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Stone Age
Stone Age, prehistoric cultural stage, or level of human development, characterized by the creation and use of stone tools. The Stone Age, whose origin coincides with the discovery of the oldest known stone tools, which have been dated to some 3.3 million years ago, is usually divided into three separate periods—Paleolithic Period, Mesolithic Period, and Neolithic Period—based on the degree of sophistication in the fashioning and use of tools.
Paleolithic archaeology is concerned with the origins and development of early human culture between the first appearance of human beings as tool-using mammals (which is believed to have occurred sometime before 3.3 million years ago) and about 8000 bce (near the beginning of the Holocene Epoch [11,700 years ago to the present]). It is included in the time span of the Pleistocene, or Glacial, Epoch—an interval lasting from about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago. Modern evidence suggests that the earliest protohuman forms had diverged from the ancestral primate stock by the beginning of the Pleistocene. In any case, the oldest recognizable tools were found in rock layers of Middle Pliocene Epoch (some 3.3 million years ago), raising the possibility that toolmaking began with Australopithecus or its contemporaries. During the Pleistocene, which followed directly after the Pliocene, a series of momentous climatic events occurred. The northern latitudes and mountainous areas were subjected on four successive occasions to the advances and retreats of ice sheets (known as Günz, Mindel, Riss, and Würm in the Alps), river valleys and terraces were formed, the present coastlines were established, and great changes were induced in the fauna and flora of the globe. In large measure, the development of culture during Paleolithic times seems to have been profoundly influenced by the environmental factors that characterize the successive stages of the Pleistocene Epoch.
Throughout the Paleolithic, humans were food gatherers, depending for their subsistence on hunting wild animals and birds, fishing, and collecting wild fruits, nuts, and berries. The artifactual record of this exceedingly long interval is very incomplete; it can be studied from such imperishable objects of now-extinct cultures as were made of flint, stone, bone, and antler. These alone have withstood the ravages of time, and, together with the remains of contemporary animals hunted by our prehistoric forerunners, they are all that scholars have to guide them in attempting to reconstruct human activity throughout this vast interval—approximately 98 percent of the time span since the appearance of the first true hominin stock. In general, these materials develop gradually from single, all-purpose tools to an assemblage of varied and highly specialized types of artifacts, each designed to serve in connection with a specific function. Indeed, it is a process of increasingly more complex technologies, each founded on a specific tradition, that characterizes the cultural development of Paleolithic times. In other words, the trend was from simple to complex, from a stage of nonspecialization to stages of relatively high degrees of specialization, just as has been the case during historic times.
In the manufacture of stone implements, four fundamental traditions were developed by the Paleolithic ancestors: (1) pebble-tool traditions; (2) bifacial-tool, or hand-ax, traditions; (3) flake-tool traditions; and (4) blade-tool traditions. Only rarely are any of these found in "pure" form, and this fact has led to mistaken notions in many instances concerning the significance of various assemblages. Indeed, though a certain tradition might be superseded in a given region by a more advanced method of producing tools, the older technique persisted as long as it was needed for a given purpose. In general, however, there is an overall trend in the order as given above, starting with simple pebble tools that have a single edge sharpened for cutting or chopping. But no true pebble-tool horizons had yet, by the late 20th century, been recognized in Europe. In southern and eastern Asia, on the other hand, pebble tools of primitive type continued in use throughout Paleolithic times.
French place-names have long been used to designate the various Paleolithic subdivisions, since many of the earliest discoveries were made in France. This terminology has been widely applied in other countries, notwithstanding the very great regional differences that do in fact exist. But the French sequence still serves as the foundation of Paleolithic studies in other parts of the Old World.
There is reasonable agreement that the Paleolithic ended with the beginning of the Holocene geologic and climatic era about 11,700 years ago (about 9700 bce). It is also increasingly clear that a developmental bifurcation in human cultural history took place at about this time. In most of the world, especially in the temperate and tropical woodland environments or along the southern fringes of Arctic tundra, the older Upper Paleolithic traditions of life were simply readapted toward more or less increasingly intensified levels of food collection. These cultural readaptations of older food procedures to the variety and succession of post-Pleistocene environments are generally referred to as occurring in the Mesolithic Period. But also by 8000 bce (if not even somewhat earlier) in certain semi-arid environments of the world's middle latitudes, traces of a quite different course of development began to appear. These traces indicate a movement toward incipient agriculture and (in one or two instances) animal domestication. In the case of southwestern Asia, this movement had already culminated in a level of effective village-farming communities by 7000 bce. In Mesoamerica, a comparable development—somewhat different in its details and without animal domestication—was taking place almost as early. It may thus be maintained that in the environmentally favourable portions of southwestern Asia, Mesoamerica, the coastal slopes below the Andes, and perhaps in southeastern Asia (for which little evidence is available), little if any trace of the Mesolithic stage need be anticipated. The general level of culture probably shifted directly from that of the Upper Paleolithic to that of incipient cultivation and domestication.
The picture presented by the culture history of the earlier portion of the Holocene Period is thus one of two generalized developmental patterns: (1) the cultural readaptations to post-Pleistocene environments on a more or less intensified level of food collection; and (2) the appearance and development of an effective level of food production. It is generally agreed that this latter appearance and development was achieved quite independently in various localities in both the Old and New Worlds. As the procedures and the plant or animal domesticates of this new food-producing level gained effectiveness and flexibility to adapt to new environments, the new level expanded at the expense of the older, more conservative one. Finally, it is only within the matrix of a level of food production that any of the world's civilizations have been achieved.
Three major subdivisions—Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic—are recognized in Europe. Although the dividing line between the Lower and Middle stages is not so clearly defined as that separating the Middle and Upper subdivisions, this system is still used by most workers.
Lower Paleolithic
On the basis of the very rich materials from the Somme Valley in the north of France and the Thames Valley in the south of England, two main Lower Paleolithic traditons have been recognized in western Europe. These are as follows: (1) bifacial-tool, or hand-ax, traditions (Abbevillian and Acheulean); and (2) flake-tool traditions (Clactonian and Levalloisian).
The type tools of the Abbevillian (formerly Chellean), which takes its name from the town of Abbeville, France, on the 45-metre (150-foot) terrace of the Somme Valley, consist of pointed, bifacial implements, or hand axes. Their forms vary, and the flaking is generally irregular; it is probable that they were manufactured either with a stone hammer or on a stone anvil. Associated with these crude types of hand axes, simple flake tools are found, but they lack definite form. The Abbevillian has been reported from deposits of lower Pleistocene (First Interglacial) age.
The Acheulean, which begins in the Second Interglacial and persists to the close of the Third Interglacial, covers by far the longest time span of any of the Paleolithic traditions found in western Europe. The type site is on the 30-metre terrace of the Somme Valley at St. Acheul, near Amiens, in northern France. Acheulean hand axes, which display a marked technological refinement over their Abbevillian precursors, were apparently made by employing a wooden or bone billet rather than the more primitive stone-on-stone technique. But, except at the very end of the Acheulean cycle of development, there is very little typological difference in the types of hand axes found in the various layers.
The Micoquian, or Final (Upper) Acheulean, is characterized by elongated hand axes that exhibit very straight and finely chipped edges, in marked contrast with the Lower Acheulean, in which ovate forms predominate. Flake tools occur in all Acheulean levels, the side scrapers being the predominant type. Many of these tools were made from trimming flakes produced during the process of hand-ax manufacture. In general, flake tools, including points with a triangular cross section, are found in greater quantities in Micoquian deposits than in the older horizons.
The evidence from Clacton-on-Sea, Essex, and Swanscombe, Kent, in the Thames Valley of southeastern England clearly shows that the main development of the Clactonian occurred during early Second Interglacial times. The type artifacts are flakes, although core tools—single-edged choppers and chopping tools—do in fact occur. The flakes, which have large, high-angle (greater than 90°), plain striking platforms, as well as prominent bulbs of percussion, were detached from roughly prepared, discoidal cores by the stone-hammer or stone-anvil technique. Actual retouching or secondary working of the edge is found in some instances, but for the most part it is crude, and edge chipping resulting from use is far more characteristic.
Named after a locality at Levallois, a suburb of Paris, the Levalloisian is primarily a flake tradition, although hand axes are found in certain of the Middle and Upper Levalloisian stages. It first appears in deposits of the late Second Interglacial in association with hand axes of Middle Acheulean type and persists into Fourth Glacial (Würm) times. It is characterized by a new and improved method of producing flakes, which previously had been obtained in a more or less haphazard manner. This involves the careful shaping of the core by the removal of centrally directed flakes, and the preparation of an extremity for the detachment of a symmetrical oval flake. Since unstruck cores of this type exhibit a plano-convex section suggesting the form of a tortoise, they are known as tortoise cores. On the striking platforms of typical levallois flakes, small vertical flake scars, called facets, may be observed, and the scars of the converging core-preparation flakes are present on the upper surface. The use of this technique resulted in the production not only of symmetrical flakes but also of larger ones in proportion to the size of the core. In the Middle and Upper Levalloisian a variation of this same basic technique was developed whereby it was possible to produce either triangular flakes (or points) or rectangular flakes (or flake blades) by modifying the method of core preparation.
Middle Paleolithic
The Middle Paleolithic comprises the Mousterian, a portion of the Levalloisian, and the Tayacian, all of which are complexes based on the production of flakes, although survivals of the old hand-ax tradition are manifest in many instances. These Middle Paleolithic assemblages first appear in deposits of the third interglacial and persist during the first major oscillation of the Fourth Glacial (Würm) stage. Associated with the Tayacian, in which the artifacts consist of very crude flakes, remains of modern humans (Homo sapiens) have been found. The Mousterian industry, on the other hand, is associated with the Neanderthals. By the 1960s no human remains had yet been found associated with the Levalloisian. It is in the Mousterian levels of the caves and rock shelters of central and southern France that the earliest evidence of the use of fire and the first definite burials have been discovered in western Europe. The cave of Le Moustier, near Les Eyzies in the classic Dordogne region of France, is the type site of the Mousterian. The typology of the artifacts is complex; it consists of three distinct increments: (1) the prepared striking-platform–tortoise-core (Levalloisian) tradition; (2) the plain striking-platform–discoidal-core technique of ultimate Clactonian tradition; and (3) a persistence of the bifacial core tool, or Acheulean tradition. The type artifacts from the Mousterian consist of points and side scrapers, in addition to a few hand axes (especially heart- or triangular-shaped forms), and the secondary working is coarse. A crude bone industry appears here for the first time. Judging by what is known concerning modern hunting groups, small bands or tribes of people already had developed simple social institutions, even at this early level of development.
Upper Paleolithic
The Upper Paleolithic, which occupies only approximately one-tenth of the time span of the period as a whole, first appears in horizons referable to the Würm I–II interstadial, and it persists to the very end of late Glacial times. Early humans made their greatest cultural progress at this time. The hand axes and flake tools of the earlier assemblages were replaced by diversified and specialized tools made on blades struck from specially prepared cores. Many important inventions appeared, such as needles and thread, skin clothing, hafted stone and bone tools, the harpoon, the spear thrower, and special fishing equipment. Bone, ivory, and antler, in addition to flint, were extensively used. The earliest man-made dwellings are found, consisting of semisubterranean pit houses. Of prime importance and interest is the beginning of the basic techniques of drawing, modelling, sculpture, and painting, as well as the earliest manifestations of dancing, music, the use of masks, ceremonies, and the organization of society into patterns that were apparently fairly complex. Indeed, the location of certain settlements suggests a more complex social life, including perhaps collective hunting. There is evidence for fertility magic, private property, and possible social stratification. Furthermore, primitive types of early humans disappeared, and the remains of humans of modern type (Homo sapiens) alone are found in Upper Paleolithic sites.
The chronology of this interval in western Europe shows a succession of cultures known as Lower Périgordian (or Châtelperronian; formerly Lower Aurignacian), Aurignacian, Upper Périgordian (or Gravettian; formerly Upper Aurignacian), Solutrean, and Magdalenian, each characterized by its distinctive types of artifacts. These latter occur, together with gravers (or burins), end scrapers, points, etc., which are common to all levels. The graver itself is a very important tool, for its invention made possible the extensive working of bone and facilitated the development of art. The climate of the Upper Paleolithic varied from cold steppe, or even Arctic tundra, to north temperate (taiga), similar to parts of Siberia and Canada of the present day.
In the Périgordian, named after a region in south-central France, blades with steeply retouched backs are typical. The Lower Périgordian is characterized by large curved points with blunted backs that are known as Châtelperron points. These first appear, together with other types of blade tools, in horizons immediately overlying Upper Mousterian levels. It is believed that the straight points with blunted backs, called Gravette points and characteristic of the Upper Périgordian, were evolved from the Châtelperron type. In the final stage of the Upper Périgordian, tanged Font Robert points and diminutive multiangle gravers, known as the Noailles burin, are found. A number of small sculptured human torsos depicting the female form have been found at Upper Périgordian sites.
The type site of the Aurignacian is near the village of Aurignac (Haute-Garonne) in southern France. At many sites it is found intervening between horizons referable to the Lower and the Upper Périgordian, a fact that is considered to indicate that more than one cultural element was present in western Europe at the beginning of Upper Paleolithic times. The tool types include various kinds of steep-ended scrapers, nose scrapers, blades with heavy marginal retouch, strangulated blades, busked gravers (or burins), and split-base bone points. Bone was extensively used, mainly for javelin points, chisels, perforators, and bâtons de commandement, or arrow straighteners. Articles of personal adornment, probably worn as necklaces, such as pierced teeth and shells, as well as decorated bits of bone and ivory, appear for the first time in the Aurignacian.
The oldest manifestations of art were produced during the Aurignacian, and the development continued during Upper Périgordian times. In general, Upper Paleolithic art falls into two closely related categories: mural art and portable art. The former includes finger tracings, paintings, engravings, bas-reliefs, and sculptures on the walls of caves and rock shelters; the latter is characterized by small engravings and sculptures on stone and bone found in the occupation layers. The whole development almost certainly owes its inspiration to the magico-religious idea, especially the custom of hunting magic as practiced today by living primitive peoples.
The Solutrean, which is named after the site of Solutré, near Mâcon (Saône-et-Loire), is noted for the beautifully made, symmetrical, bifacially flaked, laurel-leaf, and shouldered points, the finest examples of flint workmanship of the Paleolithic in western Europe. In addition, the usual types of gravers, end scrapers, points, perforators, etc., are present. Examples of Solutrean art are comparatively rare; they consist of sculpture in low relief and incised stone slabs. The fauna indicates that this culture flourished in a relatively cold climate.
The rock shelter of La Madeleine, near Les Eyzies (Dordogne), is the type Magdalenian locality. This final culture of the Upper Paleolithic is noted for the dominance of bone and antler tools over those of flint and stone and for the very remarkable works of art that were produced at this time. The wide variety of bone tools include javelin points, barbed bone points (or harpoons), eyed needles, bâtons de commandement (often elaborately decorated), perforators, spear throwers, chisels, etc. The flint and stone tools include a variety of special forms, among which small geometric forms, denticulated blades, scrapers with steeply retouched edges, and the parrot-beak graver are especially distinctive. The six phases of the Magdalenian have been established stratigraphically and are characterized mainly by the contained bone and antler implements. But the heights attained by the people responsible for this culture can best be evaluated on the basis of the art objects they produced. Magdalenian sites have yielded countless fine examples of both mural and portable art. Animals of the period, the usual subject matter, are portrayed in paintings (often polychrome), engravings, and sculptures. The fauna from the various Magdalenian horizons demonstrates that cold conditions prevailed in western Europe at the end of Paleolithic times.Hallam L. Movius The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
In the Upper Paleolithic of Europe, certain evidence exists for what must have already been well-organized collective-hunting activities, such as the horse-stampede traces of Solutré, France, and the great concentrations of mammoth bones of the Gravettian hut settlements of Czechoslovakia and Russia. Cultural adaptations appear to have been made to restricted local areas or niches and to the fluctuations of climate and environment during the changing phases at the end of the Pleistocene range of time. In fact, it could be maintained generally that Upper Paleolithic traditions flowed rather smoothly into the Mesolithic, with no more significant indication of cultural development than further environmental readaptations. The people of the Mesolithic stage, or level of development, can be said to have "changed just enough so that they would not have to change."
The cultures
The Maglemosian
The level of intensified food-collecting cultures of the early Holocene Period in the Old World is best known from northwestern Europe, and it is with regard to this area that the term Mesolithic has greatest currency to denominate archaeological traces. A classic example of such traces comes from the Maglemose bog site of Denmark, although there are comparable materials ranging from England to the eastern Baltic lands. These bogs were probably more or less swampy lakes in Mesolithic times. At about 6000 bce, when the Maglemosian culture flourished, traces of primitive huts with bark-covered floors have been found. Flint axes for felling trees and adzes for working wood have appeared, as well as a variety of smaller flint tools, including a great number of microlithic scale. These were mounted as points or barbs in arrows and harpoons and were also used in other composite tools. There were adzes and chisels of antler or bone, besides needles and pins, fish-hooks, harpoons, and several-pronged fish spears. Some larger tools, of ground stone (e.g., club heads) have appeared. Wooden implements also have survived because of the unusually favourable preservative qualities of the bogs; bows, arrow shafts, ax handles, paddles, and even a dugout canoe have been discovered. Fishnets were made of bark fibre. There is good evidence that the Maglemosian sites were only seasonally occupied. Deer were successfully hunted, and fish and waterfowl were taken, and it appears possible that several varieties of marsh plants were utilized. At Star Carr, in northern England, there are indications that four or five huts existed in the settlement, with a population of about 25 people.
This description of the Maglemosian must suffice to represent a considerable variety of European manifestations of the level of intensified post-Pleistocene food collecting. The catalogs of the Azilian and Tardenoisian industries of western Europe, of the Ahrensburgian of northern Germany, of the Asturian of Spain, etc., would each differ in detail, but all would point in the same general direction as regards cultural-historical interpretation.
The Nachikufan
As a further and far-distant example, the Nachikufan culture of southern Zimbabwe might be cited. Here again, microlithic flint bladelet tools, with certain types mounted as projectile points or in composite tools, existed. The Nachikufan cave walls show a few seminaturalistic drawings, and the caves also contain "pencils" of red and black pigment. Ground-stone axes and adzes, bored stones (digging-stick weights?), and normal-sized chopping and scraping tools of chipped stone also occurred. Grindstones of various types indicate a degree of dependence on collected vegetable foods, and the animal bones suggest specialization in the hunting of zebras, wildebeests, hartebeests, and wild pigs. These Nachikufan materials date back to at least 4500 bce. Again, an intensified level of food collecting is implied.
The general picture
Though there are vast gaps in our knowledge of the Holocene Period in many parts of the Old World, enough is known to see the general cultural level of this range of time. Outside of the regions where food production was establishing itself, the period was one of a gradual settling-in and of an increasingly intensive utilization of all the resources of restricted regional niches. At first, the level seems nowhere to have achieved a climax of artistic expression, such as that for example, of Upper Périgordian–Magdalenian times. But, as time went on, certain climaxes within the matrix of an intensified level of food collection did occur. An often-cited example might be the complex art and social organization of the cultures of the northwest coast of British Columbia.
More often, however, as the culture history of the Holocene Period proceeded, cultures at the level of intensified food collecting were "captured" by being absorbed within an expanding matrix of the new elements, procedures, and traditions of food production or—subsequent to its appearance—by the expansion of civilized societies.Robert J. Braidwood The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
The origins and history of European Neolithic culture are closely connected with the postglacial climate and forest development. The increasing temperature after the late Dryas period during the Pre-Boreal and the Boreal (c. 8000–5500 bce, determined by radiocarbon dating) caused a remarkable change in late glacial flora and fauna. Thus, the Mediterranean zone became the centre of the first cultural modifications leading from the last hunters and food gatherers to the earliest farmers. This was established by some important excavations in the mid-20th century in the Middle East, which unearthed the first stages of early agriculture and stock breeding (7th and 6th millennia bce) with wheat, barley, dogs, sheep, and goats. Early prepottery Neolithic finds (probably 6th millennium bce) have been made in the Argissa Magula near Larissa (Thessaly, Greece), while excavations in Lepenski Vir (Balkan Peninsula) have brought to light some sculptures of the same period. The independent origin of European Neolithic was established, and it was thought highly probable that the cradle of farming in the Middle East had not been the only one: there were others in Europe, too.
The zones
Neolithic farming in Europe developed on its own lines in the four different ecological zones. These are: the Mediterranean zone of evergreen forest and winter rains; north of the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Balkans, the temperate zone of deciduous forest and evenly distributed annual rainfall; still farther north the circumpolar taiga, or coniferous forest (the only zone to remain free of agriculture and stock breeding); and to the southeast the western end of the Eurasian Steppe. Each zone itself is subdivided into natural regions by physiographic boundaries and peculiarities of climate or soil. Only the three major divisions of the temperate zone are not obvious from every map. We may distinguish: western Europe, from the Atlantic to the Vosges and Alps and including the British Isles; the loesslands of central Europe, including the Ukraine and limited by the Balkans and the Harz; and the northern province, that portion of the Eurasiatic plain lying between the Rhine and the Vistula and including Denmark and southern Sweden. The substantial Neolithic communities that arose by 6000 bce must have been largely recruited from indigenous Mesolithic hunters and fishers, attested to so abundantly in western and northern Europe by various remains. (Some communities indeed seem to be composed entirely of such Mesolithic stocks, though they had adopted a Neolithic equipment from immigrant farmers; such are sometimes termed Secondary Neolithic. From these Mesolithic survivors, too, must be derived much of the science and equipment applied in Neolithic times to adapting societies to European environments. Upon the resultant distinctively European technology and economy was reared a no less original ideological superstructure expressed in distinctive sepulchral monuments, styles of ceramic decoration, and fashions in personal ornaments.
Cultural elements
Rural economy
In each of the above-mentioned provinces, the archaeological record begins with the early stages of farming, as in Thessaly. In the Mediterranean zone, this early farming is connected with the cardium pottery (decorated by shell impressions of Cardium edule), cultivation of the land having been proved by pollen-analytical methods in France, as elsewhere in temperate Europe, while northern Germany and southern Scandinavia revealed grain prints in potsherds (Ertebølle-Ellerbek). The process of cultural formation and modification during the Neolithic may be studied with the help of the different kinds of pottery and stone artifacts.
Save in the taiga, where a Mesolithic economy persisted until the end of the Bronze Age, the basis of life everywhere was subsistence farming, supplemented by some measure of hunting and fishing—fish being a source of food curiously neglected in western and central Europe during the earlier phases of the Neolithic. Everywhere the same cereals were cultivated, together with beans, peas, and lentils. In the Mediterranean zone, orchard husbandry may already have begun, while around the Alps, apples were eventually cultivated and utilized for the preparation of a sort of cider. The balance between cultivation and stock breeding varied. Throughout the temperate zone, sheep, though bred even in Britain and Denmark, were at first rare. The damp temperate forests were uncongenial to these animals, and only toward the end of the Neolithic Period, when the greater dryness of the subboreal climatic phase and incipient clearing for plow cultivation were leaving their mark on the landscape, did flocks begin to multiply. On the loesslands, in early Neolithic times, animal husbandry may have played a subordinate role as compared with agriculture. But in the sequel, cattle raising combined with hunting proved to be the most productive pursuit among the deciduous forests with a Neolithic equipment; cultivation was relegated to an increasingly secondary place, until in the late Bronze Age more efficient tools for clearing land became generally available. The rural economy permitted the continuous occupation of permanent villages around the Aegean and in the Balkan Peninsula, perhaps also in southern Italy and the Iberian Peninsula. In the temperate zone, shifting cultivation may have been based on slash-and-burn clearance. Under this extravagant system, plots were presumably tilled with hoes, as in parts of Africa today. But by the beginning of the Bronze Age, the ox-drawn plow was beginning to replace the hoe.
Dwelling houses in Greece, Sicily, and the Iberian Peninsula were built, as in the Middle East, of pisé, or mud brick, on stone foundations. But in the Balkans and throughout the temperate zone, wood was used for the construction of gabled houses, stout posts serving to support the ridgepole and the walls of split saplings or wattle and daub. The earliest houses on the loessland of central Europe were very large, up to 42 metres (135 feet) in length and large enough to accommodate a whole lineage or small clan together with stalled cattle and grain stores. In the sequel these communal houses gave place to smaller two-roomed dwellings, 7.5 to 10 metres (24 1/2 to 33 feet) long but still entered through one end. Finally in late Neolithic times clusters of one-roomed huts became the most widespread fashion. Around the Alps such two-roomed houses and, less often, one-roomed huts were raised on piles above the shores of lakes or on platforms laid on peat mosses. These are the world-famous Swiss "lake-dwellings" (Uferrandsiedlungen) that have yielded such precious collections of the organic substances from wood to bread that are otherwise missing from the archaeological record. In northern Europe, too, the earliest villages consisted of two parallel, long communal houses, but these were subdivided by cross walls into 20 or more apartments, each with a separate door. But here again the communal houses eventually broke up into free-standing one-roomed huts. Finally, Skara Brae on the treeless island of Orkney illustrates an ingenious adaptation of the one-roomed wooden hut to an inhospitable environment but shows how commodiously such huts must always have been furnished.
Stone tools
Carpenters used celts (ax or adz heads) edged by grinding and polishing of fine-grained rock or of flint where that material was available in large nodules. In Greece and the Balkans, all over central Europe and the Ukraine, and throughout the taiga, adzes were used exclusively, as in the earlier Baltic Mesolithic; in northern and western Europe axes were preferred. In the Iberian Peninsula axes and adzes occur in equal numbers in early Neolithic graves, but the proportion of axes increased later. Often in western Europe, and occasionally in Greece and Cyprus, celts were mounted with the aid of antler sleeves inserted between the stone head and the wooden handle—a device that was already employed in the northern European Mesolithic. In Spain, the British Isles, and northern Europe axheads were simply stuck into or through straight wooden shafts, but adz heads must always have been mounted on a knee shaft (a crooked stick), a method regularly used for axheads, too, by the Bronze Age. Axheads like those in modern use, with a hole for the shaft, were rarely used for tools, but the Danubian peasants on the loesslands may sometimes have mounted adzes in this manner. They certainly knew how to perforate stone, using a tubular borer (a reed or bone with sand as an abrasive). From them the technique was adopted by various secondary Neolithic tribes in northern Europe for the manufacture of so-called battle-axes. The latter seem to derive their form from Mesolithic weapons of antler, but their splayed blades disclose the influence of metal forms.
Ax factories and flint mines
Celts, or axes, were manufactured in factories where specially suitable rock outcrops occurred, and they were traded over great distances. Products of the factories at Graig Lwyd, Penmaenmawr, North Wales, were transported to Wiltshire and Anglesey, those of Tievebulliagh on the Antrim coast to Limerick, Kent, Aberdeen, and the Hebrides. Similarly, large nodules of good flint were secured by mining in Poland, Denmark, The Netherlands, England, Belgium, France, Portugal, and Sicily.
The mine shafts, which were cut through solid chalk sometimes to a depth of six metres (20 feet) with the aid only of antler picks and bone shovels, may be simple pits, but often regular galleries branching from them follow the seams of big nodules. Although the ancient miners appreciated the necessity of leaving pillars to support the roof, skeletons of workers killed by falls have been discovered at Cissbury, Spiennes, and elsewhere. In the British Isles and Denmark, at least, there is evidence that the ax factories and flint mines were exploited and the products distributed by trade, for example, to the northern parts of Sweden. Still, the operators and distributors need nowhere be regarded as full-time specialists.
Neolithic art, except among the hunter-fishers of the taiga, was geometric and not representational. It is best illustrated by the decoration of pottery. Pots, which were always handmade, were painted in southeastern Europe, southern Italy, and Sicily; elsewhere they were adorned with incised, impressed, or stamped patterns. Many designs are skeuomorphic—i.e., they enhance the pot's similarity to vessels of basketry, skin, or other material. But on the loesslands of central Europe and the Ukraine and in the Balkans, spirals and meanders were favourite motifs (see photograph).
While Neolithic societies could be completely self-sufficient, growing their own food and making all essential equipment from local materials, luxury objects were transmitted quite long distances by some sort of trade. So ornaments made of the shells of the Mediterranean mussel, Spondylus gaederopus, are found all across the Balkans, up the Danube Valley, and even on the Saale and the Main. Products of factories and flint mines were, as stated, traded widely throughout a single province, such as the British Isles, and some especially valued raw materials—the yellow flint of Grand-Pressigny (France), the obsidian of Melos and the Lipari Islands—became objects of "international trade" as much as shells. But the most prized object of such commerce was the amber of Jutland and Poland, whose electrical properties seemed evidence of potent mana.Richard Pittioni The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica


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Major Section: EVENTS
Examples: (table user-defined-functions-table 'untranslate-preprocess 'my-preprocess) (table user-defined-functions-table 'untranslate 'my-untranslate)
This feature should perhaps only be used by advanced users who have a thorough understanding of the system functions being replaced. There are currently two ways a user can affect the way ACL2 prints terms.
The first example associates the user-defined function symbol
my-preprocess with
untranslate-preprocess. As a result, when ACL2
prints a term, say during a proof, using its so-called ``untranslate''
process the first thing it does is to call
my-preprocess on two
arguments: that term and the current ACL2 logical world. If the call
produces a non-
nil result, then that result is passed to the untranslate
The second example associates the user-defined function symbol
my-untranslate with the built-in function symbol
untranslate. As a
result, the code for
my-untranslate will be run whenever the untranslate
process is run. The formals of the two functions must agree and must not
contain any stobj names. Note that these overrides fail to occur upon
guard violations and some other evaluation errors.
untranslate-preprocess approach may suffice for most cases in which a
user wants to modify the way output is produced by the theorem prover. We
present an example immediately below, but see
books/misc/untranslate-patterns.lisp for a more elaborate example. If
untranslate-preprocess approach does not seem sufficient for your
purposes, you are invited to look at file
for an example of user-defined
untranslate (i.e., following the second
example displayed above).
Suppose you have a large constant that you would prefer not to see in proofs. For example, you may have submitted the following definition (but imagine a much larger constant, say, a list of length 1,000,000).
(defconst *a* '(a b c d))If you submit the following (silly) theorem
(thm (equal (cons x *a*) (car (cons yyy zzz))))then you will see the following output:
(EQUAL (CONS X '(A B C D)) YYY).If
*a* had represented a much larger structure, we would wish we could
see the following instead.
(EQUAL (CONS X *A*) YYY)That can be accomplished as follows. First we make the following definition.
(defun my-preprocess (term wrld) (declare (ignore wrld)) (if (equal term (list 'quote *a*)) '*a* term))Now we submit the following
table event.
(table user-defined-functions-table 'untranslate-preprocess 'my-preprocess)This will install
my-preprocess as a preprocessor before the normal
untranslation routine is applied to printing a term. When the untranslation
routine encounters the constant
(QUOTE (A B C D)), it will replace it
*a*, and the usual untranlation routine will print this as

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Dogs or Cats? What Your Pet Preference Says About You
Even if it's raining cats and dogs, don't expect the same reaction from everyone.
According to data from Hunch collected in an infographic by Column Five Media, cat people tend to be urban dwellers, prefer petsitting over babysitting, and value ironic humor, while dog lovers are more likely to have kids, be outdoorsy people, and name Paul as their favorite Beatle.
[via HunchBlog]


text:
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268 Series Overview
The Incon Lighting 268 Series indoor sconce is a modern yet classy decorative wall fixture. With a great selection of wattage, bulb types, finishes, lenses, & variety of additional options the 268 Series is extremely adjustable for home or for commercial applications like hotel hallways, restaurants, & more. This product is also American Compliant.
The 268 has a white enamel finished steel housing and ABF molded trim that can be finished in one of many paint styles. The lens is available in white, faux alabaster, frosted prismatic and white marble acrylic.
Depending on your wattage the 268 Series can be equipped with a 120V 60Hz Magnetic NPF, 120V 60Hz Electronic NPF, 120/277V 50/60Hz Electronic HPF, or LED 120V 50/60Hz Electronic HPF ballast.. This fixture is wall mountable only and is certified for damp locations. Lamps are included unless ordered with the no lamp (NL) option.
The available color temperatures for compact fluorescent (CFL) bulbs range from warm (2700K & 3000K), medium (3500K) and cool (4100K) white to full spectrum (5000K) kelvin temperature. This fixture can also be equipped with:
- 277 Volt Ballast
- Philips Advance Ballast
- Remote Battery Backup (CFL Only)
- Dimming Electronic Ballast
- EnergyStar Rated
- High Power Factor
- No Lamp
- Philips Lamp
- Sylvania Ballast
- Sylvania Lamp
- ULT (Brand) Ballast
Ask a Question or Find a Rep
Please fill out the contact form below.
Comments or questions are welcome.
Specification Sheet
NOTE FOR PDF DOWNLOADS : Some browsers may open the PDF in a new tab instead of downloading it. If this happens to you, right click on PC (or command on Mac ) and save link as… (or save target… something along those lines, varies from browser to browser).


text:
10-time All-American
Four-time All-SEC selection
A four-year letterwinner at LSU (1993-96), she finished her career as a 10-time All-America and four-time All-SEC selection ... Scored a school record nine perfect 10.00s during her career, recording all of them on the vault ... Shares the LSU school record on the vault (10.00) with Stephanie Hyett and April Burkholder ... 1994 SEC champion on the uneven bars.
Punctuated her career by earning All-America honors on the vault, bars, floor and in the all-around at the NCAA Championships ... Finished third in the all-around at the national meet, scoring a 39.400 ... Qualified to the Individual Event Finals on the floor exercise, finishing fourth with a score of 9.900 ... Also posted identical 11th-place finishes on the vault and beam ... Was named to the SEC's all-conference team for the fourth straight year after finishing fifth in the all-around (39.400) ... Was nearly unstoppable on the vault, not scoring below a 9.875 on the event all year ... Scored a pair of perfect 10.00's, notching one against Alabama and the other at the LSU Invitational ... The two perfect marks gave her a school record nine for her career ... Scored a season-high 39.625 in the all-around at the LSU Invitational ... Posted other season bests of 9.875 on the bars (twice), 9.850 on the beam (twice) and 9.950 on the floor ... Won the vault at the season-opening Sunshine Fest in Nassau, Bahamas (9.90).
Had one of the finest years of any gymnast in school history, turning the LSU record book into her own personal biography ... An All-America selection on the vault, she scored four perfect 10.00s on the event, bringing her career total to seven ... Won the all-around title in seven of the 10 meets in which she competed ... Claimed the NCAA Regional all-around crown with a 39.475 ... Was the first gymnast in LSU history to win a regional all-around title ... Also won the vault (10.00) and floor (9.85) and finished fifth on bars (9.825) and 10th on beam (9.80) at the regional meet ... Was a first-team All-SEC selection after placing second on the floor (9.925), third in the all-around, fourth on the floor (9.875) and fifth on the vault (9.95) ... Established a then school record mark of 39.75 in the all-around against Florida, notching scores of 10.00 on vault, 9.95 on bars, 9.825 on beam and 9.975 on floor ... Score on the floor marked a career best ... Against Kentucky, defeated the NCAA's two-time defending all-around champion, Jenny Hansen, in Lexington ... Finished the year as the nation's top vaulter based on average (9.935) ... Scored a 9.975 or better in each of her last eight meets ... On the bars, scored a 9.90 or better in four meets, turning in a season-high 9.95 against Florida ... Was ranked sixth on the bars with a team-high average of 9.81 ... Scored a career-best and then school record mark of 9.975 on the beam at the LSU Invitational.
Missed the first few meets of the year while recovering from ankle surgery ... Finished the season by earning All-America honors on the floor, scoring a 9.85 to place sixth at the NCAA Championships ... Also finished 11th on the vault (9.90) and 19th on the bars (9.75) at the national meet ... Was crowned the regional bar champion for the second straight year after scoring a 9.95 ... Also finished second on the vault with a near perfect 9.975 effort at that meet ... Added an eighth-place showing on the beam (9.75) to finish with an all-around score of 39.375, a mark good enough for fourth place ... At the SEC Championships, won the uneven bars with a 9.925 ... Also finished fourth in the all-around (39.325), sixth on the floor, eighth on the vault and 15th on the beam ... Was ranked third in the country on the vault and fourth on the bars ... Finished the year with season averages of 9.86 on the vault, 9.84 on the bars, 9.60 on the beam, 9.82 on the floor and 39.17 in the all-around ... Scored three consecutive 10.00s on the vault ... Also established then career-best and school record marks on the bars and in the all-around ... Notched a 9.975 on the bars against N.C. State and a 39.575 against Alabama.
Gained All-America honors on the vault, bars, beam and in the all-around as a freshman ... Placed sixth on the vault and tied for ninth on the bars at the NCAA Championships ...At the NCAA Central Regional, finished tied for second in the all-around (39.35), second on the vault, tied for fifth on the floor and seventh on the beam ... Earned All-SEC honors after placing fourth in the all-around (39.10) at the conference championships ... Added a fifth-place finish on the vault (9.85) and a sixth-place showing on the beam (9.80) at the SEC meet ... Twice posted season-bests of 39.35 in the all-around ... Had other season bests of 9.95 on the floor and 9.90 on the bars.
Member of the 1992 Canadian Olympic and World Championship teams ... Won two bronze medals (vault and team) at 1991 Pan American Games ... Named the 1991 Canadian Female Gymnast of the Year ... Finished second in all-around and third on vault at the 1990 Pacific Alliance Championships.
Born August 4, 1972 ... Nicknamed "Woody" ... Daughter of Mary Gail and Arthur L. Wood ... Has a sister Caroline and two brothers, Stephen and Brian ... Sister Caroline was an All-American on the beam at the University of Arizona ... Majored in dietetics.
Vault 10.00 nine times
Bars 9.975 2/25/94
Beam 9.975 3/12/95
Floor 9.975 3/3/95
Quoting Coach Breaux
"She was very focused on the team. She was so naturally talented herself, and having been an Olympian the things that she came to us doing were already excellent. We enhanced her gymnastics, and added a little bit more difficulty. She was so consistent. She performed well. She performed at a very high level, but she did that with a consistency that was unwavering."


text:
Over the past decade or so, Cisco and its channel have been tasked with navigating a number of technology shifts, ranging from the rise of VoIP to virtualization. But those shifts, according to Cisco, were the easy part.
The real challenge today is that business models are changing, and these transformations are often a lot trickier for partners to warm up to than shifts in technology itself.
"This is the first time, in the history of all the transitions [Cisco and its partners] have gone through, that our actual business models are being challenged," said Edison Peres, senior vice president of worldwide channels at Cisco, speaking at Cisco's seventh annual Marketing Velocity event taking place this week in Cannes, France.
According to Peres and other members of Cisco's channel team speaking this week at Velocity, there are five key trends changing the face of the solution provider business. Here's a look at what to expect.


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Drinking water
Nukul is now 27 years old. She has a baby who called Nu Nu and he is 3 years old. Nukul is from Pong Lam Rang, a Karen village in the mountainous Mae Wang district of northern Thailand. She travels home to her native village as often as she can in order to visit her family. I would love to travel to many places on Earth to take beautiful pictures.
Nukul enjoyed her experience with 'Lensational' that gave her the opportunity to take a camera back to her village and take shots of her son and the things that she experienced. Through the lens she discovered the love of cobalt blue, white and black. She learnt how to use various stylistic filters, such as Tilt-Shift which she is now able to select critically when approaching her subjects.


text:
Black-Eyed Pea and Tempeh Beanballs
Whether you eat meat, dairy, or no animal products at all, no one should have to go through life without meatballs in some form. And it was with this in mind that I decided to tackle these Black-Eyed Pea and Tempeh Beanballs from Isa Chandra Moskowitz's Appetite for Reduction.
These vegan protein-balls are made from a combination of mashed black-eyed peas and tempeh, a grainy mix of fermented soybeans. By themselves the two ingredients are more texture than flavor, but Moskowitz's deft hand with vegan seasoning rectifies the situation with a mix of tomato paste, soy sauce, balsamic, and a generous handful of other herbs and spices. Once the balls are seasoned and formed they are baked until crisp on the outside and resemble falafel. Although falafel was what I was expecting when I tasted a beanball right out of the oven, it had a much smoother inner texture and a refined, almost Italian flavor. Pretty fantastic for a meatless meatball.
Adapted from Appetite for Reduction. Copyright © 2010. Published by Da Capo Lifelong Books. Available wherever books are sold. All Rights Reserved.
- Yield:20 beanballs
- Active time: 20 minutes
- Total time:45 minutes
- 12 ounces tempeh
- One (15-ounce) can black-eyed peas
- 2 cloves garlic
- 1 teaspoon dried thyme
- 2 teaspoons dried oregano
- 1/2 teaspoon paprika
- Several pinches of freshly ground black pepper
- 1 tablespoon soy sauce
- 1 tablespoon tomato paste
- 1 tablespoon balsamic vinegar
- 1/4 cup whole wheat bread crumbs
- 1/4 teaspoon salt
First, prepare a steamer to steam the tempeh. Once the steamer is ready, break the tempeh into bite-size pieces and steam for 10 minutes.
In the meantime, preheat the oven to 350°F and line a large cookie sheet with parchment paper.
In a mixing bowl, use a fork or mini potato masher or avocado masher to mash the beans. They should be well mashed, with no whole beans left, but not completely smooth like a purée. Use a Microplane grater to grate in the garlic (if you don't have one, just mince it really well). Add the herbs and spices, soy sauce, tomato paste, and balsamic vinegar, and mix well.
When the tempeh is ready, add it to the mixture and mash well. It's good if it's still steaming hot because that will help all the flavors meld before baking. When the mixture is cool enough to handle (a few minutes), add the bread crumbs and salt. Taste for salt (the batter may be a bit bitter; it will mellow out when baked).
Using about 2 tablespoons of the mixture per ball, roll the mixture into walnut-size balls, placing them on the baking pan. Spray with an ample amount of nonstick cooking spray and cover loosely with tinfoil. Bake for 15 minutes, flip the balls, and bake for 10 more minutes, uncovered.
This post may contain links to Amazon or other partners; your purchases via these links can benefit Serious Eats. Read more about our affiliate linking policy.


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Goal-line technology will be tested at Wembley Stadium when England play host to Belgium on Saturday 2 June 2012.
The Hawk-Eye technology will be put through its paces by independent testers EMPA during the sold-out international, which is the Three Lions' final preparation game for UEFA EURO 2012. The fixture follows on from a previous test during the Hampshire FA Senior Cup final at St. Mary's Stadium in Southampton on 16 May.
Such tests, along with those being conducted for the GoalRef system in Denmark, could lead to the International Football Association Board approving the introduction of GLT at its special meeting at the beginning of July.
Only the EMPA observers, IFAB and FIFA representatives at Wembley will have access to the GLT system readings. Therefore, should a goal-line incident occur at this or any of the 'test' matches, the system will not be utilised by the match officials. It means the GLT system will have no influence on the outcome of the matches in which the system is being tested.
FIFA would like to place on record its sincere thanks to The Football Association for their willingness to support the live match tests, a critical part of Test Phase 2 for goal-line technology.
The Phase 2 test results will be provided to IFAB in order for a definitive decision on the use of GLT technology.


text:
July 12, 2013
KAZAN, Russia. – Rising junior Daneika Borthwick was selected to represent Team Great Britain at the World University Games in Kazan, Russia from July 6-17. The Cumbria, England native participated in both singles and doubles play.
"Firstly, I just want to thank the selection committee for choosing me to represent Great Britain," Borthwick said. "It was a real honor. It was an amazing experience and it was my first time competing at a multi-sport event, and it was a very different atmosphere to anything I've ever experienced."
During the course of the week, Borthwick played to a record of 1-1 in both singles and doubles play.
Starting in the second round of singles, Borthwick cruised to a 6-0, 6-0 win over Nzingah Banks of Anguilla on Tuesday, advancing her into the third round on Thursday. Borthwick was knocked out of the tournament by American Sabrina Santa Maria (USC), 6-0, 6-2.
In doubles, Borthwick teamed up with Amanda Kate Elliott of Loughborough University. In their second round doubles match, the duo defeated Fransiena Honiball and Imke Jagau of Nambia, 6-0, 6-4.
Advancing to the third round, Borthwick and Elliott faced a team from the Chinese Taipei in Shu-ying Hsieh and Wen-hsin Hus. In the first set, Borthwick and Elliott won 6-2 before Hsieh and Hus countered with a 6-2 victory in the second. Hsieh and Hus outlasted Borthwick and Elliott in the tiebreaker, taking it 1-0.
"I will take a lot of things with me from competing at this event," Borthwick said. "But, mainly it gives me the motivation to compete in another one in the future. Hopefully I will give myself the opportunity to play again and be in contention to get a medal for the British team."
For more information on FSU women's tennis, check back to Seminoles.com, Facebook and Twitter.
Second Round Singles: Daneika Borthwick (GBR) def. Nzingah Banks (ANU): 6-0, 6-0 – Wabash University
Second Round Doules: Daneika Borthwick/Amanda Kate Elliott (GBR) def. Fransiena Honiball/Imke Jagau(NAM) Namibia – 6-0, 6-4.
Third Round Singles: Sabrina Santa Maria – University of Southern California (USA) def. Daneika Borthwick (GBR): 6-0, 6-2
Third Round Doubles: Shu-ying Hsieh, Wen-hsin HSU (TPE) def. Amanda Kate Elliott/Daneika Borthwick: 2-6, 6-2, 1-0.


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Free Entry
Doug Larsen Park is a perfect spot to spend a day with the family in the heart of Beenleigh. There are ducks to feed and playgrounds to explore, as well recreational cycling and walking tracks even outdoor gym equipment. Plus, there's a BMX track right next door. Enjoy exercise in the fresh air or just relax by the lake.


text:
Goodmorning to youuuuuuuuuuuu
Cockacoladuuuuuu, Refreshed and newwwwwwwwwwww, skies are bluuuuuuuuuuuu, Goodmorning to youuuuuuuuuuuuuu
A night hug warms the heart, a night kiss brightens the day, and a gd morning to start your day!
God gave me you so I won't be blue, to keep me company so there's no need to worry. Through good and bad, I know, I have a friend so dear, so true, and that friend is you. Take care!
Of all the smiles you received today, there was a smile you didn't see. A smile not from the lips, but straight from the heart - a smile that came from me.
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text:
This gel paste colouring from PME is a great way of adding colours to your sugarpaste, fondant, royal icing, buttercream and much much more! With a huge range of colours, you'll be able to bring your designs and creations to life. This highly concentrated gel paste colour will darken when dried.
To colour your sugarpaste, knead the paste until it is soft, and using add a drop or two, knead through until uniform colour. Repeat this until you acheive the colour you're looking for. Try using the end of a toothpick to help you, dip this into the gel paste, and then into the sugarpaste to apply your colour. This is a much easier method, and less prone for error!
For a pastel shade, use sparingly. To achieve a darker colour, add a few extra drops. Be careful as this colour is highly concentrated!
Please note that whilst we have taken every step we can in order to show the true shade of this gel paste, colour settings on computers can and do vary, and may display this product's image differently.
Ingredients: Silica (E551), Propylene Glycol (E1520), Ponceau 4R, Glycerine (E422), Brilliant Blue FCF (E133)
E124 may have an adverse effect on activity and attention in children.
Allergy Information:
✔ Suitable for Vegetarians and Vegans
✔ Kosher Certified
✔ Gluten Free
✔ Alcohol Free
May contain traces of wheat, eggs, milk, nuts and soy.
Classed as 'gluten free' due to there being no active ingredients containing gluten. However, there is a risk of possible traces below the maximum allowed (20 parts per million).
Nutritional Information Per 100g/100ml:
Energy: 2887kJ/690kcal
Fat: 0.00g
of which saturates: 0.00g
Carbohydrates: 0.00g
of which sugar: 0.00g
Fibre: 0.00g
Protein: 0.00g
Dispatch Time & Price
Orders which are placed before 4pm (3:30pm for edible images) will be dispatched on the same working day (Monday - Friday). Please note that this does not include Bank Holidays.
3 Days (Mon-Sat)
£2.99 (Free - spend over £40)
2 Days (Mon-Sat)
£3.99 (£1.99 - spend over £40)
Hermes - Next Day Delivery (Mon-Sat)
£4.99 (£3.99 - spend over £40)
DPD - Next Day Delivery (Mon-Fri)
£6.99 (£5.99 - Spend Over £40)
Pre 10:30am (Mon - Fri)
Pre 12:00pm (Mon - Fri)
Saturday or Sunday Delivery*
£6.99 (£5.99 - spend over £40)
International Delivery Pricing
*Weekend deliveries are only possible for orders placed Mon-Fri before 4pm.
Please note, there may be additional postage charges if your order consists of unusually large or heavy items. If this is the case, you will be contacted prior to dispatch.
Next Working Day Delivery (UK)
Any order placed before 4pm (3:30pm for edible images) Monday - Friday, with the Next Working Day Delivery option selected, will be dispatched for delivery the following business day (Monday - Friday), between the hours of 8am - 9pm. A signature is required for this method, so you will need to be at the delivery address to sign for it. Please allow an additional 24 hours for any order to be delivered to the Scottish Highlands.
If delivery cannot be made, DPD will try again on the next working day. If this is unsuccessful, it will be held at the depot for an additional 5 working days. After this, the parcel will be returned to us, at a surcharge of £5.
Please Note: None of our services are a guaranteed service. DPD have a 98% success rate on next day deliveries.
Any order containing a product that is listed as a preorder, will be held until the preordered item has arrived in stock. Orders containing a preorder cannot be split, if other items are needed before the expected delivery date, these items should be ordered separately.
Weekend Deliveries (UK)
Any order placed before 4pm* on Friday, with the "Saturday Delivery" or "Sunday Delivery" option selected, will be dispatched on the same day for delivery between the hours of 8am - 6pm on the selected day. A signature is required for this method, so somebody will need to be at the delivery address to sign for it. If the order is placed after the 4pm cut-off on a Friday, the order will be dispatched for delivery on the following weekend.
Please note we are unable to guarantee any order being dispatched to the Scottish Highlands to arrive within the quoted time frame.
*Orders for edible images have a cut-off time of 3:30pm – orders placed after this time will be dispatched for delivery the following weekend.


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Hotels near St. George's Market
Search hotels near St. George's Market in Belfast
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Hotels in Belfast near St. George's Market
Are you looking for a cheap St. George's Market hotel, a 5 star St. George's Market hotel or a family friendly St. George's Market hotel? You just landed in the best site to find the best deals and offers on the most amazing hotels for your stay.
When you search for hotels near St. George's Market with Hotels.com, you need to first check our online map and see the distance you will be from St. George's Market, United Kingdom.
Our maps are based on hotel search and display areas and neighborhoods of each hotel so you can see how close you are from St. George's Market and refine your search within Belfast or United Kingdom based on closest public transportation, restaurants and entertainment so you can easily get around the city. All the hotels details page show an option for free or paid onsite parking.
If you wish to see the hotels with the highest featuring discounts and deals near St. George's Market, simply filter by price/ average nightly rate. We recommend you filter by star rating and read our genuine guest reviews so you can get the best quality hotel with the best discount.
One of the new features on Hotels.com guest reviews is that also show reviews from Expedia for St. George's Market hotels and the TripAdvisor St. George's Market hotels reviews so you can make sure that you checking with a reliable source. See the review scores on our Belfast hotel information pages.
Make the most out of your family vacation when you book your hotel with Hotels.com – book your hotel near St. George's Market, Belfast after reviewing the facilities and amenities listed for each hotel.
After booking your hotel near St. George's Market, expect to receive your reservation confirmation in the mail in less than 10 minutes. The confirmation email contains more information on all nearby attractions, local directions and weather forecast, so you can better plan the days during your trip.
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The best hotel deals are here: We have St. George's Market hotel deals, St. George's Market last minute deals and offers to get you the cheapest St. George's Market hotel with our lowest price guarantee.
Belfast travel guides
From Townhouse to Country House - Where to Stay in and Around Belfast
Old-fashioned Ulster hospitality isn't limited to Belfast's long-serving guesthouses, where bed and...
From Victorian Markets to Modern Malls - Where to Shop in Belfast
Belfast has always been a shopping destination, with day-trippers and weekend-breakers coming from...
What to See and Do in Belfast - Big Ships, Historic Tours, and Fairytale Landscapes
Belfast is booming. Its ongoing regeneration keeps adding new attractions to the waterfront and Victoria...


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Our sturdy market totes are simply amazing and so easy to use all year long! They are perfect for carrying groceries back from a quick trip to the store! But don't let the name fool you - while they are handy for grocery shopping, these are so versatile that you'll be using them for everything! Featuring a practical collapsible design, you can easily store it away when it's not in use. It's perfect for carrying the necessities for a day of tailgating, packing your beach essentials, and so much more. With an array of vibrant tote and thread colors, you can match it to your favorite colors!
All monograms are in the standard form of first name, last name, middle name format when printed out on your personalized item.
- 18" L x 11.5" W x 9" H
- Collapsible Design (Stores Flat)
- Polyester
- Durable Removable Aluminum Frame
- Inside Open Mesh Pockets
- Easy to Carry Padded Handle
- Reinforced Bottom with Rubber Feet
- Monogram Shown: Vine Font / Pink Thread
Please allow up to 10 business days for us to process the order before your order is shipped. During the holiday season, please also allow for shipping delays and additional holiday order volume.
If you order a non-monogrammed item in addition to a monogrammed item, your entire order will ship once the monogrammed item has been completed.
Not all fonts are available for all types of personalizations. The fonts listed below are only available for single or triple initial monograms and are not available for embroidered text:
- Master Circle
- Stacked
- Vine
- Circle
- Single Classic
- Single Vine
- 112561
- Weight:
- 17.00 Ounces
- Shipping:
- Calculated at Checkout


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All content and images are the property of The Rug Depot, Inc.
Use of any content and/or images without permission is strictly prohibited © 2019 The Rug Depot, Inc.
Stair Treads - Treads
Protect your wooden stairs and entryways from
wear and tear with our stair treads.
RugDepot RECOMMENDS Carpet Staples should be used for installation of stair treads.
(at 1 inch Intervals unless you select the pad Upgrade which is 2 inch Intervals).


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The food fight in this country is starting to heat up and really get interesting. One of the reasons I am so fascinated by our food system is because it brings together so many things that I am passionate about: food, animal welfare, politics, policy, government regulation, and economics. All these seemingly disparate ingredients come together to create this compelling, dramatic, sensational, gritty, and challenging thing called, food production in America. Seriously, truth is stranger and more interesting than fiction, and if food production were a tv show, it would be like watching Desperate Housewives, the entire Food Network, Law & Order, Tele Novelas, the Animal Planet, and Mad Men all rolled into one!
Unfortunately, it is not a tv show. It is far more relevant than mere entertainment and, unfortunately, it garners far less attention from the general public. As you may well imagine, I do a lot of reading on the subject of food production here in America and follow the relevant news and legislation closely. There has been a lot of food related matters in the news lately, even the mainstream news has gotten in on the action. Some of the news has been encouraging, like the growing public demand in California to require labeling when food products contain genetically altered organisms; and the growing number of public schools that are incorporating fresh produce, on campus gardens, and nutritional education into the school lunch programs. And then there is the bad news: Michigan Department of Natural Resources conducting armed raids on small scale pig farms which have recently been declared in violation of Michigan law for breeding "feral" pigs (which seems to be defined as any pig not part of a huge industrial hog farming operation); and Georgia lawmakers neglecting to pass legislation that would protect the right of every Georgia citizen to produce food for their own consumption.
Sometimes, I begin to feel overwhelmed by the magnitude of change that is needed and the amount of misinformation and apathy that needs to be overcome in order for meaningful change to be achieved in our food system. So, I am taking this moment to remind myself, and those of you reading this blog, that change has to begin somewhere and has to begin sometime. I know that's hardly an earth-shattering revelation, but it does give us the freedom to do SOMETHING, even if we can't do EVERYTHING.
I don't know about you, but knowing that any change, even a small one, is still a step in the right direction is encouraging. So, with that in mind, I am more determined than ever to make the small changes that I'm capable of making now, with the goal of seeing greater change in the future. Here are a few simple ways that you can make changes in your own daily life that can ultimately lead to much greater change in the future for you, your family, your community, and your country for generations to come.
1. Reduce or eliminate factory-farmed meat from your diet. If the thought of giving up factory-farmed meat entirely is too daunting of a task to even consider, consider these alternatives instead:
a. Give up meat for one or two days a week (for tips and further information, check out www.meatlessmondays.com)
b. Find a local source for at least one category of meat (beef, pork, or chicken). (www.eatwild.com is a great source for finding local providers of grass fed / free-range / organic meat)
2. Find a local source for produce. It is true that farmer's markets will charge more than a grocery store for their products, but it is also true that the quality will more than make up for it. But here are some tips for making the best of your extra expenditures.
a. Choose to purchase produce from your local organic farmer that makes the Dirty Dozen list (those fruits and vegetables which contain the highest level of pesticides and toxins when produced in "conventional" methods). If you don't have a local farmer's market, choose organic options from your grocery store when possible.
i. Apples
ii. Celery
iii. Strawberries
iv. Peaches
v. Spinach
vi. Necatarines
vii. Grapes
viii. Sweet Bell Peppers
ix. Potatoes
x. Blueberries
xi. Lettuce
xii. Kale / Collard Greens
b. Better yet, choose one or two items from the list above and grow them yourself! Bell Peppers, Strawberries, and even Potatoes can be grown in containers, if your space is limited. If you've never gardened before, just pick one plant, do some research, and give it a try!
c. Purchase items that are in season and in abundance.
3. Most importantly, STAY INFORMED! Learn about the companies and businesses that control your food supply, learn about the laws and agencies that exist to regulate those businesses, find out if they are working to protect your interests… and if NOT… why? And never forget that consumers hold the power, not corporations! If you doubt the veracity of that statement, just ask Cambell's, which recently revamped production processes in order to satisfy consumer demand to remove BPA from the canning process.
Change is never easy. But life is change. The status quo has never solved any problems or revolutionized anyone's life. And while ignorance may be bliss, blissful ignorance can lead to oblivion. This is an important time in our history. We are at a unique point when a light is being shined on corporate greed and mishandling of public trust, not only in financial markets, but in our food markets as well. We must act during this time, while there is still some transparency and while these corporations are still reeling from the initial shock of public outcry over practices that have long been safely hidden and ignored behind closed doors. Big Agriculture is working overtime right now to bring about legislation that will keep whistle-blowers out of their operations, shut down small independent farmers, keep consumers in the dark, and maintain the status quo. We need to be working just as hard to ensure that our food system remains open to public scrutiny, is held to high standards of safety, becomes more accountable and accommodating to consumers, and is properly regulated by those who SHOULD be acting on behalf of the people (not the corporations they are there to oversee).


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2015 wedding room decoration, close to the subway, rent family couple prefered. 3 bed rooms with 1 living room,1 wash room,1 storage room, No. 6 and 14 subway nearby. Chaoyang Park, Sanlitun, blue harbor, Beijing SKP, surpermarket, Lin, 7-11, exposed the Chinese and foreign supermarkets. Around the restaurants any needs for life. Downstairs is the Experimental Kindergarten of Beijing Normal University, Surrounding Tuanjiehu high school and all kinds of international kindergarten.
This house is seated and independed in people's daily building, the property security units are clean, safety management strictly. Living in the newspaper families, high quality, quiet and orderly. Residential mobile parking space 1 yuan / hour.
* only rent for a family or a couple with quality people, home office can not be preferred, foreign nationals and love clean furniture prefered,long rent for 3-5 years. Internal community the security and hygiene are guaranteed, very quiet.
Samsung cipher lock.
welcome to contact me.
Rooms: 3 Bedrooms
1 Bathroom
1 Living room
1 Otherroom
Size:118 m²
Price:10000 RMB/month, 9500RMB(Half year payment)
Chaoyang Park
Family-friendly apartment with 3 bed plus 1 living rooms【Chaoyang Park/Boutique decoration
1 post • Page 1 of 1
- Beijing Vagrant
- Posts: 2
- Joined: Wed Nov 15, 2017 3:27 pm
- Country: Beijing
1 post • Page 1 of 1


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The balance bike is where a child's cycling life begins. The Frog balance bike is effectively a toddler's bike without pedals and helps the child to develop the necessary balance to cycle. A great alternative to using training wheels.
In contrast to many kids' bikes, Frog bikes are sized by the leg length rather than age, as this is the most reliable way of getting the right size of bike for each child. Age alone isn't a reliable measure as there is a large spread of "normal" leg lengths & heights for each age.
Please take the time to measure the rider's inside leg.
It's easy to measure:
Once you have measured the inside leg, use this table to find the right size of bike for your child. Note we give the AVERAGE inside leg length for each bike, with the saddle at its lowest setting (NOTE: It is worth highlighting, that there is tolerance on each side of this). At this height, the child will safely and comfortably be able to get their feet on the ground. Don't worry - Frog Bikes have long seat posts, so the saddle can be raised a long way as the rider grows.
We recommend that you go to a local store who will have many of our bikes available so the rider can sit on a bike. You will get help and advice on sizing, and get on-going service, as well as support. Our stores have access to our FrogFitTM App, where arm length, inside leg measurement and a rider's confidence level informs the model recommendation.
PLEASE NOTE we always recommend that you buy your Frog bike from your local Frog store, who will build it for you and ensure the fit is right for your child. Our bikes should always be built and checked by a qualified mechanic.


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Find Your Perfect Home.
Harrison Real Estate
Harrison is located in Michigan. Harrison, Michigan has a population of 2,107. Harrison is more family-centric than the surrounding county with 25.98% of the households containing married families with children. The county average for households married with children is 21.38%.
The median household income in Harrison, Michigan is $28,083. The median household income for the surrounding county is $33,264 compared to the national median of $53,482. The median age of people living in Harrison is 38.8 years.
Harrison Weather
The average high temperature in July is 82.2 degrees, with an average low temperature in January of 11.9 degrees. The average rainfall is approximately 32.3 inches per year, with inches of snow per year.
View Homes for Sale in Harrison
Harrison Map
Real Estate Near Harrison
Nearby Cities
Nearby Cities Homes for Sale
Harrison Zip Codes


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This sample shows how to use Azure Event Hubs with clients that utilize different protocols. This scenario sends using an Apache Proton C++ client, and receives using the .NET Framework client.
The hello_world sample sends 200 messages to an Event Hub.
Follow the instructions here to build and install Proton. https://git-wip-us.apache.org/repos/asf?p=qpid-proton.git;a=blob;f=INSTALL.md;hb=0.17.0
Build the sample
You may need to modify the compiler options based on your config.
g++ -L/usr/lib64 -lqpid-proton-cpp -o sender helloworld.cpp
Run the sample
Replace SASKeyName, SASKey, YourNamespace and YourEventHub with the values from your setup.
Note that SASKeyName and SASKey need to be URL encoded.
./sender amqps://SASKeyName:firstname.lastname@example.com/YourEventHub
This example was based on the Proton C++ sample located here: https://qpid.apache.org/releases/qpid-proton-0.17.0/proton/cpp/examples/helloworld.cpp.html
This project has adopted the Microsoft Open Source Code of Conduct. For more information see the Code of Conduct FAQ or contact firstname.lastname@example.com with any additional questions or comments.


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C-130 Hard Landing (may be changed to Antinov)
Well hello! Thanks for taking the time to view this, either you are interested in what I do or you are really bored. I have messed around in editors in many engines. I hope you will try some of my future, upcoming and released maps and give some feedback as to what I can change as every persons input is important to me. Feedback is appreciated both good and bad, feel free to message me.
Only registered members can share their thoughts. So come on! Join the community today (totally free - or sign in with your social account on the right) and join in the conversation.
Here are a few screenshots from my recent map 'Siberian Showdown', I hope you find them captivating as it is always fun taking them!


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Marshall W. Anders, 101, died peacefully Feb. 18, 2013, in Fort Pierce, Fla.
He is survived by his beloved and loving spouse of 71 years, Betty; his brother, Otto; his four children, Marshall of Delaware Water Gap, Geoffrey of Lansdale, Victoria of Montreal and Wendy of Versaille, Ky.; six grandchildren; and one great-grandchild.
Marshall was an avid tennis player and played his last game in 2007, at the age of 96, with Andy Roddick and Mardy Fish, in a charity exhibition match in which he had a "shot heard round the world" when he drop-shotted Andy Roddick to gain a point.
At his request, no memorial service will be held. If desired, contributions in his memory should be made to a charity of one's choice.
Marshall W. Anders
Marshall W. Anders, 101, died peacefully Feb. 18, 2013, in Fort Pierce, Fla.


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NurseryBox | 15 Pieces Bundle | Stone Blue| SAVE £150
What does available mean?
We design, manufacture and deliver direct to your doorstep all our products. This is why it can sometimes take a little while for your product to be crafted and shipped to you. Please allow 3-5 weeks for your order to be shipped. We promise, it will be| FREE RETURNS & DELIVERY
We are moKee
MoKee would never sell you something that we didn't know was perfect, which is why everything we delivery to you has been carefully and lovingly designed by us.
From muslin cloths to mini cots, every thread and panel has been approved for our most valued customers, the babies..
Beautiful children's nursery furniture can often carry an ugly price tag and we don't want anything nasty on moKee products. This is why we keep everything in-house. Designing, making and delivering (for free) everything ourselves lets us keep the costs down which makes for happy parents and comfy babies..
No big frills, glitter and bows, we like to keep things simple at moKee because let's face it, babies are beautiful enough! We keep our furniture and products neutral with a minimalist Scandinavian inspired style so they will fit into any nursery easily and stay with you for years.
Everyday Luxury
MoKee designs are built to last which means we source the best materials around to ensure that your products stay with you as long as you want them too. From high quality beech wood to exclusive mattress materials and medical grade muslin cloth every product chosen is extra safe for your baby and as luxurious as ever.
We look forward to getting up the morning to make sure we design beautiful products to help your little get to sleep. The best part about moKee is hearing from our customers and how the products look and work in your nurseries. If there is something we are missing or you would love to see, we can't wait to talk about it. If you're shopping at moKee, you're shopping with friends.


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Welcome to State of Decay: Year-One Survival Edition for Xbox One. Find links here to videos and demos, information about the game's server status, differences in game versions, and troubleshooting help. You can also find links to purchase the game for Xbox One.
Would you like to contact Support regarding the "State of Decay: Year-One Survival Edition " issue you were reading about or a different issue?


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This Day in Sports History — June 30
Here are just some of the notable sports moments that happened on June 30 :
1908 — Boston pitcher Cy Young, no-hit the New York Highlanders, 8-0. (More info.)
1929 — Bobby Jones won the U.S. Golf Open by 23 strokes over runner-up Al Espinosa in a 36-hole playoff at Winged Foot Golf Course in Mamaroneck, N.Y. (More info.)
1934 — The Portsmouth Spartans became the Detroit Lions. (More info.)
1948 — Cleveland Indians' pitcher Bob Lemon no-hit the Detroit Tigers, 2-0. (More info.)
1962 — Los Angeles Dodgers' pitcher Sandy Koufax no-hit the New York Mets, 5-0. (More info.)
1965 — The NFL granted a new franchise to Atlanta businessman Rankin Smith, Sr. for $8.5 million. (More info.)
1970 — Cincinnati's Riverfront Stadium opened, as the Atlanta Braves beat the Cincinnati Reds, 8-2. (More info.)
1975 — Muhammad Ali defeated Joe Bugner via decision in their 12-round heavyweight fight in Malaysia. (More info.)
1978 — Larry Doby became manager of the Chicago White Sox. (More info.)
1982 – The New Jersey NHL franchise was officially named the Devils. (More info.)
1995 — Cleveland Indians' veteran Eddie Murray became the 20th major league player to reach 3,000 hits in a career. (More info.)


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SCB Member Benefits
The Society for Conservation Biology (SCB) was founded in 1985 with the objective of applying a greater conservation-oriented focus to the traditional biological sciences. Since then, the field of Conservation Biology has grown considerably, as has Society membership. This global community of conservation professionals is the foundation of the Society for Conservation Biology.
Whether it's leadership, networking and career-boosting opportunities found at SCB meetings and in SCB Groups, access to groundbreaking scientific journals, or passion for the advancement of the science and practice of conserving the Earth's biological diversity, you'll find it all and more as a member of SCB.
Here are some of the benefits available to members of SCB:
- Conservation Letters plus a discount to publish in Conservation Letters*
- 25% discount on Wiley-Blackwell publications
- Discounted rates for all SCB conferences
- Online access to the SCB member expertise database
- The opportunity to have you and your work featured on the SCB home page
- Access to groundbreaking research at discounted subscription rates for Conservation Biology, Pacific Conservation Biology, and Biological Conservation
- Free online access to Conservation Biology and Biological Conservation for members from developing countries
- Representation and participation in international and national policy forums
- Networking opportunities when you join your conservation community through SCB Sections, Chapters, and Working Groups
Some reasons for belonging to SCB are hard to quantify. SCB President (2011-2013) Paul Beier does a great job of explaining those hard-to-quantify reasons in this article first published in SCB's newsletter.
More on membership rates and types of memberships.
*Please email email@example.com for the Conservation Letters discount code.
More on SCB Membership
Publications: SCB provides members-only access to several publications. These publications include two premier journals: Conservation Biology, our flagship peer-reviewed journal, and Conservation Letters, our online journal that contains letters, mini-reviews, and policy perspectives with significant and immediate conservation implications. We also publish an SCB News Blog which offers an insider view on Society activities, including critical work by SCB members around the globe. In addition, SCB offers our affiliate publications, Biological Conservation and Pacific Conservation Biology to our members at discounted rates.
Discounts for SCB Global Meetings: SCB conferences are excellent opportunities to learn about the most recent developments in conservation science, and to meet new colleagues around the world. Members receive discounts for all SCB meetings.
Jobs: Our job board postings are accessible to members only during the first 48 hours after posting, giving our members a head start on job opportunities.
Global Community: SCB provides members with many opportunities for communication with their peers around the globe. Members can join Regional Sections, Local Chapters, and Topical Working Groups, participate in committees, and find conservation colleagues through our Membership Expertise Database.
Special Benefits for Members in Developing Countries: SCB offers members in developing countries free online access to Conservation Biology and Biological Conservation. Thank you to our partners - Elsevier Publishing and Wiley-Blackwell for making this possible. SCB classifies a developing country according to the definitions of the World Bank, which uses gross national income (GNI) per capita as the main indicator. Here is a list of developing countries.
Voting: Members can run for office and vote in SCB Board of Governors' elections and Section Board elections. Participation in these elections helps determine the future direction of the Society.
Representation and Participation in Policy Forums: SCB brings vital science and legal expertise to policy decision-makers, helping them make sound judgments regarding environmental and conservation policy.
Other Benefits: Members are offered other unique benefits as they arise, such as a recently introduced 25% discount on all Wiley-Blackwell publications. These offers will appear to members when they are logged in to their member home page.


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Bertha Frances Neeld, 85, of Effort, passed away Wednesday, Dec. 26, 2012, at Brookmont Healthcare Center.
Born Jan. 21, 1927, in Lawrenceville, N.J., she is the daughter of the late Samuel E. and Bertha (Seitz) Young. Bertha was a resident of Effort for the past 12 years. She lived in Mount Bethel for 25 years before moving to Effort. She worked at the Ronson Factory for 16 years, Eberhart Farber, and then Alumitek until she retired.
Bertha was preceded in death by her husband, Franklin Allen, as well as her infant son, George, her son, Wayne, and her daughter, Gloria Hilliard. She was also preceded in death by her siblings, Frank Young, Samuel Young, Elizabeth Fox and Rose Wilcox. She is survived by her sister, Lillian Mertz; and her brother, Herman Young. She is also survived by her daughter, Karen Neeld, with whom she resided, and her daughters Gale Mosier of Saylorsburg and Linda Linden of Florida. She is survived by her son, Bryan Neeld of East Stroudsburg. Bertha was blessed with seven granddaughters, Bobette Grabin, Monique Indermaur, Terri Liptak, Deanna Shallhammer, Kristina Warner, Heather Sharrock, and Kezia Linden; a grandson, Wayne Linden; seven great-granddaughters, Sheena Knospler, Kandace Indermaur, Kierstynn Indermaur, Keeley Indermaur, Sjanna Shreve, Sarah Liptak and Olivia Liptak. She is also survived by a great-grandson, Tyler Grabin; and two great-great granddaughters, Jahna Knospler and Joelle Shreve.
Memorial funeral services will be held at noon Friday Jan. 4, at the Pocono Christian Center, 211 Keller Drive, Hamilton Township/Stroudsburg, with Pastor John H. Magee officiating.
Burial of her cremated remains will immediate follow in North Bangor Cemetery. Cremation was private at the H.G. Smith Crematory.
In lieu of flowers, donations may be made to the family in care of Thomas Funeral Home, 401 N. Fifth St., Stroudsburg PA 18360
Thomas Funeral Home
401 N. Fifth St., Stroudsburg
Bertha Frances Neeld
Bertha Frances Neeld, 85, of Effort, passed away Wednesday, Dec. 26, 2012, at Brookmont Healthcare Center.


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Winds of Solaris is a 2D RPG using RMVXA. You play William Drayfar, son of the recently deceased Matthew Drafar. After the Vonosian rebellion against King Garrett fifteen years ago, Lord Matthew Drayfar and Lord Alfred Baylor agreed to divide the kingdom in half: the north, now ruled by Mathhew's son William, is the kingdom of Solaris; the south, ruled by Lord Baylor, is the kingdom of Naloria. Now, barely a year after King Matthew passed away, Lord Baylor has launched a surprise attack on Solaris. The Solarans were overwhelmed, and the army was quickly routed. Lord Baylor's forces have reached Castle Volaris, and have begun their attack. King William must escape the castle to save his homeland, and his people.
Only registered members can share their thoughts. So come on! Join the community today (totally free - or sign in with your social account on the right) and join in the conversation.