St. James Episcopal Church at 76 Federal Street at the corner of Huntington Street in New London, Connecticut is a historic church in the Episcopal Diocese of Connecticut.  The congregation was founded in 1725, and the current church – the congregation's third – was built from 1847 to 1850 to designs in the Gothic Revival style by Richard Upjohn.

The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2004.

History and architecture

First church
St. James was formed on June 6, 1725, and the first building, a wooden "] Historic Buildings of Connecticut</ref>. James Episcopal Church, New London (1850) located on New London's Parade, was opened in 1732.
An arrow was shot into the gilt wooden ball at the top of the steeple by the chief of a visiting Native American delegation.  The arrow hung there until the church was destroyed in 1781.

During the American Revolution, a number of the Parish members were loyalists.  Services stopped between mid-1775 and the fall of 1778 since tensions were high regarding the use of prayers for the King and Royal Family, and in 1778, the Parish voted "that no person be permitted to...act as a pastor...unless he openly prays for Congress...." The church was destroyed by a fire set in New London on September 6, 1781 during the Battle of Groton Heights.  British forces in New London during that engagement were under the command of Brigadier General Benedict Arnold, a native of nearby Norwich.

Samuel Seabury
After his consecration in Aberdeen Scotland on November 14, 1784, as the first bishop of the Episcopal Church (United States), Bishop Samuel Seabury (1729–1796) returned to New London in 1785 as rector of St. James. He died in New London on February 25, 1796, and is now buried in Hallam Chapel located in the undercroft of St. James.  A cenotaph designed by architect Richard Upjohn is located on the north side of the sanctuary, and his original grave slab is located outdoors on the north side of the church, now covered by a duplicate.

Second church
A new church was consecrated on September 20, 1787,  near the current site of the Salvation Army building in New London.  This was the building that served Bishop Seabury. As the Parish began to grow during the mid-1800s, it was clear that a larger building was needed.

Third church
This building, the congregation's current one, was designed by English-born architect Richard Upjohn in the Gothic Revival style.  The cornerstone was laid November 3, 1847, and the church was consecrated on June 11, 1850.  It was built in a cruciform style with north and south transepts.  There is a very prominent bell tower on the northwest corner.
St. James is an excellent example of Upjohn's architectural style.  It is notable that St. James was started the year after Upjohn completed Trinity Church (Manhattan). The New York Ecclesiological Society criticized Upjohn for the "moorish" design of the roof bracing in St. James, however, it was well received locally.

Rectory
The rectory is located on Huntington St. in one of four Greek Revival houses built between 1835 and 1845 known as Whale Oil Row.  This row of buildings is unique in Connecticut, and possibly the United States, and documents the lifestyle of their wealthy owners who worked in the whaling industry of that time.

Stained glass windows

Henry E. Sharp windows
The original stained glass windows (including the Altar window) were installed in 1850 and are believed to have been designed by the Henry E. Sharp Studio in New York.  Many of them have been replaced over the years, but several grisaille style windows remain.

Louis Comfort Tiffany windows
Starting in 1910, six of the original windows were replaced with memorial windows made by Tiffany Studio in New York. The large Tiffany windows in the north and south transepts are magnificent examples of the art form. The south transept window depicts three saints; Sebastian, Joseph (holding the infant Jesus), and Francis.  It commemorates three members of the Lawrence family: father Joseph and his two sons, Francis and Sabastian. The north transept window shows the Holy Family and was donated in memory of Lyman Allyn. The wealth that made these and the other Tiffany windows possible was derived largely from the whaling trade.

J&R Lamb Studios window
The Mansfield Memorial Window was installed in 1922 by J&R Lamb Studios and commemorates two friends who died during World War I. Nineteen-year-old Jack Morris Wright was killed while flying in France  January 24, 1918. His friend, Richard Mansfield 2nd, also nineteen, enlisted after hearing of Jack's death, and died in an Army training camp a little over three months later on April 3, 1918.  Richard was the son of famed actors Richard and Beatrice Mansfield. The window depicts the Archangel Michael unsheathing his sword behind two aviators. The lower window is inscribed with a quote  from Isaiah 40.31: "They shall mount up with wings as eagles."

Jack Morris Wright's letters from France were published by his mother in "Poet of the Air".  In Jack's letter to Richard on September 17, 1917, he said: Therefore, in urging you, I also am warning you; but once in the game, you'll find that usually death serves as a stimulant to the vitality of life and daring of flying.

Bishop Seabury window
Installed in 1962, this window depicts scenes from the life of the Rt. Rev. Samuel Seabury. The top panel contains seals of the Episcopal Church, the Diocese of Connecticut, and the two Scottish Diocese of Aberdeen, and Moray that provided Seabury's consecrators. Medallions picture Seabury's election at Glebe House in Woodbury, CT; his consecration as bishop by Scottish Bishops Robert Kilgour, John Skinner and Arthur Petrie in Aberdeen, Scotland, his first confirmation, a typical sailing vessel of the time, and the second St. James Church, in which he served as rector.

Organ
The church has an Ernest M. Skinner Organ, Opus 220, made in 1913. It was donated to the Parish by philanthropist and railroad magnate, Commodore Morton Plant, son of Henry B. Plant, in memory of his wife Nellie. The instrument has 43 ranks of pipes with four divisions and pedals, and contains 2680 pipes. Major tonal changes were made in 1952 and it was reconditioned in 2002.  The modern console is mobile and is placed at the center of the choir for organ concerts.  Silent film showings featuring live accompaniment on this organ are an annual event at St. James.

Mission and services
Among the services that the St. James congregation provides to the community of New London are a homeless shelter, a free community meal in rotation with other local churches, and The Jumble Shoppe which offers low cost clothing and household goods.  In addition, its music program is one of its core ministries.  Artists in residence include The Anglican Singers and the Eastern Connecticut Children's Choir.

St. James has a companion parish relationship with St. Margaret's of Scotland, Aberdeen in the Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in New London County, Connecticut

References

External links

 St. James Episcopal Church (New London, Connecticut)
 The Anglican Singers, Artists in residence
 Bibliographic directory on Robert Alexander Hallam (1807-1877, parish priest 1835-1877)

Richard Upjohn church buildings
Religious organizations established in the 1720s
Episcopal church buildings in Connecticut
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut
Gothic Revival church buildings in Connecticut
Churches in New London County, Connecticut
Buildings and structures in New London, Connecticut
Tourist attractions in New London, Connecticut
National Register of Historic Places in New London County, Connecticut
19th-century Episcopal church buildings


Splendor in the Grass is a 1961 American period drama film produced and directed by Elia Kazan, from a screenplay written by William Inge. It stars Natalie Wood and Warren Beatty (in his film debut) as two high school sweethearts, navigating feelings of sexual repression, love, and heartbreak. Pat Hingle, Audrey Christie, Barbara Loden, Zohra Lampert, and Joanna Roos are featured in supporting roles.

Splendor in the Grass was released theatrically on October 10, 1961, by Warner Bros. to critical and commercial success, grossing $4 million, and received two nominations at the 34th Academy Awards for Best Actress (for Wood) and Best Original Screenplay, winning the latter.

Plot

In 1928 Kansas, teenagers Wilma Dean "Deanie" Loomis and her boyfriend, Bud Stamper, want a more physically intimate relationship, but heed the advice of their parents not to become more involved for the sake of Deanie's reputation and Bud's future plans for college. Bud's sister, Ginny, a flapper, is more worldly, having returned from Chicago after an annulment and rumors of an abortion to the disappointment and shame of her parents, Mr. and Mrs. Ace Stamper. Soon, Bud rescues Ginny from an attempted rape at a New Year's Eve party, but disturbed by what he has seen, tells Deanie they should stop fooling around, and they break up.

Bud has a liaison with a friend named Juanita. Shortly afterward, Deanie explodes in anger when her mother asks if Deanie is still a virgin. Allen "Toots" Tuttle takes Deanie to a school dance where she sees Bud, and tries to entice him into having sex. Bud rebuffs her and Deanie runs back to Toots, who drives her to a private spot. While there, Deanie realizes that she can't go through with sex, at which point she is almost raped. Escaping from Toots and driven close to madness, she attempts to commit suicide by jumping in the pond, but is rescued just before reaching the waterfalls. Her parents sell their oil stock to pay for her institutionalization, and fortuitously turn a profit prior to the Crash of 1929 that leads to the Great Depression.

While Deanie is in the institution, she meets another patient, Johnny Masterson, who has anger issues targeted at his parents, who want him to be a surgeon. The two patients form a bond. Meanwhile, Bud is sent to Yale, where he fails practically all his courses but meets Angelina, the daughter of Italian immigrants who run a local restaurant in New Haven. In October 1929, Bud's father Ace travels to New Haven in an attempt to persuade the dean not to expel Bud from school; Bud then tells the dean he only aspires to own a ranch. The stock market crashes while Ace is in New Haven, and he loses almost everything. He takes Bud to New York for a weekend, including to a cabaret nightclub, then Ace commits suicide by jumping from a building – something he had been joking about just a short time earlier – and sadly, Bud must identify the body.

Deanie returns home from the asylum after two years and six months, "almost to the day." Ace's widow has gone to live with relatives, and Bud's sister has died in a car crash. Deanie's mother wants to shield her from any potential anguish from meeting Bud, so she pretends to not know where he is. When Deanie's friends from high school come over, her mother gets them to agree to feign ignorance on Bud's whereabouts. However, Deanie's father refuses to coddle his daughter and tells her that Bud has taken up ranching and lives on the old family farm. Her friends drive Deanie to meet Bud, at an old farmhouse. He is now dressed in plain clothes and married to Angelina; they have an infant son named Bud Jr. and another child on the way. Deanie lets Bud know that she is going to marry John (who is now a doctor in Cincinnati). During their brief reunion, Deanie and Bud realize that both must accept what life has thrown at them. Bud says, "What's the point? You gotta take what comes." They each relate that they "don't think about happiness very much anymore."

As Deanie leaves with her friends, Bud only seems partially satisfied by the direction his life has taken. After the others are gone, he reassures Angelina, who has realized that Deanie was once the love of his life. Driving away, Deanie's friends ask her if she is still in love with Bud. She does not answer them, but her voice is heard reciting four lines from Wordsworth's "Intimations of Immortality":
"Though nothing can bring back the hour
Of splendor in the grass, glory in the flower
We will grieve not; rather find
Strength in what remains behind."

Cast

Production

Filmed in New York City at Filmways Studios, Splendor in the Grass is based on people whom screenwriter William Inge knew while growing up in Kansas in the 1920s. He told the story to director Elia Kazan when they were working on a production of Inge's play The Dark at the Top of the Stairs in 1957. They agreed that it would make a good film and that they wanted to work together on it. Inge wrote it first as a novel, then as a screenplay.

The film's title is taken from a line of William Wordsworth's poem "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood":
What though the radiance which was once so bright
Be now for ever taken from my sight,
Though nothing can bring back the hour
Of splendour in the grass, of glory in the flower;
We will grieve not, rather find
Strength in what remains behind...

Two years before writing the screenplay for the film, Inge wrote Glory in the Flower (1953), a stage play whose title comes from the same line of the Wordsworth poem. The play relates the story of two middle-aged, former lovers who meet again briefly at a diner after a long estrangement; they are essentially the same characters as Bud and Deanie, though the names are Bus and Jackie.

Scenes of Kansas and the Loomis home were shot in the Travis section of Staten Island, New York City. Exterior scenes of the high school campus were shot at Horace Mann School in the Bronx. The gothic buildings of the North Campus of The City College of New York stand in for Yale University in New Haven. The scenes at the waterfall were shot in High Falls, New York, summer home of director Kazan.

Warren Beatty, while having appeared on television (most notably in a recurring role on The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis), made his screen debut in this film. He had met Inge the year before while appearing in Inge's play A Loss of Roses on Broadway.

Inge also made his screen debut in the film, as did Sandy Dennis who appeared in a small role as a classmate of Deanie. Marla Adams and Phyllis Diller were others who made their first appearances in this film. Diller's role was based on Texas Guinan, a famous actress and restaurateur, who owned the famous 300 Club in New York City in the 20s.

Reception
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times called the film a "frank and ferocious social drama that makes the eyes pop and the modest cheek burn"; he had comments on several of the performances:

 Pat Hingle "gives a bruising performance as the oil-wealthy father of the boy, pushing and pounding and preaching, knocking the heart out of the lad"
 Audrey Christie is "relentlessly engulfing as the sticky-sweet mother of the girl"
 Warren Beatty is a "surprising newcomer" and an "amiable, decent, sturdy lad whose emotional exhaustion and defeat are the deep pathos in the film"
 Natalie Wood has a "beauty and radiance that carry her through a role of violent passions and depressions with unsullied purity and strength. There is poetry in her performance, and her eyes in the final scene bespeak the moral significance and emotional fulfillment of this film."

Writing in Esquire magazine, however, Dwight Macdonald confirmed the notion that Elia Kazan was "as vulgar a director as has come along since Cecil B. De Mille." He further commented:

As for the performances, Variety stated that Wood and Beatty "deliver convincing, appealing performances" and Christie and Hingle were "truly exceptional," but also found "something awkward about the picture's mechanical rhythm. There are missing links and blind alleys within the story. Several times it segues abruptly from a climax to a point much later in time at which is encountered revelations and eventualities the auditor cannot take for granted. Too much time is spent focusing attention on characters of minor significance in themselves." Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "The picture does have its theatrical excesses and falls short idealistically in that its morality remains unresolved; nevertheless, it is film-making of the first order and one of the few significant American dramas we have had this year." Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post found "beauty and truth" in the story but thought "the parents' incessant nagging and unlistening ears are not convincing" and that Christie and Hingle's characters "could do all that they do in far less footage." Harrison's Reports awarded a grade of "Very Good" and wrote that the adult themes "do not blow up the story into a soap-opera bubble. The emotional cheapness and the sordid crudeness that are evidencing themselves in so many of the yarns being spun, these days, out of the sexual pattern of young, immoral behavior is not to be found here. Instead, you find a poignantly appealing and warmly touching performance of lovely Natalie Wood that gives the story meaning."  Brendan Gill of The New Yorker disagreed and slammed the film for being "as phony a picture as I can remember seeing," explaining that Inge and Kazan "must know perfectly well that the young people whom they cause to go thrashing about in 'Splendor in the Grass' bear practically no relation to young people in real life ... one has no choice but to suppose that this unwholesome sally into adolescent sexology was devised neither to instruct our minds nor to move our hearts but to arouse a prurient interest and produce a box-office smasheroo. I can't help hoping they have overplayed their hand."

Time magazine said "the script, on the whole, is the weakest element of the picture, but scriptwriter Inge can hardly be blamed for it" because it had been "heavily edited" by Kazan; the unidentified reviewer called the film a "relatively simple story of adolescent love and frustration" that has been "jargoned-up and chaptered-out till it sounds like an angry psychosociological monograph describing the sexual mores of the heartless heartland."

The film holds a score of 73% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 26 reviews.

Awards and nominations

The film ranked No. 50 on Entertainment Weeklys list of the 50 Best High School Movies. In 2002, the American Film Institute ranked Splendor in the Grass number 47 on its list of the Top 100 Greatest Love Stories of All Time.

Remake
Splendor in the Grass was re-made as the 1981 television film Splendor in the Grass with Melissa Gilbert, Cyril O'Reilly, and Michelle Pfeiffer.

In popular culture
The movie's story line and main character inspired a hit song by Shaun Cassidy entitled, "Hey Deanie." It was written by Eric Carmen, who also later recorded the song.  Cassidy's rendition reached No. 7 on the US Billboard Hot 100 during the winter of 1978.  "Hey Deanie" was the second of two songs directly inspired by the movie, the first being Jackie DeShannon's 1966 song, "Splendor in the Grass."

In 1973 Judy Blume published a young adult novel entitled Deenie. The first few lines of the book have the central character introduce herself and explain that shortly before she was born her mother saw a movie about a beautiful girl named Wilmadeene whom everybody called Deenie for short, and that the first time that she held her baby daughter she knew the baby would turn out beautiful and so named her Deenie too. Blume's Deenie goes on to explain that it took her almost 13 years to find out that the girl in the movie went crazy and "ended up on the funny farm," and that her mother advised her to forget that part of the story.

In True Detective season 2 episode 7 the movie is  featured and watched.

See also
 List of American films of 1961

References

External links

1961 films
1960s coming-of-age drama films
1961 romantic drama films
1960s teen drama films
1960s teen romance films
American coming-of-age drama films
American romantic drama films
American teen drama films
American teen romance films
Coming-of-age romance films
1960s English-language films
Films about bipolar disorder
Films about dysfunctional families
Films about sexual repression
Films directed by Elia Kazan
Films scored by David Amram
Films set in Kansas
Films set in psychiatric hospitals
Films set in 1928
Films set in 1929
Films set in 1930
Films set in the 1920s
Films set in the 1930s
Films shot in New York (state)
Films whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay Academy Award
Juvenile sexuality in films
Photoplay Awards film of the year winners
1960s American films

Splendor in the Grass


Romney Marsh is a coastal marshland of southern England. It runs from Hythe in Kent to Rye in East Sussex.  It covers about 100 miles2 (260 km2). Romney Marsh is one of three English wetlands, the others being The Fens of East Anglia and the Somerset Levels.

Much of the area has been reclaimed over the centuries, and is now flat farmland. Before the area was drained, it was a cause of malaria among the inhabitants. For much of its history, the Marsh was fringed by a lagoon, which was protected by a shingle beach at Dymchurch.

The Marsh still contains some water features, particularly the Royal Military Canal, completed in 1809, and the River Rother.

At Romney Marsh the coast is at its closest to France, and was several times the point of invasion. In AD 892, a Danish fleet of 250 ships sailed right into the River Rother and took the fortress at Appledore (allegedly built by King Arthur), which they destroyed.

The Romans used the Romney area for a salt industry. Pans of brackish water were left to evaporate, and the salt collected for use in food.

The marsh includes two of the ancient Cinque Ports, New Romney and Hythe, and two ancient towns, Rye and Winchelsea. New Romney was once a port, but is now a mile and a half from the sea. It is the main centre of population on the Marsh.

References

Kent
Sussex
Wetlands

Romney Marsh


The International School of Software at Wuhan University was established in March 2002. The school is administered independently and has put an emphasis on internationalized education.

The school has 46 full-time and part-time faculty members. Among them, two are academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Engineering.

The school is involved in research and application development in software engineering, spatial information systems and digital engineering, multi-media digital technology, digital art design, visualization technology, information security, software reliability, quality assurance software systems, software development tools and environment, biological information engineering, financial information systems, software development, and IC design.

Education Plan
Undergraduate Majors:
Software Engineering, Spatial Information & Digital Techniques.

Time Duration: 4 years
Total Credits Required: 155

Graduate Majors:
Software Engineering, Spatial Information & Digital Techniques, Digital Arts & Game Design, Communication Software & Protocol Engineering, Bioinformatics, Financial Information Engineering, Integrated Circuit Design & Applications.

Time Duration: 2 years – 3 years
Total Credits Required: 40

Curriculum
Software Engineering:
Mathematical Modeling & Optimization, Database Principles & Applications, Object-oriented Program Design, Software Procedure Management, Software System Structure, Linux Analysis, Database & Data Studies, Software Development Model.

Digital Arts & Game Design:
Planar Design, Movie Photography, Business Illustration, Cartoon Design, Game Frame Design, Mobile Game Development.

Spatial information and digital design:
Web-based spatial information technology, GIS information technology, GPS technology, Simulation and virtual reality technology, Spatial Database, 3S Integration and Application.

Bioinformatics:
Introduction to Bioinformatics, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Biology Data Mining.

Financial Information Engineering:
Financial Information Systems, Modern Finance, Introduction to Economics, Modern Investment.

Communications software and Protocol engineering:
Network Protocol design, Communication Software design methods, Wireless Communication Principles & Application, Modern Communications Networks.

IC Design and Applications:
VLSI Design Introduction, IC Design Automation, Microelectronics Introduction, ASIC Design, SOC Design, VHDL & Verilog Languages.

References

Wuhan University

International School of Software, Wuhan University


Dwight James Baum (June 24, 1886 – December 14, 1939) was an American architect most active in New York and in Sarasota, Florida. His work includes Cà d'Zan, the Sarasota Times Building (1925), Sarasota County Courthouse (1926), early residences in Temple Terrace, Florida, Sarasota County Courthouse (1927),  Pinecroft, West Side YMCA on 63rd Street between Central Park and Columbus Avenue, Columbus Circle (Syracuse, NY) (1934) and Hendricks Memorial Chapel.

Biography

Baum was born in Newville, New York (near Utica) and moved to Syracuse as a young man, eventually graduating from Syracuse University in 1909 with an architecture degree. He worked for nationally known firms Boring and Tilton and Stanford White before venturing out with his own residential design firm around 1912.

A 1922 visit to Florida led to an important commission from John Nicholas Ringling, the 56-room mansion and estate that the Ringlings dubbed Cà d'Zan, which is now on the grounds of the John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art.  During the 1920s Florida land boom, Baum designed a half-dozen significant civic buildings and several houses in Sarasota, and at least one residence in Tampa, all in the Mediterranean Revival Style.

In 1926 Baum designed forty two Mediterranean Revival style houses of varying sizes in the City of Temple Terrace, Florida, this is thought to be the largest collection of his work in the Southeast. He also designed Sunset Hill for Mrs. Eugene D. Stocker at Warren, New York in 1923-1924. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007. During the Depression, Baum became involved with historic preservation issues, becoming involved with Good Housekeeping Magazine as consulting architect, and as designer of their building exhibit at the 1933 Chicago World's Fair.

His later work includes buildings at his alma mater, Syracuse University (notably the focal point of the campus plan, the Hendricks Chapel, designed with John Russell Pope), and the pedestal for V. Renzo Baldi's statue of Columbus in the city's Columbus Circle.

Baum was distantly related to author and designer L. Frank Baum.

Work

A number of his works are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. His work was also part of the architecture event in the art competition at the 1936 Summer Olympics. Baum's work includes the following:

 Sarasota Times Building, 1925, NRHP-listed
 El Vernona Apartments-Broadway Apartments, 1926
 Early residences in Temple Terrace, Florida, circa 1926
 Cà d'Zan, now the John and Mable Ringling Museum of Art, Sarasota, 1927
 Sarasota County Courthouse, 1927, NRHP-listed
 Residence of Arch B. Johnston, son of Archibald Johnston (first mayor of consolidated city of Bethlehem), Bethlehem Township, Pennsylvania, 1927
 Memorial Hospital, Syracuse, with John Russell Pope, 1927
 Pinecroft, the Crosley Powel, Jr. Estate, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1928–1937
 West Side YMCA, on 63rd Street between Central Park and Columbus Avenue, New York City, 1930 (Baum's only high-rise)
 Columbus Circle (Syracuse, NY), 1934
 Hendricks Chapel, Syracuse University, with John Russell Pope, 1929–1930
 El Vernona Hotel-John Ringling Hotel, Sarasota, 1929 (razed)
 United States Post Office, Flushing, New York, with William Knowles, 1934

(not chronological)
Burns Realty Company-Karl Bickel House, 101 N. Tamiami Trail Sarasota, FL, NRHP-listed
El Vernona Apartments-Broadway Apartments, 1133 4th St. Sarasota, FL, NRHP-listed
El Vernona Hotel-John Ringling Hotel, 111 N. Tamiami Trail Sarasota, FL, NRHP-listed
Dr. Walter Kennedy House, 1876 Oak St. Sarasota, FL, NRHP-listed
Pinecroft, 2336 Kipling Ave. Cincinnati, OH, NRHP-listed
Riverdale Presbyterian Church Complex, 4761-4765 Henry Hudson Parkway New York, NY, NRHP-listed
George Schueler House, 76 S. Washington Dr. Sarasota, FL, NRHP-listed
Sunset Hill, 102 NY 167 Warren, NY, NRHP-listed
US Post Office-Flushing Main, 41-65 Main St. New York, NY, NRHP-listed
Sarasota County Courthouse, 1926

References

Bibliography

 Corbett, Harvey Wiley, et al. The Work of Dwight James Baum, Architect. New York: 1927.
 Morrison, William A, editor; Ron McCarty, intro. The Work of Dwight James Baum.  New York: Acanthus Press, 2008.

External links
 Biography
"Streetscapes/The West Side Y, at 5 West 63rd Street; Urban Scale, and a Suggestion of Italian Hill Town" – The New York Times, June 16, 2002

1886 births
1939 deaths
20th-century American architects
Syracuse University School of Architecture alumni
Olympic competitors in art competitions

Dwight James Baum


Horace Vere, 1st Baron Vere of Tilbury (1565 – 2 May 1635) was an English military officer and peer who served during the Eighty Years' War and the Thirty Years' War. A brother of Francis Vere, he was sent to the Electoral Palatinate by James VI and I in 1620. He was subsequently elevated to the peerage of England as "Baron Vere of Tilbury", which became extinct after he died without a male heir.

Family
Horace Vere, born in 1565, was the fourth son of Geoffrey Vere of Crepping Hall, Essex, a younger son of John de Vere, 15th Earl of Oxford, and Elizabeth Trussell. His mother was Elizabeth Hardekyn (d. December 1615), daughter of Richard Hardekyn (d. 1558) of Wotton House near Castle Hedingham. He had three brothers, John Vere (c. 1558 – 1624) of Kirby Hall near Castle Hedingham, Sir Francis Vere (born c. 1560), and Robert Vere (b. 1562), and a sister, Frances Vere (born 1567), who married, as his second wife, the 'colonial adventurer and author', Sir Robert Harcourt (1574/5 – 1631), of Nuneham on 20 March 1598.

Military career

Anglo-Spanish War (1585-1604)
Vere left home in 1590 to join his two elder brothers, Robert and Sir Francis, in the Netherlands, commencing his service in the infantry company of the latter during his tenure of office as sergeant-major-general. He was wounded during the assault by English and Dutch soldiers on the fortress of Steenwijk on 5 July 1592, was recommended by his brother for a company at the siege of Groningen in June 1594, and was knighted for his gallantry at the siege of Cadiz in June 1596.

The following year Horace in his brothers absence took command in the field (albeit temporarily) of the English forces in the Netherlands. With Maurice of Orange they took Rheinberg, Meurs, Greonlo, Bredevoort, Enschede, Oldenzaal and Lingen; cities of the eastern Netherlands that created an important barrier.

He commanded three hundred foot at the battle of Nieuwpoort under his brother, after whose retirement from the field he helped Sir John Ogle and Sir Charles Fairfax to rally the English vanguard; and at the Siege of Ostend he took a conspicuous part in the repulse of the Spanish assault on 7 January 1602, being stationed (along with Fairfax) at a vital point in the defenses known as the 'Sandhill,' in command of twelve companies. He was badly hurt in the leg by a splinter. Horace then took to the field under his brother again in the spring of 1602 with Maurice's army, and after Francis was severely wounded in the head during the siege of Grave he then took over as command of English forces there. Early in April 1603 he was dispatched by his brother with a message to the new king.

Upon the retirement of Sir Francis Vere, Sir Horace took his place in the Netherlands, but at first only the senior of the four colonels of the English companies, the others being Ogle, Sir Edward Cecil, and Sir Edward Harwood.

The outset of Sir Horace's individual career in the Dutch States Army was marked by the fall of Ostend on 24 September 1604 to the Spanish general, Ambrosio Spinola. As a makeweight to Ostend, Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange meditated the recapture of Sluys. The Spanish general opposed the advance upon the town with a force of two thousand men strongly entrenched at Damme, situated between Sluys and Bruges. This force, under the Spanish general of horse, Don Luis de Velasco, had to be dislodged, a risky operation. Vere won for his command the approbation of the States-General. In July 1604 Spinola was foiled in an attempt to relieve the town, and on 20 August it was surrendered.

Dutch service

At the battle of Mülheim on 9 October 1605 the cavalry were completely outmanoeuvred, and several of the troops broke. Vere crossed the river with four companies of infantry and kept the Spaniards at bay for over an hour, while the other forces had time to rally and retreat in some order.

The battle of Mülheim was followed by Vere's return to England, and by his marriage in 1607. Two years later came the twelve years' truce between the United Provinces and Spain. In October 1609 Sir Horace succeeded his brother as governor of the Brill. In 1609 he was promised the reversion of the mastership of ordnance, after Lord Carew.

In 1610 he served at the siege of Juliers under Sir Edward Cecil. In 1616 he yielded up the cautionary town of Brielle to the Dutch on the repayment by them of the loans received from England, receiving a life pension of £800 in compensation for his loss of the governorship. Two years later Sir Horace received from Maurice the governorship of Utrecht. He had previously aided the prince in disarming and suppressing the provincial levies, raised on behalf of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt.

Palatinate campaign
In May 1620, James I was being strongly urged by popular opinion to defend the Protestant cause of his son-in-law, Frederick V, Elector Palatine. He allowed Count Dohna, the Palatine envoy, to levy a body of volunteers at his own cost, and to appeal for funds. Dohna, as paymaster, selected Sir Horace Vere, as commander; Buckingham had wanted the post for Sir Edward Cecil, and withdrew support from the expedition.

News arrived of the treaty of Ulm (23 June), between the union of Catholic princes and the League, preparing the way for a Catholic invasion of the Palatinate, and money came in more rapidly. On 9 July, Vere went to Theobalds to take leave of the king, and on 22 July the regiment, 2,200 strong, set sail from Gravesend to the Netherlands, to be escorted south into Germany and to the seat of war by a body of Dutch cavalry. By this time Vere was a professional soldier, even-tempered, brave and popular. The Earl of Essex was one of his lieutenants. Spinola was in the field with one army, Velasco on the way with another.

Vere's plan was to effect a junction with the Protestant force near Mannheim, under the Margrave of Ansbach. He marched through Wesel into the neighbourhood of Coblenz, and then made a detour by a route through the Taunus, on the other side of which, in the valley of the Main River, Spinola made an unsuccessful attempt to cut him off. Vere crossed the Main by a ford, near Frankfurt, and then, by way of Darmstadt and Bensheim (there resting his troops), and proceeded to Worms, where the junction of forces actually took place.

Spinola now adopted Fabian tactics in the hope of wearing the enemy out, until the approach of winter compelled the English and their allies to seek quarters. Vere divided his troops among the three most important strongholds of the Palatinate. He himself occupied Mannheim, Gerard Herbert he stationed in Heidelberg Castle, while Sir John Burroughs undertook to defend Frankenthal.

Early in 1621, the Protestant Union was broken up, and the English garrisons had to give up all hope of relief. The English governors were not closely pressed that year. The garrison under Vere at Mannheim received a visit early in 1622 from the dethroned elector, who had promised them a diversion, and who, in conjunction with Mansfelt, had inflicted a momentary check upon the imperialist army under Johann Tserclaes von Tilly at Wiesloch (April). A few weeks later, however, Tilly, having been reinforced by Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, inflicted defeats on the Protestants, and in June the elector had finally to leave Mannheim.

The English garrisons were now surrounded and threatened by a force of imperialists and Spaniards under Tilly, Cordova, and Verdugo. Vere resolved to hold out, though he knew that the military position was hopeless. On 16 September, the town of Heidelberg was taken by storm, and the castle surrendered three days later. Sir Gerard Herbert had received a mortal wound during the siege. At Mannheim Vere, with a garrison of fourteen hundred men, without money or supplies, had to defend extensive fortifications. He retired to the citadel, but no extraneous help being forthcoming, he was forced to capitulate at the close of September, and, having marched out with the honours of war, withdrew to The Hague. Vere's defence was commemorated by George Chapman

At Frankenthal, Burroughs did not surrender the place to Verdugo until 14 April 1623, and then only in response to direct orders from home.

The courage displayed by Vere against great odds was recognised in England, when the general returned early in February 1623, even if his salary and expenses were never paid in full by the treasury. On 16 February 1623, he was appointed master-general of the ordnance for life, and he became a member of the council of war on 20 July 1624. On the death of his elder brother, John, in the same year he became his residuary legatee, with the reversion of Tilbury and Kirby Hall upon the death of the widow.

Breda and the Brabant campaign
In 1624 Sir Horace Vere travelled once more to The Hague in order to second Prince Maurice in the defence of the fortress of Breda, under siege by Spinola from August. Maurice died on 23 April 1625. The only ways to approach the siege works from outside were by causeways. The new stadtholder, Maurice's brother, Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, resolved to attempt the causeways, and Vere was selected to conduct this hazardous operation. Taking with him some six thousand men, including three hundred pikemen led by his kinsman, Robert de Vere, 19th Earl of Oxford, Vere started an hour before the dawn on the morning of 13 May 1625. The English marched along the dyke, and after a sharp engagement captured the redoubt. Spinola thereupon sent strong reinforcements to the threatened point, and, incurring a very heavy loss, the English were forced to retire. On his return to England that summer Vere, high in military reputation, was created Baron Vere of Tilbury.

His next enterprise in the Netherlands was in connection with the siege of 's-Hertogenbosch, one of the chief military positions in Brabant, undertaken by Prince Frederic Henry in April 1629. Sir Edward Vere (born ca. 1580), the illegitimate son of Horatio's first cousin Edward, Earl of Oxford, was mortally wounded in the lines on 18 August a few weeks before the place was finally surrendered. A large number of Englishmen who were afterwards distinguished soldiers served under Vere in the trenches at Den Bosch. Among them were: Thomas Fairfax and Philip Skippon, the future organisers of the New Model Army; Jacob Astley, Thomas Glemham, the future royalist generals; Sir John Borlase, and Henry Hexham, the historian of the Dutch wars. Fairfax, Skippon, and George Monck, particularly, were his pupils in the art of war.

The services of the Veres in the Netherlands were closed by the Capture of Maastricht May–August 1632. Vere commanded a powerful brigade, and posted his headquarters opposite the Brussels Gate. Among those killed during the operations were Vere's kinsman, Robert de Vere, 19th Earl of Oxford, while among the wounded were his nephew, Sir Simon Harcourt, and Sir Thomas Holles.

Death
After the surrender of Maastricht, Vere returned to England. While dining with Sir Harry Vane, The Hague envoy and his diplomatic friend, at Whitehall on 2 May 1635, he was seized with an apoplectic fit and died within two hours. He was buried with military pomp on 8 May in Westminster Abbey, where the same tomb serves for him and his brother, Sir Francis.

Marriage and issue
Vere married, in October 1607, Mary Tracy (1581-1671), daughter of Sir John Tracy (d.1591) of Toddington, Gloucestershire, and widow of William Hoby, by whom she had two children. With his death the barony of Vere of Tilbury became extinct. Vere left five daughters, who were his coheirs:

 Elizabeth Vere, who married John Holles, 2nd Earl of Clare, grandfather of the first Duke of Newcastle;
 Mary Vere, who married, first, Sir Roger Townshend, Baronet, of Raynham in Norfolk, whence are descended the Marquises of Townshend, and secondly, Mildmay Fane, 2nd Earl of Westmorland;
 Catherine Vere, who married, first, Oliver St John (1612/1613–November 1641 or 1642), son of Sir John St John, 1st Baronet, and Anne Leighton: and, secondly, John Poulett, 2nd Baron Poulett;
 Anne Vere, who married Sir Thomas Fairfax (afterwards 3rd Baron Fairfax of Cameron); and
 Dorothy Vere, who married John Wolstenholme, eldest son of Sir John Wolstenholme, bart., of Nostell, Yorkshire.
 Susana Vere (1619–1623) Died at a young age.

Lady Vere continued to live at Clapton until the death of the widow of Lord Vere's eldest brother, John, when she succeeded to Kirby Hall, where she died on Christmas Eve 1670, aged 90. For a short while in the spring of 1645, after the death of the Countess of Dorset, the king's children, Elizabeth and Henry, Duke of Gloucester, were entrusted to her care. She was much in Parliament's favour; but (despite the handsome allowance) she transferred it to the Earl and Countess of Northumberland.

Vere was a first cousin of Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford (1550–1604).

Notes

References

 Zedlers Universallexicon, vol.47, p. 211
Attribution

1565 births
1635 deaths
English military personnel of the Eighty Years' War
Barons in the Peerage of England
English army officers
16th-century English nobility
17th-century English nobility
English people of the Thirty Years' War
English people of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)
Horace
People of the Anglo-Spanish War (1625–1630)
Knights Bachelor
Burials at Westminster Abbey
English expatriates in the Dutch Republic

Horace Vere, 1st Baron Vere of Tilbury


Victoria Embankment is part of the Thames Embankment, a road and river-walk along the north bank of the River Thames in London, England. Built in the 1860s, it runs from the Palace of Westminster to Blackfriars Bridge in the City of London, and acts as a major thoroughfare for road traffic between the City of Westminster and the City of London.

It is noted for several memorials, such as the Battle of Britain Monument, permanently berthed retired vessels, such as HMS President, and public gardens, including Victoria Embankment Gardens.

History

Earlier embankments
The Victoria Embankment was preceded by many earlier works along the tidal Thames, including central London.

Construction

The Victoria Embankment was designed by civil engineer Francis Webb Sheilds, who submitted designs to a Royal Commission appointed in 1861. Following acceptance of the designs, construction was carried out by the Metropolitan Board of Works on the lines of his scheme. Construction, which started in 1865, was completed in 1870 under the direction of Joseph Bazalgette.

The Victoria Embankment was one element of a three-part work, the other two parts being the Albert Embankment, from the Lambeth end of Westminster Bridge to Vauxhall; and the Chelsea Embankment, extending from Millbank to the Cadogan Pier at Chelsea, close by Battersea Bridge. It was a project of the Metropolitan Board of Works. The contractor for the work was Thomas Brassey. The original impetus was the need to provide London with a modern sewerage system. Another major consideration was the relief of congestion on the Strand and Fleet Street.

The project involved building out on to the foreshore of the River Thames, narrowing the river. The construction work required the purchase and demolition of much expensive riverside property. The cut-and-cover tunnel for the District Railway was built within the Embankment and roofed over to take the roadway. The embankment was faced with granite, and penstocks, designed to open at ebb tide to release diluted sewage when rainstorms flooded the system, were built into it as a means of preventing backups in the drainage system and of periodically flushing the mud banks.

At ground level, in addition to the new roads, two public gardens were laid out. One of these backs onto the government buildings of Whitehall, and the other stretches from Hungerford Bridge to Waterloo Bridge. The gardens contain many statues, including a monument to Bazalgette. The section of the gardens between Waterloo Bridge and Charing Cross station also includes a large bandstand, where musical performances are given, and the 1626 watergate of the former York House built for the first Duke of Buckingham.

The Victoria section was the most complex of the three sections. It was much larger, more complex and more significant to the metropolis than the other two and officially opened on 13 July 1870 by the Prince of Wales and Princess Louise. When people refer to "the Embankment" they are usually referring to that portion of it. The total cost of the construction of the Victoria Embankment is estimated to be £1,260,000 and the purchase of property at £450,000. The total cost includes the cost of materials used in the construction of the embankment.

Issues in construction
Construction of the Victoria Embankment proved to be difficult because of the grandness of it.  Parliament was assured that three years would be ample time to complete the project, which did not hold true.

In addition to not having a large enough labour force to complete the work on schedule, the project's architect and property appraiser were challenged in successfully securing rights to all the wharves and other property that were required for access and storage during the project's construction. They also ran into difficulty in acquiring contracts to maintain access to the steamboat landings at Westminster and Hungerford.

In addition, extra time and money were spent experimenting with a new type of cofferdam, a structure used to keep water out of the construction site, which was crucial for building along the tidal Thames.

Electrification

In December 1878 Victoria Embankment became the first street in Britain to be permanently lit by electricity. The light was provided by 20 Yablochkov candles powered by a Gramme DC generator. 16 March 1879 the system was extended to 40 lamps and 10 October to 55 lamps. Previously the street had been lit by gas, and in June 1884, gas lighting was re-established as electricity was not competitive.

Route

The Victoria Embankment (part of the A3211 road) starts at Westminster Bridge, just north of the Palace of Westminster, then follows the course of the north bank, past Hungerford Bridge and Waterloo Bridge, before ending at Blackfriars Bridge in the City. Shell Mex House, the Savoy Hotel and Savoy Place are located between the Embankment and the Strand.

Transport

London Underground stations along Victoria Embankment are Embankment and Temple. London Buses route N550 is the only bus route along the Embankment, providing an overnight service when the tube is shut. Victoria Embankment was also the southern end of the Kingsway Tramway Subway. It was also used by trams as a loop right up until the end of the original tramway system in London in 1952.

London River Services boat services operate from Westminster Millennium Pier, Embankment Pier and Blackfriars Millennium Pier at points along Victoria Embankment. Pleasure cruises operate from Savoy Pier.

London's East-West Cycle Superhighway 3, a kerb-protected cycle track across London, runs along most of the Victoria Embankment: it opened in 2016.

Developing as the imperial city

The embankments were designed as a contribution to "the appropriate, and appropriately civilized, cityscape for a prosperous commercial society." John Thwaites, the chair of the Metropolitan Board of Works, made note that the embankments were an important step in making London recognised as an exemplary imperial city, and that the embankments were the greatest public work to be taken in London. This imperial power was represented in the embankments' grandeur and could be seen in the way they controlled nature, linking the local experience of nature in London to the global rivalries of imperial powers. On the river side, new steamboat piers and landing stairs were designed for river access. Above ground were tree lined roadway and pedestrian walkways, surfaced with York paving stone and decorative gaslight posts for the top of the wall.

Notable sites

Ships permanently moored by Victoria Embankment include HMS President, HQS Wellington, and PS Tattershall Castle.

Other notable attractions include the General Charles Gordon Memorial, Royal Air Force Memorial, National Submarine War Memorial, Battle of Britain Monument, Cleopatra's Needle and the modernistic Cleopatra's Kiosk.

See also
 Albert Embankment
 Dragon boundary mark
 List of eponymous roads in London
 List of public art on the Victoria Embankment
 Thames Embankment

References

Further reading
 Describes the construction of the Victoria and Albert Embankments

External links

Streets in the City of Westminster
Streets in the City of London
Parks and open spaces in the City of Westminster
Waterfronts
Buildings and structures on the River Thames

Victoria Embankment


Hans Paasche (3 April 1881, in Rostock – 21 May 1920, in Waldfrieden, Neumark) was a German politician and pacifist. He was the son of the Reichstag vice president Hermann Paasche and Lisi Paasche, and was married to Gabriele (Ellen) Witting.

Hans (Johannes) Albert Ferdinand Paasche studied at the Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium in Berlin. He became a sea cadet in 1899. An Imperial Navy officer and combative pacifist, Hans Paasche was also a big game hunter and nature conservationist, explorer of Africa and life reformer, alcohol abstainer and vegetarian, author and revolutionary. His brief but active life was marked by attempts to change the Prussian Deutschland-über-alles military mindset.

His first experience with war was at the German African military campaign in the German East Africa colonies, where he learned first hand the horror and futility of war. In 1905, Paasche became commander in chief in the Rufiji-region, now southern Tanzania. His command was decisive, but he also took pains to reach a swift pacification. Refugees and defeated Africans found medical help and shelter at his headquarters at Mtanza. He was decorated with the Order of the Crown with Swords, but was removed from command because of his independent peace negotiations. His experiences during the uprising and his guilty feelings over his actions changed his life forever.

After his return to Germany, in 1908 he married Ellen Witting, daughter of Richard Witting, director of the Nationalbank für Deutschland and former Lord Mayor of Posen (Poznań). His honeymoon trip brought him back to Africa, where he undertook a major expedition with his wife Ellen, who became the first European woman to reach the source of the Nile and the first to ascend Kilimanjaro, as well as the recently erupted volcano Nyiragongo.

Paasche published his first book: Im Morgenlicht ("In the Morning Light"), which contained impressions of war and of hunting in Africa, but also valuable ethnographical materials. Paasche's fictional series of letters Lukanga Mukara offer a look at Germany through the eyes of an educated African and mock the decadence of the early pre-World War I Germany. His satirical parody of German lifestyles and attitudes gained immediate popularity. Hans Paasche became one of the most charismatic public figures of the German Empire, well known for openly advocating his provocative ideas.

Still in uniform but not on active duty, he undertook an assault on the many wrongs that he saw in the German society and its military obsessions. This brought him many avid listeners and readers, especially among the young. It also brought him vilification, including that of his own father, and the dangerous attention of military prosecutors.

A high treason prosecution was conducted against him by Abteilung IIIb, the intelligence service of the General Staff led by colonel Walter Nicolai. The trial ended in 1918 with a negotiated admission into a mental health institution. He was released at the end of 1918, and continued his work as a radical journalist. He served a brief term in the Berlin Workers' and Soldiers' Council and tried in vain to organize a national court. Eventually he was forced out by right-wing social democrats.

After the sudden death of his wife Ellen at twenty nine, he retreated to his estate at Waldfrieden to take care of his four young children, Jochen, Nils, Helga and Ivan. Nevertheless, he still took part in national and international campaigns for peace, understanding among nations, and a League of Nations. His estate Waldfrieden became a shelter for hunted leftist insurgents.

His assassination was ultimately decreed by the ultra-nationalist death squad Organisation Consul. In 1920, at the age of 39, he was shot by a commando of sixty soldiers from District Command III while supposedly trying to escape. The soldiers had mounted the operation under an anonymous call with the pretense of finding a hidden weapons cache, which was never found. Few were prosecuted and none were convicted.

In 1985, Helga Paasche removed the tombstone of her father from Waldfrieden to the archives of the German Youth Movement on Ludwigstein Castle, where it is part of a permanent Hans-Paasche-exhibition.

His life has been extensively documented by his daughter, Helga Paasche, the author Werner Lange and his grandson Dr. Gottfried Paasche (for many years a professor of sociology at Canada's York University), among others.  Hans Paasche's great-granddaughter, Sarah Paasche-Orlow, is a Conservative Rabbi.

Bibliography

 Im Morgenlicht. Kriegs-, Jagd- und Reise-Erlebnisse in Ostafrika 1907
 Die Forschungsreise des Afrikaners Lukanga Mukara ins innerste Deutschland 1912/1913
 Fremdenlegionär Kirsch - Eine abenteuerliche Fahrt von Kamerun in die deutschen Schützengräben in den Kriegsjahren 1914/15 1914
 Hans Paasche: Militant Pacifist in Imperial Germany, by Werner Lange, translated by David Koblick 2005
 MAGNUS SCHWANTJE: "Hans Paasche. Sein Leben und Wirken" (= Flugschriften des Bundes Neues Vaterland, Nr. 26/27) Berlin 1921
 OTTO WANDERER (d.i. Otto Buchinger): Paasche-Buch Hamburg 1921
 FRANZISKUS HÄHNEL: Erinnerungen an Hans Paasche. In: Junge Menschen, 3. Jg., Heft 11/12* Juni 1922
 HELMUT DONAT, WILFRIED KNAUER (Ê.): ""Auf der Flucht" erschossen. Schriften und Beiträge von und über Hans Paasche" (= Schriftenreihe Das Andere Deutschland, Nr. 1) Bremen/Zeven 1981
 REINHOLD LÜTGEMEIER-DAVIN: "Hans Paasche (1881–1920), Lebensreformer, Anti-Preuße, Revolutionär". In: Jahrbuch des Archivs der deutschen Jugendbewegung Bd. 13, Burg Ludwigstein 1981
 HELGA PAASCHE: "Ein Leben für unsere Zukunft. Hans Paasche zum 65. Todestag". In: Jahrbuch des Archivs der deutschen Jugendbewegung Bd. 15, Burg Ludwigstein 1984-85
 PETER MORRIS-KEITEL: Umwertung aller Werte. Hans Paasches
 HORST NAUMANN: "Hans Paasche. Pazifist - Revolutionär - Kommunist". In: Die Novemberrevolution und die Gründung der KPD. Protokoll der wissenschaftlichen Konferenz …, Teil 1 Berlin 1989
 HANS PAASCHE (E. HELMUT DONAT, HELGA PAASCHE): "Ändert Euren Sinn! Schriften eines Revolutionärs" (= Schriftenreihe Geschichte und Frieden, Bd. 2) Bremen 1992
 KARL H. SOLBACH: "Hans Paasche - Offizier, Reformer, Revolutionär". In: CORNELIUS NEUTSCH, KARL H. SOLBACH (E.), Reise in die Kaiserzeit. Ein deutsches Kaleidoskop Leipzig 1994
 ALAN NOTHNAGLE: "Metanoia! Hans Paasche - ein lebensreformerischer Visionär". In: Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, 45. Jg., Nr. 9 Berlin 1997
 GOTTFRIED PAASCHE, JOAQUIN KUHN (E.): The Strange Story of the Shooting of Captain Hans Paasche. The Writings and Actions of a Peace Martyr Toronto 2001
 JERZY GIERGIELEWICZ: "Hans Paasche: fascynujaca postac Niemca, w Polsce prawie nie znana". In: Wedrowiec Zachodniopomorski, 10. Jg., Nr. 2 Szczecin 2003
 HANS PAASCHE, P. WERNER LANGE: "Die Legende von der Vertreibung der Kaiserin oder Potsdamer Beiträge zum deutsch-polnischen Jahr". In: Schriftzüge. Brandenburgische Blätter für Kunst und Literatur, 7. Jg., Nr.1 Potsdam 2005
 P. WERNER LANGE: "Die Toten im Maisfeld. Hans Paasches Erkenntnisse aus dem Maji-Maji-Krieg". In: FELICITAS BECKER, JIGAL BEEZ (E.), Der Maji-Maji-Krieg in Deutsch-Ostafrika, 1905-1907 Berlin 2005
 P. WERNER LANGE: ""Und ich zweifelte, ob ich ein Krieger sei …" Der Kolonialoffizier und Pazifist Hans Paasche". In: ULRICH VAN DER HEYDEN, JOACHIM ZELLER (E.), Macht und Anteil an der Weltherrschaft. Berlin und der deutsche Kolonialismus Münster 2005
 P. WERNER LANGE: "Die Treppe zum Himmel. Zur Eröffnung einer Gedenkstätte für Hans Paasche in der Wojewodschaft Wielkopolska". In: Inter Finitimos. Jahrbuch zur deutsch-polnischen Beziehungsgeschichte 3 Osnabrück 2006
ANDREAS SCHMID: "Deutschland im Spiegel Ostafrikas. Hans Paasches Lukanga Mukara (1912/13)". In: Zeitschrift für Kulturwissenschaften, 14. Jg., Nr. 2, 2020, 49–66.

References

External links

 Chronology of Hans Paasche's Life (by Werner Lange)

1881 births
1920 deaths
People from Rostock
People from the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
German politicians
German Youth Movement
Imperial German Navy personnel of World War I
Organisation Consul victims
Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium alumni

Hans Paasche


Timeline
 1924 -  Methodist Teachers' Association formed, under the leadership of Sewak Masih of Toorak Boys' School, with members from Suva and Rewa.
 1927 - Sewak Masih, now teaching in Levuka, organised a conference (in Levuka) to which teachers from Ba, Lautoka, Nadi and Suva are invited. Dukhharan leads a group from the west.
 1928 -  A conference of the Methodist Teachers' Association was held at Methodist Boys' School in Toorak where the following office bearers were elected: President: Sewak Masih, Vice President: P M Stephen, Secretary: G P Andrew and Assistant Secretary: HR Narayan. John Bairagi was elected as Secretary International and BR Padarath was chosen as the Treasurer.
 7 December 1929 - meeting of teachers from western side of Viti Levu formed the Lautoka Teachers' Association was formed under the chairmanship of Pt Ami Chandra. Dukharan was elected as the Vice President and W K Phillip became the Secretary/Treasurer. There was a committee of four executive members namely Robert Varo, D S John, P M Stephen and William.
 9 March 1930 - Lautoka Teachers' Association held a conference for all the teachers of Fiji.  The meeting was co-chaired by Dukharan and Sewak Masih. The Conference adopted the motto of the Union with the slogan, "The Child Our Hope". Ami Chandra, now teaching in Suva, also attended.
 19 - 20 June 1930 - The two teachers' organizations  met at Natabua in Lautoka  elected the officials of the National Executive. Mr S Hari Charan chaired the election procedures when D A Shah was elected the first President and Sewak Masih and S Hari Charan became the two Vice Presidents. R H Ram Narayan was elected the General Secretary with W K Phillip as his Assistant Secretary. J R Lochan became the Treasurer of the Union and there were twelve executive committee members: B H Sanjeu, R Deoki, S Parshu Ram, Andrew G Prasad, S Ram Singh, Tulsi R Sharma, Phillip Cula, I Racule, T Rawasalevu, W Tuiwaqa, Sairusi Natuni and Inoke Cakutini.  Total strength of the Union in 1931 was 112 and this included 18 Fijian members.

Presidents
 1930 - 1933 - Dildar Ali Shah
 1934 - 1935 - Ami Chandra
 1936 - 1953 - Hari Charan
 1954 - 1962 - James Madhavan
 1933 - NR Ram Krishna
 1964 - 1966 - Ambika Nand
 1967 - J R Lochan
 1968 - 1973 -  K C Ramrakha
 1974 - 1976 -  Krishna Dutt
 1977 - 1979 - Shiu N Kanhai
 1980 - Shiu Charan
 1981 - Anil Sudhakar

Fiji

Fiji Teachers Union


A preschool (sometimes spelled as pre school or pre-school), also known as nursery school, pre-primary school, play school or creche, is an educational establishment or learning space offering early childhood education to children before they begin compulsory education at primary school. It may be publicly or privately operated, and may be subsidized from public funds.

Terminology

Terminology varies by country. In some European countries the term "kindergarten" refers to formal education of children classified as ISCED level 0 – with one or several years of such education being compulsory –  before children start primary school at ISCED levellt 1.

The following terms may be used for educational institutions for this age group:
Pre-primary or creche from 6 weeks old to 6 years old- is an educational childcare service a parent can enroll their child(ren) in before primary school. This can also be used to define services for children younger than kindergarten age, especially in countries where kindergarten is compulsory. The pre-primary program takes place in a nursery school.
Nursery school (UK and US) from 0 months to 5 years old- is a pre-primary educational child care institution which includes Preschool.
Daycare (US) from 0 months to 2½ years old – held in a Nursery School, but can also be called "a child care service" or a "crèche".
Preschool (US and UK) from 2 to 5 years old- held in a Nursery School; readiness has to do with whether the child is on track developmentally, and potty training is a big factor, so a child can start as early as 2 years old. Preschool education is important and beneficial for any child attending nursery school because it gives the child a head start through social interactions. Through cognitive, psychosocial and physical development-based learning a child in preschool will learn about their environment and how to verbally communicate with others. Children who attend Preschool learn how the world around them works through play and communication.
Pre-K (or Pre-Kindergarten) from 4 to 5 years old- held in Nursery School and is an initiative to improve access to pre-primary schools for children in the USA. There is much more than teaching a child colors, numbers, shapes and so on.
Kindergarten (US) from 5 to 6 years old- held in a Nursery School and/or some primary elementary schools; in many parts of world (less so in English speaking countries) it refers to the first stages of formal education.

History

Origins

In an age when school was restricted to children who had already learned to read and write at home, there were many attempts to make school accessible to orphans or to the children of women who worked in factories.

In 1779, Johann Friedrich Oberlin and Louise Scheppler founded in Strassbourg an early establishment for caring for and educating pre-school children whose parents were absent during the day. At about the same time, in 1780, similar infant establishments were established in Bavaria In 1802, Pauline zur Lippe established a preschool center in Detmold.

In 1816, Robert Owen, a philosopher and pedagogue, opened the first British and probably globally the first infant school in New Lanark, Scotland. In conjunction with his venture for cooperative mills Owen wanted the children to be given a good moral education so that they would be fit for work. His system was successful in producing obedient children with basic literacy and numeracy.

Samuel Wilderspin opened his first infant school in London in 1819, and went on to establish hundreds more. He published many works on the subject, and his work became the model for infant schools throughout England and further afield. Play was an important part of Wilderspin's system of education. He is credited with inventing the playground. In 1823, Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor, based on the school. He began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views. He also wrote "The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, and moral powers off all children from one to seven years of age".

Spread
Countess Theresa Brunszvik (1775–1861), who had known and been influenced by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, was influenced by this example to open an Angyalkert ('angel garden' in Hungarian) on 27 May 1828 in her residence in Buda, the first of eleven care centers that she founded for young children.  In 1836 she established an institute for the foundation of preschool centers. The idea became popular among the nobility and the middle class and was copied throughout the Hungarian kingdom.

Friedrich Fröbel (1782–1852) opened a Play and Activity institute in 1837 in the village of Bad Blankenburg in the principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Thuringia, which he renamed Kindergarten on 28 June 1840. That same year the educator Emily Ronalds was the first British person to study his approach and Fröbel urged her to transplant his concepts in England.

Later, women trained by Fröbel opened Kindergartens throughout Europe and around the World. The First Kindergarten in the United States was founded in Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856 and was conducted in German. Elizabeth Peabody founded America's first English-language kindergarten in 1860 and the first free kindergarten in America was founded in 1870 by Conrad Poppenhusen, a German industrialist and philanthropist, who also established the Poppenhusen Institute and the first publicly financed kindergarten in the United States was established in St. Louis in 1873 by Susan Blow. Canada's first private kindergarten was opened by the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island in 1870 and by the end of the decade, they were common in large Canadian towns and cities. The country's first public-school kindergartens were established in Berlin, Ontario in 1882 at Central School. In 1885, the Toronto Normal School (teacher training) opened a department for Kindergarten teaching.

Elizabeth Harrison wrote extensively on the theory of early childhood education and worked to enhance educational standards for kindergarten teachers by establishing what became the National College of Education in 1886.

Head Start was the first publicly funded preschool program in the US, created in 1965 by President Johnson for low-income families—only 10% of children were then enrolled in preschool. Due to large demand, various states subsidized preschool for low-income families in the 1980s.

Developmental areas

The most important years of learning begin at birth. The first three years of a child's life are critical for setting the foundation for language acquisition, socialization, and attitudes to learning. During the early years and especially during the first 3 to 5 years, humans are capable of absorbing a lot of information. The brain grows most rapidly in the early years. High quality and well trained teachers and preschools with developmentally-appropriate programmes can have a long-term effect on improving learning outcomes for children. The effects tend to be more marked for disadvantaged students i.e. children coming from impoverished backgrounds with very little or no access to healthy food, socialization, books and play resources.

The areas of development that preschool education covers varies. However, the following main themes are typically offered.

 Personal, social, economic and emotional development
 Communication (including sign language), talking and listening
World knowledge and World Understanding
 Creative and aesthetic development
 Mathematical awareness
Physical development
Physical health
Play
Teamwork
Self-help skills
Social skills
Scientific thinking
Literacy

Preschool systems observe standards for structure (administration, class size, student–teacher ratio, services), process (quality of classroom environments, teacher-child interactions, etc.) and alignment (standards, curriculum, assessments) components. Curriculum is designed for differing ages. For example, counting to 10 is generally after the age of four.

Some studies dispute the benefits of preschool education, finding that preschool can be detrimental to cognitive and social development. A study by UC Berkeley and Stanford University on 14,000 preschools revealed that while there is a temporary cognitive boost in pre-reading and math, preschool holds detrimental effects on social development and cooperation. Research has also shown that the home environment has a greater impact on future outcomes than preschool.

There is emerging evidence that high-quality preschools are "play based," rather than attempting to provide early formal instruction in academic subjects. "Playing with other children, away from adults, is how children learn to make their own decisions, control their emotions and impulses, see from others' perspectives, negotiate differences with others, and make friends," according to Peter Gray, a professor at Boston College and an expert on the evolution of play and its vital role in child development. "In short, play is how children learn to take control of their lives."

In 2022, 68% of 4-year-olds in the United States attended preschool, with 32% not participating, highlighting the importance of early childhood education.

Research by the American Psychological Association indicates that preschool attendees tend to achieve higher scores in cognitive and language assessments, demonstrating the positive impact of early education on intellectual development.

High-quality preschool programs are essential for low-income children, and the Economic Policy Institute emphasizes that they provide long-term economic benefits. Investments in preschool lead to higher earnings, increased tax revenues, and a reduction in social costs.

Preschools have adopted various methods of teaching, such as Montessori, Waldorf, Head Start, HighScope, Reggio Emilia approach, Bank Street and Forest kindergartens.

Funding
While a majority of American preschool programs remain tuition-based, support for some public funding of early childhood education has grown over the years. As of 2008, 38 states and the District of Columbia invested in at least some preschool programs, and many school districts were providing preschool services on their own, using local and federal funds. The United States spends .04% of its GDP or $63 billion on preschool education.

The benefits and challenges of a public preschool reflect the available funding. Funding can range from federal, state, local public allocations, private sources, and parental fees. The problem of funding a public preschool occurs not only from limited sources but from the cost per child. As of 2007, the average cost across the lower 48 states was $6,582. Four categories determine the costs of public preschools: personnel ratios, personnel qualifications, facilities and transportation, and health and nutrition services. These costs depend heavily on the cost and quality of services provided. The main personnel factor related to cost is teacher qualifications. Another determinant of cost is the length of the school day. Longer sessions cost more.

Collaboration has helped fund programs in several districts. Collaborations with area Head Start and other private preschools helped fund a public preschool in one district. "We're very pleased with the interaction. It's really added a dimension to our program that's been very positive". The National Head Start Bureau has been looking for more opportunities to partner with public schools. Torn Schultz of the Bureau states, "We're turning to partnership as much as possible, either in funds or facilities to make sure children get everything necessary to be ready for school".

Curriculum

Curricula for preschool children have long been a hotbed for debate. Much of this revolves around content and pedagogy; the extent to which academic content should be included in the curriculum and whether formal instruction or child-initiated exploration, supported by adults, is more effective. Proponents of an academic curriculum are likely to favour a focus on basic skills, especially literacy and numeracy, and structured pre-determined activities for achieving related goals. Internationally, there is strong opposition to this type of early childhood care and education curriculum and defence of a broad-based curriculum that supports a child's overall development including health and physical development, emotional and spiritual wellbeing, social competence, intellectual development and communication skills. The type of document that emerges from this perspective is likely to be more open, offering a framework which teachers and parents can use to develop curricula specific to their contexts.

National variations

Preschool education, like all other forms of education, is intended by the society that controls it to transmit important cultural values to the participants. As a result, different cultures make different choices about preschool education. Despite the variations, there are a few common themes. Most significantly, preschool is universally expected to increase the young child's ability to perform basic self-care tasks such as dressing, feeding, and toileting.

China
The study of early childhood education (ECE) in China has been intimately influenced by the reforms and progress of Chinese politics and the economy. Currently, the Chinese government has shown interest in early childhood education, implementing policies in the form of The Guidance for Kindergarten Education (Trial Version) in 2001 and The National Education Reform and Development of Long-Term  planning Programs (2010–2020) in 2010. It has been found that China's kindergarten education has dramatically changed since 1990. In recent years, various Western curricula and pedagogical models have been introduced to China, such as Montessori programs, Reggio Emilia, Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP), and the Project Approach. Many kindergartens have faced difficulties and challenges in adapting these models in their programs. Therefore, a heated debate about how the Western curricula can be appropriated in the Chinese cultural context has been initiated between early childhood researchers and practitioners. Research has revealed that the most important aim for promoting curriculum reform is to improve kindergarten teachers' professional knowledge, such as their understanding of the concept of play and pedagogy, and perceptions of inclusion and kindergarten-based curriculum. Furthermore, within the process of reform, family education and family collaborations cannot be ignored in child development.
Early childhood education in China has made dramatic progress since the 1980s. In Tobin, et al. 2009, which studies across three cultures, the continuity and change across the systems of early childhood education are evident. The project report Zhongguo Xueqian Jiaoyu Fazhan Zhanlue Yanjiu Ketizu 2010 reflects upon the development of China's early childhood education and locates the current situation of the development of early childhood education. The historical development of Chinese early childhood education indicates three distinct cultural threads, including traditional culture, communist culture, and Western culture, that have shaped early childhood education in China, as demonstrated in Zhu and Zhang 2008 and Lau 2012. Furthermore, currently, administrative authorities intend to establish an independent budget for the ECE field in order to support early childhood education in rural areas (Zhao and Hu 2008). A higher quality of educational provisions for children living in rural areas will be another goal for the Chinese government. Many researchers have detailed the important issues of early childhood education, especially teacher education. The exploratory study in Hu and Szente 2010 (cited under Early Childhood Inclusive Education) has indicated that Chinese kindergarten teachers hold negative attitudes toward inclusion of children with disabilities, as they do not have enough knowledge and skills for working with this population. This indicates that kindergarten teachers need to improve their perceptions of children with disabilities. Furthermore, Gu 2007 has focused on the issues of new early childhood teachers' professional development and puts forward some feasible suggestions about how new teachers deal with key events in their everyday teaching practices. With regard to families' support of their children's early development at home, family education should be focused and the collaborative partnership between kindergarten and family needs to be enhanced. Teachers' attitudes toward family intervention are a vital aspect of teacher-family collaboration. Therefore, kindergarten teachers should support family members in their role as the child's first teacher and build collaborative partnerships with family, as presented in Ding 2007. Furthermore, kindergarten teachers should be considered as active researchers in children's role play. This supports the co-construction of their teaching knowledge in relation to children's initiation/subjectivity in role play (Liu, et al. 2003).

India
Preschool education in India is not yet officially recognized by the government and is largely run by privately held companies. The demand for play schools that cater to caring for very young children is high, with the rise in families in which both parents are working. However, a positive step forward in the direction of formalising preschool education has come forth through the NEP (National Education Policy) 2020. The NEP 2020 has placed a great deal of importance on early childhood care and education, advocating that the foundational stage (3 to 8 years) is critical and requires official/formal intervention. In fact, NEP 2020 has advocated replacing the traditional 10 + 2 schooling system with a 5+3+3+4 system.

In India  there are not just the preschools as an individual institutions but there are hundreds of preschools who operate as a chain of preschools. These preschools work on franchise models and let other entrepreneurs operate preschool under their brand. In 2021 there are almost 450 preschool franchise providers in India.

Ireland

Starting in the year of 2010, Ireland passed a law stating that all children of the age 3 years and 2 months and less than 4 years and 7 months are qualified to attend a preschool free of charge. Before this law was passed there was a large number of children who did not attend an Early Childhood Education Program. The programs that were offered operated voluntary and required the parents to pay a steep fee per child. This left many families with no option but to keep the kids at home. The government soon realized that a large number of children were having trouble in their first years of primary school and parents were having to stay home becoming jobless. Once the government issued the free preschool scheme, Ireland's preschool enrollment rate increased to about 93%.

Japan

In Japan, development of social skills and a sense of group belonging are major goals. Classes tend to have up to 40 students, to decrease the role of the teacher and increase peer interactions. Participation in group activities is highly valued, leading some schools to, for example, count a child who is standing still near a group exercise session as participating. Children are taught to work harmoniously in large and small groups, and to develop cooperativeness, kindness and social consciousness. The most important goal is to provide a rich social environment that increasingly isolated nuclear families do not provide; unstructured play time is valued.

Children are allowed to resolve disputes with each other, including physical fighting. Most behavioral problems are attributed to the child's inappropriately expressed emotional dependency. Remedies involve accepting the child, rather than treatment with drugs or punishment. Japanese culture attributes success to effort rather than inborn talent, leading teachers to ignore innate differences between children by encouraging and praising perseverance. They work to ensure that all students meet the standard rather that each reaches his or her own potential. Although preschools exhibit great variety, most target age-appropriate personal development, such as learning empathy, rather than academic programs. Academic programs tend to be more common among Westernized and Christian preschools.

Boisterous play is accepted.  Kids are allowed to play with water guns or to make toy swords out of paper.  Gun control is extensive, and real firearms are rarely seen in Japan, but playing with toy weapons is acceptable and encouraged.

Lithuania

According to the Law on Education (article 6, 1991, as last amended in April 2016), pre-school education is a part of non-formal education. According to the 7th article of the Law, "the purpose of pre-school education shall be to help a child satisfy inherent, cultural (including ethnic), social and cognitive needs." Despite the provision of pre-school education being an independent function of a municipality, the Law regulates the pre-school curriculum to be "prepared in compliance with the criteria of pre-school curricula approved by the Minister of Education, Science and Sport, [and] shall be implemented by pre-school education schools, general education schools, freelance teachers or other education providers" (article 7 part 4). The ownership of pre-school education facilities (namely, kindergartens) according to the Law could be public (state or municipality) as well as private.

North Korea
Preschool education in North Korea is public and provides a variety of activities, such as dance, math, drawing and Korean, as well as basic abilities such as using a spoon and respecting elders. North Korean kindergarten education includes themes common to North Korean propaganda. Subjects include the life of Kim Il Sung, the Japanese occupation of Korea, and the Korean War. Children are taught to enjoy military games and to hate the miguk nom, or "American bastards".

Turkey
Preschool education in Turkey starts at the age of 5 while primary level education begins at the age of 6.

United Kingdom
In the UK, pre-school education in nursery classes or schools has some local government funding for children aged between two and four. Pre-school education can be provided by childcare centres, playgroups, nursery schools and nursery classes within primary schools. Private voluntary or independent (PVI sector) nursery education is also available throughout the UK and varies between structured pre-school education and a service offering child-minding facilities.

Nursery in England is also called FS1 which is the first year of foundation before they go into primary or infants.

The curriculum goals of a nursery school are more specific than for childcare but less strenuous than for primary school. For example, the Scottish Early Years Framework and the Curriculum for Excellence define expected outcomes even at this age. In some areas, the provision of nursery school services is on a user pays or limited basis while other governments fund nursery school services.

England

A voucher system for nursery provision was introduced in England and Wales under the Major government, providing for 15 hours per week free childcare or education for three and four-year-olds, much of it provided through reception classes in primary schools. This was replaced by the Blair government with direct funding by local education authorities. Every child in England at the first school term after their third birthday is now entitled to 15 hours per week free childcare funding.

The Early Years Foundation Stage sets the standards that all early years providers must meet to ensure that children learn and develop well and are kept healthy and safe. It promotes teaching and learning to ensure children's 'school readiness' and gives children the broad range of knowledge and skills that provide the right foundation for good future progress through school and life.

Pre-schools in England follow the Early Years Foundation Stage statutory framework for education produced by the Department for Education, which carries on into their first year of school at the age of four. This year of school is usually called Reception. All pupils in the Early Years must follow a programme of education in seven areas, divided into 'prime areas' and 'specific areas'.

The three prime areas:

 communication and language
 physical development
 personal, social and emotional development

The four specific areas:

 literacy
 mathematics
 understanding the world
 expressive arts and design

Until the mid-1980s, nursery schools only admitted pupils in the final year (three terms) leading up to their admission to primary school, but pupils now attend nursery school for four or five terms. It is also common practice for many children to attend nursery much earlier than this. Many nurseries have the facilities to take on babies, using the 'Early Years Foundation Stage', framework as a guide to give each child the best possible start to becoming a competent learner and skilful communicator.

Wales

Provision in Wales followed England until devolution and subsequently diverged.  Now early years education in Wales is provided half-time for children aged 3–4 (Nursery) and full-time for those between the ages of 4 and 5 (Reception). Since 2005 it has been a statutory duty for all Local Education Authorities to secure sufficient nursery education in their area for children from the term following their third birthday.

Currently, the Early Years curriculum in Wales, produced by the Welsh Assembly Government Department for Children, Education, Lifelong Learning and Skills, is set out in the booklet "Desirable Outcomes for Children's Learning Before Compulsory School Age". However, a new 'Foundation Phase' covering 3- to 7-year-olds is being rolled out across Wales from 2008, with a focus on 'learning through play', which covers seven areas of learning:

 Personal and Social Development and Well Being
 Language, Literacy and Communication Skills
 Mathematical Development
 Bilingualism and Multi-cultural Understanding
 Knowledge and Understanding of the World
 Physical Development
 Creative Development

Northern Ireland

In Northern Ireland funded Nursery School places can be applied for from ages 3 and up.
Preschool education is delivered also by PreSchools, also referred to as Playschools or Playgroups. A Nursery School is allowed to enrol up to 26 children into a class, with the curriculum being delivered by a qualified teacher and a Nursery Assistant. A preschool, which delivers the same curriculum, is also permitted to admit a maximum of 26 children to any single session. However, the regulations for personnel differ. The Preschool must have a Supervisor with an NVQ 3 qualification in Child Care (or Equivalent). There must be one qualified and vetted adult for every 8 children. Funding is applied for through PEAGs (Preschool Education Advisory Group). Both nursery and preschool settings are inspected by the Education and Training Inspectorate. Preschools are also subject to inspection by local Social Services.

Scotland

In Scotland a voucher system for part-time pre-school provision was introduced in parallel with England and Wales under the Major government, but with a strong emphasis on age-appropriate education rather than simply childcare, and avoiding the use of reception classes in primary schools. Now children are entitled to a place in a nursery class when they reach their third birthday. This gives parents the option of two years of funded pre-school education before beginning primary one, the first year of compulsory education. Nursery children who are three years old are referred to as ante-pre-school whilst children who are four years old are termed pre-school.  Pre-school education in Scotland is planned around the Early Level of the Curriculum for Excellence which identifies Outcomes & Experiences around the following eight curricular areas:

 Expressive Arts,
 Health & Wellbeing,
 Languages,
 Mathematics,
 Religious & Moral Education,
 Sciences
 Social Studies
 Technologies

Responsibility for the review of care standards in Scottish nurseries rests with the Care Commission.

United States

In the United States, nursery school is provided in a variety of settings. In general, preschool is meant to be voluntary and promote development in children through planned programs. Preschool is defined as: "center-based programs for four-year olds that are fully or partially funded by state education agencies and that are operated in schools or under the direction of state and local education agencies". Preschools, both private and school sponsored, are available for children from ages three to five. Many of these programs follow similar curriculum as pre-kindergarten.

In the United States, preschool education emphasizes individuality. Children are frequently permitted to choose from a variety of activities, using a learning center approach. During these times, some children draw or paint, some play house, some play with puzzles while some listen to the teacher read a story aloud. Activities vary in each session. Each child is assumed to have particular strengths and weaknesses to be encouraged or ameliorated by the teachers. A typical belief is that "children's play is their work" and that by allowing them to select the type of play, the child will meet his or her developmental needs. Preschools also adopt American ideas about justice, such as the rule of law and the idea that everyone is innocent until proven guilty. Teachers don't always actively intervene in disputes and encourage children to resolve disputes independently by using verbal strategies ("use your words"), stating objectively what the problem or issues are, and then discussing what steps can be taken to resolve it. Punishments that may or may not include time outs are rarely carried out by teachers. Children are encouraged to apologize after understanding what has happened rather than blindly apologize. Children are also encouraged to think through steps they can take to make up for their misbehavior. Teachers assist children by explaining what happened and what was wrong in their behavior, before any decision to punish is made. Self-expressive language skills are emphasized through informal interactions with teachers and through structured group activities such as show and tell exercises to enable the child to describe an experience to an adult. Resources vary depending on the wealth of the students, but generally are better equipped than other cultures. Most programs are not subsidized by government, making preschools relatively expensive even though the staff is typically poorly compensated. Student-teacher ratios are lower than in other cultures, ideally about 15 students per group. Parents and teachers see teachers as extensions of or partial substitutes for parents and consequently emphasize personal relationships and consistent expectations at home and at school.

In contrast to many other cultures, including Japan and the UK, American preschools frequently ban squirt guns and pretend play involving toy or imaginary weapons, and may have zero-tolerance policies that require punishing children who bring or make toy guns at school.

In the United States, students who may benefit from special education receive services in preschools. Since the enactment of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Public Law 101–476 in 1975 and its amendments, PL 102-119 and PL 105–17 in 1997, the educational system has moved away from self-contained special education classrooms to inclusion, leading special education teachers to practice in a wider variety of settings. As with other stages in the life of a child with special needs, the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or an Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP) is an important way for teachers, administrators and parents to set guidelines for a partnership to help the child succeed in preschool.

Cooperative preschools

Formally starting in 1916, cooperative preschools are common throughout much of America and focus on providing a preschool environment for children and parents which is in line with cooperative ideals.

 Parent involvement
 Parent participation
 Parent education in early childhood education programs

Head Start

The goal of Head Start and of Early Head Start is to increase the school preparedness of young children in low-income families.  These programs serve children from birth to age five, pregnant women, and their families. Head Start was started by the Federal Government in 1964 to help meet the needs of under-privilleged pre-school children.

The office of Economic Opportunity launched Project Head Start as an eight-week summer program in 1965. It was then transferred to the Office of Child Development in the US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in 1969. Today it is a program within the Administration on Children, Youth and Families in the Department of Health and Human Services. Programs are administered locally by school systems and non-profit organizations.

Services provided by Head Start

Disabilities – All programs fully include children with disabilities
Education – The goal of Head Start is to ensure that those children enrolled in the program are ready to begin school. Activities are geared towards skill and knowledge domains.
Family and Community Partnerships – both groups are involved in the operation, governance, and evaluation of the program.
Health – Health is seen as an important factor in a child's ability to thrive and develop.  The program provides screenings to evaluate a child's overall health, regular health check-ups, and good practices in oral health, hygiene, nutrition, personal care, and safety.
Program Management and Operations – "focus on delivering high-quality child development services to children from low-income families."

See also
 Children's television series
 Daycare
 Education theory
 Heutagogy
 Pedagogy
 Poisonous pedagogy
 Pre-kindergarten
 Reggio Emilia approach
 Waldorf education
 Miriam Roth (1910–2005) – Israeli writer and scholar of children's books, kindergarten teacher, and educator

References

Sources

Further reading

 Center for Public Education. (March 2007). Retrieved 2 July 2009, from
 Condillac, E. B. (1746/1970, 2001). Essai sur l'origine des connaissances [Essay on the origin of human knowledge] in Oeuvres Completes Tome 1. Genève: Slatkine reprints. Retrieved from Slatkine. In addition, translated from the French of the Abbé de Condillac by Hans Aarsleff, Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
 Condillac, E. B. (1749/1970, 1982). Traité des systèmes [Treatise on the systems] in Oeuvres Completes Tome 2. Genève: Slatkine reprints. Retrieved from Slatkine. In addition, translated from the French of the Abbé de Condillac by Franklin Philip, Philosophical Writings of Etienne Bonnot, Abbé de Condillac (Vol. I), Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
 Condillac, E. B. (1754/1982). Traité des sensations [Treatise on the sensations]. Genève: Slatkine reprints. Retrieved from Slatkine. In addition, translated from the French of the Abbé de Condillac by Franklin Philip, Philosophical Writings of Etienne Bonnot, Abbé de Condillac, and (Vol. I), Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  Translated from the French of the Abbé de Condillac by Thomas Nugent.
 Fay, J. & Funk, D. (1995). Teaching with love & logic. Golden, CO: The Love & Logic Press, Inc.
 Glasser, W. (1984). Self-importance boosts learning. The School Administrator 45, 16–18.

 Heyman, G., Dweck, C., & Cain, K. (1992). Young children's vulnerability to self-blame and helplessness: Relationship to beliefs about goodness. Child Development, 63, 401–415.
 Individuals with Disabilities Individualizing Education Act (IDEA) Data. (2006). Part B child count data [Table]. Retrieved 25 May 2008, from Part B Data & Notes
 Itard, J. M. G. (1962). The wild boy of Aveyron. (G. Humphrey & M. Humphrey, Trans.). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. (Original works published 1801 and 1806).

  Symposium conducted at the meeting of the AEFA Annual Conference, Baltimore, Maryland.

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External links

School types

Preschool