text:
Anatomical terms of location
Template:Anatomical terminology series
Standard anatomical terms of location deal unambiguously with the anatomy of animals, including humans. Furthermore, the terms are not language-specific, so that with little, or ideally no, translation, they can be understood by all zoologists.
While these terms are standardized within specific fields of biology, there are unavoidable, sometimes dramatic, differences between some disciplines. For example, differences in terminology remain a problem that, to some extent, still separates the terminology of human anatomy from that used in the study of various other zoological categories.
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Standard anatomical position
- 3 Planes
- 4 Human anatomy
- 4.1 Script error: No such module "anchor". Superior and inferior
- 4.2 Anterior and posterior
- 4.3 Medial and lateral
- 4.4 Proximal and distal
- 4.5 Arms
- 4.6 Relative directions
- 4.7 Relative directions in the limbs
- 4.8 A convention for relative direction or situation
- 4.9 Surface and other landmarks in humans
- 5 Directional terms
- 6 Other vertebrates
- 6.1 Anterior and posteriorScript error: No such module "anchor".
- 6.2 Dorsal and ventral
- 6.3 Proximal and distal
- 6.4 Ostial and distal
- 6.5 Teeth
- 6.6 Other directional terms
- 6.7 Terms referring to rotational direction
- 6.8 Combined terms
- 6.9 Comparison between animal and human anatomical terminology
- 7 Invertebrates
- 8 See also
- 9 References
- 10 External links
- 11 World's largest food, health, weight loss, wellnesspedia and encyclopedia
- 12 References
The vertebrates and Craniata share a substantial heritage of common structure, allowing much of the same terminology to be used for all the species. To avoid ambiguities this terminology is based on the anatomy of each animal in a standard way. For example, stated positions are relative; the top of a human being will be seen as the head, whereas the top of a fish such as a flounder could refer to either its left or its right side. Most animals, furthermore, are capable of moving relative to their environment. So while "up" might refer to the direction of a standing human's head, the same term ("up") might be used to refer to the direction of the belly of a supine human. It is also necessary to employ some specific anatomical knowledge in order to apply the terminology unambiguously: For example, while the ears would be superior to (above) the shoulders in a human, this fails when describing the armadillo, where the shoulders are above the ears. Thus, in veterinary terminology, the ears would be cranial to (i.e., "toward the head from") the shoulders in the armadillo, the dog, the kangaroo, or any other terrestrial vertebrate, including the human. Likewise, while the belly is considered anterior to (in front of) the back in humans, this terminology fails for the flounder, the armadillo, and the dog. In veterinary terms, the belly would be ventral ("toward the abdomen") in all vertebrates.
In human anatomy, as explained below, all naming is based on positions relative to the body in a standing, standard anatomical position with arms at the side and palms facing forward (thumbs out). While the universal vertebrate terminology used in veterinary medicine would work in human medicine, the human terms are thought to be too well established to be worth changing.
For invertebrates, standard application of locational terminology often becomes difficult or debatable at best when the differences in morphology are so radical that common concepts are not homologous and do not refer to common concepts. For example, many species are not even bilaterally symmetrical. In these species, terminology depends on their type of symmetry (if any).
Thus, standardized anatomical (and zootomical) terms of location have been developed, usually based on Latin words, to enable all biological and medical scientists to precisely delineate and communicate information about animal (including human) bodies and their component organs, even though the meaning of some of the terms often is context-sensitive.[1]
Standard anatomical position
Because animals can change orientation with respect to their environment, and because appendages like limbs and tentacles, can change position with respect to the main body, positional descriptive terms need to refer to the animal as in its standard anatomical position.
Thus, all descriptions are with respect to the organism in its standard anatomical position, even when the organism in question has appendages in another position. For example, see Fig. 9, where the tentacles are curved, and therefore not in anatomical position. However, a straight position is assumed when describing the proximo-distal axis. This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the same organism in different postures.
Invertebrate and vertebrate zootomy
Medical (human) anatomy
Unlike the situation in zootomy, standard anatomical position is rigidly defined for human anatomy. As with other vertebrates, the human body is standing erect and at rest. Unlike the situation in other vertebrates, the limbs are placed in positions reminiscent of the supine position imposed on cadavers during autopsy. Therefore, the body has its feet together (or slightly separated), and its arms are rotated outward so that the palms are forward, and the thumbs are pointed away from the body (forearms supine). As well, the arms are usually moved slightly out from the body, so that the hands do not touch the sides.[2][3] The positions of the limbs (and the arms in particular) have important implications for directional terms in those appendages. The penis in the anatomical position is as if erect or lying against the stomach, hence the dorsal surface of the penis is actually anterior when the penis is pointing down between the legs.[4]
In humans, the anatomical position of the skull has been agreed by international convention to be the Frankfurt plane, a position in which the lower margins of the orbits, the orbitales, and the upper margins of the ear canals, the poria, all lie in the same horizontal plane. This is a good approximation to the position in which the skull would be if the subject were standing upright and facing forward normally.
General usage
Three basic reference planes are used in zoological anatomy.
- A sagittal plane, being a plane parallel to the sagittal suture, divides the body into sinister and dexter (left and right) portions.
- The midsagittal or median plane is in the midline; i.e. it would pass through midline structures such as the navel or spine, and all other sagittal planes (also referred to as parasagittal planes) are parallel to it. Median can also refer to the midsagittal plane of other structures, such as a digit.
- A coronal or frontal plane divides the body into dorsal and ventral (back and front, or posterior and anterior) portions.
- A transverse plane, also known as cross-section, divides the body into cranial and caudal (head and tail) portions.
For post-embryonic humans a coronal plane is vertical and a transverse plane is horizontal, but for embryos and quadrupeds a coronal plane is horizontal and a transverse plane is vertical.
When describing anatomical motion, these planes describe the axis along which an action is performed. So by moving through the transverse plane, movement travels from head to toe. For example, if a person jumped directly up and then down, their body would be moving through the transverse plane in the coronal and sagittal planes.
Some of these terms come from Latin. Sagittal means "like an arrow", a reference to the position of the spine that naturally divides the body into right and left equal halves, the exact meaning of the term "midsagittal", or to the shape of the sagittal suture, which defines the sagittal plane and is shaped like an arrow.
A longitudinal plane is any plane perpendicular to the transverse plane. The coronal plane and the sagittal plane are examples of longitudinal planes.
Usage in human anatomy
Sometimes the orientation of certain planes needs to be distinguished, for instance in medical imaging techniques such as sonography, CT scans, MRI scans, or PET scans. One imagines a human in the anatomical position, and an X-Y-Z coordinate system with the Z-axis going from front to back, the X-axis going from left to right, and the Y-axis going from up to down. The Z-axis is always forward (Tait-Bryan angles) and the right-hand rule applies.
- A transverse (also known as horizontal) plane is an X-Z plane, parallel to the ground, which (in humans) separates the superior from the inferior, or put another way, the head from the feet.
- A coronal (also known as frontal) plane is a Y-X plane, perpendicular to the ground, which (in humans) separates the anterior from the posterior, the front from the back, the ventral from the dorsal.
- A sagittal (also known as lateral) plane is an Y-Z plane, perpendicular to the ground, which separates left from right. The midsagittal plane is the specific sagittal plane that is exactly in the middle of the body.
The axes and the sagittal plane are the same for bipeds and quadrupeds, but the orientation of the coronal and transverse planes switch. The axes on particular pieces of equipment may or may not correspond to axes of the body, especially since the body and the equipment may be in different relative orientations.
Occasionally, in medicine, abdominal organs may be described with reference to the trans-pyloric plane, which is a transverse plane passing through the pylorus.
Anatomical planes in animal brains
In discussing the neuroanatomy of animals, particularly rodents used in neuroscience research, a simplistic convention has been to name the sections of the brain according to the homologous human sections. Hence, what is technically a transverse (orthogonal) section with respect to the body length axis of a rat (dividing anterior from posterior) may often be referred to in rat neuroanatomical coordinates as a coronal section, and likewise a coronal section with respect to the body (i.e. dividing ventral from dorsal) in a rat brain is referred to as transverse. This preserves the comparison with the human brain, whose length axis in rough approximation is rotated with respect to the body axis by 90 degrees in the ventral direction. It implies that the planes of the brain are not necessarily the same as those of the body.
However, the situation is more complex, since comparative embryology shows that the length axis of the neural tube (the primordium of the brain) has three internal bending points, namely two ventral bendings at the cervical and cephalic flexures (cervical flexure roughly between the medulla oblongata and the spinal cord, and cephalic flexure between the diencephalon and the midbrain), and a dorsal (pontine or rhombic) flexure at the midst of the hindbrain, behind the cerebellum. The latter flexure mainly appears in mammals and sauropsids (reptiles and birds), whereas the other two, and principally the cephalic flexure, appear in all vertebrates (the sum of the cervical and cephalic ventral flexures is the cause of the 90 degree angle mentioned above in humans between body axis and brain axis). This more realistic concept of the longitudinal structure of vertebrate brains implies that any section plane, except the sagittal plane, will intersect variably different parts of the same brain as the section series proceeds across it (relativity of actual sections with regard to topological morphological status in the ideal unbent neural tube). Any precise description of a brain section plane therefore has to make reference to the anteroposterior part of the brain to which the description refers (e.g., transverse to the midbrain, or horizontal to the diencephalon). A necessary note of caution is that modern embryologic orthodoxy indicates that the brain's true length axis finishes rostrally somewhere in the hypothalamus where basal and alar zones interconnect from left to right across the median line; therefore, the axis does not enter the telencephalic area, although various authors, both recent and classic, have assumed a telencephalic end of the axis. The causal argument for this lies in the end of the axial mesoderm -mainly the notochord, but also the prechordal plate- under the hypothalamus. Early inductive effects of the axial mesoderm upon the overlying neural ectoderm is the mechanism that establishes the length dimension upon the brain primordium, jointly with establishing what is ventral in the brain (close to the axial mesoderm) in contrast with what is dorsal (distant from the axial mesoderm). Apart from the lack of a causal argument for introducing the axis in the telencephalon, there is the obvious difficulty that there is a pair of telencephalic vesicles, so that a bifid axis is actually implied in these outdated versions.
Human anatomy
As humans are bilaterally symmetrical organisms, anatomical directions in humans can usually be correctly described using the same terms as those for vertebrates and other members of the taxonomic group Bilateria. However, for historical and other reasons, standard human directional terminology has several differences from that used for other bilaterally symmetrical organisms.
Script error: No such module "anchor". Superior and inferior
As with other vertebrates, two of the most obvious extremes are the "top" and the "bottom" of the organism. In standard anatomical position, these correspond to the head and feet, respectively in humans. The head end is referred to as the superior end (Latin superior: "above"), while the feet are referred to as the inferior end (Latin inferior: "below"). Thus, the axis formed by joining the two is the superior-inferior axis.[2][3]
As with other vertebrate terminology, there are synonymous terms for superior and inferior (Table 3). The terms cranial and cephalic are often encountered. "Cranial", as a reference to the skull, is fairly commonly used, whereas "cephalic" is uncommonly used. The term "rostral" is rarely used in human anatomy, apart from embryology, and refers more to the front of the face than the superior aspect of the organism. This term is more applicable in organisms with longer heads, such as equids.[3] Similarly, the term caudal is occasionally used in human anatomy,[3] and the cranio-caudal axis is occasionally encountered. Generally, this usage would be used with respect to only the head and the main body (trunk), and not when considering the limbs.
As with vertebrate directional terms, superior and inferior can be used in a relative sense in humans, but can not be uniformly applied to other organisms with varying normal anatomical positions. For example, the shoulders are superior to the navel, but inferior to the eyes in humans. In any tetrapod, the shoulders are cranial to the belly, but caudal to the eyes.
Anterior and posterior
In human anatomical usage, anterior refers to the "front" of the individual, and is synonymous with ventral, other than in the head. Similarly, posterior, refers to the "back" of the subject, and is synonymous with dorsal, other than in the head (see Table 3).[3] When referring to the body as a whole the terms "dorsal" and "ventral" are used infrequently in human anatomy. However, they are applied commonly in referring to limb position.[5] The anteroposterior axis is preferred usage for describing the axis connecting the front and the back in humans.[2][3]
"Anterior" and "posterior" can also be used as relative terms. Thus, the eyes are posterior to the nose, but anterior to the back of the head in humans.
However, in the horse, for example, the eyes are caudal to the nose, and rostral to the back of the head.
Medial and lateral
Lateral refers to the sides, as in 'left lateral' and 'right lateral'. Medial refers to the middle.
Left and right lateral are used in the same sense as they are in other vertebrates, referring to the individual's left and right. The left-right axis is rarely used in medicine; instead, the mediolateral axis is used almost exclusively.[2][3]
Proximal and distal
As in other vertebrates, the terms "proximal" and "distal" are used to describe parts of a feature that are respectively close to or distant from some anatomical point of reference. The point of reference varies, but is normally the point of attachment to the main body for limbs and appendages, and a point considered to represent the origin for other features. For example the side of a tooth furthest from the centre of the mouth is its distal side. However, other terms are used for direction in the appendages, given the unique position of the limbs (in standard anatomical position) in humans.[6]
In common usage, the segments of the digestive system closest to the mouth are termed proximal, as opposed to those closest to the anus, which are termed distal. The terms oral "of the mouth" and aboral "away from the mouth" are also used.
In standard anatomical position, the palms of the hands point anteriorly. Thus, anterior can be used to describe the palm of the hand, and posterior can be used to describe the back of the hand and arm.
However, presumably for improved clarity, the directional term palmar (Latin palma; palm of the hand) is usually used for the anterior of the hand, and dorsal is used to describe the back of the hand. Thus, by connecting the extremes, dorsopalmar axis is formed. Most commonly, "dorsopalmar" is used when describing the hand, although it is sometimes applied to the arm as a whole (see Fig. 12).
For the third axis, the mediolateral axis suffices, although if referring to the limb alone, "medial" may refer to the centre of the arm itself.
Relative directions
Relative directions in the limbs
Specialized terms are used to describe location on appendages, parts that have a point of attachment to the main trunk of the body. Structures that are close to the point of attachment of the body are proximal or central, while ones more distant from the attachment point are distal or peripheral. For example, the hands are at the distal end of the arms, while the shoulders are at the proximal ends. These terms can also be used relatively to organs, for example the proximal end of the urethra is attached to the bladder.
In the limbs of most animals, the terms cranial and caudal are used in the regions proximal to the carpus (the wrist, in the forelimb) and the tarsus (the ankle in the hindlimb). Objects and surfaces closer to or facing toward the head are cranial; those facing away or farther from the head are caudal.
Distal to the carpal joint, the term dorsal replaces cranial and palmar replaces caudal. Similarly, distal to the tarsal joint the term dorsal replaces cranial and plantar replaces caudal. For example, the top of a dog's paw is its dorsal surface; the underside, either the palmar (on the forelimb) or the plantar (on the hindlimb) surface.
The sides of the forearm are named after its bones: Structures closer to the radius are radial, structures closer to the ulna are ulnar, and structures relating to both bones are referred to as radioulnar. Similarly, in the lower leg, structures near the tibia (shinbone) are tibial and structures near the fibula are fibular (or peroneal).
Volar (sometimes used as a synonym for "palmar") refers to the underside, for both the palm and the sole (plantar), as in volar pads on the underside of hands, fingers, feet and toes.
The terms valgus and varus are used to refer to angulation of the distal part of a limb at a joint. For example, at the elbow joint, in the anatomical position, the forearm and the upper arm do not lie in a straight line, but the forearm is angulated laterally with respect to the upper arm by about 5–10°. The forearm is said to be "in valgus". Angulation at a joint may be normal (as in the elbow) or abnormal.
A convention for relative direction or situation
Commonly when, for example, one anatomical feature is nearer the caudal end than another, one may use an expression such as "nearer the caudal end" or "caudal to". However, an unambiguous and concise convention is to use the Latin suffix -ad, meaning "towards", or sometimes "to". So for example, "distad" means "in the distal direction", and "distad of the femur" means "beyond the femur in the distal direction". The suffix may be used very widely, as in the following examples: anteriad (towards the anterior), apicad (towards the apex), basad (towards the basal end), caudad, centrad, cephalad (towards the cephalic end), craniad, dextrad, dextrocaudad, dextrocephalad, distad, dorsad, ectad (towards the ectal, or exterior, direction), entad (towards the interior), laterad, mediad, mesad, neurad, orad, posteriad, proximad, rostrad, sinistrad, sinistrocaudad, sinistrocephalad, ventrad.[7]
Surface and other landmarks in humans
In humans, reference may take origin from superficial anatomy, made to landmarks that are on the skin or visible underneath. As with planes, lines and points are imaginary. Examples include:
- The midaxillary line, a line running vertically down the surface of the body passing through the apex of the axilla (armpit). Parallel are the anterior axillary line, which passes through the anterior axillary skinfold, and the posterior axillary line, which passes through the posterior axillary skinfold.
- The mid-clavicular line, a line running vertically down the surface of the body passing through the midpoint of the clavicle.
- The mid-pupillary line, a line running vertically down the face through the midpoint of the pupil when looking directly forward.
- The mid-inguinal point, a point midway between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic symphysis.
- midpoint of inguinal ligament = midpoint between anterior superior iliac spine and pubic tubercle
- Intercristal line, which is a transverse line passing across the lumbar spine between the superior aspects of the iliac crests.
- Mid-ventral line, the intersection between the ventral skin and the median plane.
In addition, reference may be made to structures at specific levels of the spine (e.g. the 4th cervical vertebra, abbreviated "C4"), or the rib cage (e.g., the 5th intercostal space).
Directional terms
All vertebrates (including humans) have the same basic body plan (or bauplan)—they are bilaterally symmetrical. That is, they have mirror-image left and right halves if divided down the centre.[8][9][10][11] For these reasons, the basic directional terms can be considered to be those used in vertebrates. By extension, the same terms are used for many other (invertebrate) organisms as well.
Other vertebrates
To begin with, distinct, polar-opposite ends of the organism are chosen. By definition, each pair of opposite points defines an axis. In a bilaterally symmetrical organism, there are 6 polar opposite points, giving three axes that intersect at right angles—the x, y, and z axes familiar from three-dimensional geometry.
Anterior and posteriorScript error: No such module "anchor".
Template:Redirect The most obvious end-points are the "nose" and "tail" (see Fig. 2). Anatomically, the nose is referred to as the anterior end (Latin ante; before). In organisms like vertebrates, that have distinct heads, the anterior end is sometimes referred to as the rostral end (Latin rostrum; beak), the cranial end (Greek κρανίον (kranion); skull), or the cephalic end (Greek κεφάλι (kephalē); head).[8][9][11] For reasons of broader applicability, especially in organisms without distinct heads (many invertebrates), "anterior" is usually preferred.[9][12][13]
The polar opposite to the anterior end is the posterior end (Latin post; after). Another term for posterior is caudal (Latin cauda; tail, though in humans this refers to the feet i.e. inferior rather than posterior)—a term that strictly applies only to vertebrates, and therefore less preferred, except in veterinary medicine where these terms are standard,[9][12][13] as accepted for example in the Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria.[14]
By drawing a line connecting these two points, we define the anteroposterior axis (sometimes written antero-posterior). Caudal and Posterior (back end) are often used interchangeably. In veterinary medicine, caudo-cranial is preferred between head and tail, and rostro-caudal between nose and neck. Less-used synonyms would be rostrocaudal or cephalocaudal axes (see Table 1). For brevity, the term anteroposterior is often abbreviated to read AP (or A-P) axis. As well as defining the anteroposterior axis, the terms "anterior" and "posterior" also define relative positions along the axis. Thus, in the fish in Fig. 2, the gill openings are posterior relative to the eyes, but anterior to the tail.
Dorsal and ventral
|Directional term
|Directed towards
|Anteroposterior (rostrocaudal1,craniocaudal1, cephalocaudal2)
|Head end
|Rear/tail end
|Back, spinal column
|Left-right (dextro-sinister2, sinistro-dexter2)
|Left (sinister)
|Left-hand side
|Right (dexter)
|Right-hand side
|Left and right
|Point at which appendage joins the body
|Extremity of appendage
(1) Fairly common usage.
(2) Uncommon usage.
(3) Equivalent to one-half of the left-right axis.
(The terms "intermediate", "ipsilateral", "contralateral", "superficial", and "deep", while indicating directions, are relative terms and thus do not properly define fixed anatomical axes. Also, while the "rostrocaudal" and anteroposterior directionality are equivalent in a significant portion of the human body, they are different directions in other parts of the body.)
The next end-points are the back and belly. These are termed the dorsal end (Latin dorsum; back) and the ventral end (Latin venter; belly), respectively. By connecting the outermost points the dorsoventral axis is formed (sometimes hyphenated: dorso-ventral). This is commonly abbreviated to DV (or D-V) axis. The DV axis, by definition, is perpendicular (at right angles to) the AP axis at all times (see below).
As with anteroposterior, the terms "dorsal" and "ventral" are also used to describe relative positions along the dorsoventral axis. Thus, the pectoral fins are dorsal to the anal fin, but ventral to the dorsal fin in Fig. 2. (Note that these fins are not aligned anteroposteriorly, either: the dorsal fin is posterior to the pectoral fins, and is anterior to the anal fins.)
Left and right (lateral), and medial
The last axis, by geometric definition, must be at right angles to both the AP and the DV axes. The left side and right side of the organism are the outermost points between the two "sides" of the organism. When connected, these points form the left-right axis (commonly abbreviated to LR (or L-R) axis. In Latin, this is called the dextro-sinistral (or, less commonly, the sinistro-dextral) axis, from dexter (right) and sinister (left). The "left" and "right" refer to the sides of the organism, and not those of the observer.
"Left-right" is typically used in English and some other languages.Template:Clarify
As with the other directions, the terms can be used as relative terms, to describe locations along the left-right axis. Thus, in Fig. 2 the dorsal fin is right of the left pectoral fin, but is left of the right eye. However, as left and right sides are mirror images, usage like this tends to be somewhat confusing, as structures are duplicated on both sides (i.e., in the previous example, there is both a right eye and a left eye, forcing one to specify which is used as a reference).
To counter this clumsiness of usage, the directional term lateral (Latin lateralis; "to the side") is used as a modifier for both sides, yielding the left lateral and right lateral sides. As an opposite to lateral, the term median (Latin medius; "middle") is used to define a point in the centre of the organism (where the left-right axis intersects the midsagittal plane —see below), and the term medial means "toward the median plane". Thus, rather than "left-right" axis and its inherent clumsiness of usage, the term mediolateral (also sometimes hyphenated medio-lateral) axis is frequently used. Sometimes this is abbreviated to ML (or M-L) axis.[8][9][11] In proper usage, the ML axis is a half-axis; in practice, its usage is less clumsy and less linguistically biased than "left-right". The terms may still be used relatively to describe locations along the LR axis. Thus, in Fig. 2 the gills are medial to the operculum, but lateral to the heart.
The usage "mediolateral" is strictly used to describe relative position along the left-right axis, to avoid confusion with the terms "superficial" and "deep" (see below).
Proximal and distal
Script error: No such module "anchor". Template:Redirect2 The term proximal (Latin proximus; nearest) describes where the appendage joins the body, and the term distal (Latin distare; to stand away from) is used for the point furthest from the point of attachment to the body. Since appendages often move independently of (and therefore change position with respect to) the main body, these separate directional terms are used when describing them.
As noted above, the standard AP, DV, and ML directional axes, can cause some confusion when describing parts of the body that can change position (move) relative to the main body. This is particularly true when considering appendages. "Appendages" would include vertebrate fins (see Fig. 2) and limbs (see Figs. 3 and 4), but properly apply to any structure that extends (and can at least potentially move separately) from the main body. Thus, "appendage" would also include such structures as external ears (pinnae) and hair (in mammals), feathers (in birds) and scales (fish, reptiles and birds). As well, varieties of tentacles or other projections from the body in invertebrates and the male penis in many vertebrates and some invertebrates, would be included.
By connecting the two points, the proximodistal (sometimes hyphenated to proximo-distal) axis is created. (The abbreviation AB axis is occasionally, but not commonly, used.) As before, the terms "proximal" and "distal" can be used as relative terms to indicate where structures lie along the proximodistal axis. Thus, the "elbow" is proximal to the hoof, but distal to the "shoulder" in Figs. 3 and 4.
Choosing terms for the other two axes perpendicular to the proximodistal axis could be variable, as they would also depend on the position of the limb. For that reason, when considering any organism, the other two axes are considered to be relative to the appendage when in standard anatomical position. This is roughly defined for all organisms, as in the normal position when at rest and not moving. For tetrapod vertebrates, this includes the caveat that they are standing erect and not lying down. Thus, the fish in Fig. 2, and the horse in Figs. 3 and 4 are in standard anatomical position. (Special considerations with respect to limb position are applied in human anatomy—see below).
Ostial and distal
Similar to appendages that branch out from the body, the directions of blood vessels may be labeled with the terms Ostial (referring to the Ostium or opening where the vessel branches off) and distal (the extreme end away from the branch point).
Teeth may be aligned with their main axes within the jaw, but some different relationships require special terminology as well; for example teeth also can be rotated, and in such contexts terms like "anterior" or "lateral" become ambiguous. Therefore, fields such as osteology, palaeontology and dentistry apply special terms of location in oral and dental description.[15][16]
- Buccal (Latin bucca; cheek): on the side that faces the cheek (cf "facial")
- Buccolingual: the position or the axis between the tongue and cheek, as in the position of the molar teeth
- Distal: away from the mandibular symphysis
- Facial: on the side away from the tongue; i.e. like "vestibular", includes labial and buccal
- Incisal: referring to the occlusal or biting edge of an incisor tooth
- Interproximal: Between adjacent teeth, such as the area of contact between two adjacent teeth
- Labial (Latin labium; lip): facing the lips (cf "facial")
- Labiolingual: the position or the axis between the tongue and the lips, as in the position of the incisor teeth
- Lingual (Latin lingua; tongue): on the side that faces the tongue
- Mesial: toward the mandibular symphysis (where lower jaws meet)
- Mesiodistal: the axis along the jaw between mesial and distal positions
- Occlusal: the direction of the chewing or biting surface of a tooth, especially cheek teeth, directed toward the opposing jaw arch (cf "incisal")
- Palatal: for maxillary (upper) teeth bordering the hard palate, the side facing the tongue i.e. "lingual"
- Vestibular (Latin vestibulum; entrance): the side away from the tongue i.e. like "facial", includes labial and buccal
Other directional terms
In addition to the three primary axes (AP, DV and the ML half-axis) and the proximodistal axis of appendages of bilaterally symmetrical animals, there are several classes of directional terms. These are mainly of use in referring to strictly relative situations and directions, and as such do not and cannot define fixed axes. These terms include:
- Abaxial : away from the central axis of the organism or extremity
- Adaxial : toward the central axis of the organism or the extremity.
- Axial (Latin axis from Greek axōn "axle"): around the central axis of the organism or the extremity.
- Caudal (Latin – cauda, tail): of, at, or near the tail or the posterior end of the body. In the human case, toward the bottom of the feet (also the "tail" of the spinal cord, and body).
- Contralateral (Latin contra; against): on the side opposite to another structure. Thus, the left arm is contralateral to the right arm, or the right leg.
- Deep: further away from the surface of the organism. For example, the external abdominal muscular layers are deep to the skin, but superficial to the intestines. In English "deep" is one of the few terms from the vernacular that have become prevalent in anatomical terminology; the anglicised Latin term to match "superficial" would have been "profound" (Latin profundus; due to depth), and in other languages the equivalent term usually is derived from profundus (e.g. profond, meaning deep, in French).
- Intermediate (Latin intermedius; inter, between and medius, middle): between two other structures. Thus, the navel is intermediate to (or intermediate between) the left arm and the contralateral (right) leg.
- Ipsilateral (Latin ipse; self/same + latus-eris, "side"): on the same side as another structure. Thus, the left arm is ipsilateral to the left leg.
- Parietal (Latin paries,-etis, "wall"): pertaining to the wall of a body cavity. The parietal peritoneum is the lining on the inside of the abdominal cavity. (Parietal can also refer specifically to the parietal bone of the skull or associated structures.)
- Rostral (Latin – rostr(um), beak or nose ): situated toward the oral or nasal region, or in the case of the brain, toward the tip of the frontal lobe.
- Superficial (Latin superfacies; at the surface or face): near the outer surface of the organism. Thus, skin is superficial to the muscle layer. The opposite is "deep", or "visceral".
- Visceral (Latin viscus,-eris; internal organs, flesh): associated with organs within the body's cavities. The stomach is a viscus within the abdominal cavity, and is covered with a lining called the visceral peritoneum.
Terms referring to rotational direction
Most terms of anatomical location are relative to linear motion (translation) along the X- Y- and Z-axes, but there are other degrees of freedom as well, in particular, rotation around any of those three axes.
Anteversion and retroversion are complementary anatomical terms of location, describing the degree to which an anatomical structure is rotated forwards (towards the front of the body) or backwards (towards the back of the body) respectively, relative to some datum position. The terms also describe the positioning of surgical implants, such as in arthroplasty.
For example:
- Anteversion refers to an anatomical structure being tilted further forward than normal, whether pathologically or incidentally. For example there may be a need to measure the anteversion of the neck of a bone such as a femur.[17]
- A woman's uterus typically is anteverted, tilted slightly forward.
- A misaligned pelvis may be anteverted, that is to say tilted forward to some relevant degree.
- Retroversion is rotation around the same axis as that of anteversion, but in the opposite sense, that is to say, tilting back. A structure so affected is described as being retroverted. As with anteversion, retroversion is a completely general term and can apply to a backward tilting of such hard structures as bones, soft organs such as uteri, or surgical implants.
Combined terms
The above terms may be combined, either to indicate a position in two axes simultaneously or to indicate the direction of a movement relative to the body. For example, "anterolateral" indicates a position that is both anterior and lateral to the body axis (such as the bulk of the pectoralis major muscle). In radiology, an X-ray image may be said to be "anteroposterior", indicating that the beam of X-rays pass from their source to patient's anterior body wall through the body to exit through posterior body wall.[18]
There is no definite limit to the contexts in which terms may be modified to qualify each other in such combinations. generally the modifier term is truncated and an "o" is added in prefixing it to the qualified term. For example a view of an animal from an aspect dorsal and lateral might be called "dorsolateral". Where desirable three or more terms may be agglutinated or concatenated, as in "anteriodorsolateral" (or "anterodorsolateral"). Such terms sometimes used to be hyphenated, but the modern tendency is to omit the hyphen. There is however little basis for any strict rule to interfere with choice of convenience in such usage.[19]
Comparison between animal and human anatomical terminology
The terms of zootomy and androtomy came into usage at a time when all scientific communication took place in Latin. In their original Latin forms the respective meanings of "anterior" and "posterior" are in front of (or before) and behind (or after), those of "dorsal" and "ventral" are toward the spine and toward the belly, and those of "superior" and "inferior" are above and below. From these meanings it can be seen that in the most general terms the anterior/posterior axis is oriented to the direction of forward motion, the dorsal/ventral axis is oriented to the anatomy of the vertebrate torso, and the superior/inferior axis is oriented to gravity.
For almost all vertebrates, including almost all bipeds, these axes all provide a consistent reference for anatomical positions across species—with the inferior/superior axis being roughly the same as the dorsal/ventral axis, and therefore redundant. Humans, however, have the rare property of having a torso oriented perpendicular to their direction of forward motion—while their head orientation remains consistent with other vertebrates on this axis. This makes the dorsal/ventral axis on humans redundant with the anterior/posterior axis, and the inferior/superior axis necessary. Because of this difference with humans, the anterior/posterior and inferior/superior axes are inconsistent between humans and other vertebrates in torso anatomy but consistent in head anatomy. As all three of these axes are used in the naming of anatomical structures, and most human anatomical structures are shared by other animals, these differences can lead to considerable confusion. For example, in the naming of brain structures, the non-human context of the dorsal/ventral axis was used. Therefore, in human anatomy, "dorsal" can refer to two different (perpendicular) directions—the posterior direction in the context of the torso, and the superior direction in the context of the brain. Confusingly then, the "dorsal" direction in the human brain, being perpendicular to the "dorsal" direction in the human torso, conflicts with the direction that might be inferred from the literal Latin meaning of "dorsum": a back or a mountain ridge.[20]
While it would be possible to introduce a system of axes that is completely consistent between humans and other vertebrates by having two separate pairs of axes, one used exclusively for the head (e.g., anterior/posterior and inferior/superior) and the other exclusively for the torso (e.g., dorsal/ventral and caudal, or "toward the tail"/rostral, or "toward the beak"), doing so would require the renaming of very many anatomical structures.
For a quick comparison of equivalent terminology used in vertebrate and human anatomy, see Table 3 (below).
|Table 3: Equivalent directional terms used in
vertebrate zoology and human anatomy
|Vertebrate zootomy
|Human torso
|Human head
|Rostral, Cranial, Cephalic1
|Ventral, Front
|Rostral, Front
|Dorsal, Back
|Caudal, Back
|Same1, Up
|Dorsal, Up
|Caudal1, Down
|Ventral, Down
|Away from the middle
|Left (lateral)
|Right (lateral)
|Away from extremity
|Toward extremity
|Same side
|Opposite side
(1) Rarely used.
(2) Strictly relative term, used with other locational descriptors.
Sources of confusion
Together, the AP, DV and LR (or ML) axes allow for precise three-dimensional descriptions of location within any bilaterally symmetrical organism, whether vertebrate or invertebrate. In practice, the terms can cause some confusion when, unlike the fish shown in Fig. 2, the organism in question is not strictly linear in form, which includes most tetrapods (see Figs. 3 and 4). For example, the AP axis in Fig. 3 does not appear to be at right angles to the DV axis. Rather, it is a depiction of the approximate average AP axis, when all body segments are included.
When considering any one segment, the dorsoventral axis is perpendicular to the AP axis. Thus, in Fig. 4, the DV axis of the tail would run from the "back" of the tail (posterior end of the trunk), to the "underside" of the tail (near the legs) — nearly parallel to the AP axis of the main body.
As a general rule of thumb, if the body is included in consideration, the AP axis of the main body would be used, as would the DV and ML axes perpendicular to it. However, if considering only one segment, the AP axis would shift to reflect the axes shown in Fig. 4, with the DV and ML axes shifting correspondingly. In alternative manner, to avoid confusion, AP, DV, and ML terms are used strictly in relation to the main body, and the terms proximal and distal are used for body segments such as the head, neck, and tail (see below).
To avoid this confusion, in veterinary medicine, the terms anterior, posterior, superior, and inferior are in general avoided except for certain structures within the head.[14] By using the terms cranial, caudal, dorsal and ventral, all tetrapod organisms (including bipeds) can be described uniformly.
Script error: No such module "anchor". In humans, the directions "rostral" and "caudal" often become confused with anterior and posterior, or superior and inferior. The difference between the two is most easily visualized when looking at the head, as can be seen in the image to the right. From the most caudal of positions in the nervous system (of a person) to a nearby, rostral area, it is equally accurate to say the area in question is rostral as to say it is superior. However, in the frontal lobes of the telencephalon, to say an area is rostral to a nearby area is equivalent to saying it is anterior. Those two lines lie on planes perpendicular to one another. This occurs, as becomes clear in the diagram, due to the intuitive yet curious curving "C" shape of rostrocaudal directionality when discussing the human brain.
The large variety of body shapes present in invertebrates presents a difficult problem when attempting to apply standard directional terms. Depending on the organism, some terms are taken by analogy from vertebrate anatomy, and appropriate novel terms are applied as needed. Some such borrowed terms are widely applicable in most invertebrates; for example proximal, literally meaning "near" refers to the part of an appendage nearest to where it joins the body, and distal, literally meaning "standing away from" is used for the part furthest from the point of attachment. In all cases, the usage of terms is dependent on the bauplan of the organism.
Asymmetrical and spherical organisms
In organisms with a changeable shape, such as amoeboid organisms, most directional terms are meaningless, since the shape of the organism is not constant and no distinct axes are fixed. Similarly, in spherically symmetrical organisms, there is nothing to distinguish one line through the centre of the organism from any other. An indefinite number of triads of mutually perpendicular axes could be defined, but any such choice of axes would be useless, as nothing would distinguish a chosen triad from any others. In such organisms, only terms such as superficial and deep, or sometimes proximal and distal, are usefully descriptive.
Elongated organisms
In organisms that maintain a constant shape and have one dimension longer than the other, at least two directional terms can be used. The long or longitudinal axis is defined by points at the opposite ends of the organism. Similarly, a perpendicular transverse axis can be defined by points on opposite sides of the organism. There is typically no basis for the definition of a third axis. Usually such organisms, like that pictured in Fig. 6, are planktonic (free-swimming) protists, and are nearly always viewed on microscope slides, where they appear essentially two-dimensional. In some cases a third axis can be defined, particularly where a non-terminal cytostome or other unique structure is present.[13]
Elongated organisms with distinctive ends
Some elongated protists have distinctive ends of the body. In such organisms, the end with a mouth (or equivalent structure, such as the cytostome in Paramecium or Stentor), or the end that usually points in the direction of the organism's locomotion (such as the end with the flagellum in Euglena), is normally designated as the anterior end. The opposite end then becomes the posterior end, and by connecting them, an anteroposterior axis is formed.[13] Properly, this terminology would apply only to an organism that is always planktonic (not normally attached to a surface, as in Fig. 7 top), although the term can also be applied to one that is sessile (normally attached to a surface, as in Fig. 7, bottom, and Fig. 8).[21]
Script error: No such module "anchor". Organisms that are attached to a substrate, such as sponges (Fig. 8), or some animal-like protists also have distinctive ends. The part of the organism attached to the substrate is usually referred to as the basal end (Latin basis; support or foundation), whereas the end furthest from the attachment is referred to as the apical end (Latin apex; peak, tip). Thus, by joining the two ends, an apical-basal (or basal-apical) axis is formed (see Fig. 8). Transverse axes may be defined indifferently in any direction perpendicular to this axis, as there is no symmetry present.
Radially symmetrical organisms
Radially symmetrical organisms include those in the group Radiata—primarily jellyfish, sea anemones and corals and the comb jellies.[9][13] Adult echinoderms (sea stars (starfish), sea urchins, sea cucumbers and others) are also included, since they are pentaradial (i.e. they have fivefold discrete rotational symmetry). Echinoderm larvae are not included, since they are bilaterally symmetrical.[9][13] Radially symmetrical organisms always have one distinctive axis.
Cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones and corals) have an incomplete digestive system, meaning that one end of the organism has a mouth, and the opposite end has no opening from the gut (coelenteron).[13] For this reason, the end of the organism with the mouth is referred to as the oral end (Latin oris; mouth), and the opposite surface is the aboral end (Latin ab-; prefix meaning "away from"). Thus, by joining the polar opposite oral and aboral ends, an oral-aboral axis is formed (Fig. 9).
Unlike vertebrates, cnidarians have no other distinctive axes. Lateral, dorsal, and ventral have no meaning in such organisms, and all can be replaced by the generic term peripheral (Latin peri-; around; see Table 2). Medial can be used, but in the case of radiates indicates the central point, rather than a central axis (as in vertebrates). Thus, there are multiple possible radial axes and medio-peripheral (half-) axes (Fig. 10). However, it is noteworthy that some "biradially symmetrical" comb jellies do have distinct "tentacular" and "pharyngeal" axes[22] and are thus anatomically equivalent to bilaterally symmetrical animals.
As with vertebrates, appendages that move independently of the body (tentacles in cnidarians and comb jellies), have a definite proximodistal axis (Fig. 9).
|Table 2: Comparison of Directional Terms used in
Radially Symmetrical1 and Bilaterally Symmetrical Animals
|Bilateral Bauplans
|Radial Bauplans
|Rostral, Cranial, Cephalic2
|Left (lateral)
|Right (lateral)
(1) Includes both Radiates and adult Echinoderms.
(2) Rarely used.
(3) Only in organisms attached to a substrate.
(4) Vertebrate equivalents are meaningless in radial animals.
(5) Roughly equivalent to "superficial".
(6) Roughly equivalent to "deep".
Figure 9: Chrysoara spp. (a jellyfish), showing the oral-aboral, and proximodistal axes. (Note that the appendages are not in standard anatomical position, so that the axis is curved.)
Figure 10: Aurelia aurita, another species of jellyfish, showing multiple radial and medio-peripheral axes.
Two specialized terms are useful in describing views of arachnid legs and pedipalps. Prolateral refers to the surface of a leg that is closest to the anterior end of an arachnid's body. Retrolateral refers to the surface of a leg that is closest to the posterior end of an arachnid's body.[23]
Because of the unusual nature and positions of the eyes of the Araneae (spiders), and their importance in taxonomy, evolution and anatomy, special terminology with associated abbreviations has become established in arachnology. Araneae normally have eight eyes in four pairs. All the eyes are on the carapace of the prosoma, and their sizes, shapes and locations are characteristic of various spider families and other taxa. In some taxa not all four pairs of eyes are present, the relevant species having only three, two, or one pair of eyes. Some species (mainly troglobites) have no functional eyes at all.
In what is seen as the likeliest ancestral arrangement of the eyes of the Araneae, there are two roughly parallel, horizontal, symmetrical, transverse rows of eyes, each containing two symmetrically placed pairs, respectively called: anterior and posterior lateral eyes (ALE) and (PLE); and anterior and posterior median eyes (AME) and (PME).
As a rule it is not difficult to guess which eyes are which in a living or preserved specimen, but sometimes it can be. Apart from the fact that in some species one or more pairs may be missing, sometimes eyes from the posterior and anterior rows may be very close to each other, or even fused. Also, either one row or both might be so grossly curved that some of the notionally anterior eyes actually may lie posterior to some of the eyes in the posterior row. In some species the curve is so gross that the eyes apparently are arranged into two anteroposterior parallel rows of eyes.
Aspects of spider anatomy; This aspect shows the mainly prolateral surface of the anterior femora, plus the typical horizontal eye pattern of the Sparassidae
Typical arrangement of eyes in the Lycosidae, with PME being the largest
In the Salticidae the AME are the largest
See also
- Commonly used terms of relationship and comparison in dentistry
- Coronal plane and Sagittal plane
- Dental anatomy
- Human positions
Featured disease
Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of the most dangerous heart attack risk factors: diabetes and prediabetes, abdominal obesity, high triglycerides, low HDL cholesterol and high blood pressure.
Affects one in three adults
Affecting about 35 percent of all adults in the United States according to the CDC, metabolic syndrome contributes to weight gain, by causing a state of internal starvation called metabolic starvation. This in turn leads to increases hunger, sugar cravings and increased portions leading to overeating and weight gain.
Cause and effect misunderstood
Since we traditionally thought that the portion control (which in turn was attributed wrongly to poor will power)is the cause of weight gain, rather than the effect of this metabolic starvation, all our traditional ideas about cause and effect of obesity were not only wrong but lead to the "blame the victim" attitude when it comes to obesity.
Secret of weight gain revealed
Secret of weight gain, and metabolic syndrome revealed - it has been recently proven that metabolic syndrome, and the weight gain itself are caused by a process called insulin resistance. Check your metabolic syndrome risk using the free Metabolic syndrome meter. Watch this amazing Ted Med video that reveals the secret of weight loss - Stop blaming the victim for obesity
External links
- Anatomy of the lower limb
- Directions, cross sections, and divisions of the human brain
- Prescribe Exercise with depictions of the planes of motion
|Policies / Guidelines
Media articles
|Patient Resources / Community
Evidence Based Medicine
|Healthcare Provider Resources
Clinical Trials
Definition - Anatomical terms of location
|Social media posts - Anatomical terms of location
Books on the topic
Continuing medical education (CME)
|Commentary & Blogs
|External:W8MD Weight Loss, Sleep & MedSpa
|Wellness Topics A-Z
World's largest food, health, weight loss, wellnesspedia and encyclopedia
If you are a medical professional or an expert in any field of medicine, please join us in building the world's largest weight loss and wellness encyclopedia created by experts in the field, not by the crowd. WikiMD is sponsored by W8MD weight loss, sleep and medical aesthetic centers
W8MD Weight Loss, Sleep & Medical Aesthetic Centers
Since its inception in 2011, W8MD's insurance physician weight loss program has successfully helped thousands of patients succeed in not only losing weight but also keep it off with an ongoing maintenance plan.
^^Individual results may vary.
W8MD weight loss, sleep and medical spa blogs
Support our sponsors
W8MD weight loss, sleep and medspa centers sponsors WikiMD.
W8MD's Locations for losing weight, sleeping better and looking your best
weight loss Philadelphia | Sleep center Philadelphia
King of Prussia
Lose weight King of Prussia | sleep doctor King of Prussia
New York
Weight loss NYC | Fast weight loss NYC | Lose weight NYC | Sleep apnea NYC
New Jersey
New Jersey Weight Loss, Sleep and Medical Spa Cherry Hill NJ
Other W8MD blogs
Lorcaserin weight loss | Qsymia weight loss | Phentermine weight loss | Weight loss blog | Free weight loss | Saxenda weight loss | Contrave weight loss
Featured disease
Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of the most dangerous heart attack risk factors: diabetes and prediabetes, abdominal obesity, high triglycerides, low HDL cholesterol and high blood pressure.
Affects one in three adults
Affecting about 35 percent of all adults in the United States according to the CDC, metabolic syndrome contributes to weight gain, by causing a state of internal starvation called metabolic starvation. This in turn leads to increases hunger, sugar cravings and increased portions leading to overeating and weight gain.
Cause and effect misunderstood
Since we traditionally thought that the portion control (which in turn was attributed wrongly to poor will power)is the cause of weight gain, rather than the effect of this metabolic starvation, all our traditional ideas about cause and effect of obesity were not only wrong but lead to the "blame the victim" attitude when it comes to obesity.
Secret of weight gain revealed
Secret of weight gain, and metabolic syndrome revealed - it has been recently proven that metabolic syndrome, and the weight gain itself are caused by a process called insulin resistance. Check your metabolic syndrome risk using the free Metabolic syndrome meter. Watch this amazing Ted Med video that reveals the secret of weight loss - Stop blaming the victim for obesity
- ↑
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Marieb, E.N. Human Anatomy and Physiology pub: Benjamin/Cummings, ISBN 0-8053-4281-8
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Tortora, G.J. and Derrickson, B. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. Wiley 2006 ISBN 0-471-68934-3
- ↑ Faculty of Biological Science, University of Leeds: Introductory Anatomy http://www.leeds.ac.uk/chb/lectures/anatomy2.html
- ↑ Jacob, Sam. Human Anatomy: A Clinically-Orientated Approach. Publisher: Churchill Livingstone 2007. ISBN 978-0443103735
- ↑ "Distal" in The free Dictionary; Medline Plus, accessed 19 May, 2014
- ↑ Gordh, Gordon. Headrick, David H. "A Dictionary of Entomology". Publisher: CABI 2010. ISBN 978-1845935429
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Kardong, K. Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution. McGraw-Hill 2005 ISBN 0-07-290956-0
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Hickman, C.P., Jr., Roberts, L.S. and Larson, A. Animal Diversity. McGraw-Hill 2003 ISBN 0-07-234903-4
- ↑ Houseman, J. Digital Zoology. McGraw-Hill 2003, ISBN 0-07-256481-4.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Wischnitzer, S. Atlas and Dissection Guide for Comparative Anatomy. W.H. Freeman, 1993. ISBN 0-7167-2374-3.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Miller, S.A. General Zoology Laboratory Manual McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-252837-0 and ISBN 0-07-243559-3
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S. and Barnes, R.D. Invertebrate Zoology: A Functional Evolutionary Approach. Thomson, Belmont, 2004. ISBN 0-03-025982-7
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria, 5th Edition- Revised 2012
- ↑
- ↑
- ↑ http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.3109/02841858909177461?journalCode=ard Evaluation of Three Methods for Measurement of Femoral Neck Anteversion Femoral neck anteversion, definition, measuring methods and errors 1989, Vol. 30, No. 1, Pages 69-73 by Arne Høiseth1†, O. Reikerås1 and E. Fønstelien
- ↑ Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers. 2007 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier, Inc.
- ↑ [1]
- ↑
- ↑
- ↑ Ruppert et al. (2004), p. 184.
- ↑
Tired of being overweight or obese? W8MD's insurance weight loss program can HELP
Contact us (718) 946-5501 | Why advertise on WikiMD?
Disclaimer: The entire contents of WIKIMD.ORG are for informational purposes only and do not render medical advice or professional services. If you have a medical emergency, you should CALL 911 immediately! Given the nature of the wiki, the information provided may not be accurate and or incorrect. Use the information on this wiki at your own risk! See full Disclaimers.WikiMD is supported by W8MD Weight loss, Poly-Tech Sleep & Medical Aesthetic Centers of America.


text: Renowned for strong yet light and beautiful yet affordable items, Gurhan is driven by a desire for purity, style and performance. By combining a multitude of talents, Fiona and Gurhan effectively brought about an internationally renowned label credited with the revival of pure, 24 karat gold and for completely changing the landscape of jewellery design. Gurhan necklaces blend natural elements with bold details for a strikingly contemporary finish. Stunning structures, charms and pendants are based in a simple yet distinctive palette for a timeless appeal.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Week of 6.27.08
Subprime Solution?
More From NOW: Subprime Solution? | The Candidates on Predatory Lending | From Homeless to Homeowner | In Your State: Housing Help | A Friendly North Korea? | Feedback Forum | Transcript
A massive foreclosure rescue bill cleared a key Senate test this week. It would allow the Federal Housing Administration to back $300 billion in new, cheaper home loans for an estimated 400,000 distressed borrowers.
Video: Subprime Solution?
As Congress debates how to best address the subprime mortgage debacle, NOW asks: Are quick-turnaround mortgages to customers with low credit scores always too good to be true? The answer, according to one enterprising entrepreneur, is a resounding NO, and he has some success to back it up.
This week NOW on PBS takes a look at the non-profit organization Just Price Solutions and the man behind it, Brian Cosgrove. Cosgrove identified a problem: many low or moderate income borrowers were getting steered into subprime scams because they had low credit scores. But these scores were often low because the home buyers simply didn't take out enough loans or credit cards. Cosgrove's goal was to help the millions of Americans with lower incomes purchase a home without being caught in a "subprime" nightmare.
So Cosgrove and his team created an online software application to measure creditworthiness differently: their track record of paying regular bills, like rent and utilities. By making it cheaper and easier to analyze creditworthiness, Just Price Solutions helps banks offer affordable mortgages to people who would otherwise be forced to pay high interest rates.
Program Resources» Video
» Audio [mp3, 48kbps]:
Stream, Download, Podcast
» Transcript
» Buy a DVD
» Contact Us
The organization has received financial backing from Fannie Mae, Citibank and State Farm Insurance, and has developed a related innovation to assist people facing foreclosure in their homes.
Cosgrove says their success is due in part to their community-focused approach. "We're connected with them. We have people back in the neighborhoods that know them. We've involved municipalities in the solutions, we've involved the non-profits, sometimes we've involved the employers. It just produces a community," Cosgrove tells NOW.
But not everyone's a fan of pushing homeownership so widely. Economist Dean Baker says homeownership is just too costly for many families these days. "When we're talking about low, moderate income people, they don't have a lot of money to throw around. So if we're talking about spending more money on housing costs than necessary, that's coming at the expense of health care for their kids, of getting good food, of child care."
But the way Brian Cosgrove see it, America needs new homebuyers now more than ever. "When a community breaks, it's just as important for those of us who are lending in there to step in and say, look, I don't want all the capital to come flying out of here. Let me find another borrower and bring them into the community."
This is part of NOW's continuing segment on social entrepreneurs and their life-sustaining innovations called Enterprising Ideas.
More From NOW:
In Your State: Housing Help
McCain and Obama on Predatory Lending
Help for Homeowners: Tips on Avoiding a Mortgage Nightmare
The Housing Crash Recession: How Did We Get Here?
Related Links:
Nightly Business Report: California Lending
NPR: Marketplace: Nonprofit Gets Around Subprimes
New York Times: Approval Is Near for Bill to Help U.S. Homeowners
Just Price Solutions
Neighborhood Housing Services of America: R-Home Initiative
NeighborWorks America
Center for Responsible Lending: Analysis of HR 3915 Mortgage Reform and Anti-Predatory Lending Act
U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs: Dodd, Shelby Announce Housing Bill


text:
Close, close in a gaming store not so far away…
Yes, hum the theme song in your head if you must. Fantasy Flight has released an exceptional limited run of specialty Star Wars backed card sleeves. So, play Magic with the man who shot first or catch'em all with Lord Vader or throw them on any other card game that needs some sci-fi spice. But whatever you do, pick them up before an X-Wing comes along and vaporizes them because there will not be any prequels here.
Of course, if space battles and laser swords aren't your thing, maybe the other limited edition Lord of the Rings sleeves will be. Slip them over your favorite standard sized cards to give them a Samwise Gamgee to their Frodo Baggins. Or grasp the One Ring to rule all other swag-less individuals. Whatever you choose, wield them responsibly.
You want to kick your Warhammer Fantasy RPG game up to level 4? How about level 5? Then let Hero's Call be Fantasy's version of the Spinal Tap speaker! Chocked full of new hero and GM options for careers, action cards, talents, spells, and region options, this player's resource is loaded with must-have ingredients for kicking your game up a couple levels.
Bringing Cthulhu to the deck-building party, Penny Arcade: Rumble in R'Lyeh is both a standalone game and an expansion for last year's Penny Arcade: The Game, Gamers vs. Evil! So, players can enjoy Eldar God gaming goodness in the base 2-4 player version of the game or combine it with the previous game for excessive nerd overload. Rumble in R'Lyeh specifically adds Gold cards to the gameplay, which must be acquired through the use of Token and Power cards. Totally worth it when they have names like Gunhorse (a horse made of guns, duh!), Sad Zombie, and Gabe's Gross Mouth.
Bridging books and board games, the Where the Wild Things Are board game from the Tales to Play series, lets families take control of Max's journey to the land of the Wild Things. Each player controls a different Max miniature game piece on his trek through the becoming king of the Wild Things. Players draw cards and roll dice to decide their success or failure across the illustrated game board. Great gameplay and Wild Thing miniatures for the whole family.
Gamers have been waiting for this next exapnsion since somewhere around the dawn of man. Yes, has finally arrived. Adding not only a fifth player ability to the game, but a new item dubbed decoration. Players may now trade their resources for this item in an effort to gain further points. Club someone if you have too, fight a t-rex, do whatever you have to for a copy of this valued expansion.
Sorry, the comment form is closed at this time.


text:
The design and clothing company KNOWLITA has released a series of limited edition prints featuring the streets around each San Francisco neighborhood. The prints, available in a limited run of 10 each, come in either a black and white or red and gold configuration. The San Francisco prints come on the heels of their successful New York series.
Take a look at the SF series above and order one or customize your own at KNOWLITA's web shop.


text:
Archive for the 'Recipes' Category
German Chocolate Cake isn't Really German!
by Sherry Stocking Kline
January 27th, 2010
Oh dear! According to a Tweet by @FamilyTreeMag (they must be bent on spoiling my Wednesday with this news!) and a link to KitchenProject.com, it seems that German Chocolate Cake isn't even German.
According to KitchenProject.com the cake derived its name from the German's Chocolate Bar, developed by Englishman, Sam German. According to the website German's chocolate bar is similar to milk chocolate, but a little sweeter.
Well, Mmm, I can certainly attest to the little sweeter. I was never much of a coconut fan, but on the German Chocolate Cake, even coconut tastes wonderful. (It's always worth a second helping.)
Check out the KitchenProject.com website for the German Chocolate Cake's history and here's a link to their original German Chocolate Cake recipe.
And if you weren't hungry for the cake before you read the recipe and see all the wonderful pictures, you will be then! MmMmm.
Now, it's off to the store for some German Chocolate…


text:
The U.N.'s Mideast envoy said Saturday he was "alarmed" by Israel's decision to resume house demolitions in the West Bank.
Earlier this week, Israel knocked down dozens of shacks in two West Bank villages, leaving dozens of Palestinians homeless. U.N. envoy Robert Serry said Israel agreed in April to halt the demolitions and he urged it to reinstate the moratorium.
TVNL Comment: But the US will support any action by Israel, without regard to breaches of international law.


text:
Mo. Court Seeks More Input on Gay Death Benefits
JEFFERSON CITY (AP) - A U.S. Supreme Court decision about federal benefits for gay couples has prompted the Missouri Supreme Court to take a second look at a pending case.
The state's high court heard arguments in February on a challenge to a Missouri law that denied survivor benefits to the same-sex partner of a Highway Patrol officer who died in the line of duty.
In late June, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down a federal law that that barred legally married same-sex couples from receiving benefits from the federal government.
The Missouri Supreme Court has asked attorneys involved in the Highway Patrol officer's case to submit additional written arguments in light of the U.S. Supreme Court ruling. That could further delay a decision in the Missouri case.


text:
Weekly Question #10: Complete by November 30, 2017
Leave your response as a comment on this post by the beginning of class on November 30, 2017. Remember, it only needs to be three or four sentences. For these weekly questions, I'm mainly interested in your opinions, not so much particular "facts" from the class! If you sign in using your AccessNet ID and password you won't have to fill in the name, email and captcha fields when you leave your comment.
Thanksgiving is coming!
Name and describe a Thanksgiving-themed question that you could answer using clustering. What data would you collect to perform the analysis? Don't use an example we've covered in class.
57 Responses to Weekly Question #10: Complete by November 30, 2017
Brooke Schisler on November 20, 2017 at 5:03 pm
How big of a turkey (lbs.) should you buy if you invite X amount of people?
If you know how many people are attending your Thanksgiving dinner, clustering could help determine how big of a turkey you must purchase. The "weight of turkey in lbs." could be on the x-axis and "# of guests" on the y-axis. From there, you could look at the centroid closest to the amount of guests you invited so that everyone has enough turkey for dinner!
Matthew Miller on November 21, 2017 at 3:31 pm
What is the amount of turkey consumed based on age?
Survey data is appropriate for this clustering example. Through surveys taken, age of the person and amount of turkey consumed can create clusters. This data could be used by someone who is preparing to serve a group of people for Thanksgiving, and they could determine how much turkey to buy depending on the age demographic of the guests.
Janelle Jones on November 21, 2017 at 4:31 pm
Based on age, how much turkey will someone eat on Thanksgiving?
You can collect data from Thanksgiving dinners this year about the amount of turkey a person eats during their meal. You can categorize the results by age and then use clustering to determine how much turkey certain age groups consume for Thanksgiving.
Saiamulya Vykunta on November 23, 2017 at 2:05 pm
How many dishes should one prepare if one invites a certain amount of people?
The "number of dishes' would be on the x axis and the "number of people attending dinner" would be the y-axis. By doing so one can figure out how many dishes to prepare. By looking at the clustered closest to the number of people attending dinner, one can figure out how many dishes to make.
Christopher M Filice on November 24, 2017 at 3:48 pm
A Thanksgiving-themed question that could be answered using clustering is how much food will be left over after the meal. To answer this question, one would need to collect the amount of food prepared in pounds and the number of guests and their sizes. This question would be good for a clustering analysis since people who prepare similar portions compared to the amount of people they had would have a similar amount of leftover food, therefore forming clusters.
Julia Kovalskiy on November 26, 2017 at 1:21 pm
A Thanksgiving-themed question that could be answered using clustering is how much do people eat based on their weight? If they're bigger do they eat more, and if they are smaller do they eat less? To answer this, you would need to collect everyone's weight in pounds and how much food they ate at Thanksgiving in pounds. The X axis would have the weight of the people and the Y axis would have the weight of the food. If people who weight more eat more and people who weigh less eat less, then there will be clusters.
Kangwoon Lee on November 26, 2017 at 7:40 pm
How much stuffing might be needed for a big (10+) family?
To answer this, one might identify the age groups of the family members to identify the portions each person might plan on taking during the meal. By doing so, and clustering them by age, one can identify the amount of stuffing it may take to feed the entire family.
Amir Muzhaffar Kamaruzaman on November 26, 2017 at 8:44 pm
One Thanksgiving-themed question that can be answer by using clustering is to determined group of people who really likes to eat Turkey as Thanksgiving dinner, or people who did not eat Turkey at all, or people who eat any meal served or vegetarian. One possible data to collect is create an event page on social website such as Facebook and make a poll for the invitees to vote what meal to serve for the dinner. Then, a cluster of four different group of personal meal preference can be made with clustering.
Courtlyn A Henderson on November 27, 2017 at 2:03 pm
A bakery could figure out how many pies to bake using clustering. The data would need to contain people's preferred quantities of different types of pie. If they look at the groupings for each type, and their average annual sales, they could discern the amount of each type of pie to bake.
John Saviello on November 27, 2017 at 3:02 pm
What is the ideal time to serve food on Thanksgiving?
In my opinion, the two most important variables of serving time is the age of the guests – older folks like to eat earlier and guest travel time because if guests have to travel farther they will want to eat earlier. There is an additional wildcard variable, which is the NFL games that day. Watching NFL games is a Thanksgiving tradition, and depending on your family you may want to serve food during the best game of the day or during the worst game so the guests do not miss any of the action. We could make a few different cluster charts to find the ideal serving time.
Catherine A Troxell on November 27, 2017 at 8:29 pm
Based on gender and age, how much turkey will an individual consume on Thanksgiving? To perform the analysis, I would collect genders, ages, and turkey consumed in oz. from various individuals. I would then enter the data into R to perform the analysis.
Adam J Wolf on November 27, 2017 at 8:43 pm
A question regarding Thanksgiving that can be answered using clustering could be what time will someone eat Thanksgiving Dinner based on number of guests? The time of the day could be the x-axis and the number of guests would be on the y-axis. The results could be organized by number of guests through clustering, and the information could be used to gain insight on how different size groups eat on Thanksgiving.
Thuy Ta on November 27, 2017 at 11:28 pm
Question: How many pies were bought based on flavor?
Data: Pies were sold in total, Pies based on spice were sold.
From this data, we can know clusters represent which flavor is the most popular one for the Thanksgiving season (pumpkin, apple, etc.)
Michael Johnathan Sharpe on November 28, 2017 at 9:07 am
A Thanksgiving question that can be answered using clustering is; how much food will a person consume on Thanksgiving. To answer this question, one will need to gather information such as the average amount of turkey usually consumed and a demographic measure such as age or height/size. This question is good for clustering because clustering allows us to group people by the amount of turkey they eat.
Kazi Niaz Ahmed on November 28, 2017 at 10:14 am
A Thanksgiving-themed question that can be answered by clustering would be "How many turkeys of a particular weight will be sold from a particular grocery store?" The data that needs to be gathered include Household Income, and Household Size. The weight of the turkey will be on the x-axis and the number of turkey sold will be on the y-axis.This will allow us to find out turkeys of what weight has the highest demand.
Melissa R Chesnick on November 28, 2017 at 10:18 am
A Thanksgiving question that can be asked is, Which s the appropriate sized turkey to purchase for this group of guests ?
Variables include the amount of guests who will eat turkey, those who don't eat turkey and prefer a different meat, those who do not eat meat, and the average amount of turkey each turkey-eater would want.
Nadir Munir on November 28, 2017 at 10:23 am
How much turkey is needed to serve all invited guests?
This question can be answered by gathering data on the age, weight, number of guests, and whether a person does eat meat. Clustering will group the individuals based on the amount of turkey they would consume and determine how much turkey in needed to satisfy these guests.
Isha Pandya on November 28, 2017 at 11:18 am
Based on the number of children who attend, how much mac and cheese was consumed?
Data: mac and cheese (lbs), Number of Children ages 0-18
Sayem Rahman on November 28, 2017 at 11:37 am
One Thanksgiving question that can be asked is which size portions could you serve the turkey. You would need to gather tons of information including how many people are in the setting, the amount of people in the vicinity, the amount that they weigh, how old they are, and the amount of other dishes that there are. It would be most interesting to focus on how much other food is at the dinner on deciding how much turkey to serve per person.
Brendon K Lee on November 28, 2017 at 4:55 pm
Clustering could be used to answer "How much food (turkey + sides) and drinks will I need to feed all of my guests?" Data we would need would be number of people and amount of food. We could also look at age as kids don't eat as much as adults do.
Alyssa M Buitrago on November 28, 2017 at 5:23 pm
A Thanksgiving question that can be analyzed using clustering is trying to figure out groupings of consumers based on the price of the turkey they bought. To answer this question, that data that needs to be collected includes income, age, family size, and geographic location. This might segment the population to find the customer groups that pay more or less for their Thanksgiving turkey.
Megan Rolfes on November 28, 2017 at 8:34 pm
A Thanksgiving question that can be answered using clustering is how many seats a family might need to have for the infamous "kids table". In my family, all of our cousins and relatives usually get together for Thanksgiving, and the younger cousins tend to be at a separate table from the older cousins and adults. The data gathered would include how many guests there are going to be for dinner and each guest's age. By clustering people into age groups, you would be able to figure out how many people total will be attending, so then if not everyone can fit at one table, you could determine how many more seats would be needed for the kids table.
Elizabeth Crawley on November 29, 2017 at 2:20 am
One Thanksgiving question that clustering can answer is who ate turkey this year. A lot of millennial decided to have vegan or meatless thanksgiving and age might be able to determine it. The data that can be collected is who ate turkey, age, gender, income, daily calorie intake, and weight (maybe turkey makes you weight more at the end of the day).
Jennifer Kucherovsky on November 29, 2017 at 2:09 pm
One question clustering can answer is how much food will the kids eat during the dinner as opposed to the adults so that you can determine how much food to make. Data would be collected on age and amount of food consumed. Clustered segments will determine how much food to make based on the age groups of people attending.
Sean Hourihan on November 29, 2017 at 2:54 pm
One question that could be answered is how much turkey someone eats based on their income. The data that would be collected is turkey consumption in lbs and annual income. Clustering would help visualize what income levels are more likely to buy more turkey.
Liting Li on November 29, 2017 at 3:10 pm
A Thanksgiving-themed question that could be answered using clustering is what is the size of turkey need to prepared for inviting x amount of people to the dinner. To perform the analysis, data such as numbers of people that will eat turkey, people that don't eat turkey, amount of vegetarians among the group, and the average amount of turkey will be consumed by each turkey-eater.
Madeleine Elizabeth Smith on November 29, 2017 at 3:20 pm
A Thanksgiving question that can be answered using clustering is how muchTurkey will males versus females eat on Thanksgiving? This would give people an estimate of how big of a turkey to buy. I've always heard you should buy a turkey big enough to feed a pound a person, but is that too much? To answer this question, the data collected should be the how much turkey in pounds each male and female ate at the Thanksgiving.
Hiep Tran on November 29, 2017 at 3:59 pm
A thanksgiving question that clustering can answer is which food is more popular/demanded than others. Data such as ages and amount of food consumed would be collected, and based one the clustered segments you can see what food is more popular and by what age group.
Vienna Catherine Piazza on November 29, 2017 at 5:54 pm
A Thanksgiving-themed question that could be answered using clustering is how much to make of each side based on the popularity of each side. You could collect data on the amount of people who will be attending Thanksgiving and which sides are known to go the quickest to perform your analysis.
Madeline Ross on November 29, 2017 at 6:15 pm
How much turkey (lbs.) should one purchase based on how many guests are attending?
Data collection would be based on number of guests and size of the turkey. Clustering the data would determine how much turkey should be purchased if n guests were attending.
Kevin Nguyen on November 29, 2017 at 7:44 pm
How long does a person nap for after eating their Thanksgiving meal? Data collected would be the amount of food consumed (lbs) and the time spent napping.
Bilal Suleiman on November 29, 2017 at 7:56 pm
For a bakery, one Thanksgiving question that clustering could answer is "how many pies to make based on flavor?". The data would depend on customer's choices of pies flavors and their quantities. Then, based on the collected data, the quantity of each flavor is determined.
Levi Penrod on November 29, 2017 at 8:21 pm
One question clustering can answer is who eats cranberry sauce by age. Many younger people do not like cranberry sauce and many older people do enjoy it, so clustering the data of how much cranberry sauce was eaten by the age the of the person eating could group people and see if there is a trend to higher consumption based on the age of the people at thanksgiving.
Nicholas Schratz on November 29, 2017 at 8:28 pm
Something that you could use clustering for in relation to Thanksgiving would be to estimate how much turkey an individual will eat based on their weight. You would need to collect data on people weight and the amount of turkey that they consume over previous Thanksgivings. Then you can cluster into general weight classes (ex. 130lbs- 145lbs, 146-160 lbs, etc). We can then examine this data and approximate how much turkey you would prepare based individuals weight and your predicted consumption.
Katherine R Taraschi on November 29, 2017 at 8:30 pm
A Thanksgiving-themed cluster could be how many servings of mashed potatoes each person eats based on their height. The data collected would be each person's height and the number of mashed potato servings they ate.
Jake M Hymson on November 29, 2017 at 8:31 pm
How many political arguments get started per political affiliation (Democrat, Republican, Green, Libertarian, Centrist) at the thanksgiving dinner table.
Shelby Karayanis on November 29, 2017 at 11:25 pm
A thanksgiving-related question that could be answered using clustering would be what time will guests go black friday shopping relative to the time their thanksgiving dinner ended? Some of the variables that might be examined include the time of the meal, portions the guests ate, and how long they spent with friends and family before going out to shop. This could also be looked at over the span of several years to see if there has been any difference in recent years in the amount of time consumers are spending with loved ones before they go out to shop.
Tonatiuh Paredes on November 30, 2017 at 12:16 am
Question to ask would be how much leftover food should I have at the end of Thanksgiving so the fam doesn't complain that I sent them with none. data collected would be the number of guests, and the amount each of them ate at past Thanksgiving dinners then cluster in the amounts. After that, just cook more and send everyone off happy.
Eric Robert Murphy on November 30, 2017 at 1:01 am
A Thanksgiving-themed question that could be answered using clustering would be something like, 'how much pumpkin pie is eaten based on age, gender, ethnicity, etc." I would say you could measure the number of pies eaten as slices. As for the amount of clusters I would use, I would say something like 3-5 because I can't imagine there being a lot of variance, seeing as how everyone loves pumpkin pie!
Michael Sorokach on November 30, 2017 at 1:55 am
You could use clustering to figure out how early you'd need to leave on Thanksgiving to get to the stores early enough so that you don't need to fist fight someone for a PlayStation (although it's still an option for the more adventurous types). First you'd want to collect data on opening times for stores in the area, and then you'd want to look into how early lines have started on previous Thanksgiving days. After collecting all of the data, you could find out how early people start showing up generally so you could be the first one through the doors when the store opens.
Vincent A Ronzano on November 30, 2017 at 2:59 am
A Thanksgiving question that could be answered using clustering is how many pies of each flavor are bought at different stores. The flavors could include pumpkin, apple, pecan, cherry, etc, and the stores could be different bakeries or different grocery stores.
Kamchinn Cheang on November 30, 2017 at 3:20 am
You could ask how much pounds of food would be consumed per person during the Thanksgiving meal. The data collected would be weight before and after the meal is served.
Marco Vinicio Prado on November 30, 2017 at 8:43 am
My thanksgiving-themed question concerns finding mutual preferences in food (turkey, mashed potatoes, green beans, stuffing, gravy) amongst guests. My collection of data would hold the number of guests eating, and the weight of each respective portion consumed by that particular guest. Clusters are aggregated when similar portions of similar choices are consumed by guests.
Justin Colon on November 30, 2017 at 9:14 am
Question: How much stuffing should be made?
Data collected: How many people will be attending, how much stuffing was made/eaten in previous years
Jenna Hannum Bahel on November 30, 2017 at 9:16 am
A Thanksgiving cluster could be created in order to show, per household, the number of pounds of turkey purchased and the number of guests invited for dinner. Some people aim for a lot of leftovers, some try and guess the right amount, and some may run out of turkey before everyone has had some. Many hosts are unsure of how much food to buy and prepare and the turkey/guest ratio cluster could give insight into how much to buy for next year.
Kevin K. Nguyen on November 30, 2017 at 9:37 am
A Thanksgiving themed question that we could answer using cluster would be "What is the weight of a turkey needed to be purchased and cooked to serve a certain amount of people?". The data collected to answer this question would be the number of guests that will consume the turkey, how many people like white meat, dark meat, and how much they have eaten in past dinners.
Abosede Ibikunle on November 30, 2017 at 10:06 am
A thanksgiving themed question would be how much turkey someone would eat based on age. The data I would collect is the ages of the individuals, the weights of the individuals, and the amount of turkey consumed by the various individuals. I would also compare it with past data to see if the outcome would change based on the year we are in.
Connor P Quinn on November 30, 2017 at 10:12 am
A thanksgiving themed question could be, "How much turkey do people eat and what is their corresponding weight". So this could be for tons of clusters or even select few. The variable would be turkey and weight. You could do 100 pounds, 150 pounds, 200 pounds, 250 pounds, and 300 pounds. This would be a select area, but you will be able to see how much food people consume and what their corresponding weight is.
Noah Lynch on November 30, 2017 at 10:25 am
A large turkey distributor that services a group of small towns might want to know "How many deliveries of turkey will be needed by each serviced grocery store?
Some data they would need to collect could include: town population, number of "family" households, grocery stores per town, grocery store monthly shopper count, etc.
Lee Chan on November 30, 2017 at 11:00 am
A Thanksgiving-themed question that you could answer using clustering is how many days will it take a family to finish the leftover from thanksgiving. The data I would collect to perform the analysis are the the amount of people in the family, the amount of leftover they have, and the amount of dinner food they normally eat per day.
Anushka Agarwal on November 30, 2017 at 11:22 am
A Thanksgiving themed question that one could ask is how much turkey will a particular family eat. You would want to make clusters based on how many people will be there, their ages, and how much other food there will be. You could also take into consideration the numbers from the past few years of Thanksgiving dinner.
Nishil Patel on November 30, 2017 at 11:49 am
A thanksgiving based question that clustering would answer is how much pie is going to be consumed?
To answer this question you will have to gather data on how many people are coming and data on previous years on how much pie was baked and consumed.
Joshua S Lyons on November 30, 2017 at 12:15 pm
A thanksgiving based question that you can use clustering to answer is how heavy is someones thanksgiving plate in comparison to their weight. To answer this question, you can gather data that includes age, weight of person, types of food, weight of food, how much was made/eaten per person.
Joshua S Lyons on November 30, 2017 at 12:17 pm
A thanksgiving based question that you can use clustering is how much weight a person's thanksgiving plate is in comparison to their body weight. To answer this question, you can gather data including age of person, weight of person, type of food, weight of food, and amount of food made and consumed.
Nicholas March on November 30, 2017 at 12:17 pm
One question that could be answered is what type of dishes are prepared for thanksgiving based on location. For example, some people may prepare things other than mac and cheese, cranberries, etc. The data to collect would be the types of dishes, and how many times they each occur at each location geographically.
Douglas Jameson on November 30, 2017 at 12:24 pm
A thanksgiving themed question could be the size of the turkey in pounds based on the amount of guests at the dinner. Some variables you could look at for this could be the amount of guests, their ages, how many are vegetarian or prefer a different meat and the weight of the turkeys.
Alexa A Gerenza on November 30, 2017 at 12:27 pm
How many pies might be needed for a family of 18?
Consider the age and the average portion size each person eats. cluster this data by age so there is enough pie for all!
Leave a Reply to John Saviello Cancel reply
12:30 - 1:50 Tuesdays and Thursdays
2:00-3:00, Tuesdays and Thursdays
Speakman Hall 210E and email (see my site)
Lauren Soentgen (ITA):
1:00 - 2:00 Mondays
11:00-12:00 Fridays
Speakman Hall 210D (and see her site)
- Michael Johnathan Sharpe on Weekly Question #11: Complete by December 7, 2017
- Marco Vinicio Prado on Weekly Question #11: Complete by December 7, 2017
- Joshua S Lyons on Weekly Question #11: Complete by December 7, 2017
- Megan Rolfes on Weekly Question #11: Complete by December 7, 2017
- Kevin K. Nguyen on Weekly Question #11: Complete by December 7, 2017


text:
Frommer's review expresses it perfectly: "The most noteworthy recent development in Fort Worth -- and one of the most important on the national culture scene -- is the Modern, a landmark design by the celebrated modernist Japanese architect Tadao Ando and a true notch on the city's belt. It is my favorite new museum -- or work of architecture, period -- since Frank Gehry's Guggenheim Bilbao in Spain. Opened in 2002, the museum, quickly hailed as a masterpiece, contains over 50,000 square feet of gallery space, making it second in size only to the Museum of Modern Art in New York among museums dedicated to contemporary and modern art. The galleries, of warmly textured poured concrete with 20-foot-high ceilings and suffused with spectacular natural light, are housed in three rectangular, flat-roofed pavilions built around a large pond."Museum goers have permission to photograph some works, but not others (including the Susan Rothenberg exhibit). Forgive me for being an idiot - I forgot to log the artists' names so most of these works won't be identified. Above, a series of photographs of four sisters taken annually, over 30 years, and the Standard Oil - one of my favorite paintings whose creator I cannot recall. Below, a Jackson Pollack.
The curved concrete wall that encircled this large sculpture appeared to have been designed around it.
The second Jackson Pollack (sidebar, modern art lovers should really read this book).
Exactly what it looks like: silver pieces hammered flat and suspended from the ceiling. And yet I stared at this piece for a full five minutes.
My husband sits in my favorite non-Eames chair: the Barcelona.
I wish I had a better pic of this sculpture, called "Conjoined", by artist Roxy Paine. The sculpture stands 40 feet tall and 45 feet wide, and consists of two stainless steel trees whose branches "cantilever in space to connect in midair."
View of downtown Fort Worth from a second floor window. Note the pool that runs the length of the back of the museum.
A monumental metal sculpture outside the museum.
Inside the sculpture, looking out. Voices have an interesting reverberation when inside the sculpture.
Coming soon: Museum post 2. My posting may be light these next couple of weeks for various reasons, and it will take me a while to catch up on my blog reading. I promise I haven't forgotten about everyone! Shop sneak peak also coming soon. I have lots of great new stuff to be listed these next few weeks. Think Curtis Jere sculptures, Scandinavian pitchers (Picknick and Arabia), lots and lots of deer...


text:
Thursday, January 31, 2013
Block 2 Using all my bits and pieces.hope it looks all right at the end.xx
Posted by Scottish Nanna at 7:46 PM 3 comments
Woo Hoo.
I have done it I managed to upload my 1st block more to come .
Posted by Scottish Nanna at 1:48 PM 1 comments
Posted by Scottish Nanna at 1:45 PM 1 comments
Saturday, January 19, 2013
No Bloging For Me .
I am having trouble uploadig my photos.I am stitching and when I can work it out.I will post some photos.Hugs to all Mary.xx
Posted by Scottish Nanna at 3:57 PM 9 comments
Thursday, January 17, 2013
I am trying to post A picture and cant do it Has something changed.
Posted by Scottish Nanna at 2:08 AM 2 comments
Happy New Year Everyone.
I lost my mojo at the end of last year.I had A lot to do with Xmas.and not much time for sewing.I follow Peg's Blog Happy inQuilting And seeing what she does has inspired me to start sewing again, I have A lot of bits of material.so I have decided to do A scrappy quilt.I will call it Mary's Flower garden.Iwill post the first block soon.
Posted by Scottish Nanna at 1:01 AM 1 comments


text:
SAN DIEGO - Davis Webb threw for 403 yards and tied the Holiday Bowl record with four touchdown passes, and Texas Tech raced to a 37-23 victory over No. 16 Arizona State on Monday night, snapping a five-game losing streak.
Webb tied the record set by BYU's Jim McMahon in 1980 and matched by Kansas State's Brian Kavanagh in 1995 and Texas' Major Applewhite in 2001.
The Red Raiders (8-5) won for the first time since beating West Virginia on Oct. 19. Arizona State (10-4) lost its second straight.
Webb threw passes of 18 and 21 yards to Jakeem Grant, 1 yard to Rodney Hall and 23 yards to Bradley Marquez, all in the first half.
The Red Raiders scored on four of their first five drives to take a 27-6 lead five minutes into the second quarter.