George Homer Durham (February 4, 1911 – January 10, 1985) was an American academic administrator and was a general authority of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1977 until his death.

Early life
Durham was born in Parowan, Utah, and was raised in Salt Lake City. As a boy in grade school, he met and became lifelong friends with future LDS Church president Gordon B. Hinckley. As a young man, Durham served as a missionary for the LDS Church in the British Mission, where he served as president of the mission's Young Men's Mutual Improvement Association. At the start of his mission, Durham's mission president was John A. Widtsoe. On his mission, Durham met Widtsoe's daughter, Leah Eudora Widtsoe, whom he would later marry in the Salt Lake Temple. Durham's second mission president, Joseph F. Merrill, encouraged him to pursue graduate education when he returned to the United States.

Education and academia
Durham earned a B.A. in political science and history from the University of Utah.

Durham earned a Ph.D. in political science from the University of California, Los Angeles. He became a professor at the University of Utah. Durham would serve as the first head of the university's Political Science Department. He later served as the academic vice-president of the University of Utah. From 1960 to 1969, he was the president of Arizona State University. Under his presidency the university increased both in size and academic standing. From 1969 to 1976, he was the first commissioner and executive officer of the Utah System of Higher Education.

General authority

After he retired, Durham was appointed as a general authority of the LDS Church. He had previously served in the church as a stake president, as a member of the Sunday School general board, and as a regional representative. Durham became a member of the First Quorum of the Seventy in April 1977. Shortly afterward, he became managing director of the LDS Church Historical Department over Church Historian Leonard J. Arrington. In October 1981, Durham became a member of the Presidency of the Seventy and remained in that position until his death. From 1982 to his death, Durham was the church's seventeenth Church Historian and Recorder. He was succeeded in that assignment by Dean L. Larson.

Durham was a frequent contributor to the magazine Improvement Era and was the author or editor of a number of books, including compilations of the religious teachings of LDS church presidents John Taylor, Wilford Woodruff, Heber J. Grant, and David O. McKay.

Durham came from a musical family and he wrote the music to Gordon B. Hinckley's poem "My Redeemer Lives", which is now included as hymn number 135 in the LDS Church's current hymnal.

Durham and his wife were the parents of three children.

In 1994, Arizona State University renamed their Language & Literature Building the G. Homer Durham Languages & Literature Building.

Durham died in Salt Lake City. His personal and professional papers were donated to the University of Utah's J. Willard Marriott Library.

Publications
 G. Homer Durham (1944). "Joseph Smith Prophet-Statesman" The Bookcraft Company
 —— (1944). A Political Interpretation of Mormon History (University of California Press)
 —— (1983). Arizona State University, 1960-1969: A Personal History
 —— (1958). Man as a Political Animal (Salt Lake City: University of Utah)
 —— (1982). N. Eldon Tanner, His Life and Service (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book)
 Heber J. Grant (G. Homer Durham ed.) (1941). Gospel Standards: Selections from the Sermons and Writings of Heber J. Grant (Salt Lake City: Improvement Era)
 David O. McKay (G. Homer Durham ed.) (1953). Gospel Ideals: Selections from the Discourses of David O. McKay (Salt Lake City: Improvement Era)
 John Taylor (G. Homer Durham ed.) (1943). The Gospel Kingdom: Selections from the Writings and Discourses of John Taylor, Third President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft)
 John A. Widtsoe (G. Homer Durham ed.) (1960). Evidences and Reconciliations Wilford Woodruff (G. Homer Durham ed.) (1946). The Discourses of Wilford Woodruff, Fourth President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft)

Notes

References
 Gordon A. Sabine (1992). G. Homer: A Biography of the President of Arizona State University, 1960–69 (Tempe, Arizona: Arizona State University)
 "Elder G. Homer Durham of the First Quorum of the Seventy," Ensign'', May 1977, pp. 100–01

External links

 The G. Homer Durham Papers: complete inventory at the University of Utah
 Grampa Bill's G.A. Pages: G. Homer Durham

1911 births
1985 deaths
20th-century American historians
American male non-fiction writers
20th-century American musicians
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century Mormon missionaries
American Latter Day Saint hymnwriters
American Latter Day Saint writers
American Mormon missionaries in England
American general authorities (LDS Church)
Burials at Salt Lake City Cemetery
Latter Day Saints from Arizona
Latter Day Saints from Utah
Members of the First Quorum of the Seventy (LDS Church)
Musicians from Salt Lake City
Official historians of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
People from Parowan, Utah
People from Salt Lake City
Presidents of Arizona State University
Presidents of the Seventy (LDS Church)
Regional representatives of the Twelve
Songwriters from Utah
Sunday School (LDS Church) people
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
University of Utah alumni
University of Utah faculty
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American academics

G. Homer Durham


Méchoui () or Meshwi is a whole sheep or lamb spit-roasted on a barbecue in Maghrebi cuisine. The word comes from the Arabic word šawā (, "grilling, roasting"). This dish is very popular in North Africa.

In Algeria and Morocco, the term méchoui "refers to the method of cooking a lamb or a sheep cooked whole on the spit".

In Tunisia, however, it applies to any piece of meat or fish grilled with embers.

Preparation

After having slaughtered and dismembered the young lamb, all the internal organs of the animal are removed from the body cavity, with the exception of the kidneys. This cavity is stitched after being sprinkled with spices, particularly ras el hanout.  The lamb is skewered on a tree branch and cooked next to a pile of embers. The spindle is rotated slowly and evenly so as to ensure evenly distributed cooking.

The prepared lamb is not placed directly above the embers, for the melting fat could ignite and char the outer flesh. The cooking is started gently, so that the interior cooks almost at the same time as the outside. During cooking, the meat is brushed with melted butter or oil, to make it crispy. Gradually, the lamb is brought close to the hot embers, so that the flesh takes on an amber color. The cooking time varies according to the weight of the animal, typically about a quarter of an hour per kilogram.

Presentation

Méchoui is a dish served at the beginning of the meal, as part of a feast or diffa. With the fingers of the right hand, the host takes pieces of grilled meat and offers them to  guests. Traditionally, no cutlery is used to serve a mechoui, because, due to the slow cooking, the meat should be able to detach without any effort.

The nomadic populations, in addition to their main herd often composed of several thousand sheep, raise a small number of male lambs specifically for mechoui, feeding them with cheih, a species of wild mugwort which gives the lamb a distinctive character.

Regional variations
Mechoui is prepared, especially in Morocco, by digging a vertical hole, or by constructing an earthen oven, 0.8 to 1 meter in diameter and 1.5 to 2 meters deep. Wood is stacked in this cavity and burns for five or six hours. When the earth surrounding the hole is smoking and the wood is transformed into embers and ashes, most of it is removed to avoid flare-ups. The prepared lamb is added to the oven vertically and enclosed with a lid covered with clay, mud, or wet sand, sealing the lid as well as possible. Cooking lasts four to five hours. When the lamb is done, the hardened cover is broken to remove the lamb from the oven.

Serving
Traditionally, méchoui is served with cumin and salt, either on a plate or in a decorative serving dish.  The diners sprinkle salt and cumin to taste on the lamb before eating.

See also
 List of Middle Eastern dishes
 List of African dishes
 List of barbecue dishes
 List of lamb dishes
 List of spit-roasted foods

References

Arab cuisine
Algerian cuisine
North African cuisine
Lamb dishes
Barbecue
Mauritanian cuisine
Spit-cooked foods
Maghrebi cuisine
Middle Eastern cuisine

Méchoui


Palm sugar is a sweetener derived from any variety of palm tree. Palm sugar is sometimes qualified by the type of palm, as in coconut palm sugar. While sugars from different palms may have slightly different compositions, all are processed similarly and can be used interchangeably.

Types

The predominant sources of palm sugar are the Palmyra, date, nipa, sugar, and coconut palms.

The Palmyra palm (Borassus spp.) is grown in Africa, Asia, and New Guinea. The tree has many uses, such as thatching, hatmaking, timber, a writing material, and in food products. Palm sugar is produced from sap (toddy) from the flowers.

The date palm has two species, Phoenix dactylifera and P. sylvestris, and both are sources of palm sugar. P. dactylifera is common in the Mediterranean and Middle East. P. sylvestris is native to Asia, mainly Pakistan and India. Date palms are cultivated mainly for dates. Palm sugar is made from the tree's sap.

The nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) is native to the coastlines and tropical regions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the only palm tree that grows in a watery mangrove biome. Only its leaves and flowers grow above water. Palm sugar is made from the sugar-rich sap.

The sugar palm (Arenga pinnata) is native to the coastal and tropical regions of Asia, mainly China, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The sap used to produce palm sugar is known in India as gur and in Indonesia as gula aren.

The coconut palm' (Cocos nucifera) yields coconut palm sugar from the sap of its flowers. It grows in coastal areas of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Major suppliers are  Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines.

Production
Palm sugar is produced by boiling collected sap until it thickens. The boiled sap can be sold as palm syrup. It is sold in bottles or tins and tends to thicken and crystallise over time. The boiled sap can also be solidified and sold as bricks or cakes.  It can range in colour from golden brown to dark brown or almost black, like Indonesian gula aren.

Use
Palm sugar is an ingredient in both sweet and savoury dishes used throughout Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa.

Local variants

Palm sugar is known by many names and variants depending on its ingredient, production method, or region. It is known as  (Javanese sugar) in Indonesia, and  (Malaccan sugar) in Malaysia. A specific difference in palm sugar naming is seen  in Indonesia; if it is made from coconut, it is called as  or  (red sugar), on the other hand  (aren sugar) refer to palm sugar that specifically made from the sap of aren palm flower buds.  has an earthy aroma and deep sweetness with a darker colour closely resembling molasses, while  has paler colour.

 is a type of palm sugar made from the sap of flower buds from the coconut palm, or less commonly, other palms. It can be dense and sticky.  It is known in English as "Malacca sugar", probably because it originated in the state of Malacca, Malaysia ().  Traditionally,  is made by extracting the sap from the flower bud of a coconut tree. Several slits are cut into the bud, and a pot is tied underneath to collect the sap. The sap is then boiled until it thickens. Next, the sap is poured into bamboo tubes  long and left to solidify to form cylindrical cake blocks. Due to the labour involved in the production, it is often more expensive than the ubiquitous cane sugar. It is used in some savoury dishes, but mainly in the local desserts and cakes of the Southeast Asian region.

 pudding is a dessert made with  and a common hot or cold dish of Indo-Malay origin. Other examples include  and , a ball-shaped dessert made from glutinous rice flour, filled with , and covered in shredded coconut.

See also

References

Malaysian cuisine
Singaporean cuisine
Sugars
Edible palms

Palm sugar


This is an alternative page of Wikipǣdia:Tutorial on Old English, this version is written using ƿynn.

Hū man sceolde ƿrītanFor information on typing, see Help:Innung#TypingGif þē is nīed, brūc þā stafas: ǣ æ ā ē ī ō ū ȳ þ ð ƿ oþþe Ǣ Æ Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū Ȳ Þ Ð Ƿ in þīnum geƿritum.

When writing, use the early West Saxon spellings:
Use ie instead of y (thus sierƿung instead of syrƿung, his instead of hys, etc.)
Use an instead of on (thus and instead of ond, mann instead of monn, etc.)

OE Style

As a general rule for the OE wiki, try to remember the following OE guidelines to give this wiki a consistent look and feel:Don'tsDo not use y for ie in words such as his, hire, sierwung, or for eo in words such as feorran, feorsian
Do not syncopate verb endings on verbs ending in consonant clusters or t/d.  It is well known that the Anglo-Saxons did this, but it will make reading articles so much easier if one finds "bīteþ" and "biddeþ" instead of "bitt" and "bītt."  And "hyngrest" not "hyngrst."  However, you can probably get away with "bītst."
Do not use on instead of an.  It is easier to see and understand "mann," "and," and "band" than "monn," "ond," and "bond."
Do not link to external sites within an article if you can help it.  Save that for the end of the article.
Do not link to images outside the article.  Having little thumbnails that one may click on is nicer, and makes the article better to look at.Do'sUse the same spelling throughout your article.  It is well known that the Anglo-Saxons didn't do this, but it will make reading articles so much easier with consistent spelling.
Use the special words and characters under the edit box if you need them.
Use the following for definite articles: se, sēo, þæt; þæs, þǣre; þǣm, þǣre; þȳ/þon, þǣre; þone, þā, þæt; and plural: þā; þāra/þǣra; þǣm; þā - don't use thaet, þat, sio, sīo, þām, þāre, etc.  Consistency!
Use the distinctive accusative forms of pronouns (mec, þec, ūsic, uncit, ēowic, incit, hine, hīe, hit).  This will make the articles that much easier to read.
Use the þ for the same sound as in "theta" and ð for the same sound as in "that."  It is well known that the Anglo-Saxons didn't do this, but it will make pronouncing what is read in the articles so much easier.
Use internal links within this wiki.  We are not an advertising service for other websites.
Use image thumbnails within an article rather than simply linking to the image page.  This makes for prettier articles, and is already common practice in other wikis.

Or: be consistent, make it easy for your readers to understand.  And remember, this is an encyclopedia, so Neutral Point of View applies!

Punctuation

Punctuate sentences as you normally would, i.e. a period for sentences, question mark for questions, and exclamation mark for imperatives/commands.
For subordinate clauses, separate them from the main clause by a comma, e.g. "Ic cann secgan, þæt hē is mīn brōðor." Or, "Þes is sē mōnaþ, þe ƿē 'Hāligmōnaþ' hātton."  This makes it a bit clearer to understand.
In series, place commas after each word, including one before 'and' (mōdor, fæder, and sweostor).

Runes

Please visit the How to write with Runes article if you wish to write using the runic alphabet. If you wish to do so, please have a version of the page written using the Latin alphabet first, then transliterated into runes.

And as for Grammar

Information about Syllables Relevant to Old English

Syllables break when:

There are two consonants between two vowel clusters, e.g. hab-ban, en-gel.
There is one consonant between two vowel clusters (the consonant going to the latter syllable), e.g. ē-þel, fre-mast.

It is important to know what the stem of a word is: It is the most basic factor of a word (compound or not) minus declension/conjugation suffixes, therefore the Modern English word fireman has two stems: fire and man, the same rules apply to Old English; but in compound words, the declension/conjugation of a noun/adjective/verb is purely dependent on the last word in the compound (so the noun "sealtȳþ - salt-wave" may look like it takes the endings of a long-stemmed disyllable; but it is, in fact, a compound word of "sealt - salt" and "ȳþ - wave" (ȳþ being the final member of the compound), therefore it takes the conjugation of a long-stemmed monosyllable: ȳþ).

At many times in Old English, it is important to be able to distinguish four different types of syllables.

Short-stemmed monosyllables: end with short vowel and one consonant, e.g. scip, in, glæd.

Long-stemmed monosyllables: end with either a long vowel and one consonant or a short vowel and two consonants, e.g. hand, cniht, fōt, tōþ.

Short-stemmed disyllables: end with a short vowel, then one consonant, then another short vowel, then one consonant, e.g. metod, ƿerod, hacod.

Long-stemmed disyllables: end with the same pattern as above (e.g. vowel, consonant cluster, vowel, consonant cluster) but must have at least one long vowel or one cluster of two consonants, e.g. engel, habban, ƿindig, ēþel.

Verbs
The verb is conjugated as follows: ic (stem)-e, þu (stem)-est, hē (stem)-eþ/aþ, ƿē/gē/hīe (stem)-aþ
Strong Verbs: ic -e, þu -(e)st, hē -(e)þ, ƿē/gē/hīe -aþ

--The () means the e of the ending can be syncopated if the ending is still understandable.  Bisen: stendeþ hē, ne stent hē, ac nimþ hē, ne nimeþ hē.  Understendest þu?

Weak Verbs

Type 1a
Verbs with stems ending in a double consonant or in -rian, unless otherwise marked.
Infinitive Forms: nerian, fremman, settan, gremman, etc.
Note how the infinitive ending is always -an.

And doubled consonant verbs (with fremman as an example):

And one last type, settan/lecgan type 1a verbs:

Notes: Weak Verb 1a
The first person is the infinitive, without -an (the stem), plus -e.  (nerian -> neri+an -> neri+e)
The second/third person is formed from the bare stem plus -est/-eþ (nerian -> ner+ian -> nerest, nereþ)
The plural is the infinitive without -an (the stem), plus -aþ.  (nerian -> neri+an -> neri+aþ)
The imperative is formed from the þu (minus -st) and ge (same) forms. (nerest ->nere-st -> nere)
The subjunctive is formed from the stem + -e, -en. (nerian -> neri+e, neri+en)  Thus, it is just like the first person indicative and the first person indicative plus -n.
The present participle is formed from the stem plus -ende (nerian -> neri+ende)
The past participle is formed from the past tense and ge-, minus the -e (nerede -> ge+nered-e -> genered)

Verbs ending in -rian and with doubled consonants drop the -i- or doubled consonant in the same positions: 2nd/3rd person singular, imperative singular, and throughout the past tense.
Verbs like settan (ātreddan, cnyttan, hreddan, hƿettan, lettan, spryttan, lecgan) typically have the above declension.  Lecgan has (legde, geleged).  You may find past forms as "setede."

Type 1b
Verbs with stems ending in more than one consonant (not a doubled consonant) or with a long vowel and one consonant.
Infinitive Forms: dēman, hyngran, drencan, gierƿan, etc.
Note how the infinitive ending is always -an.

And multiple consonant verbs (ending in -c, -sc, -p, -f, with drencan as an example):

And multiple consonant verbs (using hyngran as an example):

And one last type, gierƿan verbs (ending in -ƿan):

Notes: Weak Verb 1b
See notes on Weak Verb 1a for formation of the different forms of the verb.
The most 'regular' 1b verbs are those like dēman (long vowel, 1 consonant) and hyngran (short vowel, multiple consonants), in that they don't have much variation in formation like drencan and gierƿan verbs.
Verbs having a long vowel and one consonant, like dēman, don't generally have the full -est, -eþ endings.  Thus, the imperative is simply the þu form without -st (dēm!, not dēme!).
Verbs like dēman include verbs ending in -rn, -ng, -rg, -lg, ƿiernan (ƿiernde, geƿierned), lengan (lengde, gelenged), byrgan (byrgde, gebyrged), and fylgan (fylgde, gefylged).  It also includes contracted verbs like hēan (hēade, gehēad), rȳn, tȳn, þēon, þȳn.
Verbs like drencan include those ending in -nc, -sc, -p, -sp, -t, -rp.  They add -te in the past tense (ācƿencte, ādƿæscte, etc.).
Verbs like hyngran, with a short vowel and multiple consonants, are more 'regular' than other 1b verbs.  Their past tense is always -ede, and the past participle is always ge-(stem)-ed (bīecnede, þrysmede, symblede, ræfnede).
Verbs like gierƿan, ending in -ƿan, drop the -ƿ- in the same places as the -i- in 1a verbs (smierƿan -> smierest, nierƿan -> niereþ).  Verbs like getrīeƿan, lǣƿan, forslǣƿan, hlēoƿan (with a long vowel/diphthong) kept the -ƿ- in all forms, however.

Weak Verb 2

These are all other verbs, and are about half of all weak verbs.

Verbs like tƿēogan to doubt are slightly irregular, since they were originally class 3 verbs, but decline alike, so it's not too difficult to learn them.  There are only tƿēogan, fēogan to hate, frēogan to love, make free, smēagan to ponder, consider, and þrēagan to reprove, rebuke.  Sometimes these verbs show up as tƿēon, fēon, frēon, smēan, and þrēan.

Notes: Weak Verb 2
See notes on Weak Verb 1a for formation of the different forms of the verb.
These verbs all end in -ian.
These verbs are the most 'regular' verbs in that all verbs of this class decline the same aside from a small group of exceptional verbs.
The second and third person singular have the endings -ast and -aþ, without the -i-.
The imperative is still the second person, minus -st.
The verbs that act like tƿēogan are remnants of class 3 verbs that became class 2 verbs before the written history of Old English.

Pronouns
In dæftunge: nemniendlic, āgniendlic, forgifendlic, ƿregendlic

Notice how the Interrogative pronouns look like the pronouns hē and hit (hƿǣm and him, hƿone and hine, hƿæt and hit, hƿæs and his).  If you compare to the Definite Article, you'll see the same similarities, mostly a difference of þ-/hƿ- (þone and hƿone, þǣm and hƿǣm, þȳ and hƿȳ, þæt and hƿæt, þæs and hƿæs).

Declension
The genitive pronoun functions as an adjective.  As such, it declines to agree with the case, gender, and number of the noun which it describes.  The pronouns mīn, þīn, sīn, ūser, ēoƿer, uncer, incer decline, whereas his, hire, and hira do not.  The following table illustrates the declensions of these pronouns, which is exactly like the adjective blind.

Nouns

The following tables show the most common noun declensions for the three genders (~68% masculine, ~73% feminine, ~91% neuter).

Masculine Nouns

Strong Masculine

This declension has about 63.8% of all masculine nouns.  Since this declension was so common, it became the basis for the modern English plural -(e)s ending.  One-syllable nouns, like stān, gang, and ǣl all decline alike.  Nouns ending in a double consonant, like bucc, hnæpp, and cropp, also decline like stān.  The first irregularity comes with nouns like dæg, which have the letter 'æ' followed by one consonant.  The 'æ' becomes 'a' in the plural.

Nouns like dæg include: pæþ, stæf, hƿæl, etc.  One noun, mǣg, has both māgas and mǣgas for plural.

Nouns like mearh are also a litle different from stān.  They drop the -h before endings, and lengthen the vowel.

Nouns like mearh include: ealh, eolh, fearh, healh, sealh, seolh, ƿealh, etc.  The word scōh simply adds endings, since it already has a long vowel:

Weak Masculine

Note that all weak masculine nouns have the letter a as an ending in the nominative singular (making weak masculine nouns very easy to detect), which is a suffix which is often the equivalent in meaning to the Modern English suffix -er.

Note that some masculine nouns ending in a long ā are weak (e.g. rā "roebuck), but not all.

Neuter Nouns

Neuter nouns are much the same as masculine nous in declension, and, if you have already learnt the masculine noun declensions, these should be no problem.

Strong Neuter

Here's where your knowledge of long-stemmed and short-stemmed syllables comes in handy.

Short-stemmed monosyllables and long-stemmed disyllables take these endings:

And long-stemmed monosyllabes/short-stemmed disyllables take these endings:

Note that the only difference between the two declensions is that u is in the neuter plural for short-stemmed monosyllables and long-stemmed disyllables; but in long-stemmed disyllables and short-stemmed mono-syllables, the u is not there.

All of the rules for the masculine strong sub-declensions occur (e.g. æ in singular and a in plural; h after a vowel is lost before declension suffixes, and the vowel is lengthened; and h after a consonant is lost, and the first stem-vowel is lengthened) in the neuter strong declension, too.

Weak Neuter

Weak neuter nouns are almost exactly the same as weak masculine nouns in declension, but singular nominative and accusative has -e instead of -a and -an.

There is only one other noun belonging to this declension: ēage - eye.

Case Usage
General Notes
A noun's case tells what it is doing in a sentence.  And when there is an appositive phrase, it matches the noun to which it refers. E.g., "I gave it to John, the new president - Ic geaf hit Iohanne, þǣm nīƿan foresittende."  John and "the new president" are both in the dative case.

Nominative
Subject of a sentence, or the object of copula verbs (bēon, ƿesan, ƿeorðan).  This is the dictionary form of a noun.

Genitive
Case of possession, and the object of some prepositions and adjectives.  This tells whose thing a specific thing is.  E.g., "cyninges þorp" - "king's village."

Dative
Case of giving, telling to/for whom something is done, the benificiary of some action.  E.g., Ic geaf him þæt - I gave him that.  It is also the case of many prepositions.

Instrumental
Case telling "by what means" something is done.  It is inflected in nouns like the dative, but with an adjective describing the noun, the difference is made clearer (or with an article - þȳ or þon).  E.g., þȳ hamore slōg hē þone cyning - with the hammer he hit the king.

Accusative
Direct Object of a sentence, and the object of some prepositions (ƿiþ, etc.).  It is uninflected in masculine/neuter nouns, but has an -e ending with most feminine nouns.

It is also used to show duration of length or time, e.g. "I ran a mile," "I waited an hour," "I'll be running the whole length of the school," etc.

Adjectives

These are those words that come before a noun, describing what kind of noun it is.  There are two ways to decline an adjective, either strong or weak.  A Strong adjective is that which stands alone, preceded by no article or possessive.  A Weak adjective is that which is preceded by se/sēo/þæt, mīn/þīn, etc.

NOTE: eall, genōg, manig, and ōðer are always declined strong.  You may find "Se ōðer mann" instead of *"Se ōðera mann."

One-Syllable Adjectives

Variations in Declension
Adjectives like glæd, have æ followed by one consonant, and change the æ to a with endings beginning in a vowel (-es, -u, etc.).  Also declined like glæd are all adjectives ending in -lic and -sum.
Adjectives like blind, have a short vowel followed by two consonants (sƿift, scearp), or a long vowel followed by one consonant (ƿāc, frōd).  Also declined like blind are all adjectives ending in -cund, -feald, -fæst, and -lēas.  The possessives mīn, þīn, sīn, ūser, uncer, ēoƿer, incer are declined like blind also.
Adjectives like hēah, ending in -h, drop the -h before any ending beginning in a vowel, and drop that vowel.  Thus, where glæd has gladu, glades, hēah will have hēa, hēas.

Two-Syllable Adjectives

Variations in Declension

Adjectives like manig, with a short stem (one short vowel and one consonant, plus an ending with one short vowel and one consonant, -ig, -od, -en, -or, -ol, -oþ, -er), simply add the endings to the adjective, but never add the -u ending.
Adjectives like hālig, with a long stem (one short vowel and two consonants, or a long vowel with one consonant, plus an ending with one short vowel and one consonant, -ig, -od, -en, -or, -ol, -oþ, -er), will syncopate the second stem vowel (hālges, ēacne, hǣðna) in endings beginning with vowels.  These adjectives will always add the -u ending (but won't syncopate in that case).
Adjectives ending in -e, such as ƿilde, will always have the u-ending in the feminine singular and neuter plural.  They simply drop the -e, and add endings as necessary.

U-Ending and Weak Adjectives

Weak Declension with definite article and possessive pronoun:

Variations in Declension
Adjectives ending in -u change it to -o- before -re, -ra, -ne.  The -u changes to -ƿ- before endings beginning with a vowel.
Adjectives occur in the weak declension after se, sēo, þæt, þes, þēos, þis, mīn, þīn, sīn, etc.
Adjectives like glæd will have -a- throughout the weak declension.

Numbers

We did not have Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0) in Old English.  Rather, they used Roman numerals (i, v, x, c, d, m...).  For the purposes of this website, it is requested that all pages use Arabic numerals for ease of reading.

Cardinal Numbers

The cardinal numbers are:

 ān; forma
 tƿēgen, tƿā, tū; ōðer
 þrīe, þrēo; þridda
 fēoƿer; fēorða
 fīf; fīfta
 six; sixta
 seofon; seofoða
 eahta; eahtoða
 nigon; nigoða
 tīene; tēoða
 endleofan; endleofta
 tƿelf; tƿelfta
 þrēotīene; þrēotēoða
 fēoƿertīene; fēoƿertēoða
 fīftīene; fīftēoða
 sixtīene; sixtēoða
 seofontīene; seofontēoða
 eahtatīene; eahtatēoða
 nigontīene; nigontēoða
 tƿentig; tƿentigoða
 ān and tƿentig; ān and tƿentigoða
30. þrītig; þrītigoða
40. fēoƿertig; fēoƿertigoða
50. fīftig; fīftigoða
60. sixtig; sixtigoða
70. hundseofontig; hundseofontigoða
80. hundeahtatig; hundeahtatigoða
90. hundnigontig; hundnigontigoða
100. hund, hundred, hundtēontig; hundtēontigoða
110. hundendleofantig; hundendleofantigoða
120. hundtƿelftig; hundtƿelftigoða
200. tū hund
300. þrēo hund
1000. þūsend

Simply use the Arabic numbers when writing a number.  In regards to declension, only the numbers 1, 2, and 3 decline with the noun.  The others do not decline except when acting as a noun themselves (mid 4 manna, but mid fēoƿerum).

Usage with nouns
Numbers 1, 2, 3 decline with the noun, just like any other adjective (in þrim dagum).
Numbers 4 - 12 simply precede the noun, just like modern English (fēoƿer þegnas, seofon mōnþas).
Decades (20, 30,...90) take a noun in the genitive, or in agreement (fīftig manna, on fēoƿertigum gēarum).

Declension of 1, 2, 3 in Old English

Note that the numeral 1 could decline strong or weak, and in the weak declension, could be plural.

Ordinal Numbers

For ordinal numbers, simply write the number and the declension afterwards: se 6a mann, þǣm 3an mann, etc.

The ordinal numbers, for the purposes of the wiki, are:

forma, ōðer, þridda, fēorþa, fīfta, sixta, seofoða, eahtoða, nigoða, tēoða, endleofoða, tƿelfta, þrēotēoða (fēoƿer~, etc.), tƿentigoða (þrītigoða, etc.), hundtēontigoða (100th), hundendleofontigoða (110th), hundtƿelftigoða (120th).

Sentence Construction

Main Clauses

Typically, sentences have normal modern word order (called SVO, subject-verb-object).  The exception is with pronoun objects, which are typically placed before the verb.
Ic hine geseah - I saw him.
Hīe mē gēafon þæt hūs - they gave me the house.

Verb Agreement
Verbs agree with their subject in number and person.
Ic hine geseah (singular, 1st person)
 Ƿē tȳdon þā leorneras (plural, 1st person)

Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate clauses are introduced with þe, or sē (sēo, þæt) with/without þe.
Þonne is ān port on sūðeƿeardum þǣm lande, þone man hǣteþ Sciringes heal - Then is one port in the south of that country, which is called Skringssalr. (þone is a relative pronoun, referring to "se port", and taking the accusative case, which is the correct case in the clause).

The type of relative pronoun "sē þe," "sēo þe," and "þæt þe" are more common when the antecedent has no demonstrative/qualifier.
 þæt þu onfō his gelēafan and his bebodu healde, sē þe þē fram ƿilƿendlicum earfeðum generede - that thou may receive the trust of the one who has saved thee from earthly hardships, and obey his commands.Complex Sentences

Verbs with þæt-complements
The verbs forbeodan forbid, forberan refrain from, gesƿīcan stop, ƿiþcƿeðan deny, refuse, and several others, take a þæt-clause as objects.
...and forbead þæt hine man God hēte - and forbade anyone to call him God (literally, "and forbade that one called him God").
and forbead þæt man nā þǣr eft ne timbrode - and forbade anyone to build there afterward (literally, "and forbade that one never there after not built").
Also, verbs like tƿēonan doubt, tƿēo bēon to be in doubt...forþon nis nān tƿēo, þæt hē forgifnesse sellan nelle, þǣm þe hīe geearnian ƿillaþ - ...therefore there is no doubt that he will give forgiveness to those who want to earn it. (literally, "therefore is not no doubt that he will not give forgiveness, to them that want to earn it").

Questions
Questions are formed in 2 ways: with verb-subject word order, or with question words.

Method 1: Verb-subject order
Simply place the verb first, then the subject.  This is one of the ways we ask questions in modern English.
Example: hæfst þu ænigne geferan? (Hast thou any companion?)

Method 2: Question Words
Hƿæt, hƿā, hƿǣr, hƿilc, hū, hū fela, etc.
Hƿā eart þu? Who are you?''
Using hƿæðer-subject-verb is used to express doubt or incredulity, or even when expecting the answer 'no.'  The verb is most often in the subjunctive, but may be indicative with impersonal verbs.
Example: hƿæðer gē nū sēcen gold of trēoƿum? (Surely you aren't looking for gold in trees?, Are you looking for gold in trees?, literally, "whether ye may seek gold in trees?").
Example: hƿæðer Rōmāne hit ƿiten nū ænigum menn tō secgenne, hƿæt hiera folces forƿurde? (Do the Romans now know enough to say how many of their people perished?, Surely the Romans know enough now to say how many of their people perished?)

Help

Tutorial on Old English (1)


General James Arthur Hill (October 23, 1923 – October 1, 2010) was a four-star general in the United States Air Force (USAF) who served as Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force.

Hill was born in 1923 in Lancaster, Ohio. Orphaned at sixteen, he graduated from St. Mary's High School in 1940 and attended Ohio State University in 1942. He was inducted into the United States Army in January 1943 and through aviation cadet training received his pilot wings and commission as a second lieutenant in February 1944. He subsequently qualified in multi-engine aircraft.

During World War II, Hill flew 31 European Theater combat missions in the B-24 Liberator bomber while assigned to the 566th Bombardment Squadron, 389th Bombardment Group. After the war, he served at various bases in the United States until 1949 when he was called upon to fly C-54 Skymaster aircraft in the Berlin Airlift.

In October 1949 he was assigned to the Air Training Command at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas, where he served as a basic training squadron commander, and later as executive officer in the U.S. Air Force Preflight Training School.

In April 1955 he was assigned to the Far East Air Forces, initially as an operations officer with the 483d Troop Carrier Wing and in May 1956 as chief of current operations for the 315th Air Division at Tachikawa Air Base, Japan.

Hill returned to the United States in June 1958 to fill a number of different positions in the Western Transport Air Force (now Twenty-Second Air Force) at Travis Air Force Base, California. From August 1960 to July 1961, he attended the Air War College, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, after which he was assigned to Headquarters USAF, Washington, D.C., as an operations staff officer in the Plans and Capabilities Branch of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Operations. In July 1964 he became deputy assistant director for joint matters in the Directorate of Operations.

From July 1965 to August 1966, he served as deputy commander for operations, 1502d Air Transport Wing (redesignated the 61st Military Airlift Wing) at Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii.

In September 1966 Hill was assigned to Headquarters Military Airlift Command at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois as the director of current operations and later as assistant deputy chief of staff for operations. In July 1968 he was reassigned to Travis Air Force Base as the commander, 60th Military Airlift Wing. In March 1970 he returned to Headquarters Military Airlift Command as deputy chief of staff for operations.

Hill returned to the Pentagon in March 1971 as deputy director of programs. He became the director in December 1971; was assigned as assistant deputy chief of staff, programs and resources in May 1974; and assigned duties as deputy chief of staff, programs and resources in July 1974. In June 1977 Hill became commander in chief, Pacific Air Forces, Hickam Air Force Base.

Hill assumed duties as vice chief of staff on July 1, 1978, and was promoted to the grade of general on July 10, 1978. He retired from the United States Air Force on February 29, 1980.

He died on October 1, 2010, after a long battle with myelodysplastic syndrome.

He was rated a command pilot. His military decorations and awards include the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster, the Legion of Merit with oak leaf cluster, the Distinguished Flying Cross with oak leaf cluster, the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters, and the Air Force Commendation Medal with three oak leaf clusters.

  Defense Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster
  Air Force Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster
  Legion of Merit with oak leaf cluster
  Distinguished Flying Cross with oak leaf cluster
  Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters
  Air Force Commendation Medal with three oak leaf clusters

References

Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
People from Lancaster, Ohio
1923 births
2010 deaths
Deaths from myelodysplastic syndrome
Recipients of the Air Medal
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
Ohio State University alumni
United States Air Force generals
Vice Chiefs of Staff of the United States Air Force
Recipients of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal

James A. Hill


SambaSunda (originally known as CBMW) is an Indonesian ethnic music fusion group based in Bandung, the capital and cultural centre of Sundanese culture, Indonesia. SambaSunda are a 14-piece ensemble bringing together a pan-Indonesian array of instruments and influences to create a new style gamelan orchestra. Their style mainly influenced by Sundanese culture such as gamelan and degung Sunda, Tembang Sunda and Kacapi suling.

The classic sounds of the traditional instruments evoke not only the past but also the bustling, urban energy of Bandung today. Recorded in that city's Jugala studios, Berekis Album brings a full sound palette from the deep resonance of the mighty gongs to the silvery eloquence of the bamboo flute.

SambaSunda are led by composer and multi-instrumentalist Ismet Ruchimat, who started his career in 1989 in Gugum Gumbira's famous Jugala Orchestra and has appeared on a number of international recording projects: with Spanish percussionist Vidal Paz ("Sunda-Africa", Globestyle); Indian flautist, Hariprasad Chaurasia ("Moon Magic", BMG India); the Madagascan group, Tarika ("Soul Makassar", Sakay); and on the Kartini label with Sabah Habas Mustapha & the Jugala Allstars ("Jalan Kopo" and "So La Li").

References

External links

SambaSunda audio samples

Indonesian gamelan ensembles
Indonesian jazz music groups
Sundanese music

SambaSunda


Deborah Louise Cook (born February 8, 1952) is a senior United States circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, based in Akron, Ohio. She served as a justice of the Ohio Supreme Court from 1995 to 2003.

Background
Cook received her Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Akron and her Juris Doctor from the University of Akron School of Law. She was president of Delta Gamma sorority and president of her senior class at the University of Akron. She is a member of the Omicron Delta Kappa leadership and academic honorary society.

Following graduation from law school until her election to the Ohio Ninth District Court of Appeals, Cook was a member of Akron's oldest law firm, Roderick, Myers & Linton, as well as the firm's first female partner. She then served four years as a state appellate judge on the District Court of Appeals covering Summit, Wayne, Medina, and Lorain counties. Cook was elected to the Ohio Supreme Court in 1994 for a six-year term beginning in 1995. She was re-elected in November 2000 and served until her appointment to the Sixth Circuit in 2003.

Cook chaired the Commission on Public Legal Education, and was a member of the Ohio Courts Futures Commission and the Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management. In 1996, the University of Akron presented her with an Honorary Doctor of Laws degree. She is a past president of the Akron Bar Association Foundation, a fellow of the American Bar Foundation, and was a member of the Akron Bar Association disciplinary committee from 1981 to 1993. Cook's past community activities include: Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management; Summit County United Way Board of Trustees; President of Volunteer Center Board of Trustees, Women's Network Board of Directors and past chair of the Junior Leadership Akron Project. She currently co-chairs Collegescholars, Inc, a mentored scholarship program benefiting disadvantaged Akron students. Cook is noted as being the only woman ever to play on the all-male Sharon Golf Club's course.

Federal judicial service
President George W. Bush nominated Cook to the Sixth Circuit on May 9, 2001 to a seat vacated by Judge Alan Eugene Norris, who assumed senior status on July 1, 2001. That nomination, made during the Democratic-controlled 107th Congress, never received a floor vote in the United States Senate. Cook was not confirmed until almost two years later. She was confirmed by the United States Senate on May 5, 2003 by a 66–25 vote. She received her commission on May 7, 2003. She assumed senior status on March 6, 2019, when her successor, Chad Readler, was confirmed by the Senate.  Although the court listed her as on inactive senior status as of August 27, 2021, she was again hearing cases as of April 27, 2023.

As a Sixth Circuit Judge, she has authored notable opinions on the Fourth Amendment, Voting Rights, and school free speech.

In 2014 Cook voted to uphold gay marriage bans in Michigan, Kentucky, Ohio, and Tennessee in a 2-1 ruling. The ruling was the second to uphold gay marriage bans since the U.S. Supreme Court struck down the federal Defense of Marriage Act in 2013 and diverged with rulings by the U.S. Courts of Appeals for the 4th, 7th, 9th and 10th circuits, which then led the U.S. Supreme Court to grant writ of certiorari to review same-sex marriage bans when it previously declined to do so. In Obergefell v. Hodges the Supreme Court reversed the decision of the Sixth Circuit.

Possible Supreme Court candidate
Cook was mentioned in 2005 as a possible nominee for the Supreme Court to replace Sandra Day O'Connor. O'Connor was eventually replaced with Samuel Alito, although Cook was mentioned as a possible nominee to the high court had Republican John McCain won the 2008 presidential election.

References

External links

1952 births
Living people
21st-century American judges
Judges of the Ohio District Courts of Appeals
Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit
Justices of the Ohio Supreme Court
Lawyers from Pittsburgh
United States court of appeals judges appointed by George W. Bush
University of Akron alumni
Ohio Republicans
21st-century American women judges

Deborah L. Cook


In military tactics, a flanking maneuver (also called a flank attack), is an attack on the sides or rear of an opposing force. If a flanking maneuver succeeds, the opposing force would be surrounded or have to fight from two or more directions. This reduces the ability of the outflanked force to move or defend itself. Unlike an envelopment, which depends on the enemy's defensive position, any obstacles and the terrain, a flanking maneuver uses the enemy's forward movement to create an attackable flank. A psychological advantage may also be present. The confusion and threat from multiple directions can often cause shock and panic. This may cause soldiers to run from the battle. A larger-scaled tactical flanking is called a strategic flanking. This is where the targets of the flanking could be as large as divisions or even entire armies.

Strategy
A flanking maneuver works best when an enemy is engaged at their front. Often an opposing force must be maneuvered into a position where a flanking attack would work. An ideal situation is getting them into a position where their front is narrow and the flanks are long. A classic example of a flanking maneuver was by Confederate general Stonewall Jackson against the Union Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville.

Related pages
 Turning movement
 Ambush
 Envelopment
 Pincer movement (also called a double-envelopment)
 Rearguard
 Attrition warfare
 Feigned retreat
 Preemptive war
 Oblique order
 Shock tactics

Notes

References

Other websites
 American Artifacts: Jackson's Flank Attack at Chancellorsville - Full Tour; YouTube

Military terminology
Military tactics

Flanking maneuver


Tresus capax is a species of saltwater clam, marine bivalve mollusk, common name the fat gaper, in the family Mactridae. It also shares the common name horse clam with Tresus nuttallii a species which is similar in morphology and lifestyle. Both species are somewhat similar to the geoduck (Panopea generosa, which is in the family Hiatellidae), though smaller, with shells up to eight inches long (20 cm), weight to 3–4 lb (1.4–1.8 kg).

The two species commonly known as horse clams inhabit the Pacific coast intertidal zones: the pacific gaper, T. nuttallii, more abundant south to California; and the fat gaper, T. capax, more abundant north to Alaska. Both have oval and chalky-white or yellow shells with patches of brown periostracum (leather-like skin) on the shell. These clams are also commonly called gapers because their shells are flared around the siphon and do not completely close, rather like geoduck clams. Like geoducks, they are unable to completely retract the siphon within the shell, though less flagrantly as the siphon on Tresus species is not as large.

Identification
An easy way to tell the two species apart is that T. nuttallii usually has relatively longer, narrower shells (longer compared to height) and larger siphonal plates (horny plates found at the tip of the siphon, often with a little algae or barnacles garden). Hence T. capax is the fat gaper.

Habitat and lifestyle
Their habitat is the lower intertidal zones on out to waters as deep as 50–60 feet (13–15 m). They prefer sand, mud, and gravel substrates, normally burying themselves 12–16 inches (30–41 cm), so they are much easier to dig than geoducks. Their preferred substrates are also preferred by butter and littleneck clams, so horse clams are often taken incidentally in commercial harvesting.

Horse clams often have a relationship with small commensal pea crabs, Pinnixa faba, often a mating pair, which enter through the large siphon and live within the mantle cavity of the horse clam. The crabs are easily seen and in no way affect the clam as food. The meat is good and makes excellent chowder. They tend to be ignored by sport diggers in Washington but not in Oregon.

Horse clams are broadcast spawners like geoducks; T. nuttalii spawns in summer and T. capax in winter.

Harvesting for food
Appreciated by pre-contact local Native Americans for their size, abundance, and relatively easy capture, they are less sought today than geoducks, which have gained a marketing cachet.

Identification is important. Best recipes vary with species. For resource sustainability, the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife  sets size and bag limits for these clams. The Department of Health sometimes closes beaches for public health and safety. The Department of Health Marine Biotoxin web site  has current information.

King County has a well-illustrated clam identification procedure .

Some clammers find horse clams are not as tasty as others, so it's not unusual during clamming season to find horse clams left behind on the beach. The shells are more fragile than they might appear, so it is critical that they not be damaged when first digging if they are not kept. The clams will soon die if abandoned. The adults are unable to rebury themselves—they need the pressure of their surroundings to remain intact and maneuver. They can't hold their two big valves together, protecting their soft tissues. Responsible diggers carefully rebury them to about the depth at which the clams were found.

Prehistorical exploitation
Early exploitation of horse clams is known by Native Americans on the Pacific Ocean coast of California. For example, archaeological recovery from Chumash sites in San Luis Obispo County has revealed use of horse clam shells as a scoop implement. An unusually well decorated specimen was found at the present day town of Morro Bay during archaeological excavation.

Notes and references

Bibliography

 C. Michael Hogan (2008) Morro Creek, The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham, February 28, 2008

Further reading
 Abbreviated edition of the clam identification key by the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife at the King County Department of Natural Resources
 Science: Geoduck and Horseclam Biology, an overview by Underwater Harvesters Association, British Columbia, developers of underwater farming.

Mactridae
Marine molluscs of North America
Molluscs of the Pacific Ocean
Molluscs of the United States
Western North American coastal fauna
Fauna of California
Seafood in Native American cuisine
Bivalves described in 1850

Tresus capax


An electrical insulator is a material that does not easily allow flow of electricity through an electric current. Materials typically used to insulate include rubber, plastic and glass. In transformers and electric motors, varnish is used. Insulating gases such as Sulfur hexafluoride are used in some switches. Wires that carry electric currents are usually insulated so the electricity goes to the right place.

Insulator can mean not only the material but things that are made of that material. They are made of various materials such as: glass, silicone, rubber, plastic, oil, wood, dry cotton, quartz, ceramic, etc.

The type of insulator will depend on the uses. Insulators have high electrical resistivity and low conductivity. The insulators prevent the loss of current and make the current more efficient by concentrating the flow.

Insulator devices
Electric power transmission uses three types of overhead insulator: pin insulator, suspension insulator, and strain insulator.

 The pin insulator  is the earliest developed insulator. Pin type insulators can have up to three parts, depending on the amount of voltage.

 The suspension insulator is for voltages above 33KV.  Multiple insulators are connected in series.

 The strain insulator is the same as a suspension insulator but it is used horizontally, whereas the suspension insulator is used vertically. The strain insulator is used to relieve the line of excessive tension, which happens when there is dead end of the line or sharp curve.

References

Electricity
Electronics

Insulator (electricity)


A boilersuit (or boiler suit), also known as coveralls, is a loose fitting garment covering the whole body except for the head, hands and feet.

Terminology
The term boilersuit is most common in the UK, where the 1989 edition of the Oxford English Dictionary lists the word as having been first used on 28 October 1928 in the Sunday Express newspaper. The garments are typically known as coveralls in North America, while overall(s) is used elsewhere.  In North America "overall" is more usually understood as a bib-and-brace overall, which is a type of trousers with attached suspenders.

A more tight-fitting garment that is otherwise similar to a boilersuit is usually called a jumpsuit. The "siren suit" favoured by Winston Churchill (but also worn by many others in the UK when air raids were a threat) during the Second World War was closely similar to a boilersuit.

Description

A boilersuit is a one-piece garment with full-length sleeves and legs like a jumpsuit, but usually less tight-fitting. Its main feature is that it has no gap between jacket and trousers or between lapels, and no loose jacket tails. It often has a long thin pocket down the outside of the right thigh to hold long tools. It usually has a front fastening extending the whole length of the front of the body up to the throat, with no lapels. It may be fastened with buttons, a zip, velcro, or snap fasteners. Boilersuits with an attached hood are available. The word "boilersuit" may also refer to disposable garments such as DuPont's Tyvek suits.

Usage
Coveralls are most often worn as protective clothing over "street" clothes at work. They can be used for painting and decorating, mechanical work, farming, factory work, and other activities where clothes may become soiled. Many companies provide workers with corporate branded boilersuits for identification and marketing.

Coveralls are also sometimes used as prison uniforms in the U.S and other countries.

Police tactical units often use boilersuits as a uniform, for instance the French police unit Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité, and the Austrian units EKO Cobra and WEGA. Similar coveralls made of Nomex in olive drab (and more recently, desert tan) are also used by the crews of armoured fighting vehicles in the US Army and Marine Corps, where the men and also their suits are sometimes called "CVCs", an abbreviation of "Combat Vehicle Crewman".

More form fitting coveralls with many zippered pockets, originally made of cotton treated for flame resistance, but made of Nomex since the late 1960s, have been used as flight suits since the beginning of World War II. There are two main categories for coveralls: cloth and disposable.

Both cloth and disposable coveralls are manufactured with their own unique protective properties including: high-visibility, insulation to protect against cold weather, waterproof, flame resistant to protect against fire, arc resistant to protect against flash fires, and even microporous fabrics when exposed to hazardous chemicals.

Japanese politicians have been known to use boiler suits to convey an image of preparedness.

Coveralls called student boilersuits are used by university students in some Nordic countries as a sort of party-uniform, with insignia on the back and colour varying with programme and university.

The suit is associated with the slasher subgenre, being worn by Michael Myers of the Halloween films.

Pete Townshend of The Who frequently wore a white boiler suit during performances and in publicity photographs from 1969-71.

The Church of Scientology has punished Sea Org members in the Rehabilitation Project Force by making them wear black boiler suits.

See also
 Flight suit
 Speedsuit
 Onesie (jumpsuit)

References

Military uniforms
One-piece suits
Safety clothing

Boilersuit


This article is about the fastening device called the zip.  For information on the acronym ZIP, please see that article.

A zipper (zip fastener or zip in British English) is a device for temporarily joining two edges of fabric together.  It is widely used in clothing and other textiles.

Description
The bulk of a zip consists of two strips of fabric tape, one permanently fixed to each of the two flaps to be joined, and each carrying tens or hundreds of specially shaped metal or plastic teeth.  Another part, the slider, which is operated by hand, rides up and down the two sets of teeth.  Inside the slider is a Y-shaped channel that pushes the opposing sets of teeth together or apart, depending on the slider's direction of travel.  The zip is usually fitted vertically in clothing so that pushing the slider from top to bottom opens it, and pushing it from bottom to top closes it. If the slider got lose then the zipper becomes non-functinal  and needs to fix it .The friction of the slider against the teeth causes a characteristic buzzing noise which is probably the origin of the name zip.

History
An early device similar to the zip, 'an Automatic, Continuous Clothing Closure', was patented in the USA by Elias Howe in 1851, but did not reach the market.  Whitcomb Judson patented a similar 'Clasp Locker', for fastening shoes, in 1891 or 1893, and marketed the invention through his 'Universal Fastener' company.  These two designs used hooks and eyes.  The design used today, based on interlocking teeth, was invented by an employee of Judson's, Swedish scientist Gideon Sundback, in 1913 as the 'Hookless Fastener' and patented in 1917 as the 'Separable Fastener'.  The B. F. Goodrich Company coined the name 'Zipper' in 1923, and used the device on tobacco pouches and boots.  The zip became popular for children's clothing and men's trousers in the 1920s and 1930s.  At this stage, the zip was permanently joined at one end, so could not be used to fasten jackets.

Clothing

Zipper


Political economy was the original term for the study of production, the acts of buying and selling, and their relationships to laws, customs and government.

Early history
It developed in the 17th century as the study of the economies of states which placed the theory of property in the theory of government.

Some political economists proposed the labour theory of value (first introduced by John Locke, developed by Adam Smith and later Karl Marx), according to which labour is the real source of value. Many political economists also looked at the accelerating development of technology, whose role in economic and social relationships grew ever more important.

In late 19th century, the term "political economy" was generally replaced by the term economics, which was used by those seeking to place the study of economy on a mathematical basis, rather than studying the relationships within production and consumption.

Today
In the present, political economy means a variety of different, but related, approaches to studying economic and political behavior, which range from combining economics with other fields, to using different fundamental assumptions which challenge those of orthodox economics:

Political economy is most commonly used to refer to interdisciplinary studies that draw on economics, law and political science in order to understand how political institutions, the political environment and capitalism influence each other.
Within political science, the term refers to modern liberal, realist, Marxian, and constructivist theories concerning the relationship between economic and political power among and within states. This is also of concern to students of economic history and institutional economics.

Disciplines which relate to political economy
Because political economy is not a unified discipline, there are a variety of studies that use the term which have overlapping subject matter, but radically different viewpoints.

Sociology is the study of the effects of involvement in society on individuals as members of groups, and how this changes their ability to function. Many sociologists begin from a framework of production determining relationship drawn from Karl Marx.

Anthropology often studies political economy by studying the relationship between the world capitalist system and local cultures.

Psychology is frequently the fulcrum around which political economy centers, in that it deals with decision making, not as being a black box whose effects are seen only in price decisions, but as being a source of study, and therefore the assumptions in a model of political economy.

History since it documents change over time, is often used as a means of arguing in political economy, and often historical works have a framework of political economy which they assume or argue as the basis for the narrative structure.

Economics, because it studies activity and price relationships and the effects of scarcity, grew out of political economy. It is often used in political economy to argue policy effects and study the results of actions, and it is often in opposition to political economy, in that many, if not most, practicing economists see political economy as being a hindrance to the operation of economic forces. From the point of view of political economy, economics is a branch of the entire study, and economics has, at its basis, a theory of political economy which should be open to examination.

Law since it concerns the creation of policy, or the mediation of policy ends through political acts which have specific individual results, is seen, in political economy, as both political capital and social infrastructure, on one hand - and as the result of the sociology of a society on the other.

Constitutional economics is the academic sub-discipline of economics and constitutionalism. It is often described as "the economic analysis of constitutional law." Constitutional economics tries to explain the selection of different constitutional rules "limiting the choices and activities of economic and political agencies." This is different from the approach of traditional economics.  Also, constitutional economics studies how well economic decisions of the state agree with the existing constitutional economic rights of its citizens." For example, proper distribution of economic and financial resources of the state is a big question for every nation. Constitutional economics helps finding a legal mechanism to solve this problem.

Ecology is often involved in political economy, because human activity is one of the single largest effects on the environment, and because it is the suitability of the environment for human beings which is one of the central concerns of most human beings. The ecological effects of economic activity on the environment have spurred the creation of a great deal of research studying means of changing the incentives balance of the market economy. This work is particularly controversial in its interaction with economics, since it questions the fundamental econometric assumptions of market economics and their basic validity.

Related pages
 Alexander Hamilton
 Budget
 Constitution
 Constitutional economics
 Economist
 Economy
 Political science
 Social Capital
 Analyze

References

Other websites
 National System of Political Economy  - Major work on political economy by Friedrich List.
 Harmony of Interests -Work contrasting American System and British System of political economy by Henry C. Carey
 History of Economic Thought  - This compendium hosted by the New School has collected bios on over 500 economists and introductions to many schools of thought.
Global Political Economy Net  Mailing lists and other reference material by scholars of "The Global Political Economy"
Political Economy of Space Development
New Political Economy Research Center, University of Sheffield .
Constitutional Political Economy  Most recent issues online.
George Mason University: Buchanan Center for Political Economy
Political Economic Research Institute, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
The Political Economy of British Columbia's Rainforests by Elmer G. Wiens
The Journal of Australian Political Economy
Discipline of Political Economy at The University of Sydney

Economic policy

Political economy


In mathematics, a divergent series is an infinite series that is not convergent, meaning that the infinite sequence of the partial sums of the series does not have a finite limit.

If a series converges, the individual terms of the series must approach zero. Thus any series in which the individual terms do not approach zero diverges. However, convergence is a stronger condition: not all series whose terms approach zero converge. A counterexample is the harmonic series

The divergence of the harmonic series was proven by the medieval mathematician Nicole Oresme.

Mathematical analysis
Sequences and series

Divergent series


A root hair of a vascular plant, is a tubular outgrowth of a hair-forming cell on the epidermis of a plant root.

They are lateral extensions of a single cell, and invisible to the naked eye and light microscope. The function of root hairs is to collect water and mineral nutrients from the soil. This solution goes up through the roots to the rest of the plant.

Root hair cells survive for 2 to 3 weeks and then die off. New root hair cells are continually being formed at the tip of the root. This way, the root hair coverage stays the same.

Related pages
Mycorrhiza

Plant anatomy

Root hair


Cigar box juggling is the juggling of rectangular props that resemble cigar boxes. Wood block manipulation was thought to have started by Japanese prisoners who were given small wood blocks as head rests for sleeping. Cigar box manipulation was developed as a vaudeville act in the United States between the 1880s and 1920s, and was popularized by W. C. Fields. Originally, performers would take actual boxes that cigars were stored in and nail them shut to create their juggling props. Today, cigar boxes for juggling are typically purpose-built, hollow wooden or plastic blocks with suede or foam rubber padding attached to the sides.

Technique
Cigar boxes are juggled by holding a box in each hand and tossing and flipping a third box in between them. Routines performed with cigar boxes may also include quick midair box-exchanging tricks, balancing tricks, and more. Most tricks are done with three boxes; more advanced routines may include more than three.

Rather than the "flowing" style of ball juggling, cigar boxes have what is often referred to as a "stop-and-start" style. In effect, this means that after the majority of tricks the boxes return to the home position (three or more boxes in a line, smallest ends together) and stop before the juggler starts the next trick.

Most cigar box tricks are achieved by bouncing up and down (normally from the knees, keeping one's arms in the same place relative to one's body). The trick is started at the apex of the 'bounce' and the boxes are pinned in the home position on the downstroke, preferably at the same altitude at which they started. This leads to the visual effect of the boxes being connected by an invisible wire (in tricks where the boxes not involved in the trick are separate; see "take out" below) or it can appear as if the boxes are magnetic in some way (where two boxes remain 'stuck' together in the air; see "end round" below). This is just an illusion; the boxes are not in any way connected.

Records
In 1977 Kris Kremo set a Guinness World Record of releasing one box and catching it after a quadruple pirouette. In 1994, Kristian Kristof broke the record by releasing all three boxes and catching them after a quadruple pirouette.

The world record for the most cigar boxes balanced on the chin is 223, set by Ashrita Furman at The Culture Project Theatre in New York City, New York, on 12 November 2006.

Construction
Whereas vaudeville performers originally tended to use actual cigar boxes, today, the props for cigar box routines are usually built specifically for manipulation.  They may be constructed from various materials, including plastic, plywood, or even wall paneling.  They are sometimes padded on the ends and/or the sides with suede, foam rubber, or a felt-like material to provide extra friction on the catch.  Foam yoga blocks are also the right size and shape.

See also
 Circus skills

Notes

Circus skills
Juggling props

Cigar box juggling


The tropopause is a boundary region in Earth's atmosphere between the troposphere and the stratosphere. Here the air ceases to cool at -56.5°C (-70°F), and the air becomes almost completely dry.

Most commercial aircraft are flown in the tropopause. To put it into even simpler words, the tropopause is the interferance between the troposphere and the stratosphere.

Layers of Earth's atmosphere

Tropopause


The Lenape, Lenappe, Lenapi or Lenni Lenape (meaning "the people" or "true people") are a group of several bands of Native American people who share cultural and linguistic traits.  They are also known as the Delaware Indians. They spoke two similar languages known as the Delaware languages: Unami and Munsee.  The three subtribes of the Lenape are Munsee, Unami and Unalachtigo.  They lived in different regions in Pennsylvania.

The Lenape lived in the part of the Northeast Woodlands called Lenapehoking, roughly the area around and between the Delaware and lower Hudson Rivers.  These areas are known today as the U.S. states of New Jersey, eastern Pennsylvania around the Delaware and Lehigh valleys. They also lived on the north shore of Delaware and much of southeastern New York, mostly the lower Hudson Valley and Upper New York Bay. Nowadays most live in Oklahoma, Wisconsin and Ontario.

References

Native Americans

Lenape


"Radar" is a song performed by the pop music singer Britney Spears.
It was originally supposed to be the fourth single released off of her fifth studio album Blackout.
It ultimately wasn't but despite that fact it did chart in some countries.
It was later included as a bonus track on her sixth studio album Circus.
It was released as the fourth single off of that album.

2007 songs
Britney Spears songs

Radar (song)


Charles Schreyvogel (January 4, 1861 – January 27, 1912) was an American painter of Western subject matter in the days of the disappearing frontier. Schreyvogel was especially interested in military life.

Life

He was born in Hoboken, New Jersey to Paul and Theresa Schreyvogel, and grew up in a poor family of German immigrant shopkeepers on the Lower East Side of New York.Schreyvogel was unable to afford art classes and he taught himself to draw. In 1901, his painting My Bunkie  was awarded the Thomas Clarke Prize at the annual exhibition of the National Academy of Design. He suddenly became recognized and earned what seemed like overnight fame.

Schreyvogel did much of his work in his studio (or its rooftop) in decidedly non-Western Hoboken.

He died in Hoboken in 1912 and is buried in Flower Hill Cemetery, North Bergen, New Jersey.

Works by Schreyvogel are included in the collections of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, the Sid Richardson Museum, Fort Worth, Texas, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, Oklahoma.

See also

 Charles Marion Russell, western artist
 J. K. Ralston, western artist
 Frederic Remington, western artist

Notes
 James D. Horan. The Life And Art Of Charles Schreyvogel: Painter-Historian Of The Indian-Fighting Army Of The American West. New York: Crown Publishers Inc., 1969.
 Rick Stewart. The American West: Legendary Artists of the Frontier. Hawthorne Publishing Company, 1986.

References

External links

Charles (or Carl) Schreyvogel (1861-1912)
Attack on the Herd, ca.1907, Sid Richardson Museum, includes biography

1861 births
1912 deaths
American people of German descent
19th-century American painters
American male painters
20th-century American painters
Artists from Hoboken, New Jersey
Painters from New York City
19th-century American male artists
20th-century American male artists
Burials at Flower Hill Cemetery (North Bergen, New Jersey)

Charles Schreyvogel


Salvador Araneta y Zaragoza (January 31, 1902 – October 7, 1982) was a Filipino nationalist, constitutionalist, politician, civil servant, lawyer, educator, economist, businessman, industrialist, environmentalist, and philanthropist.

He was a member of the Philippine Constitutional Convention of 1933 and 1971 and founder and twice president of the Philippine Constitution Association. Araneta served as Secretary of Economic Coordination under President Elpidio Quirino, Secretary of Agriculture under President Ramon Magsaysay, and as member of the National Economic Council. He is the second son of Gregorio Araneta y Soriano and Carmen Zaragoza y Roxas. His father was a close colleague of Trinidad Pardo de Tavera since he belonged to the Partido Federal, a group in favor of American annexation of the country.

As an educator, he founded Gregorio Araneta University Foundation, the first private agricultural school after World War II, endowed the university with one sixth of his personal wealth and turned it into a foundation. He also founded FEATI University to train engineers and mechanics for Far Eastern Air Transportation, Inc., the first airline that operated after the war serving China and San Francisco. Araneta pioneered in the flour industry (RFM Corporation), in soy bean extraction (Republic Soya), in the manufacture of electric motors (Feati Industries), animal feeds (AIA Feed Mills), animal vaccines (AIA Biological Laboratories). He was co-founder of NEPA (National Economic Protectionism Association), PRRM (Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement), and the White Cross, an orphanage.

Araneta dedicated his life to uplift the moral and social values of society and sought property ownership and capitalism for all. These he embodied in a draft constitution, the Bayanikasan Constitution published in 1980 to be adopted in 10 to 20 years.

External links
Don Salvador Z. Araneta
Salvador Araneta

References

1902 births
1982 deaths
Araneta family
Deaths from diabetes
Filipino educators
People from Negros Occidental
Secretaries of Agriculture of the Philippines
Secretaries of Environment and Natural Resources of the Philippines
Magsaysay administration cabinet members
Quirino administration cabinet members
Filipino company founders
20th-century Filipino lawyers

Salvador Araneta


Govan Shipbuilders Ltd (GSL) was a British shipbuilding company based on the River Clyde at Glasgow in Scotland. It operated the former Fairfield Shipyard and took its name from the Govan area in which it was located.

History

The company was formed in 1972 by way of a purchase of the former Fairfield Shipyard in Govan from Sir Robert Smith, Liquidator of Upper Clyde Shipbuilders (UCS), itself a product of the amalgamation of several Clydeside yards; Fairfields, Alex Stephens, Charles Connell and Company, Yarrow Shipbuilders Ltd. and John Browns.

Between 1973 and 1980 Scotstoun Marine Ltd, a subsidiary of Govan Shipbuilders, also operated the former Connell shipyard in Scotstoun.

In 1977 the Company was nationalised by the Labour government of James Callaghan under the Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act and subsumed into British Shipbuilders.

Between 1973 and 1988, a total of 53 ships were built by Govan Shipbuilders at the Govan (former Fairfield) shipyard. Investment in plant equipment at the yard during this period included expansion of the steel fabrication facilities and the installation of four 80 ton travelling rope luffing cranes in 1975 by Clarke Chapman, servicing the yard's three slipways, in order to increase the size of units that could be prefabricated. An additional three 80 ton cranes from Scotstoun Marine Ltd were dismantled and transferred to Govan after the Scotstoun yard closed in 1980; they remain distinctive due to their blue paintwork.

In 1988 the Govan Shipbuilders was sold to the Norwegian group Kvaerner Industries and was renamed Kvaerner Govan.

References

External links
   The Clyde-built ships data base - lists over 22,000 ships built on the Clyde
 Faifield Shipyard, Govan - Clyde Waterfront Heritage

History of Glasgow
Defunct shipbuilding companies of Scotland
Manufacturing companies based in Glasgow
Defunct companies of Scotland
Former defence companies of the United Kingdom
Govan
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1972
British companies established in 1972
1972 establishments in Scotland
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1988
British companies disestablished in 1988
1988 disestablishments in Scotland
British Shipbuilders

Govan Shipbuilders


John White Hughes Bassett,   (August 25, 1915 – April 27, 1998) was a Canadian media proprietor.

Born in Ottawa, Ontario, he was the son of John Bassett (1886–1958), publisher of the Montreal Gazette, and Marion Avery (née Wright).

Education
Bassett attended Ashbury College, Bishop's College School and graduated from Bishop's University with a BA in 1936.

Politics
After fighting with the Army in World War II, Bassett ran unsuccessfully for the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada, in the 1945 Canadian election in the riding of Sherbrooke, losing to Liberal incumbent, Maurice Gingues. He also ran in the 1962 election in the riding of Spadina losing to Liberal candidate Perry Ryan by less than 2,000 votes.

Publishing and broadcasting
He became a reporter for Toronto's The Globe and Mail newspaper after graduating from university. After World War II, he was hired by the Toronto Telegram as advertising director. His first experience in newspaper ownership was with the Sherbrooke Daily Record, which he bought from his father. In 1952, Bassett purchased part ownership of the Toronto Telegram. In 1960, he founded Baton Broadcasting to run Toronto's first commercial television station, CFTO-TV.  A few months later, he won the television rights to the Eastern Conference of the Canadian Football League.  He needed a network in order to broadcast the games.  The result was the Canadian Television Network, later to become CTV, with CFTO as the flagship station.  Starting in the 1980s, Bassett began a drive to take over CTV by buying as many stations as possible.  He succeeded in 1997, a year before his death.

Sports
From 1957 to 1974, Bassett was the owner of the Toronto Argonauts, a team in the Canadian Football League.

In 1957, he was named to the "Silver Seven," a committee that oversaw hockey operations for the  Toronto Maple Leafs. In 1961, longtime Maple Leafs owner Conn Smythe sold most of his shares in Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. (which owned the Maple Leafs and Maple Leaf Gardens) to a partnership of his son Stafford, Toronto Marlboros president Harold Ballard and Bassett for $2.3 million.  Smythe later claimed that he thought he was selling only to his son, but it is very unlikely that Stafford would have been able to raise the money on his own. Bassett became chairman of the Gardens' board of directors, when Smythe resigned shortly after Toronto won the Stanley Cup in 1962. Bassett's name appears on the Stanley Cup 4 times 1962, 1963, 1964, 1967.

In 1969, Ballard and Stafford Smythe were charged with tax evasion and accused of using Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd. to pay for their personal expenses. Bassett persuaded the board to fire Smythe as president and Ballard as executive vice president. The board elected Bassett as the new president.

However, Bassett did not force Smythe and Ballard to sell their shares, and they both remained on the board. That was a serious strategic blunder on Bassett's part; Smythe was still the largest shareholder, and he and Ballard controlled almost half the shares between them. A year later, Ballard and Smythe staged a proxy war to win back control. Faced with an untenable situation, Bassett resigned and sold his shares to Smythe and Ballard.

Bassett's son, John F. Bassett, would follow in his father's path of becoming a professional sports owner; the younger Bassett was a part owner of the World Hockey Association's Ottawa Nationals, Toronto Toros and Birmingham Bulls; the World Football League's Memphis Southmen and the United States Football League's Tampa Bay Bandits.

Government
In 1989, he was appointed for a three-year term as chairman of the Security Intelligence Review Committee, an independent body that reports to the Parliament of Canada on the operations of the Canadian Security Intelligence Service. Due to the requirements under the Official Secrets Act, Bassett was sworn into the Queen's Privy Council for Canada.

Family
Bassett married fellow Bishop's University graduate Eleanor Moira Bradley of Sherbrooke on April 26, 1938, in the University's St. Mark's Chapel. They had three children: John, Doug, and David. After their divorce, Bassett married Isabel Bassett on July 17, 1967. They had three children (Avery, Sarah, and Matthew) and remained together until his death.

In the 1970s, his son John F. Bassett was the owner of the Toronto Toros, a hockey team in the World Hockey Association. Former tennis star Carling Bassett-Seguso is Bassett's granddaughter.

Honours
 1985 - Made an Officer of the Order of Canada.
 1988 - Appointed to the Order of Ontario.
 1989 - Appointed to the Queen's Privy Council for Canada.
 1992 - Promoted to Companion of the Order of Canada.
 2000 - Inducted into the Canadian Broadcast Hall of Fame.
 2003 - Inducted into the Canadian Business Hall of Fame.

See also
List of Bishop's College School alumni

References

External links

1915 births
1998 deaths
20th-century Canadian businesspeople
Anglophone Quebec people
Bishop's University alumni
Bishop's College School alumni
Burials at Grove Street Cemetery
Businesspeople from Ottawa
Canadian Anglicans
Canadian mass media owners
Canadian military personnel of World War II
Canadian newspaper publishers (people)
Canadian people of English descent
Candidates in the 1945 Canadian federal election
Candidates in the 1962 Canadian federal election
Companions of the Order of Canada
Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment
Members of the Order of Ontario
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
National Hockey League executives
National Hockey League owners
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada candidates for the Canadian House of Commons
Politicians from Ottawa
Sportspeople from Ottawa
Stanley Cup champions
Toronto Argonauts owners
Toronto Maple Leafs executives
Toronto Toros

John Bassett


Jamestown Island is a  island in the James River in Virginia, part of James City County. It is located off Glasshouse Point, to which it is connected via a causeway to the Colonial Parkway. Much of the island is wetland, including both swamp and marsh.

History
Prior to English settlement, the nearby area was home to the Paspahegh people, or Virginia Algonquians. In May 1607, the island (then a peninsula) became site of James Fort, the first permanent English settlement in the Americas. The chief of the Powatan at that time, also named Powhatan, was father of Pocahontas.

After Powhatan's death in 1618, hostilities with colonists escalated under his brother, Opechancanough.

His large-scale attacks in 1622 and 1644 met strong reprisals by the English, resulting in the near elimination of both the settlement and the tribe. After Bacon's rebellion in 1677, Jamestown lasted until 1699, when it was abandoned in favor of a new site at Williamsburg.

Significance

By the early 20th century, the isthmus connecting the landform to Glasshouse Point had eroded, making it a proper island. Today, most of the island is a part of Colonial National Historical Park, including Historic Jamestown.

The rediscovery of the James Fort in 1996 by Jamestown Rediscovery has led to significant archaeological discoveries of the early colonial settler period.

References

James River (Virginia)
Landforms of James City County, Virginia
River islands of Virginia

Jamestown Island


Microtrauma is any of many possible small injuries to the body.

Microtrauma can include the microtearing of muscle fibres, the sheath around the muscle and the connective tissue. It can also include stress to the tendons, and to the bones (see Wolff's law). It is unknown whether or not the ligaments adapt like this. Microtrauma to the skin (compression, impact, abrasion) can also cause increases in a skin's thickness, as seen from the calluses formed from running barefoot or the hand calluses that result from rock climbing. This might be due to increased skin cell replication at sites under stress where cells rapidly slough off or undergo compression or abrasion.

Most microtrauma cause a low level of inflammation that cannot be seen or felt. These injuries can arise in muscle, ligament, vertebrae, and discs, either singly or in combination. Repetitive microtrauma which are not allowed time to heal can result in the development of more serious conditions.

Negative effects
Back pain can develop gradually as a result of microtrauma brought about by repetitive activity over time. Because of the slow and progressive onset of this internal injury, the condition is often ignored until the symptoms become acute, often resulting in disabling injury. Acute back injuries can arise from stressful lifting techniques done without adequate recovery, especially when experimenting with more ballistic work, or work where the extensor spinae are stressed during spinal flexion when much of the load is commonly taken up by the slower to heal ligaments which may not adapt progressively to the stress. While the acute injury may seem to be caused by a single well-defined incident, it may have been preventable or lessened if not for the years of injury to the musculoskeletal support mechanism by repetitive microtrauma.

Positive effects

After microtrauma from stress (such as lifting weights) to muscles, they can be rebuilt and overcompensate to reduce the likeliness of re-injury.

References

Injuries
Musculoskeletal disorders

Microtrauma


The American Theater Hall of Fame in New York City, New York, was founded in 1972. Earl Blackwell was the first head of the organization's Executive Committee. In an announcement in 1972, he said that the new Theater Hall of Fame would be located in the Uris Theatre (then under construction, now the Gershwin). James M. Nederlander and Gerard Oestreicher, who leased the theater, donated the space for the Hall of Fame; Arnold Weissberger was another founder. Blackwell noted that the names of the first honorees would "be embossed in bronze-gold lettering on the theater's entrance walls flanking its grand staircase and escalator."  The first group of inductees was announced in October 1972.

Eligible inductees come from disciplines including actors, playwrights, songwriters, designers, directors, and producers who have had a career in American theater for at least twenty-five years and at least five major production credits on Broadway. Selections are made each year by voting members of the Theater Hall of Fame and the American Theatre Critics Association (ATCA). Induction takes place at a ceremony at the Gershwin Theatre in New York City, where the plaques containing the names of the inductees are hung.

Since 1998, full accounts of the annual induction ceremonies, with quotes from both inductees and their presenters, have appeared in the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. An index to these articles is on the ATCA website. An annual Theater Hall of Fame Fellowship Luncheon has been held annually since 2004 to salute a member "who continues to work on Broadway and also presents grants to emerging theatre artists."

Inductees

Original members

George Abbott
Judith Anderson
Fred Astaire
Pearl Bailey
Tallulah Bankhead
Ethel Barrymore
John Barrymore
Lionel Barrymore
Norman Bel Geddes
Irving Berlin
Leonard Bernstein
Edwin Booth
Katharine Cornell
Noël Coward
Lynn Fontanne
Eva Le Gallienne
George Gershwin
Ira Gershwin
Lillian Gish
Oscar Hammerstein II
Moss Hart
Helen Hayes
Gertrude Lawrence
Frank Loesser
Alfred Lunt
Ethel Merman
George Jean Nathan
Eugene O'Neill
Richard Rodgers
Laurette Taylor
Tennessee Williams

Founders Award
An annual Theater Hall of Fame Founders Award, established in 1993 in honor of the 3 founders, recognizes an individual's outstanding contribution to the theatre.

Recipients:

1993 James Nederlander
1994 Kitty Carlisle Hart
1995 Harvey Sabinson
1996 Henry Hewes
1997 Otis L. Guernsey Jr.
1998 Edward Colton
1999 (No award)
2000 Gerard Oestreicher
2000 Arnold Weissberger
2001 Tom Dillon
2002 (No award)
2003 Price Berkley
2004 (No award)
2005 Donald Seawell
2007 Roy A. Somlyo
2008 Shirley Herz

References

External links
Official web site
January 2008 inductees
October 2008 inductees
January 2011 inductees
October 2012 inductees
January 2014 inductees
May 2015 inductees
November 2015 inductees
September 2016 inductees

Broadway theatre
Theatre
Entertainment halls of fame
Awards established in 1972
1972 establishments in New York City
American theater awards
Non-profit organizations based in New York City

American Theater Hall of Fame


The Prince Edward Island Liberal Party (officially the Prince Edward Island Liberal Association) is a political party in the province of Prince Edward Island, Canada. The PEI Liberals are affiliated with the federal Liberal Party of Canada.

History

The party was created when PEI was a British colony by reformers who agitated for the system of responsible government. This was granted by the British crown to the colony in 1851.

George Coles was its dominant figure in its first decades. While initially supportive of Canadian Confederation, Coles and the Liberals soured on the project, and it was not until 1873 that the island joined Canada as a means of relieving the PEI government's severe debts.

The early party supported the abolition of school fees, and a resolution to the "Land Question" that divided the province. The Liberals supported land reform through the state acquisition of large landed estates. These estates were broken up and turned over to tenants and squatters.

The Liberals have been one of only two parties forming government on the island since 1851, the other being the Progressive Conservatives. The Liberals have formed government more often, but not in recent times. In practice, there is little to distinguish the two parties from each other: both lean towards the centre of the political spectrum. The Liberals being slightly to the left and the Conservatives (Tories) slightly to the right.

Traditionally, the Tories have done better among Protestant voters, while Liberals have had more support from Catholics. Politics on the island, however, has never been sectarian, and both parties have always had voters and members from both populations. Indeed, it has been the custom until recently for a Liberal incumbent of one denomination to be opposed by a Tory challenger of the same denomination and vice versa. This had tended to minimise religious sectarianism within the parties. The Liberals have also traditionally enjoyed the support of the province's small Acadian population concentrated in Prince County at the west end of the island. Conservative support has tended to be greater on the eastern half of the island.

In the past forty years the most significant figures in the party have been Alexander B. Campbell and, later, Joe Ghiz. Liberal governments in the 1960s and 1970s under Campbell supported diversification of the province's agricultural economy. Government incentives were provided to attract manufacturing and tourism. Under Ghiz in the 1980s, the Liberals opposed free trade between Canada and the United States, and the federal Tory government's decision to close a military base on the island. The party's enthusiasm for economic intervention in the economy had waned since the Campbell years.

Ghiz resigned in 1993 and was succeeded by Catherine Callbeck. Callbeck was the third female premier in Canadian history and, after the 1993 election, the first to lead her party to victory in a general election. After three and a half years, Callbeck resigned and was succeeded by Keith Milligan, under whom the Liberals were defeated in the 1996 election, falling to 8 seats. Wayne Carew was elected leader in 1999, and saw the party's fortunes fall further, winning a single seat in the 2000 election. Robert Ghiz, son of Joe Ghiz, was elected leader in 2003.

After more than ten years in opposition, the Liberals returned to government in the 2007 election, and were re-elected in 2011. Ghiz resigned in 2015 and was succeeded as party leader and premier by Wade MacLauchlan, who led the Liberals to a third victory in 2015. After twelve years in government, the Liberals were defeated in the 2019 election, and were reduced to third party status for the first time in their history, behind the Progressive Conservatives and the Green Party. MacLauchlan resigned shortly after the election.

As the only candidate to seek the leadership, Sharon Cameron was named leader on November 19, 2022. The party regained opposition status in the 2023 Prince Edward Island general election, winning three seats to the Greens' two, though the party's 17.2% share of the popular vote was the lowest in the party's history. Cameron placed third in her own district, and resigned days later.

Hal Perry was appointed interim leader on April 12, 2023.

Current MLAs
 Robert Henderson, O'Leary-Inverness
 Gord McNeilly, Charlottetown-West Royalty
 Hal Perry, Tignish-Palmer Road

Liberal leaders
George Coles, 1851–1869
Joseph Hensley, 1869
Robert Haythorne, 1869–1876
Louis Henry Davies, 1876–1882
John Yeo, 1882–1891
Frederick Peters, 1891–1897
Alexander Warburton, 1897–1898
Donald Farquharson, 1898–1901
Arthur Peters, 1901–1908
Francis Haszard, 1908–1911
Herbert James Palmer, 1911–1912
John Richards, 1912–1915
John Howatt Bell, 1915–1923
Albert Charles Saunders, 1923–1930
Walter Lea, 1930–1936
Thane Campbell, 1936–1943
John Walter Jones, 1943–1953
Alex W. Matheson, 1953–1965
Lorne Bonnell, 1965 (interim)
Alexander B. Campbell, 1965–1978
Bennett Campbell, 1978 (interim), 1978–1981
Gilbert Clements, 1981 (interim)
Joseph A. Ghiz, 1981–1993
Catherine Callbeck, 1993–1996
Keith Milligan, 1996–1999
Wayne Carew, 1999–2000
Ron MacKinley, 2000–2003 (interim)
Robert Ghiz, 2003–2015
Wade MacLauchlan, 2015–2019
Robert Mitchell, 2019 (interim)
Sonny Gallant, 2019–2022 (interim)
Sharon Cameron, 2022–2023
Hal Perry, 2023–present (interim)

See also
List of Prince Edward Island premiers
List of political parties in Prince Edward Island
Politics of Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island Liberal Party leadership elections

References

External links
Prince Edward Island Liberal Party, official website
Young Liberals of PEI

Liberal Party of Canada
Liberal parties in Canada
Organizations based in Charlottetown
Liberal Party
Political parties established in 1851
1851 establishments in Prince Edward Island
Centrist parties in Canada

Prince Edward Island Liberal Party


The Unnamable II: The Statement of Randolph Carter (a.k.a. The Unnamable Returns) is a 1992 horror film directed Jean-Paul Ouellette. It incorporates elements from the short story "The Statement of Randolph Carter" by H.P. Lovecraft, and is a sequel to The Unnamable, which is loosely based on the short story of the same name, also by Lovecraft.

Mark Kinsey Stephenson reprises the role of Randolph Carter from the previous film, while Charles Clausmeyer also reprises his role as Howard. John Rhys-Davies plays Professor Warren, and David Warner plays the dean of the university.

David Warner is also featured in the film Necronomicon, starring alongside Jeffrey Combs, who plays Lovecraft himself.

Plot
The film opens outside the Winthrop house from the first film, only this time it is swarming with police officers and medical technicians. Howard is being wheeled into an ambulance because he has three deep gashes in his chest, Tanya is put into a police car, and Randolph is carrying Joshua Winthrop's book of spells, which he gives to Howard for safe keeping. Randolph confronts the Dean of the university about the house, who tells him not to dabble in things that he could never understand. Then Randolph goes to Professor Warren, who agrees to help.

Howard is dragged along and the three go to the spot where Randolph erupted from the ground in the first film. Howard is to stay near the car to keep guard. Eventually, Warren and Carter find Alyda, Joshua Winthrop's demon daughter (Joshua Winthrop appears to Howard in a dream at some point to confess that he caused his daughter's evilness) wrapped up in the roots of the tree that dragged Alyda out from the house in the first film. Warren injects the monstrous being with insulin to rid her body of the demon. This plan works, and she transforms into a beautiful woman, naked and wrapped in the tree roots. She is given sugar to bring her out of the insulin overdose, and the pair free her from her bonds. The demon is still in the caves, though, and it begins to hunt Alyda down so that they can be one again. After a showdown in the Arkham Library, Randolph manages to defeat the demon, but Alyda dies simultaneously.

Cast
Mark Kinsey Stephenson as Randolph Carter
Charles Klausmeyer as Howard
John Rhys-Davies as Professor Warren
Julie Strain as Creature
David Warner as Chancellor Thayer
Shawn T. Lim as Robert
Siobhan McCafferty as Officer Debbie Lesh
Richard Domeier as Officer Malcolm Bainbridge
Brad Blaisdell as Officer Ben Lesh
Kevin Alber as Jack

Critical reaction

In their book Lurker in the Lobby: A Guide to the Cinema of H. P. Lovecraft, Andrew Migliore and John Strysik write: "Unfortunately, the sinister grace of Katrin Alexandre's she-demon from the first film is sorely missing. Julie Strain's take on the creature is like herself, bigger and more athletic, and the overall feel is less like Lovecraft and more like a commonplace monster that's escaped from a Brothers Grimm fairy tale. That said, Unnamable II is still a fun ride for anybody who has ever tried smuggling a member of the opposite sex into their dorm room after a long night in a graveyard."

References

External links

1992 films
1992 horror films
British sequel films
British horror films
Films based on works by H. P. Lovecraft
Films based on short fiction
1990s English-language films
1990s British films