Eastern Christianity comprises Christian traditions and church families that originally developed during classical and late antiquity in Western Asia, Asia Minor, Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, the Caucasus, Northeast Africa, the Fertile Crescent and the Malabar coast of South Asia, and ephemerally parts of Persia, Central Asia and the Far East. The term does not describe a single communion or religious denomination.

Major Eastern Christian bodies include the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches, along with those groups descended from the historic Church of the East (aka the Assyrian Church), as well as the Eastern Catholic Churches (which have either re-established or always retained communion with Rome and maintain Eastern liturgies), and the Eastern Protestant churches (which are Protestant in theology but Eastern in cultural practice). The various Eastern churches do not normally refer to themselves as "Eastern", with the exception of the Assyrian Church of the East and its offshoot, the Ancient Church of the East.

The Eastern Orthodox are the largest body within Eastern Christianity with a worldwide population of 220 million, followed by the Oriental Orthodox at 60 million. The Eastern Catholic Churches consist of about 16–18 million and are a small minority within the Catholic Church. Eastern Protestant Christian churches do not form a single communion; churches like the Ukrainian Lutheran Church and Mar Thoma Syrian Church have under a million members. The Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East, descendant churches of the Assyria-based Church of the East, have a combined membership of approximately 400,000, with other Assyrians being Catholics within the Chaldean Catholic Church which broke away from the Assyrian Church in the late 17th Century.

Historically, after the loss of the Levant in the 7th century to the Islamic Sunni Caliphate, the term Eastern Church was used for the Greek Church centered in Byzantium, in contrast with the (Western) Latin Church, centered on Rome, which uses the Latin liturgical rites. The terms "Eastern" and "Western" in this regard originated with geographical divisions in Christianity mirroring the cultural divide between the Hellenistic East and the Latin West, and the political divide of 395 AD between the Western and Eastern Roman empires. Since the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, the term "Eastern Christianity" may be used in contrast with "Western Christianity", which contains not only the Latin Church but also Protestantism and Independent Catholicism. Some Eastern churches have more in common historically and theologically with Western Christianity than with one another.

Because the largest church in the East is the body currently known as the Eastern Orthodox Church, the term "Orthodox" is often used in a similar fashion to "Eastern", to refer to specific historical Christian communions. However, strictly speaking, most Christian denominations, whether Eastern or Western, regard themselves as "orthodox" (meaning "following correct beliefs") as well as "catholic" (meaning "universal"), and as sharing in the Four Marks of the Church listed in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (381 AD): "One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic" ().

Eastern churches (excepting the non-liturgical dissenting bodies) utilize several liturgical rites: the Alexandrian Rite, the Armenian Rite, the Byzantine Rite, the East Syriac Rite (also known as Persian or Assyrian Rite), and the West Syriac Rite (also called the Antiochian Rite).

Families of churches

Eastern Christians do not all share the same religious traditions, but many do share cultural traditions. Christianity divided itself in the East during its early centuries both within and outside of the Roman Empire in disputes about Christology and fundamental theology, as well as through national divisions (Roman, Persian, etc.). It would be many centuries later that Western Christianity fully split from these traditions as its own communion. Major branches or families of Eastern Christianity, each of which has a distinct theology and dogma, include the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox communion, the Eastern Catholic Churches and the Assyrian Church of the East.

In many Eastern churches, some parish priests administer the sacrament of chrismation to infants after baptism, and priests are allowed to marry before ordination. While all the Eastern Catholic Churches recognize the authority of the Pope of Rome, some of them who have originally been part of the Orthodox Church or Oriental Orthodox churches closely follow the traditions of Orthodoxy or Oriental Orthodoxy, including the tradition of allowing married men to become priests.

The Eastern churches' differences from Western Christianity have as much, if not more, to do with culture, language, and politics, as theology. For the non-Catholic Eastern churches, a definitive date for the commencement of schism cannot usually be given (see East–West Schism). The Church of the East declared independence from the churches of the Roman Empire at its general council in 424, which was before the Council of Ephesus in 431, and so had nothing to do with the theology declared at that council. Oriental Orthodoxy separated after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 but did not immediately formed separate patriarchates until 518, as for Syriac Patriarchate of Antioch and 536, as for Coptic Patriarchate of Alexandria.

Since the time of the historian Edward Gibbon, the split between the Church of Rome and the Orthodox Church has been conveniently dated to 1054, though the reality is more complex. This split is sometimes referred to as the Great Schism, but now more usually referred to as the East–West Schism. This final schism reflected a larger cultural and political division which had developed in Europe and Southwest Asia during the Middle Ages and coincided with Western Europe's re-emergence from the collapse of the Western Roman Empire.

The Ukrainian Lutheran Church developed within Galicia around 1926, with its rites being based on the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom, rather than on the Western Formula Missae.

Eastern Orthodox Church

The Eastern Orthodox Church is a Christian body whose adherents are largely based in Western Asia (particularly Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and Palestine) and Turkey, Eastern Europe, the Balkans and the Caucasus (Georgia, Abkhazia, Ossetia etc.), with a growing presence in the Western world. Eastern Orthodox Christians accept the decisions of the first seven ecumenical councils.

Eastern Orthodox Christianity identifies itself as the original Christian church (see early centers of Christianity) founded by Christ and the Apostles, and traces its lineage back to the early Church through the process of apostolic succession and unchanged theology and practice. Characteristics of the Eastern Orthodox Church include the Byzantine Rite (shared with some Eastern Catholic Churches) and an emphasis on the continuation of Holy Tradition, which it holds to be apostolic in nature.

The Eastern Orthodox Church is organized into self-governing jurisdictions along geographical, national, ethnic or linguistic lines. Eastern Orthodoxy is thus made up of fourteen or sixteen autocephalous bodies. Smaller churches are autonomous and each have a mother church that is autocephalous.

All Eastern Orthodox are united in doctrinal agreement with each other, though a few are not in communion at present, for non-doctrinal reasons. This is in contrast to the Catholic Church and its various churches. Members of the latter are all in communion with each other, parts of a top-down hierarchy (see ). The Eastern Orthodox reject the Filioque clause as contrast to Catholics. The Catholic Church was once in communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, but the two split after the East–West Schism and are no longer in communion.

It is estimated that there are approximately 240 million Eastern Orthodox Christians in the world. Today, many adherents shun the term "Eastern" as denying the church's universal character. They refer to Eastern Orthodoxy simply as the Orthodox Church.

Oriental Orthodoxy

Oriental Orthodoxy refers to the churches of Eastern Christian tradition that keep the faith of the first three ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church: the First Council of Nicaea (AD 325), the First Council of Constantinople (381) and the Council of Ephesus (431), while rejecting the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon (451). Hence, these churches are also called the Old Oriental churches. They comprise the Coptic Orthodox Church, the Malankara Orthodox Church (India), the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church.

Oriental Orthodoxy developed in reaction to Chalcedon on the eastern limit of the Byzantine Empire and in Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia. In those locations, there are also Eastern Orthodox patriarchs, but the rivalry between the two has largely vanished in the centuries since the schism.

Church of the East

Historically, the Church of the East was the widest reaching branch of Eastern Christianity, at its height spreading from its heartland in Persian-ruled Assyria to the Mediterranean, India, and China. Originally the only Christian church recognized by Zoroastrian-led Sassanid Persia (through its alliance with the Lakhmids, the regional rivals to the Byzantines and its Ghassanid vassal), the Church of the East declared itself independent of other churches in 424 and over the next century became affiliated with Nestorianism, a Christological doctrine advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428 to 431, which had been declared heretical in the Roman Empire. Thereafter it was often known, possibly inaccurately, as the Nestorian Church in the West. Surviving a period of persecution within Persia, the Church of the East flourished under the Abbasid Caliphate and branched out, establishing dioceses throughout Asia. After another period of expansion under the Mongol Empire, the church went into decline starting in the 14th century, and was eventually largely confined to its founding Assyrian adherent's heartland in the Assyrian homeland, although another remnant survived on the Malabar Coast of India.

In the 16th century, dynastic struggles sent the church into schism, resulting in the formation of two rival churches: The Chaldean Catholic Church, which entered into communion with Rome as an Eastern Catholic Church, and the Assyrian Church of the East. The followers of these two churches are almost exclusively ethnic Assyrians. In India, the local Church of the East community, known as the Saint Thomas Christians, experienced its own rifts as a result of Portuguese influence.

Assyrian Church of the East

The Assyrian Church of the East emerged from the historical Church of the East, which was centered in Mesopotamia/Assyria, then part of the Persian Empire, and spread widely throughout Asia. The modern Assyrian Church of the East emerged in the 16th century following a split with the Chaldean Church, which later entered into communion with Rome as an Eastern Catholic Church.

The Church of the East was associated with the doctrine of Nestorianism, advanced by Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428 to 431, which emphasized the disunion between the human and divine natures of Jesus. Nestorius and his doctrine were condemned at the Council of Ephesus in 431, leading to the Nestorian Schism in which churches supporting Nestorius split from the rest of Christianity.

Many followers relocated to Persia and became affiliated with the local Christian community there. This community adopted an increasingly Nestorian theology and was thereafter often known as the Nestorian Church. As such, the Church of the East accepts only the first two ecumenical councils of the undivided Church—the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople—as defining its faith tradition, and rapidly took a different course from other Eastern Christians.

The Church of the East spread widely through Persia and into Asia, being introduced to India by the 6th century and to the Mongols and China in the 7th century. It experienced periodic expansion until the 14th century, when the church was nearly destroyed by the collapse of the Mongol Empire and the conquests of Timur. By the 16th century it was largely confined to Iraq, northeast Syria, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran and the Malabar Coast of India (Kerala). The split of the 15th century, which saw the emergence of separate Assyrian and Chaldean Churches, left only the former as an independent sect. Additional splits into the 20th century further affected the history of the Assyrian Church of the East.

Saint Thomas Syrian Christians

The Saint Thomas Syrian Christians are an ancient body of Syrian Christians in Kerala, Malabar coast of India who trace their origins to the evangelical activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century. Many Assyrian and Jewish communities like the Knanaya and the Cochin Jews assimilated into the Saint Thomas Syrian Christian community. By the 5th century the Saint Thomas Syrian Christians were part of the Church of the East (Nestorian Church). Until the middle of the 17th century and the arrival of the Portuguese, the Thomas Christians were all one in faith and rite. Thereafter, divisions arose among them, and consequently they are today of several different rites. The East Syriac Chaldean Rite (Edessan Rite) Churches among the Saint Thomas Syrian Christians are the Syro Malabar Church and the Chaldean Syrian Church. The West Syriac Antiochian Rite Churches among the Saint Thomas Syrian Christians are the Malankara Jacobite Syrian Church, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, the Mar Thoma Syrian Church, the Syro Malankara Church and the Thozhiyur Church.

Eastern Catholic Churches

The twenty-three Eastern Catholic Churches are in communion with the Holy See at the Vatican whilst being rooted in the theological and liturgical traditions of Eastern Christianity. Most of these churches were originally part of the Orthodox East, but have since been reconciled to the Latin Church.

Many of these churches were originally part of one of the above families and so are closely related to them by way of ethos and liturgical practice. As in the other Eastern churches, married men may become priests, and parish priests administer the mystery of confirmation to newborn infants immediately after baptism, via the rite of chrismation; the infants are then administered Holy Communion.

The Syro-Malabar Church, which is part of the Saint Thomas Christian community in India, follows East Syriac traditions and liturgy. Other Saint Thomas Christians of India, who were originally of the same East Syriac tradition, passed instead to the West Syriac tradition and now form part of Oriental Orthodoxy (some from the Oriental Orthodox in India united with the Catholic Church in 1930 and became the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church). The Maronite Church claims never to have been separated from Rome, and has no counterpart Orthodox Church out of communion with the Pope. It is therefore inaccurate to refer to it as a "Uniate" Church. The Italo-Albanian Catholic Church has also never been out of communion with Rome, but, unlike the Maronite Church, it resembles the liturgical rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Dissenting movements
In addition to these four mainstream branches, there are a number of much smaller groups which originated from disputes with the dominant tradition of their original areas. Most of these are either part of the more traditional Old Believer movement, which arose from a schism within Russian Orthodoxy, or the more radical Spiritual Christianity movement. The latter includes a number of diverse "low-church" groups, from the Bible-centered Molokans to the anarchic Doukhobors to the self-mutilating Skoptsy. None of these groups are in communion with the mainstream churches listed above. There are also national dissidents, where ethnic groups want their own nation-church, such as the Macedonian Orthodox Church and the Montenegrin Orthodox Church; both are domiciles of the Serbian Orthodox Church. There are also some Reformed Churches which share characteristics of Eastern Christianity, to varying extents.

"True Orthodox" churches

Starting in the 1920s, parallel hierarchies formed in opposition to local Orthodox churches over ecumenism and other matters. These jurisdictions sometimes refer to themselves as being "True Orthodox". In Russia, underground churches formed and maintained solidarity with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia until the late 1970s. There are now traditionalist Orthodox in every area, though in Asia and Egypt their presence is negligible.

Eastern Protestant Churches

Protestant Eastern Christianity comprises a collection of heterogeneous Protestant denominations which are mostly the result of Protestant Churches adopting Reformation variants of Orthodox Christian liturgy and worship. Some others are the result of reformations of Orthodox Christian beliefs and practices, inspired by the teachings of Western Protestant missionaries. Denominations of this category include the Ukrainian Lutheran Church, St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India, Believers Eastern Church, Evangelical Orthodox Church, etc.

Byzantine Rite Lutheranism

Byzantine Rite Lutheranism arose in the Ukrainian Lutheran Church around 1926. It sprung up in the region of Galicia and its rites are based on the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom. The church suffered persecution under the Communist régime, which implemented a policy of state atheism.

Catholic–Orthodox ecumenism
Ecumenical dialogue since the 1964 meeting between Pope Paul VI and Orthodox Patriarch Athenagoras I has awoken the nearly 1,000-year hopes for Christian unity. Since the lifting of excommunications during the Paul VI and Athenagoras I meeting in Jerusalem there have been other significant meetings between Popes and Ecumenical Patriarchs of Constantinople. One of the most recent meetings was between Benedict XVI and Bartholomew I, who jointly signed the Common Declaration. It states that "We give thanks to the Author of all that is good, who allows us once again, in prayer and in dialogue, to express the joy we feel as brothers and to renew our commitment to move towards full communion".

In 2013 Patriarch Bartholomew I attended the installation ceremony of the new Catholic Pope, Francis, which was the first time any Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople had ever attended such an installation.

In 2019, Primate of the OCU Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Ukraine Epiphanius stated that "theoretically" the Orthodox Church of Ukraine and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church could in the future unite into a united church around the Kyiv throne. In 2019, the primate of the UGCC, Major Archbishop of Kyiv-Galicia Sviatoslav, stated that every effort should be made to restore the original unity of the Kyivan Church in its Orthodox and Catholic branches, saying that the restoration of Eucharistic communion between Rome and Constantinople is not a utopia.

Rejection of Uniatism
At a meeting in Balamand, Lebanon, in June 1993, the Joint International Commission for the Theological Dialogue between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church declared that these initiatives that "led to the union of certain communities with the See of Rome and brought with them, as a consequence, the breaking of communion with their Mother Churches of the East … took place not without the interference of extra-ecclesial interests"; and that what has been called "uniatism" "can no longer be accepted either as a method to be followed nor as a model of the unity our Churches are seeking" (section 12).

At the same time, the Commission stated:
 3) Concerning the Eastern Catholic Churches, it is clear that they, as part of the Catholic Communion, have the right to exist and to act in response to the spiritual needs of their faithful.
 16) The Oriental Catholic Churches who have desired to re-establish full communion with the See of Rome and have remained faithful to it, have the rights and obligations which are connected with this communion.
 22) Pastoral activity in the Catholic Church, Latin as well as Oriental, no longer aims at having the faithful of one Church pass over to the other; that is to say, it no longer aims at proselytizing among the Orthodox. It aims at answering the spiritual needs of its own faithful and it has no desire for expansion at the expense of the Orthodox Church. Within these perspectives, so that there will be no longer place for mistrust and suspicion, it is necessary that there be reciprocal exchanges of information about various pastoral projects and that thus cooperation between bishops and all those with responsibilities in our Churches, can be set in motion and develop.

Migration trends
There has been a significant Christian migration in the 20th century from the Near East. Fifteen hundred years ago Christians were the majority population in today's Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine and Egypt. In 1914 Christians constituted 25% of the population of the Ottoman Empire. At the beginning of the 21st century Christians constituted 6–7% of the region's population: less than 1% in Turkey, 3% in Iraq, 12% in Syria, 39% in Lebanon, 6% in Jordan, 2.5% in Israel/Palestine and 15–20% in Egypt.

As of 2011 Eastern Orthodox Christians are among the wealthiest Christians in the United States. They also tend to be better educated than most other religious groups in America, having a high number of graduate (68%) and post-graduate (28%) degrees per capita.

Role of Christians in Arabic culture

Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of Islam, and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the Middle East and North Africa and other areas. Byzantine science played an important and crucial role in the transmission of classical knowledge to the Islamic world.

Christians, especially Nestorians, contributed to the Arab Islamic Civilization during the Umayyads and the Abbasids by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards to Arabic. They also excelled in philosophy, science (such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Qusta ibn Luqa, Masawaiyh, Patriarch Eutychius, Jabril ibn Bukhtishu etc.) and theology (such as Tatian, Bar Daisan, Babai the Great, Nestorius, Toma bar Yacoub, etc.) and the personal physicians of the Abbasid Caliphs were often Assyrian Christians such as the long serving Bukhtishus. Many scholars of the House of Wisdom were of Christian background.

A hospital and medical training center existed at Gundeshapur. The city of Gundeshapur was founded in AD 271 by the Sassanid king Shapur I. It was one of the major cities in Khuzestan province of the Persian empire in what is today Iran. A large percentage of the population was Syriacs, most of whom were Christians. Under the rule of Khusraw I, refuge was granted to Greek Nestorian Christian philosophers including the scholars of the Persian School of Edessa (Urfa), also called the academy of Athens, a Christian theological and medical university. These scholars made their way to Gundeshapur in 529 following the closing of the academy by Emperor Justinian. They were engaged in medical sciences and initiated the first translation projects of medical texts. The arrival of these medical practitioners from Edessa marks the beginning of the hospital and medical center at Gundeshapur. It included a medical school and hospital (bimaristan), a pharmacology laboratory, a translation house, a library and an observatory. Indian doctors also contributed to the school at Gundeshapur, most notably the medical researcher Mankah. Later after Islamic invasion, the writings of Mankah and of the Indian doctor Sustura were translated into Arabic at Baghdad. Daud al-Antaki was one of the last generation of influential Arab Christian writers.

Arab Christians and Arabic-Speaking Christians especially Maronites played important roles in the Nahda, and because Arab Christians formed the educated upper and bourgeois classes, they have had a significant impact in politics, business and culture, and most important figures of the Nahda movement were Christian Arabs. Today Arab Christians still play important roles in the Arab world, and Christians are relatively wealthy, well educated, and politically moderate.

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

 Julius Assfalg (ed.), Kleines Wörterbuch des christlichen Orients, Wiesbaden 1975.

External links
 Eastern Christian Churches
 Eastern Catholics  Information concerning Christians of Eastern rites who are in communion with, and under the jurisdiction of, the Pope, the Bishop of Rome.
 Byzantine Chant Studies Page
 The Greek Orthodox Church in Canada
 OrthodoxWiki
 Sample of Melkite Chant in English
 The Eastern Christian Churches
 Fellowship and Aid to the Christians of the East

Christian terminology

Eastern Christianity


"Heaven Can Wait" is a song by Michael Jackson. It was released October 30, 2001 on Jackson's album Invincible. It is one of Jackson's slowest songs. Teddy Riley and Jackson wrote the song for the group BLACKstreet. Jackson asked Riley to give the song to him.

Michael Jackson songs
2001 songs

Heaven Can Wait (Michael Jackson song)


The castor oil plant (Ricinus communis), is a plant species of the Euphorbiaceae, the sole member of the genus Ricinus and of the subtribe Ricininae. Its seed is the castor bean which is not a true bean. The castor oil plant is used as an ornamental plant in gardens and to create Castor oil. Its oil is used in the chemical industry, e.g. for polyurethane, for adhesives, dyes and lubricants. As a drug, it can be used as a laxative.

Euphorbiaceae

Castor oil plant


TrueSkill is a skill-based ranking system developed by Microsoft for use with video game matchmaking on the Xbox network. Unlike the popular Elo rating system, which was initially designed for chess, TrueSkill is designed to support games with more than two players. In 2018, Microsoft published details about an extended version of TrueSkill, named TrueSkill2.

Calculation
A player's skill is represented as a normal distribution  characterized by a mean value of  (mu, representing perceived skill) and a variance of  (sigma, representing how "unconfident" the system is in the player's  value). As such  can be interpreted as the probability that the player's "true" skill is .

On Xbox Live, players start with  and ;  always increases after a win and always decreases after a loss. The extent of actual updates depends on each player's  and on how "surprising" the outcome is to the system. Unbalanced games, for example, result in either negligible updates when the favorite wins, or huge updates when the favorite loses surprisingly.

Factor graphs and expectation propagation via moment matching are used to compute the message passing equations which in turn compute the skills for the players.

Player ranks are displayed as the conservative estimate of their skill, . This is conservative, because the system is 99% sure that the player's skill is actually higher than what is displayed as their rank.

The system can be used with arbitrary scales, but Microsoft uses a scale from 0 to 50 for Xbox Live. Hence, players start with a rank of . This means that a new player's defeat results in a large sigma loss, which partially or completely compensates their mu loss. This explains why people may gain ranks from losses.

Use in other projects
TrueSkill is patented, and the name is trademarked, so it is limited to Microsoft projects and commercial projects that obtain a license to use the algorithm.

See also
 Software patents

References

External links
 Microsoft Research's TrueSkill homepage
 Microsoft Research's TrueSkill paper
 In-depth explanation of the mathematical background

Tournament rating systems
Games for Windows
Xbox network

TrueSkill


Integra Signum was a publicly traded Swiss company active in train control and signaling systems. Its main achievement was the development of the train control system Integra-Signum, which was subsequently adopted by the Swiss Federal Railways in 1933. In addition, many Swiss railway stations were (and continue to be) equipped with the company's signal boxes from the Domino 55, Domino 67, or Domino 69 series. Headquartered in Wallisellen, the company existed from the late 19th century until January 1, 1992, when it was acquired by Siemens. Siemens renamed the company to Siemens Integra Verkehrstechnik. It is now a division of Siemens Mobility.

References
 History of Siemens (Schweiz) AG (in German)
 History of the company's location in Wallisellen (in German)

Further reading
 Railway signaling company in India started by Integra Signum
 Examples of Domino 69 signal boxes developed by Integra Signum

Defunct companies of Switzerland
Railway companies of Switzerland

Integra Signum


David Sherman Boardman (December 8, 1768 – December 2, 1864) was an American lawyer, judge, and state assemblyman in the early United States.

The youngest child of Deacon Sherman and Sarah (Bostwick) Boardman, he lived for nearly his entire life in New Milford. He was born at a farm near Housatonic, and suffered severe illness. For a time this illness  Attendance at school in his father's house for a few months, and in the village for four months at the age of fourteen, gave him all the common-school education he received.

For a time, failure in his eyesight seemed to bar him from further education; however in 1791, after stints in local boarding schools, he matriculated at Yale University. Near the end of his first semester, he was elected member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society. He graduated in 1793.

In 1796 Yale President Dwight proposed to nominate him as a tutor, but he had already been admitted to the Bar, and declined the offer. He opened an office in his native town. He practiced in Litchfield and Fairfield counties. After thirty-six years, he was appointed for five successive years Chief Judge of the County Court for Litchfield County, before he was displaced for political reasons. He was made Judge of Probate for the district of New Milford in 1805, and held the place by successive annual appointments for sixteen years. He was Justice of the Peace for thirty-two years. He was elected Representative to the General Assembly eight times. In 1808, he was elected a member of the Connecticut Society of Arts and Sciences, and was Vice-President of the Connecticut Historical Society from its first establishment.

He married May 18, 1806, Charlotte Taylor, the daughter of Nathaniel Taylor, Esq., and they had seven children. John Taylor, April 17, 1807; Catharine Ann, December 12, 1808, died October 9, 1811; George William, February 26, 1811, died September 23, 1815; Charles Sherman, December 4, 1812, died October 26, 1815; Augustus, April 19, 1814, died October 31, 1815; Frederick, July 20, 1817, died July 17, 1876, and Mary Cornelia, May 29, 1819.

In March 1838, he was admitted with his wife to the fellowship of the Congregational Church.

He was from the first to the last a Washingtonian Federalist. At ten years, he had seen Washington in an encampment some twenty miles off. A local party of Jeffersonians was early organized in New Milford and supported by two of his brothers, but this circumstance did not abate the form of his allegiance to federalist principles, nor on the other hand did it weaken the tenderness of his fraternal love.

Henry Clay and Daniel Webster were the objects of his profoundest admiration. He rarely wrote for publication. He contributed however a few papers of great value for the newspapers, and for the New Englander of November 1858, a review of Mr. J. C. Hamilton's History of the United States, as traced in the writings of Alexander Hamilton, also for the American Quarterly Church Review for January 1859, a review of Parton's Life and Times of Aaron Burr, and in 1860 a pamphlet entitled Early Lights of the Litchfield Bar.

Bibliography
Kilborn, Dwight Canfield (2002). The Bench and Bar of Litchfield County, Connecticut, 1709-1909. Clark, NJ: Lawbook Exchange.
Klafter, Craig Evan (1993). Reason Over Precedent. Wesport: Greenwood Press.
Orcutt, Samuel (1882). ''History of the Towns of New Milford and Bridgewater, (Litchfield County), Connecticut, 1703-1882.

External links
 Freepages Genealogy

1786 births
1864 deaths
Connecticut lawyers
Connecticut state court judges
Connecticut Federalists
Members of the Connecticut House of Representatives
Yale University alumni
18th-century American lawyers
19th-century American lawyers
19th-century American judges
19th-century American politicians

David Sherman Boardman


The Pura Cup (formerly known as the Sheffield Shield) is a first class cricket competition in Australia. The six state teams play in a round-robin series of 4-day matches against every other team. After each pair of teams have played each other twice, the two highest ranked teams play a 5-day final.

Sports trophies and awards
Cricket

Pura Cup


"A Song in Storm" is a poem written by Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936).

It has been set to music by two English composers Edward German and Edward Elgar.

German set the poem for voice and piano in 1916, with the title "Be well assured," which is the first phrase of the poem.

Elgar set the poem in 1917, with the title "Fate's Discourtesy," as the second of a set of four war-related verses by Kipling on nautical subjects for which he chose the title "The Fringes of the Fleet". The phrase "Fate's discourtesy" leads in the refrain to all three verses of the poem.  Like the other songs in the cycle, is intended for four baritone voices: a solo and chorus.  It was originally written with orchestral accompaniment, but it was later published to be sung with piano accompaniment.

T. S. Eliot included the poem in his 1941 collection A Choice of Kipling's Verse.

References

External links
Sea Warfare - The Fringes of the Fleet Notes by Alastair Wilson
A Song in Storm on the Lied and Art Song Texts Page

Poetry by Rudyard Kipling

A Song in Storm


Punta Cana, named after a local cape, is a region in the easternmost tip of the Dominican Republic. Covering about 4,200,000 m2 (about 1,100 acres), the region is home to a coastline of sandy white beaches and to a town of the same name. A region once named Punta de Borrachón was merged with Punta Cana by the founding investors in 1969.

Geography of the Dominican Republic

Punta Cana


Linda Christian (November 13, 1923 – July 22, 2011) was a Mexican actress. She appeared in Mexican and Hollywood movies. She worked mostly in the 1940s and 1950s. She was the first Bond girl, appearing in the 1954 movie Casino Royale.

Christian was born Blanca Rose Welter in Tampico, Mexico. She died in Palm Desert, California at age eighty-seven.

1923 births
2011 deaths
Actresses who played Bond girls
Mexican movie actors
Mexican television actors

Linda Christian


Three Czech Dances (H. 154) is a set of three solo piano pieces written by the Czech composer Bohuslav Martinů, written in 1926, premiered in 1927, and published in 1929.

Out of the three pieces in the set, two were given the names of traditional Czech dances, Obkročák ("Stepping Round"), and Dupák ("Stomp Dance"), while the third was named Polka. The total duration is approximately ten minutes.

All three pieces have dedications, the first to John Herman, the second to Molié Denyse, and the third to Jeane Mortier. Mortier premiered the entire work, although in segments. The second and third pieces were premiered on 7 March 1927, while the third was premiered on 17 March 1927. Both premier performances took place in Paris.

The manuscript is currently in storage at the Bibliotheque Nationale de France in the Max Eschig depository. Eschig was the publisher of the first edition, in Paris, with copyright attributes to Max Eschig, Paris. This edition is still the only one in print.

An earlier autograph can also be found in the Martinu Centre located in Polička.

References

 http://www.classicalarchives.com/work/340899.html
 https://web.archive.org/web/20160305074147/http://music.yahoo.com/radoslav-kvapil/tracks/ceske-tance-czech-dances-ii-vii-obkrocak-stepping-round--222618018
 https://web.archive.org/web/20160305075516/http://new.music.yahoo.com/radoslav-kvapil/tracks/ceske-tance-czech-dances-ii-vi-dupak-stomp-dance--222618014
 http://craton.chez.com/musique/martinu/martinu.htm
 http://katalog.martinu.cz/martinu/catshow.php?idfield=423&language=cs

1926 compositions
Compositions by Bohuslav Martinů
Compositions for solo piano
Music with dedications

Three Czech Dances (Martinů)


Thomas J. Campbell,  (October 5, 1927 – January 27, 2012) was a Canadian politician, who served as the 31st mayor of Vancouver, British Columbia from 1967 through 1972.

Campbell was born in Vancouver, where he became a lawyer. In 1962, he joined Vancouver City Council as an alderman, representing the Non-Partisan Association (NPA), a conservative civic party.  Running as an independent, Campbell beat out William Rathie in the 1966 election, ending the NPA's long, unbroken domination of city hall. In 1970, he won the NPA nod to replace Rathie as the party's mayoral nominee and again won the mayor's office.

As mayor, "Tom Terrific" (as he was both affectionately and derisively called) proved to be brash, confrontational, and controversial.  During his term, the City held a referendum which authorized the then-controversial development of an underground shopping mall and office towers, now known as Pacific Centre, Vancouver's largest development.  As the Lower Mainland's population topped one million, Campbell took an assertively pro-development stance, advocating a freeway that would cut through a large part of Downtown Eastside, the demolition of the historic Carnegie Centre, and the construction of a luxury hotel at the entrance of Stanley Park (the Bayshore Inn) and another at the north foot of Burrard in which it turned out the mayor had invested (it is now an apartment building and never became a hotel).

Campbell was a vocal supporter of the Social Credit government of Premier W.A.C. Bennett. Campbell was re-elected in the 1968 and 1970 elections by large majorities.

It is, however, Campbell's confrontations with the city's burgeoning youth counterculture for which he is best remembered. They included attempts to suppress and shut down the alternative newspaper, The Georgia Straight, whose editor Dan McLeod was repeatedly beaten by city police and the blocking of the final concert of the 1970 Festival Express rock and roll tour, which was held in Calgary to avoid risking a confrontation with the Vancouver mayor's stated intention to use police to stop the festival. There was even an incident in August, 1971, when Vancouver police charged on horseback into a group of about a thousand hippies having a "smoke-in" on the streets of Gastown. That came to be known as the Gastown Riots and led to the arrests of 79 people, of whom 38 were charged with various offences. A judicial inquiry later criticized the action, characterizing it as a police riot.

Campbell chose not to run for re-election in November 1972 and returned to private life and legal practice. He died in 2012.

References

External links
 1971 Report of Mr. Justice Dohm on the Gastown Riots, from the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association
CBC television clip of Doug Collins interviewing Tom Campbell about Vancouver's hippie problem.

1927 births
2012 deaths
Lawyers in British Columbia
Mayors of Vancouver
20th-century Canadian politicians

Tom Campbell (Canadian politician)


Balgitzin ( Valgítzin; died 704), in the account of Theophanes the Confessor, was the Khazar tudun of Phanagoria during the sojourn of Justinian II in that town. He was dispatched, along with Papatzys, by Busir Khagan to kill Justinian in 704, after Busir was bribed by Tiberius III. Justinian's Khazar wife Theodora warned him in advance and Justinian escaped by sea, but not before murdering both Papatzys and Balgitzin.

Some scholars, notably Peter B. Golden, have speculated that Balgitzin is not a proper name but rather a title, identical with Baliqchi.

Sources
Peter B. Golden. Khazar Studies: An Historico-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the Khazars. Vol. 1. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1980.

7th-century births
704 deaths
Khazar people
Medieval Crimea

Balgitzin


Maria of Gaeta (born  1020) was an Italian regent, countess of Aquino by marriage and regent of the Duchy of Gaeta for her son in 1062–65.

She was daughter of Pandulf IV of Capua and Maria, was the wife (from before 1038) of Atenulf, count of Aquino, while her sister Sikelgaita was the wife of Atenulf's brother Lando. According to Amatus of Montecassino, Atenulf was consequently supported by Pandulf in taking the duchy of Gaeta from Asclettin, Count of Aversa, on the death of Ranulf Drengot in 1045.

Her eldest son was betrothed to a daughter of Richard I of Capua in 1058, but died before the marriage could take place. Richard extorted the morgengab anyway and Gaeta became a feudatory of Capua.

As senatrix and ducissa of Gaeta, Maria ruled as regent for her and Atenulf's son Atenulf II after her husband's death on 2 February 1062. On 1 June, a pact was confirmed between Maria and the counts of Traietto, Maranola, and Suio. The allies were excluded from forming any pact with the Normans and sworn to protect the territory of the Gaetan duchy. The treaty was finalised at Traietto and was to last for a year. The league was successful in preventing Richard of Capua from extending his conquests during the year. However, Richard skillfully negotiated to prevent a renewal of the pact and on 28 June 1063, he was in possession of Gaeta.

Maria allied with the counts of Traietto and Aquino, her sons Lando and the aforementioned Atenulf, and with William of Montreuil, who repudiated his wife in order to marry her, in late 1064. In February 1065, the revolted were put down by Richard of Capua and Maria and William were expelled from Gaeta. Richard offered to compensate her by marrying her to his son Jordan.

Notes

Sources
Chalandon, Ferdinand. Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicilie. Paris, 1907.

1020s births
11th-century deaths
11th-century Italian women
11th-century Italian nobility
11th-century women rulers

Maria of Gaeta


A spit is a stretch of land or sand which projects out to sea. It is joined to the mainland at one end. Spits are created by deposition of sand.

Spits are formed where the prevailing wind blows at an angle to the coastline. The sand on the beach is moved by the waves along the shore, which is called 'longshore drift'. The sand collects at the end to form a spit. An example of a spit is Spurn Head, along the Holderness coast in Humberside near Hull.

Landforms

Spit (landform)


Shabbat is the name of the day of rest in Judaism. Shabbat happens on the seventh day (Saturday) of every week.  In Judaism, the day is defined with the cycle of the sun: The day begins and ends at sunset, not midnight.  So the seventh day of the week, Shabbat, begins Friday when the sun goes down, and ends Saturday night after it gets dark.  The idea of Shabbat comes from the Bible's story of Creation. In that story, God creates the Universe and everything on Earth for six days. On the seventh day, he stops work. In the same way, Jews work on the first six days of the week and rest on the seventh day, Shabbat.

The word Shabbat began as a Hebrew word (). The English word "Sabbath" comes from the word "Shabbat". The English word can also be used to refer to Shabbat. The Christian idea of Sabbath came from the Jewish idea of Shabbat. Now, there are many differences between them.

The first part of the Jewish Bible, the Torah, says that work is not allowed on Shabbat. It is a day to rest and study the Torah.

In Jewish law, Shabbat is the most important Jewish holiday. It is even more important than Passover, Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.  Jewish mystics say that the Shabbat day is meant to be like a perfect world. In this world, everyone knows about God and loves him.  They believe that kind of world has not been seen since the Garden of Eden, and will not be seen again until the Messiah comes.

Two parts of Shabbat: celebrating and guarding
There are two versions of the Ten Commandments in the Bible. These versions use different words.  The version in Exodus says "Remember Shabbat to keep it holy."  The version in Deuteronomy says "Guard Shabbat to keep it holy."  Jewish custom says that "remember" means to celebrate Shabbat.  "Guard" means resting—not working or doing business.

Celebrating Shabbat

Shabbat is a happy day. There are many ceremonies of Shabbat that help people celebrate the happiness of the day.

Shabbat candles.  It is a Jewish law that no one may light a fire after Shabbat starts.  Because of this, someone in every home lights candles just before Shabbat.  The woman of the house  usually lights the candles, but not always.  The candles should last until the people in the house finish dinner.  By lighting candles when Shabbat begins, Jews make certain they will have lights in the home when they celebrate.  This adds to the joy of the celebration.  Having candles on Shabbat is a very old Jewish custom.
Blessings on wine.  A verse in the Bible's Book of Psalms says, "Wine makes the heart of a person happy." Because of this verse, Jews usually celebrate happy occasions with wine.  The two main Shabbat meals start with a blessing over a cup of wine.  Most of the time, the cup that people use for this blessing—called Kiddush—is fancy. (See picture at right.)
Three Shabbat meals.  On every Shabbat, Jews have three meals.  The first is at night, after the Friday night prayer service.  The second is at noon, after the Saturday morning prayer service.  The third is late Saturday afternoon, just before Shabbat ends.
Each of the first two meals begins with a blessing over wine.  Next, there is a blessing on bread.  In the Bible, God gave the Israelites two portions of manna every Friday so they would not need to collect it on Shabbat. At each of the first two Shabbat meals, there are two loaves of bread. This is to remind them of the double portion of manna. At these meals, Jews serve the best food they have money to buy.  They use their best plates and silverware. At each meal, they sing special songs, called zemirot, to honor Shabbat.  The first two Shabbat meals are large and formal.
The third Shabbat meal is often smaller and less formal.  Some Jews include bread in this meal, while others do not.  Many people call this meal Shalosh Seudot ("three meals") because eating this meal completes the full set of three meals for Shabbat.  This meal is often accompanied by zemirot and Torah study.
Shabbat prayer services.  Shabbat prayer services are organized much like weekday prayer services.  There are some changes from the weekday order.  The most noticeable changes are:
A special service, Kabbalat Shabbat ("Receiving Shabbat") is added between Friday's afternoon and evening prayers.
The Amidah prayer is changed on Shabbat.  During the week, the Amidah includes thirteen blessings asking for God's help with everyday life.  On Shabbat, those are replaced by a single blessing thanking God for the rest day of Shabbat.
The set of Psalms which is read at the start of the morning prayers is made longer on Shabbat.
The entire weekly Torah portion is read out loud from a handwritten parchment scroll.
An additional Amidah, called Musaf ("additional service"), is added near the end of morning prayers.  This prayer is said in place of the additional offeringdef. n2 that was brought to the Temple in Jerusalem each Shabbat.
During the Saturday afternoon prayers, the beginning of the Torah portion for the next week is read out loud.
Other kinds of celebrating.  Oneg Shabbat, which means "enjoying Shabbat", is an important part of the day.  Some of the ways Jews enjoy Shabbat were already  described above.  Other ways include wearing nice clothing, socializing with friends and family, physically resting or sleeping, studying Torah and other religious books, and marital relations (sex between a husband and wife).

Guarding Shabbat—rest and work on Shabbat

Enjoying Shabbat is very important, but Shabbat is a holy day.  There are laws and rules in the Torah, the Mishnah and the Talmud about what Jews may and may not do on Shabbat.  These laws help Jews keep Shabbat as a holy day.
39 prohibited categories of work.  The Mishnah lists 39 categories of work (Hebrew: melachah) that Jews should not do on Shabbat.  The laws about what actions are in each category are complicated.  All the categories are about making new things or repairing or cleaning old things to make them useful again.

Here is a partial list of work categories not allowed on Shabbat:
Lighting a fire
Carrying anything outdoors in a public space
Cooking
Cleaning, except some washing for hygiene (like washing your hands before eating, or cleaning a fresh cut in the skin)
Traveling more than about 3 km (2 miles) from your city or home
Writing
Farming work
Sewing and weaving
Building or tearing down
Preventions. A prevention (Hebrew: shevut) is an action that does not fall into one of the 39 categories of work, but is still prohibited.  Rabbis prohibited these activities so that Jews would not do work in one of the 39 categories (even by accident or carelessness).
Buying and selling things with money is a prohibited prevention. It is not in of the 39 categories of work.  But someone who buys or sells things might do something in the 39 categories of work because of it.  For example, she might write a receipt or carry what she buys in a public space.
Electricity on Shabbat.  Useful electricity is much newer than the laws of Shabbat.  Rabbis have worked hard to try to understand how electricity fits into the laws of Shabbat.  They have written whole books on the subject.  Most Orthodox Jewish rabbis—but not all—have decided that:
Using electricity to make something very hot (like an oven or a light bulb) is the same as lighting a fire or cooking.  Using electricity this way is in the 39 categories of prohibited work.
Using electricity to do anything in the 39 categories of prohibited work is not allowed.
Using electricity for most other things is a prohibited prevention.  This includes talking on a telephone or using a computer.
Some electrical devices (like lights) can remain on if started before Shabbat.
Saving a human life.  Jews learn from  that one must violate the laws of Shabbat to save a human life.  Sometimes, there are two different ways to save a life.  Then the person should try to pick the way that violates Shabbat least.  But that is not always possible.  And saving a life always comes first.  Even if someone is not sure he will be successful to save a life, trying to save life on Shabbat always comes first.

Shabbat in non-Orthodox Judaism

Conservative Judaism also teaches Jews not to do activities in the 39 prohibited categories of work (melacha). Conservative rabbis are often less strict about what is melacha than Orthodox rabbis are.  Conservative rabbis are almost always less strict about what is a prevention (shevut) than Orthodox rabbis.  For example, Conservative rabbis allow Jews to use electricity on Shabbat for many purposes.  They do not allow Jews to use electricity to do any of the 39 prohibited categories of work.

Many, if not most, lay members (not rabbis or prayer leaders) of Conservative synagogues in North America do not follow these laws.  Progressive Judaism, including Reform Judaism, does not accept Jewish law as binding. These Jews may rest on Shabbat, but are not usually strict about not doing melacha or shevut. They may even add practices not allowed under Orthodox Jewish law that they think improves their celebration of Shabbat. For example, they may drive to synagogue on Shabbat, or may use musical instruments on Shabbat. Orthodox Judaism does not allow either of those actions on Shabbat.

Havdalah: Ending Shabbat

Shabbat ends after dark on Saturday night. The end of Shabbat is marked by a ceremony called Havdalah ().  This is a Hebrew word meaning "division" or "separation".  The ceremony "divides" or "separates" the holy day of Shabbat from the new week.  The Havdalah blessings are spoken over a cup of wine.  The Havdalah ceremony also uses spices with a nice smell and a candle with many wicks (cloth strings for lighting).  After Havdalah, people start doing regular weekday things again.

Sources
Note 1. Sources here may not be in Simple English.
Note 2. Some Bible sources below include a Simple English version of the Jewish Publication Society's 1917 English translation.  All Bible sources below include a link to the 1917 translation and the original Hebrew text.

Other websites

Jewish festivals and holidays

Shabbat


A bicycle path is a way marked for people on bicycles to use.

Many bicycle path networks can be found in countries such as Denmark or Netherlands, which has had a national system of cycle routes since 1993. These networks may use routes dedicated exclusively to cycle traffic or minor rural roads whose use is otherwise restricted to local motor traffic and agricultural machinery. A safe way to go on a bicycle is when you have a bicycle path. These are made in places where bicycle safety is given consideration, so you do not have to cycle in busy traffic on dangerous roads.

The Dutch word Fietspad means Bicycle Path in English. In the Netherlands you can go on the bicycle path to the shops, housing, stations, schools, and workplaces.

The more sensible approach is based on efforts to increase Utility cycling. In countries like Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany the high levels of utility cycling also includes shopping trips e.g. 9% of all shopping trips in Germany are by bicycle.

References

Cycling

Bicycle path


Surface-mount technology (SMT), originally called planar mounting, is a method in which the electrical components are mounted directly onto the surface of a printed circuit board (PCB). An electrical component mounted in this manner is referred to as a surface-mount device (SMD). In industry, this approach has largely replaced the through-hole technology construction method of fitting components, in large part because SMT allows for increased manufacturing automation which reduces cost and improves quality. It also allows for more components to fit on a given area of substrate. Both technologies can be used on the same board, with the through-hole technology often used for components not suitable for surface mounting such as large transformers and heat-sinked power semiconductors.

An SMT component is usually smaller than its through-hole counterpart because it has either smaller leads or no leads at all. It may have short pins or leads of various styles, flat contacts, a matrix of solder balls (BGAs), or terminations on the body of the component.

History

Surface-mount technology was developed in the 1960s. By 1986 surface mounted components accounted for 10% of the market at most, but was rapidly gaining popularity. By the late 1990s, the great majority of high-tech electronic printed circuit assemblies were dominated by surface mount devices.  Much of the pioneering work in this technology was done by IBM. The design approach first demonstrated by IBM in 1960 in a small-scale computer was later applied in the Launch Vehicle Digital Computer used in the Instrument Unit that guided all Saturn IB and Saturn V vehicles. Components were mechanically redesigned to have small metal tabs or end caps that could be directly soldered to the surface of the PCB.  Components became much smaller and component placement on both sides of a board became far more common with surface mounting than through-hole mounting, allowing much higher circuit densities and smaller circuit boards and, in turn, machines or subassemblies containing the boards.

Often the surface tension of the solder is enough to hold the parts to the board; in rare cases parts on the bottom or "second" side of the board may be secured with a dot of adhesive to keep components from dropping off inside reflow ovens if the part is above the limit of 30g per square inch of pad area.  Adhesive is sometimes used to hold SMT components on the bottom side of a board if a wave soldering process is used to solder both SMT and through-hole components simultaneously.  Alternatively, SMT and through-hole components can be soldered on the same side of a board without adhesive if the SMT parts are first reflow-soldered, then a selective solder mask is used to prevent the solder holding those parts in place from reflowing and the parts floating away during wave soldering. Surface mounting lends itself well to a high degree of automation, reducing labor cost and greatly increasing production rates.

Conversely, SMT does not lend itself well to manual or low-automation fabrication, which is more economical and faster for one-off prototyping and small-scale production, and this is one reason why many through-hole components are still manufactured.  Some SMDs can be soldered with a temperature-controlled manual soldering iron, but unfortunately, those that are very small or have too fine a lead pitch are impossible to manually solder without expensive hot-air solder reflow equipment.  SMDs can be one-quarter to one-tenth the size and weight, and one-half to one-quarter the cost of equivalent through-hole parts, but on the other hand, the costs of a certain SMT part and of an equivalent through-hole part may be quite similar, though rarely is the SMT part more expensive.

Common abbreviations
Different terms describe the components, technique, and machines used in manufacturing. These terms are listed in the following table:

Assembly techniques

Where components are to be placed, the printed circuit board normally has flat, usually tin-lead, silver, or gold plated copper pads without holes, called solder pads.  Solder paste, a sticky mixture of flux and tiny solder particles, is first applied to all the solder pads with a stainless steel or nickel stencil using a screen printing process. It can also be applied by a jet-printing mechanism, similar to an inkjet printer.  After pasting, the boards  proceed to the pick-and-place machines, where they are placed on a conveyor belt. The components to be placed on the boards are usually delivered to the production line in either paper/plastic tapes wound on reels or plastic tubes. Some large integrated circuits are delivered in static-free trays.  Numerical control pick-and-place machines remove the parts from the tapes, tubes or trays and place them on the PCB.

The boards are then conveyed into the reflow soldering oven. They first enter a pre-heat zone, where the temperature of the board and all the components is gradually, uniformly raised to prevent thermal shock. The boards then enter a zone where the temperature is high enough to melt the solder particles in the solder paste, bonding the component leads to the pads on the circuit board. The surface tension of the molten solder helps keep the components in place, and if the solder pad geometries are correctly designed, surface tension automatically aligns the components on their pads.

There are a number of techniques for reflowing solder. One is to use infrared lamps; this is called infrared reflow. Another is to use a hot gas convection. Another technology which is becoming popular again is special fluorocarbon liquids with high boiling points which use a method called vapor phase reflow. Due to environmental concerns, this method was falling out of favor until lead-free legislation was introduced which requires tighter controls on soldering. At the end of 2008, convection soldering was the most popular reflow technology using either standard air or nitrogen gas. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. With infrared reflow, the board designer must lay the board out so that short components do not fall into the shadows of tall components. Component location is less restricted if the designer knows that vapor phase reflow or convection soldering will be used in production. Following reflow soldering, certain irregular or heat-sensitive components may be installed and soldered by hand, or in large-scale automation, by focused infrared beam (FIB) or localized convection equipment.

If the circuit board is double-sided then this printing, placement, reflow process may be repeated using either solder paste or glue to hold the components in place. If a wave soldering process is used, then the parts must be glued to the board prior to processing to prevent them from floating off when the solder paste holding them in place is melted.

After soldering, the boards may be washed to remove flux residues and any stray solder balls that could short out closely spaced component leads. Rosin flux is removed with fluorocarbon solvents, high flash point hydrocarbon solvents, or low flash solvents e.g. limonene (derived from orange peels) which require extra rinsing or drying cycles. Water-soluble fluxes are removed with deionized water and detergent, followed by an air blast to quickly remove residual water.  However, most electronic assemblies are made using a "No-Clean" process where the flux residues are designed to be left on the circuit board, since they are considered harmless. This saves the cost of cleaning, speeds up the manufacturing process, and reduces waste. However, it is generally suggested to wash the assembly, even when a "No-Clean" process is used, when the application uses very high frequency clock signals (in excess of 1 GHz). Another reason to remove no-clean residues is to improve adhesion of conformal coatings and underfill materials. Regardless of cleaning or not those PCBs, current industry trend suggests to carefully review a PCB assembly process where "No-Clean" is applied, since flux residues trapped under components and RF shields may affect surface insulation resistance (SIR), especially on high component density boards.

Certain manufacturing standards, such as those written by the IPC - Association Connecting Electronics Industries require cleaning regardless of the solder flux type used to ensure a thoroughly clean board. Proper cleaning removes all traces of solder flux, as well as dirt and other contaminants that may be invisible to the naked eye. No-Clean or other soldering processes may leave "white residues" that, according to IPC, are acceptable "provided that these residues have been qualified and documented as benign". However, while shops conforming to IPC standard are expected to adhere to the Association's rules on board condition, not all manufacturing facilities apply IPC standard, nor are they required to do so. Additionally, in some applications, such as low-end electronics, such stringent manufacturing methods are excessive both in expense and time required.

Finally, the boards are visually inspected for missing or misaligned components and solder bridging. If needed, they are sent to a rework station where a human operator repairs any errors. They are then usually sent to the testing stations (in-circuit testing and/or functional testing) to verify that they operate correctly.

Automated optical inspection (AOI) systems are commonly used in PCB manufacturing. This technology has proven highly efficient for process improvements and quality achievements.

Advantages

The main advantages of SMT over the older through-hole technique are:
 Smaller components.
 Much higher component density (components per unit area) and many more connections per component.
 Components can be placed on both sides of the circuit board.
 Higher density of connections because holes do not block routing space on inner layers, nor on back-side layers if components are mounted on only one side of the PCB.
 Small errors in component placement are corrected automatically as the surface tension of molten solder pulls components into alignment with solder pads.  (On the other hand, through-hole components cannot be slightly misaligned, because once the leads are through the holes, the components are fully aligned and cannot move laterally out of alignment.)
 Better mechanical performance under shock and vibration conditions (partly due to lower mass, and partly due to less cantilevering)
 Lower resistance and inductance at the connection; consequently, fewer unwanted RF signal effects and better and more predictable high-frequency performance.
 Better EMC performance (lower radiated emissions) due to the smaller radiation loop area (because of the smaller package) and the lesser lead inductance.
 Fewer holes need to be drilled.  (Drilling PCBs is time-consuming and expensive.)
 Lower initial cost and time of setting up for mass production, using automated equipment.
 Simpler and faster automated assembly. Some placement machines are capable of placing more than 136,000 components per hour.
 Many SMT parts cost less than equivalent through-hole parts.

Disadvantages

 SMT may be unsuitable as the sole attachment method for components that are subject to frequent mechanical stress, such as connectors that are used to interface with external devices that are frequently attached and detached.
 SMDs' solder connections may be damaged by potting compounds going through thermal cycling.
 Manual prototype assembly or component-level repair is more difficult and requires skilled operators and more expensive tools, due to the small sizes and lead spacings of many SMDs. Handling of small SMT components can be difficult, requiring tweezers, unlike nearly all through-hole components. Whereas through-hole components will stay in place (under gravitational force) once inserted and can be mechanically secured prior to soldering by bending out two leads on the solder side of the board, SMDs are easily moved out of place by a touch of a soldering iron. Without developed skill, when manually soldering or desoldering a component, it is easy to accidentally reflow the solder of an adjacent SMT component and unintentionally displace it, something that is almost impossible to do with through-hole components.
 Many types of SMT component packages cannot be installed in sockets, which provide for easy installation or exchange of components to modify a circuit and easy replacement of failed components.  (Virtually all through-hole components can be socketed.)
 SMDs cannot be used directly with plug-in breadboards (a quick snap-and-play prototyping tool), requiring either a custom PCB for every prototype or the mounting of the SMD upon a pin-leaded carrier. For prototyping around a specific SMD component, a less-expensive breakout board may be used. Additionally, stripboard style protoboards can be used, some of which include pads for standard sized SMD components. For prototyping, "dead bug" breadboarding can be used.
 Solder joint dimensions in SMT quickly become much smaller as advances are made toward ultra-fine pitch technology. The reliability of solder joints becomes more of a concern, as less and less solder is allowed for each joint. Voiding is a fault commonly associated with solder joints, especially when reflowing a solder paste in the SMT application. The presence of voids can deteriorate the joint strength and eventually lead to joint failure.
 SMDs, usually being smaller than equivalent through-hole components, have less surface area for marking, requiring marked part ID codes or component values to be more cryptic and smaller, often requiring magnification to be read, whereas a larger through-hole component could be read and identified by the unaided eye.  This is a disadvantage for prototyping, repair, rework, reverse engineering, and possibly for production set-up.

Rework

Defective surface-mount components can be repaired by using soldering irons (for some connections), or using a non-contact rework system. In most cases a rework system is the better choice because SMD work with a soldering iron requires considerable skill and is not always feasible.

Reworking usually corrects some type of error, either human- or machine-generated, and includes the following steps:

 Melt solder and remove component(s)
 Remove residual solder (may be not required for some components)
 Print solder paste on PCB, directly or by dispensing or dipping
 Place new component and reflow.

Sometimes hundreds or thousands of the same part need to be repaired. Such errors, if due to assembly, are often caught during the process. However, a whole new level of rework arises when component failure is discovered too late, and perhaps unnoticed until the end user of the device being manufactured experiences it. Rework can also be used if products of sufficient value to justify it require revision or re-engineering, perhaps to change a single firmware-based component. Reworking in large volume requires an operation designed for that purpose.

There are essentially two non-contact soldering/desoldering methods: infrared soldering and soldering with hot gas.

Infrared
With infrared soldering, the energy for heating up the solder joint is transmitted by long-, medium- or short-wave infrared electromagnetic radiation.

Advantages:

 Easy setup
 No compressed air required for the heating process (some systems use compressed air for cooling)
 No requirement for different nozzles for many component shapes and sizes, reducing cost and the need to change nozzles
 Very uniform heating possible, assuming high quality IR heating systems
 Gentle reflow process with low surface temperatures, assuming correct profile settings
 Fast reaction of infrared source (depends on system used)
 Closed loop temperature control directly on the component possible by applied thermocouple or pyrometric measurement. This allows compensation of varying environmental influences and temperature losses. Enables use of the same temperature profile on slightly different assemblies, as the heating process adapts itself automatically. Enables (re)entry into the profile even on hot assemblies
 Direct setting of target profile temperatures and gradients possible through direct control of component temperature in each individual soldering process.
 No increased oxidation due to strong blowing of the solder joints with hot air, reduces flux wear or flux blowing away
 Documentation of the temperature elapsed on the component for each individual rework process possible

Disadvantages:

 Temperature sensitive nearby components must be shielded from heat to prevent damage, which requires additional time for every board
 On short wavelength IR only: Surface temperature depends on the component's albedo: dark surfaces will be heated more than lighter surfaces
 Convective loss of energy at the component possible
 No reflow atmosphere possible (but also not required)

Hot gas
During hot gas soldering, the energy for heating up the solder joint is transmitted by a hot gas. This can be air or inert gas (nitrogen).

Advantages:

 Some systems allow switching between hot air and nitrogen
 Standard and component-specific nozzles allow high reliability and faster processing
 Allow reproducible soldering profiles (depends on system used)
 Efficient heating, large amounts of heat can be transferred
 Even heating of the affected board area (depends on system / nozzle quality used)
 Temperature of the component will never exceed the adjusted gas temperature
 Rapid cooling after reflow, resulting in small-grained solder joints (depends on system used)

Disadvantages:

 Thermal capacity of the heat generator results in slow reaction whereby thermal profiles can be distorted (depends on system used)
 Precise, sometimes very complex, component-specific hot gas nozzles are needed to direct the hot gas to the target component. These can be very expensive.
 Today, nozzles can often no longer be deposited on the PCB by neighboring components, which means that there is no longer a closed process chamber and adjacent components can be blown on strongly from the side. This can lead to the blowing of adjacent components and even to thermal damage. In this case, adjacent components must be protected from the air flow, e.g. by covering them with polyimide tape.
 Local turbulence of the hot gas can create hot and cold spots on the heated surfaces, resulting in uneven heating. Perfectly designed, high-quality nozzles are therefore a must!
 Swirls at component edges, especially at bases and connectors, can heat these edges significantly more than other surfaces. Overheating can occur (burns, melting of plastics)
 Losses due to environmental influences are not compensated for, since the component temperature is not measured in the production process
 Creation of a suitable reflow profile requires an adjustment and test phase, in some cases involving several stages
 A direct temperature control of the component is not possible, because the measurement of the actual component temperature is difficult due to the high gas velocity (measurement failure!)

Hybrid technology

Hybrid rework systems combine medium-wave infrared radiation with hot air

Advantages:

 Easy setup
 The low flow velocity hot air supporting the IR radiation improves heat transfer, but cannot blow away components
 Heat transfer does not depend entirely on the flow velocity of hot gas at the component/assembly surface (see hot gas)
 No requirement for different nozzles for many component shapes and sizes, reducing cost and the need to change nozzles
 Adjustment of the heating surface possible through various attachments if required
 Heating even very large / long and exotically shaped components possible, depending on the type of top heater
 Very uniform heating possible, assuming high quality hybrid heating systems
 Gentle reflow process with low surface temperatures, assuming correct profile settings
 No compressed air required for the heating process (some systems use compressed air for cooling)
 Closed loop temperature control directly on the component possible by applied thermocouple or pyrometric measurement. This allows compensation of varying environmental influences and temperature losses. Enables use of the same temperature profile on slightly different assemblies, as the heating process adapts itself automatically. Enables (re)entry into the profile even on hot assemblies
 Direct setting of target profile temperatures and gradients possible through direct control of component temperature in each individual soldering process.
 No increased oxidation due to strong blowing of the solder joints with hot air, reduces flux wear or flux blowing away
 Documentation of the temperature elapsed on the component for each individual rework process possible

Disadvantages

 Temperature sensitive nearby components must be shielded from heat to prevent damage, which requires additional time for every board. Shield must cover also from gas flow
 Convective loss of energy at the component possible

Packages

Surface-mount components are usually smaller than their counterparts with leads, and are designed to be handled by machines rather than by humans.  The electronics industry has standardized package shapes and sizes (the leading standardisation body is JEDEC).

Identification

 Resistors For 5% precision SMD resistors usually are marked with their resistance values using three digits: two significant digits and a multiplier digit. These are quite often white lettering on a black background, but other colored backgrounds and lettering can be used. For 1% precision SMD resistors, the code is used, as three digits would otherwise not convey enough information. This code consists of two digits and a letter: the digits denote the value's position in the E96 Series of values, while the letter indicates the multiplier.
 Capacitors Non-electrolytic capacitors are usually unmarked and the only reliable method of determining their value is removal from the circuit and subsequent measurement with a capacitance meter or impedance bridge. The materials used to fabricate the capacitors, such as nickel tantalate, possess different colours and these can give an approximate idea of the capacitance of the component.  Generally physical size is proportional to capacitance and (squared) voltage for the same dielectric. For example, a 100 nF, 50 V capacitor may come in the same package as a 10 nF, 150 V device. SMD (non-electrolytic) capacitors, which are usually monolithic ceramic capacitors, exhibit the same body color on all four faces not covered by the end caps. SMD electrolytic capacitors, usually tantalum capacitors, and film capacitors are marked like resistors, with two significant figures and a multiplier in units of picofarads or pF, (10−12 farad.)
 Inductors Smaller inductance with moderately high current ratings are usually of the ferrite bead type. They are simply a metal conductor looped through a ferrite bead and almost the same as their through-hole versions but possess SMD end caps rather than leads. They appear dark grey and are magnetic, unlike capacitors with a similar dark grey appearance. These ferrite bead type are limited to small values in the nanohenry (nH) range and are often used as power supply rail decouplers or in high frequency parts of a circuit. Larger inductors and transformers may of course be through-hole mounted on the same board. SMT inductors with larger inductance values often have turns of wire or flat strap around the body or embedded in clear epoxy, allowing the wire or strap to be seen. Sometimes a ferrite core is present also. These higher inductance types are often limited to small current ratings, although some of the flat strap types can handle a few amps. As with capacitors, component values and identifiers for smaller inductors are not usually marked on the component itself; if not documented or printed on the PCB, measurement, usually removed from the circuit, is the only way of determining them. Larger inductors, especially wire-wound types in larger footprints, usually have the value printed on the top. For example, "330", which equates to a value of 33μH.
 Discrete semiconductors Discrete semiconductors, such as diodes and transistors are often marked with a two- or three-symbol code. The same code marked on different packages or on devices from different manufacturers can translate to different devices. Many of these codes, used because the devices are too small to be marked with more traditional numbers used on larger packages, correlate to more familiar traditional part numbers when a correlation list is consulted. GM4PMK in the United Kingdom has prepared a correlation list, and a similar .pdf list is also available, although these lists are not complete.
 Integrated circuits Generally, integrated circuit packages are large enough to be imprinted with the complete part number which includes the manufacturer's specific prefix, or a significant segment of the part number and the manufacturer's name or logo.

See also

 Board-to-board connectors
 Chip carrier
 Electronics
 Electronics manufacturing services
 List of electronics package dimensions
 List of integrated circuit packaging types
 Plastic leaded chip carrier
 Point-to-point construction
 Printed circuit board
 RoHS
 SMT placement equipment
 Through-hole technology
 Wire wrap
 RKM code

References

Chip carriers
Electronic design
Electronics manufacturing

de:Surface-mounted device

Surface-mount technology


An evacuation slide is an inflatable slide used to evacuate an aircraft quickly.  An escape slide is required on all passenger-carrying aircraft if the door is too high for passengers to step down from the aircraft uninjured. Federal Aviation Administration requires slides on doors where the floor is  or more above the ground.

Some slides are designed to act also as life rafts if the plane lands in the water.

Aviation safety

Evacuation slide


Charles A. White (July 7, 1881 – October 7, 1925) was an American organized labor lobbyist and politician.

He was born in Knoxville, Tennessee, to Sarah Householder and Jesse Alexander White. Married Ruth Lillian Shaw from Ohio. Died October 7, 1925, Detroit, Michigan, buried in Woodlawn Cemetery, Ada, Ohio.

Charles left Knoxville during the early 1900s and went to St. Louis, Missouri. 1903 he began working as a conductor on an interurban railway in St. Clair County, Illinois. He joined the car men's union and soon became an active member and a champion of organized labor.

White was heavily involved in the union and in 1907 was selected as one of the Representatives of organized labor to attend the Session of the 45th Illinois General Assembly. He was a "labor lobbyist." He was only 24 years old. In 1908 he became a candidate from St. Clair County for the next Legislature. He was elected in November, 1908, by a large vote.

White found corruption in the Legislature and took it upon himself to expose it. One of the main issues was bribery. The Chicago Tribune carried stories about him. With this exposure, White lost his popularity. He called it the "Jackpot Exposure." He was crucified for his findings. William A. Prentiss wrote a booklet about Charles White telling his stories. In 1909 the Chicago Tribune paid Charles White $3,250 to publish his findings in the newspaper. After Charles gave the Tribune his story, they printed it to make him look like the "bad guy." Charles White was, at that time, the youngest member of the Illinois Legislature.

References

External links

1881 births
1925 deaths
People from St. Clair County, Illinois
Politicians from Knoxville, Tennessee
Workers' rights activists
Members of the Illinois House of Representatives
20th-century American politicians

Charles A. White


Tenant farming is when the person who works the farmland does not own the land themselves. The farmer pays rent  to the landowner, either with cash or with a portion of the produce. When the rent is a share of the crop, it is sharecropping.

Many freed slaves during the Reconstruction of the United States who owned no land became tenant farmers, renting land from a great landowner.

Agriculture
Labor

Tenant farming


Johannes Juliaan Gijsbert "Hans" Jansen (; 17 November 1942 – 5 May 2015) was a Dutch politician, scholar of contemporary Islam and author.

Hans Jansen belonged to the "revisionists" in Islamic Studies, i.e. he fundamentally doubted the historicity of the Islamic traditions on early Islam which were written only 150 to 200 years after Muhammad. Moreover, Jansen doubted the existence of Muhammad as a historical person.

Life and career

Hans Jansen's parents were strict Calvinists. At the age of 17, Jansen began studying theology at the University of Amsterdam, yet changed the subject after one year to Arabic and Semitic languages. In 1966 he spent one year in Cairo in order to learn Arabic. Then he continued his studies at the University of Leiden where he made his Ph.D. in 1974.

Jansen taught at the universities of Groningen, Leiden and Amsterdam, and was director of the Dutch Research Institute in Cairo. Then he became associate professor at the University of Leiden. 2003-2008 he was Houtsma Professor of Modern Islamic Thought at the University of Utrecht.

In 1988 Jansen converted to Catholicism. He later said that he then thought also about a conversion to Islam: Islam has "a very attractive and powerful culture, a high culture, great beauty. An enormous suction effect." Jansen was married twice. His first wife Eefje van Santen was daughter of the communist politician Joop van Santen. With his second wife he had three children. One of his sons is a cabaret performer.

Jansen died of a cerebral infarction at the age of 72.

Political commitment

While busy with his university studies, Jansen was member of a leftist group and left the room in protest when somebody mentioned the word "Israel". The turning point of his opinion about Islam was the assassination of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat in 1981. Some of his friends experienced the event personally.

Jansen was friend to Ayaan Hirsi Ali and Theo van Gogh. In newspaper articles, interviews and talk shows, he criticized Islam and how politics dealt with Islam. He participated in the international counter-jihad conferences in Brussels in 2007 and in 2012.

In 2008, he advised Geert Wilders about his anti-Islam movie Fitna and in 2010 he was a principal witness in the trial of Geert Wilders.

Jansen was an expert witness on the Koran and Shariah in the trial in Birmingham Magistrates Court (Crown vs Timothy Martin Burton) on 8 April 2014, which came to be known as the Birmingham Taqiyya Trial. Mr Burton was subsequently found guilty of Racially Aggravated Harassment.

In the 2014 European Parliament election, Jansen was elected for Wilders' Party for Freedom as MEP.

Research

Hans Jansen is part of the so-called "revisionist" or historical-critical line of Islamic Studies. He fundamentally doubts the historicity of the Islamic traditions on the beginning of Islam which came into being only 150 to 200 years after the event.

In his main work De Historische Mohammed (not available in English), Jansen discusses chapter by chapter the depictions in the prophet's biography by Ibn Ishaq resp. Ibn Hisham which is an important text for traditional Islam. He shows in detail, why the respective depictions are not credible. Jansen reveals self-contradictions, contradictions to other historical sources, embellishments by later authors, politically or theologically motivated distortions of the depiction, symbolic meanings of allegedly historical names, literary construction of the depiction according e.g. to biblical models, and chronological and calendrical incredibilities. In part, Jansen only sums up what other researchers already had found.

Some examples:

 Although there were leap months at the time of Muhammad which had to be intercalated frequently into the moon calendar and which only later became abandoned (allegedly by Muhammad), not a single of the many most accurately dated events depicted by Ibn Ishaq is in a leap month.
 The most accurate dating of so many events by an author who writes 150 years later is not very credible.
 The depiction of a strong relationship between Muhammad and his wife Aisha is motivated politically resp. theologically: Aisha was the daughter of Caliph Abu Bakr who became Muhammad's successor against the claims of his rival Ali. In order to legitimate this succession against the Shiites who were in favour of Ali, the relationship of Abu Bakr's daughter to Muhammad became emphasized: That Aisha allegedly was the favourite wife of Muhammad, and that the prophet consummated marriage with Aisha allegedly at an astonishingly early age.
 The depiction of slaughtering the Jewish tribe of the Banu Quraiza is motivated politically resp. theologically: As the "treaty of Medina" shows, the Jews were initially part of the Umma and were addressed as "believers"; cf. the research of Prof. Fred Donner. When Islam later separated from Judaism, antisemitic readings of the past came into being. The threefold treason of Muhammad by three Jewish tribes is a literary construction according to biblical models, e.g. the threefold treason of Jesus by the apostle Peter, and thus is historically questionable. There are other traditions about the same event which tell that only the leaders of the tribe had been punished but not each single member of the tribe. The names of the three Jewish tribes do not occur in the "treaty of Medina". Finally, such a mass slaughtering would not have gone unnoticed, even not in Muhammad's time, and especially not considering that the victims were Jews: Jews used to live in international trading networks, and Jews are known to write down their history. Most likely, the slaughtering of the Banu Quraiza never happened.
 The depictions of Ibn Ishaq are generally known to boldly exaggerate the capacities of the prophet. According to Ibn Ishaq Muhammad always kills more enemies as according to other traditions. Even the depiction of the prophet's male potency who allegedly could satisfy all his wives in one night is exaggerated in a questionable way. Of the same category is the depiction of Muhammad as an illiterate person. The revelation of the Quranic text is all the more miraculous and the capacity of the prophet is all the more astonishing if Muhammad was an illiterate person.
 The account of Muhammad's message to the emperor of Byzantium, that he should convert to Islam, retrospectively justifies the Arabic expansion as a religious, Islamic expansion.

Jansen points out that the historically questionable traditions are of great importance for the interpretation of the Quran. The Quran mostly does not reveal the situation for which a revelation was made. The historical context is merely indicated, at best. Many Islamic traditions came into being long after Muhammad on the basis of mere guesses for what situation a Quranic verse had been revealed. By the historically questionable traditions the interpretation of Quran is restricted since then.

In the epilogue, Jansen concluded that Muhammad did not exist as a historical person. Thus, Jansen belongs to a minority within the "revisionist" school which supports this position. The book De Historische Mohammed was reviewed positively e.g. by Prof. Karl-Heinz Ohlig. A respectful but critical review was given e.g. by Stefan Weidner on Qantara.de. The historian Dan Diner highly acclaimed Hans Jansen's Mohammed as a work of enlightenment.

Publications
Books in Dutch:
Inleiding tot de Islam (1987)
De Koran uit het Arabisch Vertaald door Prof. dr. J.H. Kramers (1992) (edited by Asad Jaber & Johannes J.G.Jansen)
Nieuwe Inleiding tot de Islam (1998)
Het Nut van God (2001)
God heeft gezegd: terreur, tolerantie en de onvoltooide modernisering van de islam (2003)
De radicaal-islamitische ideologie: Van Ibn Taymiyya tot Osama ben Laden, Oratie Universiteit van Utrecht, 3 februari 2004
Islam: een hoorcollege over de islamitische godsdienst en cultuur (2005, audio-cd)
De historische Mohammed: de Mekkaanse verhalen (2005)
De historische Mohammed: de verhalen uit Medina (2007)
Bombrieven (2008, correspondence with Abdul-Jabbar van de Ven)
Islam voor varkens, apen, ezels en andere beesten (2008)
Zelf Koran lezen (2008)
Eindstrijd, edited by Jansen & Snel (2009)

Books in English (Many other titles are not yet available in English):
 The Interpretation of the Koran in Modern Egypt (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974)
 The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat's Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East (New York: Macmillan, 1986)
 The Dual Nature of Islamic Fundamentalism (London: Hurst & Company, 1997)
Columns
 For the Dutch blog GeenStijl.nl

References

External links

His website, partially in English contains a list of publications and a CV.
Interview at religioscope site

1942 births
2015 deaths
Counter-jihad activists
Dutch male bloggers
Dutch political writers
Dutch columnists
Dutch Roman Catholics
Dutch critics
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Calvinism
Christian scholars of Islam
Islam in the Netherlands
Dutch Islamic studies scholars
University of Amsterdam alumni
Academic staff of Leiden University
Academic staff of Utrecht University
Linguists from the Netherlands
Reformed Churches Christians from the Netherlands
MEPs for the Netherlands 2014–2019
Party for Freedom MEPs
Writers from Amsterdam

Hans Jansen


William Lewis Moore  (April 28, 1927 – April 23, 1963) was a postal worker and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) member who staged lone protests against racial segregation. He was assassinated in Keener, Alabama, during a protest march from Chattanooga, Tennessee to Jackson, Mississippi, where he intended to deliver a letter to Governor Ross Barnett, supporting civil rights.

Life
Moore was born in Binghamton, New York, and raised in New York and Mississippi. For a time before his death he lived in Baltimore, Maryland.

In the early 1950s, when Moore was a graduate student at Johns Hopkins University, he had a mental breakdown. He was institutionalized for a year and a half with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. After being released, he became an activist on behalf of the mentally ill. He gradually got involved in civil rights activism for African Americans.

Moore joined the Congress on Racial Equality (CORE). In early 1960s, Moore undertook three civil rights protests in which he marched to a capital to hand-deliver letters he had written denouncing racial segregation.

On his first march he walked to Annapolis, Maryland, the state capital. On his second march he walked to the White House. He arrived at about the same time that Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. was being released from the Birmingham jail after protests in that city. His letter to President John F. Kennedy said that he intended to walk to Mississippi and "If I may deliver any letters from you to those on my line of travel, I would be most happy to do so."

For his third protest he planned to walk from Chattanooga, Tennessee to Jackson, Mississippi and deliver a letter to Governor Ross Barnett urging him to accept integration. He was wearing sandwich board signs stating: "Equal rights for all & Mississippi or Bust".

On April 23, 1963, about  into his march, Moore was interviewed by Charlie Hicks, a reporter from radio station WGAD in Gadsden, Alabama, along a rural stretch of U.S. Highway 11 near Attalla. The station had received an anonymous phone tip about Moore's location. In the interview, Moore said:  "I intend to walk right up to the governor's mansion in Mississippi and ring his doorbell. Then I'll hand him my letter." Concerned for Moore's safety, Hicks offered to drive him to a motel. Moore insisted on continuing his march.

Less than an hour after the reporter left the scene, a passing motorist found Moore's body about a mile farther down the road, shot twice in the head at close range with a .22 caliber rifle. The gun's ownership was traced to Floyd Simpson (a white man), whom Moore had argued with earlier that day, but no charges were ever filed against him. Moore died a week short of his 36th birthday. His letter was found and opened. In it, Moore reasoned that "the white man cannot be truly free himself until all men have their rights." He asked Governor Barnett to: "Be gracious and give more than is immediately demanded of you...."

Folk singer Phil Ochs wrote a song in tribute to William Moore that is part of the posthumously released 1986 album A Toast to Those Who Are Gone. Another tribute song (in German) for William Moore was written by East German singer/songwriter Wolf Biermann. Pete Seeger sang "William Moore, The Mailman" on his album, Broadside Ballads.

Starting April 23, 2008, Ellen Johnson and Ken Loukinen walked the  from Reece City, Alabama, near where Moore was killed, and delivered Bill Moore's original letter to the capitol in Jackson, Mississippi. Bob Zellner, a long time activist and first white Field Secretary of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee, was with them and attempted to present the letter to Governor Haley Barbour on May 6, 2008, but the latter declined to meet with the party.

Memorial

On the 47th anniversary of Moore's murder, April 23, 2010, a memorial plaque in tribute to Moore was unveiled. The plaque is permanently on display at the Greater Binghamton Transportation Center, across from Kennedy Park and down the street from the Martin Luther King Jr. Promenade, in Binghamton, New York.

A pioneer in civil rights, Moore is the only white person featured in Investigation Discovery's Injustice Files in 2011.

Historical marker
A ceremony unveiling the historic marker was held on Sunday, April 14, 2019, at the site of the murder. The Alabama Historical Society makes placement of such markers possible, but someone else has to pay for them. As the effort went forward, the Southern Poverty Law Center offered to pay the cost of the marker, estimated to be about $3,000. But Jerry Smith, Danny Crownover and Marissa Cannon, local Etowah County historians, believe the money should come locally to mark this tragic day in local history. Cannon was preparing to do some fundraising in the Attalla area when Smith got in contact with County Commissioner Johnny Grant. Grant arranged for Smith to speak to the commission, and members committed to giving money from their discretionary funds to pay for the marker. Smith said the SPLC remains involved and is making a $2,000 donation to Keener Baptist Church for its work toward the ceremony.

See also
 James Reeb
 Viola Liuzzo
 Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner
 List of unsolved deaths

References

Further reading
 Charles D. Lowery and John F. Marszalek (editors), Encyclopedia of African-American Civil Rights, pp. 365–366
 Taylor Branch, Parting The Waters, p. 748.
 Mary Stanton, Freedom Walk: Mississippi Or Bust, University Press of Mississippi, 2003

External links
 Activists take walk to remember, Gadsden Times, April 24, 2008
 Freedom Walk 2008

1927 births
1963 deaths
1963 murders in the United States
Activists for African-American civil rights
Assassinated American civil rights activists
People from Baltimore
People from Binghamton, New York
People murdered in Alabama
Deaths by firearm in Alabama
American atheists
African-American history of Alabama
Activists from New York (state)
People with schizophrenia
American activists with disabilities

William Lewis Moore