics that may be morphological (structural), physiological (functional), cytological (cellular) or chemical. The differences do not have to be visual for a variation to gain cultivar status — perhaps it is simply more hardy or disease resistant. When a plant is reproduced asexually (by cloning), it retains these distinguishing characteristics.
Cultivar names are always capitalized within single quotes or preceded by the abbreviation cv. In the nursery industry, the cultivar name is recognized as a plant's official name.
Along with cultivar designation, recent new cultivars may have other assigned names that are often trademarked (Golden NuggetAA dwarf Japanese barberry, Berberis thunbergii 'Monlers')
More plant identification terms
Several more terms may be used to define particular plants or plant groups:
For successful use of dichotomous "either-or" plant keys, a working familiarity with plant structure and terminology is essential.
Dichotomous plant keys are used to identify plants through a series of choices between pairs of alternatives. Each pair refers to a specific plant characteristic such as arrangement of leaves on the stem, type of leaf margin or type of fruit. By selecting the option that accurately describes the plant, you will be led to the next choices until you determine the genus or species.
If a result is ambiguous, final verification can be made by comparison with a known example of that species. In their detailed comparisons, plant taxonomists often use preserved specimens stored in an herbarium.
Reference books for specific types of plants, such as ferns, wildflowers or shrubs, frequently contain their own specialized plant keys. Try to use keys that employ botanical rather than common names. Common names can be confusing for several reasons: one plant may have several common names; the common name for a plant often differs from one region to another; and the same common name can also apply to more than one plant. Botanical names, by contrast, are unique and relatively permanent.
Several major plant keys are available, including the following:
Figure 1
Plant cell.
The plant cell is the basic organizational unit of plants (Figure 1). Each living plant cell contains a nucleus that controls all of the chemical activities in the cell. Within the nucleus, division of the DNA provides the way for the cell to pass on heritable information from one generation of cells to the next.
Cytoplasm is the other main part of the living plant cell. It is composed of many cell structures (organelles), water, pigments, sugar and various minerals. The cytoplasm is bound by a plasma membrane that regulates the flow of water and nutrients into and out of the cell.
The plant's cell wall is one of the fundamental differences between plant and animal cells. The somewhat rigid cell wall is made up of a number of chemical compounds, primarily the carbohydrate cellulose.
The second major difference between plant and animal cells is that many plant cells contain the green pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is contained in chloroplasts, where photosynthesis, the food manufacturing process, takes place. A chloroplast is a type of organelle known as a plastid. There are also plastids that contain pigments other than chlorophyll.
Plant cells can have specialized functions, and there are many cell types. Plant cells are largely made up of water held within the vacuole, which exerts a pressure against the rigid cell wall. This pressure, called turgor pressure, gives the plant shape and structure. When insufficient water is available in the plant to maintain this pressure, the plant begins to droop or wilt.
Plant tissues are sometimes classified as either vegetative or reproductive. Vegetative tissues (leaves, roots, stems and leaf buds) are not directly involved in seed production. However, they are often used in asexual or vegetative forms of reproduction such as cuttings.
Individual cells work together to form the whole plant. Tissues are organized groups of cells that are similar in appearance and function. An organ is a group of tissues that accomplishes a common function. Plants have two organ systems: roots and shoots. Shoots, in turn, have two main organs: leaves and stems. These organs are made up of various tissues that are called meristematic, which may be dermal or vascular.
Meristematic tissues are sites of cellular activity and division. This is where all of the cell division takes place. Meristematic tissues give rise to the other tissue systems and are named for their location. Animal tissues do not have these specific sites of cell division — rather, all animal cells can divide to create new tissues.
An apical meristem is located at the apex, or tip, of a shoot or root. The lateral meristems exist in the stems and roots of many plants. They help the plant grow in thickness or diameter. The vascular cambium is a lateral meristem that forms new xylem (water-conducting) cells on the inside and new phloem (food-conducting) cells on the outside. Active cambium cells are exposed when the outer skin or bark is peeled away from a dicot stem (monocots usually have no cambium).
Dermal tissues
There are two types of dermal tissues — epidermis and periderm.
Vascular tissues
Vascular tissues make up the water- and food-conducting system of a plant. They consist of the xylem and phloem.
Every plant has a unique form and structure and is made up of several distinct organs. All of these influence a plant's overall health and appearance. Gardeners need to consider all parts of the plant and the effects of the environment on these structures, which include roots, stems, buds, leaves, flowers, seeds and seedlings, and fruits.
The principal functions of roots are to:
Healthy roots are vital to the well-being and the continued development of most cultivated plants. Roots' structure and growth habits have pronounced effects on the size and vigor of a plant, its ability to adapt to various soil types, and its responses to cultural practices and irrigation. In addition, many plants spread through buds that develop on vigorous roots, and portions of root can be used for vegetative reproduction or propagation. Examples are phlox and lilac (Syringa). Roots that store carbohydrates are often used as food for us and for animals. Carrots, beets, sweet potatoes and turnips are examples.
Types of roots
One or more primary roots originate at the lower end of a seedling or cutting. From here, the root system develops, which is usually characteristic of the plant. Specific soil conditions can cause modifications in roots, however. For example, the taproot of a carrot growing in stony soil will be stunted and branched.
Figure 2
Longitudinal section of root.
Dahlias and sweet potatoes produce underground storage organs called tuberous roots, which are often confused with bulbs and tubers. However, these are roots, not stems, and have neither nodes nor internodes.
Root structure
A root has no nodes and never directly bears leaves or flowers (Figure 2). Lengthwise, it has four main parts:
More on roots
The quantity and distribution of plant roots are important because these two factors have a major influence on the root's ability to absorb moisture and nutrients. The depth and spread of the roots depend on the plant's inherent growth characteristics and on the texture and structure of the soil. Roots will penetrate more deeply into a loose, well-drained soil, where there is adequate soil oxygen, than into a dense, poorly drained soil. A solidly compacted layer in the soil, sometimes called a hardpan, will restrict or terminate root growth.
During early development, a seedling plant absorbs nutrients and moisture from the soil within a few inches of the location of the seed from which the plant grew. As plants become well established, the root system develops laterally and usually extends to several times the spread of the branches. The greatest concentration of fibrous roots occurs in the top 12 inches of soil, but significant numbers of laterals may grow downward from these roots to provide an effective absorption system several feet or more underground.
The distinguishing feature of stems is that they must have buds or leaves. The principal functions of stems are to:
Stems are generally the bulkiest and most obvious part of the plant. They support the leaves, buds, flowers and fruit. Water, nutrients, the products of photosynthesis, and gases pass up and down stems, to and from the roots. In certain plants, stems function as storage organs for food manufactured through photosynthesis. They may spread out and root, making new plants. Portions of stem, often called cuttings or slips, are used in vegetative reproduction or propagation. Examples are ivy, blackberry and willow (Salix). We commonly use stems as food — examples include asparagus, kohlrabi, broccoli, cauliflower, rhubarb and potatoes.
Figure 3
Cross section of woody plant stem.
Figure 4
Cross section of woody plant stem.
Structure of stems
Bark is the external covering of the stem of woody plants. Internally, the stem's three major parts are the xylem, phloem and cambium (Figure 3). The xylem tissue consists of tube-like cells that conduct water and dissolved minerals and gases in the stem, while the phloem tissue conducts food products. Xylem forms the inner rings to become sapwood and heartwood of woody stems. The cambium is dicotyledonous meristematic tissue with cells that divide and enlarge to force the stem to expand outward. New xylem is formed on the inner side of the cambium and new phloem on the outside. The cambium is a thin, actively growing layer that is vulnerable to girdling by wires, weed trimmers and even a tree's own roots.
Herbaceous plants have stems that differ in internal arrangement when compared with woody plants. Although monocots and dicots both contain xylem and phloem, their vascular systems are arranged differently (Figure 4). In the stem of a monocot, the xylem and phloem are paired into bundles that are dispersed throughout the stem. In herbaceous dicots, those vascular bundles are arranged in a circle in the stem.
Figure 5
Typical woody stem.
External features of stems
Stems grow either above- or belowground. They may be long with large distances between leaves and buds, or they may be compressed with almost no distance between leaves and buds. The location on the stem where a leaf or bud occurs is called a node (Figure 5). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between stems and roots, but one sure way is to look for nodes. Stems have nodes; roots do not.
The internodes are the regions between nodes. The length of an internode depends on many factors. One of these is genetic — oaks usually have shorter internodes than sycamores. Environment is also a great influence. For example, decreasing fertility will decrease internode length. Early-season growth, which is often the most vigorous, usually results in the greatest internode length. Too little light will cause stems to elongate, resulting in long, spindly growth. Paradoxically, plants that are growing vigorously tend to have longer internodes than weak plants. Internode length will also be affected by competition from surrounding stems or fruits. If the plant's energy (available water and food) is divided between three or four stems, or if fruits (seeds) are also developing on the stem, less energy is available for any one shoot, and internode length is shortened.
Look at the varying internode lengths in a full season's growth of a deciduous tree, such as an oak or an apple. An interesting exercise for a gardener is to look at a stem and then try to identify the conditions that may have affected growth.
Types of stems
Typical stems are the trunks and branches of shrubs and trees, and the stalks of nonwoody plants. Modified stems can be found both aboveground and belowground.
Parts of aboveground modified stems.
Parts of belowground modified stems.
A bud is an undeveloped shoot from which leaves or flower parts grow. The buds of deciduous trees and shrubs typically are protected by leathery bud scales or, in the case of some evergreens, a resinous covering. Some buds are termed "naked" because they have no covering. Herbaceous plants have naked buds in which the outer leaves are green and somewhat succulent.
Buds may require exposure to a certain number of days below a critical temperature before they will resume growth in the spring. This time period varies for different plants. During rest, dormant buds can withstand low temperatures, but after the rest period, buds become more susceptible to weather conditions and can be damaged easily by cold temperatures or frost.
A leaf bud is composed of a short stem with embryonic leaves and develops into leafy shoots. Leaf buds are often less plump than flower buds. Flower buds are made up of a short stem with embryonic flower parts.
Buds are classified by their location on the stem. Terminal or apical buds are located at the apex or tip of the stem. Lateral or axillary buds are found on the sides of the stem, usually in the leaf axil, the point of leaf attachment to the stem. Adventitious buds arise at other sites, including the internode of the stem, at the edge of a leaf blade, from callus tissue at the cut end of a stem or root, or laterally from the roots of plants.
The principal function of leaves is to absorb sunlight for the manufacture of plant sugars. This process is called photosynthesis. The typical leaf has a flattened surface to present a large area that efficiently absorbs light energy. In most cases, the leaf is supported by a stemlike appendage called a petiole. The base of the petiole is attached to the stem at the node. The angle formed between the petiole and the stem is called the leaf axil. A bud or cluster of buds is usually located in the axil.
Figure 6
Cross section of dicot leaf.
Structure of leaves
The leaf blade is composed of several layers (Figure 6). On the top and bottom is a layer of small, tough epidermal cells. The primary function of the epidermis is to protect leaf tissues. The arrangement of the cells in the epidermis determines the texture of the leaf surface. Hairs that are present on some leaves are extensions of epidermal cells.
The thickness of the cuticle (the layer of cutin produced by epidermal cells) is a direct response to sunlight. The stronger the light, the thicker the cuticle. For this reason, plants grown in the shade should be moved into full sunlight gradually over a period of a few weeks to allow the cutin layer to build and to protect the leaves from rapid water loss and sunscald.
Cutin repels water and can shed pesticides if spreader/sticker agents or soaps are not used. This is the reason many pesticide manufacturers include some sort of spray additive to adhere to or penetrate the cutin layer.
On the surface of leaves are the stomata. Some plants have stomata on both surfaces; others have them only on the lower surface. Formed from epidermal guard cells that are capable of opening and closing, the stomata regulate the passage of water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of the leaf. The opening and closing of guard cells is determined by the environment. Conditions that cause large water losses from plants (high temperature, low humidity) stimulate closing, while mild weather conditions leave guard cells open. Guard cells close in the absence of light.
The middle layer of a leaf is known as the mesophyll. This is the location of the chloroplasts that contain the green pigment chlorophyll. Photosynthesis takes place here. In monocot plant leaves, the mesophyll consists of cells and air spaces. In dicot leaves, it is divided into a dense upper layer called the palisade and a lower, spongy layer of cells with air spaces.
Leaf types
Figure 7A
Simple leaf type.
Figure 7B
Compound leaf type.
Figure 8
Leaf venation.
Leaf venation
Venation describes the patterns in which the veins are distributed in the blade (Figure 8).
Figure 9
Leaf shapes, simple, left, compound, above right, and conifers, below right.
Leaf shapes
The shape of the leaf blade and the type of leaf margin are important characteristics that help identify plants (Figure 9). Leaf blades vary a great deal. They may be simple (apple, oak) or compound (divided into several smaller leaflike segments, as in honeylocust). The smaller segments are called leaflets and are attached to a stalk (rachis) with a petiolule. Leaflets can also be arranged palmately (horse chestnut) or pinnately (ash). Pinnately compound leaves are said to be odd pinnate (ash) when ending in one leaflet and even pinnate when ending in two leaflets (locust). This terminology is important in identifying plants by their leaves.
Leaf modifications
Leaves have adapted to survive a wide range of environmental conditions. For instance, leaves exposed to strong sunlight are often smaller and have thicker cuticles than leaves of the same plant growing in shade. The reduced surface area and thicker cuticle reduces water loss. Leaves that develop in shade have a larger surface area to absorb light.
Chloroplasts respond to light by exposing as much pigment as possible in low light situations and by exposing less pigment in bright conditions. We see the results: dark green foliage on shade-grown plants and paler green foliage when the same plant grows in a sunnier location. Examples of this include hosta, Norfolk Island pine and weeping fig.
Leaves on plants that grow in dry environments will often be thick or narrow with few intercellular (air) spaces in the mesophyll, while guard cells are sunken below the level of the regular epidermis to minimize water loss. In some desert plants, such as cacti, the foliage leaves may be modified into thorns and photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast-containing cells in the stem.
Plants that grow underwater have just a few widely spaced mesophyll cells and big intercellular spaces for holding gases that are harder to acquire underwater.
Many conifers have leaves adapted for windy or low-moisture conditions. Needlelike leaves on pines have little wind resistance, and the flattened or scalelike leaves of junipers are waxy and well protected from the hot sun.
Distinct leaf modifications that occur on plants
Figure 10
Leaf arrangements.
Leaf arrangement and attachment
Leaves at the nodes may grow in pairs opposite one another (maple) or alternate (birch) from side to side along the stem (Figure 10).
They also may be whorled, with three or more leaves arising from a node, such as hydrangea. Subopposite leaves are slightly offset from one another; these are relatively rare. An example is the katsura tree, Cercidiphyllum japonicum.
Although there are many different kinds of flowers, they are similar in their organization. The function of flowers is sexual reproduction. Thus, flowers often form the showiest part of the plant. Their color and fragrance attract pollinators such as insects or birds to assure the continuance of the species. Flowers that are neither showy nor scented rely on other methods for pollination — wind, for example. Yet all have the same basic structures.
Figure 11
Parts of a typical flower.
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma. This may occur by wind or by pollinators. Wind-pollinated flowers usually lack showy floral parts and nectar since they don't need to attract a pollinator. Flowers are brightly colored or patterned and contain a fragrance or nectar when they must attract insects, animals or birds as pollinators.
Self-pollinated flowers can be fertilized by their own pollen. Some flowers, like varieties of apple, can rarely be fertilized by their own pollen. In these cases, cross-pollination is necessary. With some fruits such as plums that are capable of bearing a crop without the presence of other varieties, cross-pollination will increase the size and quality of the yield.
The stigma contains a chemical that activates a compatible pollen grain, causing it to grow a long tube down the inside of the style to the ovules inside the ovary. The sperm is released by the pollen grain and fertilization occurs. Fertilization is the union of the male sperm nucleus from the pollen grain and the female egg located in the ovary. If fertilization is successful, the ovule will develop into a seed.
Parts of flowers
Some plants produce solitary flowers such as a tulip, while others, such as the garden phlox, have clusters of flowers called inflorescences. Each individual flower consists of a stem portion called a receptacle that supports the rest of the flower parts (Figure 11). As the reproductive part of the plant, the flower contains either the male pollen or the female ovules, or both, plus accessory parts such as petals, sepals and nectar glands.
Types of flowers
An embryo forms after repeated cell divisions of the zygote — the fertilized ovule. While cells are dividing, distinct parts of the seed are forming. These include the
Monocots have one cotyledon and dicots have two cotyledons. As the embryo develops, the outer walls that form the seed coat become a tough, protective layer around the seed.
The seed or matured ovule is made up of three parts — the embryo, endosperm and seed coat or testa.
Germination is the resumption of active growth of the embryo. Before anything else, the seed must take up water through the seed coat. In addition, the seed must be in the proper environmental conditions — exposed to oxygen, favorable temperatures and for some, correct light; the seed must be ripe or mature; and dormancy must be broken either physically or chemically. Factors that can limit germination include the time of the year seed was harvested, its age and moisture content, and successful fertilization.
Fruits consist of the fertilized and mature ovules called seeds and the ovary wall which may become fleshy as in the apple or dry and hard as in a maple fruit. The only parts of the fruit that contain genetic material from both the male and female flowers are the seeds. The rest of the fruit is actually part of the maternal plant and is, therefore, genetically identical to it.
The fruit is essentially the structure that protects the seeds as they develop. It also functions as a dispersal mechanism, as in the milkweed pod. A fleshy fruit such as an apple keeps the seeds moist until they are ready to germinate. Some seeds are hard and have a thick seed coat to keep the seed from germinating for months or years (for example, Kentucky coffee tree).
Figure 12
Simple fruits.
Types of fruits
Figure 13
Dry fruits.
Figure 14
Aggregate fruits.
In the world of living things, plants are unique. They can make their own food and, except for plants that depend on insects or animals for pollination, they can exist without any other living creature. We, however, cannot exist without plants because in order to survive, we need what plants produce. Because of this, plants are called primary food producers.
In addition, plants maintain an atmospheric balance between carbon dioxide and oxygen, thus providing a vital buffer against rapid global warming. One further benefit plants offer is that of cleansing, of absorbing pollutants from soil, water and air. Sewage lagoons and enclosed spaces — including offices and homes — benefit from plants' ability to filter out unwanted, organic-based chemicals. All living things depend on photosynthesis for survival.
To understand how plants are able to manufacture their food and live independently, we need a working knowledge of plant growth processes and development. Three major plant functions are the basis of plant growth and development: photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration.
Photosynthesis is the connecting link between solar energy and the energy required for life on earth. To manufacture its own food, a plant requires energy from the sun, carbon dioxide from the air, and water, usually from the soil. If any of these ingredients is limited or absent, photosynthesis or food production will slow or stop. If any factor is removed for long, the plant will die. Photosynthesis means literally "to put together with light."
The chemical equation below illustrates photosynthesis:
During photosynthesis, chlorophyll harnesses light energy and uses this energy to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. In further reactions, the hydrogen from water is added to carbon dioxide in the manufacture of carbohydrates, the plant's source of energy. Only cells containing chloroplasts in the plant's leaves and stems can manufacture this energy.
The end product, glucose (a sugar), may be used in cellular respiration to provide energy, or it may be converted into other substances such as sucrose (table sugar), starch or cellulose, amino acids and proteins, fats and other compounds. Oxygen is a byproduct of this process.
Generally, as sunlight increases in intensity, photosynthesis increases. This means greater food production. Many garden crops, such as tomatoes, respond best to maximum sunlight. Tomato production is cut drastically as light intensities drop in the autumn. The same can be said for other high-light species such as corn and beans.
The carbon dioxide that is necessary for photosynthesis enters the plant through the stomata. Generally, carbon dioxide is plentiful in the air. However, in a closed greenhouse, plants may use more than can be replenished by outside air movement, and supplemental carbon dioxide can be used to enhance plant growth.
Temperature is also an important factor. In most plants, the optimal range for maximum photosynthetic activity is at temperatures ranging from 65 to 85 degrees F. Higher or lower temperatures may hinder photosynthetic activity. Of the total sunlight energy that falls on the leaf surface, typically only 3 percent is used for photosynthesis, 15 percent is reflected and 5 percent passes through the leaves. The other 70 percent raises the temperature of the leaf. Cooling the leaf takes place through the process of transpiration (water loss).
For growth to occur, carbohydrate gains through photosynthesis must be greater than losses through respiration.
Carbohydrates made during photosynthesis benefit the plant when they are converted to energy. This energy is used to build new tissues and to help the plant grow. The chemical process by which sugars and starches produced by photosynthesis are converted to energy is called respiration, which is a form of oxidation. The process of respiration is similar to the burning of wood or coal to produce heat. Its byproducts are water and carbon dioxide.
Respiration is essentially the reverse of photosynthesis. Respiration occurs at night as well as during the day. It takes place in all life forms (including animals) and in all living cells. The release of accumulated carbon dioxide and the uptake of oxygen occur at the cellular level. In animals, blood carries both carbon dioxide and oxygen to and from the atmosphere by means of the lungs (or gills in fish). In plants, the oxygen produced during respiration passes by simple diffusion into the open spaces within the leaf and then through the stomata.
Transpiration is the process by which a plant loses water, primarily through leaf stomata. Transpirational loss accounts for about 90 percent of the water that enters the plant through the roots. The other 10 percent of the water is needed for chemical reactions and expansion of plant tissues.
Transpiration is necessary to transport dissolved minerals from the soil to other plant parts, to cool leaf and stem tissue through evaporation, to move sugars and plant chemicals, and to maintain the turgidity or firmness of plant tissues. The amount of water the plant loses via transpiration depends on environmental factors that include temperature, humidity, and wind or air movement. As temperature or air movement increases, transpiration also increases. As humidity decreases, transpiration increases.
These facts relate to the practical activity of watering. Outdoors, we need to water more often in hot, windy and dry weather. Conversely, when temperatures are cool and relative humidity high, such as in early spring, the need for water decreases because of a decrease in transpiration.
When adequate moisture is available to the plant, water flows continuously from the root hairs up to the leaves. If inadequate moisture is available in the soil, or if rate of evaporation from the leaves exceeds the rate at which water can move upward, the plant becomes stressed.
The gardener's goal is to reduce the plant's water stress to maintain a quality landscape or a productive garden. This can be done as much through plant selection and placement as by watering.
Plant growth and distribution are influenced by the environment. If any one environmental factor is less than ideal, it will become a limiting factor in plant growth. Such limiting factors greatly influence the geography of plant distribution. For example, only plants adapted to the limited availability of moisture can live in the desert. Most plant problems are associated with one or more environmental factors. The results may be immediate and direct, such as wilting or plant death from lack of water. Indirect results are also seen in apparently healthy plants when they become diseased or decline because they were weakened by flood, drought or some other factor.
Water, light, temperature and air are the four main environmental factors that influence plant growth and development. Understanding how each works can help guide selection of the optimal microclimates for plants.
Water plays an important role in all plant functions. First, water is necessary to maintain turgor pressure that gives the plant its rigidity and shape (turgor pressure can be compared to air in an inflated balloon). Water is needed for cell division and expansion. It also provides the internal pressure that pushes growing roots through the soil. Water is used during the biochemical process of photosynthesis.
Water also helps in chemical changes that dissolve minerals from the soil — it carries them in solution from the roots to all parts of the plant, where they serve as raw materials in the growth of new plant tissues. During transpiration, moisture is literally pulled through the plant as water evaporates through the leaves and helps stabilize plant temperature.
Water-related conditions
Phototropism refers to a plant's ability to lean and grow toward the light. Seedlings are especially sensitive.
The principal characteristics of light that affect plant growth are quantity, quality and duration.
The intensity or concentration of sunlight varies with the season of the year. Up to a point, the more sunlight a plant receives, the greater its capacity to produce plant food through photosynthesis. However, if light intensity becomes too high, photosynthesis can actually be reduced. This occurs first in low-light plants such as hosta. Light intensity can be reduced in garden or greenhouse settings by the use of shading materials or by planting in the shade. It can be increased with reflective material around plants, white backgrounds or supplemental lights.
In addition to seasonal variations in light intensity, latitude directly affects how much sunlight reaches us. Energy from sunlight is greatest at and near the equator, diminishing with increasing distance, north or south, from the equator. For example, sunlight in the Missouri Bootheel is slightly more intense than at locations farther north.
The color or wavelength reaching the plant surface affects growth. Sunlight can be broken up by a prism into its rainbow colors of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Red and blue light have the greatest effect on plant growth because they are the two wavelengths of light most important to the process of photosynthesis. Red light, when combined with blue light, encourages flowering. Green light has least effect on plants as they absorb less of it — they look green to our eyes because they reflect green light rather than use it for growth processes.
Light quality is important as we consider providing artificial light to plants. Cool white fluorescent lights are high in the blue range of light quality, whereas incandescent lights are high in the red or orange range. They generally produce too much heat to be a valuable light source. "Grow lights" have a mix of red and blue colors that imitate sunlight. A similar balance can be achieved with a mixture of warm-white and cool-white fluorescent tubes.
In greenhouses, growers can initiate flowering at any time of the year by regulating light and dark periods. For instance, poinsettias are short-day plants that initiate bloom in response to shorter day lengths. They can be brought into bloom precisely at Christmas by using black curtains to block out sunlight, thus shortening the photoperiod. Other plants can be artificially lit in greenhouses to initiate flowering when outdoor light levels are low.
Photoperiod is a term that refers to the length of time that a plant is exposed to sunlight or darkness is called photoperiod. The ability of many plants to flower is controlled by photoperiod.
Short-day or long-night plants. These plants form flowers only when the day length is less than a certain duration. For these plants, it actually is the length of uninterrupted darkness that accompanies a short day that is critical to trigger the flowering response. If even a flash of light interrupts the dark period, plants will fail to flower. Short-day plants include many fall-flowering plants such as chrysanthemum and poinsettia, whose flowers are initiated naturally when days become shorter.
Long-day or short-night plants. These plants form flowers only at day lengths longer than a certain number of hours. They include almost all of the summer-flowering plants, as well as many vegetables, including beet, radish, lettuce, spinach and potato. Flowers are initiated as days become longer in late spring and summer.
Day-neutral plants. These plants form flowers regardless of day length. Some plants do not really fit into any category but may respond to combinations of day lengths. For example, petunias will flower regardless of day length, but flower earlier and more profusely under long day lengths.
Winter injury can occur if midwinter temperatures are too low, or if there are unseasonably low temperatures in early fall or late spring. Winter injury may also occur through desiccation or drying out.
Plant tissues need water during winter. When soil is frozen, water movement in the plant is severely restricted. On windy winter days, evergreens can become water-deficient in a few minutes; leaves or needles soon turn brown. If temperatures drop too low during the winter, entire trees of some species are killed by the freezing and desiccating of plant cells.
On the other hand, unseasonably high winter temperatures can cause premature bud break in some plants; subsequent freezes may kill or severely damage the exposed tissues. Late spring frosts can ruin entire crops.
Temperature affects productivity and growth by affecting the processes carried on in a plant such as photosynthesis and respiration. An individual plant's response depends upon its needs and its adaptability to warm- or cool-season conditions. If temperatures are high and day length is long, cool-season crops such as spinach will flower. Temperatures that are too low for a warm-season crop such as tomato will prevent fruit set. The same problem may be caused by continuous excessive heat. Unfavorable temperatures produce stunted growth and poor quality vegetables. Bitterness in lettuce results from high temperatures. Lupines and delphiniums do not grow well in the lower Midwest because they are not adapted to its hot, humid summers.
Sometimes temperature control is used along with day length to manipulate flowering. The Christmas cactus forms flowers as a result of short days and low temperatures. Temperature alone also influences flowering. Tulips can be forced to flower out of season by putting planted bulbs in cold storage (35–45 degrees F) in October. The cold temperatures encourage flower development and stem elongation as the bulb matures.
Thermoperiod is a term that refers to daily temperature changes. Most plants respond to and achieve maximum growth when daytime temperatures are about 10 to 15 degrees higher than nighttime temperatures. They photosynthesize during optimal daytime temperatures, and their respiration rates slow during the cooler nights. Higher temperatures result in increased respiration, sometimes above the rate of photosynthesis, so products of photosynthesis may be used up more rapidly than they are being produced.
Optimal temperatures
Plants are adaptable and there are both heat- and cold-tolerant choices for plants that grow best in a given environment. Optimal growing temperatures vary. For example, snapdragons grow best at average nighttime temperatures of 55 degrees F and the poinsettia at 62 degrees F. Florists' cyclamen does well in very cool conditions while many summer annual bedding plants, such as vinca (Catharanthus), prefer higher temperatures.
Temperature zones
A plant's range — where it will grow naturally — is affected by temperature and other climatic factors. This information can help gardeners select plants and varieties that are suited to local conditions. Maps have been developed that can help you determine the climatic conditions in your area. The websites for these maps are listed on page 24.
USDA Plant Hardiness Zones Map. Whether a plant is considered hardy or nonhardy depends on its ability to withstand cold temperatures. This is the basis of the 11 distinct plant hardiness zones for North America, which reflect average minimum winter temperatures for a given area. It does not, however, take into account temperature fluctuations, adaptation to wet or dry soils, humidity or summer temperatures.
In Missouri, the northern third of the state is mostly in USDA hardiness zone 5 (average winter minimum of -10 to -20 degrees F). The southern two-thirds of the state is zone 6, except for the Bootheel region, which is zone 7 (0 to +10 degrees F).
American Horticultural Society Heat Zone Map. The heat zone map depicts 12 heat zones based on the average number of days when temperatures reach or exceed 86 degrees F. Most of Missouri is in heat zone 7, which receives 61–90 days per year of temperatures above 86 degrees F. A small portion of southern Missouri is in heat zone 8 (91–120 days above 86 degrees F) and the north-central part of the state is heat zone 6 (46–60 days above 86 degrees F).
Sunset Garden Climate Zones Map. This climate map contains 45 zones, or regions. It takes into account heat, cold, moisture and altitude for specific geographical areas in the United States.
Air contains nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide, plus water vapor or humidity, and a number of other gaseous compounds. Of the three main components, nitrogen is present in the greatest concentration by volume: 79 percent. Oxygen is next, at 20 percent.
Carbon dioxide, or CO2, makes up less than 1 percent of the air's volume (about 0.04 percent, or 400 parts per million). Nevertheless, it has great significance in the biological world as one of the ingredients for photosynthesis and for the manufacture of the carbohydrates that enter the food chain.
Land plants rely almost entirely upon carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. A small part of their photosynthetic need is supplied by carbon dioxide from respiration (which never leaves the plant tissues). The rest must enter the plant through the stomata, most of which are located on the undersides of leaves.
Soil atmosphere
Air in the soil usually contains more carbon dioxide than atmospheric air, with concentrations of up to 10 percent or more in some soils. The higher levels of carbon dioxide result from the respiration of many organisms in the soil, including plant roots. In soil with adequate pore space, the concentration of oxygen rarely becomes too low to support aerobic respiration. In wet or flooded soils, oxygen is often too low to fuel aerobic respiration, and anaerobic organisms and processes take over that exist in conditions with very low or no free oxygen.
Air pollutants
Many of the gases that inadvertently and unwantingly get into the air we breathe will affect plants, even in small quantities. For example, tomato plants will respond to small amounts of ethylene by twisting its new growth. Continued exposure will cause leaf curling and death. Ethylene is a byproduct of the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels such as natural gas and oil. Thus, tomato plants are useful indicators where this type of gas is produced. Most ethylene damage to plants occurs in greenhouses equipped with malfunctioning heaters.
Sulfur dioxide and ozone are also damaging to plant tissues. Sulfur dioxide causes dry, dead areas to from at the leaf margins and between veins. Ozone, which enters leaves through the stomata, destroys plant cells by damaging their membranes so they collapse. As a result, the leaves first show a stippled appearance followed by lesions that are white to tan.
Poor plant growth around or downwind from industrial zones may indicate air pollution from these and other chemicals.
Order publications online at http://extension.missouri.edu/explore/shop/ or call toll-free 800-292-0969.


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Victim Notification Program
Victim Notification Program
The Criminal Division is committed to ensuring that victims of federal crime are treated with dignity, fairness and respect throughout their involvement in the federal criminal justice system, and that they receive the rights and services to which they are entitled under federal law. The Criminal Division works with the United States Attorney's Offices to address the needs of crime victims during the prosecution stage of the federal court process.
In a small number of criminal cases prosecuted by the Criminal Division in Washington, D.C. it will not be possible or practical to use the Department of Justice's Automated Victim Notification System (VNS). Those cases will be listed under Pending Criminal Division Cases on the left hand side of your screen. Information about upcoming hearing dates, if any are scheduled, and the name of the judge handling the case will be provided. You can also obtain information about the next public hearing in your case from the Clerk's Office in the courthouse where the hearing is scheduled.
A list of the Victim-Witness Liaisons for each Section of the Criminal Division and their contact information can be accessed on the left hand side of your screen.
For information about Victim Impact Statements or Restitution, select the applicable hyperlink on the left-hand side of the screen.
The Victim-Witness Program Brochure provides additional important information about services, information available to you, and the investigation process.
General Information on Victim Notification Program
Where possible, all victim information and notifications in criminal cases that have been accepted for prosecution from federal investigative agencies are made available (in both English and Spanish) by means of the Department of Justice's Victim Notification System (VNS). The Department of Justice's Victim Notification System (VNS) is a cooperative effort between the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the U.S. Postal Inspection Service, the U.S. Attorney's Offices, the Federal Bureau of Prisons, and the Criminal Division. This free, computer-based system provides federal crime victims with information on scheduled court events, as well as the outcome of those court events. It also provides victims with information on the offender's custody status and release.
In addition to the written notifications generated through VNS, victims in these cases who have already received by mail a special PIN number, which at this time does not include all the Criminal Division cases described in the preceding paragraph, can obtain automated status information by calling the VNS Call Center at 1-866-365-4968 (1-866-DOJ-4YOU) or by accessing the VNS Internet site at https://www.notify.usdoj.gov/index.jsp. A Victim ID# and PIN# are required to access the VNS Call Center or VNS Internet site.
Brian A. Benczkowski
Assistant Attorney General
Office of the Assistant Attorney General
(202) 514-2000

subset: commoncrawl


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Here's his blog.
Cricket Australia > Latest News > News
Feel free to leave comments on it. For those who CBF and would rather just wait til he gets home to throw things at him, here's what he's written:
I must admit to looking forward to writing this post with a little urn tucked nicely away, however the turn of events over the last week leave me thinking of opportunity lost and what could have been rather celebrating a winning Ashes series!
There is no doubt we had our chances over the last week, and many people will have an opinion as to why it didn't work out as we would have liked. I have tried to put my thoughts on the Test and the Series below for you to consider:
Selection: There has been much talk about the selection of our team for the Test at the Oval. I think most important from my perspective is, as Andrew Hilditch said in Adelaide during his media conference, that we did misread the wicket, and certainly didn't see it being as dry and inconsistent as early in the game as it was. Having said that, not having a spinner in our team was in no way the difference between winning and losing! Losing 10/87 in the second session of day two was the costly period and we couldn't fight back from there.
Team Balance: Our balance of four fast bowlers and a part time spinner has been successful in the past in all sorts of conditions. We won two Tests in Sth Africa in contrasting conditions (Jo'burg quite green and assisting fast bowling early and then Durban more of a traditional Test wicket) as well as coming off an excellent Test win in Leeds with the same balance. I can guarantee the balance of the bowling did not lose us this Test – in fact to bowl England out for 332 after losing the toss was an excellent effort and a ringing endorsement of the bowlers selected. We did not bat well enough in our first innings, and from that period on we were under pressure!
Aren't five Test matches great? The ebb and flow over the seventy-odd days that we have been here has been something to experience and in the end the greatest test for any player in the game. The difference between three Tests over a four-week period, and the challenge of travelling, training and playing for close to ten weeks is huge. We saw players come in and out of form for both teams and the challenge of maintaining quality performance over this extended period is a real good challenge!
The selection of Shane Watson at the top of the order worked well and has given us another option at the top of the order in all forms of the game. The unfortunate spin off was that a very talented young player in Phillip Hughes isn't playing Test cricket currently. I'm sure in their own ways both Watson and Hughes will benefit from the way this tour has panned out.
The success of Michael Clarke in this series. After not achieving anywhere near what he would have aimed for in 2005, Pup returned as determined as ever and the results speak for themselves. He quite conceivably could have scored centuries in each of the first four Tests (83 in Cardiff, 136 at Lords,103 no at Edgbaston, 93 in Leeds) and he showed his continued development into a top line Test Match batsman.
The tour of Ben Hilfenhaus has been a revelation. The unfortunate injury to Brett Lee early in the tour meant Ben became the opening bowler, and didn't he grab his opportunity! 22 wickets at an average of 27.45 reads well, however his ability to bowl long spells, swing the new and old ball and take important wickets for throughout the series added up to a breakthrough series for him.
The leadership of Ricky under pressure has been outstanding! You all see the public side of things but the work he has done behind the scenes ensured that were as good as we could be throughout the tour. His cricketing ability has never been questioned, and his decision making under pressure and grace under fire in this series has been excellent. He is a pleasure to work with and I have the utmost respect for the cricketer and the man!
The most frustrating thing in my mind is the fact that two sessions – evening session day two at Lords and afternoon of day 2 at The Oval – cost us the Ashes. In those two sessions we lost 16 for 136, (6/49 at Lords and 10/87 at The Oval) and in both games they we decisive periods that allowed England to gain positions of strength and ultimately win the Tests. There were obviously other periods that we didn't play as well as we would have liked, however these two periods are easily identifiable as series changing!
It's been an exciting and eventful ten weeks since we began our preparation for the Tests in Hove. The complete group has worked tirelessly to achieve success, and unfortunately we were tripped at the last hurdle! I certainly appreciate the support and friendship of all the staff, helping us to do our best to prepare the team as well as possible. Over the next week we will go over the Test series and work out where we as a group can improve and what we can do better, but for now its looking ahead to the T20's and the ODI series, hoping that will take away some of the pain of the Ashes series loss has resulted in!
P.S Brute has been distraught at not being mentioned in my blog to date so a special mention for our manager Steve Bernard and I hope that ensures there are no noses out of joint about who has or hasn't been mentioned in the blog!
Thanks Tim!
Great stuff! Good to see you acknoweldge the mistake of misreading the pitch in the last test! Thought your comments on five test series' are spot on too!
Love that we've lost our biggest series, but we can still have an inside joke about Steve Bernard not getting a mention on your blog! Tee ****ing hee!
Just stop with all the exclamation marks please, you stupid ****!


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At Southwestern, the world is our campus.
At Southwestern, the world is our campus.
Southwestern's partnerships throughout the Hispanic world are equipping a new generation of leaders to spread the Gospel.
Discover how Southwesterners are making an impact in reaching the next generation.
Explore China and hear the stories of Southwesterners working among the peoples of this culturally rich nation of 1.35 billion people.
From the military to the marketplace, Southwesterners carry Jesus' name to every sector of life through chaplaincy.
From East Coast to West Coast, Southwesterners are engaging a world of lostness in some of the largest cities in North America.
Through both an Old Testament dig site in Israel and a New Testament dig site in Cyprus, Southwestern's Tandy Institute for Archaeology is constructing a premier program with world-class faculty and top-tier students.
Underneath the wide and high sky of the Lone Star State, from metro cities to lonely towns, Southwesterners are shining the Gospel of Jesus Christ big and bright deep in the heart of Texas and beyond.
From coast to coast, Southwesterners are penetrating lostness through church planting. Follow their stories and discover the impact of the Gospel all across North America.
Jesus' final commission to His disciples fuels the evangelistic enterprise at Southwestern Seminary as students and faculty take the Gospel to their communities.
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Remember that cold I told you about in my last post? Well, it turned out to be bronchitis. I've spent the better part of three weeks coughing incessantly, which, by the way, has really helped with the healing from the back surgery. It's been a lot of fun. Ahem.
Fresh Eats
Friday, November 5, 2010
Mark Bittman's Kimchi Rice with Beef
Remember that cold I told you about in my last post? Well, it turned out to be bronchitis. I've spent the better part of three weeks coughing incessantly, which, by the way, has really helped with the healing from the back surgery. It's been a lot of fun. Ahem.
Friday, October 22, 2010
The Five Stages of Healing and Homemade Chicken Stock
Wednesday, October 13, 2010
Irony and Roasted Tomatoes
Sunday, September 12, 2010
Me: Under the Knife
You see, I'm getting my back fixed tomorrow. Disk surgery. A seemingly innocent injury has, over time, flared up into an angry mass of pain that can no longer withstand the rigors of everyday life.
Apparently, this disk wants out. So I will let it go.
I've done my homework. Sought multiple opinions. Bought cute pajamas and amassed a stack of reading material.
The logical part of me knows that this is one of those times in life when you simply need to dig up your courage and deal. So that's what I'm doing.
The other part of me, though, cringes at the thought of a surgeon that I met for all of 30 minutes slicing into my lower back, digging into my spine and grinding off bone. Even if he is the best at what he does, a perfectionist by all accounts.
But, the day has now arrived, and at this point, I'm as prepared as I can be.
I'm ready to be better. Ready to again be the person I used to be: the one who ran half marathons, who lifted weights and joyfully practiced yoga. The one who reveled in the flowers and vegetables in my garden and could tend to them without paying for it later. The one who could pick up my three-year old nephew and carry him around, even as he wriggles away.
And, yes, the one who cooked. Because my cooking has suffered as well.
Which brings me to this blog. I'm not sure where I will take Fresh Eats for the next couple of months. It could become a blog about healing, about cooking while recovering, or it could go silent for a bit. But this much I know, I will be back, and I hope you'll be there with me.
See you on the flip side.
Wednesday, September 1, 2010
IFBC: What More is There to Say?
If you attended the event or followed the #IFBC Twitter stream, you already know that for many this was more than a conference. It was, at times, inspiring, exhilarating, overwhelming and exhausting. Meaningful and memorable. Humbling and hilarious.
I went to IFBC in part to meet several lovely women I "knew" online, like Merry-Jennifer and Mardi, and along the way met so many more fabulous people.
Kat Flinn (a former Michigan gal), who reminded me to use all five of my senses when I write. Shauna James Ahern, who "writes from joy" and inspires me to do the same.
Merry-Jennifer and Shauna
James Oseland, editor-in-chief of Saveur, who after his sensational keynote, told ME that my job sounds fascinating. Can you imagine?
And, the mesmerizing Penny De Los Santos, who, when viewing the world through her camera, follows her instincts, waits for the moment, then snaps it with eloquence and generous spirit. Her mantra of making photos remains etched in my mind.
They reminded me yet again that writing a blog is about capturing moments. It's not just about the food. It's about telling stories, sharing your self and allowing your voice to emerge.
Because, you know, I also went to Seattle to try to reconcile myself with my blog: why I do it, where to go with it, and how much of my time and heart to invest in it.
This summer, I pulled back. The chaos of life interfered. This blogging thing; it's complicated and competitive. It's a commitment. There's so much I still don't know. But what I do know, and what was reinforced to me this weekend at IFBC, is right now for me the most rewarding part of blogging is the sharing, the friendships and the community.
I also know that we all need to set our terms – our personal terms, not just SEO or CPMs or price per recipe, as important as they might be – and respect them.
So, I ask myself, where do I fit into the blogosphere? And, should I care? These are questions I'd hoped to answer at IFBC, and while I'm still in the process of setting my terms, I'm gaining clarity.
I started this blog as an outlet for my creativity and anxiety when my city and world seemed to be collapsing around me. The blog became a resting point, a haven of peace.
I went in with no expectations, and gained so much. I've met some beautiful, talented people that I hope will be in my life for years to come. Fresh Eats has been a window of friendship and opportunity in so many ways. Where it will take me remains to be seen. And that's ok.
My goal was, and is, to share my love of fresh home cooking, and hopefully inspire others to love it too. Creating stories, making photos, building a collection of memories. Works for me.
Note: A new, redesigned version of Fresh Eats is coming soon!
Friday, August 27, 2010
Bringing Order to Chaos
Tuesday, June 29, 2010
Chicken Meatball Sub with Gobs of Fresh Mozzarella
Before we go too far, let me just say that when my husband first tasted this dish, he exclaimed: "Oh my gosh, this is good." And he's right.


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Fairy Tail RP is a five year-old community that is still going strong with active staff and players. With continuous updates and a plethora of features, come join us and RP for fun with the rest of us! From first time RP'ers to old timers, you're all
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Touring wine country, rolling down the coast or cruising past endless fields of corn, our Novara Randonee is built for comfort over the long haul.
Surprisingly Smooth
Gift: No
Pros: Versatile, Comfortable, Durable
Best Uses: Uneven Surfaces, Light Trails, Leisurely Rides, Commuting, Street Riding
Describe Yourself: Avid Cyclist
This bike was purchased for annual summer touring. It performed exceptionally well on the Erie Canal tour of 2008.
I own a bike for commuting and a road bike that I also use for the daily commute. Touring season is approaching and I took the Novara for todays commute. The bike immediately got my attention because of how smooth it made the ride. I was not anticipating that, and was very pleasantly surprised. Being a steel bike, it also takes most of the "bumps" off the ride. Granted, it's a little heavy, but since I don't race, that's a moot subject.
I very highly recommed this bike especially for touring, but it's a really nice commuter also.


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Search our database of handpicked sites
Looking for a great physics site? We've tracked down the very best and checked them for accuracy. Just fill out the fields below and we'll do the rest.
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Superconductor Synthesis
A basic introduction to all aspects of superconductors and their uses and how to prepare them. Some multimedia presentations and explanations.
Measurements on a Superconductor
Graph of resistance against temperature for YBCO, and two short movies of a magnet levitating above a superconductor. Great fun to see the movies - understanding how this happens is more challenging
Excellent site covering all aspects of superconductors, their uses, history, manufacture, and likely developments.
A comprehensive site all about superconductivity with plenty of examples of their uses.
About Superconductivity
Useful pages about superconductors and their various applications including maglev trains, particle accelerators and MRI scanners.
A Teacher's Guide to Superconductivity
Ideas and resources for teaching superconductors including experimental details of how to make them, and notes on demonstrations and experiments.
Leo Esaki
Leo Esaki (1915 - ) received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1973 along with Ivar Giaever for their discoveries of tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors.
Ivar Giaever
Ivar Giaever (1919 - ) received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1973 along with Leo Esaki for their discoveries of tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors.
Showing 1 - 8 of 8


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Judge Dennis Davis schools us in book reviewing
Judge Dennis Davis sent shockwaves through the South African literary community recently with his review of Behind the Door: The Oscar Pistorius and Reeva Steenkamp Story by Mandy Wiener and Barry Bateman. Davis has contributed that rare thing to our local literary scene — the negative book review. It was not only negative, but excoriating….


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A running discussion on the Cincinnati Reds and everything else in the baseball universe.
Tuesday, April 1, 2008
Things to be Gleaned from Opening Day
1) Dusty passed his first big test, as Aaron Harang was only allowed to throw 99 pitches.
Joe Posnanski recently wrote an interesting article about young pitchers, workload, and 300 wins. In it, Posnanski talks about C.C. Sabathia and the likelihood that he'll reach 300 wins. He illustrates how rare it is that a young starting pitcher who racks up a lot of wins at a young age will go on to win 300 games.
Posnanski talks about the success of some young pitchers and then goes on to discuss innings pitched for these young guys, a discussion that inevitably turns to Dusty Baker, Mark Prior, and Kerry Wood. He goes on to state the obvious, that Prior and Wood were heavily overworked. That's nothing new and doesn't really need to be rehashed, but the interesting thing is that Posnanski doesn't believe that that kind of abuse of young pitchers would be tolerated in the present game. I tend to think he's right.
It really hasn't been that long since Baker managed the Cubs, but Posnanski is right in that the entire baseball culture has really changed. You could see signs of it when the hiring of Baker was announced. You could see signs of it in the scrutiny of the hiring by the Cincinnati media.
At the time of the hire, about the only thing that gave me comfort about handing over young pitchers to Dusty was that the increased scrutiny from the media might FORCE him to change his managerial style. I have no illusions that Dusty would change on his own, but the spotlight from the scrutiny that would result would likely be too hot even for Dusty to handle.
The early returns are good, but I really don't think the fans, media, or front office would tolerate heavy workloads on the starting pitchers. The baseball culture and mindset have evolved to the point that it won't be tolerated any longer.
2) Scott Hatteberg got the nod over Joey Votto.
Again, it's one game, so maybe this doesn't mean anything, but it has to be noted. Dusty went with the veteran over the young guy.
At this point, Votto isn't a young prospect any more. The bloom isn't off the rose by any stretch of the imagination, but it's time for him to get his opportunity. This is his 24/25 year old season and he doesn't have anything left to prove in the minors. He tore the cover off the ball in the minors last year and carried it over to the majors in September last year.
Don't get me wrong, I love Scott Hatteberg. He may have the best plate approach of any hitter in baseball and I wish I could graft that approach onto every Reds hitters. His control of the zone matches that of any hitter in baseball. That said, at this point, Votto's DOWNSIDE is likely equivalent to Hatteberg's UPSIDE.
Unfortunately, both are left handed hitters, so a platoon isn't a viable option. So, in short, it has to be one or the other. At this point in their careers, it's clear that it has to be Votto. He's got more power and almost comparable on base skills. Hatteberg is only going to get worse, while Votto is only going to get better.
The Reds need to plug Votto into the starting lineup and let him play. Any plan to share playing time is going to be detrimental to the Reds and Votto. I love Hatteberg, but like all first basemen without power, the time inevitably comes when they no longer make sense for the team. A younger, better option comes along and it's time to part ways with the established player.
That time has now come for Hatteberg and the Reds.
The Votto era has begun.
3) Edwin started out with an error.
Edwin had a terrible spring, which isn't a good sign. I don't put much stock in spring training stats, but I would've preferred a strong spring from Edwin.
From my point of view, it's truly "put up or shut up" time from Edwin. I've heard all the excuses and, in fact, used to subscribe to them. Edwin had been bounced in and out of lineup so often by the manager that he had diminished confidence and tentative play. That all sounds well and good, but at some point it's up to Edwin to grab every opportunity to prove his worth. Guys like Jeff Keppinger and Brandon Phillips make the most of every chance they get. Phillips grabbed the second base job and never looked back. Keppinger has given the Reds no choice but to keep him on the roster and, in fact, he's making a strong case for a starting job.
Then, we get back to Edwin, who makes the least of his opportunities. No more excuses, it's time for Edwin to prove his worth.
4) The Reds may have something with their late inning relievers.
The Reds have been undone by their bullpen the last few seasons, so to see fairly smooth sailing from the 7th (Burton), 8th (Weathers), and 9th (Cordero) is more than a little encouraging. True, Burton gave up a solo homerun, but these three could provide some much needed stability in the late innings.
Burton was truly dominating in the second half last year and his ability to maintain that kind of production would have a huge impact for the Reds this year. People studying the new Pitch Data have drawn comparisons between Burton's fastball and Mariano Rivera's famous cut fastball.
All in all, the bullpen is off to a good start. If the Reds could hold onto late inning leads, then it would go a long way towards building up team morale and improving the W/L record.
At this point, things are looking up.
2 comments:
Agreed about the bullpen. Burton threw well outside of the one mistake. I think I would use Weathers as the first guy out in a close game regardless of inning. Then, work the other guys between him and Cordero. In non-close games, you treat him like normal setup.ReplyDelete
It's not really an excuse but should be noted that Edwin showed good discipline with the walks and didn't let the error make him overcompensate. I know Webb threw him mostly garbage but a pressing hitter would go after it. I think it's a good sign for his obp this year.
Hey Matt,ReplyDelete
Thanks for the comment!!
True, it's impossible to draw too many inferences from a single game, especially with a pitcher like Brandon Webb on the mound. He's just nasty, so I expect most hitters to struggle.
However, I'm beginning to wonder if Edwin is worth the struggle. His upside is probably that of a .290 hitter with 25 homerun power. That would make him a solid third baseman, but his defense is bad enough that he gives back some of that production by not being able to capably handle his position. He needs to be moved to a new position, but if he is moved it would have to be to 1st or the OF, where his bat would become less valuable.
Before they both became established at the MLB level, I was hopefully that Edwin would be our David Wright. However, Wright has turned out to be even better than expected and Edwin has never put it together. I knew Wright would be the better player, but I never expected the gap to be so wide.
If, in 2008, Edwin doesn't have the breakout season long expected of him, then the Reds will probably regret not dealing him when they could.
I'm really hoping Edwin can rebuild the faith I used to have in him, but I'm pretty skeptical at this point.


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This magnificent three-tiered pendant deftly combines the complimentary colors of created Opal, Swiss Blue Topaz, and Sky Blue Topaz, all set in sterling silver.
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This magnificent three-tiered pendant deftly combines the complimentary colors of created Opal, Swiss Blue Topaz, and Sky Blue Topaz, all set in sterling silver.
Metal – .925 Solid Sterling Silver
Stones – Created Opal, Swiss Blue Topaz and Sky Blue Topaz
Plating – Rhodium
Chain- 18" Singapore
Clasp- Lobster
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Cave tourism: an adventure in Spain's tourist caves
Cave tourism in Nerja cave © Asociación de Cuevas Turísticas de España (ACTE)
Cave tourism in Nerja cave © Asociación de Cuevas Turísticas de España (ACTE)
For your next trip we propose a thrilling adventure: kit yourself out with a helmet with a lamp on the front, a jumpsuit and boots, and prepare to descend into the entrails of Spain's tourist caves. This is a chance to do far more than simply go on a sightseeing trip and enables you to discover the secrets of these caves from expert guides. You'll be able to see stone forests and underground cathedrals. Here are a few ideas which will make you feel like a caver for a day.
Northern Spain Arrikrutz Cave. Gipuzkoa (Basque Country) When you opt to visit this cave (in Oñati), you'll find yourself in a very special place, as it is located in the Aizkorri-Aratz Nature Reserve and forms part of the Gesaltza-Arrikrutz karstic system (the largest subterranean system in the province). Did you know that a complete skeleton of a cave-dwelling lion was discovered here (the only finding of this type on the Iberian Peninsula)? Once there you can join any of the caving activities available (groups of maximum 20 people and a visit lasting approximately 3 hours and 30 minutes), in which you'll enter the grand gallery of Arrikrutz (today the course of the Aldaola river), the Marcel Loubens gallery –which conceals an outstanding helictite (a very unusual stalactite)–, the great hall of Etxeberria… You'll find more information on requirements, rates, dates and reservations at www.oinati.eu/turismo/arrikrutz El Soplao cave. Cantabria Its almost 20 kilometres lie within the territory of the districts of Herrerías, Valdáliga and Rionansa, and it is considered to be one of the great marvels of geology. The reason? This is a treasure made up of stalactites, stalagmites, flowstones and columns, and above all a profusion of spectacular helictites. The type of adventure tourism available (lasting approximately two hours and 30 minutes) will take you through spaces such as the Gallery of the Italians (where you'll be able to see a highly unusual collection of calcite crystals), the chamber known as the Camarín with its amber mineral formations (a world of colours thanks to the organic material on the interior), the spectacular Organ Chamber, the fanciful formation known as 'the Crocodile', and a genuine forest of stone. You'll be able to experience the incredible sensations of total darkness and complete silence. Sound good? You'll find more information on requirements, rates, dates and reservations at www.elsoplao.es
Underground river at Valporquero cave. León (Castile-León) Why not combine canyonning with exploring the mysteries of the depths? Because Valporquero (one of the most important tourist caves in Spain) has areas through which an underground river flows. If you like, you could follow its course for a distance of over 3 km as it penetrates into the heart of the mountain through great galleries, natural chutes, waterfalls, underground lakes and abseiling walls (the activity has a duration of between four and five hours). Sounds thrilling? And you don't need to have any concerns about safety, as you'll be accompanied by expert guides. You'll find more information on requirements, rates, dates and reservations at www.guheko.com Southern Spain Nerja cave. Malaga (Andalusia) Here's the chance to access areas which are not normally open for general tourism in this cave which has been declared a Historic/Artistic Monument, and where evidence of Palaeolithic rock art has been found. This can be done thanks to pre-arranged caving visits to the upper galleries, which are a spectacular size (restricted to groups of 10 people and lasting seven hours and 30 minutes). You'll be able to see the Chamber of the Columns of Hercules, the Gallery of the Goats and the Chamber of Immensity. The activity includes breakfast and personalised explanations. Pre-registration is necessary if you want to take part (Fax: +34 952529646; E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com y firstname.lastname@example.com). You'll find more information on requirements, rates, dates and reservations at http://www.cuevadenerja.es/ Enjoy an unforgettable experience. Things to remember Take the proper clothing for these activities. Some of these visits are available in several languages. It is occasionally possible to adapt the programming and the duration of the activities to the characteristics and requirements of the group: families, etc. It is advisable to book in advance. No previous experience is required, only an acceptable level of fitness and a willingness to have fun.
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Having read both Marian and Heather's blogs. I think the topic deserves some comment.
I wonder how often I have offered advise to people but not always given them a concise reference of books to potentially acquire to help in their research.
I know I am an avid fan of William Dollarhide, Map Guide to American Migration Routes, 1735-1815. book. I recommend this book to every genealogist working genealogy in the United States.
I know I refer them to George W. Schweitzer's books for each state, that he did.
Thinking on this I am going to go one step beyond and print up a flyer with what I think are
critical books for any area for Beginners and Intermediate Research. I also feel Advanced can get in a rut as much as Beginner's can get confused. Again as creatures of habit (rote) we sometimes do ourselves in with repetition and over look what we need to see.
We need to encourage others to use some good basic sources for the development of good habits.
We also should encourage others to try new things and not get so in a rut.
There are some good basic books out there for assistance.
My top books would be:
1. William Dollarhide's -Map Guide to American Migration Routes, 1735-1815.
2. George W Schweitzer's State books, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland etc.
3. Ancestry, The Source, & Printed Sources
4. The Handy Book for Genealogists.
5. Val D. Greenwood," The Researchers Guide to American Genealogy"
When doing region work the list changes by additional books being added.
I recommend people to read Will Books. Do you realize you can piece a family together just reading Will Books many times? I love the books about "left mail in the Post Office", Land Deeds, Probate books, Church Record books, Tax lists and business license registers. Of course do not forget Census records whether in book form or otherwise. But they are not always the answer to what your looking for. Again these books are generic in nature to any area.
For specific areas, they have some really great books for each region, locale.
I hope this was of some help to those who read it.
Tuesday, June 21, 2011
Tuesday's Tip Books We Use
Posted by Susi's Quarter at 5:33 PM
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Doesn't Mom deserve a little spoiling this Mother's Day? Maybe it's time for a Disney Day!
Personally, I think she'd be happy to spend a little time with YOU — and throwing in a Mickey Ice Cream Bar wouldn't hurt. 😉 But if you're looking for something just a little more special, check out these options! [Read more…]


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Its 10 days of giveaways girls, as I attempt to hand out some booty and free up some space for that pony I've been saving up for! International readers welcome and you may enter as many giveaways as you like.
Also look out for our 10 day Sleek palette giveaway running til the 20th November!
All winners announced on the 23rd November.
The Prize:
Girl2go Brow and Lash Set – the case, tweezers, lash gel, mascara, eye pencil, mini curlers and a shadow/brow powder.
The Question:Who or what do you want to hate but actually love? (can be anything/one but please, if its someone on Twitter, don't name names…).
I want to hate Sarah Silverman so much, so so so so much, and find her as irritating as having diarrhoea on a coach trip, but I am addicted to her stupid show. I am. I can't help it…it makes me laugh.
Tell me in the comments!


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Somebody asked about max bit rates the encoder supports.
I have a 2.5.1 SA Sony set to 720x480, 100% quality, using the DBS S-Video IN and no VBR.
9M gave visible artifacts on APEX DVD screensaver
8M gave minimal artificts on screensaver
7.5M did not appear to give any artifacts even with a full buffer and doing a Turbonet FTP download the whole time
I haven't looked at an actual DVD (need to get the Macrovision off this APEX, it makes my TV look crappy), but watching my crappy antenna input at 9M, same settings as above, looked fine.
I have replaced the hard drive with a 120Gb 7200RPM 8Mb Cache WD, so IDE performance shouldn't be an issue.
I couldn't get the 'resource edit' thing to work at first either, to anyone else having this problem, you can only change 1 parameter at a time and you have to click 'Update' when you're done and reboot the box.
My unit seems to randomly alternate between Bitrate and AuxBitrate so you need to change both.