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The Basic Model of Island Biogeography
The model is one of a dynamic equilibrium between immigration of new species onto islands and the extinction of species previously established. There are 2 things to note immediately: 1) this is a dynamic equilibrium, not a static one. Species continue to immigrate over an indefinite period, not all are successful in becoming established on the island. Some that have been resident on the island go extinct. The model predicts only the equilibrium number of species, will remain 'fixed'. The species list for the island changes; those changes are called turnover. 2) The model only explicitly applies to the non-interactive phase of island history. Initially, at least, we will consider only events and dynamics over an ecological time scale, and one which assumes ecological interactions on the island occur as a result of random filling of niches, without adaptations to the presence of interacting species developing there. Evolution is clearly excluded.
The variables used in the basic model are Is, the immigration rate, which is clearly indicated by the subscript to be species specific, i.e. to be dependent on the number of species already present on the island. Here we're not counting noses, but rather the rate at which new species (those not already present on the island) immigrate. Phrased explicitly, it is the number of species immigrating per unit time onto an island already occupied by S species. Also Es, the extinction rate, measured in species lost per unit time from an island occupied by S species. Finally, we need to know the size of the pool of species in the source area available to colonize the island.
The immigration rate Is must certainly decrease monotonically (on average) as the number of species on the island increases, since as S increases there are fewer and fewer species remaining to immigrate from the pool P of potential immigrants at the source. If all species were equally likely to immigrate successfully (i.e. had equal dispersal capabilities), but actual immigrations were chance events, then the relationship between Is and S would be linear, the probability of a new species immigrating would be directly proportional to the number of species left to arrive. There are, however, considerable differences in the dispersal abilities of species in source areas. Those with the highest dispersal capacities are likely to colonize an island rapidly (have a higher immigration rate), and later, on average, those with lower dispersal capacities will follow. They will not only immigrate later, but the rate at which they immigrate will be lower because they have lower dispersal capacities. The rate at which species accumulate on islands is, therefore, initially rapid and then slower. Also, among those species with lower dispersal capacities the successful immigration of any one species should have less effect on the immigration rates of species remaining in the source pool (we have not removed a likely immigrant from the pool) than would the earlier immigration of a highly dispersible species. Therefore, this part of the curve should be 'flatter'; the rate of immigration should be little affected by the arrival of one of these poor dispersers. The result is an observed immigration rate curve which is concave. The actual (or theoretical) curve for any island is dependent on its isolation. For any source pool, the observed rate, while similar in shape, will be lower for more distant islands than for closer ones. Immigration rates are graphed from the left hand edge of figure 1, declining from the y axis with an increasing number of species already present.
Figure 1 - The basic graphical model of equilibrium in the MacArthur-Wilson model. Figure from Brown and Gibson -Biogeography.
The extinction rate Es should be, from parallel reasoning, a monotonically increasing function of S. If area, for example, acts only through its effects on population sizes, and extinctions are the chance result of small population sizes and demographic stochasticity, then as the number of species increases, the number of species with small populations and subject to chance extinctions increases in proportion, i.e. the relationship would be linear. However, if we consider a more realistic biological scenario, then as the number of species increases, depressant interactions within and between species (competition, predation, parasitism) are more likely to occur, and extinctions are more likely as a result. Remember that these are not species that have evolved adaptations to interactions. Effects are direct and unmoderated. Since any extinctions resulting from interaction are in addition to those resulting from demographic stochasticity, the more realistic shape for the extinction curve is concave upwards. The extinction rate begins at 0 when there are no species on the island, then increases as species accumulate. At least for purposes of simplicity in looking at the basic implications of the model, the extinction curve can be thought of as a mirror image of the immigration curve.
We now have all the information to produce the basic graphical model. That model predicts that there is some value of S, which is called Ŝ, for which immigration rate and extinction rate are in balance; there is a dynamic equilibrium. At that diversity on the island species are immigrating at a rate equal to disappearances due to extinction. The result is constant change in the species list on the island; that change in names occurs at a rate called x, the turnover rate. The length of the species list, however, should remain constant. This is a stable equilibrium since, should something happen, and the number of species on the island be perturbed, the imbalance between immigration and extinction rates at the new S would tend to return island diversity toward its equilibrium value. Below Ŝ additional species accumulate; immigration rate is larger than extinction rate. Above Ŝ the reverse is true, extinctions exceed immigrations and the number of species declines to Ŝ.
Tests of the Model
To test the model, an important piece of evidence is a carefully designed manipulative experiment studying the fauna which colonize 'islands'. One of Wilson's students, Dan Simberloff, tested the model using islands which consist of mangrove mangles in the Florida Keys. Simberloff's Ph.D. thesis had consisted of measurements of the re-colonization of these islands following 'defaunation' (he had encased individual mangles in giant plastic bags, sprayed them with short acting, low persistence insecticides, then followed the rates, numbers, and species which immigrated onto them after exposure). Re-equilibration, i.e. reaching a stable number of species, had occurred within 3 years of fumigation in his earlier experiments. In a second series of studies (Simberloff 1976), the manipulations were equally inventive. After the islands had been censused, and an equilibrium number of species determined for each island (a 'control' diversity), crews moved in with chain saws, handsaws and hatchets, and each island was split into 2 or more smaller parts, with water gaps of 1m between. To the insects, apparently this 1m gap was sufficient to make crossing from one sub-island to another a jump dispersal. The smaller, sub-islands were then censused repeatedly over a time interval sufficient to permit re-equilibration to find out how species numbers changed with island area. Remember, the area censused had been part of a previous island, and should contain all habitats (plant parts, vertical structures) in the same proportions as before (i.e. the same habitat heterogeneity, however measured). Alterations were only quantitative, in the form of area reduction, no unique feature was removed.
The results were clear-cut. Each island reduced in size re-equilibrated at a lower insect diversity. Considering all the experimental islands in developing a model for the pattern in reduction, the diversity change fit a log-log relationship (i.e. a power function) between diversity and area. Thus, Simberloff's data fit the original species-area relationship. Area was the key determinant. The process of re-equilibration, however, involved extinction of species from islands supersaturated due to their reduction in size. We have already encountered the underlying biological cause of those extinctions: population sizes of 'marginal' species, that is those whose populations were already small before reduction in area, were decreased to the point where chance extinction due to demographic stochasticity became likely, and re-colonization unlikely. Such extinctions are an important component of the equilibrium model of island biogeography.
Figure 2 - Effect of island fragmentation on insect diversity in mangrove mangles. Simberloff (1976).
There are few islands that have been studied over long enough periods to test the hypothesis of equilibrium with turnover, i.e. the occurrence of a stable but dynamic equilibrium. Among those few are the California Channel Islands. The interpretation of these data is a source of continuing controversy. That's important, because the crux of the equilibrium theory is proof (or documentation) of insular turnover at equilibrium. A paper (Gilbert 1980) found 25 attempts to document turnover at equilibrium, and found few (basically just mangrove island studies by Simberloff) acceptable without question. In Simberloff's original defaunation studies, for example, one island supported 7 species of Hymenoptera prior to fumigation and 8 after equilibrium had been re-established about one year later. However, only two of these species were present both before and after fumigation. This sort of experimental study is designed to allow for rapid re-equilibration.
The Channel Island studies represent an interesting attempt to deal with the problems of scale (here time) when dealing with most real ecosystems. Recognizing that there may be difficulties (the initial, historical survey of species presences on the island used breeding records collected over many years, rather than a single survey at one time), Diamond's studies of turnover on the Channel islands are still regularly cited (Diamond 1969).
Initial data reported collections and observations indicating the fauna of individual islands in 1917. Diamond compared those species lists with a survey he did in 1968. Over the 51 years between censuses the numbers of species on islands remained almost perfectly constant, but turnover was as high as 62%, i.e. as much as 62% of the original list had been replaced by new species. The islands had the following characteristics:
Island 1917 1968 Extinctions Immigrations %turnover
Los Coronados 11 11 4 4 36
San Nicholas 11 11 6 6 50
San Clemente 28 24 9 5 25
Santa Catalina 30 34 6 10 24
Santa Barbara 10 6 7 3 62
San Miguel 11 15 4 8 46
Santa Cruz 36 37 6 7 17
Anacapa 15 14 5 4 31
These data seem initially to fit the equilibrium theory quite well. Numbers remain almost constant while turnover occurs in a significant number of species. However, the theory also suggests, as you will soon see, that turnover should be related to island area (through effects of area on extinction rates) and/or isolation (through effects on immigration rates. Neither was the case; instead turnover was approximately inversely proportional to the number of species present. That is not forecast by the model.
Figure 3 - The number of species in censuses of 3 of the California Channel Islands.
Figure 4 - % turnover in species numbers on California Channel Islands. (a) for nine of the islands. (b) for Anacapa as a function of time between pairs of surveys.
Why should turnover be related to island area or isolation? Consider first 2 islands at equal distance from the source, but differing in area. Long distance (jump) dispersal is generally assumed to be a chance event, not directed or goal oriented. In that case, dispersal probabilities and immigration rates onto the 2 islands should be the same. Area, however, does affect the extinction rate of colonists. The larger island should have 1) higher habitat heterogeneity, 2) decreased intensity of interactions due to reduced niche overlaps resulting from habitat heterogeneity and 3) larger population sizes making chance extinctions less likely.
These factors should be operative, at least in a relative way, independent of the number of species present. Therefore, the extinction curves should have similar shape, but have lower values for the larger island. Putting this comparison on a graph, but using a linearized version of immigration and extinction curves, we find a larger equilibrium number of species on the larger island, but also a lower turnover rate on that island.
To assess the effects of isolation consider 2 islands of equal size, but located at differing distances from the source. With identical sizes we assume that habitat heterogeneity, population sizes and interactions on the islands are quantitatively identical, and thus they have the same extinction rate curves. Immigration rates onto the more distant island should, however, be lower at any S since the probability of a successful dispersal decreases (possibly exponentially) with distance. We can go further, and suggest that the decrease should be most noticeable for species which tend to be among the first colonists. Later immigrants with lower dispersal capacities have only a slim chance anyways, and depend on rare, special conditions like storms for successful immigration. For these species a change in distance should mean less in shifting immigration rates. Once more we turn these suggestions into a comparison on the graph. The more distant island has a lower equilibrium number of species, but also a lower turnover rate at equilibrium than an island closer to the source.
Figure 5 - Multiple immigration and extinction curves indicating effects of differences in size and isolation on equilibria and turnover rates. Brown and Gibson (1983).
These comparisons can be combined in various interesting and complicated ways. Rather than document the possibilities, it is probably more valuable to attempt to list the assumptions and predictions of the basic MacArthur-Wilson model. Some of the ideas in this list will not be fully examined until later in this section.
Under What Conditions Does the Model Apply?
1) Islands are real isolates (rescue effect, discussed below, not important)
2) Islands have comparable habitat heterogeneity (complexity). There are no gross environmental changes over the time period of colonization
3) Species counted on islands are residents
4) There is a definable mainland species pool
What Are the Characteristics of the Equilibrium?
1) It is dynamic
2) It is approached asymptotically
3) The process is inherently stochastic
4) The model and the equilibrium are describing processes in ecological time
What Are the Characteristics of Turnover?
1) The process is not successional
2) Species replacements occur frequently
3) Immigration rates decrease with increasing species numbers. Extinction rates increase with increasing species numbers
What Influences the Equilibrium Number of Species?
1) Influenced by area through extinction rates
2) Influenced by isolation through immigration rates
3) Varies faster with area on distant islands (see below)
4) Varies faster with isolation on small islands (see below)
With this summary in mind, we return to problems. With regard to Diamond's data, no combination of size and isolation leads to the prediction that turnover rate is inversely (or in any other sense) proportional to the number of species on an island.
Since the data are repeatedly cited and classic, it's worth trying to understand why this anomalous result was reported. There are a number of possible answers, and arguments in the literature could be described by indicating that 'the fur has definitely flown'. For one thing, the interval between the censuses was very long. That may have had significant effect on the measured turnover. If the time interval is long enough it becomes likely that some of the species which had gone extinct at some time between the censuses also re-immigrated during that interval (or the converse). In either case the measured turnover would underestimate actual rates. To attempt to correct for that possibility, Diamond and his collaborators went back to the Channel Islands annually during the early 1970's, and also used thorough data gathered for Farnes Island off Great Britain. The result of differences in the interval between censuses is evident in Fig.8 (and reported in Diamond and May 1978). The result for the Farne Islands is parallel. In either case the apparent turnover decreases rapidly as the census interval increases. To show you why, consider what happened to the meadow pipit on Farnes between 1946 and 1974 (May and Diamond 1977). The pipit bred for 2 years, went extinct in the 3rd, then went through 5 more cycles of immigration and extinction over the remainder of the period. From annual census records that indicates 11 turnover events in 29 years, where a census after 30 years would have recognized only a single extinction, as well as a constant diversity of 6 species on the island. The same basic pattern applies to the Channel Islands. Instead of turnover rates ranging from 17-62% (or .34-1.24% per year), annual censuses indicate actual turnover rates of 1-10% per year, and are about an order of magnitude larger than indicated by to 51 year interval for most islands.
That's not the only corrective surgery which has been suggested for the theory. It is also evident that monotonic rate functions (particularly the immigration rate curve) may be overly simplistic. That should be evident by drawing a parallel between accumulation of species on an island and primary succession. When an island is newly formed (frequently volcanic) it has no organic content in (and frequently no) mineral soil. The first plants must be special sorts that have no requirement for nutrients from the soil (or possibly no requirement for soil at all); instead they are soil formers, leaving behind their nutrients extracted from the rock (as well as their bodies) to improve conditions for later arrivals. Krakatoa, East of Java, was not only a B movie, but a real historical event in the 1880's. What kind of immigration curve described the relationship between immigration rate and the number of species on Krakatoa after its formation. Depending on our definition of immigration (does it end with landing on the island, or require initial growth to be counted) and extinction (does a species have to reproduce at least once on an island before we consider its loss an extinction?) either immigration rate or extinction rate curves could be modified. For simplicity we'll include the modifications in the immigration rate curve. Now it isn't monotonic decreasing; instead it may have an initial rising phase representing the additional immigration possible with the formation of soil. That is the naive logic. Reality isn't quite so simple. Over the first 50-60 years since eruption (1883) the 'curves' of the number of species accumulated over time for various plant groups seem virtually straight lines; there is no decrease in rate of immigration over this time. Similar arguments could be advanced, producing a similar curve shape, with respect to other trophic levels. Equilibrium diversity and turnover rates can be affected by these modifications.
Figure 6 - Colonization rates for vascular plants on Krakatau measured in terms of total number of species (labeled 13), immigration and extinction rates (14), and as functions of the number of species present (15). From Thornton et al. (1993).
Since Diamond's data from the Channel Island studies suggested an appropriate relationship between turnover and area-isolation effects, but could not quantify them, an appropriate experimental test became important. Jim Brown and his wife Astrid attempted such a test (Brown and Brown 1977). They studied the colonization of thistle plants by assorted insects and spiders by repeated census following defaunation. Almost everything fit the basic MacArthur-Wilson model, but... The turnover rate should be inversely related to island distance (isolation) according to the theory. If we look at just distance effects on the same island (i.e. area), the nearer island should have a higher turnover rate. That's not what the Browns found. Instead, whether plant 'islands' were large or small the turnover rates were higher on more distant islands.
Site 1 Site 2
# of plants Mean # species turnover rate # of plants Mean # species turnover rate
large- 16 3.82 0.67 9 5.25 0.29
large- 7 3.78 0.78 9 4.44 0.42
small- 56 1.89 0.78 21 2.21 0.69
small- 3 1.33 1.00 11 0.80 0.91
Based upon a 5 day census interval (remember what Diamond's data ended up showing about the importance of census interval), turnover rates were consistently higher on the more isolated plants. This reversal of the expected pattern is explained as resulting from the effect of repeated immigration of species onto near islands. The original model was psychologically, if not explicitly, concerned with a degree of isolation which made such repeated immigrations unlikely. Under real conditions repeated immigration may be likely, particularly on near islands. Addition of a new immigrant member into a small population reduces the probability of extinction. This repeated immigration is, therefore, termed the 'rescue effect'. It could, as I've just suggested, be presented as affecting immigration or extinction, but since the key effect is on extinction rates, making extinction less likely on near islands, that's where the curves are usually adjusted for rescue. When the rescue effect occurs, turnover rates will tend to be directly proportional to distance. The effect may be evident in data sets as divergent as these studies of plant 'islands' and Diamond's New Guinea satellite island avifaunas.
Figure 7 - How the rescue effect modifies curves of immigration, extinction, and turnover as a function of distance.
From predictions of rescue effect occurrence we can make some general, graphical predictions of how distance effects immigration, extinction and turnover. Note that we are here graphing these rates against distance, not against species numbers. The immigration rate declines exponentially with distance, as we've previously seen in a variety of data. The extinction rate was previously considered as depending on island area, and unrelated to distance; it would have been a straight horizontal line on this graph before we considered rescue. Now we recognize that the rescue effect bends the extinction curve down at low distances. When we combine these curves to estimate turnover as a function of distance, it has an intermediate peak; turnover is highest at those distances when both immigration and extinction rates are high. Very close to the source extinction rates are low; at large distances immigration rates are low.
The next correction to the simple model is one which questions the validity of the species-area relationship. Are projections of area-dependent extinction valid for the total range of island areas studied? Of course, I wouldn't be suggesting the question unless something were amiss. There is a problem on very small islands. MacArthur and Wilson recognized that possibility in presenting the basic theory, and suggested such islands were unstable, should have very high turnover rates, and probably not have area-dependent extinction curves. Basically, they thought any area effects would be masked by the instability of the islands. The figure in the original monograph showed a split curve for extinction rates, i.e. an unpredictable area effect. The original data used to construct that graph was drawn from studies of the ecology of the Kapingamarengi atoll system in the Carolina Islands in Micronesia (Niering 1963). These small outcrops appeared to show a threshold in the species-area relationship at about 3.5 acres in area. It was suggested that the instability was not habitat destruction by physical forces, but instability in the presence of fresh water. Below the threshold area the water table on the island is saline; fresh water availability depends totally on frequent rains. Above the threshold area there is a permanent 'lens' of fresh water, and extinction of plant and animal species dependent on fresh water becomes much less likely.
Figure 8 - Predictions of extinction rate characteristics on very small islands. From MacArthur and Wilson (1967)
That explanation seemed fairly successful and biologically reasonable. However, Whitehead and Jones (1969) re- examined the same data and came to somewhat different conclusions. First, they found the data better fit by a curvilinear relationship between species and island area, rather than a threshold. That, by itself, doesn't mean too much. They also explored biological bases for the curvilinear relationship. Their rationale were:
a) Part of the problem was that the species list included a number of species introduced by man. Almost all these species were found solely on larger atolls; a number have been recent introductions. These species (particularly recent introductions) are not part of a normal biological equilibrium, and removing them from the species-area curve seems to lower the slope of the curve at larger areas without affecting the slope among smaller atolls (fewer visits by man means that there have been fewer introductions on smaller atolls). The way removals from species lists were handled left those species apparently introduced by Melanesian natives early enough to have had a reasonable opportunity to have become part of a biological equilibrium or to have gone extinct.
Figure 9 - An alternative view of characteristics of species contributing to diversity on Kapingamarangi atoll. From Whitehead and Jones (1969)
b) In addition, there is more than one kind of species introduced to the islands by natural dispersal. The different types also show different rates of numerical increase with area. One kind is what are called strand type species. Strand species are those which inhabit the relatively uniform shoreline habitat. Most are salt tolerant both in dispersing and adult phases. As adults they live in a habitat which is subject to frequent, if not continuous, salt spray. As dispersers many, if not most, are passively carried on ocean currents. These adaptations suggest that strand species do not require a lens of fresh water, and would therefore have no area threshold for occurrence. They also suggest that such species should be widespread and have a relatively high immigration rate. Thus, including the presence of a rescue effect, these species should have low extinction rates as well. In sum they should show little area effect and low endemism. The data from Kapingamarangi indicates that even the smallest atolls, only a few meters in diameter, have 5-7 species of the strand type, while the largest islands, with areas measured in the tens of square miles, have only 12-14 such species. In essence, strand species have a species- area curve which approaches a straight, horizontal line.
c) The so-called non-strand species cannot tolerate salt water and persist only where a lens of fresh water persists in the soil. Once the strand and introduced species are cropped from the species lists, the remainder (non-strand) display a species-area curve which fits quite well to the predictions of the MacArthur-Wilson model. Thus the basic theory is compromised by its inability to deal effectively (at least as a unified, simple model) with ecologically heterogeneous species groups. The basic theory arose from intensive study of avifauna and ponerine ants on widely spaced oceanic islands. Rooted in studies of homogeneous taxa of limited underlying ecological variety (particularly the ants, but in terms of dispersal and foraging methods, probably birds as well), the theory fits such groups well. When extended to a broader taxa and 'islands' the accuracy of predictions and the utility of the basic model are called into question.
There is one last criticism to aim at the basic theory before moving on to its quantification. Let's say you are studying a group of islands which should equilibrate fairly rapidly, both because of their distance from the source pool(s), their size, and the taxa under investigation. Over time you find the number of species on the islands to vary, even after it would seem that equilibrium should have been reached. What can you conclude?
1) That Sob is slowly approaching Seq, but that equilibrium has not been reached due to disturbance, possibly at an intensity subtle enough that the observer fails to note the disturbances - or -
2) That equilibrium has, in fact, been reached, but that the equilibrium itself varies due to shifting ecological conditions (e.g. climate) either on the island, affecting extinction, or at the source, affecting immigration. As a corollary of this view, even the observation of a constant number of species does not ensure equilibrium, since we have no independent estimate of S. The simple theory is simply not that quantitatively predictive as presently constituted. That, in a nutshell, is the key problem of this theory. It is extraordinarily difficult to design an experiment with appropriate controls on S, etc. to falsify the basic model. Yet the model remains very important to a broadening range of fields, subject to intensive efforts at corrective surgery, because it does have a lot of qualitative predictive ability.
Modeling Effects of Disturbance on the Equilibrium Theory
It is apparent that disturbance can have important consequences for observed equilibria or the lack thereof. What is difficult is the fact that disturbance has effects on the survival and/or reproductive success of individuals. A disturbance, unless extraordinarily massive, does not affect every member of a population. Modeling on an individual basis has been difficult or impossible until recently. An Italian group (Villa et al. 1992) attempted to evaluate the effect of regular disturbance at differing intensities on the equilibrium. The following were their conditions:
1) Island habitats were equally distant from the 'source', but differed in size, from 50 'cells' (each cell was a potential site for an individual) to 1100.
2) The were 64 species. Each had its own mean lifespan, interval between reproduction, and a range of clutch sizes from minimum to maximum, i.e. a life history. Each species also has a relative dispersal capacity.
3) A colonization species pool with relative abundances in the pool set.
4) Colonization occurs by randomly allowing individuals to disperse according to a negative exponential distribution (but distributions are affected by relative dispersal distance). They are successful if they land on an empty cell. If so their life histories determine whether the population grows or goes extinct.
5) Disturbances occur periodically. Intensity varied from 0%-75%, where this probability was applied to each individual, and determined the likelihood of the individual being killed by the disturbance.
Some results of this simulation seem about as you might have predicted. Some are 'strange'. The two figures below show you some of the key results. Figure 11 shows you their eyeball estimates of the conditions which resulted in equilibrium. Over the 120 time intervals their simulation ran, slow-growing organisms never reached equilibrium on large islands, but did on small ones when there was no disturbance (indicated by 0 on the x-axis). They could not reach equilibrium on any islands at higher levels of disturbance. Fast growing organisms (on the right) could reach equilibrium on any size island in the absence of disturbance, and with the larger population size possible on very large islands, could even reach equilibrium in the face of moderate disturbance levels (i.e. levels 2 and 3).
Figure 10 - indications of relative equilibrium (thick lines) in 10 simulation runs for islands with different numbers of cells (the y-axis) and different intensities of disturbance (the x-axis: 0-no disturbance, 1-10% effect, 2-25% effect, 3-40% effect, 5-75% effect). Part a is for organisms with 'slow' growth (low clutch size, longer interval between reproduction, longer lifespan) and part b for 'fast' growing individuals.
Figure 11 - Species-area relationships for a) slow-growing and b) fast-growing organisms affected by disturbance. The 3 curves are for no disturbance (top curves), 25% disturbance effect (middle curves) and 75% disturbance (bottom curves).
Evident in Fig. 11 is the community level effect of disturbance. Disturbance lowers the overall number of species resident, but if there is sufficient time for equilibrium to have been reached, life history makes a difference. At low levels of disturbance, the slow-growing species attain a higher diversity. At high levels of disturbance, species are not able to remain around long, and a greater diversity can be achieved by being a good colonizer (a weed, rapid population growth, etc.). Counter-intuitively, when the actual fitting values for these curves are assessed, the steepness of the species area curve increases when disturbance is present, even though overall diversity decreases. What all this tells us is we need to know more about the effects of disturbance in real communities. The real world is affected by disturbance on a more-or-less frequent basis, and conservation models based on an equilibrium paradigm need to be re-considered to incorporate some indication of the effects of disturbance.
Brown, J. and A. Brown. 1977. Turnover rates in insular biogeography: effect of immigration on extinction. Ecology 58:445
Diamond, J. 1969. Avifaunal equilibria and species turnover on the Channel Islands of California. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science 64:57.
Diamond, J. and R.M. May. 1977. Species turnover rates on islands: dependence on census interval. Science 197:266-270.
Gilbert. 1980. The equilibrium theory of island biogeography: fact or fiction?. Journal of Biogeography 7:209.
MacArthur, R.H. and E.O. Wilson. 1967. The Theory of Island Biogeography. Monographs in Population Biology, Princeton Univ.
Niering, W.A. 1963. Terrestrial ecology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Islands. Ecological Monographs 33:131-160.
Simberloff, D. 1976. Experimental zoogeography of islands: effects of island size. Ecology 57:629.
Thornton, I.W.B., R.A. Zan, and S. van Balen. 1993. Colonization of Rakata (Krakatau Is.) by non-migrant land birds from 1883 to 1992 and implications for the value of island equilibrium theory. Journal of Biogeography 20:441-452.
Villa, F., O. Rossi, and F. Sartore. 1992. Understanding the role of chronic environmental disturbance in the context of island biogeographic theory. Environmental Management 16:653-666.
Whitehead, D.R. and C.E. Jones. 1969. Small islands and the equilibrium theory of island biogeography. Evolution 23:171.


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Keith Urban will also play season kick-off gig
Usher is set to kick off the forthcoming NFL season, with a concert at Columbus Circle in New York on Thursday (September 4).
The R n' B singer will perform alongside Natasha Bedingfield and Keith Urban at the afternoon concert which will take place before the Redskins Vs Giants game.
And despite rumours that Bruce Springsteen will provide the halftime entertainment at the 2009 Super Bowl, Usher says he would like to take part.
"I don't think it's too early to consider it," he told the Associated Press. "Certainly being associated with the organization makes that a lot more possible. There have been conversations for a lot of years about me being part of a performance at a Super Bowl."
And he says he is performing next week's gig in an effort to score the coveted halftime slot.
"I'm hoping that this leads, definitely, to that," he said "This whole process is basically you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours."
The concert on Thursday will stream on NFL.com, and Usher plans to perform three songs: 'Here I Stand', 'Changing Places' and 'What's Your Name', accompanied by Obama supporter will.i.am.
–By our New York staff.

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Some studies of Bruce from a figure painting class at the museum. I'll have to photograph the ones I did of him while making him wear our Mille Mascaras luchadore mask.
Antonia modeling the luchadore mask for the teen painting class I taught this summer
New paintings and commissioned pen + ink pieces will be up soon! I just need to fight off this death-flu! Gotta keep the gloves up n' all that.
Basil, being no help at all


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As people may know, I'm a big fan of many of the so-called Web 2.0 technologies (although less of a fan of the term itself). I've been blogging since 2001, and like to at least create an account on anything new that comes along, just to see if it can add anything to my online life.
I've been exploring Twitter today, and while it seems fun, I'm not sure it does that much that existing things I use can't do. That said, it did give me the chance to interact with two services that don't seem that well know as yet (to the point where I have my first name as a username on both) , but which I find very useful.
Firstly there is onXiam which simply creates a profile page detailing all the various online services I use, and what my username is in case people want to add me (or in case I forget what I've signed up to).
And then there is Mugshot, which is a Red Hat devised social networking site which I generally use to spice together RSS feeds from LJ, Facebook, LastFM and about 20 news based websites. I don't use it for social activities, but it does act as an intelligent feed aggregator and a way of keeping up with the news.
In theory, this blog post should aggregate to Mugshot, which should then in turn feed through to Facebook, thus informing pretty much everyone I interact with online that I have something of vague interest to say. Of course, this wouldn't be required if I'd made any effort to add everyone I know to every site I use and not just one or two, but until I get organised I think this is the best form of "mass broadcast" available.


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Hilarious jokes | 22 Hilarious jokes Collection
We will present you what we consider the most two hilarious jokes:
· A guy was visiting his old grandfather in a rural area. The grandfather prepared breakfast of toast, eggs and bacon. When trying to eat our guy notices on his plate a film like substance. He asked his grandfather if the plate was clean. The grandfather said that the plate is as clean as clean water can get it. At the lunch the guy got the same issue and the grandfather had the same answer. Later the guy was trying to leave for a trip to the nearby town but the dog started to growl and was staying in his way. The guy complained to his grandfather about the nasty dog. Without bothering to leave his baseball game on TV, the old man yelled: "Coldwater, sit down!"
· Two old guys decided that they need to visit a brothel for some action. However, the madam didn't want to waste her girls on them and gave them just some "blow-up" dolls. After the old guys finished their business they were talking in their way home. The first one said: "I guess my girl was dead because she never moved or moaned." The second guy said: "Mine was a witch. When I started to nibble her she flew out the window!"
best 22 picture Jokes


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Persian, The Classy Cat Pokťmon. It has a high opinion of itself, although not to the same extent as the Alolan Persian. Itís quite difficult to make friends with this Pokťmon. It has a violent temperament. It will attack anything that looks it in the eye. Its sharp claws inflict deep wounds.
On this week's adventure our heroes from the Pokťmon of the Week staff bring you a special report from inside Team Rocket's very own secret headquarters. That's right we'll be talking about the Viridian City Gym Leader's and Team Rocket Boss' favorite pet Pokťmon, give it up for Persian! It's really fast for its format topping out at Base 115 speed, and it has access to the Technician ability and fantastic offensive movepool. Its defenses and bulk are terrible though, so in singles formats it functions mostly as a glass cannon / late game sweeper. It does have a lot of support moves to play around with too though like Taunt, Fake Out, Knock Off and so many others..but we're gonna get out of here before any Team Rocket Grunts wise up and spot us.
Limber: The Pokťmon cannot be Paralysed while having this ability. It's a nice ability, but it's really niche and Technician is way more useful.
Giovanni's Pet
- Hyper Voice
Hyper Voice is your main Stab, and will allow you to deal out good neutral damage to most things as well as hit through substitute. Swift can also be used to as it has the same power with Technician and never misses as well. Hidden Power Ghost provides strong coverage against the likes of Gourgeist and Mr. Mime. Water Pulse provides good coverage against things like Golem and Piloswine. Last but not least is Nasty Plot to help boost Persian's special attacks whenever you can get one in.
Other Options
- Thunderbolt: An alternate coverage option if your team has trouble with Water Types. You could also use Shock Wave as well since they have the same Power thanks to Technician, but you lose out on the potential paralysis chance.
Countering Persian
Well you won't need to call those meddling twerps and their Pikachu to cross off Persian. There's any of a number of ways given how frail it's. Fighting Types like Poliwrath can take pretty much any unboosted attack our boss' Persian can dish out and KO it. Then there's common's Choice Scarf users like Rotom F and and fast 'mons like Zebstrika that are even faster than Persian and can KO it with ease because of how frail its defenses are. It'll have trouble going up against any Special Wall too like Regice that'll wear you down and take advantage of Persian's frailty.
Alolan Persian, The Classy Cat Pokťmon. Its round face and smooth coatósofter than the most high-class velvetóhave made this a very popular Pokťmon in Alola. It looks down on everyone other than itself. Its preferred tactics are sucker punches and blindside attacks.
Well Persian was one of the other lucky few that received a region exclusive forme, and a cute fat head to go along with it. I mean real talk I can't decide if it's hilarious or adorable, but I seriously love Alolan Persian. It's definitely an improvement from Giovanni's pet. It comes with a brand new Dark Type instead of Normal, and brand new ability called Fur Coat which helps bridge part of the gap in its frail defenses by halving the damage of all physical Moves. Fur Coat is seriously a godsend. It does come with a lot more weakness though now that it's not just a pure boring Normal Type from Kanto anymore, so you'll need to watch out for Bug and Fairy Types in addition to the same old Fighting Types.
Fur Coat: Halves the damage from physical moves onto this Pokťmon. It's a great ability for a Pure Dark Type, and allows Persian to function in a team support role instead of just a glass cannon.
Garfield and Friends
- Taunt
Taunt is there to shut down your enemy's bulky walls like Umbreon, and make it easier for you and your squad to whittle down their HP. Toxic is there to wear down your enemy's team, and it's the only thing you really do to Kommo-o who will walk all over you otherwise and is immune to the effects of your Parting Shot because of its Soundproof ability. Foul Play is your Stab and your only attack on this set, and will allow you to hit physical attackers hard. Last but not least is Parting Shot which allows you to lower your enemies offensive prowess and switch out, and if you activate Darkinium Z with it you'll be able to heal one of your squadmates to full health one time as well.
Other Options
- Assault Vest: If you choose to strap an Assault Vest over Alolan Persian's Fur Coat it'll make it much more effective Tank, but you'll have to lose all your support moves and Z Parting Shot is Alolan Persian's main selling point so overall I don't recommend using Assault Vest.
VGC, Double, & Triple Battle Options
Persian was typically nowhere to be found in past VGC seasons, but Sun and Moon gifted Giovanni's pet with a new Alolan form. Alolan Persian comes with a different typing and a great ability. With an amazing support movepool, Alolan Persian has had good success on many teams in VGC 2017 so far. A fast Fake Out and a variety of ways to disrupt opposing Pokemon makes Alolan Persian a top choice to support your team.
Fat Cat
-Fake Out
Fur Coat is a great defensive ability that makes Persian very bulky on the physical side. Max speed with a Timid or Jolly nature ensures that Persian outspeeds Modest Tapu Koko. A Timid nature is preferred if running Snarl to do a little more damage, but Jolly is an option if you do not and want your Fake Out to do a little more damage. Mago Berry (or any other "pinch" berry that heals 50% and will not confuse your Pokemon) can greatly increase the cat's longevity, giving it even more turns to disrupt. The defensive EVs on this set ensures that Persian can live a spread-damage Dazzling Gleam from Timid Life Orb Tapu Koko, and that Sacred Sword from Jolly Kartana at -1 attack is a 4HKO, thanks to the Mago Berry.
Fake Out is one of Alolan Persian's biggest selling points as a support Pokemon. Foul Play does big damage against strong physical type attackers, and is great since it does not require Persian to invest in any attack. Parting Shot is a great support move, lowering a target's attack and special attack by one stage each, which increases your team's ability to take attacks, and give your team momentum with what you switch in. Taunt can stop Trick Room or other setup strategies, while Snarl lowers both opponents' special attack by one.
Other Options & Team Ideas
-Darkinium Z can pair with a few moves in Persian's arsenal, but Parting Shot is the most common one used. Z-Parting Shot will fully heal the Pokemon who switches in after Persian uses the move.
Countering Alolan Persian
Well it's got a fat head and a new Type, but Alolan Persian isn't anymore invincible than its cousin from the Kanto Region. Kommo-o will be your biggest headache in life because it's ability Soundproof neutralizes your Parting Shot and it's part Fighting Type on top of that and can turn around and KO you out of the match. There's not much you can really do if you go up against that except use Toxic and switch in another squadmate to wear it down. Then there's pesky Fairy Types, and most of them are special oritented so your Fur Coat won't help you out against them and Alolan Persian is just as frail as Kanto Persian and with Dark Type it'll be crushed by Fairy Types like Diancie and Gardevoir. Emboar and Heracross will really bruise you up to with their Fighting Moves even if you're using Fur Coat and take you down. There's many others, but those are the most common ones. Good luck.
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Various Opportunities of Employment in Australia for Foreigners
The foreigners love to seek jobs in Australia due to the friendly environment and various job opportunities available in this country. The employment in Australia is quite easy if the job seekers are aware of the rules and regulations required for applying for a job in any organization of this region. The foreigners need to undergo many tests and formalities for arriving in Australia, seeking jobs here.
Procedures to apply for employment in Australia
- The applicant should have a valid passport from his own country, to allow him to travel to a foreign country, submitting all the necessary documents.
- Then he should apply for a Job Visa in Australian Embassy of his country, provided he is an adult and has the required qualifications for applying in a specific position. If he wants to pursue any professional course in Australia, then he may take a student's visa that can be upgraded later to a Job visa, after the successful completion of his course. Moreover, he needs to have a clean background, without any criminal record in his past.
- Then the job seeker should have an idea about the industrial sector that he wants to work in. He should choose the job type that he feels capable of doing well, as per his educational credentials and trainings. The person expecting an employment in Australia should have definite idea about the job market of that country.
- It is better if the candidate can manage to contact any recruitment consultancy of Australia, from where he can get to know about the job openings that can be suitable for him there. The advice and help from these consultancies can show him the right way of securing a job there, as per the vacancies available in the Australian job market.
- The resumes and the cover letter of the job candidate are modified according to the demands for getting an employment in Australia. All the required details should be included as per the ideal format of these documents, to make them impressive for the Australian employers.
- He should not miss a chance to apply in any suitable job opening in an Australian organization. So he should keep on consulting the Australian job portals and the placement gazettes, searching for openings.
- It is better to undergo more suitable courses, to increase his eligibility in Australian companies. It is even better if he can work in similar position in an organization in his own country, to enhance his experience level, leading to more hike in his expected salary.
- If the candidate is from a non-English speaking country, he should undergo spoken English course, to improve his communication skills. He may have to appear in a test for proving his English communicative skill, which is preferable for a job in Australia, since English is the main working language here.
Therefore, it is certain that lots of preparation needs to be taken by a foreigner job seeker, to apply for an employment in Australia, to settle his career in that country.


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Surely the Prime Minister wasn't kidding anyone? When she walked from her car on Friday afternoon towards the waiting media and told the nation she was ready to "provide certainty and lead Britain forward at this critical time for our country", nobody bought it, did they?
Theresa May – by some distance the worst Prime Minister in living memory – has neither the competence nor the authority to carry out the mission she describes. Her days as the occupant of 10 Downing Street are numbered.
It would be easy to slather oneself with hindsight and say that May's decision to call a snap general election was a mistake, that she was doomed to failure the moment she announced her plan. But we cannot say this with confidence.
What we can say is that the Prime Minister ran a spectacularly, jaw-droppingly, Bafta-winningly bad campaign. May shattered her reputation as a safe pair of hands by letting us see the real her.
Of course, the Prime Minister kept away from members of the public as often as was possible, Instead, she favoured tightly controlled events – such as, say, a meeting in a hut in a forest in the Highlands – where she would repeat the words "strong and stable" for the cameras.
When she had to interact with voters, May was comically awkward (imagine a Morningside accountant trying to talk about football with the bloke building his conservatory). She grinned and nodded and occasionally shrieked with uncomfortable laughter. In interviews, she was wooden and monotonous, delivering drab bromides and displaying a reticence to engage that further undermined the idea of her as a dynamic leader.
May asked us to trust her to deliver the best possible Brexit deal and then showed us just how unfit she is to perform that task.
The consequences for the Prime Minister will be grave (and I'll come back to that) but she is not the only victim of her own ineptitude.
The UK does not approach Brexit negotiations holding a strong hand. The remaining members of the EU owe the UK nothing and, politically, it is in their interests to make this clear. With nationalist parties agitating across the EU for similar referendums, our former partners will be keen to show that departure from the club has consequences. There are those European leaders who think the best outcome would be the UK's head on a stick by the city walls.
How on earth, then, could Theresa May be considered the right person to enter into these negotiations? She has been humiliated by an election disaster of her own creation. Her credibility is shot to pieces.
Every other leader across the EU knows this. They know that, in May, they are dealing with a second-rater. They know just how bad she is at this stuff.
There are other implications, too, that give cause for concern.
The political solution to years of sectarian violence in Northern Ireland is young and fragile. Thus far, the most important role the UK government has been able to play is that of honest broker when things have grown fraught between unionists and nationalists at Stormont.
The neutrality of the UK government in matters devolved to Northern Ireland is self-evidently important. May's dependence on the Democratic Unionist Party to help her minority administration get legislation through the Commons is bad news for the power-sharing agreement at Stormont. Suddenly, the DUP finds itself with considerably more political power than the republicans of Sinn Fein. This upset in the equilibrium cannot be good for Northern Ireland.
Scottish Conservative leader Ruth Davidson said on Friday that she had sought assurances that any dealings with the socially conservative DUP would not mean the diminution of LGBTI rights. Davidson reported that she has received the promises she required but her disdain for the arrangement was palpable.
The Conservative Party did not earn its deserved reputation for resilience without displaying a considerable degree of ruthlessness when required. Once-loved leaders are put out of their misery as soon as there's the slightest hint they might be a liability.
This fate awaits May. Senior Tories say that she is safe until after the Tories have provided a Queen's Speech and re-established themselves in government. After that, it will be a matter of when, not if, she is invited to step down or face a bruising leadership challenge.
I can't imagine May having the stomach for the fight. The Prime Minister might have won most seats but she squandered a parliamentary majority and revealed herself to be incompetent.
Meanwhile, Labour's Jeremy Corbyn did not have the disastrous night many – myself included – expected. But, despite increasing Labour's number of MPs, Corbyn still couldn't come close to beating a useless Tory leader.
Those in the Labour Party treating the result as a victory should think carefully about what exactly they achieved. Corbyn is secure in position, but he remains a divisive figure whose appeal is lost on a significant number of those voters whose support Labour needs if it is to win a general election.
And, while she may have led the SNP to victory in Scotland, First Minister Nicola Sturgeon is wounded by the loss of 21 MPs and the rejection of her independence plans that represents.
The only clear winner on Thursday was Ruth Davidson, who is now – without question – the pre-eminent Tory politician of the times.
Socially liberal and pro-EU, Davidson finds herself with considerable authority in the Tory Party, both north and south of the border. We should expect her to try to influence the direction of Brexit. If such a thing as "soft" Brexit exists, then be sure it's Davidson's preference. Whether there's any point in Ruth Davidson discussing this with Theresa May isn't at all clear.
As things stand, today, the current Prime Minister won't be involved in the Brexit negotiations. Her colleagues will see to that.


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Frequently Asked Questions about Dental Sedation
A sedation dentist most commonly administers dental sedation to patients in the form of a pill or IV prior to their appointment. This sedation medication works as a sedative and anxiety medication to help you feel calm and relaxed during your procedure.
Does dental sedation make you fall asleep?
Although some people use the term 'sleep dentistry' interchangeably with sedation dentistry, the dental sedation that your sedation dentist prescribes does not actually make you fall asleep. Oral conscious sedation usually makes you feel groggy and very relaxed, but you can remain conscious throughout the procedure. Many patients choose to sleep peacefully throughout their visit.
Is sedation dentistry safe?
Unlike some forms of general anesthesia and deep sedation that can render a patient unconscious for a period of time, oral conscious sedation allow you to remain conscious. You continue to have control over your protective reflexes and breathing capacity to ensure greater safety, and you can still communicate verbally with your sedation dentist if needed.
What are the side effects of dental sedation?
Many patients like that dental sedation creates a temporary amnesia effect, so that you won't remember hardly anything about your dental visit. Reduced post-operative soreness is another positive side effect of dental sedation.
To find out more about the benefits of dental sedation, use the Crown Council dentist locator on this page to find a sedation dentist near you.


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Well, yes, but no.....it's more like "grape nuts" like these little lovelies...
We went yesterday for lunch...which was delicious!! The prices were very reasonable and I will definitely go back again. I will also tell my students about this place...they like to try new places!
I made a point of taking with me a small bag of Grape Nuts (oh yes, I do have some...I actually like 'em!!)....just so they could see for themselves what I was talking about. We all tasted the cereal and came to the conclusion, very quickly, that we preferred the cookies...hands down!
And since we are on a "name" thing....the K-man Yahood me the other day...he must have been really bored to do that...but we found out something kind of interesting.
Are you ready for this???
I'm not the only Debbie Kuroiwa.
Now....I can understand other people being named Debbie. In 1962, the names Deborah, Debra and Debbie were #'s 9, 15 and 32 in the Most Popular Names list.
As for the name Kuroiwa, though not the Smith or Jones of Japan, there are quite a few "black rocks" (kuro=black, iwa=rock) running around the country.
But....to have another Debbie Kuroiwa?!?!?! Well...that's just a little weird, don't you think?? Aaaannnddddd...she is 47 AAAANNNDDDDd she lives in Hawaii.
I wonder if she is a teacher, too....THAT would be freaky!!
Have a great Sunday....may many things make you smile today!!!


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Beachcomber Le Mauricia in Grand BaieREGISTER YOUR INTEREST
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eLan property group has also developed a unique model in its hospitality division; allowing existing hotels to convert their property into sectional title hotels. In doing so, they offer individual investors a return and existing hotel owners an immediate payback on their capital.
Connect With eLan
Featured developments
The eLan Investor Club
The hospitality division is experienced in many facets of hospitality, including marketing, sales and hotel development. The management team within this division have over the past 20 years operated, project managed and opened a combined total of many hotels, resorts and game lodges in sub-Saharan Africa. The eLan executives have operated in a number of African countries operating hospitality products for international conglomerates, JSE listed companies, private individuals, share blocks and body corporates.
The division also analyses existing hospitality business' and creates turnaround strategies for owners and offers to assist in the sale of properties if this is the desired outcome. Through the use of partners in the tourism industry we direct sales and marketing platforms through third parties, thereby improving the overall return on investment for hospitality investors.
Brand Ambassadors
Derek Watts
Derek Watts has been a household name in South Africa since 1988, when he, together with Ruda Landman, became the first anchor of the MNET news and actuality show Carte Blanche. Derek, who started his television career as an SABC sports reporter in 1985, has been with Carte Blanche ever since, embarking on numerous exciting projects and winning dozens of awards. Derek is in high demand for corporate MC work, presentations and guest speaking. Click here to visit Derek's Twitter page
Gary Mabbutt
Gary Mabbutt is a living legend, and one of the greatest ambassadors for British sport. Gary began his career with Bristol Rovers F.C. in 1977, making 147 appearances in his five years with the club. He was transferred to Tottenham Hotspur F.C. in 1982, the club with which he has become synonymous, playing over 600 games and scoring 36 goals in his 16 years with the club. He was the captain of the club for 11 years from 1987-1998. He won a U.E.F.A. Cup winners medal in 1984 and a F.A. Cup winners medal in 1991. Gary Mabbutt also shares his predictions on our website. Click here to visit Gary's blog
Warren Whiteley
Warren Whiteley made a name for himself as a tenacious, talented rugby player and inspirational leader. As one of the main protagonists in the Lions' gutsy fight back into Super Rugby, Whiteley has earned spades of respect for his approach to life and the game.
Acknowledged as one of rugby's hardest-working loose forwards, Whiteley led the Lions to two sensational Super Rugby finals. He earned his first Springbok cap in 2014, became a regular in the starting line-up in 2016, and was named as the 58th Springbok captain by Allister Coetzee in 2017.
Nyasha Mushekwi
On-target striker, Nyasha Mushekwi's efforts scored his team, Dalian Yifang, a place in the lucrative Chinese Super League next season.
Zimbabwean-born Mushekwi headed to Asia at the end of 2015, after having played on loan to Belgian club K. V. Oostende and Swedish team Djurgadens. Mushekwi made an immediate impression in China's second league where he's become the Blue Hawks' go-to man upfront. Local fans will remember 30-year-old Mushekwi for his time at Sundowns where he scored 40 goals in 53 starts. Last season he ended as the second-highest scorer with 19 strikes, behind Brazilian hitman Luis Fabiano, as his team finished in fifth place.


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Russia, it seems, cannot catch a break when it comes to those nearly $50 billion -- but, hey, who's counting? -- Winter Olympic Games in Sochi.
The Games are set to kick off February 7 and run through -- in addition to an Olympic-record sum of money -- February 23.
From the backlash over swipes at the gay population, to holding wild killer whales captive, to Buzzfeed's rundown of just exactly what else that massive tab could cover (try 20 Mars Rover missions or all 32 NFL teams or even a near-complete set of 18 Oprah Winfreys), not to mention those nagging lack-of-snow concerns, it's just nye ochyen. (Or: not so good.)
On Wednesday, Bloomberg unearthed a whole new not-so-fabulous side to these Games at the Black Sea resort. A preview of a report coming in its Bloomberg Markets magazine in January claims that President Vladimir Putin has been strong-arming billionaires in the country to bankroll the games. Some of the biggest companies in the country have taken out loans to finance venues and apartments along the coast. Those include heads of nickel-producing giant Norilsk Nickel, aluminum heavyweight Rusal and state-controlled gas provider Gazprom.
And business leaders who took the loans out now say the soaring costs and restrictions on commercial activities mean they may lose money on those investments. Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Kozak reportedly tells Bloomberg that everyone involved had come to the project "voluntarily."
The article also points out that it's not even clear how the price tag has soared from an originally estimated $12 billion, with questions reportedly swirling around the former vice president of the Russian Olympic Committee, Akhmed Bilalov, who was fired by Putin and who, according to an associate, has suffered from mercury poisoning.
Bottom line: If the hoped-for post-Olympics tourist wave doesn't materialize, Putin's government may end up with a ghost town, and lots of big Russian businesses will have lost a great deal of money.
-- Barbara Kollmeyer
Follow this reporter @bkollmeyer
Follow The Tell blog @thetellblog
ALSO SEE: Chechen rebel raises threat of Sochi Olympics terrorism│Oprah Winfrey and the Swiss sales clerk│Obama and Oprah aside, Chicago didn't have what it took for 2016 Olympics│ The brightest stars in the Twitter firmament, by number of followers
(A prior version of this blog gave the incorrect dates for the Winter Olympics in Sochi. The blog has been corrected.)


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Robert N. Noyce, an inventor of a computer chip that revolutionized the electronics industry and gave rise to the high-technology era, died yesterday at Seton Medical Center in Austin, Tex., after suffering a heart attack at his home. He was 62 years old.
While Dr. Noyce's name never became widely known to the public, his work helped make possible products including personal computers, pocket calculators, programmable coffeemakers and microwave ovens and computerized flight plans for commercial and military aircraft.
In many ways, Dr. Noyce was an embodiment of Silicon Valley, the area of Northern California that is home to a great many technological companies, many of them started by young entrepreneurs. While his research opened doors for many technical advances, Dr. Noyce also played a leading role in the commercialization of electronics and as an industry spokesman who frequently lobbied in Washington.
The Door to Miniaturization
Dr. Noyce, who once described his career as the result of a succession of dissatisfactions, developed a system of interconnecting transistors on a single silicon microchip, known as integrated circuitry. He was awarded a patent in 1959, and the technology, which could manage many times more information than was possible with existing transistors, quickly became the basis of the modern computer and permitted a miniaturization of electronics used in many products.
Jack Kilby, a staff scientist at Texas Instruments Inc. who is now retired, is also recognized as an inventor of the integrated circuit, and holds patents as well. The two men worked independently.Continue reading the main story
''Bob Noyce was an instrumental figure in creating the semiconductor industry, which today is a $50 billion industry driving a $500 billion electronics industry,'' said Stan Victor, a spokesman for Texas Instruments. ''He will be missed.''
'Mayor of Silicon Valley'
In 1968, Dr. Noyce and an associate founded the Intel Corporation, which developed the microprocessor that is the heart of most personal computers, and helped start a number of other computer companies in Silicon Valley.
''He was considered the mayor of Silicon Valley,'' said Jim Jarrett, a spokesman for Intel. A founder of the Semiconductor Industry Association in 1975, Dr. Noyce was frequently in Washington to lobby on behalf of semiconductor manufacturers.
At the time of his death, Dr. Noyce was the president and chief executive of Sematech Inc., a research consortium in Austin that was organized by 14 corporations in an attempt to help the American computer industry catch up with the Japanese in semiconductor manufacturing technology.
Industry executives said finding a successor for him at Sematech would be difficult. ''He was clearly a person of stature who understood both the technical aspects of the business as well as the business itself,'' said Federico Faggin, who designed the microprocessor at Intel and is now president of Synaptics, a computer company in San Jose, Calif. ''It's a very big loss for Sematech and for the country, really. I don't think there is another one like him.''
'A Legendary Figure'
The chairman of Intel, Gordon E. Moore, said in a statement: ''The electronics industry lost a legendary figure today with Bob Noyce's sudden death. Bob's achievements put him in a class by himself: inventor of the integrated circuit, founder of two major American companies, and the first chief executive of Sematech.''
Dr. Noyce remained a vice chairman of Intel even after he was named to a search committee looking for a leader for Sematech, which has a $200 million annual budget, half from the Department of Defense and half from industry. After the search process became embarrassingly long and failed to turn up anyone willing to take the post, Dr. Noyce agreed in 1988 to head the consortium, after initially saying he was too old.
A spokesman for Sematech, Joe Stroop, said yesterday, ''Dr. Noyce was a strong advocate of restoring competitiveness to the U.S. industrial and education systems.'' In April, Dr. Noyce asked Sematech's board to begin searching for someone who would eventually replace him, Mr. Stroop said.
An Iowa native who was the son of a Congregational minister, Dr. Noyce became fascinated by computers while at Grinnell College in Grinnell, Iowa, where he earned a bachelor's degree. He was a student of Grant O. Gale, who in 1948 was given one of the first transistors by one of its inventors, John Bardeen. Transistor in hand, Professor Gale taught one of the earliest courses in solid state physics to a class of 18 physics majors, one of whom was Mr. Noyce.
In 1953, he received a doctorate in physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Later that year he took his first job as a research engineer at the Philco Corporation in Philadelphia. He left in 1956 for the Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory in Mountain View, Calif.
A year later he had helped found the Fairchild Camera and Instruments Corporation's semiconductor division, leaving Shockley with a group of colleagues in what was to become a common pattern in Silicon Valley. While at Fairchild, Dr. Noyce invented a process for making integrated circuits that is still used.
In 1968 he and Mr. Moore, another Fairchild scientist, founded Intel, which grew to become one of the nation's leading semiconductor companies and a pioneer in the development of memory chips and microprocessors.
While the earliest silicon chips contained two transistors, current technology can etch 10 million transistors on a single chip. The capacity is expected to continue to grow and experts believe a microchip, generally the size of a fingernail, could contain a billion transistors by the turn of the century. Such advances help drive the cost of computing power downward.
Dr. Noyce was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1979 by President Jimmy Carter and received the National Medal of Technology in 1987 from President Ronald Reagan. He held more than a dozen patents, in addition to the one for interconnecting circuitry. In 1983 he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
Dr. Noyce is survived by his wife, Ann Bowers, of Austin; his mother, Harriet, of Berkeley, Calif.; three brothers, Donald of Berkeley, Gaylord of New Haven and Ralph of San Jose, Calif.; four children, William B. of Hollis, N.H., Pendred of Weston, Mass., Priscilla of Kenya, and Margaret of Kyle, Tex., and 12 grandchildren.
Memorial arrangements are not yet final, Mr. Stroop of Sematech said.Continue reading the main story


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Flows and movements of travelers, migrants, and labour across the world have had major social and economic effects and produced new forms of cultural exchange. They have not only freed cultural identities from physical places but also entwined us all in a symbolic web.
Shown at the Vancouver Art Gallery's Offsite space in 2015, my outdoor public project Woven Chronicle uses electric wires to trace migration patterns. I originally created this work for the Göteborg International Biennial for Contemporary Art in 2011. The biennial, curated by Sarat Maharaj, was titled Pandemonium: Art in a Time of "Creativity Fever," a reference to John Milton's Paradise Lost, which reflects on the chaos and disorder surrounding creativity, transformation, and the emergence of new worlds.
Treating electric wires like yarn, I traced migrant routes of indentured labourers, settlers, contract workers, professionals, asylum seekers, and refugees. The project's audio component resonates with high-voltage electric-current sounds drowned within deep sea ambient noise, slow electric pulses, humming busy tones from telecommunications, a mechanical drone, factory sirens, ship horns, and migratory bird calls. At Offsite, the reflections of this map over water evoked fiber optic connections, and people walked over a pathway of stones to interact with the piece.
At the heart of this work are issues of discrimination and inequality felt among immigrant and resident populations where there are impediments to cross and prejudices to overcome. Even as cultures blend and technology and commerce blur geographic boundaries, with a greater movement of people and information, borders are increasingly controlled and monitored. The electric wires in the piece act as both conduits and barriers, serving as channels of transmission and barbed wire or fencing.


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Play at Untamed Bengal Tiger free slot game
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Untamed Bengal Tiger is an unconventional online slot machine game that was designed by Microgaming. The game does not have traditional paylines like most online slots. Instead, the game uses patterns to determine wins. There are 243 winning patterns, which can be a bit for one person to memorize and keep track of. Fortunately, the patterns are easy to look up, and players are notified whenever they win, so you do not have to worry about passing up a win.
Like any good online slot machine, Untamed Bengal Tiger has a wild symbol as well as a scatter symbol. Additionally, there are three small bonus features, like the Lucky Nudge, that you can use to turn near wins into wins.
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The free spin option operates like any other free spin on traditional online slot machines, with a few bonus exceptions. When three or more of the scatter symbols show up on any of the five reels, a player enters free spin mode. However, during the free spin mode there is a higher concentration of wild symbols on all of the reels.
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Origin, evolution, and design of masonry at New Jersey justice building
Case study
When we were designing the Maplewood Police & Court Building, we faced numerous challenges. This article describes three of them, and how we addressed them in the building's masonry work.
Maplewood, New Jersey is a progressive western suburb of New York City with a long history of distinguished masonry public buildings. Most notable among these is its iconic Municipal Building, which has appeared in a number of motion pictures (image A). When the municipality selected us to design a replacement for its 75-year-old Police Headquarters, the decision as to what to clad it with was easy, given that history: brick it would be.
In the years leading up to the start of this project, Maplewood had established itself as a leader in environmental consciousness. The Mayor felt that new commercial buildings in town should be green and that the township should lead by example. As the Township's first new public building in two generations, the Police Building thus presented the opportunity to manifest the community's commitment to sustainable design and construction.
The goal became LEED certification. The Mayor and I identified an ideal south-facing site along the municipality's main commercial avenue, backing up to a beautiful park. The building's public spaces would enfront the street, and the Lobby would be flooded with daylight.
Although heating and cooling represent the largest uses of energy in buildings, lighting is not far behind. For that reason, we try to maximize the use of daylighting in our projects. It became obvious that, to fit the program on the relatively small site, the Police Building would need a full Basement. In addition to an indoor Firing Range and the Cellblock, it would contain the Locker and Shower Rooms for the sworn personnel and their Fitness Room. As the design evolved, the Fitness Room ended up directly under the building's Main Lobby. I wondered: Was there a way to share the daylight from the Lobby with the Fitness Room below it?
Overall, the Maplewood Police & Court Building illustrates the remarkable versatility of masonry construction and the rich design possibilities associated with its materials and the ways that they are installed.
About the Author
Eli Goldstein, AIA, PP, LEED AP, is a Managing Partner at The Goldstein Partnership.
© 2015 The Goldstein Partnership


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Hi crafty friends,
Today I want to show you a bookmark I made for my daughter. She's 8 and she loves to read. This is one of my Copic Marker Europe projects this month.
I got this Saturated Canary image a while back, and I thought it was perfect for a bookmark for her. Playful and fun.
I used very few embellishments, because the bookmark has to be as flat as possible. I used papers by Maja Design, a Martha stewart punch and a Tim Holtz wooden charm. I used wax-thread with beads and charms for the "chain".
Because the image is the main decoration on the bookmark I had some fun playing with the background.
Copic Colors used:
Hair. E18-15, YR18-14, E49
Skin: E13-11-21-000, R20. R22 for the lips with just a little E04
Purple: BV08,V09-17-15-12-000
Jeans and blue details: B99-97-95-93-91
"White": W7-3-1-00
Ground: E35-33-31-30m Grass; G03-07-43-46, YG67
Cloudy sky: B000-B91, C1-00
Hope you like it!
Thanks for stopping by today, wishing you a wonderful day!
Crafty hugs,


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NEWARK, N.J. (CBSNewYork/AP) — NJ Transit on Wednesday unveiled its first locomotive that can operate on diesel fuel and electricity.
Spokesman Dan Stessel said the dual-mode engine is the first of its kind on any railroad in North America.
"We are excited to modernize the NJ TRANSIT fleet by bringing dual-powered technology to our state's rail network," said Executive Director James Weinstein. "These new locomotives will have the benefit of being quieter, more fuel efficient and more environmentally-friendly than the locomotives they'll replace, some of which are 40 years old."
The locomotive is one of 26 purchased by a $310 million order in 2008 that was made with the now-defunct Hudson River commuter rail tunnel in mind.
The engines would have allowed trains on the Pascack Valley Line in Bergen County to go directly through the tunnel without switching to an electric locomotive as they do now.
Gov. Chris Christie cancelled the project in October.
Sixty percent of NJ Transit's tracks are not electrified.
Stessel said dual-mode engines using a combination track can switch to electric and save on diesel fuel.
Do you think this will help NJ Transit train service? Leave a comment below…
(TM and Copyright 2011 CBS Radio Inc. and its relevant subsidiaries. CBS RADIO and EYE Logo TM and Copyright 2011 CBS Broadcasting Inc. Used under license. All Rights Reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed. The Associated Press contributed to this report.)


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Bezoek een van onze winkels in Den Haag, Wassenaar of Amsterdam
Aspirin & Caffeine. For colds & flu and aches & pains
What are they for?
Beechams Powders provide relief from the symptoms of colds and flu including sore throat pain, headache, feverishness and aches and pains. It also provides relief of mild to moderate pain including migraine, neuralgia, toothache, period pain and rheumatic pain.
Contains Aspirin
Ingredients: Aspirin 600 mg, Action: Painkiller and fever reducer
Ingredients: Caffeine 50 mg, Action: Mild Stimulant
Relief of: Headache, sore throat, aches & pains, inflammation, fever
Please read enclosed leaflet carefully before taking this medicine.
How to take
Mix the powder with a little water and stir before drinking.
Adults and children aged 16 years and over: One powder to be taken every three to four hours as needed. Do not take more than six powders in any 24 hour period.
Elderly patients should consult their doctor before taking this product as they are more prone to side effects. Do not use for more than 10 days for pain relief (or more than 3 days for fever). If you do not get better talk to your doctor.
Each Powder contains: Aspirin 600 mg, Caffeine 50 mg
Do not take
If you are allergic to aspirin, caffeine or to any of the other ingredients listed in the enclosed leaflet, or ever had an allergic response to painkillers
If you have had asthma or shortness of breath in response to aspirin before
If you suffer from high blood pressure or heart disease
If you have ever had a stomach ulcer, perforation or bleeding of the stomach
If you have ever had gout or a blood clotting disorder (e.g. haemophilia)
If you suffer from liver or kidney problems.
Do not give to children under 16 years of age, unless your doctor tells you to.
Keep out of the sight and reach of children.
Bezoek een van onze winkels in Den Haag, Wassenaar of Amsterdam
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Lokale huis leveringen en grote pakketdienst. Heb je het nog niet geprobeerd?


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MILWAUKEE, WI (BRAIN)—Fyxation, a manufacturer of urban riding and fixed gear parts, will now have its full line of cycling products available for distribution through Quality Bicycle Products (QBP).
"We are pleased to announce that our products are now available through QBP," said Nick Ginster, founder and general manager of Fyxation. "When we originally launched the brand we made the decision to establish a distributor base outside of the U.S. but to work directly with dealers in the U.S. market. This enabled us to carefully launch our brand here at home and work directly with our customers to stay on top of this quickly evolving market and to offer the highest level of service. Partnering with an industry leader like QBP allows us to continue to meet the needs of our expanding dealer base while we develop and introduce new and innovative cycling products."


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Tombstone Tour 2013
The 5th annual Tombstone Tour was conducted on Saturday 28, September, 2013. This year the tour covered many incredible stories of people, places and events which changed the Athens community forever such as the three (3) different fires which hit downtown. As usual citizens from the local area played roles depicting people from the past.
Cheryl Burlingame as Bessie Martin-Bessie - she was well known for her giving spirit to those less fortunate by becoming a Foster Grandparent in Calhoun County. At age 87 Bessie was named Citizen of the Michigan Offices of Services to the Aging. She lived to the ripe age of 94.
Keith Swank as JasonThayer, the bartender at Sarah Taylor's hotel. The 1900 Athens fire started in the hotel after Mr. Thayer lit a fire in the fire place. The hotel was destroyed.
Logan Hanson as Mary Austin Adelia Wallace-Mary was born in 1838 in New York state.Through her journeys, she married Robert Bruce Wallace in 1859 and moved to the Athens area. She maintained a daily dairy which was published as "The Civil War Diaries" and can be found at the local library in Athens. She was known for her unique hand made quilts.
Jerry Inman as his great uncle Orval Inman- Orval enlisted in 1918 to serve his country in WWI. Tragically he was the first Athenian to die of his involvement in the war, not by war wounds but by the influenza epidemic.
Ilene Milbourne as Effie Ruth Reed- she and her husband operated the Michigan Veneer Company, known as the "Basket Factory". In the 1940s it was the largest employer in the area. The factory went out of business in 1956 after a fire.
Marty Minier-as W. A. Wolfe- He was of the Athens Busines Association & President of the School Board. He donated a wood church for use as a gym by the school and had it
placed on logs and rolled it down the street and put in place.


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What is Chiropractic Health?
Chiropractic is the fastest growing and second largest profession and concentrates on helping the body function as it was originally designed to function. For example, as time goes on, our nerves and signaling pathways begin to weaken, which slows down our bodily functions and causes us to put strain on other parts of our body. Our chiropractor at Lim-Keith Multispecialty Medical Group focuses on eliminating problems that interfere with our body's natural ability to function and emphasizes on its ability to heal itself.
Why should I visit a chiropractor?
Visiting a chiropractor is a cost-effective way to solve a problem naturally and without dealing with the other, more invasive methods. Our experienced chiropractors are not only "back doctors," but they also provide services that promote the body's entire well-being. Common sites of interest include the back, neck, joints, arms, legs, and pain in any neuromusculoskeletal-affiliated region. Prevention is one of the most important visions of any chiropractor. Even though many people go to chiropractors when they are in pain, visiting a chiropractor on a regular basis for back and alignment checkups is actually a great deal more important because they can prevent future problems, rather than trying to fix old ones that require numerous re-visits and therapy sessions.
Is chiropractic medicine safe?
Chiropractic medicine is one of the safest non-invasive and drug-free treatment fields available to date. Patients sometimes feel a little soreness after treatment, but the relief greatly outweighs the lingering pain. Studies have shown that chiropractic care in the spinal area can get patients back on their feet faster than traditional medicine practices. The risk to undergo chiropractic treatment is very miniscule, and a major incident occurs for every 10 million procedures.