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Geology, the fields of study concerned with the solid Earth. Included are sciences such as mineralogy, geodesy, and stratigraphy.
An introduction to the geochemical and geophysical sciences logically begins with mineralogy, because Earth's rocks are composed of minerals—inorganic elements or compounds that have a fixed chemical composition and that are made up of regularly aligned rows of atoms. Today one of the principal concerns of mineralogy is the chemical analysis of the some 3,000 known minerals that are the chief constituents of the three different rock types: sedimentary (formed by diagenesis of sediments deposited by surface processes); igneous (crystallized from magmas either at depth or at the surface as lavas); and metamorphic (formed by a recrystallization process at temperatures and pressures in the Earth's crust high enough to destabilize the parent sedimentary or igneous material). Geochemistry is the study of the composition of these different types of rocks.
During mountain building, rocks became highly deformed, and the primary objective of structural geology is to elucidate the mechanism of formation of the many types of structures (e.g., folds and faults) that arise from such deformation. The allied field of geophysics has several subdisciplines, which make use of different instrumental techniques. Seismology, for example, involves the exploration of the Earth's deep structure through the detailed analysis of recordings of elastic waves generated by earthquakes and man-made explosions. Earthquake seismology has largely been responsible for defining the location of major plate boundaries and of the dip of subduction zones down to depths of about 700 kilometres at those boundaries. In other subdisciplines of geophysics, gravimetric techniques are used to determine the shape and size of underground structures; electrical methods help to locate a variety of mineral deposits that tend to be good conductors of electricity; and paleomagnetism has played the principal role in tracking the drift of continents.
Geomorphology is concerned with the surface processes that create the landscapes of the world—namely, weathering and erosion. Weathering is the alteration and breakdown of rocks at the Earth's surface caused by local atmospheric conditions, while erosion is the process by which the weathering products are removed by water, ice, and wind. The combination of weathering and erosion leads to the wearing down or denudation of mountains and continents, with the erosion products being deposited in rivers, internal drainage basins, and the oceans. Erosion is thus the complement of deposition. The unconsolidated accumulated sediments are transformed by the process of diagenesis and lithification into sedimentary rocks, thereby completing a full cycle of the transfer of matter from an old continent to a young ocean and ultimately to the formation of new sedimentary rocks. Knowledge of the processes of interaction of the atmosphere and the hydrosphere with the surface rocks and soils of the Earth's crust is important for an understanding not only of the development of landscapes but also (and perhaps more importantly) of the ways in which sediments are created. This in turn helps in interpreting the mode of formation and the depositional environment of sedimentary rocks. Thus the discipline of geomorphology is fundamental to the uniformitarian approach to the Earth sciences according to which the present is the key to the past.
Geologic history provides a conceptual framework and overview of the evolution of the Earth. An early development of the subject was stratigraphy, the study of order and sequence in bedded sedimentary rocks. Stratigraphers still use the two main principles established by the late 18th-century English engineer and surveyor William Smith, regarded as the father of stratigraphy: (1) that younger beds rest upon older ones and (2) different sedimentary beds contain different and distinctive fossils, enabling beds with similar fossils to be correlated over large distances. Today biostratigraphy uses fossils to characterize successive intervals of geologic time, but as relatively precise time markers only to the beginning of the Cambrian Period, about 540,000,000 years ago. The geologic time scale, back to the oldest rocks, some 4,280,000,000 years ago, can be quantified by isotopic dating techniques. This is the science of geochronology, which in recent years has revolutionized scientific perception of Earth history and which relies heavily on the measured parent-to-daughter ratio of radiogenic isotopes (see below).
Paleontology is the study of fossils and is concerned not only with their description and classification but also with an analysis of the evolution of the organisms involved. Simple fossil forms can be found in early Precambrian rocks as old as 3,500,000,000 years, and it is widely considered that life on Earth must have begun before the appearance of the oldest rocks. Paleontological research of the fossil record since the Cambrian Period has contributed much to the theory of evolution of life on Earth.
Several disciplines of the geologic sciences have practical benefits for society. The geologist is responsible for the discovery of minerals (such as lead, chromium, nickel, and tin), oil, gas, and coal, which are the main economic resources of the Earth; for the application of knowledge of subsurface structures and geologic conditions to the building industry; and for the prevention of natural hazards or at least providing early warning of their occurrence. (For further examples, see below Practical applications.)
Astrogeology is important in that it contributes to understanding the development of the Earth within the solar system. The U.S. Apollo program of manned missions to the Moon, for example, provided scientists with firsthand information on lunar geology, including observations on such features as meteorite craters that are relatively rare on Earth. Unmanned space probes have yielded significant data on the surface features of many of the planets and their satellites. Since the 1970s even such distant planetary systems as those of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus have been explored by probes.
Study of the composition of the Earth
As a discipline, mineralogy has had close historical ties with geology. Minerals as basic constituents of rocks and ore deposits are obviously an integral aspect of geology. The problems and techniques of mineralogy, however, are distinct in many respects from those of the rest of geology, with the result that mineralogy has grown to be a large, complex discipline in itself.
About 3,000 distinct mineral species are recognized, but relatively few are important in the kinds of rocks that are abundant in the outer part of the Earth. Thus a few minerals such as the feldspars, quartz, and mica are the essential ingredients in granite and its near relatives. Limestones, which are widely distributed on all continents, consist largely of only two minerals, calcite and dolomite. Many rocks have a more complex mineralogy, and in some the mineral particles are so minute that they can be identified only through specialized techniques.
It is possible to identify an individual mineral in a specimen by examining and testing its physical properties. Determining the hardness of a mineral is the most practical way of identifying it. This can be done by using the Mohs scale of hardness, which lists 10 common minerals in their relative order of hardness: talc (softest with the scale number 1), gypsum (2), calcite (3), fluorite (4), apatite (5), orthoclase (6), quartz (7), topaz (8), corundum (9), and diamond (10). Harder minerals scratch softer ones, so that an unknown mineral can be readily positioned between minerals on the scale. Certain common objects that have been assigned hardness values roughly corresponding to those of the Mohs scale (e.g., fingernail [2.5], pocketknife blade [5.5], steel file [6.5]) are usually used in conjunction with the minerals on the scale for additional reference.
Other physical properties of minerals that aid in identification are crystal form, cleavage type, fracture, streak, lustre, colour, specific gravity, and density. In addition, the refractive index of a mineral can be determined with precisely calibrated immersion oils. Some minerals have distinctive properties that help to identify them. For example, carbonate minerals effervesce with dilute acids; halite is soluble in water and has a salty taste; fluorite (and about 100 other minerals) fluoresces in ultraviolet light; and uranium-bearing minerals are radioactive.
The science of crystallography is concerned with the geometric properties and internal structure of crystals. Because minerals are generally crystalline, crystallography is an essential aspect of mineralogy. Investigators in the field may use a reflecting goniometer that measures angles between crystal faces to help determine the crystal system to which a mineral belongs. Another instrument that they frequently employ is the X-ray diffractometer, which makes use of the fact that X-rays, when passing through a mineral specimen, are diffracted at regular angles. The paths of the diffracted rays are recorded on photographic film, and the positions and intensities of the resulting diffraction lines on the film provide a particular pattern. Every mineral has its own unique diffraction pattern, so crystallographers are able to determine not only the crystal structure of a mineral but the type of mineral as well.
When a complex substance such as a magma crystallizes to form igneous rock, the grains of different constituent minerals grow together and mutually interfere, with the result that they do not retain their externally recognizable crystal form. To study the minerals in such a rock, the mineralogist uses a petrographic microscope constructed for viewing thin sections of the rock, which are ground uniformly to a thickness of about 0.03 millimetre, in light polarized by two polarizing prisms in the microscope. If the rock is crystalline, its essential minerals can be determined by their peculiar optical properties as revealed in transmitted light under magnification, provided that the individual crystal grains can be distinguished. Opaque minerals, such as those with a high content of metallic elements, require a technique employing reflected light from polished surfaces. This kind of microscopic analysis has particular application to metallic ore minerals. The polarizing microscope, however, has a lower limit to the size of grains that can be distinguished with the eye; even the best microscopes cannot resolve grains less than about 0.5 micrometre (0.0005 millimetre) in diameter. For higher magnifications the mineralogist uses an electron microscope, which produces images with diameters enlarged tens of thousands of times.
The methods described above are based on a study of the physical properties of minerals. Another important area of mineralogy is concerned with the chemical composition of minerals. The primary instrument used is the electron microprobe. Here a beam of electrons is focused on a thin section of rock that has been highly polished and coated with carbon. The electron beam can be narrowed to a diameter of about one micrometre and thus can be focused on a single grain of a mineral, which can be observed with an ordinary optical microscope system. The electrons cause the atoms in the mineral under examination to emit diagnostic X-rays, the intensity and concentration of which are measured by a computer. Besides spot analysis, this method allows a mineral to be traversed for possible chemical zoning. Moreover, the concentration and relative distribution of elements such as magnesium and iron across the boundary of two coexisting minerals like garnet and pyroxene can be used with thermodynamic data to calculate the temperature and pressure at which minerals of this type crystallize.
Although the major concern of mineralogy is to describe and classify the geometrical, chemical, and physical properties of minerals, it is also concerned with their origin. Physical chemistry and thermodynamics are basic tools for understanding mineral origin. Some of the observational data of mineralogy are concerned with the behaviour of solutions in precipitating crystalline materials under controlled conditions in the laboratory. Certain minerals can be created synthetically under conditions in which temperature and concentration of solutions are carefully monitored. Other experimental methods include study of the transformation of solids at high temperatures and pressures to yield specific minerals or assemblages of minerals. Experimental data obtained in the laboratory, coupled with chemical and physical theory, enable the conditions of origin of many naturally occurring minerals to be inferred.
Petrology is the study of rocks, and, because most rocks are composed of minerals, petrology is strongly dependent on mineralogy. In many respects mineralogy and petrology share the same problems; for example, the physical conditions that prevail (pressure, temperature, time, and presence or absence of water) when particular minerals or mineral assemblages are formed. Although petrology is in principle concerned with rocks throughout the crust, as well as with those of the inner depths of the Earth, in practice the discipline deals mainly with those that are accessible in the outer part of the Earth's crust. Rock specimens obtained from the surface of the Moon and from other planets are also proper considerations of petrology. Fields of specialization in petrology correspond to the aforementioned three major rock types—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Igneous petrology
Igneous petrology is concerned with the identification, classification, origin, evolution, and processes of formation and crystallization of the igneous rocks. Most of the rocks available for study come from the Earth's crust, but a few, such as eclogites, derive from the mantle. The scope of igneous petrology is very large because igneous rocks make up the bulk of the continental and oceanic crusts and of the mountain belts of the world, which range in age from early Archean to Neogene, and they also include the high-level volcanic extrusive rocks and the plutonic rocks that formed deep within the crust. Of utmost importance to igneous petrologic research is geochemistry, which is concerned with the major- and trace-element composition of igneous rocks as well as of the magmas from which they arose. Some of the major problems within the scope of igneous petrology are: (1) the form and structure of igneous bodies, whether they be lava flows or granitic intrusions, and their relations to surrounding rocks (these are problems studied in the field); (2) the crystallization history of the minerals that make up igneous rocks (this is determined with the petrographic polarizing microscope); (3) the classification of rocks based on textural features, grain size, and the abundance and composition of constituent minerals; (4) the fractionation of parent magmas by the process of magmatic differentiation, which may give rise to an evolutionary sequence of genetically related igneous products; (5) the mechanism of generation of magmas by partial melting of the lower continental crust, suboceanic and subcontinental mantle, and subducting slabs of oceanic lithosphere; (6) the history of formation and the composition of the present oceanic crust determined on the basis of data from the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP); (7) the evolution of igneous rocks through geologic time; (8) the composition of the mantle from studies of the rocks and mineral chemistry of eclogites brought to the surface in kimberlite pipes; (9) the conditions of pressure and temperature at which different magmas form and at which their igneous products crystallize (determined from high-pressure experimental petrology).
The basic instrument of igneous petrology is the petrographic polarizing microscope, but the majority of instruments used today have to do with determining rock and mineral chemistry. These include the X-ray fluorescence spectrometer, equipment for neutron activation analysis, induction-coupled plasma spectrometer, electron microprobe, ionprobe, and mass spectrometer. These instruments are highly computerized and automatic and produce analyses rapidly (see below Geochemistry). Complex high-pressure experimental laboratories also provide vital data.
With a vast array of sophisticated instruments available, the igneous petrologist is able to answer many fundamental questions. Study of the ocean floor has been combined with investigation of ophiolite complexes, which are interpreted as slabs of ocean floor that have been thrust onto adjacent continental margins. An ophiolite provides a much deeper section through the ocean floor than is available from shallow drill cores and dredge samples from the extant ocean floor. These studies have shown that the topmost volcanic layer consists of tholeiitic basalt or mid-ocean ridge basalt that crystallized at an accreting rift or ridge in the middle of an ocean. A combination of mineral chemistry of the basalt minerals and experimental petrology of such phases allows investigators to calculate the depth and temperature of the magma chambers along the mid-ocean ridge. The depths are close to six kilometres, and the temperatures range from 1,150 °C to 1,279 °C. Comprehensive petrologic investigation of all the layers in an ophiolite makes it possible to determine the structure and evolution of the associated magma chamber.
In 1974 B.W. Chappell and A.J.R. White discovered two major and distinct types of granitic rock—namely, I- and S-type granitoids. The I-type has strontium-87/strontium-86 ratios lower than 0.706 and contains magnetite, titanite, and allanite but no muscovite. These rocks formed above subduction zones in island arcs and active (subducting) continental margins and were ultimately derived by partial melting of mantle and subducted oceanic lithosphere. In contrast, S-type granitoids have strontium-87/strontium-86 ratios higher than 0.706 and contain muscovite, ilmenite, and monazite. These rocks were formed by partial melting of lower continental crust. Those found in the Himalayas were formed during the Miocene Epoch some 20,000,000 years ago as a result of the penetration of India into Asia, which thickened the continental crust and then caused its partial melting.
In the island arcs and active continental margins that rim the Pacific Ocean, there are many different volcanic and plutonic rocks belonging to the calc-alkaline series. These include basalt; andesite; dacite; rhyolite; ignimbrite; diorite; granite; peridotite; gabbro; and tonalite, trondhjemite, and granodiorite (TTG). They occur typically in vast batholiths, which may reach several thousand kilometres in length and contain more than 1,000 separate granitic bodies. These TTG calc-alkaline rocks represent the principal means of growth of the continental crust throughout the whole of geologic time. Much research is devoted to them in an effort to determine the source regions of their parent magmas and the chemical evolution of the magmas. It is generally agreed that these magmas were largely derived by the melting of a subducted oceanic slab and the overlying hydrated mantle wedge. One of the major influences on the evolution of these rocks is the presence of water, which was derived originally from the dehydration of the subducted slab.
Sedimentary petrology
The field of sedimentary petrology is concerned with the description and classification of sedimentary rocks, interpretation of the processes of transportation and deposition of the sedimentary materials forming the rocks, the environment that prevailed at the time the sediments were deposited, and the alteration (compaction, cementation, and chemical and mineralogical modification) of the sediments after deposition.
There are two main branches of sedimentary petrology. One branch deals with carbonate rocks, namely limestones and dolomites, composed principally of calcium carbonate (calcite) and calcium magnesium carbonate (dolomite). Much of the complexity in classifying carbonate rocks stems partly from the fact that many limestones and dolomites have been formed, directly or indirectly, through the influence of organisms, including bacteria, lime-secreting algae, various shelled organisms (e.g., mollusks and brachiopods), and by corals. In limestones and dolomites that were deposited under marine conditions, commonly in shallow warm seas, much of the material initially forming the rock consists of skeletons of lime-secreting organisms. In many examples, this skeletal material is preserved as fossils. Some of the major problems of carbonate petrology concern the physical and biological conditions of the environments in which carbonate material has been deposited, including water depth, temperature, degree of illumination by sunlight, motion by waves and currents, and the salinity and other chemical aspects of the water in which deposition occurred.
The other principal branch of sedimentary petrology is concerned with the sediments and sedimentary rocks that are essentially noncalcareous. These include sands and sandstones, clays and claystones, siltstones, conglomerates, glacial till, and varieties of sandstones, siltstones, and conglomerates (e.g., the graywacke-type sandstones and siltstones). These rocks are broadly known as clastic rocks because they consist of distinct particles or clasts. Clastic petrology is concerned with classification, particularly with respect to the mineral composition of fragments or particles, as well as the shapes of particles (angular versus rounded), and the degree of homogeneity of particle sizes. Other main concerns of clastic petrology are the mode of transportation of sedimentary materials, including the transportation of clay, silt, and fine sand by wind; and the transportation of these and coarser materials through suspension in water, through traction by waves and currents in rivers, lakes, and seas, and sediment transport by ice.
Sedimentary petrology also is concerned with the small-scale structural features of sediments and sedimentary rocks. Features that can be conveniently seen in a specimen held in the hand are within the domain of sedimentary petrology. These features include the geometrical attitude of mineral grains with respect to each other, small-scale cross stratification, the shapes and interconnections of pore spaces, and the presence of fractures and veinlets.
Instruments and methods used by sedimentary petrologists include the petrographic microscope for description and classification, X-ray mineralogy for defining fabrics and small-scale structures, physical model flume experiments for studying the effects of flow as an agent of transport and the development of sedimentary structures, and mass spectrometry for calculating stable isotopes and the temperatures of deposition, cementation, and diagenesis. Wet-suit diving permits direct observation of current processes on coral reefs, and manned submersibles enable observation at depth on the ocean floor and in mid-oceanic ridges.
The plate-tectonic theory has given rise to much interest in the relationships between sedimentation and tectonics, particularly in modern plate-tectonic environments—e.g., spreading-related settings (intracontinental rifts, early stages of intercontinental rifting such as the Red Sea, and late stages of intercontinental rifting such as the margins of the present Atlantic Ocean), mid-oceanic settings (ridges and transform faults), subduction-related settings (volcanic arcs, fore-arcs, back-arcs, and trenches), and continental collision-related settings (the Alpine-Himalayan belt and late orogenic basins with molasse [i.e., thick association of clastic sedimentary rocks consisting chiefly of sandstones and shales]). Today many subdisciplines of sedimentary petrology are concerned with the detailed investigation of the various sedimentary processes that occur within these plate-tectonic environments.
Metamorphic petrology
Metamorphism means change in form. In geology the term is used to refer to a solid-state recrystallization of earlier igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks. There are two main types of metamorphism: (1) contact metamorphism, in which changes induced largely by increase in temperature are localized at the contacts of igneous intrusions; and (2) regional metamorphism, in which increased pressure and temperature have caused recrystallization over extensive regions in mountain belts. Other types of metamorphism include local effects caused by deformation in fault zones, burning oil shales, and thrusted ophiolite complexes; extensive recrystallization caused by high heat flow in mid-ocean ridges; and shock metamorphism induced by high-pressure impacts of meteorites in craters on the Earth and Moon.
Metamorphic petrology is concerned with field relations and local tectonic environments; the description and classification of metamorphic rocks in terms of their texture and chemistry, which provides information on the nature of the premetamorphic material; the study of minerals and their chemistry (the mineral assemblages and their possible reactions), which yields data on the temperatures and pressures at which the rocks recrystallized; and the study of fabrics and the relations of mineral growth to deformation stages and major structures, which provides information about the tectonic conditions under which regional metamorphic rocks formed.
A supplement to metamorphism is metasomatism: the introduction and expulsion of fluids and elements through rocks during recrystallization. When new crust is formed and metamorphosed at a mid-oceanic ridge, seawater penetrates into the crust for a few kilometres and carries much sodium with it. During formation of a contact metamorphic aureole around a granitic intrusion, hydrothermal fluids carrying elements such as iron, boron, and fluorine pass from the granite into the wall rocks. When the continental crust is thickened, its lower part may suffer dehydration and form granulites. The expelled fluids, carrying such heat-producing elements as rubidium, uranium, and thorium migrate upward into the upper crust. Much petrologic research is concerned with determining the amount and composition of fluids that have passed through rocks during these metamorphic processes.
The basic instrument used by the metamorphic petrologist is the petrographic microscope, which allows detailed study and definition of mineral types, assemblages, and reactions. If a heating/freezing stage is attached to the microscope, the temperature of formation and composition of fluid inclusions within minerals can be calculated. These inclusions are remnants of the fluids that passed through the rocks during the final stages of their recrystallization. The electron microprobe is widely used for analyzing the composition of the component minerals. The petrologist can combine the mineral chemistry with data from experimental studies and thermodynamics to calculate the pressures and temperatures at which the rocks recrystallized. By obtaining information on the isotopic age of successive metamorphic events with a mass spectrometer, pressure–temperature–time curves can be worked out. These curves chart the movement of the rocks over time as they were brought to the surface from deep within the continental crust; this technique is important for understanding metamorphic processes. Some continental metamorphic rocks that contain diamonds and coesites (ultrahigh pressure minerals) have been carried down subduction zones to a depth of at least 100 kilometres (60 miles), brought up, and often exposed at the present surface within resistant eclogites of collisional orogenic belts—such as the Swiss Alps, the Himalayas, the Kokchetav metamorphic terrane in Kazakhstan, and the Variscan belt in Germany. These examples demonstrate that metamorphic petrology plays a key role in unraveling tectonic processes in mountain belts that have passed through the plate-tectonic cycle of events.
Economic geology
The mineral commodities on which modern civilization is heavily dependent are obtained from the Earth's crust and have a prominent place in the study and practice of economic geology. In turn, economic geology consists of several principal branches that include the study of ore deposits, petroleum geology, and the geology of nonmetallic deposits (excluding petroleum), such as coal, stone, salt, gypsum, clay and sand, and other commercially valuable materials.
The practice of economic geology is distinguished by the fact that its objectives are to aid in the exploration for and extraction of mineral resources. The objectives are therefore economic. In petroleum geology, for example, a common goal is to guide oil-well drilling programs so that the most profitable prospects are drilled and those that are likely to be of marginal economic value, or barren, are avoided. A similar philosophy influences the other branches of economic geology. In this sense, economic geology can be considered as an aspect of business that is devoted to economic decision making. Many deposits of economic interest, particularly those of metallic ores, are of extreme scientific interest in themselves, however, and they have warranted intensive study that has been somewhat apart from economic considerations.
The practice of economic geology provides employment for a large number of geologists. On a worldwide basis, probably more than two-thirds of those persons employed in the geologic sciences are engaged in work that touches on the economic aspects of geology. These include geologists whose main interests lie in diverse fields of the geologic sciences. For example, the petroleum industry, which collectively is the largest employer of economic geologists, attracts individuals with specialties in stratigraphy, sedimentary petrology, structural geology, paleontology, and geophysics.
Chemistry of the Earth
Geochemistry is broadly concerned with the application of chemistry to virtually all aspects of geology. Inasmuch as the Earth is composed of the chemical elements, all geologic materials and most geologic processes can be regarded from a chemical point of view. Some of the major problems that broadly belong to geochemistry are as follows: the origin and abundance of the elements in the solar system, galaxy, and universe (cosmochemistry); the abundance of elements in the major divisions of the Earth, including the core, mantle, crust, hydrosphere, and atmosphere; the behaviour of ions in the structure of crystals; the chemical reactions in cooling magmas and the origin and evolution of deeply buried intrusive igneous rocks; the chemistry of volcanic (extrusive) igneous rocks and of phenomena closely related to volcanic activity, including hot-spring activity, emanation of volcanic gases, and origin of ore deposits formed by hot waters derived during the late stages of cooling of igneous magmas; chemical reactions involved in weathering of rocks in which earlier formed minerals decay and new minerals are created; the transportation of weathering products in solution by natural waters in the ground and in streams, lakes, and the sea; chemical changes that accompany compaction and cementation of unconsolidated sediments to form sedimentary rocks; and the progressive chemical and mineralogical changes that take place as rocks undergo metamorphism.
One of the leading general concerns of geochemistry is the continual recycling of the materials of the Earth. This process takes place in several ways: (1) It is widely believed that oceanic and continental basalts crystallized from magmas that were ultimately derived by partial melting of the Earth's mantle. Much geochemical research is devoted to the quantification of this extraction of mantle material and its contribution to crustal growth throughout geologic time in the many stages of seafloor formation and mountain building. (2) When the basalts that formed at the mid-oceanic ridge are transported across the ocean by the process of seafloor spreading, they interact with seawater, and this involves the adding of sodium to the basaltic crust and the extraction of calcium from it. (3) Geophysical data confirm the idea that the oceanic lithosphere is being consumed along the Earth's major subduction zones below the continental lithosphere—e.g., along the continental margin of the Andes Mountain Ranges. This may involve pelagic sediments from the ocean floor, oceanic basalts altered by seawater exchange, gabbros, ultramafic rocks, and segments of the underlying mantle. Many geochemists are studying what happens to this subducted material and how it contributes to the growth of island arcs and Andean-type mountain belts. (4) The behaviour of dissolved materials in natural waters, under the relatively low temperatures that prevail at or near the surface of the Earth, is an integral aspect of the crustal cycle. Weathering processes supply dissolved material, including silica, calcium carbonate, and other salts, to streams. These materials then enter the oceans, where some remain in solution (e.g., sodium chloride), whereas others are progressively removed to form certain sedimentary rocks, including limestone and dolomite, and, where conditions are conducive for the formation of deposits by means of evaporation, gypsum (hydrous calcium sulfate), rock salt (halite), and potash deposits may occur.
The behaviour of biological materials and their subsequent disposition are important aspects of geochemistry, generally termed organic geochemistry and biogeochemistry. Major problems of organic geochemistry include the question of the chemical environment on Earth in which life originated; the modification of the hydrosphere, and particularly the atmosphere, through the effects of life; and the incorporation of organic materials in rocks, including carbonaceous material in sedimentary rocks. The nature and chemical transformations of biological material present in deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas lie within the scope of organic geochemistry. Organic chemical reactions influence many geochemical processes, as, for example, rock weathering and production of soil, the solution, precipitation, and secretion of such dissolved materials as calcium carbonate, and the alteration of sediments to form sedimentary rocks. Biogeochemistry deals chiefly with the cyclic flows of individual elements and their compounds between living and nonliving systems.
Geochemistry has applications to other subdisciplines within geology, as well as to disciplines relatively far removed from it. At one extreme, geochemistry is linked with cosmology in a number of ways. These include the study of the chemical composition of meteorites, the relative abundance of elements in the Earth, Moon, and other planets, and the ages of meteorites and of rocks of the crust of the Earth and Moon as established by radiometric means. At the other extreme, the geochemistry of traces of metals in rocks and soils and, ultimately, in the food chain has important consequences for humans and for the vast body of lesser organisms on which they are dependent and with whom they coexist. Deficiencies in traces of copper and cobalt in forage plants, for example, lead to diseases in certain grazing animals and may locally influence human health. These deficiencies are in turn related to the concentrations of these elements in rocks and the manner in which they are chemically combined within soils and rocks.
The chemical analysis of minerals is undertaken with the electron microprobe (see above). Instruments and techniques used for the chemical analysis of rocks are as follows: The X-ray fluorescent (XRF) spectrometer excites atoms with a primary X-ray beam and causes secondary (or fluorescent) X-rays to be emitted. Each element produces a diagnostic X-radiation, the intensity of which is measured. This intensity is proportional to the concentration of the element in the rock, and so the bulk composition can be calculated. The crushed powder of the rock is compressed into a disk or fused into a bead and loaded into the spectrometer, which analyzes it automatically under computer control. Analysis of most elements having concentrations of more than five parts per million is possible.
Neutron-activation analysis is based on the fact that certain elements are activated or become radiogenic when they are bombarded with a flux of neutrons formed from the radioactive decay of uranium-235 in a nuclear reactor. With the addition of the neutrons, the stable isotopes produce new unstable radionuclides, which then decay, emitting particles with diagnostic energies that can be separated and measured individually. The technique is particularly suitable for the analysis of the rare earth elements, uranium, thorium, barium, and hafnium, with a precision to less than one part per million.
The induction-coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometer can analyze over 40 elements. Here, a solution of a rock is put into a plasma, and the concentration of the elements is determined from the light emitted. This method is rapid, and the ICP spectrometer is particularly suited to analyzing large numbers of soil and stream sediment samples, as well as mineralized rocks in mineral exploration.
Isotopic geochemistry
Isotopic geochemistry has several principal roles in geology. One is concerned with the enrichment or impoverishment of certain isotopic species that results from the influence of differences in mass of molecules containing different isotopes. Measurements of the proportions of various isotopic species can be used as a form of geologic thermometer. The ratio of oxygen-16 to oxygen-18 in calcium carbonate secreted by various marine organisms from calcium carbonate in solution in seawater is influenced by the temperature of the seawater. Precise measurement of the proportions of oxygen-16 with respect to oxygen-18 in calcareous shells of some fossil marine organisms provides a means of estimating the temperatures of the seas in which they lived. The varying ocean temperatures during and between the major advances of glaciers during the ice ages have been inferred by analyzing the isotopic composition of the skeletons of floating organisms recovered as fossils in sediment on the seafloor. Other uses of isotopic analyses that involve temperature-dependent rate processes include the progressive removal of crystals from cooling igneous magmas.
Another role of isotopic geochemistry that is of great importance in geology is radiometric age dating. The ability to quantify the geologic time scale—i.e., to date the events of the geologic past in terms of numbers of years—is largely a result of coupling radiometric dating techniques with older, classical methods of establishing relative geologic ages. As explained earlier, radiometric dating methods are based on the general principle that a particular radioactive isotope (radioactive parent or source material) incorporated in geologic material decays at a uniform rate, producing a decay product, or daughter isotope. Some radiometric "clocks" are based on the ratio of the proportion of parent to daughter isotopes, others on the proportion of parent remaining, and still others on the proportion of daughter isotopes with respect to each other. For example, uranium-238 decays ultimately to lead-206, which is one of the four naturally occurring isotopic species of lead. Minerals that contain uranium-238 when initially formed may be dated by measuring the proportions of lead-206 and uranium-238; the older the specimen, the greater the proportion of lead-206 with respect to uranium-238. The decay of potassium-40 to form argon-40 (calcium-40 is produced in this decay process as well) is also a widely used radiometric dating tool, though there are several other parent-daughter pairs that are used in radiometric dating, including another isotope of uranium (uranium-235), which decays ultimately to form lead-207, and thorium-232, which decays to lead-208.
Uranium-238 and uranium-235 decay very slowly, although uranium-235 decays more rapidly than uranium-238. The rate of decay may be expressed in several ways. One way is by the radioactive isotope's half-life—the interval of time in which half of any given initial amount will have decayed. The half-life of uranium-238 is about 4,510,000,000 years, whereas the half-life of uranium-235 is about 713,000,000 years. Other radioactive isotopes decay at greatly differing rates, with half-lives ranging from a fraction of a second to quadrillions of years.
It is useful to combine a variety of isotopic methods to determine the complete history of a crustal rock. A samarium-147–neodymium-143 date on a granitic gneiss, for example, may be interpreted as the time of mantle–crust differentiation or crustal accretion that produced the original magmatic granite. Also, a lead-207–lead-206 date on a zircon will indicate the crystallization age of the granite. In contrast, a rubidium-87–strontium-87 date of a whole rock sample may give the time at which the rock became a closed system for migration of the strontium during the period of metamorphism that converted the granite to a granitic gneiss. When potassium-40 breaks down to argon-40, the argon continues to diffuse until the rock has cooled to about 200 °C; therefore, a potassium-40–argon-40 date may be interpreted as the time when the granite cooled through a blocking temperature that stopped all argon release. This may reflect the cooling of the granite during late uplift in a young mountain belt.
Since the 1980s two technological advancements have greatly increased the geologist's ability to compute the isotopic age of rocks and minerals. The SHRIMP (Sensitive High Mass Resolution Ion Microprobe) enables the accurate determination of the uranium-lead age of the mineral zircon, and this has revolutionized the understanding of the isotopic age of formation of zircon-bearing igneous granitic rocks. Another technological development is the ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer), which is able to provide the isotopic age of zircon, titanite, rutile, and monazite. These minerals are common to many igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon (carbon-12 and carbon-13 are stable isotopes) with a half-life of 5,570 years. Carbon-14 is incorporated in all living material, for it is derived either directly or indirectly from its presence in atmospheric carbon dioxide. The moderately short half-life of carbon-14 makes it useful for dating biological materials that are more than a few hundred years old and less than 30,000 years old. It has been used to provide correlation of events within this time span, particularly those of the Pleistocene Epoch involving the Earth's most recent ice ages.


text:
It took some nudges and talks with some judges but Craven County Sheriff�s Office Electronic Offender Monitoring Program appears to be operating effectively and paying dividends to the county and would-be jail inmates.
It took some nudges and talks with some judges but Craven County Sheriff�s Office Electronic Offender Monitoring Program appears to be operating effectively and paying dividends to the county and would-be jail inmates.
Capt. Jesse Pittman presented the program�s quarterly report on Craven County�s use of electronic ankle bracelets, rather than deputies and jail cells, to monitor some nonviolent offenders determined eligible by judges to participate.
The judge and deputies determine the parameters for an offender and, using iSECUREtrac Corp. active GPS and web-based software, notify monitoring officers in real time if the offender isn�t complying with the terms of release.
The program was first funded by Craven County three years ago and is now being used on a quarterly average of 32 people a month, mostly those with jobs who are behind on child support payments.
Pittman said there is total quarterly revenue of $6,779 from a 31 percent collection rate from offenders and a quarterly expenditure of $21,855. But the jail bed space and feeding cost being saved and the $40 a day being paid to the county by the state for housing other offenders has so far resulted in $134,529 in income, 22 percent more than budgeted.
Although there is no debtor�s prison, those not paying court ordered child support are sentenced for contempt of court if they fail to pay. Prior to the electronic offender program, being jailed put them in a catch 22 because they could not work to make payments and fell even further behind.
Asked about the 31 percent collection rate by Commissioner Jeff Taylor, Pittman explained that many of those on the electronic offender monitoring system were determined indigent by the court and do not have to pay.
�If you�re asking if this is a money-making business,� Pittman said, �it�s not.� But the savings in jail fees and the recovery of child support payments is an overall savings. As more room opens up in the jail, the county can get $75 a day to house federal inmates.
Commissioners initially agreed before the new jail was completed to use the system former County Manager Harold Blizzard and Sheriff Jerry Monette had encouraged for several years as a way to cut budget costs and ease jail overcrowding.
Several judges, including District Court Judge Paul Quinn who was present Monday, agreed to try the program.
�You look at who is a good candidate,� Quinn said, to determine eligibility. Some of those coming before child support court have multiple children and are behind several thousand dollars.
�I didn�t know the collection rate, but I know some will never pay all they owe,� Quinn said. But when they are sentenced to sometimes as many as 240 days, they get even further behind. If they can be on the program and keep their jobs, they pay some.
Quinn said, �85 percent of judges use the program� and with �new judges, I think we will have close to 100 percent participation.�
Commissioner Steve Tyson asked about a situation he heard of involving a paroled sex offender who cut off his ankle bracelet.
Sgt. Steve Wallace, who manages the program using iSECUREtrac Corp. electronic monitors, said that was another type of monitoring system being used by another agency.
�We have never had one cut a band off in three years,� Wallace said.
Initially, the monitoring system was projected to cost $4,380 a year per inmate to use, compared to about $16,425 a year to keep the same offender in Craven County Jail.
Wallace said he has negotiated a better contract and price with the company to make the program more flexible. �We keep four or five bracelets in backup and we don�t pay for anything that�s not on an inmate�s leg.�
Asked by County Manager Jack Veit if there is full cooperation with the jail staff and the program, Wallace said, �Absolutely.�
Commissioners asked the sheriff at a May 2011 work session for full utilization of the program, even if more staff was involved, and for periodic reports on its use and progress.
Sue Book can be reached at 252-635-5665 or email@example.com. Follow her on Twitter@SueJBook.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
EU: Brussels adds onion, grape to protected list
The European Commission has moved to protect four more traditionally made European food products from being copied by food manufacturers outside the regions where they have historically been made.
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text:
Why social media & email marketing are key to your nonprofit's success
If you work for a small nonprofit, chances are you feel the pain of limited staff, limited budgets and the limited hours in your busy schedule. On top of that, no one seems to understand these challenges. They expect miracles.
So it's natural that at some point you'd ask, Which is more important: social media or email marketing?
Alas, you need both.
In the 2-minute video above, I briefly explain the difference between social media and email marketing and why both are critical components in your marketing arsenal. Continue reading


text: Research Projects The SSRC conducts two or three externally funded research projects each year. These projects provide opportunities for students and faculty members to apply their research skills and knowledge in an applied setting. Examples of our research In 2008, the SSRC began a study, sponsored by Vermonters for a Sustainable Population, on issues surrounding population growth in Vermont. Approximately 25 students from a class on Research Methods worked on the project, first in refining the original survey instrument that we completed a decade ago, then by conducting telephone interviews with over 400 Vermonters, and finally by preparing term papers based upon the data that was collected. Throughout its history, the SSRC has been preparing research reports for the Vermont Department of Labor, usually examining the impact of a variety of education and training programs funded through the federal government. Students generally work as paid interviewers and have the opportunity to learn first hand about the challenges that face poor people and others with serious labor market barriers. Over the last twenty years the SSRC has conducted four "Pulse of Vermont" studies under the sponsorship of the Vermont Business Roundtable. Saint Michael's faculty work with students who are hired to conduct extensive interviews with a random sample of over 400 Vermonters about issues surrounding life in Vermont. A major goal of these studies is to capture and understand how people are faring under changing economic and social conditions. The SSRC conducted a series of marketing studies for the Hunger Mountain Coop in Montpelier, Vermont. These studies provided business students with an opportunity to learn first hand about survey research and marketing while providing the Coop will valuable insights into their customer base. Organizations that we've worked with (some on multiple occasions): Vermont Council on Rural Development Cabot Creamery Cooperative Vermont Department of Labor Saint Michael's College City of Burlington, CEDO Office Vermont Business Roundtable Burlington Catholic Diocese Burlington Free Press Vermont Population Alliance Vermont Ski Areas Association Milton School Department Society of St. Edmunds Hunger Mountain Coop New England Coffee Company Vermonters for Sustainable Population Vermont Employees Health Alliance Manchester Chamber of Commerce Lamoille County Regional Planning Agency Howard Bank Vermont Transit Burlington Community Council The Hayes Group


text:
The Dukes County Charter Study Commission is a 23 member Commission, which meets the 2nd and 4th Thursdays of the month. The 23 member board splits into subcommittees and workgroups that meet regularly to handle the large amount of research needed to accomplish their mandate.
Coordinating & Organizational Committees (Click Here for Reports & Documents):
Coordinating Committee: Chairman: Paddy Moore (Click Here for Minutes)
Communication Committee: To assure that the public is informed about the work of the Charter Study Commission by proposing and implementing approaches for communication with the public, town governments, other agencies, and the press. Chairman: Mimi Davisson (Click Here for Minutes)
Information Committee: Manage a knowledge resource and information library – both electronic and hard copy – for the DCCSC by compiling reference material, understanding relevant statutes, collecting information about other counties' experiences, and other topics as needed and requested. Chairman: Jim Newman (Click here for Minutes)
Phase 1 Research on County Departments and Functions Committees (Click Here for Reports & Documents)
County Commissioners & Appointments: County Commissioners, Associate Commissioners, and appointed positions (such as representatives to the SSA, MVC, RHA, Health Council, etc. Members: Jeff Kristal, Art Flathers, Nora Nevin, and Jim Newman. (Click Here for Minutes)
County Manager: County functions directly accountable to the County Manager (and/or not covered by the other sub-groups) such as Veterans Affairs, Vineyard Health Care Access Program, managed land and natural resources, Emergency Management, rodent control, etc. Members: Richard Knabel, Carlene Gatting, Les Leland, and Bill O'Brien. (Click Here for Minutes)
Airport: Members: Ted Stanley, Tristan Israel, Paddy Moore, and Woody Williams. (Click Here for Minutes)
Registry of Deeds & Courthouse: Members: Tim Connelly, Dan Flynn, Holly Stephenson, and Paul Strauss. (Click Here for Minutes)
Sheriff's Dept: Members: Tad Crawford, Mimi Davsisson, John Early, and Roger Wey. (Click Here for Minutes)
Treasurer's Dept: Members: Linda Sibley, John Alley, and Lenny Jason. (Click Here for Minutes)
Phase 2 Analysis of Changing or Abolishing County, Finances & Revenue, and Statutory & Political Issues Committees (Click Here for Reports & Documents)
Group I - Impact of Abolishing County Government: Chairman: Jim Newman (Click Here for Minutes)
Group II - Analysis of County Finances and Revenue Sources: Chairman Paul Strauss (Click Here for Minutes)
Group III - Analysis of Statutory and Political Issues: Chairman Dan Flynn (Click Here for Minutes)


text:
I want to set the system-wide password policy on an Ubuntu 12.04 LTS server. Googling around, a lot of people point to this (very old) document:
It says to edit the
/etc/pam.d/common-password file and look for the
password required line:
password required pam_unix.so nullok obscure min=6 max=8 md5
To set the minimum password length, adjust the
min= setting.
However, on 12.04, my file looks like this (comments removed):
password [success=1 default=ignore] pam_unix.so obscure sha512
password requisite pam_deny.so
password required pam_permit.so
Which line do I change? The one with
pam_unix.so? Or the one with
password required? Or is it now in some other file? There's nothing in that file's comments about setting the password policies.


text:
When you need life advice, you come to Nick Offerman. As previously noted, the man known as Swanson conducted his (second) Reddit Ask Me Anything yesterday, and revealed such indispensable wisdom as, "Work the perimeter before driving to the basket." He ain't talking about basketball…
Speaking of genitalia: we've also included a number of GIFs from yesterday's Internet-breaking Somebody Up There Likes Me promo. It's OK, you can watch the video again. We have.
If you could punch one person in the world with no consequences who would it be and why?
I suppose it would be that dirty, mangy dog that named me "Sue."
Have you ever considered playing Teddy Roosevelt in a biopic about his life?
I look forward to playing #26 with a relish that can only be described as fervent. The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt and The River of Doubt are fantastic reads, and Theodore Rex is good, but more of the known quantity. You can bet your San Juan Hill that in my portrayal of Teddy, I will wrestle and defeat a Crizzly Bear.
He's ready for that f*cking bear. (Via)
Manliness: as a 24 year old half Asian male weighing in at 120 lbs, struggling to grow facial hair, how can I become more manly like yourself?
Turn off your computer and go out of doors. Dig a large enough hole to transplant a mature apple tree. Nurture the tree, feed it, coddle it so that its fruit will be ample, bright and firm. Practice open-hand strikes against the rough bark of the trunk until it's time to harvest. Choose the champion of your apple crop, pluck it from the tree, and beat yourself about the face and tits with it until your mettle will suffice.
You seem to like Scotch, Lagavulin and Balvenie if I remember from last time. Is your enjoyment real or just for persona reasons? I mean no disrespect.
My scotch appreciation is solid and true. The older I become, the more single malts, particularly the Islay varieties, warm my gullet. Had I more time, I would gladly be all up in your r/scotch. Or, be sitting in Scotland, sipping a dram.
I highly recommend Laphroaig 10 yo if you're into Islay whiskies Mr. Offerman.
I have enjoyed that whiskey severally.
I love and appreciate your (seemingly) minimalist approach to the things in life that make you happy (bacon, booze, wife, wood, not necessarily in that order.) How do you keep your focus on these important necessities in the face of a busy and changing world?
Avoid channels. Limit choices. Keep a clean water pipe.
We all know Ron Swanson has only cried twice in his life. Is there anything that makes you cry?
I cry with regularity, and I don't mind a bit. I cried last night during rehearsal for this beautiful play Annapurna, by Sharr White, that Megan and I are doing. I consistently cried at the curt but heartfelt life advice dispensed by Coach Eric Taylor. I cried when Ashton Kutcher came back to television. For all of us. For shame.
If you could impart one piece of knowledge to the wayward generation of Reddit, what would it be?
One Knowledge Piece: Wealth is more amply measured in hugs than dollars.
Sausage links or patties?
please send them.
If you directed Rocky 7, who would you have Rocky fight?
I imagine he'd be in a pretty good scrap with his colon by this point. I'd love to see him take on Dr. Phil, as well, and have Dr. Phil be inexplicably formidable, but then of course, ultimately lose to Mr. Balboa.
Hello Nick. I'm a freshman currently attending UIUC. What was your time like here? What were some memorable experiences? Any suggestions for cool stuff to do on campus? Thanks so much, you're absolutely hysterical. Please visit sometime!
Champaign-Urbana, Illinois made a bong-chorking man out of me. You can't beat a great college town as a wellspring of knowledge and culture. Something cool to do on campus? Eat a couple of mushroom caps, then prime yourself with a viewing of The Wild Bunch. Walk to the quad whilst trucking to the early funk of The Meters. Pleasure yourself in the middle of the quad with as much gusto as you can manage, and when they come to arrest you, only to find that you're jerking off onto a Michigan State jersey, they will fall onto the lush lawn with guffaws and then throw you a parade. True story. Also – visit Japan House, there lies the opportunity for a truly beautiful supplication.
The guys from Trailer Park Boys recently said that John Paul Tremblay (Julian) is more manly than you. Your response?
His name is Julian.
Who is your favorite Parks and Rec character besides Ron? If you had to choose between bacon or carpentry, which would you choose? Why did you decide to start tweeting again? Any future projects you are working on that you can disclose? Here's a shot in the dark, but is there ANY chance that you could spare an hour to be a guest on my podcast?
1) Duke Silver. 2) Easy. Bacon. Carpentry requires protein to flourish, but Bacon requires only my masticating pork-hole. 3) To use the practical side of Twitter to disseminate information to my peoples, despite the amount of time people waste upon said channel. 4) Doing a play in Los Angeles with my gorgeous wife Megan, Annapurna, late April-June 9. 5) I think you had another question, but it's dark so I missed it.
In Parks and Rec, you describe "bacon-wrapped shrimp" as your "number 1 favorite food wrapped around your number 3 favorite food." What is your number 2 favorite food?
The Puss.
Do you stay-in/switch-to character when approached in public by fans, or do you prefer to talk to people as simply "Nick?" Do you ever get in line for something that is taking forever (coffee, post office, DMV, etc.) and decide, "You know, this is absurd. I'm about to Ron Swanson this mother out" and just lay down the law?
1) I don't like to ever play Ron when I'm not at work, even over the phone in a radio interview. Ron is not my individual property, I make him together with Mike Schur and our show, so I don't like to whip him out at the lumber yard. 2) I don't like to wait in lines. If there's a long line for coffee, I slap myself in the face and find it just as awakening as an Americano. No one ever needs to go to the DMV.
Will you be directing more episodes of Parks and Rec in the future? I loved Correspondents' Lunch!
It is my fondest wish to have my fingers in as much pudding as possible at my dreamy job, but we don't yet know the plan for next year. I hope to write more, also, and thanks for the compliment.
You're stranded on a desert island. What three items do you bring?
Sharp knife One dozen hogs Small seaplane
Hey Nick! I heard from my teacher (Liz) that you two dated during college and she also said that for your audition to play Ron Swanson you sang a song while peeing into a cup, and then drank your own piss. Is this true?
I have drunk the urine I've drunk.
Close enough. (Via)
What's the best way to win a lady's heart?
Sincerity, Good Manners, Dependability. Give the clitoris your attention, but don't remain on it all night. Work the perimeter before driving to the basket.
Would you ever consider being in a reality-esk woodworking, regularly airing television series? A "this old house" type thing but with your woodworking projects?
I did a show 10 or 11 years ago for Courteney Cox and David Arquette, called "Mix it Up" on the WE channel. I was the Ty Pennington of the show, the wisecracking carpenter. The only difference was that Ty never actually did any work because Trading Spaces had a budget, which means they had 6 unseen stalwarts building armoires out in the yard, freeing up Ty to be cute as shit. On our show, we lacked the $$$, so I was hauling way too much ass trying to get furniture built and crown moulding mitred and hung in 3 days per episode, being filmed all the while. Hanging chair rail in an Elvis Presley costume while someone behind a camera is telling you to be funnier turned out to be not super fun. I learned that I should make things if I wanted to, and I show do a who if I wanted to, but I shouldn't try to do a show and make things at the same time. Short version: I like to make things of a quality that takes me a longer time than a tv show schedule could allow. (pfart.)
Just replace "awards" with "TV shows." (Via)
What was it like when you had to kiss Rob Lowe?
I'm not going to lie. He made me pop. Literally?
You seem to reflect Ron closely, but what is something about you that is completely different? Also, what is something about you that surprises people?
I enjoy breakdancing, which Ron could most likely not comprehend. Ron would take my Rapper's Delight and Grandmaster Flash cassettes and use them to prop up the leg of a wonky table at the diner. People are surprised by the panoply of aromas I can weave into a room's atmosphere with my pooter clouds.
I have heard you are a huge LOTR fan, which of the 3 movies/books is your favorite and why.
I don't think I could pick, as I sit here asking myself. I think of it as all one story. Treebeard is my dream babysitter.
If you had the chance to guest star on another tv series, what shows would be the top of your list?
Grizzly Adams The Dukes of Hazzard Little House on the Prairie Barney Miller Downton Abbey Breaking Bad Enlightened Krollshow
Who do you look up to the most?
Wendell Berry Tom Waits Frederic Offerman
Describe in two words your thoughts on the NYC Soda-ban being overturned.
In America, we are free. We are fat and free.
As promised:


text:
810 Green/Red Driptip
A beautiful handmade custom drip-tip made by custom mixing my Green/Red together in my own unique way to create some stunning effects.
These colors have a pearlescent which means they sparkle in the light giving some superb effects.
Custom orders welcomed
The drip-tip you are buying is the one in the pictures.
This drip-tip has been made to fit the 810 size fitment like:
Goon 22/24
Kennedy 24 RDA
Kylin RTA
Ammit (Dual coil)
Mesh RDA
Dead Rabbit
And many more.......
Please be aware that this drip tip has no O'rings so will not fit atomizers like the TFV8 range.
The specs:
Height -- 9mm when inserted
Width --17.3mm
Bore --9.3mm
Fitment size -- 810
Sale is for the drip-tip only, the atomizer is not included
Custom orders can be made just message me to discus color or shape options.


text:
Skeco Homes LLC unloads 714 N. Sixth Ave., Maywood
The amount paid for property taxes on this property in 2015 was $7,158.47, 3.11% of the sale price of the home.
The last time this home sold was May 5, 2016. It last sold for $77,000.
In July 2017, 15 properties sold in Maywood.
This story was found on BlockShopper.com.
Want to get notified whenever we write about Cook County Recorder ?
Next time we write about Cook County Recorder, we'll email you a link to the story. You may edit your settings or unsubscribe at any time.Sign-up for Alerts


text:
Mens Nike Lebron James 14 Dark Blue Red White
- $180.00
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- Availability: In Stock
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Nike Lebron James is mainly used in the technology is the forefoot of the ZOOM also after the palm of the Cushlon
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text:
Lefties try to change the subject when you point out that in the war on terror, President Dronestrike's policies—though not his rhetoric—represent a continuation or extension of the policies of George W. Bush. (I wonder if Obama will renew his pledge to close Guantanamo at the beginning of his second term?)
But there's another area where Obama has come round to the Bush approach: climate policy. Yesterday Obama signed a bill that will block the European Union's attempt to impose a climate tax on international air travel. As the Wall Street Journal notes this morning, "It's good to know there's at least one tax this Administration doesn't like." As usual, environmentalists are—wait for it—not happy:
Environmentalists had framed the bill as the first test of the president's commitment to fighting climate change in his second term and urged him to veto it. Obama quietly signed it Tuesday over their objections.
But that's not the only step the Obama Administration has taken that adopts the Bush Administration's outlook. When Bush initiated the Asia-Pacific Partnership around 2004, a group of nations that included a higher share of global greenhouse gas emissions than the Kyoto Protocol's "Annex I" group, environmentalists screamed that Bush was doing an end-run around the UN. Can't have that! Rather than junk the Asia-Pacific Partnership, the Obama Administration renamed it the "Major Economies Forum," and kept at it, with the sensible understanding that there can be no serious climate agreement without the real participation of the BRIC block (Brazil, Russia, India, and China; of those, only Russia was a party to the Kyoto Protocol).
So it is interesting to see this news report from EurActive.com:
EXCLUSIVE / The US is considering a funnel of substantive elements of the Doha Climate Summit away from the UN framework and into the Major Economies Forum (MEF), a platform of the world's largest CO2 emitters, EurActiv has learned.
Since 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has provided an umbrella for talks to curb global greenhouse gas emissions, and on 26 November, will host the COP18 Climate Summit in Qatar.
But it has been confirmed to EurActiv that Washington is increasingly looking to shift policy action to the MEF whose members account for some 85% of global emissions, and which the US views as a more comfortable venue for agreeing climate goals.
If the idea gains traction, it could demote the UNFCCC to a forum for discussing the monitoring, reporting and verification of emissions reductions projects, sources say.
And the CIA has shut down its Center on Climate Change and National Security. Guess the top spooks aren't so spooked by the subject any more.
If a Republican president were doing all this (as indeed Bush started to do), environmentalists would be screaming from the rooftops. But since it's Obama, not so much.
There's a lot of ways to look at this beyond the hypocrisy and partisanship of the corrupt environmental movement. It can be seen as a bid for Obama seriously to press the failing UN climate agenda in a new guise. Perhaps so, and we shall have to be on our guard against this, though I suspect not even a new format will change the sensible position of India and China about accepting an agenda of energy poverty for their people. Even so, this looks like the beginning of the end of the UN portion of the climate crusade. Back in the early 1990s, as it became increasingly apparent that global population growth was moderating for reasons wholly unrelated to the UN population program, the UN officially downgraded the "population bomb" as a premier problem for their attention. I suspect the same thing will occur with the UN and climate in a few years. This doesn't mean either climate change alarmism or the UN's kleptocratic central purpose will abate. They'll find new excuses at Turtle Bay to demand our money.


text:
VDMi necesitaba un nuevo diseño de página web y lanzó un concurso de diseño en 99designs.
Un ganador ha sido elegido entre 89 diseños de 18 diseñadores freelance.
We are a web development company specialized in Drupal / PHP development. We work on mid-sized and large internet projects. We have 6 employees and a lot of freelancers hanging around. PHP, MySQL, PERL, CSS, JavaScript, Flash (Actionscript) have no secrets for us.
60% of our projects are based on Drupal (http://www.drupal.org). All of our projects have something to do with PHP and databases.
Conclusion: we are nerds.
We basically want to tell the world how cool our work is and attract new work with that.
Our clients are companies and governmental organizations with technical internet projects (value $5000 and up). We also work often with agencies (advertisement, communication) to assist them in their projects.
We are looking for a brand new (fresh and light), 2011, design for our website (http://www.vdmi.nl). It is a portfolio website for work we have done in the past. we also want to add a blog and some pages about the company and/or technologies we use.
We did an attempt ourselves, but we are just not satisfied. It reflects not who we are and basically... it is boring (and we are not).
See http://huisstijl.projects.vdmi.nl/ for our failure.
(we do like the menu animation though... but of course you can come up with something better)
The expected output is 3 pages in PSD.
- frontpage (home)
- project/portfolio page (details of 1 project)
- contact/form page (interaction with the visitor through a form)
Attached is our logo, letters some screenshots and an invoice example we use in the off-line world. The logo will not change, and we expect a design that connects to our offline communications.
We are always looking for longterm relationships, not only for our own work, but also for work for our clients.


text:
DETROIT—Arson investigators are taking over from firefighters after a big blaze at an abandoned factory in Detroit was largely extinguished.
The large, vacant building once housed a trucking company and a bread factory. It was on fire for much of Thursday afternoon on the city's west side. No injuries were reported.
Smoke could be seen for miles around the structure near Interstate 94.
Utility crews cut power to residents and businesses in the immediate area. People were asked to close doors and windows because of smoke and fumes.
Fire crews had worked outside the structure because of concerns that there might be hazardous waste inside. Fire officials said neighbors reported witnessing people dumping boxes with biohazard markings in the building.
The cause of the blaze wasn't immediately known.


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It�s all about civility. At least, that�s how Alma Vaupel sees it.
It�s all about civility. At least, that�s how Alma Vaupel sees it.
�We each wear a cap when we go downtown,� she said, showing the caps: on one is a New York Yankees logo. On the other, a Boston Red Sox. �We�ll go somewhere to eat, or we�ll just be walking.�
People will notice the couple wearing the hats of famous rivals.
�They�ll say, �Are you two related? Are you brothers and sisters?�
�We�ll say, �No.�
�They�ll say, �are you married to each other?�
�We�ll say, �Yes we are.�
�And they�re so amazed. And we say, �The reason we wear these hat is, if fans of these two teams that hate each other can get along, why can�t we?��
Alma gave a little smile at the end of her story, and I asked, �So, are either of you fans?�
Her smile grew and she laughed. �No!�
Alma and her husband, Ed, are walking parables in New Bern, disciples of P.M. Forni and his message of civility.
�It started at Thanksgiving when we were visiting my daughter,� Ed said. �Alma saw the bumper sticker on my daughter�s car.� The bumper sticker?
Choose Civility.
�She started asking questions.�
It turned out that the Howard County (Maryland) Library was running a Choose Civility program. When the Vaupels dug around and learned what it was about, they were hooked.
The idea of a local chapter percolated in Alma�s head for a few months and finally she convinced Ed to help her get the chapter going.
Forni, a Johns Hopkins University professor who has spent the past 20 years promoting the wonders of Boccaccio and other Italian authors to literary-minded students, is also the author of the book, �Choosing Civility,� and the co-founder of the Johns Hopkins Civility Initiative in 1997.
Forni, in a telephone interview, explained the purpose of his movement as �an organism that wants to study and to promote civility by alerting as large an audience as possible about the advantages of creating a climate of civility in the workplace and [of] the cost of civility in the workplace.�
Or, as Alma Vaupel put it, �It�s nothing more than the Golden Rule: Do unto others as you would have them do to you.�
Because Johns Hopkins has one of the best-recognized hospitals in the nation, much of Forni�s work has focused on work environment in hospitals.
�We are very interested in bedside manner, for instance,� he said. �We are very interested in studying what happens when a surgeon explodes in rage towards a colleague in the operating room.�
Also, hospitals can often be the scene of incivility in its various departments, he added, referring to an American Medical Association commentary citing �a direct correlation between high-rise [uncivil] behavior in the OR and postoperative death and complications.�
Forni also related Department of Labor statistics that show there are 1.8 million acts of physical violence in the American workplace each year.
�If you go from acts of physical violence to acts of incivility � rudeness without physical violence, it is probably billions,� he said. �We don�t actually know because they aren�t reported.�
Rudeness in the workplace has definite repercussions, he said. �When we are in an act of rudeness, of incivility, for a few minutes our intellectual capacities are impaired, we are so preoccupied with the act that has made us angry.�
Quoting from Forni�s book, the local Choosing Civility branch noted that incivility costs the nation more than a billion dollars a year in road accidents, billions more in lost productivity at work and the lives of youth, the latter because of bullying and cyberbullying.
The Vaupels� group is aiming to bring civility to schools, family and social relations and activities as well.
According to a news release, �the mission statement of Choosing Civility is to choose respect, consideration, empathy and tolerance as our fundamental values, enhancing the community�s quality of life.�
She says that citing the Golden Rule does not make it a calling for Christians only. �Every single religion has a version of the Golden Rule,� Alma said.
New Bern is, overall, �a very civil, courteous place, on the surface,� Ed Vaupel said. �But we have to go deeper, so people are aware of the many ways they can be rude without even knowing it.�
He suggested many people are rude without knowing it. �When people talk on a cell phone in a restaurant,� he said as an example.
�It�s easier to be rude than it is to be courteous,� he added. �If you have a conservative and a liberal debate, they can be civil and be friends. But if you�re not listening, if you�re just plotting your argument to spit it out [while the other is talking], that�s when it degrades to rudeness. Congress is the perfect example. Who can yell louder?�
The New Bern Civility group has been trying to reach local mayoral candidates with their message as well.
�We gave a presentation at the library two months ago � three of the mayoral candidates were there. We had invited them all,� Vaupel said. The candidates have also been presented with a copy of Forni�s book.
Both Vaupels feel the current race between Dana Outlaw and Sabrina Bengel could use more of that civility.
�I feel the candidates should find some common denominator: �We want New Bern to thrive. We have different opinions on the best way to do that,�� she said.
Forni stated that while incivility shows itself in numerous forms, its causes �are very few and are always the same.�
One prime cause, he says, is anonymity �especially the anonymity provided by the internet. He noted that people lose motivation to be civil if they know they cannot be recognized.
The constant stress and lack of time that our society presents are two more key factors in civility.
Finally, Forni said, is the growing problem of narcissism in the nation.
�We are the most social animals in the world,� Forni explained. �What we do in life mostly is to connect and to congregate and collaborate with our fellow human beings. Life is a relational experience.� Without civility to keep that relationship working, he insisted, society falls apart.
The Vaupels say their group hopes to develop programs for schools and the community to encourage civility, and that it is seeking interested persons and new members.
�Our dream would be to have a headline in the Sun Journal: New Bern is the most civil city in the U.S.,� Alma said.
Choose Civility will hold its fourth official meeting at the New Bern Library on Monday, Nov. 4, at 7 p.m. Any interested persons are encouraged to attend.


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Hotels & Motels in Singapore
Hotels & Motels in Singapore industry profile provides top-line qualitative and quantitative summary information including: market size (value and volume 2013-17, and forecast to 2022). The profile also contains descriptions of the leading players including key financial metrics and analysis of competitive pressures within the market.
Essential resource for top-line data and analysis covering the Singapore hotels & motels market. Includes market size and segmentation data, textual and graphical analysis of market growth trends, leading companies and macroeconomic information.
Key Highlights
The hotels & motels industry value consists of all revenues generated by hotels, motels and other accommodation providers through the provision of accommodation and other services. The total value includes room revenue and non-room revenue, including casinos, shops and telecommunication services. The industry is segmented according to the origin of the revenues (leisure consumers and business consumers). Market volumes are classed as the number of hotels in a country or region. Any currency conversions included within this report have been calculated using constant 2017 annual average exchange rates.
The Singaporean hotels and motels industry is forecast to generate total revenues of $4.7bn in 2018, representing a compound annual rate of change (CARC) of -2% between 2014 and 2018.
The number of establishments is forecast to increase with a CAGR of 2.3% between 2014 and 2018, to reach a total of 428.0 in 2018.
The strong supply growth in the Singaporean industry has reduced occupancy rates, outpacing demand. Accordingly, the average price of accommodation fell significantly during 20152017, minimizing revenues for hotel operators.
- Save time carrying out entry-level research by identifying the size, growth, major segments, and leading players in the hotels & motels market in Singapore
- Use the Five Forces analysis to determine the competitive intensity and therefore attractiveness of the hotels & motels market in Singapore
- Leading company profiles reveal details of key hotels & motels market players global operations and financial performance
- Add weight to presentations and pitches by understanding the future growth prospects of the Singapore hotels & motels market with five year forecasts by both value and volume
Reasons to buy
- What was the size of the Singapore hotels & motels market by value in 2017?
- What will be the size of the Singapore hotels & motels market in 2022?
- What factors are affecting the strength of competition in the Singapore hotels & motels market?
- How has the market performed over the last five years?
- What are the main segments that make up Singapore's hotels & motels market?
Frequently Asked Questions ?
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Ventura College Theatre Arts Department is about getting involved. We offer an AA-Transfer in Theatre and have an active production program both onstage and backstage. Our faculty directed productions, which vary in content and style from year to year, are cast completely from our own students. We also take pride in our Festival of One-Act Plays, directed and designed by students.
Nathan Cole and Jay Varela head the Acting and Directing Program; Willy Eck serves as Stage Designer and Technical Director; and Abra Flores is the Costume Designer and Make-up Artist.
Our course offerings include: Theatre Appreciation, Fundamentals of Acting, Advanced Acting, Acting for Film and Television, Stagecraft, Make-up, Costume Design, Costume Crafts, History of Motion Pictures, and Production and Performance.
Our mission is to provide hands-on, high-quality academic theatre education and stage production experience preparing students to go on to four-year universities, professional training programs, or to work in the theatre. We believe theatre provides a significant enrichment for both its participants and its audience, and we value it as collaborative art in which all participants contribute equally and mutually share responsibility.
Department Chair: Robert Lawson
Phone: 805-289-6020
Office: PAC-145
Area Dean: Dr. Tim Harrison
Phone: (805) 289-6388
Office: AEC-212
Administrative Assistant: Natawni Pringle
Phone: (805) 289-6020
Office: PAC-143
- Catalog description of individual courses
- Program student learning outcomes and mapping
- Student Learning Outcomes for Individual Courses
- Gainful Employment Disclosure
- Course Student Learning Outcomes by Course
Full-Time Faculty
|Nathan Cole
|805-289-6000 x 6512
|Jay Varela
|805-289-6000 x 6261
Part-Time Faculty
|William Eck
|805-289-6000 x 6282
|Abra Flores
|805-289-6000 x 6278


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Contact Recycler's World
Scrap Prices
Exchange (Buy/Sell)
C.R.U.M.B. - Crumb Rubber Universal Marketing Bureau
Salt Lake City UtahUSA
Visit Our Web Pages for More Information
If it's scrap or used, it's... WWW.RECYCLE.NET
Click anywhere on the truck to transport you to that location in Recycler's World.
We put YOU in the driver's seat!
Tuesday, 25-Jun-2019 06:05:51 EDT
File No: 1777


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The Committee aims to promote knowledge of and interest in Roman studies among the general public, in particular focusing on promotion of Latin language and literature and Roman history, thought and art, and the support and development of Roman studies in schools.
The Committee takes over the functions of the Schools Committee and administers a number of grants, including grants to schools to promote the teaching of Latin and Roman studies. For details of how to apply, see Funding for Schools.
The Committee also awards prizes for the best research paper submitted for the PGCE in Classics at King's College London, the University of Cambridge and the University of Sussex. Details of previous winners are found here.
A bursary scheme to support BA and MA students undertake a summer placement is also available. Details are available here.
The Committee is also interested in developing electronic resources for educational purposes and for all those with an interest in the Roman world.
This is a new electronic resource developed from funds raised by the Society's centenary appeal.
Click here to go straight to The Mystery of Regina's Tombstone.
Buy the app from i-tunes!
The Society's Archaeology Committee has recently overseen the digitisation of the Society's slide collection. The images are available for download from IMAGO, and you may also donate your own images to help us grow the collection.
In the spring, the Committee shall meet as the Hugh Last Fund Committee. See here for guidelines and application form.


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Yellow Mountain Enterprises is an adult day vocational program and operates under the umbrella of Avery Association for Exceptional Citizens. AAEC is a 501-C3 Non-profit organization for developmentally disabled adults. AAEC also operates the Avery County Group Home, an adult supervised living facility.
Yellow Mountain Activities That Support Our Community
Our consumers spend part of each in the classroom taking compensatory education classes. The instructors come to us from the local community college. We also provide one-on-one educational activities for math Reading, computer skills and specialty areas as needed.
Independent Living Skills:
Many of our consumers wish to learn skills to be able to better care for themselves. We provide opportunities to develop personal grooming, hygiene and social skills, take cooking classes, learn to do laundry, do basic housekeeping chores, and manage personal finances. We also provide links to other services, such as health care and transportation, to help our consumers provide for their own needs.
Work Opportunities:
All consumers who attend Yellow Mountain Enterprises are gainfully employed for part of the day. We provide a wide variety of choices for their workday; while many work outside the agency through the help of supported employment and job coaching, all work on-site as well. Below is a description of our work activities through which the consumers earn their bi-weekly paychecks:
Thrift Store:
The Yellow Mountain Thrift Store receives donations of clothing, household items, books, furniture, and odds and ends. These things are sorted, cleaned and displayed in the store by consumers who also serve as clerks between the hours of 10 AM and 3 PM Monday through Friday.
Trophy Production:
Engraved trophies, plaques and medallions is a large segment of the vocational program at YME. Staff takes the orders and consumers construct the items according to a sketch. This business has grown over the years, with many repeat customers.
Hand made bows for holidays are a specialty of Yellow Mountain Enterprises. Consumers produce Christmas bows for standing orders for Christmas tree growers, bows for retail sales to the general public, and seasonal bows for local businesses and government decorations. The bow business is also a large income producer and we are looking into adding football team and college colors for next holiday season.
Our NEW ASU Bow!
$5.95 Call 828-733-2944


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Community Venture Initiative
The Hop's Community Venture Initiative (CVI) aims to increase the Upper Valley community's engagement and access to Hop programming. CVI builds on the Hop's commitment, over its 50-year history, to community-oriented programs involving a strong network of local organizational partners, as well as on ideas generated by the Hop's Class Divide Project, a three-year initiative that examined socio-economic class via the arts.
CVI received seed funding from Jane's Trust with matching support from The Jack & Dorothy Byrne Foundation, Neda Nobari Foundation, Nini and Rob Meyer, Jenny and Stan Williams, Norwich Partners and Jane and Peter McLaughlin. In addition, the McLaughlins have provided continued support for key programs including Claremont HopStops and the Community Ticket Program and the Jack & Dorothy Byrne Foundation has provided continued support for the Summer Free For All concert and film series.
CVI has produced eight pilot programs ranging from hands-on arts projects (Radical Jewelry Makeover, Bash the Trash, and the CATV Halloween-O-Thon) to free performances (Claremont HopStops, Community Ticket Program, and Summer Free For All concert and film series).
To date CVI programs have attracted 6,421 people of all ages, from over 58 Upper Valley towns, many of whom were previously unengaged by other Hop programs. Said one attendee, "A lot of our youth do not experience Hanover and have not experienced anything to do with the Hop or Dartmouth, so it was a really good opportunity for them to just get exposed to what's going on." Reported another, "These programs—especially when they are free—offer kids a different perspective about things. It offers them an opportunity." A youth poetry workshop over six weeks last spring at the Upper Valley Haven's Junction Teen Life Skills Center which featured a guest professional poet and Dartmouth student poetry mentors was an inspiring and impactful example.


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ASM Store: Material Resources
Material resources
With hundreds of titles in a wide variety of subject matter, the respected ASM book collection contains a wealth of materials science information from experts in the field.
For more than 90 years, ASM Handbooks have been the definitive resource on materials science and engineering for industry professionals.
Digital Catalog
View a handy guide to ASM product offerings with the digital catalog.
ASM Gear
Share your love of materials with the world by purchasing ASM-branded merchandise – the perfect gift for materials science enthusiasts everywhere.
CDs & DVDs
Interactive materials science information is brought to life through a large collection of DVDs and CDs.
Access thousands of free PDF articles on everything from materials processing and testing to phase diagrams and crystallography.
Data Sheets
Peruse ASM's massive collection of data sheets with technical information on metals, alloys, composites and more.
Phase Diagrams
Find out phase and equilibrium properties for a wide range of chemicals and materials with our huge assortment of phase diagrams.
The ASM Journal selection includes some of the most respected journals in the materials science industry. Subscribe today!
Online Databases
The most comprehensive, peer-reviewed information on a wide variety of topics – all in one central place.


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Ashburn VA Real Estate & Homes For Sale
155 Properties Found
The median home value in Ashburn, VA is $515,500. This is higher than the county median home value of $451,300. The national median home value is $185,800. The average price of homes sold in Ashburn, VA is $515,500. Approximately 70.46% of Ashburn homes are owned, compared to 26.05% rented, while 3.49% are vacant. Ashburn real estate listings include condos, townhomes, and single family homes for sale. Commercial properties are also available. If you see a property you're interested in, contact a Ashburn real estate agent to arrange a tour today! Learn more about Ashburn Real Estate.
1 - 25 of 155 Properties Displayed
Open House: Sunday, 6/30 2:00-4:00PM
$924,900 22978 Lois Lane Brambleton, VA 20148
1 - 25 of 155 Properties Displayed
1 - 25 of 155 Properties Displayed


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WBZ-TV's Anna Meiler reports.
Thousands Expected At Wake For Fallen Worcester Firefighter Christopher Roy
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