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- Aquaculture, Equine & Livestock
- Architects & Engineers
- Aviation & Aerospace
- Construction
- Consumer Goods & Services
- Education & Public Entities
- Energy
- Entertainment & Leisure
- Financial Services
Property Perspectives: Don't underestimate your value
February 06, 2019
While there is a definite shift in businesses having a significant increase in intangible assets that need protection as opposed to tangible assets like real estate, facilities and equipment; the fact of the matter is, for many businesses, physical property is still a very valued possession and needs the right insurance protection. In fact, many couldn't conduct business without a well-managed, safe facility with the right equipment.
That's why it is so surprising how often business' physical operations and properties are undervalued, according to Michele Sansone, President of AXA XL's North America Property insurance team. An undervaluation can have a big effect on insurance protection. Here she shares her thoughts.
How's the commercial property market overall? Are commercial property insurers getting the adequate rate for the risks they're insuring?
Sansone: It's still a very competitive market, although we've seen some rate correction. I think we can expect some more this year having just gone through another record-breaking year of Nat Cat losses. On the property side, many broker reports anticipate that non-catastrophe-exposed risks will see rates flat to 5% higher, while cat-exposed risks will likely see a projected increase in the range of 2.5% to 7.5% and cat-exposed properties with losses could experience rate increases of 10% or more.
Especially after the last two years of record-breaking losses, it's clear that we cannot turn a blind eye to the long-term health of the industry. We need to get rate adequacy in line with the risks that we are assuming and the Nat Cat trends we are experiencing.
What has caused the greatest challenges to your book of property business over the past two years?
There are a couple of challenges. For one, not getting accurate Total Insurable Values (TIVs) across our clients' enterprises is a challenge because it does not allow us to price the risk adequately. In commercial property insurance, TIV is the sum of the full value of a client's covered property, business income values and any other insured property, like equipment. It's the collective valuation of the business' operation. Too often in the annual property underwriting process, TIVs get a passing glance. They are not updated regularly.
When businesses provide out-of-date or underestimated TIVs, pricing is based on faulty data. TIVs are more than just real estate values or replacement costs of a building. Here lies the second challenge -- assessing a business' contingent risks. Getting a full understanding and gaining an appreciation of our client's suppliers and others that touch their business is challenging, but important to accurately evaluate potential business interruption exposures.
Assessing pricing risks accurately for the long term is imperative to remain a financially strong carrier and be ready for the next "big one." Undervaluing properties or the cost of potential business interruption can potentially leave insureds holding the bag if they exhaust the tower of coverages that they buy.
How and why would businesses undervalue their property?
In many real estate markets, property values have continued to tick upwards. Cost of replacing equipment and in general, the cost of doing business overall has not remained stagnant either. All this factors into how property is valued and assessed for insurance. Unfortunately, when insuring commercial properties, we haven't seen TIVs tick up accordingly.
Consider a 10,000-square-foot building that today would cost about $1 million to replace. Unfortunately, a business may still be providing their insurers with older information that says the building is valued at $750,000. If TIV is not reevaluated, and a property underwriter bases coverage and premium on that $750,000 value, obvious issues will crop up if there is a loss. For one, this business may be buying insufficient insurance if they have a total loss and need to totally rebuild. Likewise, the providing insurer would not be receiving an appropriate rate of premium for the exposure it's taking on.
Businesses may be hesitant to bump up their TIVs because they are reluctant to pay more insurance premium. Insurers, given the competitive market, aren't pushing for more TIV accuracy either. However, in the long run, and especially in the event of a loss, both insurers and their clients run the risk of being left short because of under-reported TIVs.
While TIVs may not be keeping up with everything else, the commercial property market has made some significant advancements in the last decade or so. Where do you see the most improvement?
There has been an evolution in property coverage. Hurricane Katrina, for instance, exposed ambiguities in insurance policies – leading to claim disputes and litigation. After that, insurers began to review and clarify commercial property coverages and tighten policy wordings, particularly around the flood peril. After big events like Hurricane Katrina or Superstorm Sandy, there was piqued interest from businesses to understand what an insurance policy says and how it will respond to a claim. For instance, many businesses were surprised to learn that, despite having windstorm coverage, they weren't covered for storm surge.
Also, storms like Katrina led to a whole new era of cat modeling. Rather than modeling portfolios of properties, individual account modeling became more the norm. Likewise, there is now more analysis of flooding and how it's connected to wind. Up to this point, because of Hurricane Andrew, modeling was largely focused on wind.
In the last decade or so, we've seen a big improvement in disaster preparedness. Storms like Katrina, Sandy and now this year's Florence and Michael, boost awareness of the risks associated with property locations.
That's where I see a greater appreciation from our clients who tap into our property risk engineering expertise. Our clients see the significant contribution that property risk engineering can make to better protect their properties before they are faced with a storm and certainly as one is heading their way. Whether it's advice on how to store supplies in a potential flood zone or taking precautions that can reduce potential wind damage, our property risk engineers are full of actionable advice that's proven very valuable to our clients again and again.
What advice do you have for brokers and businesses navigating the commercial property market in 2019?
Don't be complacent. That includes not actively evaluating a business' TIV. Businesses change from year to year and it's important to evaluate how these changes might affect an operation and obviously, its insurance coverage. Undervaluing does nothing to improve your property insurance protection.
There are resources – like access to property risk engineering resources – many businesses leave on the table, resources that are very helpful in boosting loss prevention efforts. Tapping into available information and data resources can really support your risk management efforts.
Also, there is no better time than now to achieve a better understanding of coverage. If you have questions about how your policy would respond if storm surge found its way to your front door or what kind of cyber risk protection to consider, start a conversation with your broker and insurer. It's important to understand what coverages you have, how they will be triggered and what they actually cover.
Having a conversation about your coverage and determining what risk management services you can take advantage of before a loss occurs, is more important than ever.
Michele Sansone can talk about commercial property insurance all day long. For brokers and risk managers interested in having a conversation, contact her at firstname.lastname@example.com
- About The Author
- Michele Sansone
- Chief Underwriting Officer, North America Property Insurance, AXA XL
- By Risk
- By Product
- By Region
Related Resources
Property Perspectives: Helping businesses make the right moves insuring commercial property
Property Perspectives: Providing premier property protection
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Pronunciation Activities for Children
Pronunciation is the act or manner of speaking a word. For a variety of reasons, many words in English are not pronounced the way they are spelled, and some sounds can be represented by more than one combination of letters.
Learners are usually worried about pronunciation, but it is important that we remember that we don't need to have a native-like pronunciation to communicate with others in English.
You also need to take into account that there are many accents and varieties of English.
Jack C. Richards, a well-known expert talks about new englishes in one of his YouTube videos.
So Don't worry if your child doesn't have a 'perfect' English pronunciation but keep in mind that childhood years are a key to learning languages.
English Pronunciation Activities for Children
These are some English Pronunciation activities for children that you can try in the classroom:
#1 Songs and Rhymes
Songs, nursery rhymes and chants are a great way to introduce younger children to the sounds of English. Many chants and nursery rhymes are repetitive and easy to remember, and your child will not need to read or write English.
Here is a great songs that I still remember from the days when I started teaching English full-time:
#2 Listening to Stories
Listening to somebody reading aloud while following a text is a good way for children to pick up how words and sound, and also to learn what words sound like in sentences.
#3 Games
Say words silently to your child. Can they guess what words you are saying? This will make them concentrate on the shapes made to make sounds. When your child has got the idea, they can silently say some words to you.
Create a character with a name of the sound you want to focus on like /dz/ which is the sound of the 'J' in 'Jack'.
Ask your child to draw Jack and then think of all the things that Jack likes that start with the same sound, for example, juggling, jam, Japanese food etc. Now draw these things around the picture of Jack. Here is an example using a character called 'Harriet' to focus on the /h/ sound:
Choose one word, for example, chair. Ask your child to draw the word, and next to the picture write (or draw) words that have the same sound for example, hair, hare, wear, pear.
#4 Tongue twisters
A tongue-twister is a sentence or expression which is very difficult to say properly, especially when you try to say it quickly.
An example of a tongue-twister is Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled pepper
Tongue twisters are funny, but they can also help you with your pronunciation and speaking. There are many benefits of using English Tongue Twisters:
- They show you which sounds are difficult for you.
- Tongue twisters also stretch and strengthen the muscles which you use to speak.
- Tongue twisters have been proven to clarify the pronunciation of words.
Try some tongue twisters. This can be a fun way to practise sounds with older children.
Here are some popular English tongue twisters.
- She sells sea shells on the sea shore
- A proper copper coffee pot
- Around the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran
- Red lorry, yellow lorry, red lorry, yellow lorry
- A big black bug bit a big black bear
- Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, Where's the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked?
More Information
Remember that you can verify your pronunciation by visiting the Cambridge Online Dictionary
If you want to learn more about English teaching pronunciation, make sure to visit the How to Teach and Learn English Pronunciation page
What English Pronunciation Activities for Children do you use?

subset: commoncrawl


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Video Files for Recruitment
Videos are available for download at the link below each video.
Right mouse click and select "Save As" to download.
PIKE Historical Video from Richmond Convention (1 min, 33 sec).
Pike Historical Opener - Richmond Convention
PIKE 150th Count Up Hype from Richmond Convention (1 min, 4 sec.)
150th Founders Day Video (4min., 39 sec.)
Rush PIKE! Photo Mosaic (1 min., 35 sec.)


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If you're an innovative small business owner in Australia, you'd be the 'exception'.
When it comes to innovation, e-commerce, social media uptake and exports, which are drivers of business growth, Australia lags far behind our Asian counterparts with little activity or investment in these areas, according to a new survey by CPA Australia.
"We are being outperformed on innovation by a significant margin by our competitors in Asia," said CPA Australia head of external affairs Paul Drum.
"While there are some very innovative small businesses in Australia, they are the exception rather than the rule.
"Australia's small businesses are slow to take up technology and are significantly less likely to use social media for business purposes and earn revenue from online sales," he said.
According to the report, only 6.7 per cent of Aussie businesses said in 2018 they would introduce something new to the market over the next 12 months, with the survey average across the ten Asia-Pacific countries surveyed at 20.8 per cent.
Roughly three in five (59.8 per cent) of Aussie small businesses didn't record any revenue from online sales last year, while nearly half (44.8 per cent) said they didn't use social media for business purposes.
But across Asia, more than 7 in 10 businesses are generating revenue online and more than 81.7 per cent of small businesses are using social media to promote their business.
And only 16.4 per cent of Australian small businesses said their investment in technology had seen improved profitability, while an average of nearly one in two Asian businesses are seeing higher profit margins after investing in technology.
Drum pointed out that small businesses needed to improve their "digital capability" in order for the sector to grow, with policymakers playing a particular role in this regard.
"With the federal election campaign now in full swing, it would be most encouraging if we saw some election promises that proposed government assistance for Australian small businesses that helped them better embrace technology and help them build their digital capabilities," he said.
"The future federal government must also factor the overall low business confidence reflected in these survey results into their policymaking decisions and policy implementation," he said.
Make your money work with Yahoo Finance's daily newsletter. Sign up here and stay on top of the latest money, property and tech news.


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Liechtenstein - Residence Permit
Residence permit in Liechtenstein is a document, a permit that allow you to reside in Liechtenstein legally and without any circumstances. We will guide you through the process of obtaining residence permit in Liechtenstein to begin your Liechtenstein residency.
Residence Permit services
We will guide you through process of acquiring residence permit in Liechtenstein (also permanent residence permit in Liechtenstein if available). Click here or write us to start your residency in Liechtenstein.
Though, we provide commercial immigration services, here is going to be included descriptions about work permit, student parmit and other permits in Liechtenstein.
Regarding various Liechtenstein residence permits you can contact our partners at Forsetico Europe.
Page Data
Search engines find us by: residence permit Liechtenstein, residency in Liechtenstein, residence card Liechtenstein, living in Liechtenstein, invest in Liechtenstein, Liechtenstein real estate residency, Liechtenstein temporary residence permit, permanent residence in Liechtenstein, Liechtenstein investment visa, Liechtenstein investor visa.


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Dear Massachusetts Public Official:
Please kindly accept this request under the Massachusetts Public Records Law (M. G. L. Chapter 66, Section 10). I am requesting that I be provided electronic copies of the following records (please omit any pension-related assets to this request):
If your government entity has a contract with any firm providing investment management or consulting, please provide:
Investment Advisory Agreement(s) or Consulting Contract(s);
The most recent invoice(s) received from each firm(s);
The most recent statement and/or presentation received from each firm;
If your government entity is not under any such agreement, please provide the most recent statement received from each bank or brokerage firm where your entity maintains financial assets. For this request, please do not include checking accounts but rather only accounts where money markets, fixed income securities and certificates of deposit are held;
If your government entity participates in any local government investment pools, please provide the front page of each statement or simply state amounts and in which pool(s);
If your government entity issued a request-for-proposal for investment management or consulting services in the last 24-months, please provide:
any document that details each respondent to the RFP;
the RFP response from the firm awarded the contract;
Any internal document that details the scoring of received responses, including scoring rubrics and evaluation memorandums;
The Public Records Law requires you to provide me with a written response within 10 business days. If you cannot comply with my request, you are statutorily required to provide an explanation in writing. In recognition of time constraints, please accept my offer to extend an additional 10 business days upon emailing back a confirmation of receipt of the request.
Thank you for accepting and processing this public record request.
October 14, 2018 via web
Point of Contact
Linda Dubuque
The City has finalized its review of your request for public records. A search of all public records in the custody and control of the City reveals that the attached documents are responsive to your request. There are no other documents responsive to your request. There is no charge associated with this request. This completes the City's response.
In accordance with the state regulations pertaining to public records, you have the right to appeal the response to your request for records to the Supervisor of Public Records pursuant to 950 CMR 32.08.
18-366 Scovell BNY statement 093018.pdf
18-366 NN BNY statement 093018.pdf
18-366 WC BNY statment 093018.pdf


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PANZ Promotional Writing and Non-fiction Editing Workshops
Date: Friday 21 February 2020
Venue: tbc in Auckland central
By popular demand PANZ is running two affordable workshops for members and non-members in Auckland in February on Promotional Writing and Non-fiction Editing.
These are for in-house staff in all departments of publishing houses of all kinds, and freelance publishing people who are enthusiastically encouraged to attend.
The workshops will include morning and afternoon tea as well as lunch, and will be followed by networking drinks hosted by PANZ.
Scroll on for more information about the speakers and content of each workshop and remember places are limited, so please be sure to book using the link here.
9:00-12:00 Promotional writing for publishing people
1:00-400 Non-fiction editing
4:00-6:00 Networking drinks
For PANZ members, $80 plus gst for one half-day workshop or $120 plus gst for the full day (both workshops)
For non-members: $110 plus gst for one half-day workshop or $145 plus gst for the full day (both workshops)
Promotional writing
For publishing people of all kinds
Panel discussion on book publicity today, with Rebecca Simpson, freelance book publicist and former Publicity Manager at Penguin Random House, Catherine Woulfe, Books Editor at The Spinoff, and Tania Mackenzie-Cooke, Publicity Manager at Hachette New Zealand, chaired by Becky Innes, Publicity and Marketing Manager at Penguin Random House NZ.
Workshop: How to make killer pitches and press releases with Michelle Hurley, Publisher, Allen & Unwin and previously New Zealand Herald's Weekend Magazines Editor (Canvas, Weekend, Spy)
Blurb-writing workshop with editor and writer Madeleine Collinge, professional copywriting tutor and former in-house blurb writer for Penguin, UK.
Non-fiction editing
For in-house and freelance publishing professionals
Panel discussion: Non-fiction now – what are publishers looking for? What 'works'? With Jenny Hellen, Director NZ Publishing, Allen & Unwin; Alex Hedley, Publisher, Harper Collins and Ashleigh Young, Editor, Victoria University Press, chaired by Claire Murdoch, Head of Publishing at Penguin Random House NZ.
Introduction to the in-house process and the role of freelance editors in creating successful non-fiction books, with Leanne McGregor, Editor, Allen & Unwin; Stuart Lipshaw, Managing Editor Penguin Random House NZ; and Anna Bowbyes, Managing Editor, Massey University Press Editor.
Workshop: What 'good' looks like – briefing and delivering successful proofreads, copy-edits, copy-edits with queries, intrusive edits, structural edits, rewrites, and more.
We hope you can make it and look forward to seeing you there.
To register, click here.


text: We are trying to implement Keyboard wedge functionality using USB HID interface on NXP's LPC2146 based module. We would like to get some information on how it can be achieved. If there are any sample application or documentation which we can refer to understand the USB HID driver for LPC2146, please provide us the links.


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Helmut Lang
Black Austria Tall Tee
Helmut Lang
Black Austria Tall Tee
Classic white short sleeve t-shirt with heavy "Austria" text printed in red on left chest. Boxy fit with slightly baggier sleeves. Ribbed neck.
Oversized Fit
100% Cotton
Made in Portugal
Model is wearing S
Model is 5'6 (167 cm), 100 pounds (45 kg), usually wears a size XS/S in tops. A size 25 in denim and FR 34 in bottoms. Size 6 in shoes


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Silver Book Fact
Patients with diabetes that are hospitalized for a cardiovascular event incur higher costs for cardiovascular care than their non-diabetic counterparts over 3 years. Compared to patients without diabetes, patients with diabetes had higher mean total direct medical costs per patient for cardiovascular events during follow-up years.
Straka, RJ, LZ Liu, PS Girase, A Delorenzo, and RH Chapman. Incremental Cardiovascular Costs and Resource Use Associated with Diabetes: An assessment of 29,863 patients in the U.S. managed-care setting. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2009; 8(1): 53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2762466/


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Prosecco is the Answer! Sign
Size ~ 30cm x 10cm x 1cm
Rope attached for easy hanging
Suitable for internal and external use
How about a more personalised gift? Our personalised signs are especially popular enabling you to add extra value to the recipients and make a splendid gift idea for friends and family.


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Home » Photos & Videos » Photo Albums » Disability Games 2012
08 curling1.jpg
Curling without ice proved much harder than it looked. Each stone had three ball bearings in its base
07 darts1.jpg
Playing darts with a visual disability turned out to be just as much fun as for the sighted players
06 bowling1.jpg
Indoor bowling looks easy, but it turns out to be fiendishly difficult with other players able to destroy your best effort
05 boccia.jpg
Boccia is not as easy as it looks, but it is a great game that can be adapted to all levels of disabiliyt
02 lefthall.jpg
A view of the left hall used for curling, darts, stickball, table tennis and the bagatelle game
01 banner.jpg
This was the first North London Disability Games organised by Rotary - but we hope it will be the first of many
17 medals.jpg
At the end came the presentation of the medals, but in truth everyone taking part was a winner. Let's do it all again next year!
12 swimming1x640.jpg
There were swimming races as well in the Aspire Centre swimming pool. The water was warm so the swimmers were happy
16 tabletennis3.jpg
Some players looked as though they could easily beat the Rotarians who acted as scorer and ball boys and girls
15 tabletennis2.jpg
All those taking part wanted to have a go at table tennis, so the scheduling took some effort from the organisers
14 tabletennis1.jpg
Table tennis was popular with several different categories for different levels of ability
11 stickyball2.jpg
Stickball was relying on the stickiness of the velcro - a stick was not needed. It is much harder than it looks
|Copyright 2020 The Rotary Club of Northwick Park.
All Registered Trademarks are acknowledged.
|Please contact our Webmaster with questions or comments.


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I am a member of the Association of Business Mentors, and I provide expert, tailored advice to help businesses achieve rapid, sustainable growth particularly through well designed websites and highly effective social media campaigns. More Info »
I specialise in business-to-business marketing primarily with tech start ups. I have over fifteen years marketing experience helping businesses grow through generating brand awareness by understanding their products/technologies while providing the marketing know how More Info »
I am a jack of all and master of some within the remit of digital marketing. My goal is to help clients increase market share and become leaders in their fields. I've been quoted More Info »
Grow Your Business Online with Komma Digital, We Make Websites Work Harder Thanks for visiting here! Read more below how Komma Digital can help you deliver more return on your marketing investment. E-mail firstname.lastname@example.com More Info »


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You'll have the opportunity to tour our campus, sit in on classes, eat in our highly praised dining hall, and speak with faculty, students, and staff about the college. This program is designed to offer prospective students a comprehensive view of COA's unique learning environment and community. We hope you can join us!
Activities include
- Campus tour and interview
- Class visits
- Boat tour of Frenchman Bay
- Admission Q&A
- Open mic night
- Evening reception with faculty, students, and COA president Darron Collins '92
- Check out our tentative schedule
Program dates: October 12–13, 2020
Eligibility: For high school juniors and seniors, transfer students, and their families
Register by: October 5, 2020
To register: Please check back soon.
Questions: 800-528-0025 or email firstname.lastname@example.com
Additional information for planning your visit
Acadia National Park
Bar Harbor
Maps & Directions
Mount Desert Island


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Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952
Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945-1952
With the fighting in World War II over in mid-August 1945, more than one-half million American troops moved to occupy Japan. Much of the country was ruined, buried under the rubble and debris of saturation bombing and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The rulers of Japan were stunned by defeat; the people feared what the victors might impose upon them. With breathtaking audacity, General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, set out to remake an ancient and highly sophisticated society of some eighty million people.
Only in the first four months after the war did the Occupation of Japan receive any widespread attention by the American public. With hatred of the Japanese aroused by the bloody military campaigns in the Pacific in 1944 and 1945, Americans closely watched to see that SCAP--an acronym applied to both MacArthur and Occupation headquarters--demilitarized Japan and carried out a program to democratize the country in line with directives from Washington. Once satisfied by news that General MacArthur had the Japanese in hand, Americans who thought at all about foreign affairs during the early Cold War era concentrated on the crises in Europe, the Middle East, or China and tended to forget about Japan altogether. That tendency went largely unchecked for almost twenty-five years after the Japanese peace and security treaties of 1951 ended the Occupation.
However, over the last decade there has been a growing fascination by Americans with Japan which oscillates between awe and fear. Those on the left are worried about gathering evidence of a resurgence of Japanese militarism and ultranationalism. Japanese economic expansion, they argue, has led . . .


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1. Background Computer Systems G. Bell, S. Fuller and D. Siewiorek, Editors Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks Robert M. Metcalfe and David R. Boggs Xerox Palo Alto Research Center Ethernet is a branching broadcast communication system for carrying digital data packets among locally distributed computing stations. The packet transport mechanism provided by Ethernet has been used to build systems which can be viewed as either local computer networks or loosely coupled multiprocessors. An Ethernet's shared communication facility, its Ether, is a passive broadcast medium with no central control. Coordination of access to the Ether for packet broadcasts is distributed among the contending transmitting stations using controlled statistical arbitration. Switching of packets to their destinations on the Ether is distributed among the receiving stations using packet address recognition. Design principles and implementation are described, based on experience with an operating Ethernet of 100 nodes along a kilometer of coaxial cable. A model for estimating performance under heavy loads and a packet protocol for error controlled communication are included for completeness. Key Words and Phrases: computer networks, packet switching, multiprocessing, distributed control, distributed computing, broadcast communication, statistical arbitration CR Categories: 3.81, 4.32, 6.35 Copyright © 1976, Association for Computing Machinery, Inc. General permission to republish, but not for profit, all or part of this material is granted provided that ACM's copyright notice is given and that reference is made to the publication, to its date of issue, and to the fact that reprinting privileges were granted by permission of the Association for Computing Machinery. Author's present addresses: R.M. Metcalfe, Transaction Technology, Inc., 10880 Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 94304; D. Boggs, Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, 3333 Coyote Hill Road, Palo Alto, CA 94304. 395 One can characterize distributed computing as a spectrum of activities varying in their degree o f decentralization, with one extreme being remote computer networking and the other extreme being multiprocessing. Remote computer networking is the loose interconnection of previously isolated, widely separated, and rather large computing systems. Multiprocessing is the construction of previously monolithic and serial computing systems from increasingly numerous and smaller pieces computing in parallel. Near the middle of this spectrum is local networking, the interconnection of computers to gain the resource sharing of computer networking and the parallelism of multiprocessing. The separation between computers and the associated bit rate of their communication can be used to divide the distributed computing spectrum into broad activities. The product of separation and bit rate, now about 1 gigabit-meter per second (1 Gbmps), is an indication of the limit of current communication technology and can be expected to increase with time: Activity Separation Bit rate Remote networks Local networks Multiprocessors > 10 km 10-.1 km < .1 km < .1 Mbps .1-10 Mbps > 10 Mbps 1.1 Remote Computer Networking Computer networking evolved from telecommunications terminal-computer communication, where the object was to connect remote terminals to a central computing facility. As the need for computer-computer interconnection grew, computers themselves were used to provide communication [2, 4, 29]. Communication using computers as packet switches [15-21, 26] and communications among computers for resource sharing [I0, 32] were both advanced by the development of the Arpa Computer Network. The Aloha Network at the University of Hawaii was originally developed to apply packet radio techniques for communication between a central computer and its terminals scattered among the Hawaiian Islands [1, 2]. Many of the terminals are now minicomputers communicating among themselves using the Aloha Network's Menehune as a packet switch. The Menehune and an Arpanet Imp are now connected, providing terminals on the Aloha Network access to computing resources on the U.S. mainland. Just as computer networks have grown across continents and oceans to interconnect major computing facilities around the world, they are now growing down corridors and between buildings to interconnect minicomputers in offices and laboratories [3, 12, 13, 14, 35]. 1.2 Multiprocessing Multiprocessing first took the form of connecting an I/O controller to a large central computer; raM's Asp is a Commuaications of the ACM July 1976 Volume 19 Number 7 classic example [29]. Next, multiple central processors were connected to a common memory to provide more power for compute-bound applications [33]. For certain of these applications, more exotic multiprocessor architectures such as Illiae IV were introduced [5]. More recently minicomputers have been connected in multiprocessor configurations for economy, reliability, and increased system modularity [24, 36]. The trend has been toward decentralization for reliability; loosely coupled multiprocessor systems depend less on shared central memory and more on thin wires for interprocess communication with increased component isolation [18, 26]. With the continued thinning of interprocessor communication for reliability and the development of distributable applications, multiprocessing is gradually approaching a local form of distributed computing. 1.3 Local Computer Networking Ethernet shares many objectives with other local networks such as Mitre's Mitrix, Bell Telephone Laboratory's Spider, and U.C. Irvine's Distributed Computing System (DCS) [12, 13, 14, 35]. Prototypes of all four local networking schemes operate at bit rates between one and three megabits per second. Mitrix and Spider have a central minicomputer for switching and bandwidth allocation, while DCS and Ethernet use distributed control. Spider and DCS use a ring communication path, Mitrix uses off-the-shelf CATV technology to implement two one-way busses, and our experimental Ethernet uses a branching two-way passive bus. Differences among these systems are due to differences among their intended applications, differences among the cost constraints under which trade-offs were made, and differences of opinion among researchers. Before going into a detailed description of Ethernet, we offer the following overview (see Figure 1). ing elements. To handle the demands of growth, an Ethernet can be extended using packet repeaters for signal regeneration, packet filters for traffic localization, and packet gateways for internetwork address extension. Control is completely distributed among stations, with packet transmissions coordinated through statistical arbitration. Transmissions initiated by a station defer to any which may already be in progress. Once started, if interference with other packets is detected, a transmission is aborted and rescheduled by its source station. After a certain period of interference-free transmission, a packet is heard by all stations and will run to completion without interference. Ethernet controllers in colliding stations each generate random retransmission intervals to avoid repeated collisions. The mean of a packet's retransmission intervals is adjusted as a function of collision history to keep Ether utilization near the optimum with changing network load. Even when transmitted without source-detected interference, a packet may still not reach its destination without error; thus, packets are delivered only with high probability. Stations requiring a residual error rate lower than that provided by the bare Ethernet packet transport mechanism must follow mutually agreed upon packet protocols. 3. Design Principles Ethernet is a system for local communication among computing stations. Our experimental Ethernet uses tapped coaxial cables to carry variable length digital data packets among, for example, personal minicomputers, printing facilities, large file storage devices, magnetic tape backup stations, larger central computers, and longer-haul communication equipment. The shared communication facility, a branching Ether, is passive. A station's Ethernet interface connects bit-serially through an interface cable to a transceiver which in turn taps into the passing Ether. A packet is broadcast onto the Ether, is heard by all stations, and is copied from the Ether by destinations which select it according to the packet's leading address bits. This is broadcast packet switching and should be distinguished from store-and-forward packet switching, in which routing is performed by intermediate process- Our object is to design a communication system which can grow smoothly to accommodate several buildings full of personal computers and the facilities needed for their support. Like the computing stations to be connected, the communication system must be inexpensive. We choose to distribute control of the communications facility among the communicating computers to eliminate the reliability problems of an active central controller, to avoid creating a bottleneck in a system rich in parallelism, and to reduce the fixed costs which make small systems uneconomical. Ethernet design started with the basic idea of packet collision and retransmission developed in the Aloha Network [1 ]. We expected that, like the Aloha Network, Ethernets would carry bursty traffic so that conventional synchronous time-division multiplexing (STDM) would be inefficient [1, 2, 21, 26]. We saw promise in the Aloha approach to distributed control of radio channel multiplexing and hoped that it could be applied effectively with media suited to local computer communication. With several innovations of our own, the promise is realized. Ethernet is named for the historical luminiferous ether through which electromagnetic radiations were once alleged to propagate. Like an Aloha radio transmitter, an Ethernet transmitter broadcasts completelyaddressed transmitter-synchronous bit sequences called packets onto the Ether and hopes that they are heard by 396 Communications 2. System Summary of the ACM July 1976 Volume 19 Number 7 Fig. 1. A two-segment Ethernet. an Ethernet taps into the Ether at the nearest convenient point. Looking at the relationship of interconnection and control, we see that Ethernet is the dual of a star network. Rather than distributed interconnection through many separate links and central control in a switching node, as in a star network, the Ethernet has central interconnection through the Ether and distributed control among its stations. Unlike an Aloha Network, which is a star network with an outgoing broadcast channel and an incoming multi-access channel, an Ethernet supports many-tomany communication with a single broadcast multiaccess channel. TERMINATOR TAP TRANS~ Ilcl INTERFACE CABLE E T II E R E N T I N T E R F A C E O N T R O L L E R I N T E R F A C E 0 N T R 0 L L E R STATION STATION # l STATION CONTROLLER w I INTERFACE ETHER SEGMENT #2 m m the intended receivers. The Ether is a logically passive medium for the propagation of digital signals and can be constructed using.any number of media including coaxial cables, twisted pairs, and optical fibers. 3.1 Topology We cannot afford the redundant connections and dynamic routing of store-and-forward packet switching to assure reliable communication, so we choose to achieve reliability through simplicity. We choose to make the shared communication facility passive so that the failure of an active element will tend to affect the communications of only a single station. The layout and changing needs of office and laboratory buildings leads us to pick a network topology with the potential for convenient incremental extention and reconfiguration with minimal service disruption. The topology of the Ethernet is that of an unrooted tree. It is a tree so that the Ether can branch at the entrance to a building's corridor, yet avoid multipath interference. There must be only one path through the Ether between any source and destination; if more than one path were to exist, a transmission would interfere with itself, repeatedly arriving at its intended destination having travelled by paths of different length. The Ether is unrooted because it can be extended from any of its points in any direction. Any station wishing to join 397 3.2 Control Sharing of the Ether is controlled in such a way that it is not only possible but probable that two or more stations will attempt to transmit a packet at roughly the same time. Packets which overlap in time on the Ether are said to collide; they interfere so as to be unrecognizable by a receiver. A station recovers from a detected collision by abandoning the attempt and retransmitting the packet after some dynamically chosen random time period. Arbitration of conflicting transmission demands is both distributed and statistical. When the Ether is largely unused, a station transmits its packets at will, the packets are received without error, and all is well. As more stations begin to transmit, the rate of packet interference increases. Ethernet controllers in each station are built to adjust the mean retransmission interval in proportion to the frequency of collisons; sharing of the Ether among competing station-station transmissions is thereby kept near the optimum [20, 21]. A degree of cooperation among the stations is required to share the Ether equitably. In demanding applications certain stations might usefully take transmission priority through some systematic violation of equity rules. A station could usurp the Ether by not adjusting its retransmission interval with increasing traffic or by sending very large packets. Both practices are now prohibited by low-level software in each station. 3.3 Addressing Each packet has a source and destination, both of which are identified in the packet's header. A packet placed on the Ether eventually propagates to all stations. Any station can copy a packet from the Ether into its local memory, but normally only an active destination station matching its address in the packet's header will do so as the packet passes. By convention, a zero destination address is a wildcard and matches all addresses; a packet with a destination of zero is called a broadcast packet. 3.4 Reliability An Ethernet is probabilistic. Packets may be lost due to interference with other packets, impulse noise on the Communications of eth ACM July 1976 Volume 19 Number 7 Ether, an inactive receiver at a packet's intended destination, or purposeful discard. Protocols used to communicate through an Ethernet must assume that packets will be received correctly at intended destinations only with high probability. An Ethernet gives its best efforts to transmit packets successfully, but it is the responsibility of processes in the source and destination stations to take the precautions necessary to assure reliable communication of the quality they themselves desire [18, 21]. Recognizing the costliness and dangers of promising "error-free" communication, we refrain from guaranteeing reliable delivery of any single packet to get both economy of transmission and high reliability averaged over many packets [21 ]. Removing the responsibility for reliable communication from the packet transport mechanism allows us to tailor reliability to the application and to place error recovery where it will do the most good. This policy becomes more important as Ethernets are interconnected in a hierarchy of networks through which packets must travel farther and suffer greater risks. 3.5 Mechanisms A station connects to the Ether with a tap and a transceiver. A tap is a device for physically connecting to the Ether while disturbing its transmission characteristics as little as possible. The design of the transceiver must be an exercise in paranoia. Precautions must be taken to insure that likely failures in the transceiver or station do not result in pollution of the Ether. In particular, removing power from the transceiver should cause it to disconnect from the Ether. Five mechanisms are provided in our experimental Ethernet for reducing the probability and cost of losing a packet. These are (1) carrier detection, (2) interference detection, (3) packet error detection, (4) truncated packet filtering, and (5) collision consensus enforcement. 3.5.1 Carrier detection. As a packer's bits are placed on the Ether by a station, they are phase encoded (like bits on a magnetic tape), which guarantees that there is at least one transition on the Ether during each bit time. The passing of a packet on the Ether can therefore be detected by listening for its transitions. To use a radio analogy, we speak of the presence of carrier as a packet passes a transceiver. Because a station can sense the carrier of a passing packet, it can delay sending one of its own until the detected packet passes safely. The Aloha Network does not have carrier detection and consequently suffers a substantially higher collision rate. Without carrier detection, efficient use of the Ether would decrease with increasing packet length. In Section 6 below, we show that with carrier detection, Ether efficiency increases with increasing packet length. With carrier detection we are able to implement deference: no station will start transmitting while hearing carrier. With deference comes acquisition: once a packet transmission has been in progress for an Ether end-to398 end propagation time, all stations are hearing carrier and are deferring; the Ether has been acquired and the transmission will complete without an interfering collision. With carrier detection, collisions should occur only when two or more stations find the Ether silent and begin transmitting simultaneously: within an Ether end-toend propagation time. This will almost always happen immediately after a packet transmission during which two or more stations were deferring. Because stations do not now randomize after deferring, when the transmission terminates, the waiting stations pile on together, collide, randomize, and retransmit. 3.5.2 Interference detection. Each transceiver has an interference detector. Interference is indicated when the transceiver notices a difference between the value of the bit it is receiving from the Ether and the value of the bit it is attempting to transmit. Interference detection has three advantages. First, a station detecting a collision knows that its packet has been damaged. The packet can be scheduled for retransmission immediately, avoiding a long acknowledgment timeout. Second, interference periods on the Ether are limited to a maximum of one round trip time. Colliding packets in the Aloha Network run to completion, but the truncated packets resulting from Ethernet collisions waste only a small fraction of a packet time on the Ether. Third, the frequency of detected interference is used to estimate Ether traffic for adjusting retransmission intervals and optimizing channel efficiency. 3.5.3 Packet error detection. As a packet is placed on the Ether, a checksum is computed and appended. As the packet is read from the Ether, the checksum is recomputed. Packets which do not carry a consistent checksum are discarded. In this way transmission errors, impulse noise errors, and errors due to undetected interference are caught at a paeket's destination. 3.5.4 Truncated packet filtering. Interference detection and deference cause most collisions to result in truncated packets of only a few bits; colliding stations detect interference and abort transmission within an Ether round trip time. To reduce the processing load that the rejection of such obviously damaged packets would place on listening station software, truncated packets are filtered out in hardware. 3.5.5 Collision consensus enforcement. When a station determines that its transmission is experiencing interference, it momentarily jams the Ether to insure that all other participants in the collision will detect interference and, because of deference, will be forced to abort. Without this collision consensus enforcement mechanism, it is possible that the transmitting station which would otherwise be the last to detect a collision might not do so as the other interfering transmissions successively abort and stop interfering. Although the packet may look good to that last transmitter, different path lengths Communications of the ACM July 1976 Volume 19 Number 7 between the colliding transmitters and the intended receiver will cause the packet to arrive damaged. 4. Implementation Our choices of 1 kilometer, 3 megabits per second, and 256 stations for the parameters of an experimental Ethernet were based on characteristics of the locally distributed computer communication environment and our assessments of what would be marginally achievable; they were certainly not hard restrictions essential to the Ethernet concept. We expect that a reasonable maximum network size would be on the order of 1 kilometer of cable. We used this working number to choose among Ethers of varying signal attenuation and to design transceivers with appropriate power and sensitivity. The dominant station on our experimental Ethernet is a minicomputer for which 3 megabits per second is a convenient data transfer rate. By keeping the peak rate well below that of the computer's path to main memory, we reduce the need for expensive special-purpose packet buffering in our Ethernet interfaces. By keeping the peak rate as high as is convenient, we provide for larger numbers of stations and more ambitious multiprocessing communications applications. To expedite low-level packet handling among 256 stations, we allocate the first 8-bit byte of the packet to be the destination address field and the second byte to be the source address field (see Figure 2). 256 is a number small enough to allow each station to get an adequate share of the available bandwidth and approaches the limit of what we can achieve with current techniques for tapping cables. 256 is only a convenient number for the lowest level of protocol; higher levels can accomodate extended address spaces with additional fields inside the packet and software to interpret them. Our experimental Ethernet implementation has four major parts: the Ether, transceivers, interfaces, and controllers (see Figure 1). 4.1 Ether We chose to implement our experimental Ether using low-loss coaxial cable with off-the-shelf CATV taps and connectors. It is possible to mix Ethers on a single Ethernet; we use a smaller-diameter coax for convenient connection within station dusters and a larger-diameter coax for low-loss runs between clusters. The cost of coaxial cable Ether is insignificant relative to the cost of the distributed computing systems supported by Ethernet. 4.2 Transceivers Our experimental transceivers can drive a kilometer of coaxial cable Ether tapped by 256 stations transmitting at 3 megabits per second. The transceivers can endure (i.e. work after) sustained direct shorting, im399 proper termination of the Ether, and simultaneous drive by all 256 stations; they can tolerate (i.e. work during) ground differentials and everyday electrical noise, from typewriters or electric drills, encountered when stations are separated by as much as a kilometer. An Ethernet transceiver attaches directly to the Ether which passes by in the ceiling or under the floor. It is powered and controlled through five twisted pairs in an interface cable carrying transmit data, receive data, interference detect, and power supply voltages. When unpowered, the transceiver disconnects itself electrically from the Ether. Here is where our fight for reliability is won or lost; a broken transceiver can, but should not, bring down an entire Ethernet. A watchdog timer circuit in each transceiver attempts to prevent pollution of the Ether by shutting down the output stage if it acts suspiciously. For transceiver simplicity we use the Ether's base frequency band, but an Ethernet could be built to use any suitably sized band of a frequency division multiplexed Ether. Even though our experimental transceivers are very simple and can tolerate only limited signal attenuation, they have proven quite adequate and reliable. A more sophisticated transceiver design might permit passive branching of the Ether and wider station separation. 4.3 Interface An Ethernet interface serializes and deserializes the parallel data used by its station. There are a number of different stations on our Ethernet; an interface must be built for each kind. Each interface is equipped with the hardware necessary to compute a 16-bit cyclic redundancy checksum (CRC) on serial data as it is transmitted and received. This checksum protects only against errors in the Ether and specifically not against errors in the parallel portions of the interface hardware or station. Higher-level software checksums are recommended for applications in which a higher degree of reliability is required. A transmitting interface uses a packet buffer address and word count to serialize and phase encode a variable number of 16-bit words which are taken from the station's memory and passed to the transceiver, preceded by a start bit (called SYNC in Figure 2) and followed by the CRC. A receiving interface uses the appearance of carrier to detect the start of a packet and uses the SYNC bit to acquire bit phase. As long as carrier stays on, the interface decodes and deserializes the incoming bit stream depositing 16-bit words in a packet buffer in the station's main memory. When carrier goes away, the interface checks that an integral number of 16-bit words has been received and that the CRC is correct. The last word received is assumed to be the CRC and is not copied into the packet buffer. These interfaces ordinarily include hardware for accepting only those packets with appropriate addresses in their headers. Hardware address filtering helps a station avoid burdensome software packet processing when Communications of the ACM July 1976 Volume 19 Number 7 Fig. 2. Ethernetpacket layout. ACCESSIBLETO SOFI'WARE Y DEST SOURCE ADDRESS Ii - I DATA 8 BITS CIIECKSUM I I 8 BITS I ~ 4OOOBI'PS [ f 16 BITS the Ether is very busy carrying traffic intended for other stations. 4.4 Controller An Ethernet controller is the station-specific lowlevel firmware or software for getting packets onto and out of the Ether. When a source-detected collision occurs, it is the source controller's responsibility to generate a new random retransmission interval based on the updated collision count. We have studied a number of algorithms for controlling retransmission rates in stations to maintain Ether efficiency [20, 22]. The most practical of these algorithms estimate traffic load using recent collision history. Retransmission intervals are multiples of a slot, the maximum time between starting a transmission and detecting a collision, one end-to-end round trip delay. An Ethernet controller begins transmission of each new packet with a mean retransmission interval of one slot. Each time a transmission attempt ends in collision, the controller delays for an interval of random length with a mean twice that of the previous interval, defers to any passing packet, and then attempts retransmission. This heuristic approximates an algorithm we have called Binary Exponential Backoff (see Figure 3) [22]. When the network is unloaded and collisions are rare, the mean seldom departs from one and retransmissions are prompt. As the traffic load increases, more collisions are experienced, a backlog of packets builds up in the stations, retransmission intervals increase, and retransmission traffic backs off to sustain channel efficiency. the Ether and extending its signal cover, there is a tradeoff between using sophisticated transceivers and using repeaters. With increased power and sensitivity, transceivers become more expensive and less reliable. The introduction of repeaters into an Ethernet makes the centrally interconnecting Ether active. The failure of a transceiver will sever the communications of its owner; the failure of a repeater partitions the Ether severing many communications. 5.2 Traffic Cover One can expand an Ethernet just so far by adding Ether and packet repeaters. At some point the Ether will be so busy that additional stations will just divide more finely the already inadequate bandwidth. The traffic cover can be extended with an unbuffered traffic-filtering repeater or packet filter, which passes packets from one Ether segment to another only if the destination station is located on the new segment. A packet filter also extends the signal cover. 5.3 Address Cover One can expand an Ethernet just so far by adding Ether, repeaters, and traffic filters. At some point there will be too many stations to be addressed with the Ethernet's 8-bit addresses. The address cover can be extended with packet gateways and the software addressing conventions they implement [7]. Addresses can be expanded in two directions: down into the station by adding fields to identify destination ports or processes within a station, and up into the internetwork by adding fields to identify destination stations on remote networks. A gateway also extends the traffic and signal covers. There can be only one repeater or packet filter connecting two Ether segments; a packet repeated onto a segment by multiple repeaters would interfere with itself. However, there is no limit to the number of gateways connecting two segments; a gateway only repeats packets addressed to itself as an intermediary. Failure of the single repeater connecting two segments partitions the network; failure of a gateway need not partition the net it there are paths through other gateways between the segments. 5. Growth 5.1 Signal Cover 6. Performance One can expand an Ethernet just so far by adding transceivers and Ether. At some point, the transceivers and Ether will be unable to carry the required signals. The signal cover can be extended with a simple unbuffered packet repeater. In our experimental Ethernet, where because of transceiver simplicity the Ether cannot be branched passively, a simple repeater may join any number of Ether segments to enrich the topology while extending the signal cover. We operate an experimental two-segment packet repeater, but hope to avoid relying on them. In branching We present here a simple set of formulas with which to characterize the performance expected of an Ethernet when it is heavily loaded. More elaborate analyses and several detailed simulations have been done, but the following simple model has proven very useful in understanding the Ethernet's distributed contention scheme, even when it is loaded beyond expectations [1, 20, 21, 22, 23, 27]. We develop a simple model of the performance of a loaded Ethernet by examining alternating Ether time periods. The first, called a transmission interval, is that 40O Communications of the ACM July 1976 Volume 19 Number 7 during which the Ether has been acquired for a successful packet transmission. The second, called a contention interval, is that composed of the retransmission slots of Section 4.4, during which stations attempt to acquire control of the Ether. Because the model's Ethernets are loaded and because stations defer to passing packets before starting transmission, the slots are synchronized by the tail of the preceding acquisition interval. A slot will be empty when no station chooses to attempt transmission in it and it will contain a collision if more than one station attempts to transmit. When a slot contains only one attempted transmission, then the Ether has been acquired for the duration of a packet, the contention interval ends, and a transmission interval begins. Let P be the number of bits in an Ethernet packet. Let C be the peak capacity in bits per second, carried on the Ether. Let T be the time in seconds of a slot, the number of seconds it takes to detect a collision after starting a transmission. Let us assume that there are Q stations continuously queued to transmit a packet; either the acquiring station has a new packet immediately after a successful acquisition or another station comes ready. Note that Q also happens to give the total offered load on the network which for this analysis is always 1 or greater. We assume that a queued station attempts to transmit in the current slot with probability 1/Q, or delays with probability 1 - ( l / Q ) ; this is known NEW I .As [ LOADESTIMATE OVERFLOWED? YES NO GENERATE I RANDOMNUMBER I INCREASE LOAD ESTIMATE I I°A== I WEIGHTEDRANDOM NUMBER COLLISION 401 6.1 Acquisition Probability We now compute A, the probability that exactly one station attempts a transmission in a slot and therefore acquires the Ether. A is Q.(1/Q).((1 - ( l / Q ) ) * * (Q - 1)); there are Q ways in which one station can choose to transmit (with probability ( l / Q ) ) while Q - 1 stations choose to wait (with probability 1 -- ( l / Q ) ) . Simplifying, A = (1-(l/Q)) (Q-l). 6.2 Waiting Time We now compute IV, the mean number of slots of waiting in a contention interval before a successful acquisition of the Ether by a station's transmission. The probability of waiting no time at all is just A, the probability that one and only one station chooses to transmit in the first slot following a transmission. The probability of waiting 1 slot is A,(1 - A); the probability of waiting i slots is A , ( ( l -- A)**i). The mean of this geometric distribution is w = (l - A)/A. 6.3 Efficiency We now compute E, that fraction of time the Ether is carrying good packets, the efficiency. The Ether's time is divided between transmission intervals and contention intervals. A packet transmission takes P/C seconds. The mean time to acquisition is W,T. Therefore, by our simple model, Fig. 3. Collision control algorithm. ZEROLOAD ESTIMATEFOR PACKET to be the optimum statistical decision rule, approximated in Ethernet stations by means of our load-estimating retransmission control algorithms [20, 21 ]. E = (P/C)/((P/C) q- (W,T)). I ERROR I Table I presents representative performance figures (i.e. E) for our experimental Ethernet with the indicated packet sizes and number of continuously queued stations. The efficiency figures given do not account for inevitable reductions due to headers and control packets nor for losses due to imprecise control of the retransmission parameter 1/Q; the former is straightforwardly protocol-dependent and the latter requires analysis beyond the scope of this paper. Again, we feel that all of the Ethernets in the table are overloaded; normally loaded Ethernets will usually have a Q much less than 1 and exhibit behavior not covered by this model. For our calculations we use a C of 3 megabits per second and a T of 16 microseconds. The slot duration T must be long enough to allow a collision to be detected or at least twice the Ether's round trip time. We limit in software the maximum length of our packets to be near 4000 bits to keep the latency of network access down and to permit efficient use of station packet buffer storage. For packets whose size is above 4000 bits, the efficiency of our experimental Ethernet stays well above 95 Communications of the ACM July 1976 Volume 19 Number 7 percent. For packets with a size approximating that of a slot, Ethernet efficiency approaches l/e, the asymptotic efficiency of a slotted Aloha network [27]. 7. Protocol There is more to the construction of a viable packet communication system than simply providing the mechanisms for packet transport. Methods for error correction, flow control, process naming, security, and accounting must also be provided through higher-level protocols implemented on top o f the Ether control protocol described in Sections 3 and 4 above. [7, 10, 12, 21, 28, 34]. Ether control includes packet framing, error detection, addressing and multi-access control; like other line control procedures, Ethernet is used to support numerous network and multiprocessor architectures [30, 31]. Here is a brief description of one simple error-controlling packet protocol. The E F T P (Ethernet File Transfer Protocol) is of interest both because it is relatively easy to understand and implement correctly and because it has dutifully carried many valuable files during the development of more general and efficient protocols. 7.1. General Terminology In discussing packet protocols, we use the following generally useful terminology. A packet is said to have a source and a destination. A flow of data is said to have a sender and a receiver, recognizing that to support a flow of data some packets (typically acknowledgments) will be sourced at the receiver and destined for the sender. A connection is said to have a listener and an initiator and a service is said to have a server and a user. It is very useful to treat these as orthogonal descriptors of the participants in a communication. Of course, a server is usually a listener and the source of data-bearing packets is usually the sender. 7.2 E F T P The first 16 bits of all Ethernet packets contain its interface-interpretable destination and source station addresses, a byte each, in that order (see Figure 2). By software convention, the second 16 bits of all Ethernet packets contain the packet type. Different protocols use disjoint sets of packet types. The E F T P uses 5 packet types: data, ack, abort, end, and endreply. Following the 16-bit type word of an E F T P packet are 16 bits of sequence number, 16 bits of length, optionally some 16-bit data words, and finally a 16-bit software checksum word (see Figure 4). The Ethernet's hardware checksum is present only on the Ether and is not counted at this level of protocol. It should be obvious that little care has been taken to cram certain fields into just the right number of bits. The emphasis here is on simplicity and ease of pro402 gramming. Despite this disclaimer, we do feel that it is more advisable to err on the side of spacious fields; try as you may, one field or another will always turn out to be too small. The software checksum word is used to lower the probability of an undetected error. It serves not only as a backup for the experimental Ethernet's serial hardware 16-bit cyclic redundancy checksum (in Figure 2), but also for protection against failures in parallel data paths within stations which are not checked by the CRC. The checksum used by the E F T P is a l's complement add and cycle over the entire packet, including header and content data. The checksum can be ignored at the user's peril at either end; the sender may put all l's (an impossible value) into the checksum word to indicate to the receiver that no checksum was computed. 7.2.1 Data transfer. The 16-bit words of a file are carried from sending station to receiving station in data packets consecutively numbered from 0. Each data packet is retransmitted periodically by the sender until an ack packet with a matching sequence number is returned from the receiver. The receiver ignores all damaged packets, packets from a station other than the sender, and packets whose sequence number does not match either the expected one o r the one preceding. When a packet has the expected sequence number, the packet is acked, its data is accepted as part of the file, and the sequence number is incremented. When a packet arrives with a sequence number one less than that expected, it is acknowledged and discarded; the presumptiort is that its ack was lost and needs retransmission [21]. 7.2.2 End. When all the data has been transmitted, an end packet is sent with the next consecutive sequence number and than the sender waits for a matching endreply. Having accepted an end packet in sequence, the data receiver responds with a matching endreply and then dallys for some reasonably long period of time (10 seconds). U p o n getting the endreply, the sending station transmits an echoing endreply and is free to go off with the assurance that the file has been transferred successfully. The dallying receiver then gets the echoed endreply and it too goes off assured. Table I. Ethernet Efficiency. Q 1 2 3 4 5 10 32 64 128 256 P = 4096 P = 1024 P = 512 P = 48 1.0000 0.9884 0.9857 0.9842 0.9834 0.9818 0.98~ 0.9805 0.9804 0.9803 1.0000 0.9552 0.9447 0.9396 0.9367 0.9310 0.9272 0.9263 0.9259 0.92~ 1.0000 0.9143 0.8951 0.88~ 0.8810 0.8709 0.8642 0.8627 0.8620 0.8616 1.0000 0.5000 Communications of the ACM July 1976 Volume 19 Number 7 0,4444 0.4219 0.4096 0.3874 0.3737 0.3708 0,3~3 0.3~6 Fig. 4. EFFP packet layout. Destination words belonging to unnamed files and thus the E F T P is either terribly restrictive or demands some nested file transfer formats internal to its data words. And fifth, functional generality is lost because the receiver is also the listener and server. Source Packet Type Sequence Number Length (in words) Data (words) 8. Conclusion I Data Packet Only Software Checksum - - 1 16-bit Word The comparatively complex end-dally sequence is intended to make it practically certain that the sender and receiver of a file will agree on whether the file has been transmitted correctly. If the end packet is lost, the data sender simply retransmits it as it would any packet with an overdue acknowledgement. If the endreply from the data receiver is lost, the data sender will time out in the same way and retransmit the end packet which will in turn be acknowledged by the dallying receiver. If the echoed endreply is lost, the dallying receiver will be inconvenienced having to wait for it, but when it has timed out, the receiver can nevertheless be assured of successful transfer of the file because the end packet has been received. At any time during all of this, either side is free to decide communication has failed and just give up, it is considered polite to send an abort packet to end the communication promptly in the event of, say, a userinitiated abort or a file system error. 7.2.3 E F T P shortcomings. The E F T P has been very useful, but its shortcomings are many. First, the protocol provides only for file transfer from station to station in a single network and specifically not from process to process within stations either on the same network or through a gateway. Second, process rendezvous is degenerate in that there are no mechanisms for finding processes by name or for convenient handling of multiple users by a single server. Third, there is no real flow control. If data arrives at a receiver unable to accept it into its buffers, the data can simply be thrown away with complete assurance that it will be retransmitted eventually. There is no way for a receiver to quench the flow of such wasted transmissions or to expedite retransmission. Fourth, data is transmitted in integral numbers of 16-bit 403 Our experience with an operating Ethernet leads us to conclude that our emphasis on distributed control was well placed. By keeping the shared components of the communication system to a minimum and passive, we have achieved a very high level of reliability. Installation and maintenance of our experimental Ethernet has been more than satisfactory. The flexibility of station interconnection provided by broadcast packet switching has encouraged the development of numerous computer networking and multiprocessing applications. Acknowledgments. Our colleagues at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, especially Tat C. Lam, Butler W. Lampson, John F. Shoch, and Charles P. Thacker, have contributed in many ways to the evolution of Ethernet ideas and to the construction of the experimental system without which such ideas would be just so much speculation. Received May 1975; revised December 1975 References 1. Abramson,N. The Aloha system. AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 37, 1970 FJCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1970, pp. 281-285. 2. Abramson, N. and Kuo, F.F. Computer-Communication Networks. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1975. 3. Ashenhurst, R.L., and Vonderohe, R.H. A hierarchical network. Datamation 21, 2 (Feb. 1975), 40--44. 4. Baran, P. On distributed communications. Rand Corp. Memo RM-3420-PR, Aug. 1964. 5. Barnes,G.H., Brown, R.M., Kato, M., Kuck, D.J., Slotaick, D.L., and Stokes, R.A. The Illiac IV Computer. IEEE Trans. Computers C-17, 8 (Aug. 1968), 758-770. 6. Binder,R., Abramson, N., Kuo, F., Okinaka, A., and Wax, D. Aloha packet broadcasting--a retrospect. AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 44, 1975 NCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1975. 7. Cerf, V.G., and Kahn, R.E. A protocol for packet network intercommunication. IEEE Trans. Comm. COMM- 22, 5 (May 1974), 637-648. 8. The shrinking world: computer networks and communications. Computer 7, 2 (Feb. 1974). 9. Distributed-function computer architectures. Computer 7, 3 (March 1974). 10. Crocker, S.D., Heafner, J.F., Metcalfe, R.M., and Postel, J.B. Function-oriented protocols for the Arpa computer network. AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 40, 1972SJCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1972, pp. 271-279. 11. Crowther, W.R., Heart, F.E., McKenzie, A.A., McQuillan, J.M., and Walden, D.C. Issues in packet-switchingnetwork design. AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 44, 1975 NCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1975, pp. 161-175. 12. Farber, D.J., et al. The distributed computing system. Proc. 7th Ann. IEEE Computer Soc. International Conf., Feb. 1973, pp. 31-34. 13. Farber, D.J., A ring network. Datamation 21, 2 (Feb. 1975), 44-46. 14. Fraser, A.G. A virtual channel network. Datamation 21, 2 (Feb. 1975), 51-53. Communications of the ACM July 1976 Volume 19 Number 7 15. Heart, F.E., Kahn, R.E., Omstein, S.M., Crowther, W.R., and Walden, D.C. The interface message processor for the Arpa computer network, AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 36, 1970 SJCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1970, pp. 551-567. 16. Heart, F.E., Ornstein, S.M., Crowther, W.R., and Barker, W.B. A new minicomputer-multiprocessor for the Arpa network. AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 42, 1972 SJCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1972, pp. 529-537. 17. Kahn, R.R. The organization of computer resources into a packet ratio network. AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 44, 1975 NCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1975, pp. 177-186. 18. Metcalfe, R.M. Strategies for interprocess communication in a distributed computing system. Prec. Symp. on Computer Commun. Networks and Teletratiic. Polytechnic Press, New York, 1972. 19. Metcalfe, R.M. Strategies for Operating Systems in Computer Networks, Proc. ACM National Conf., August 1972, pp. 278-281. 20. Metcalfe, R.M. Steady-state analysis of a slotted and controlled aloha system with blocking. Proc. 6th Hawaii Conf. on System Sci. Jan. 1973, pp. 375-380. 21. Metcalfe, R.M. Packet communication. Harvard Ph.D. Th., Project Mac TR-114, Dee. 1973. 22. Metealfe, R.M. Distributed algorithms for a broadcast queue. Talk given at Stanford University in November 1974 and at the University of California at Berkeley in February 1975, paper in preparation. 23. Murthy, P. Analysis of a carder-sense random-access system with random packet length. Aloha System Tech. Rep. B75-17, U. of Hawaii, May 1975. 24. Ornstein, S.M., Crowtber, W.R., Kraley, M.F., Bressler, R.D., Michel, A., and Heart, F.E. Pluribus--a reliable multiprocessor. AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 44, 1975 NCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1970, pp. 551-559. 25. Retz, D.L. Operating system design considerations for the packet switching environment. AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 44, 1975 NCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1970, pp. 155-160. 26. Roberts, L., and Wessler, B. Computer network development to achieve resource sharing. AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 36, 1970 SJCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1970, pp. 543-549. 27. Roberts, L. Capture effects on Aloha channels. Proc. 6th Hawaii Conf. on System Sci., Jan. 1973. 28. Rowe, L.A. The distributed computing operating system. Tech. Rep. 66, Dep. of Information and Computer Sci., U. of California, Irvine, June 1975. 29. Rustin, R. (Ed.) Computer Networks (Proc. Courant Computer Sci. Symp. 3, December 1970), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1970. 30. IBM synchronous data link control--general information. IBM Systems Development Div., Pub. Center, Research Triangle Park, N.C., 1974. 31. IBM system network architecture--general information. IBM Systems Development Div., Pub. Center, Research Triangle Park, N.C., 1975. 32. Thomas, R.H. A resource sharing executive for the Arpanet. AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 42, 1973 NCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1973, pp. 155-163. 33. Thornton, J.E. Design of a Computer: the Control Data 6600. Scott Foresman and Co., Glenview, I11. 1970. 34. Walden, D.C. A system for interprocess communication in a resource sharing computer network. Comm. ACM, 15, 4 (April 1972), 221-230. 35. Willard, D.G. Mitrix: A sophisticated digital cable communications system Proc. National Telecommunications Conf., Nov. 1973. 36. Wulf, W., and Levin, R. C.mmi>--a multi-mini-processor, AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol. 41, 1972 FJCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., 1972. 404 Management Applications H. M o r g a n Editor Synthesis of Decision Rules Cheng-Wen Cheng and Jonas Rabin Western Electric Decision tables can be used as an effective tool during an interview to record the logic of processes to be automated. The result of such an interview is not a structure of complete decision tables but rather sets of decision rules. The purpose of this paper is to provide a procedure for synthesizing the decision rules and thus provide an aid in developing a structure of complete decision tables. Key Words and Phrases: decision rules, decision tables, logical tables, logical design, system design, specification language CR Categories: 3.50, 4.33 1. Introduction One of the most i m p o r t a n t stages in the systems development process is fact finding. F a c t finding is an investigation and recording o f current procedures and future requirements. T h e m o s t effective m e t h o d o f fact finding is interviewing. Decision tables are an effective tool for recording the logic during the interview process, as discussed b y L o n d o n [1]. The p r i m a r y objective o f the interview is Copyright © 1976, Association for Computing Machinery, Inc. General permission to republish, but not for profit, all or part of this material is granted provided that ACM's copyright notice is given and that reference is made to the publication, to its date of issue, and to the fact that reprinting privileges were granted by permission of the Association for Computing Machinery. Authors' present addresses: C. W. Cheng, Western Electric, Engineering Research Center, P.O. Box 900, Princeton, NJ 08540. J. Rabin, Bell Laboratories, Napierville, IL 08540. Communications of the ACM July 1976 Volume 19 Number 7
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'I don't want to go without my baby!'
At the crack of dawn and after being blessed by her mother and the elderly in one of the pastoralist villages of Denan woreda (district), 30-year-old Sindebie Weda left her bush house to travel 250 kilometres in a heavy truck to Degehabur hospital.
Two bags filled with dresses and some biscuits were the items she carried for her long journey. Her aunt, accompanying her, helped Sindebie to climb to the back of the heavy truck, crammed full with cargo and people travelling to town.
When the truck left the town, Sindebie sighed in relief. In her six years of married life in this village, she has lost two babies in two deliveries. On both occasions, like many women in the area, Sindebie tried to deliver at home supported by traditional birth attendants.
"During my second delivery just two years ago, not only did I lose the baby but I was almost on the verge of death. I was unconscious for hours while I was taken to the local health centre after a failed delivery attempt at home," Sindebie remembers.
She then recovered after being transferred to another secondary healthcare hospital, some 300 kilometres away.
"I was traumatised by such experiences," says Sindebie. She was determined not to undergo such a devastating situation again.
She was intent on paying whatever it took to make her third delivery successful. After a half-day arduous and bumpy journey, the truck finally arrived at Degehabur town.
"When I was told that I had arrived at the hospital, I was filled with joy and smiled for the first time in months and, for the very first time, I felt I would soon enjoy nature's blessing – being a mother," she says.
As expected, she was well received and treated. However, after a few moments of rest, she was called into the examination room and, after conducting the proper antenatal care examination, the maternity staff at Degehabur hospital told Sindebie her due date had not yet arrived and advised her to go back home and return after 10 days.
When Sindebie heard this she couldn't believe it. In an instant, memories flashed back of all the agonies, the loss and the miseries she had suffered over the years. She was dumbfounded.
"When I saw her silence I thought she hadn't understood the advice so I told her again," says Rukia Abdulahi, midwife, and supervisor of the mother and child healthcare unit at the hospital.
"Then she slowly raised herself up from the examination bed and sat comfortably. She stared at the three of us, the midwives. She then settled her eyes directly on me, fixing me with a piercing look. Silence filled the little room for few seconds.
Suddenly, Sindebie's strong voice broke the silence: "I won't leave the hospital until I give birth to a live baby. I've had enough. I've already lost two babies during my previous two deliveries. I don't want to go without my baby!"
The midwives were stunned by the response. Rukia says the woman's determination was firm and unequivocal. They never expected such a response. After listening to Sindebie's traumatic tale, the medical team was convinced and sympathetic.
However, Rukia says "the problem was where to accommodate her and who could provide her with assistance for days. We were at a loss as to what to do."
Sindebie's story spread very fast around the hospital until it reached Doctors Without Border's (MSF) staff working in partnership with the Regional Health Bureau in Degehabur hospital.
Already aware of such challenging situations, MSF was in the process of constructing a maternity waiting house in the hospital. Dr Seri Sango, medical activity coordinator of the MSF Degehabur project, says:
"Although the maternity waiting house was only half completed, we had to adjust and create a room for this courageous woman to stay. We facilitated that. She stayed for seven days and gave birth to a healthy baby."
Lying happily beside her baby, Sindebie Weda says: "I'm very pleased. I thank all of you." It was not only the staff and community of Degehabur hospital who heard about Sindebie's story, she also became famous in her Denan community and far beyond.
Currently, the maternity waiting house is fully furnished and accommodates about 12 pregnant women at a time.
Since it became fully operational in January 2015, more than one hundred pregnant women coming from all villages (kebele) in the Jerar region, and some from other areas, suffering various kinds of pregnancy-related complications (such as severe and mild pre-eclampsia, anaemia, multiple pregnancies, among others) have benefited from the maternity waiting house.
Rukia says: 'If it hadn't been for MSF, we could have faced serious problems in saving the lives of these mothers and also in supporting them to deliver safely. We don't have any space to keep mothers here for weeks."
At the maternity waiting house, the basic needs of pregnant women are provided – hygiene, health education, Doctors
MSF is supporting the Somali Regional Health Bureau in providing quality healthcare at Degehabur hospital as well as in outreach locations via mobile clinics and is supporting health centres and health posts in the provision of care.
Find out more about MSF's work in Somalia.


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Blockbuster City Fashion Show 2012 at Shangri-La Plaza1
May 18, 2012 by jotan23
"BEJEWELED FROU-FROU. This little girl channels her inner Snow White in a dress that made her look — and feel …
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Shangri-La Plaza Blockbuster Summer Fashion Show 2011Leave a comment
April 12, 2011 by jotan23
We're so happy that Sofia's joining the Shangrila Plaza Fashion Show again for PERIWINKLE 🙂 This year's theme was "Shangri-La …
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Fashion & Symphony at Shangri-La Plaza2
November 14, 2010 by jotan23
Big thanks to Periwinkle for making Sofia Gabrielle Yu part of Shangri-La Plaza's 2010 Fashion Show. Fashion & Symphony at …
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Birthday Treat at Krocodile Grille, EDSA Shangri-LaLeave a comment
July 4, 2008 by jotan23
One thing's for sure!!! WE LOVE TO EAT!!!! hehehe Being on a tight budget, it's hard to look for a …
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Life Lately in 10 Short Takes
How is it that we're almost through June already? Summer is flying by at lightning speed. I can barely keep up! And my house is a testament to that. I actually had to plan to stay home today to catch up on cleaning the kitchen and doing the laundry. The funny thing is that it usually drives me bonkers when my kitchen looks like a grenade exploded in it, but we've been so busy playing outside and running errands that I don't have time to stare at the mess, so therefore it doesn't bother me. I sure wish that were true come January! Ha!
1. One Friday night Bron and I got to go kayaking on a double date with some friends. You guys, I LIVE for the warm weather and being out on the water. It just makes me feel alive. We explored the Snake River Canyon a bit--paddling up an inlet a ways through some cattails--and admired the many small waterfalls cascading down the canyon's tall rock walls. Bron even climbed to the top of some waterfalls! Seriously, this place we live in is so underrated. The many gems of Idaho are a well-kept secret!
2. One Monday morning a good friend from college who is like a sister to Bron and his brothers called me to say she was getting married.... on Saturday! She asked if I would be her photographer. Um, okay! I'd love to! So we all went to the wedding and had a good time. It was so fun to see her so happy!
Then the next day the extended Nelson family all got together to welcome Kaleb home from his mission. After church we were up to our eyeballs in delicious food to eat (I'll take TWO helpings of cake please, AND a cookie) and so many relatives and friends that I couldn't possibly get around to chatting with everyone. But we did manage to get an updated Nelson family picture. It was a really good weekend.
3. Coloring with crayons on the front patio has become Jed's new favorite habit.
4. Bron and I like to sit in the backyard sipping on ice cold lemonade while we watch the boys run through the sprinklers on hot evenings.
5. I think God made perennials just for me. I LOVE flowers but I have a black thumb. (Gardening? What's that?) So the fact that my yard is chuck full of pretty blooms every summer is nothing short of a miracle and makes me very very happy. Grow little beauties, grow!
6. Trips to Bass Lake! Now that we are hoity-toity country club members through Bron's work, we have the privilege of using the club's dreamy lake and beach. The water is a crystal clear blue-green and the sand is raked everyday. It. Is. So. Amazing! I could live there. The boys beg to come back every time we leave. And of course, I happily oblige.
The only catch is that there seems to be something biting the kids in the water. The club says it's swimmer's itch, but our local pharmacist thinks it could be something else. Either way, the kids came home last week covered in red bumps. They look like they have chicken pox! Fortunately, the boys didn't seem too miserable and with a little benadryl and cream (Doctor's orders) their bites are healing up. I hope that whatever it is in the water clears up soon so we can go back to play!
7. One day I managed to reach a personal record of steps on my Vivofit2 thanks to a five mile run in the morning followed by a mountain bike ride with my adventurous friend Shelly, and a photo shoot in the evening. Whew! It was a beautiful and full day. I was pooped by 9PM. (Okay, who am I kidding? I'm pooped by 9PM most days!)
8. Wanna know the quickest way to get motivated about washing all the sheets at once in the house... in the middle of the night? Have a sick toddler. After Levi threw up twice, I brought him to bed with me because Bron was out of town. It often seems to be that when Bron is gone is when I need him most. I stayed up all night with Levi rubbing his little warm back and helping him throw up in the bowl I brought to bed. Poor kid. I felt so bad for him. Though I was sleep deprived and had to cancel a photo session, I should have felt resentful, but I actually didn't... because I am a mother and this is what I was made to do! Levi is totally worth it.
9. One of the most endearing things about my boys right now is how they enjoy picking me dandelions and wildflowers. Such sweet boys. It makes my mama heart burst. I don't ever want them to grow up; I cherish being the only woman in their life! A family hike and picnic in the South Hills for the win!
10. Finally, we celebrated Father's Day by baking Bron a batch of his favorite chocolate-peanut butter cookies. Yum! We feel so lucky to call this hardworking, adventure seeking, loyal, and loving man ours for forever. We love him lots and lots!


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The Department of Defense released an alarming report from Pentagon inspector general this summer detailing that President Trump's controversial decision to pull troops out of Syria actually aided the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) in strengthening and regrouping.
The withdrawal of American forces has left ISIS forces with the opening to recruit new members without any interference from U.S. forces.
The report reads:
"According to [joint task force officials], the drawdown of U.S. forces in Syria also reduced the ability of [the U.S.-backed mission] to maintain 'visibility' at the al Hol IDP camp, forcing it to rely on third-party accounts of the humanitarian and security situation there."
Despite Trump's insistence that ISIS has been defeated, the report said that "ISIS continued its transition from a territory-holding force to an insurgency in Syria, and it intensified its insurgency in Iraq."
Experts and officials warned time and again about this very situation- that a quick withdrawal by the US would set the stage for an ISIS regrouping into an insurgency.
The report also said the troop drawdown has undoubtedly led to further instability in the reagion. The withdrawal prompted the unexpected resignation of Defense Secretary Jim Mattis and left the US's Syrian partners without the necessary training or reinforcement they would need to deal with a stronger ISIS presence.
Same situation in Iraq- Iraq security forces just didn't have the setup to confront or battle ISIS for the long haul.
ISIS is believed to have around 14,000 to 18,000 active combatants.
These combatants are carrying out assassinations, suicide bombings, crop and property burnings, and constant ambushes in both Syria and Iraq, posing huge violent threats to civilians in those countries.
ISIS in those countries has also found ways to generate income- extortion, kidnapping, skimming money from rebuilding contracts, you name it.
This type of underhanded income generation makes it extremely difficult to track.
According to Brett McGurk, who served under Presidents Bush, Obama, and Trump as special presidential envoy for the Global Coalition to Counter ISIS, says that Trump's decision to refocus attention on Iran hindered its ability to really counter and combat ISIS in Iraq and Syria, leaving it wide open for growth.
McGurk felt similarly to Mattis, and used that same tactic to express his feelings, resigning his post after Trump announced the withdrawal.
He warned that Trump's handling of this would give ISIS "new life" and would "precipitate chaos and an environment for extremists to thrive."
One of Trump's greatest campaign promises was the withdrawal of US forces from Middle Eastern conflicts, all designed around his "America First" policy but what he failed to realize is that decisions like this one have far reaching consequences.
It destabilized Iraq and Syria and has the potential to do the same to Afghanistan, crucial because the US is currently in negotiations with the Taliban to withdraw from there.
In Afghanistan, there is an ISIS branch called ISIS K. This new threat is growing rapidly and recruiting militant volunteers ready to wage a holy war.
Middle East expert Nicholas Heras from the Center for a New American Security said of the threat, "ISIS K will likely succeed."


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Research Journal of Humanities and Social SciencesYear : 2016, Volume : 7, Issue : 2
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Article DOI :
Financial Inclusion in Assam-An Overview
Borgohain Nishi*
Research Scholar, Dept. of Economics, Dibrugarh University, Assam, 786004
*Corresponding Author: Nishi Borgohain Research Scholar, Dept. of Economics, Dibrugarh University, Assam-786004 Email, email@example.com
Online published on 21 June, 2016.
At the beginning of the new millennium, 260 million people in the country did not have incomes to access a consumption basket which defines the poverty line. Of these, 75 per cent were in the rural areas. India is home to 22 per cent of the world's poor. 22% Indian population live below poverty line whereas 32% population lives below poverty line in Assam (Economic Survey of Assam, 2013–14). Such a high incidence of poverty is a matter of concern in view of the fact that poverty alleviation has been one of the major objectives in the 21st century. Financial inclusion can serve the purpose to a greater extent. Increasing access of financial services to deprived section of society is the main motto of Financial Inclusion in India. A major section of rural population is deprived of financial access in the form of bank accounts, financial advice, financial services etc. According to census 2011, only 58.7% of households are availing banking services in the country whereas the percentage of household availing in Assam is only 44.1%. The concept of Financial Inclusion has gained a lot of importance and momentum in this regard in the last decade. To make growth inclusive for all sections of the society, initiatives have been taken to make banking and other financial services easily accessible. In this paper an attempt is made to explore the available statistics to investigate the level of financial inclusion in Assam from three different aspects-availability of financial services at village level (physical access), access of households to bank accounts and utilization of financial resources and services by households from formal system. The study is a desk study based on available up-to-date secondary sources of data. The study found that Assam and especially rural Assam has performed poorly in all three dimensions of financial inclusion-availability, accessibility and usage of financial services. As far as district-wise banking parameters are concerned, the study indicated a wide variation in all the parameters. No district has performed well in all indicators. The survey data and statistics of banks and other institutions on various dimensions of financial inclusion while expose some significant aspects of the success of financial inclusion drive, when seen individually these fail to give a wholesome picture. Hence, instead of confining to the schemes recommended by the official committees, banks may adopt some innovative schemes for making financial inclusion more meaningful as well as successful.
Poverty Line, financial inclusion, financial services, financial access.