Gary Beck (born January 21, 1941) is a two-time World champion drag racing driver. Born in Seattle, Washington and raised in the United States, Beck married a Canadian and they made their home in her native Edmonton, Alberta. He competed in stock car racing before switching to drag racing.

A virtual unknown, in 1972 he abruptly came to international prominence when he won the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) Top Fuel dragster title at the U.S. Nationals in Indianapolis, Indiana. His win marked the first of a number of important championships and in 1974, he drove his nitro-fueled dragster to a record setting three NHRA and two American Hot Rod Association (AHRA) titles and earned the first of his two World Championships. Beck was named driver of the year by Drag News and top fuel driver of the year by Car Craft. Among his 1975 victories, he took the Canadian Open Top Fuel championship.

In 1983 Gary Beck dominated the Top Fuel class in drag racing, scoring 17 of the fastest 18 runs in Top Fuel history and capping off the multi-win season with his second World Championship. He retired from the NHRA tour in 1986, having won 19 Top Fuel titles plus multiple events on the IHRA and AHRA circuits. Inducted into the Canadian Motorsport Hall of Fame in 1999, on the National Hot Rod Association Top 50 Drivers, 1951–2000, Beck was ranked 24th.

References

1941 births
Dragster drivers
Living people
Racing drivers from Alberta
Racing drivers from Seattle
Sportspeople from Edmonton

Gary Beck


The Westland Interceptor was a fighter developed by the British company Westland Aircraft to Air Ministry Specification F.20/27. When tested in 1929 and 1930, it showed unsatisfactory handling characteristics and was rejected by the RAF in favour of the Hawker Fury biplane fighter.

Development

Specification F.20/27 was for a fighter operating in the daylight interception role. The main requirement was that the F.20/27 fighter would be able to overtake, in the shortest possible time, an enemy aircraft passing overhead at  at an altitude of . This put the emphasis on high speed and rate of climb.

Design work on the Interceptor started in late 1927, and it made its first flight in early 1929, with Lieutenant L. G. Paget at the controls. The Interceptor was a low-wing monoplane with an all-metal structure and wire-braced wings, covered mostly in fabric with the exception of the front fuselage. It had a fixed undercarriage. The single prototype was powered by an uncowled Bristol Mercury IIA, later replaced by a Mercury III. It was armed with two .303-inch (7.7-mm) Vickers Mk.II machine guns, installed in the sides of the fuselage with the breeches within reach of the pilot. The guns were synchronized to fire through the propeller, and heated to improve their operation at high altitude. The RAF had intended to call for four-gun armament in Specification F.20/27, but after an administrative mix-up it was sent out to manufacturers calling for only two guns.

The handling characteristics of the Interceptor have been described as "alarming." In steep turns the elevator became ineffective, and the aircraft was prone to enter a spiral dive or a spin from such flight attitudes. The Mercury II engine suffered from persistent high oil temperatures. Test pilots gave a negative assessment of the Interceptor, causing it to be withdrawn from the F.20/27 competition.

The aircraft continued to fly until 1935, but no orders were placed. Significant aerodynamic modifications were made to improve the handling characteristics, including a considerable increase in the height of the fin and rudder, to improve spin recovery. The troublesome Mercury engine was exchanged for a Bristol Jupiter VII, and later fitted with a Townend ring to reduce drag.

The Interceptor and two of the competing F.20/27 designs, the Vickers Jockey and de Havilland DH.77, were historically important because they were monoplane fighter prototypes, after a long period during which the standard fighter design was a biplane. However, all three were found lacking in overall performance and handling during the test flights, showing that the aircraft designers had failed to reach the project goal. The F.20/27 competition was won by the Hornet, which entered service under the name Hawker Fury.

Specifications

See also

References

Derek N James: "Westland Aircraft Since 1915"

Interceptor
1920s British fighter aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1929

Westland Interceptor


Sky Sports is a group of ten channels. The channels are owned by a major company named British Sky Broadcasting. It is the most powerful sports television company in the United Kingdom.

Sky Sports is known for its major football coverage and helped launch the FA Premier League in 1992.

Sky Sports has a series of well known shows such as Soccer AM, which is a morning chat show with jokes, it is sponsored by Gillette Soccer Saturday.

On 22 August 1999, Sky Sports launched Sky Sports Active. The first game was Arsenal vs Manchester United. It gave the viewer to focus either on one player, or look at different camera angles. It soon proved to be successful, and Sky decided to continue it. It can be accessed by pressing the Red Button on your Sky Digital Remote. On 26 August 2014, Sky Sports Active closed and was replaced by Sky Sports split screen (Only on Sky Q 1TB Box and Sky Q 2TB Box)

On 24 November 2002, Sky Sports won the rights to air the UEFA Champions League, with ITV. They had beaten channels such as the BBC and Channel 4 to win it. Part of the deal had stated that ITV would air two games on a Sunday and Sky Sports would air 2 games on a Monday. Sky soon launched an 8-screen 'Champions League Interactive' channel which showed 8 live games.

In November 2006, Sky Sports launched their News advertisement. This ad, with the text "THE UK's FIRST SPORTS NEWS STATION" ran until January 2007 in the UK and Ireland. Sky Sports News launched on TV at the time.

British television networks
Sport in the United Kingdom
British Sky Broadcasting

Sky Sports


Maraylya is a suburb of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Maraylya is located  north-west of the Sydney central business district in the local government area of The Hills Shire and the City of Hawkesbury. Maraylya is bounded in the north and the east by Cattai Creek. The western part of Maraylya is prone to flooding after heavy rains, particularly from run-off from the Scheyville National Park. The flood waters make their way to Longneck Lagoon, which eventually drains into the Hawkesbury River less than 2 km to the west. Maraylya consists mainly of small-acreage properties used as hobby farms and for keeping horses for recreational purposes. Scheyville National Park adjoins the southern border of Maraylya and is popular for horse trail rides for local residents. There is an arena in the area called the Horseworld Sportsworld Equestrian Stadium.

In July 2020, a small section of Maraylya in the south was carved out and formed the new suburb of Gables.

References

Suburbs of Sydney
City of Hawkesbury
Hawkesbury River
The Hills Shire

Maraylya, New South Wales


Reinhard Kekulé von Stradonitz  (name at birth Kekulé, called Kekulé von Stradonitz only after 1889; 6 March 1839 – 23 March 1911) was a German archeologist. He has been called the founder of modern iconology (Langlotz). He served as director of the collection of antique sculpture and vases at the Berlin Museum (from 1889) and also as the director of the antiquarium of the Berlin Museum (from 1896). Kekulé was the nephew of the organic chemist August Kekulé.

Biography
Born at Darmstadt,  Kekulé studied at the universities of Erlangen under Karl Friederichs, and at Berlin under Eduard Gerhard, Johann Gustav Droysen, and August Böckh. His time in Rome with Enrico Brunn was quite influential for his later writing. In 1870 he succeeded Otto Jahn, who had died prematurely, at the University of Bonn.

In 1889 Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany personally requested Kekulé to be the antiquities director of the collections in Berlin. In the following year, he succeeded Carl Robert at the university in Berlin which he held jointly with the directorship. It was then that the emperor allowed the "von Stradonitz" designation. Kekulé greatly increased the size of the imperial collections through a combination of astute buying and commissioning excavations, assisted in the latter by  Theodor Wiegand. Kekulé was a prominent lecturer, though his writings are tinged with what today appear as superficial comments. His students included Hermann Ulmann and Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff.

He eschewed Jahn's "monumental philology" and classification for a methodology closer to Brunn, mixed with an esthetic sensitivity akin to J. J. Winckelmann. His connoisseurship, more than Winckelmann's, was rooted in scholarship.

Bibliography
Über die Entstehung der Götterideale der grieschischen Kunst. Stuttgart: Verlag von W. Spemann,1877.
Die Gruppe des Künstlers Menelaos in Villa Ludovisi:  Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der griechischen Kunst. Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1870.
Bronzestatuette eines kämpfenden Galliers in den Königlichen Museen. Berlin: G. Reimer, 1909.
Echelos und Basile, attisches Relief aus Rhodos in den Königlichen Museen. Berlin, G. Reimer, 1905.
Die griechische Skulptur. Berlin: G. Reimer, 1906.
Über copien einer frauenstatue aus der zeit des Phidias. Berlin: G. Reimer, 1897.
Über ein Bildnis der Perikles in den königlichen Museen. Berlin: G. Reimer, 1901.

Further reading
Schiering, W. "Kekulé von Stradonitz, Reinhard."  Archäologenbildnisse: Porträts und Kurzbiographien von Klassichen Archäologen deutscher Sprache. Reinhard Lullies, ed. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1988, pp. 73–74.
Calder, William, III. "Kekulé von Stradonitz, Reinhard (1839–1911)." Encyclopedia of the History of Classical Archaeology. Nancy Thomson de Grummond, ed. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1996, vol. 1, pp. 632–33.
Langlotz, E. 150 Jahre Reinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Bonn 1818–1968. Bonn: Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, 1968, pp. 227–32.

1839 births
1911 deaths
Scientists from Darmstadt
People from the Grand Duchy of Hesse
German antiquarians
Archaeologists from Hesse
German male non-fiction writers
Academic staff of the University of Bonn
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin
People of the Antikensammlung Berlin
Directors of museums in Germany

Reinhard Kekulé von Stradonitz


51 Pegasi is a star that is like our Sun and can be found 15.4 parsecs (50.1 light-years) away from the Earth in the constellation Pegasus. It was the first Sun-like star, other than the Sun, found to have a planet orbiting it, this discovery was first made public in 1995.

The exoplanet's discovery was made public on October 6, 1995 by Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz.  The discovery was made using the radial velocity method at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, using a tool called the ELODIE spectrograph that is used to find planets that are outside our Solar System.

The star itself has an apparent brightness of 5.49, and because of this it is able to be seen from the Earth with binoculars, or with the naked eye if it is dark outside. 51 Pegasi is a yellow dwarf star that is thought to be around 7.5 billion years old, which is somewhat older than our Sun. 51 Pegasi is also 4-6% more massive than our Sun with more metal content. However, it is running low on hydrogen.

In 1996 astronomers Baliunas, Sokoloff, and Soon calculated that it takes 51 Pegasi b 37 days to orbit 51 Pegasi.

Planetary system

After the announcement, on  October 12, 1995, more proof that this star did exist came from Dr. Geoffrey Marcy from San Francisco State University and Dr. R. Paul Butler from the University of California, Berkeley using the Hamilton Spectrograph at the Lick Observatory near San Jose in California.

51 Pegasi b is the first discovered planet of its parent star, 51 Pegasi. If any more are discovered they will be named 51 Pegasi c, 51 Pegasi d, and so on. The planet has been informally named Bellerophon. After its discovery, many teams proved its existence and continued to find out more about its properties, including the fact that it orbits very close to the star, has estimated temperatures around 1200 Celsius, and has a minimum mass about half that of Jupiter.

References

Other websites
 Extrasolar Visions: 51 Pegasi
 51 Pegasi at SolStation.com.
 nStars database entry
 David Darling's encyclopedia

Stars

51 Pegasi


Monitor Pass (el. 8,314 ft / 2,534 m) is a high mountain pass in California in the Sierra Nevada southeast of Lake Tahoe. It is traversed by State Route 89 near that highway's southern terminus at U.S. Route 395 near the community of Topaz. While this section of Route 89 serves to connect the basins of the West Walker River and Carson River, Monitor Pass itself lies on a side ridge between tributaries of the East Fork Carson River. Crossing the pass allows for a more direct route between U.S. 395 and Markleeville, California, at the expense of some additional elevation.

Monitor Pass is part of the route taken by Jedediah Smith in late spring of 1827 when leaving California at the end of his first exploratory journey, the first crossing ever of the Sierra Nevada by a non-native. Smith first came down from Ebbetts Pass, then continued from Monitor Pass past Topaz Lake into Nevada.

The highway through the pass was completed in the early 1950s, making it one of the most recent Sierra Nevada passes to be opened by a paved road. The highway project was promoted by Robert M. Jackson of Markleeville, who worked for the Alpine County Public Works Department for more than 30 years.

State Route 89 over Monitor Pass is subject to winter closure due to snow accumulation. Dates of closure vary depending on the weather, but Monitor Pass is generally closed to vehicular traffic between late November and early April.

References

External links
 Video of road traversal of Monitor Pass

Landforms of Alpine County, California
Mountain passes of the Sierra Nevada (United States)

Monitor Pass


Document Records (founded 1986 by Johnny Parth in Austria) is a now British record label. 2000 Parth sold the label to Gary Atkinson. Originally based in Vienna the label is now in Newton Stewart, Scotland.

The label publishes early American blues, bluegrass, gospel, spirituals jazz, and other rural American genres (this genres are also called "roots" music)and made between 1900 and 1945. The label is also owner of the rights for unrealesed Music made by the Edison Company between 1914 and 1929.

Artists (selection)

 Albert Ammons
 Kokomo Arnold
 Francis "Scrapper" Blackwell
 Cleo Patra Brown
 Leroy Carr
 Arthur Crudup
 Cow Cow Davenport
 Sleepy John Estes
 Son House
 Alberta Hunter
 Mississippi John Hurt
 Skip James
 Blind Lemon Jefferson
 Meade "Lux" Lewis
 Cripple Clarence Lofton
 Blind Willie McTell
 Memphis Minnie
 Ma Rainey
 Victoria Spivey
 Roosevelt Sykes
 Sippie Wallace
 Jimmy Yancey

Other websites
Document Records Homepage

Blues labels
British record labels
1986 establishments in the United Kingdom

Document Records


John Michael Kohler II (November 3, 1844 – November 5, 1900) was an American politician and businessman who served as a member of the Kohler family of Wisconsin and was a prosperous industrialist and mayor of Sheboygan, Wisconsin. Kohler founded what later became known as the Kohler Company, a large producer of bathroom and kitchen products.

Early life

Kohler was born on November 3, 1844 in the Alpine village of Schnepfau, Austria, the fourth child of dairy farmer John Michael Kohler Sr. (1805–74) and his wife, the former Maria Anna Moosbrugger (1816–53). After his wife's death, the elder Kohler remarried, and he and his large family emigrated to the United States.  With help from a relative, the Kohlers built up a promising dairy business.

After a limited formal education, John Michael Kohler found work in St. Paul, Minnesota. In 1865 he moved to Chicago, Illinois, and became a traveling salesman. In Sheboygan, Wisconsin, 56 miles north of Milwaukee on Lake Michigan, he met Lillie Vollrath (1848–1883), the daughter of local steel and iron industrialist Jacob Vollrath (1824–1898). The couple was married in 1871.

Business career

Shortly after his marriage, Kohler worked at the steel and iron factory his father-in-law partly owned. He took over the company two years later during the Panic of 1873. By the early 1880s, the firm was producing a variety of iron and enamelware products. In 1883, Kohler put ornamental feet on a cast-iron water trough and sold it as a bathtub. Four years later, more than two-thirds of the company's business was in plumbing products and enamelware. In 1888, Kohler and two partners had the firm incorporated.

In 1899, Kohler purchased 21 acres of farmland four miles west of Sheboygan, intending to move his entire company to the location. Shortly after the new factory was constructed, in 1900, Kohler died at 56, likely of heart failure.

Five years later, 30-year-old Walter J. Kohler assumed his father's corporate presidency and began to guide the firm. In 1912, it was officially designated the Kohler Company, and the property surrounding the plant became the Village of Kohler.

Civic leadership
From 1880 until his death Kohler served in several governmental offices. In 1892 he became Mayor of Sheboygan.  Citizens also admired Kohler for his generous contributions and leadership in the areas of art and culture, symbols of Sheboygan's desire to be more than a factory town.

The John Michael Kohler Arts Center, which occupies a square block in downtown Sheboygan (containing Kohler's restored Gilded Age home along with modern buildings), is named for Kohler, as is John Michael Kohler State Park, established on land donated in 1966 by the Kohler family. The main highway into Sheboygan, Kohler Memorial Drive (which is routed as Wisconsin Highway 23), is also named for Kohler.

Personal life

The Kohlers had six children, including Walter Jodok Kohler, Sr. (1875–1940), who would later be Governor of Wisconsin. In 1887, four years after his wife Lillie's death, John  married Lillie's sister, Wilhelmina (Minnie) Vollrath (1852–1929), and they had one child, Herbert Vollrath Kohler Sr (1891–1968). This Kohler was to become the dominant force in the Kohler company for many years, presiding over the longest strike in American history.

The large and fashionable Kohler family home in Sheboygan was filled with music, books, and constant lessons in ethics and public service. The entire Sheboygan area mourned Kohler's 1900 death. John's three daughters remained in the Kohler house, unmarried, for the rest of their lives, frequently wearing black.

References

External links
Brief biography of Jacob J. Vollrath, Kohler's father-in-law

Kohler Company
People from Vorarlberg
Kohler family of Wisconsin
Mayors of Sheboygan, Wisconsin
Businesspeople from Wisconsin
Emigrants from the Austrian Empire to the United States
1844 births
1900 deaths
19th-century American politicians

John Michael Kohler


Timothy John Barnett (born 4 August 1958) is a Breetish-born New Zealand politeecian, an a member o the kintra's pairlament in Wellington, representin the Labour Pairty.  He is a consteetuency member unner the proportional representation seestem, representin Central Christchurch.

1958 births
Livin fowk
Inglis emigrants tae New Zealand
Naituralised ceetizens o New Zealand
Gay politeecians
New Zealand Labour Pairty MPs
New Zealand bloggers
Fowk frae Rugby, Warwickshire
New Zealand LGBT Members o Pairlament
New Zealand MPs for Christchurch electorates
Members o the New Zealand Hoose o Representatives
Alumni o the London School of Economics
21st-century New Zealand politeecians

Tim Barnett


Marion L. Boswell (October 1, 1923 – June 9, 2002) was an American Air Force lieutenant general who was assistant vice chief of staff, Headquarters U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C., and also served as chairman and senior Air Force representative, United States Delegation to the Military Staff Committee, United Nations.

Life and career
Boswell was born in Louisville, Kentucky. He began active military duty in February 1943, during World War II, as an aviation cadet and received his commission as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army Air Corps and his pilot wings in February 1944. In July 1944 he was assigned to the 398th Bombardment Group, Eighth Air Force, in the European theater of operations, where he flew 35 combat missions in B- 17 s. He returned to the United States in March 1945 and was assigned to Pursuit Flight, 6th Ferry Group, Long Beach, California.

From 1947 to 1951, Boswell was assigned to Strategic Air Command's 301st Bombardment Wing at Smoky Hill Air Force Base, Kan., and later at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, where he served as a B-29 aircraft commander, instructor and standardization pilot. In February 1951 he became pilot and aide for General J.H. "Hamp" Atkinson, commander, Second Air Force at Barksdale Air Force Base, and went to Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska, in 1952 with the general, who became commander in chief, Alaskan Air Command. From September 1955 to September 1958, he was operations officer and assistant deputy commander for operations, 384th Bombardment Wing at Little Rock Air Force Base, Ark.

He was assigned to duty in October 1958 with the commandant of cadets, U.S. Air Force Academy, Colorado, as group air officer commanding, Cadet Wing, and director of military studies. In July 1961 he became deputy commander for operations, 97th Bombardment Wing, Blytheville Air Force Base, Ark. It was during this period that the wing, flying B-52 bomber and KC-135 tanker aircraft, was cited for its airborne alert operations during the Cuban crisis and subsequently presented with the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award.

In October 1963 Boswell was assigned to Headquarters U.S. Air Force, Personnel Plans and Policy Directorate, Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff, Personnel, Washington, D.C. He entered the National War College, Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington, D.C., in August 1965. In September 1966, after transition training in F-105s, he returned to duty with the tactical forces as deputy commander for operations, 49th Tactical Fighter Wing, Spangdahlem Air Base, Germany, where he flew F-4s and F-105s.

In February 1968 he went to Southeast Asia as vice commander of the 366th Tactical Fighter Wing at Da Nang Air Base, Republic of Vietnam. He flew 190 combat missions in F-4D's. Eighty of these missions were against targets in North Vietnam.

He returned to the United States and in June 1969 assumed command of the 4th Tactical Fighter Wing, Seymour Johnson Air Force Base, North Carolina. During his command the wing, famous for its aerial victories during World War II and the Korean War, continued to uphold its motto "Fourth But First" in testing and proving the Air Force's new "bare base" tactical mobility concept.

Boswell was assigned to the Office of the Secretary of the Air Force in Washington, D.C., as deputy director of legislative liaison in June 1970 and became director in May 1973. In August 1974 he was named assistant vice chief of staff, U.S. Air Force, with additional duty as senior Air Force member, Military Staff Committee, United Nations.

He became commander of the Alaskan Air Command and the Alaskan North American Air Defense Region in October 1976 and served in these positions until July 1978 when he became chief of staff, Pacific Command. He assumed his present duties in June 1979.

Boswell is a command pilot with 8,000 hours of flying time, of which 500 are combat hours. He is experienced in 21 military aircraft, including F-4s, F-105s and B-52s.

He was promoted to lieutenant general August 1, 1974, with date of rank July 31, 1974.  He retired on July 1, 1981. He died of congestive heart failure in 2002. He is buried with his wife Sally (1927–2008) at Arlington National Cemetery.

References

1923 births
2002 deaths
United States Air Force officers
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Military personnel from Louisville, Kentucky
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
United States Air Force personnel of the Vietnam War
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery

Marion L. Boswell


Corona Elisabeth Wilhelmine Schröter (14 January 1751 – 23 August 1802) was a German actress and musician best known as a singer. She also composed songs, setting texts by Friedrich Schiller and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe to music.

Early life
Schröter was born in Guben. In her early years she studied many instruments, which included the keyboard and guitar. Her father, Johann Friedrich Schröter, an oboist, was her first teacher, who also taught his three other children music. Her brothers, Johann Samuel and Johann Heinrich, were a pianist and a violinist respectively, and her sister, Marie Henriette, was also a singer. While she received early musical training which contributed to her skill in performance and composition, Corona's early vocal training was damaging to her singing voice.

When she was thirteen, Schröter and her family moved to Leipzig. It was there that she caught the attention of composer Johann Adam Hiller (it is thought that Hiller's wife was Corona's godmother). Hiller, an operatic and singspiel composer, had become seriously frustrated with the inadequate education offered to women. To remedy this, in 1771 Hiller opened his own school. In this coeducational setting, students learned a wide variety of musical subjects, including solfège, diction, technique, Italian, and the keyboard. Schröter flourished as a singer, and benefited from the non-damaging technique she learned. Corona was a powerful performer, but was often compared to her fellow student and rival, Gertrud Schmeling (Madame Mara) in Hiller's Grosse Konzerte series. Schröter's voice was not as powerful as Schmeling's, due to her poor early training. However, she had an intensity which her admirers considered to be unrivaled.

Later life in Weimar
During her time at Hiller's school, Schröter became good friends with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and when he moved to Weimar in 1775 he brought her along as a court singer for Duchess Anna Amalia. She first performed in the court on 23 November 1776. However, while she was employed as a singer, Corona became  involved with the amateur court theatre, performing in at least eighteen productions, many of which were written by Goethe himself. Corona and Goethe collaborated on many of his most popular plays. On a few occasions, he starred opposite her, as in the performance of his play Iphigenie auf Tauris in 1779 in which she played Iphigenia. Goethe's singspiel Die Fischerin was especially important to Schröter. She not only starred in the leading role of Dortchen, but composed incidental music for the play, including the famous opening song Der Erlkönig, which is quite different from the version composed by Franz Schubert over 30 years later - unsurprisingly, Schröter's version is closer to the early Classical era lied tradition in the style of Zelter than to the Romantic version of Schubert. Corona also starred in Goethe's drama Proserpina in which she drew crowds for this "virtuosic solo work."

Corona and Goethe worked closely on compositions which were performed in the Weimar theater as well as published for their personal libraries between 1776 and 1782.

When the amateur court theatre was replaced by professional actors in 1783, she continued to sing and act in informal settings. She also began to teach singing and took up writing and art. She formally withdrew from all court performing in 1788. She became friends with Friedrich Schiller during those years, whose poems she later set to music. Unfortunately, these lieder are lost, as are her two dramas, hundreds of arias and duets, and an autobiography given to Goethe in 1778. However, two collections of lieder were published by her, the first in 1786, followed by another in 1794, thus surviving into the present time. The first collection, which contains her rendition of Der Erlkönig from Goethe's play, was more popular than the second, probably due to its simpler nature: the second contained many songs in French and Italian. These two collections are some of the first and largest publications of lieder by a woman. When the first collection was released, Schröter had this to say about her work:
I have had to overcome much hesitation before I seriously made the decision to publish a collection of short poems that I have provided with melodies.  A certain feeling towards propriety and morality is stamped upon our sex, which does not allow us to appear alone in public, and without an escort: Thus, how can I otherwise present this, my musical work to the public, than with timidity?  For the complimentary opinions and the encouragement of a few persons… can easily be biased out of pity.  The work of any lady, moreover, will indeed arouse similar pity to some extent in the eyes of other experts.

A review of this first collection said that Schröter's abilities for composing were not equal to her potential. The reviewer felt that the songs had much spirit in them, but were not written in a way that brought this out. He did say that the performances of these pieces were helpful to understanding the depth of them. Ultimately, he blamed this deficiency on her lack of education, a real problem for women in this period of time.

Corona Schröter was also immortalized in other ways. In 1782, during a eulogy for a deceased theatre director, Goethe praised her for her help in shaping theatre in Weimar, and himself. Seven years earlier, a work about theatre history was dedicated to her due to her well-known abilities.

She spent the last eight years of her life teaching acting and singing. However, lung and respiratory problems forced her to move from Leipzig to Ilmenau with her long-time friend Wilhemine Probst in 1801. Her condition was so serious that she never recovered and died there a year later.

Notes

References
 Citron, Marcia J. "Women and the Lied, 1775-1850" in Women Making Music, Jane Bowers and Judith Tick (eds).  Chicago: University of Illinois, 1986. pp. 227–234
 Goertzen, Valerie Woodring.  The 18th Century, in From Convent to Concert Hall, Sylvia Glickman and Martha Furman (eds).  Westport: Greenwood, 2003. pp. 104–105
 Jackson, Barbara Garvey.  "Musical Women of the 17th and 18th Centuries" in Women and Music: A History, Karin Pendle (ed.).  Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001. pp. 129–130.
Kidd, Ronald R, "Schröter [Schroeter, Schroeder]. (2) Corona Elisabeth Wilhemine Schröter."  Grove Music Online,  L. Macy (ed.) (accessed January 29, 2007), grovemusic.com, subscription access.
 Women in Music, Carol Neuls-Bates (ed.). Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1996.

External links

1751 births
1802 deaths
18th-century German women singers
German women songwriters
People from Guben
People from the Margraviate of Brandenburg
German women composers
18th-century German actresses
German stage actresses

Corona Schröter


This article lists common shading algorithms used in computer graphics.

Interpolation techniques
These techniques can be combined with any illumination model:
 Flat shading
 Gouraud shading
 Phong shading

Illumination models

Realistic
The illumination models listed here attempt to model the perceived brightness of a surface or a component of the brightness in a way that looks realistic. Some take physical aspects into consideration, like for example the Fresnel equations, microfacets, the rendering equation and subsurface scattering.

Diffuse reflection
Light that is reflected on a non-metallic and/or a very rough surface gives rise to a diffuse reflection. Models that describe the perceived brightness due to diffuse reflection include:
 Lambert
 Oren–Nayar (Rough opaque diffuse surfaces)
 Minnaert

Specular reflection
Light that is reflected on a relatively smooth surface gives rise to a specular reflection. This kind of reflection is especially strong for metal surfaces. Models that describe the perceived brightness due to specular reflection include:
 Phong
 Blinn–Phong
 Cook–Torrance (microfacets)
 Ward anisotropic

Subsurface scattering
Subsurface scattering is an indirect form of reflection where some of the light is transmitted into a semi-transparent material, scattered under the surface and bounced back out again. The light that is not absorbed by the material and bounced out through the surface again gives rise to a diffuse indirect reflection, which will illuminate the surface not only where it is lit, but also in the vicinity of where the light hits, as well as on the other side of thin parts of an object. Most non-metals can transmit light to a certain degree and are therefore affected by this effect. Subsurface scattering models include:
 Hanrahan–Krueger model of subsurface scattering

Non-photorealistic
Non-photorealistic illumination models don't attempt to model the perceived brightness of a surface in a realistic way, but focuses expressing certain styles. They are used for example in cartoons, video games, movies or technical illustrations, and include:
 Cel shading
 Gooch shading

See also
 Bidirectional reflectance distribution function
 Physically based rendering
 Unbiased rendering
 Gamma correction

Shading

List of common shading algorithms


Ephraim Faience Pottery is an American art pottery company founded in 1996 in Deerfield, Wisconsin, United States by Kevin Hicks and two partners who have since left the company. It is now located in Lake Mills, Wisconsin.  The company produces art pottery in the tradition of the Arts and Crafts Movement with matte glazes over sculpted earthenware in editions of no more than 500 pieces.  It produces primarily vases, as well as bowls, lidded boxes, candleholders, pitchers and lanterns.  In the past, it has also produced tiles and sculpted paperweights.  A prototypical Ephraim Faience piece is a vase finished in a matte green background color, and embellished with sculpted decorative representations of plant or animal life.  The company also produces pieces in other colors and in non-representational designs.  In 2009, the company employed eight artisans.

The magazine Arts and Crafts Homes and the Revival commented "Ephraim Faience, which relies on familiar naturalistic (and often Japanesque) motifs like dragonflies, gingko leaves, and water lilies, reports that new designs by their artisans sell better than strict reproductions."

The name "Ephraim" was adopted from the village of Ephraim in Door County, Wisconsin.

Marks

Each piece is individually marked with a date code, the company logo and an artist signature stamp. Additional stamps indicate whether it is an experimental piece, made during an anniversary year (5th and 10th anniversaries are both marked) or part of a special edition.

See also
 List of pottery terms
 Arts and Crafts movement
 Ceramic
 Ceramics (art)
 Earthenware
 Faience
 Teco pottery

External links
 Ephraim Faience Pottery
 EFP Collectors' Society

References

Jefferson County, Wisconsin
Companies based in Wisconsin
American art pottery

Ephraim Faience Pottery


Andrew Snape (1675–1742) was an English cleric, academic and headmaster, provost of King's College, Cambridge from 1719.

Life
He was born at Hampton Court, Middlesex, the son of Andrew Snape (the younger), serjeant farrier to Charles II, and author of The Anatomy of an Horse (1683). The son was admitted to Eton College in 1683, and was elected to a scholarship at King's College, Cambridge, in 1689. He graduated B.A. in 1693, M.A. in 1697, and was created D.D. comitiis regiis in 1705.

Snape became lecturer of St. Martin's, London, and was chaplain to Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset, chancellor of the university of Cambridge, by whom he was presented in 1706 to the rectory of the united parishes of St Mary-at-Hill and St. Andrew Hubbard. In 1707 he was deputed by his university to represent, on its behalf, the faculty of theology at the jubilee of the foundation of the university of Frankfurt-on-the-Oder; and during his stay on the continent he preached a sermon before the Electress Sophia. He became one of the chaplains in ordinary to Queen Anne, and held the same office under George I.

In 1711 Snape was appointed headmaster of Eton, which flourished under his management. The part which he took in the Bangorian controversy gave offence at court, and his name, like that of Thomas Sherlock, was removed from the list of king's chaplains. On the death of John Adams he was chosen provost of King's College, Cambridge, in February 1719. He was vice-chancellor of the university in 1723–4. Early in 1737 he became rector of Knebworth, Hertfordshire, but resigned the living in August of the same year, when he was presented by the chapter of Windsor to the rectory of West Ildesley, Berkshire.

Snape died in his lodgings in Windsor Castle on 30 December 1742. He was buried in the south aisle of St. George's Chapel.

Works
Snape was one of the principals in the Bangorian controversy, and in numerous pamphlets he attacked the principles upheld by Benjamin Hoadly. The first of his Letters to the Bishop of Bangor passed through seventeen editions in the year of its publication, 1717.

The sermons which he published separately were, with additions, printed as Forty-five Sermons on several Subjects, 3 vols. London, 1745, under the editorship of John Chapman, D.D., and William Berriman, D.D. In two Spital sermons preached in 1707 and 1718 he advocate humane treatment of the mentally ill. He contributed verses to the university collections on the death of Queen Mary, the Peace of Ryswick, and the accession of Queen Anne. Snape was the editor of  Robert Moss's Sermons (1732); but the preface, "by a Learned Hand", was by Zachary Grey.

Family
Snape married Rebecca, widow of Sir Joshua Sharp, sheriff of London, and daughter of John Hervey, merchant, of London.

References

Attribution

1675 births
1742 deaths
18th-century English Anglican priests
Provosts of King's College, Cambridge
Head Masters of Eton College
People educated at Eton College
Vice-Chancellors of the University of Cambridge
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge

Andrew Snape


Wessex Sound Studios was a recording studio in Highbury New Park, London, England.

Many renowned music artists recorded there, including The Sex Pistols, King Crimson, The Clash, Theatre of Hate, XTC, The Sinceros, Queen, Talk Talk and The Rolling Stones.  It was sold to a residential development company in 2003.

Recording studios

Wessex Sound Studios


The Miserable Mill is a book by Lemony Snicket. It is the fourth book in a series called A Series of Unfortunate Events.

Plot summary

Violet, Klaus, and Sunny Baudelaire go by train to Paltryville to meet their new guardian at the Lucky Smells Lumbermill. When they arrive there, they find that it's a very boring place and that rather than being cared for by their new guardian, Sir, they must work in his sawmill with his mistraught and underpayed employees. After breaking his glasses, Klaus is sent to the optometrist (eye doctor) Dr. Orwell. He becomes hypnotized by Dr. Orwell, and causes an "accident." Sir therefore threatens that if they cause any more accidents they will be sent to live with Shirley, who is really Count Olaf in disguise. Olaf's plans fail, because Violet learns the word that undoes Klaus's hypnosis. In the end, the Baudelaire orphans must go to the boarding school Prufrock Prep.

A Series of Unfortunate Events
2000 books

The Miserable Mill


MarkLogic Server is a document-oriented database developed by MarkLogic. It is a NoSQL multi-model database that evolved from an XML database to natively store JSON documents and RDF triples, the data model for semantics. MarkLogic is designed to be a data hub for operational and analytical data.

History
MarkLogic Server was built to address shortcomings with existing search and data products. The product first focused on using XML as the document markup standard and XQuery as the query standard for accessing collections of documents up to hundreds of terabytes in size.

Currently the MarkLogic platform is widely used in publishing, government, finance and other sectors. MarkLogic's customers are mostly Global 2000 companies.

Technology
MarkLogic uses documents without upfront schemas to maintain a flexible data model. In addition to having a flexible data model, MarkLogic uses a distributed, scale-out architecture that can handle hundreds of billions of documents and hundreds of terabytes of data. It has received Common Criteria certification, and has high availability and disaster recovery. MarkLogic is designed to run on-premises and within public or private cloud environments like Amazon Web Services.

Features
 Indexing
MarkLogic indexes the content and structure of documents including words, phrases, relationships, and values in over 200 languages with tokenization, collation, and stemming for core languages. Functionality includes the ability to toggle range indexes, geospatial indexes, the RDF triple index, and reverse indexes on or off based on your data, the kinds of queries that you will run, and your desired performance.
 Full-text search
MarkLogic supports search across its data and metadata using a word or phrase and incorporates Boolean logic, stemming, wildcards, case sensitivity, punctuation sensitivity, diacritic sensitivity, and search term weighting. Data can be searched using JavaScript, XQuery, SPARQL, and SQL.

Semantics

MarkLogic uses RDF triples to provide semantics for ease of storing metadata and querying.

ACID

Unlike other NoSQL databases, MarkLogic maintains ACID consistency for transactions.
 Replication
MarkLogic provides high availability with replica sets.
 Scalability
MarkLogic scales horizontally using sharding.

MarkLogic can run over multiple servers, balancing the load or replicating data to keep the system up and running in the event of hardware failure.

Security

MarkLogic has built in security features such as element-level permissions and data redaction.

Optic API for Relational Operations

An API that lets developers view their data as documents, graphs or rows.

Security

MarkLogic provides redaction, encryption, and element-level security (allowing for control on read and write rights on parts of a document).

Applications
 Banking
 Big Data
 Fraud prevention
 Insurance Claims Management and Underwriting
 Master data management
 Recommendation engines

Licensing
MarkLogic is available under various licensing and delivery models, namely a free Developer or an Essential Enterprise license.[3] Licenses are available from MarkLogic or directly from cloud marketplaces such as Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure.

Releases
 2003—Cerisent XQE 1.0
 2004—Cerisent XQE 2.0
 2005—MarkLogic Server 3.0
 2006—MarkLogic Server 3.1
 2007—MarkLogic Server 3.2
 2008—MarkLogic Server 4.0
 2009—MarkLogic Server 4.1
 2010—MarkLogic Server 4.2
 2011—MarkLogic Server 5.0
 2012—MarkLogic Server 6.0
 2013—MarkLogic Server 7.0
 2015—MarkLogic Server 8.0: Ability to store JSON data and process data using JavaScript.
 2017—MarkLogic Server 9.0: Data integration across Relational and Non-Relational data.
 2017—MarkLogic Server 10.0
 2022—MarkLogic Server 11.0

See also

 Document database
 Graph database
 Multi-model database
 NoSQL
 Triple store
 MongoDB
 Operational data store
 Online analytical processing
 Resource description framework

References

Triplestores
XML databases
Document-oriented databases
NoSQL
Data management

MarkLogic Server


An artery is a blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart to other parts of the body.  Almost all arteries carry blood with a lot of oxygen in it.  The only arteries that do not carry oxygen-rich blood are the pulmonary artery, and (in a fetus) the umbilical artery.

Every artery has three layers. The outer layer is a thick covering made of stretchy tissue.  The middle layer is made of muscle, so the artery can get wider or get smaller when the body needs it to.  The inner lining is made of the same cells that line the heart.

Arteries are deep under the skin.  They do not have valves to prevent blood from flowing backwards.  Instead, every time the heart beats, the arteries stretch out so the blood has room to go through.  Once the walls have completely stretched out, the muscles in the arteries make them shrink back to their normal size.  This pushes the blood through.

Arteries split down into small vessels called arterioles.

Important arteries

The aorta

The aorta is the main artery in the human body.  It starts in the left ventricle of the heart, which is full of blood that just picked up oxygen in the lungs.  (This is called oxygenated blood - meaning it has a lot of oxygen in it.)  The left ventricle pumps this oxygen-rich blood out through the aorta.  The aorta brings this blood to every organ in the body.

The aorta runs all the way from the heart to the bottom of the abdomen.  Along the way, smaller arteries split off the aorta, like branches on a tree, to bring blood to different parts of the body.  The aorta finally ends by splitting off into the two arteries that bring blood to the legs.

Except for the pulmonary artery, every artery in the body is connected to the aorta.  Some other important arteries include:
 The carotid arteries, which bring blood to the brain, head, and face
 The femoral arteries, which bring blood to the legs
 The coronary arteries, which bring blood to the heart

The pulmonary artery
The pulmonary artery is the only artery in the adult body that:
 Does not connect to the aorta; and
 Carries blood that does not have much oxygen in it.  (This is called deoxygenated blood.)

The body uses the oxygen carried in the other arteries to make energy.  The blood in these arteries becomes deoxygenated - it does not have much oxygen left in it.  This blood then travels through capillaries to get from the arteries to the veins.  The veins' job is to carry the deoxygenated blood back to the right side of the heart.  The pulmonary artery carries this blood from the heart's right ventricle to the lungs.  In the lungs, the blood can pick up more oxygen.

After picking up more oxygen, the blood travels back to the left side of the heart and is pumped out to the body by the aorta.  This cycle continues, over and over again.

Problems with arteries

Arterial bleeding
Because the heart pumps blood right into the arteries, the arteries are under a lot of pressure.  Unlike the veins, the arteries are always stretching and then squeezing to push blood through them to the body.  Because of this, an arterial bleed - bleeding from an artery - can be a medical emergency, especially if the artery is big.  Arterial bleeding can happen very quickly.  For example, if a person's femoral artery is cut, they can bleed to death.

If an artery in the brain starts bleeding, the bleeding can cause a stroke.

Arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis

When a person has arteriosclerosis, the walls of their arteries get harder, stiffer, and less stretchy.  This makes it more difficult for blood and oxygen to get through the arteries to the body's important organs.

One type of arteriosclerosis is atherosclerosis.  Atherosclerosis is a disease where the arteries get narrower because they are clogged up with things like cholesterol and fat.  Like a clog in sink pipes makes it harder for water to get through the pipes, clogs in arteries make it more difficult for blood to get through.  This makes the heart have to work harder to push blood through the arteries.  Atherosclerosis is a big risk factor for high blood pressure and heart disease.

When atherosclerosis happens in the coronary arteries, it can cause coronary heart disease.  If these arteries get too clogged, the heart will not get the blood and oxygen it needs to survive.  This can cause angina, a heart attack, heart failure, or even sudden death.

When atherosclerosis happens in one of the arteries in the brain, it can cause a stroke.

Aneurysms
An aneurysm is a bulge in the wall of an artery.  It is like a little balloon, filled with blood, coming off the artery.  As the aneurysm gets bigger, it is more likely to break.  If the aneurysm breaks ("ruptures"), the artery will start bleeding.  If the artery is big, a person could bleed to death.  Also, if an artery is bleeding, blood cannot get through it.  The part of the body that the artery is supposed to feed will not get the blood and oxygen it needs.  A ruptured aneurysm is a medical emergency.

Related pages
 Circulatory system

References

Blood vessels

Artery


William Warburton (24 December 16987 June 1779) was an English writer, literary critic and churchman, Bishop of Gloucester from 1759 until his death. He edited editions of the works of his friend Alexander Pope, and of William Shakespeare.

Life

Warburton was born on 24 December 1698 at Newark, Nottinghamshire, where his father, George Warburton was town clerk. He was educated at Oakham and Newark grammar schools, and in 1714, he was articled to Mr Kirke, an attorney, at East Markham. In 1719, after serving his articles he returned to Newark, where he began to practise as a solicitor, but, having studied Latin and Greek, changed his mind and was ordained deacon by the Archbishop of York in 1723. He was ordained as a priest in 1726, and in the same year began to associate with literary circles in London.

Sir Robert Sutton gave Warburton the small living of Greasley, in Nottinghamshire, exchanged next year for that of Brant Broughton in Lincolnshire. He was, in addition, rector of Firsby from 1730 until 1756, although he never lived in the village. In 1728, he was made an honorary M.A. of the University of Cambridge.

At Brant Broughton for 18 years he spent his time in study, the first result of which was his treatise on the Alliance between Church and State (1736). The book brought Warburton into favour at court, and he probably only missed immediate preferment by the death of Queen Caroline.

A series of articles defending the writings of Alexander Pope against charges of religious unorthodoxy, led to a friendship with the poet which contributed greatly to Warburton's social advancement. Pope introduced him to both William Murray, later Lord Mansfield, who obtained for him the preachership of Lincoln's Inn in 1746, and to Ralph Allen, who, in Dr Johnson's words, "gave him his niece and his estate, and, by consequence, a bishopric."  Warburton married Gertrude Tucker, in September 1745, and from that time lived at Allen's estate at Prior Park, in Gloucestershire, which he eventually inherited in 1764.

He became prebendary of Gloucester in 1753, chaplain to the king in 1754, prebendary of Durham in 1755, Dean of Bristol in 1757, and Bishop of Gloucester in 1759.

Literary works
By 1727 Warburton had written the notes he contributed to Lewis Theobald's edition of Shakespeare, published a Critical and Philosophical Enquiry into the Causes of Miracles, and contributed anonymously to a pamphlet on the jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery, The Legal Judicature in Chancery stated (1727). This was an answer to another anonymous pamphlet, written by Philip Yorke, later Lord Chancellor.

The Divine Legation
After Alliance between Church and State, his next and best-known work, Divine Legation of Moses demonstrated on the Principles of a Religious Deist (1738–41, in two volumes), preserves his name as the author of the most daring and ingenious of theological paradoxes. The deists had made the absence of any inculcation of the doctrine of a future life an objection to the divine authority of the Mosaic writings. Warburton boldly admitted the fact and turned it against the adversary by maintaining that no merely human legislator would have omitted such a sanction of morality. Warburton's extraordinary power, learning and originality were acknowledged on all sides, though he excited censure and suspicion by his tenderness to the alleged heresies of Conyers Middleton. The book aroused much controversy. In a pamphlet of "Remarks" (1742), he replied to John Tillard, and Remarks on Several Occasional Reflections (1744–45) was an answer to Akenside, Conyers Middleton (who had been his friend), Richard Pococke, Nicholas Mann, Richard Grey, Henry Stebbing and other critics. As he characterised his opponents in general as the "pestilent herd of libertine scribblers with which the island is overrun," it is no surprise that the publication of the book created many bitter enemies.

Defence of Pope
Either in quest of paradox, or unable to recognise the real tendencies of Alexander Pope's Essay on Man, Warburton defended it against the Examen of Jean Pierre de Crousaz through a series of articles he contributed to The Works of the Learned in 1738–9. Whether Pope had really understood the tendency of his own work has always been doubtful, but there is no question that he was glad of an apologist, and that in the long run Warburton's jeu d'esprit helped Pope more than all his erudition. This led to a sincere friendship between the two men, with Pope fostering Warburton as a literary collaborator and editor. As part of this effort, in a 1743 edition of the Dunciad published under Warburton's editorship, Pope persuaded Warburton to add a fourth book, and encouraged the substitution of Colley Cibber for Theobald as the "hero" of the poem. On his death in 1744, Pope's will bequeathed half of his library to Warburton, as well as the copyright to all his printed works. Warburton would subsequently publish a full edition of Pope's writings in 1751.

Edition of Shakespeare
In 1747 his edition of Shakespeare was published, incorporating material from Pope's earlier edition. He had previously entrusted notes and emendations on Shakespeare to Sir Thomas Hanmer, whose unauthorised use of them led to a heated controversy. He also accused Lewis Theobald, with whom he had corresponded on Shakespearean subjects as early as 1727, of stealing his ideas, and denied his critical ability.

Later works
Warburton was further kept busy by replying to the attacks on his Divine Legation from all quarters, by a dispute with Bolingbroke respecting Pope's behaviour in the affair of Bolingbroke's Patriot King, and by a vindication in 1750 of the alleged miraculous interruption of the rebuilding of the temple of Jerusalem undertaken by Julian, in answer to Conyers Middleton. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, "Warburton's manner of dealing with opponents was both insolent and rancorous, but it did him no disservice."

He continued to write for as long as the infirmities of age allowed, collecting and publishing his sermons, and attempting to complete the Divine Legation, further fragments of which were published with his posthumous Works. He wrote a defence of revealed religion in his View of Lord Bolingbroke's Philosophy (1754), and Hume's Natural History of Religion called forth some Remarks ... by a gentleman of Cambridge (1757) from Warburton, in which his friend and biographer, Richard Hurd, had a share.

In 1762 he launched a vigorous attack on Methodism under the title of The Doctrine of Grace. He also engaged in a keen controversy with Robert Lowth, later bishop of London, on the book of Job, in which Lowth brought home charges of lack of scholarship and of insolence that admitted of no denial. His last important act was to found in 1768 the Warburtonian lecture at Lincoln's Inn, "to prove the truth of revealed religion ... from the completion of the prophecies of the Old and New Testament which relate to the Christian Church, especially to the apostasy of Papal Rome."

Death
Warburton died at Gloucester on 7 June 1779.  He left no children, his only son having predeceased him. In 1781 his widow, Gertrude, married the Rev. Martin Stafford Smith.

Posthumous publications and biographies
His works were edited in seven volumes (1788) by Richard Hurd with a biographical preface, and the correspondence between the two friends—an important contribution to the literary history of the period—was edited by Samuel Parr in 1808. Warburton's life was also written by John Selby Watson in 1863, and Mark Pattison made him the subject of an essay in 1889.

See also
List of abolitionist forerunners
Shakespeare's editors

Notes

References

External links

 Bibliographic directory from Project Canterbury

 Faith working by charity to Christian edification. A sermon preach'd at the last episcopal visitation for confirmation, in the diocese of Lincoln (MDCCXXXVIII)
 The nature of national offences truly stated : and the peculiar case of the Jewish people rightly explained : shewing that Great Britain ... may reasonably aspire to the distinguished protection of heaven (1746)
 A Critical and Philosophical Enquiry Into the Causes of Prodigies and Miracles, as Related by Historians: With an Essay Towards Restoring a Method and Purity in History (1727)

1698 births
1779 deaths
Bishops of Gloucester
English book editors
People from Newark-on-Trent
Deans of Bristol
Church of England deans
18th-century Church of England bishops
18th-century Anglican theologians

William Warburton


The A 1 road (commonly known as the Colombo - Kandy Road or just the Kandy Road) is an A-Grade trunk road in Sri Lanka. It connects the capital city of Colombo with Kandy.

History
Commonly known as the Kandy Road, the A 1 was the first modern highway in the island.  Construction began in 1820 under the orders of the British Governor of Ceylon, Sir Robert Wilmot-Horton, 3rd Baronet.  Construction was carried out by Captain William Francis Dawson—who died during the project—along with Major Thomas Skinner. In the memory of Captain Dawson, the Dawson Tower was erected at Kadugannawa in the Kadugannawa Pass.

Route
The A1 highway begins at Colombo Fort.  It passes through Peliyagoda, Kelaniya, Kiribathgoda, Mahara, Kadawatha, Kirillawala, Imbulgoda, Balummahara, Miriswaththa, Yakkala, Weediyawaththa, Thihariya, Nittambuwa, Pasyala, Wewaldeniya, Danovita, Warakapola, and Ambepussa.  At Ambepussa, Kurunegala, Mawathagama, Weuda the A6 Highway branches off the A1, heading towards Kurunegala.  The A1 continues east, passing Tholangamuwa, Udukumbura, Nelundeniya, Yattogoda, Galigamuwa, Ambanpitiya, Ranwala, Kegalle, Meepitiya, Karandupana, Molagoda, Uthuwankanda, Anwarama, Mawanella, Beligammana, Hingula, Kadugannawa, Pilimathalawa, Kiribathkumbura, and Peradeniya to reach Kandy.

Images
Here are some photos of A1 Highway and notable places found along it.

References

A01 highway

A1 highway (Sri Lanka)


"Songbird" is a song by English rock band Oasis, from their fifth studio album Heathen Chemistry, and is the first single by Oasis written by vocalist Liam Gallagher.

Liam has said of the song: "I like beautiful things . . . It's not all dark in Liam World. I take me shades off every now and again and have a look at the world and see some nice things." Noel Gallagher stated jokingly in an interview with Patrick Kielty that Liam decided to "write a song about his bird", and states the title "Song . . . bird" in a cave man like manner. The song was written as a tribute to then-fiancée Nicole Appleton. "Songbird" was composed in the key of G major using common time at 132 beats per minute.

"Songbird blew my head off when I first heard it because it was that f--king simple and that direct. But when Liam plays you a song he wants you to instantly f--king drop dead on the spot and then, when you come around, stab yourself in the heart and be in awe of the f--king sonic ability of the man."

The song was released as the fourth single from the band's Heathen Chemistry album, on 3 February 2003 and peaked at number 3 in the UK charts. It is included on the band's compilation album Stop the Clocks. Being written by lead singer Liam Gallagher, it was the first time the band had released a single not written by his brother Noel. "(You've Got) The Heart of the Star" and "Columbia" are B-sides, the latter of which was recorded live at the Glasgow Barrowlands, in October 2001.

The demo of the song is a typical Oasis approach to the song, featuring overdriven guitar and a stronger beat, as well as a guitar solo. Courtney Love has said that she and Liam played a version with her whistling and Gallagher playing guitar and singing, this was noted in the book Kurt and Courtney: Talking. Gallagher played the song for UK Radio Aid in January 2005.

2003 songs
Oasis (band) songs

Songbird (Oasis song)


Astronomy Visualization Metadata (AVM) is a standard for tagging digital astronomical images stored in formats such as JPEG, GIF, PNG and TIFF. The AVM standard extends the concept of Extensible Metadata Platform (XMP) headers to include useful astronomical information about the subject of the image as well as the telescope used to take the image. This ensures that relevant information is transferred with the image when it is shared with others. AVM could be considered analogous to the FITS headers associated with raw astronomical data files.

The standard was proposed by the Virtual Astronomy Multimedia Project, part of the IAU Commission 55 and the International Virtual Observatory Alliance. It reached version 1.1 on May 14, 2008. The standard is currently used to tag images from the Chandra X-ray Observatory, Herschel Space Observatory, Spitzer Space Telescope, ESA/Hubble and the European Southern Observatory. Software packages such as PinpointWCS, FITS Liberator and Microsoft WorldWide Telescope have implemented the standard.

The metadata include information about the creator of the image, the content (including description and subject category), the method of observation (including facility, instrument and spectral information), the World Coordinate System (WCS) position in the sky, and the publisher of the image.

AVM was conceived by Robert Hurt, Lars Lindberg Christensen, and Adrienne Gauthier.

Metadata Categories
The Astronomy Visualization Metadata standard defines a taxonomy for astronomical objects. The main categories are:

 Planet
 Interplanetary Body
 Star
 Nebula
 Galaxy
 Cosmology
 Sky Phenomenon
 Technology
 People

References

Digital photography
Metadata
Computational astronomy

Astronomy Visualization Metadata


George Leonardos (; born 1937) is a Greek author of historical novels.

Early life

Son of Anastase and Maria, Leonardos was born in Alexandria, Egypt on 20 February 1937. His father died when he was two years old and he lived with his mother in Alexandria until 1954. He was an avid reader of fiction and history, and as a high school student in Alexandria had his short stories published in Tachydromos and Anatoli, the Greek daily newspapers of the city. In 1954 he moved to Greece to study physics at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.

Career

After his graduation, he studied journalism and began to work as a journalist. He worked as a reporter for Athens newspapers Apogevmatini, Eleftherotypia, Mesimvrini, Eleftheros Typos, Ethnos and as a columnist in the financial paper Kerdos. He was the first correspondent of the Athens News Agency in Belgrade in 1964, and later in New York City in 1976, where he was also appointed director of the local Greek newspaper Ethnicos Kirikas. He has also worked as a newscaster in Greek Radio and Television, and has reported on the Vietnam War and the Persian Gulf war.

Leonardos is a member of the Athens Association of Daily Press Editors and the National Society of Greek Writers. His first novel, Grandma's Red Sofa, was published in 1992. He was twice awarded the prize for best historical novel by the Greek Society of Christian Studies for his novels Mara, the Christian Sultana and Sleeping Beauty of Mystra. He was awarded a Botsis Foundation prize for his services to journalism and literature.

In 2008 he was awarded with the Greek State Prize for his historical trilogy The Palaeologian Dynasty. The Rise and Fall of Byzantium and specially for the third historical novel of the mentioned trilogy "The Last Palaeologue".

In 1980 he published the English-Greek Dictionary of Scientific and Military Terms, and in 2000 he published The Structure of the Novel. His latest historical novel is Sophia Paleologue Palaelogina – From Byzantium to Russia.

Works

Novels
 Grandmam's red sofa, 1992
 The house over the catacombs, 1993
 Eva, 1994
 The magnet poles, 1995
 Earth's lovers, 1996
 A song from the soul, 1997

Historical novels
 Barbarossa the Pirate, 1998
 Mara, the Christian Sultana, 1999
 Maria Magdalene, 2001
 Sleeping Beauty of Mystra, 2002
 Michael VIII Palaeologue, 2004
 The Palaeologues, 2006
 The last Palaeologue, 2007.
 Sophia Paleologue – From Byzantium to Russia, 2008
 Magellan,2009
 Thule 2010
 The Alexandria Rhapsody 2011
 The Last Sip of Wine 2013
 Islands Forgotten by the Time - Don Teodoro Griego, 2014
 Justinian ii;-The slit-nosed, 2016
 The Sarantapichena;- The story of Irene the Athenian, 2016

References

National Book Center of Greece
TO VIMA
TA NEA
Award of Botsis Foundation
Who's Who (1979) p. 363
Who's Who Metron (1995) p. 452
European Who's Who (2002–2003) p. 1047

External links
 George Leonardos' official website

Living people
Egyptian emigrants to Greece
Greek historical novelists
Writers of historical fiction set in the Middle Ages
1937 births
Writers from Alexandria
Maritime writers
Egyptian people of Greek descent

George Leonardos


Love's Welcome at Bolsover (alternative archaic spelling, Balsover) is the final masque composed by Ben Jonson. It was performed on 30 July 1634, three years before the poet's death, and published in 1641.

The masque was not produced by the Stuart Court in one of the royal palaces around London, as many of Jonson's notable early masques were. Rather it was staged by William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle (at the time, he was the Earl of Newcastle) at Bolsover Castle in Derbyshire, in honor of King Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria. Newcastle had put on a Jonson masque for his royal visitors at Welbeck in Nottinghamshire the year before: The King's Entertainment at Welbeck, performed on 21 May 1633. It was such a success that the King requested another on his 1634 royal progress. The Duke spent between £14,000 and £15,000 on staging the Bolsover masque and providing for his royal guests and their attendants, which was more than double the £4,000 to £5,000 he'd spent for the Welbeck entertainment the previous year. (The Masque of Beauty, one of Jonson's early Court masques, has cost £4,000 to stage in 1608, and was considered exorbitantly expensive at the time.)

In Love's Welcome, Jonson continued the mockery of Inigo Jones that he'd practiced for two decades, starting Bartholomew Fair (1614) and continuing through The Masque of Augurs (1622), Neptune's Triumph for the Return of Albion (1624), The Staple of News (1626), and A Tale of a Tub (1633). In this masque, Jones is "Colonel Iniquo Vitruvius."

The masque was staged in what was called the "little castle" at Bolsover, a then-recent (Jacobean) construction. The pillared hall there was furnished with five brilliantly colored paintings on the theme of The Senses; Jonson alludes to the paintings in his text. The show was described by local witnesses as "stupendous," more than adequate to establish Newcastle's reputation as the greatest "prince...in all the northern quarter" of the kingdom. Perhaps the most visually striking element in the masque lay in the two Cupids, Eros (Love) and Anteros (Love Returned), who descended "from the clouds" bearing fronds of palms.

The masque was published in 1641 in the second folio collection of Jonson's works, and was thereafter included in his canon, although it does not appear in Stephen Orgel's "Complete Masques of Ben Jonson". A manuscript text of the masque is also extant, in the collection of Newcastle manuscripts.

Notes

References
 Kozuka, Takashi, and J. R. Mulryne, eds. Shakespeare, Marlowe, Jonson: New Directions in Biography. London, Ashgate, 2006.
 Orgel, Stephen, ed. The Complete Masques of Ben Jonson. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1969.
 Perry, Henry Ten Eck. The First Duchess of Newcastle and Her Husband as Figures in Literary History. Boston, Ginn and Co., 1918.

External links
 Bolsover Castle.
 Bolsover Castle.

Masques by Ben Jonson
English Renaissance plays
1634 plays
Bolsover
Charles I of England
Henrietta Maria of France

Love's Welcome at Bolsover


Domenico Malatesta, best known as Malatesta Novello (5 August 1418 – 20 November 1465) was an Italian condottiero, a member of the Malatesta family.

Biography
He was born at Brescia, the son of Pandolfo III Malatesta and Antonia da Barignano. In 1429, after the death of his uncle Carlo Malatesta, he became lord of Cesena, at the age of 11, together with his brothers Galeotto Roberto (the only one of age, although he died in 1432) and Sigismondo Pandolfo. Two years later, he suppressed several riots in the city spurred by the Malatesta of Pesaro; the people turned against the leader, and hailed him and his brother Sigismondo Pandolfo as lords. Also, in 1431, he quelled a revolt in Fano.

In 1433, the year since which he reigned alone in Cesena, he was created Imperial Knight by the Emperor Sigismund. Therefore, he abandoned the name Domenico to be called Malatesta Novello. At the time his lands included Cesena, Bertinoro, Meldola, Sarsina, Roncofreddo and the Piviero di Sestino. He also received Cervia by Sigismondo Pandolfo, building there important fortifications.

In 1434, when he was 16, he married Violante da Montefeltro (daughter of Guidantonio count of Urbino) then four. The two lived separated, joining only on her twelfth birthday (1442).

Aside from his military deeds, Malatesta Novello is celebrated for his large building programs in Cesena, such as the Convent di S. Maria (1438), the strengthening of the Rocca Malatestiana and enlargement of the city walls (1441); in 1452 he founded the Biblioteca Malatestiana, the first public library in Europe. He also built public works such as bridges, tunnels and dams.

He died in Cesena in 1465. His death marked the end of the Malatesta seigniory in Cesena.

Sources
History of Cesena

1418 births
1456 deaths
Novello
People from Brescia
15th-century condottieri
Lords in Italy

Malatesta Novello


The Palazzo Chiablese is a building in Turin, Italy which was once the residence of the Duke of Chablais (a son of a king of Sardinia) it was also later the home of the Duke of Genoa (himself another king of Sardinia) Today it is home to a cultural collection honouring the history of Piedmont. It is open to the public Wednesday, Thursday, Friday from 4 pm to 8pm and during press conferences, cultural events, concerts.

Brief history

From 1753, it served as the residence of Benedetto of Savoy, son of Charles Emmanuel III and Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine. It was named after his courtesy title of "Duke of Chablais".

Bombed during World War II it lost a majority of its internal decoration before being handed over to the state in the 1950s.

References

Commons

Turin
Carignano
Former royal residences

Palazzo Chiablese


George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax,  (6 October 1716 – 8 June 1771) was a British statesman of the Georgian era. Due to his success in extending commerce in the Americas, he became known as the "father of the colonies". President of the Board of Trade from 1748 to 1761, he aided the foundation of Nova Scotia, 1749, the capital Halifax being named after him. When Canada was ceded to the King of Great Britain by the King of France, following the Treaty of Paris of 1763, he restricted its boundaries and renamed it "Province of Quebec".

Early life
The son of the 1st Earl of Halifax, he was styled Viscount Sunbury until succeeding his father as Earl of Halifax in 1739 (thus also styled in common usage Lord Halifax). Educated at Eton College and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he was married in 1741 to Anne Richards (died 1753), who had inherited a great fortune from Sir Thomas Dunk, whose name Halifax took.

Career

After having been an official in the household of Frederick, Prince of Wales, Halifax was made Master of the Buckhounds, and in 1748 he became President of the Board of Trade. While filling this position he helped to found Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, which was named after him, and he helped foster trade, especially with North America.

About this time he attempted, unsuccessfully, to become a Secretary of State, but was only allowed to enter the Cabinet in 1757. In March 1761, Halifax was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and during part of the time which he held this office he was also First Lord of the Admiralty.

He became Secretary of State for the Northern Department under Lord Bute in October 1762, switching to the Southern Department in 1763 and was one of the three ministers to whom King George III entrusted the direction of affairs during the premiership of George Grenville. In 1762, in search of evidence of sedition, he authorised a raid on the home of John Entick, declared unlawful in the case of Entick v. Carrington.

In 1763, he signed the general warrant for the "authors, printers and publishers" of The North Briton number 45, under which John Wilkes and 48 others were arrested, and for which, six years later, the courts of law made Halifax pay damages.
He was also mainly responsible for the exclusion of the name of the King's mother, Augusta, Princess of Wales, from the Regency Bill of 1765.

Together with his colleagues, Halifax left office in July 1765, returning to the Cabinet as Lord Privy Seal under his nephew, Lord North, in January 1770. He had just been restored to his former position of Secretary of State when he died.

Cricket
Like his friends John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford, and John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, Halifax was keen on cricket. The earliest surviving record of his involvement in the sport comes from 1741 when he led Northamptonshire in a match against Buckinghamshire at Cow Meadow in Northampton. In the same season, Sandwich and Halifax formed the Northamptonshire & Huntingdonshire team which twice defeated Bedfordshire, first at Woburn Park and then at Cow Meadow.

Legacy

Social, moral and cultural impact
Halifax, who was Lord-Lieutenant of Northamptonshire and a Lieutenant General, was very extravagant. During the House of Commons election for Northampton in 1768, he spent £150,000 bribing voters to support his candidate, George Brydges Rodney, and was financially ruined by the effort.

He was a political patron of playwright and civil servant Richard Cumberland.  He left no legitimate male children, and his titles became extinct on his death. Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford, spoke slightingly of him and his mistress, Anna Maria Faulkner, including alleging that Halifax had "sold every employment in his gift". His mistress had kept a low profile while he was in Ireland, but she was understood to have sold positions.

Politics
Halifax was opposed to slavery, and refused to invest his money in any cause that was linked to the TransAtlantic slave trade. There were numerous occasions in which colonists in North America came into conflict with Parliament, and on every one of those occasions he publicly voiced support for the colonists, thus leading to him becoming a popular figure in Britain's North American colonies, including the Province of Massachusetts Bay, the Province of North Carolina and the Colony of Virginia. Halifax supported expanding the franchise so that a larger portion of people in the Kingdom of Great Britain would be able to vote in parliamentary elections. His mistress had kept a low profile while he was in Ireland, but she was alleged to have sold positions which was a political scandal for part of Halifax's career.

Memorials
Halifax was buried in the parish church of Horton, Northamptonshire; an effigy bust and plaque features in the north transept of Westminster Abbey. An obelisk is erected at Chicksands Wood in the parish of Haynes, Bedfordshire, inscribed to his memory.

Related locations
The municipality of Halifax and Halifax County, Nova Scotia, are named in his honour, as are the Halifax River in Central Florida; the town of Halifax and Halifax County, North Carolina; Halifax, Virginia, Halifax, Vermont in the United States; and Dunk Island in Queensland and Montague Island in New South Wales.

Footnotes

Attribution:

Bibliography

Further reading
 Andrew D. M. Beaumont, Colonial America and the Earl of Halifax, 1748-1761. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2015.

External links

1716 births
1771 deaths
18th-century British politicians
18th-century English nobility
British Secretaries of State
Earls of Halifax
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Northamptonshire
Lords of the Admiralty
Lords Privy Seal
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax
Pre-Confederation Nova Scotia people
Masters of the Buckhounds
English cricketers
English cricketers of 1701 to 1786
Northamptonshire cricketers
Cricket patrons
Lords Lieutenant of Ireland
Presidents of the Board of Trade
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Tory (British political party) politicians
18th-century philanthropists
Leaders of the House of Lords
People educated at Eton College


The Shakertown Pledge is a written oath created to draw attention to the inequality of worldwide wealth distribution. It was written on April 30, 1973, in a town near Lexington, Kentucky, which was historically connected to the Shaker Movement. The Pledge itself was a response to the inequality of distribution of global wealth and resources, and called for group action by Christians to rectify the problem.

The text of the oath is as follows:

Recognizing that Earth and the fullness thereof is a gift from our gracious God, and that we are called to cherish, nurture, and provide loving stewardship for Earth's resources, and recognizing that life itself is a gift, and a call to responsibility, joy, and celebration, I make the following declarations:

 I declare myself a world citizen.
 I commit myself to lead an ecologically sound life.
 I commit myself to lead a life of creative simplicity and to share my personal wealth with the world's poor.
 I commit myself to join with others in the reshaping of institutions in order to bring about a more just global society in which all people have full access to the needed resources for their physical, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual growth.
 I commit myself to occupational accountability, and so doing I will seek to avoid the creation of products which cause harm to others.
 I affirm the gift of my body and commit myself to its proper nourishment and physical wellbeing.
 I commit myself to examine continually my relations with others and to attempt to relate honestly, morally, and lovingly to those around me.
 I commit myself to personal renewal through prayer, meditation, and study.
 I commit myself to responsible participation in a community of faith.

See also

Social justice
Evangelical Left

References

Christian ethics
1973 documents

The Shakertown Pledge


Joel Albert McCrea (November 5, 1905 – October 20, 1990) was an American actor.

His career began in the late 1920s in movies such as The Fair Co-Ed (1927) and The Five O'Clock Girl (1928).

He had a starring role in the Western movie Wells Fargo (1937) and Union Pacific (1939). Those movies turned McCrea, into a prominent actor in westerns, from that moment he would never stop starring in Westerns. In another of his classics, Buffalo Bill (1944), he plays the legendary buffalo hunter. His other successful role was of "The Virginian" in The Virginian (1946). He was directed by renowned director Raoul Walsh in Colorado Territory (1949), he plays an outlaw who plans to rob the railroad.

In the 1950's,  he starred in some interesting western movie as The San Francisco Story (1952), Border River (1954), and the Classic Wichita (1955), by Jacques Tourneur, The Gunfight at Dodge City (1959), as Bat Masterson.

One of his best movies, was with the actor Randolph Scott in Ride the High Country (1962) by Sam Peckinpah. His last movies were The Young Rounders (1966) - Sioux Nation (1970) - Cry Blood, Apache (1970) and Mustang Country (1976).

Television
In 1960 Joel McCrea, was hired by NBC Television, for the role of Marshal Mike Dunbar, in the series Wichita Town for 26 episodes. Marshal Mike Dunbar, is tough, imposing law and order in the wild town of Wichita. Joel McCrea was one of the few stars in Hollywood, starring in a television series.

Other websites

 Photographs and literature
Joel McCrea Wildlife Preserve
McCrea Ranch

1905 births
1990 deaths

American television actors
American movie actors
Actors from Los Angeles County, California

Joel McCrea


A gas meter is a specialized flow meter, used to measure the volume of fuel gases such as natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas. Gas meters are used at residential, commercial, and industrial buildings that consume fuel gas supplied by a gas utility. Gases are more difficult to measure than liquids, because measured volumes are highly affected by temperature and pressure. Gas meters measure a defined volume, regardless of the pressurized quantity or quality of the gas flowing through the meter. Temperature, pressure, and heating value compensation must be made to measure actual amount and value of gas moving through a meter.

Several different designs of gas meters are in common use, depending on the volumetric flow rate of gas to be measured, the range of flows anticipated, the type of gas being measured, and other factors.

Gas meters that exist in colder climates in buildings built prior to the 1970s were typically located inside the home, typically in the basement or garage. Since then, the vast majority are now placed outside though there are a few exceptions especially in older cities.

Types of gas meters

Diaphragm/bellows meters

These are the most common type of gas meter, seen in almost all residential and small commercial installations. Within the meter there are two or more chambers formed by movable diaphragms. With the gas flow directed by internal valves, the chambers alternately fill and expel gas, producing a nearly continuous flow through the meter. As the diaphragms expand and contract, levers connected to cranks convert the linear motion of the diaphragms into rotary motion of a crank shaft which serves as the primary flow element. This shaft can drive an odometer-like counter mechanism or it can produce electrical pulses for a flow computer.

Diaphragm gas meters are positive displacement meters.

Rotary meters

Rotary meters are highly machined precision instruments capable of handling higher volumes and pressures than diaphragm meters. Within the meter, two figure "8" shaped lobes, the rotors (also known as impellers or pistons), spin in precise alignment. With each turn, they move a specific quantity of gas through the meter. The operating principle is similar to that of a Roots blower. The rotational movement of the crank shaft serves as a primary flow element and may produce electrical pulses for a flow computer or may drive an odometer-like counter.

Turbine meters
Turbine gas meters infer gas volume by determining the speed of the gas moving through the meter. Because the volume of gas is inferred from the flow, it is important that flow conditions are good. A small internal turbine measures the speed of the gas, which is transmitted mechanically to a mechanical or electronic counter. These meters do not impede the flow of gas, but are limited at measuring lower flow rates.

Orifice meters
An orifice gas meter consists of a straight length of pipe inside which a precisely known orifice plate creates a pressure drop, thereby affecting flow. Orifice meters are a type of differential meter, all of which infer the rate of gas flow by measuring the pressure difference across a deliberately designed and installed flow disturbance. The gas static pressure, density, viscosity, and temperature must be measured or known in addition to the differential pressure for the meter to accurately measure the fluid. Orifice meters often do not handle a large range of flow rates. They are however accepted and understood in industrial applications since they are easy to field-service and have no moving parts.

Ultrasonic flow meters
Ultrasonic flow meters are more complex than meters that are purely mechanical, as they require significant signal processing and computation capabilities. Ultrasonic meters measure the speed of gas movement by measuring the speed at which sound travels in the gaseous medium within the pipe. American Gas Association covers the proper usage and installation of these meters, and it specifies a standardised speed-of-sound calculation which predicts the speed of sound in a gas with a known pressure, temperature, and composition.

The most elaborate types of ultrasonic flow meters average speed of sound over multiple paths in the pipe. The length of each path is precisely measured in the factory. Each path consists of an ultrasonic transducer at one end and a sensor at the other. The meter creates a 'ping' with the transducer and measures the time elapsed before the sensor receives the sonic pulse. Some of these paths point upstream so that the sum of the times of flight of the sonic pulses can be divided by the sum of the flight lengths to provide an average speed of sound in the upstream direction. This speed differs from the speed of sound in the gas by the velocity at which the gas is moving in the pipe. The other paths may be identical or similar, except that the sound pulses travel downstream. The meter then compares the difference between the upstream and downstream speeds to calculate the velocity of gas flow.

Ultrasonic meters are high-cost and work best with no liquids present at all in the measured gas, so they are primarily used in high-flow, high-pressure applications such as utility pipeline meter stations, where the gas is always dry and lean, and where small proportional inaccuracies are intolerable due to the large amount of money at stake. The turndown ratio of an ultrasonic meter is probably the largest of any natural gas meter type, and the accuracy and range ability of a high-quality ultrasonic meter is actually greater than that of the turbine meters against which they are proven.

Inexpensive varieties of ultrasonic meters are available as clamp-on flow meters, which can be used to measure flow in any diameter of pipe without intrusive modification. Such devices are based on two types of technology: (1) time of flight or transit time; and (2) cross correlation. Both technologies involve transducers that are simply clamped on to the pipe and programmed with the pipe size and schedule and can be used to calculate flow. Such meters can be used to measure almost any dry gas including natural gas, nitrogen, compressed air, and steam. Clamp-on meters are available for measuring liquid flow as well.

Coriolis meters

A coriolis meter is usually one or more pipes with longitudinally or axially displaced section(s) that are excited to vibrate at resonant frequency. Coriolis meters are used with liquids and gases. When the fluid within the displaced section is at rest, both the upstream and downstream portion of the displaced section will vibrate in phase with each other. The frequency of this vibration is determined by the overall density of the pipe (including its contents). This allows the meter to measure the flowing density of the gas in real time. Once the fluid begins to flow, however, the Coriolis force comes into play. This effect implies a relationship between the phase difference in the vibration of the upstream and downstream sections and the mass flow rate of the fluid contained by the pipe.

Again, owing to the amount of inference, analog control and calculation intrinsic to a coriolis meter, the meter is not complete with just its physical components. There are actuation, sensing, electronic, and computational elements that must be present for the meter to function.

Coriolis meters can handle a wide range of flow rates and have the unique ability to output mass flow - this gives the highest accuracy of flow measurement currently available for mass flow measurement. Since they measure flowing density, coriolis meters can also infer gas flow rate at flowing conditions.

American Gas Association Report No. 11 provides guidelines for obtaining good results when measuring natural gas with a coriolis meter.

Heating value
The volume of gas flow provided by a gas meter is just that, a reading of volume. Gas volume does not take into account the quality of the gas or the amount of heat available when burned. Utility customers are billed according to the heat available in the gas. The quality of the gas is measured and adjusted for in each billing cycle. This is known by several names as the calorific value, heating value, or therm value.

The calorific value of natural gas can be obtained using a process gas chromatograph, which measures the amount of each constituent of the gas, namely:
methane
ethane
hydrogen
carbon monoxide
water vapour

Additionally, to convert from volume to thermal energy, the pressure and temperature of the gas must be taken into consideration. Pressure is generally not a problem; the meter is simply installed immediately downstream of a pressure regulator and is calibrated to read accurately at that pressure. Pressure compensation then occurs in the utility's billing system. Varying temperature cannot be handled as easily, but some meters are designed with built-in temperature compensation to keep them reasonably accurate over their designed temperature range. Others are corrected for temperature electronically.

Indicating devices

Any type of gas meter can be obtained with a wide variety of indicators. The most common are indicators that use multiple clock hands (pointer style) or digital readouts similar to an odometer, but remote readouts of various types are also becoming popular — see Automatic meter reading and Smart meter.

Accuracy

Gas meters are required to register the volume of gas consumed within an acceptable degree of accuracy. Any significant error in the registered volume can represent a loss to the gas supplier, or the consumer being overbilled. The accuracy is generally laid down in statute for the location in which the meter is installed. Statutory provisions should also specify a procedure to be followed should the accuracy be disputed.

In the UK, the permitted error for a gas meter manufactured prior to the European Measuring Instruments Directive is ±2%. However, the European Measuring Instrument Directive has harmonised gas meter errors across Europe and consequently meters manufactured since the directive came into force must read within ±3%. Meters whose accuracy is disputed by the customer have to be removed for testing by an approved meter examiner. If the meter is found to be reading outside of the prescribed limits, the supplier has to refund the consumer for gas incorrectly measured while that consumer had that meter (but not vice versa). Any refund is limited to the previous six years. If the meter cannot be tested or its reading is unreliable, the consumer and supplier have to negotiate a settlement. If the meter is found to be reading within limits, the consumer has to pay the costs of testing (and pay any outstanding charges). This contrasts with the position on electric meters, where the test is free and a refund is only given if the date that the meter started to read inaccurately can be determined.

Remote readouts

Remote reading is becoming popular for gas meters. It is often done through an electronic pulse output mounted on the meter. There are different styles available but most common is a contact closure switch.

Flow measurement calculations

Turbine, rotary, and diaphragm meters can be compensated using a calculation specified in American Gas Association Report No. 7. This standardised calculation compensates the quantity of volume as measured to quantity of volume at a set of base conditions. The AGA 7 calculation itself is a simple ratio and is, in essence, a density correction approach to translating the volume or rate of gas at flowing conditions to a volume or rate at base conditions.

Orifice meters are a very commonly used type of meter, and because of their widespread use, the characteristics of gas flow through an orifice meter have been closely studied. American Gas Association Report No. 3 deals with a broad range of issues relating to orifice metering of natural gas, and it specifies an algorithm for calculating natural gas flow rates based on the differential pressure, static pressure, and temperature of a gas with a known composition.

These calculations depend in part on the ideal gas law and also require a gas compressibility calculation in order to account for the fact that real gases are not ideal. A very commonly used compressibility calculation is American Gas Association Report No. 8, detail characterization.

Thread sizing standards

Residential, commercial and industrial gas meters have their own standard thread sizes.  The gas meter is connected to customer piping through a swivel and nut, which has a dedicated set of thread sizes.  These thread sizes were originally named for the amount of gas designed to flow through them in terms of gas lamps, for example a 30-Lt. meter can provide enough gas for 30 lights and was referred to in the late 19th century as a 30-light-gas-meter.  These sizes are typically 10Lt, 20Lt, 30Lt, 45Lt, or 60Lt, though smaller and larger sizes are available.  The thread sizes are slightly, about , larger than the nearest size NPT size, in order to accommodate the appropriate inner diameter within the swivel.

See also
Automatic Meter Reading
Flow conditioning#Effects on flow measurement devices
Electricity meter
Flow measurement
Gas flow computer
Gas meter prover
Meter-Bus
Julius Pintsch
Smart meter
Thermal mass flow meter
Turnaround document (way of collecting data from)
Utility submeter
Water meter

References

Flow meters
Gas technologies
Natural gas safety
Public services

Gas meter


Dona Maria Manuela (15 October 1527 – 12 July 1545) was the eldest daughter and second child of King John III of Portugal and his wife Catherine of Austria. She was Princess of Asturias and Duchess of Milan as the first wife of the future Philip II of Spain, and Princess of Portugal as heir presumptive to the Portuguese throne between 1527 and 1535.

Early life
Maria was born in Coimbra on 15 October 1527 and was one of the two children of John III to survive childhood. In her youth, Maria received a humanistic education that was considered typical for a princess of her time.

Marriage and later life
She married her double first cousin Philip II of Spain on 12 November 1543 at Salamanca. As she was to be married to the Prince of Asturias, heir apparent to the Spanish crown, and being an Infanta of Portugal, their wedding became one of the most remarkable in the history of Spain due to its opulence. Contemporary writers have left detailed descriptions of the journey from Madrid to Badajoz to Salamanca to receive the princess and of the luxuries she was given by the Duke of Medina Sidonia in Badajoz.

She gave birth to their son Carlos on 8 July 1545 in Valladolid, but died four days later due to a haemorrhage. She was initially buried in the Royal Chapel of Granada on 30 March 1549 but was later transferred to Royal Crypt of the Monastery of El Escorial.

Ancestry

Notes

References
Kamen, Henry: Philip of Spain. Yale University Press. 1998. .

|-

1527 births
1545 deaths
House of Aviz
Princes of Portugal
Princesses of Asturias
Duchesses of Milan
Austrian princesses
Deaths in childbirth
Burials in the Pantheon of Infantes at El Escorial
People from Coimbra
16th-century Portuguese people
16th-century Portuguese women
Wives of Philip II of Spain
Children of John III of Portugal
Daughters of kings

Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal


Black mustard  (Brassica nigra) is an annual plant grown for its seeds, which is commonly used as a spice. It is native to the Mediterranean, and has been cultivated for a very long time. With this cultivation it was also introduced to other regions of the world.

Brassicaceae

Black mustard