The Tillamook are a Native American tribe from coastal Oregon of the Salish linguistic group. The name "Tillamook" is a Chinook language term meaning "people of [the village] Nekelim (or Nehalem)", sometimes it is given as a Coast Salish term, meaning "Land of Many Waters". The Tillamook tribe consists of several divisions and dialects, including (from south to north):

Siletz/Nachicolcho: (pronounced SIGH-lets): their name "Siletz" comes from the name of the Siletz River and Siletz Bay on which they lived; their own name is given as Se-la-gees ("[People on the] crooked river"), their name for the Siletz River is given as Nshlæch'/Nshlæts ("crooked river") or Nach'ikáltzu ("quiet river"), therefore their tribal name is given as Nshlæts'stiwat ("Crooked River People") or Nach'ikáltzustiwat ("Quiet River People").
Salmon River/Nachesne/Nachesna: their name comes from the Salmon River on which they lived, both the river and the people were known as Nachesne/Nachesna.
Nestucca/Nastucco/Nestugga: they lived on Little and Nestucca River and Nestucca Bay; their own name was Stagaush meaning "People of Saga", while "Nestucca/Nestugga" is the placename, meaning "People of Ne-staguash, i.e. Nestucca". (The placename identifier in this Salish Language is "Ne-" or "Na-", meaning land of or place of….)
Tillamook Bay: their name comes from the Tillamook Bay, and the mouths of the Kilchis, Wilson, Trask, Miami and Tillamook rivers, which converge at the bay, and
Nehalem: on Nehalem River

Estimated to have 2200 people at the beginning of the 18th century, the Tillamook lost population in the 19th century to infectious disease and murder by European Americans. In 1849 they were estimated to have 200 members. In 1856 they were forced to live on the Siletz Reservation with many other Tribes and Bands, the southern bands (Nestucca, Salmon River and Siletz River peoples') territory being largely within the 1855 boundaries of the Siletz Reservation. In 1898 the northern Tillamook (Nehalem and Tillamook Bay) and the Clatsop (Tlatsop / łät'cαp), (which means "place of dried salmon", a Lower Chinook-speaking tribe abutting their territory to the north and speaking the Nehalem-dialect, reflecting intermarriage with the northern Tillamook), were the first tribes to sue the United States government for compensation for aboriginal title to land it had taken from them without a ratified treaty or compensation. They were paid a settlement in 1907. Their descendants are now considered part of the Confederated Tribes of Siletz. Other Nehalem are part of the unrecognized Clatsop Nehalem Confederated Tribes.

History

The Tillamook people traditionally lived in an area ranging from Tillamook Head in the north, to Cape Foulweather and extending to the summit of the Coast Range mountains. Coastal Oregon Native Americans calculates that the population was about 2200 in at the beginning of the 19th century, based on written historic accounts.

The first documented encounter of Europeans with the Tillamook was in 1788 by Robert Haswell, second mate on Robert Gray's ship. A second encounter was in late 1805 by the American Lewis and Clark Expedition, who were wintering at Fort Clatsop. They had reached the Pacific Coast while exploring beyond the extent of the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase for President Thomas Jefferson.

A whale was washed ashore near Necost (in what is now Ecola State Park), and the Tillamook quickly stripped it of flesh, saving the flesh/blubber as food and the rendering oil for later use. After hearing of this, Lewis and Clark sought to trade for blubber. They received 300 pounds and some oil in exchange for trade goods. Lewis and Clark described a village of around 1000 people living in about 50 houses, estimating the entire population at around 2200. According to the expedition, the staple food source of the Tillamook was salmon. The people caught salmon during the annual salmon run of April to October, when the salmon went upstream in freshwater rivers from the ocean to spawn. The Tillamook ate some fresh and processed much of the fish to use throughout the year, preserving it by drying it and grinding it into a powder.

In 1824 and 1829, the tribe suffered high mortality in smallpox epidemics; this was a new infectious disease to them, introduced by contact with European peoples, among whom it was endemic. Native Americans suffered because they had no acquired immunity. The arrival of Oregon Trail settlers in 1841 and resulting conflicts over land and resources caused further population losses. By 1845 Wilkes estimated there were 400 Tillamook remaining. In 1849 Lane estimated 200 of the tribe survived.

During the early-mid 19th century, Chief Kilchis was the leader of the Tillamook people. Kilchis may have been a descendant of one of the survivors of a Spanish Manila Galleon that wrecked near Neahkahnie Mountain and the mouth of the Nehalem River. Known as the beeswax wreck, it was probably the Santo Cristo de Burgos, which was lost in 1693 while sailing from the Philippines to Mexico. Warren Vaughn, an early white settler in Tillamook, knew Kilchis and believed he was a descendant of one of the survivors of the wreck, and said that Kilchis himself claimed such ancestry.

In 1856 the federal government forced the Tillamook and more than 20 other remnant tribes to the Siletz Reservation. Additional population estimates are impossible as the tribes have intermarried and are no longer separately enumerated. In 1898 the Tillamook became the first tribe to sue the US government for compensation for the lands they had taken, along with the Clatsop. In 1907, along with two other tribes, they were awarded $23,500.

Language

The Tillamook initially spoke Tillamook, a Salishan language, but gradually began to use English in greater amounts. The last fluent speaker of Tillamook died in 1970, rendering the language asleep. Between 1965 and 1972, in an effort to revitalize the language, a group of researchers from the University of Hawaii interviewed the few remaining Tillamook and created a 120-page dictionary.

Early 20th-century anthropologist Franz Boas wrote, "The Tillamook Indians are the most southern branch of the Coast Salish. They live on the coast of the Pacific Ocean, and are separated from their more northern kinsmen by tribes speaking Chinookan languages. Their language is spoken two dialects, the Siletz and the Tillamook proper. It was first described and classified by Horatio Hale in the Publications of the Wilkes Expedition."

The name Tillamook was derived from Chinook people's references to them, referring to their place of settlement. It meant the people of Nekelim (pronounced Ne-elim). The latter name means the place Elim, or, in the Cathlamet dialect, the place Kelim. This dialect differed from the northern dialects in its peculiar phonetics. Boas noted that the culture of the Tillamook seemed to have differed quite considerably from that of the northern Coast Salish, and has evidently been influenced by the culture of the tribes of northern California.

Culture

According to the work of Franz Boas, the culture of the Tillamook tribe was significantly different from that of their Salish neighbors, evidently influenced by the tribes of northern California.

The Tillamook were skilled basket-weavers, and had a detailed mythology with links to existing events; the Story of the Thunderbird and Whale, for example, reflects the large earthquake in that region in 1700. The Tillamook divided their mythology into three categories; the earliest was the Myth Age, followed by the Age of Transformation, when the "South Wind" remade the land. The third age is the "period of true happenings", or events that happened in what the Tillamook considered recent history. Despite this, stories from the third age were considered just as much of a myth as those from the first or second.

The Tillamook exercised gender roles in numerous ways. During infancy, children were named at an ear-piercing ceremony where boys had their nasal septa pierced. If the infant had older siblings, they were required to stay away for at least a week for fear that their presence would swell the ear of the infant and cause its death. Throughout childhood, boys and girls were rarely punished. Certain activities were emphasized depending on the person's sex. A boy's first food kill and a girl's first gathered food were reserved for the elderly. At the onset of puberty, girls were secluded and underwent a series of ritual behaviors and food taboos. One such ritual was an all-night guardian spirit vigil in the woods, during which the girl repeatedly bathed in a cold stream in an attempt to gain guardian spirits. For boys, fasting and guardian spirit quests that included bathing became important. A boy's power and adult occupation were equated with the spirit he obtained through the quest. Boys and girls activated spirit powers acquired from their guardian only at middle age. Tillamook adults distinguished themselves further with fashion as both sexes painted their central hair part red, but men wore their hair in a single braid, while women would have two braids. Men and women also had tattoos and wore ear pendants according to their preference.

Marriages among the Tillamook were arranged with services being exchanged between the two families according to their status. Initial residence was in the groom's parents' village. If men acquired high status, they might have sought more than one wife. Illegitimate births were a common result of the arranged marriage process and led to a high occurrence of infanticide.

Today
Some Nekelim people are enrolled in either the federally recognized Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians of Oregon or the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon. Other Nehalem are part of the unrecognized Clatsop Nehalem Confederated Tribes. The Bald Point archaeological site preserves some aspects of the Tillamook culture. The city of Tillamook and Tillamook County in Oregon are named in the tribe's honor.

See also

 Tsin-is-tum

Footnotes

Further reading

 Boas, Franz. "Traditions of the Tillamook Indians,"  Journal of American Folklore, v. 11 (1898), pp. 23–38.
 Crawford, Ailsa. Tillamook Indian Basketry: Continuity and Change as Seen in The Adams Collection. MA thesis. Portland State University, Department of Anthropology, 1983.
 Jacobs, Elizabeth Derr. Nehalem Tillamook Tales. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon Books, 1959.
 Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
 Sauter, John and Johnson, Bruce. Tillamook Indians of the Oregon Coast. Portland, OR: Binfords and Mort, 1974.
 Seaburg, William (ed.) The Nehalem Tillamook: An Ethnography. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press, 2003.

Native American tribes in Oregon
Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians
sss

Tillamook people


Andy Straden (also spelled Stradan) (November 27, 1897 – June 1967) was a soccer forward who was a member of the 1924 U.S. Olympic Team and played professionally in the first American Soccer League.

American Soccer League
Straden, was an amateur player in the early 1920s with Fleisher Yarn when the team won the 1924 National Amateur Cup. That summer, he was selected to play with the United States at the Summer Olympics.  When he returned to the United States, Straden rejoined Fleisher Yarn for the 1924-1925 American Soccer League season.  This was Yarn's first season as a professional club and its first season in the ASL.  Straden scored twenty goals in thirty-four games that season before moving to the Shawsheen Indians for the start of the 1925-1926 season.  However, the Indians folded two months into the season and he ended the season with the New York Giants.  He played only two games with the Giants during the 1926-1927 season and retired.

National and Olympic teams
At the 1924 Summer Olympics, the U.S. fielded an entirely amateur side, including Straden.  In the four games that year, two at the games and two during a European exhibition tour following the United States's elimination.  In the first United States game of the Olympics, the United States defeated Estonia off a tenth minute Straden penalty kick.  Uruguay, the dominant national team of the era, easily eliminated the United States in the next round.  Following their elimination, the United States defeated Poland in Warsaw, 3-2.  Two of the United States goals came from Straden.  Then the United States fell to Ireland in Dublin.  Aside from those four games that year, Straden never again suited up for the United States

See also
List of United States men's international soccer players born outside the United States

References

1897 births
1967 deaths
People from Bothwell
Scottish emigrants to the United States
United States men's international soccer players
American Soccer League (1921–1933) players
Fleisher Yarn players
New York Giants (soccer) players
Shawsheen Indians players
Olympic soccer players for the United States
Footballers at the 1924 Summer Olympics
Footballers from South Lanarkshire
American men's soccer players
Men's association football forwards

Andy Straden


is the predominant style of professional wrestling that has developed in Japan. The term comes from the Japanese pronunciation of , which is shortened to puroresu. The term became popular among English-speaking fans due to Hisaharu Tanabe's activities in the online Usenet community. Growing out of origins in the traditional US style of wrestling, it has become an entity in itself. Japanese pro wrestling is distinct in its psychology and presentation of the sport. It is treated closer to a legitimate competition, with fewer theatrics; the stories told in Japanese matches are about a fighter's spirit and perseverance. In strong style, the style most typically associated with puroresu, full contact strikes and submission holds are implemented. Pro wrestling in Japan led to the development of shoot wrestling and has been closely related to mixed martial arts (MMA) starting with Shooto and Pancrase, organizations which predate the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC), along with influencing subsequent promotions such as RINGS and PRIDE. It is common for pro wrestlers and MMA fighters in Japan to cross over.

Overview
Despite some similarities to the popular style of professional wrestling in the United States, Japanese wrestling is known for many differences from the Western style. Puroresu is known for its "fighting spirit" (, tōkon), and the wrestlers are known for their full contact strikes. Many Japanese wrestlers have some degree of knowledge in many different martial arts and wrestling styles; because of this, there are usually doctors and trainers at ringside for assisting the wrestlers after a match.  Most matches have clean finishes and many of the promotions do not use any angles or gimmicks. Japanese wrestling is also known for its relationship with fellow mixed martial arts promotions. Puroresu remains popular, and it draws huge crowds from the major promotions. With this and its relationship with other martial arts disciplines, the audiences and wrestlers treat puroresu as a combat sport.

It should be also noted that the term "Puroresu" in Japan refers to all professional wrestling, regardless of country of origin. For example, American promotions WWE and Ring of Honor are referred to as "Puroresu" in Japan. Japanese wrestling historian Fumi Saito noted: "Puroresu is completely Japanese-English, and in the U.S. the same word is used for both pro and amateur wrestling. It may be easier to understand if you think of wrestling in the U.S. as having the same nuance as 'sumo' in Japanese. You call both 'wrestling' even if it's competitive or professional wrestling."

Rules
Puroresu has a variety of different rules, which can differ greatly from wrestling in other countries. While there is no governing authority for puroresu, there is a general standard which has developed. Each promotion has its own variation, but all are similar enough to avoid confusion. Any convention described here is simply a standard, and may or may not correspond exactly with any given promotion's codified rules.

General structure
Matches are held between two or more sides ("corners"). Each corner may consist of one wrestler, or a team of two or more. Most team matches are governed by tag team rules (see below).

The match is won by scoring a "fall", which is generally consistent with standard professional wrestling:
 Pinning an opponent's shoulders to the mat for the referee's count of three.
 Submission victory, which sees the wrestler either tap out or verbally submit to their opponent.
 Knockout, the failure to regain composure at the referee's command.
 Countout, the failure of a party to return to the ring at the referee's command, which is determined by a count of twenty (some federations use ten, but in Japanese wrestling they use twenty).
 Disqualification, the act of one wrestler breaking the rules.
 Referee Stoppage, when an official deems a participant unfit to continue wrestling (either pre-planned or due to legitimate injury)

Additional rules govern how the outcome of the match is to take place. One such example would be the Japanese Universal Wrestling Federation, as it does not allow pinfall victories in favor of submissions and knockouts; this is seen as an early influence of mixed martial arts, as some wrestlers broke away from traditional wrestling endings to matches in favor of legitimate outcomes. Another example is that most promotions disallow punches, so many wrestlers utilize open handed strikes and stiff forearms; this rule was also applied in the early stages of Pancrase.

Styles

Strong style
New Japan Pro-Wrestling, headed by Antonio Inoki, used Inoki's "strong style" approach of wrestling as a combat sport, influenced strongly by the styles of catch wrestlers such as Lou Thesz, Karl Gotch, and Billy Robinson. Wrestlers incorporated kicks and strikes from martial arts disciplines, and a strong emphasis was placed on submission wrestling. Inoki became known for "different styles fights" which were predetermined matches against practitioners of various martial arts. This led to a real fight against Muhammad Ali in 1976 that was watched by an estimated 1.4 billion people worldwide. Many of New Japan's wrestlers, including top stars such as Seiji Sakaguchi, Tatsumi Fujinami, Akira Maeda, Satoru Sayama, Yoshiaki Fujiwara, Nobuhiko Takada, Masakatsu Funaki, Masahiro Chono, Shinya Hashimoto, Riki Choshu, Minoru Suzuki, Shinsuke Nakamura and Keiji Mutoh, came from a legitimate martial arts background. This style led to the development of shoot wrestling and the spin-off Universal Wrestling Federation. Sayama developed and founded Shooto, a pioneer mixed martial arts (MMA) organization, in 1985. That same year, Sayama's student Caesar Takeshi founded Shootboxing. Funaki, Suzuki and others would found Pancrase and hold their first event almost two months before UFC 1. Maeda founded RINGS in 1991 as a shoot-style promotion, which began transitioning to legitimate MMA competition in 1995. Takada was a co-founder of PRIDE and Rizin.

Ōdō ("King's Road")
Ōdō ("King's Road"; also translated as "Royal Road") is a style which originated in All Japan Pro Wrestling, and is most closely associated with the Four Pillars (四天王, Shitennō), the informal nomenclature for 1990s AJPW wrestlers Toshiaki Kawada, Kenta Kobashi, Mitsuharu Misawa, and Akira Taue. However, matches involving these four have been also referred to in Japan as Shitennō puroresu (). As opposed to strong style's European catch wrestling influences, ōdō opted for a more "narrative" style, derived from the American model of professional wrestling as physical storytelling. However, ōdō distinguished itself from American professional wrestling by largely eschewing many of its storytelling devices. Angles and gimmicks were virtually non-existent, as all the storytelling in ōdō occurred through the matches themselves. Blading was also banned outright. Because Baba disliked submissions, they were also eschewed for decisive pinfalls. In 2011, Japanese wrestling magazine G Spirits cited Misawa's July 29, 1993 Triple Crown Heavyweight Championship title defense against Kawada as the first match in the Shitennō style, and the 1993 World's Strongest Tag Determination League final, in which Misawa and Kobashi wrestled Kawada and Taue,  was referred to as the "completed form" of the style by Tokyo Sports in 2014. According to Kawada, ōdō matches, which placed a heavy emphasis on fighting spirit, were about "breaking the limit you set in the last". AJPW referee Kyohei Wada, who recounted that Baba told his talent "whatever you want to do, do it, and whatever you can show the people, show it", would later compare his job officiating these matches to "conducting a symphony".

However, this escalation eventually manifested through the use of dangerous maneuvers that focused on the head and neck, particularly during the finishing stretches of ōdō matches. The physical consequences of this style, or at least its use of head drops, has often been cited as the underlying reason for Misawa's death after an in-ring accident in 2009. Professional wrestling journalist and historian Dave Meltzer noted after his death that Misawa "regularly took psychotic bumps", including back suplexes where he would land on his head. AJPW would steer away from ōdō after Misawa led a mass exodus to form Pro Wrestling Noah, particularly when Motoko Baba sold her stock to Keiji Mutoh, but Noah would continue to practice ōdō in its booking.  This element of ōdō has been criticized for its negative influence on professional wrestling, and 1990s All Japan been cited as a cautionary tale in response to legitimately dangerous maneuvers. Meltzer wrote in 2009 that head drops were "never necessary", as Misawa and his peers in AJPW were already "having the best matches in wrestling" before they incorporated these maneuvers into their style.

Other styles
Throughout the 1990s, three individual styles—shoot style, lucha libre, and hardcore—were the main divisions of independent promotions, but as a result of interpromoting, it is not unusual to see all three styles on the same card.

Joshi puroresu
Puroresu done by female wrestlers is called  or joshi puro for short. Women's professional wrestling in Japan is usually handled by promotions that specialize in joshi puroresu, rather than divisions of otherwise male-dominated promotions as is the case in the United States (a major exception was FMW, a men's promotion which had a small women's division, but even then depended on talent from women's federations to provide competition). However, joshi puroresu promotions usually have agreements with male puroresu promotions such that they recognize each other's titles as legitimate, and may share cards.

All Japan Women's Pro-Wrestling was the dominant joshi organization from the 1970s to the 1990s. AJW's first major star was Mach Fumiake in 1974, followed in 1975 by Jackie Sato and Maki Ueda, known as the "Beauty Pair".  The early 1980s saw the fame of Jaguar Yokota and Devil Masami, major stars of the second wave of excellent workers who took the place of the glamour-based "Beauty Pair" generation. That decade would later see the rise of Chigusa Nagayo and Lioness Asuka, known as the "Crush Gals", who as a tag team achieved a level of unprecedented mainstream success in Japan, unheard of by any female wrestler in the history of professional wrestling all over the world. Their long running feud with Dump Matsumoto and her "Gokuaku Domei" ("Atrocious Alliance") stable would become extremely popular in Japan during the 1980s, with their televised matches resulting in some of the highest rated broadcasts in Japanese television as well as the promotion regularly selling out arenas.

In 1985, Japan's second women's wrestling promotion formed in Japan Women's Pro-Wrestling. The promotion ran their first show on August 17, 1986. It featured Jackie Sato who returned from retirement and future stars such as Shinobu Kandori, Mayumi Ozaki, Cutie Suzuki and Dynamite Kansai, who would go on to be top stars in LLPW and JWP.

In 1992, Japan Women's Pro-Wrestling dissolved, splitting into LLPW and JWP. These promotions worked together with FMW and All Japan Women's Pro-Wrestling to create a critically acclaimed era with several classic matches authorized by the American wrestling publication Wrestling Observer Newsletter featuring wrestlers such as Manami Toyota, Aja Kong, Kyoko Inoue, Bull Nakano, Mayumi Ozaki, Megumi Kudo, Dynamite Kansai amongst others. This era was also notable for multiple wrestlers returning from retirement such as Chigusa Nagayo, Lioness Asuka, Jaguar Yokota, Devil Masami and Bison Kimura, which increased interest.

In 2022, New Japan Pro Wrestling inaugurated their own IWGP Women's Championship.

See also
 Japanese martial arts
 Mixed martial arts
 Global Professional Wrestling Alliance
 List of professional wrestling promotions in Japan

Notes

References

External links
 Puroresu.com
 PuroresuCentral.com
 Marcus' Puro
 PuroLove.com (in German)
 BAHU's FMW World
 Monthly Puroresu

Professional wrestling genres

Puroresu


In microbiology, streaking is a technique used to isolate a pure strain from a single species of microorganism, often bacteria. Samples can then be taken from the resulting colonies and a microbiological culture can be grown on a new plate so that the organism can be identified, studied, or tested.

The modern streak plate method has progressed from the efforts of Robert Koch and other microbiologists to obtain microbiological cultures of bacteria in order to study them. The dilution or isolation by streaking method was first developed by Loeffler and Gaffky in Koch's laboratory, which involves the dilution of bacteria by systematically streaking them over the exterior of the agar in a Petri dish to obtain isolated colonies which will then grow into quantity of cells, or isolated colonies. If the agar surface grows microorganisms which are all genetically same, the culture is then considered as a microbiological culture.

Technique
Streaking is rapid and ideally a simple process of isolation dilution. The technique is done by diluting a comparatively large concentration of bacteria to a smaller concentration. The decrease of bacteria should show that colonies are sufficiently spread apart to affect the separation of the different types of microbes. Streaking is done using a sterile tool, such as a cotton swab or commonly an inoculation loop. Aseptic techniques are used to maintain microbiological cultures and to prevent contamination of the growth medium. There are many different types of methods used to streak a plate. Picking a technique is a matter of individual preference and can also depend on how large the number of microbes the sample contains.

The three-phase streaking pattern, known as the T-Streak, is recommended for beginners. The streaking is done using a sterile tool, such as a cotton swab or commonly an inoculation loop. The inoculation loop is first sterilized by passing it through a flame. When the loop is cool, it is dipped into an inoculum such as a broth or patient specimen containing many species of bacteria. The inoculation loop is then dragged across the surface of the agar back and forth in a zigzag motion until approximately 30% of the plate has been covered. The loop then is re-sterilized and the plate is turned 90 degrees. Starting in the previously streaked section, the loop is dragged through it two to three times continuing the zigzag pattern. The procedure is then repeated once more being cautious to not touch the previously streaked sectors. Each time the loop gathers fewer and fewer bacteria until it gathers just single bacterial cells that can grow into a colony. The plate should show the heaviest growth in the first section. The second section will have less growth and a few isolated colonies, while the final section will have the least amount of growth and many isolated colonies.

Growth medium
The sample is spread across one quadrant of a Petri dish containing a growth medium. Bacteria need different nutrients to grow. This includes water, a source of energy, sources of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, certain minerals, and other vitamins and growth factors. A very common type of media used in microbiology labs is known as agar, a gelatinous substance derived from seaweed. The nutrient agar  has a lot of ingredients with unknown amounts of nutrients in them. On one hand, this can be a very selective media to use because as mentioned bacteria are particular. If there is a certain nutrient in the media the bacteria could most certainly not grow and could die. On the other hand, this media is very complex. Complex media is important because it allows for a wide range of microbial growth. The bacteria growth can be supported by this media greatly due in part to the high amounts of nutrients.   Choice of which growth medium is used depends on which microorganism is being cultured, or selected for.

Incubation
Dependent on the strain, the plate may then be incubated, usually for 24 to 36 hours, to allow the bacteria to reproduce. At the end of incubation there should be enough bacteria to form visible colonies in the areas touched by the inoculation loop. From these mixed colonies, single bacterial or fungal species can be identified based on their morphological (size/shape/colour) differences, and then sub-cultured to a new media plate to yield a pure culture for further analysis.

Automated equipment is used at industrial level for streak plating the solid media in order to achieve better sterilization and consistency of streaking and for reliably faster work. While streaking manually it is important to avoid scratching the solid medium as subsequent streak lines will be damaged and non-uniform deposition of inoculum  at damaged sites on the medium yield clustered growth of microbes which may extend into nearby streak lines.

Importance
Bacteria exist in water, soil and food, on skin, and intestinal tract normal flora. The assortment of microbes that exist in the environment and on human bodies is enormous. The human body has billions of bacteria which creates the normal flora fighting against the invading pathogens. Bacteria frequently occur in mixed populations. It is very rare to find a single occurring species of bacteria. To be able to study the cultural, morphological, and physiological characteristics of an individual species, it is vital that the bacteria be divided from the other species that generally originate in the environment. This is important in determining a bacterium in a clinical sample. When the bacteria is streaked and isolated, the causative agent of a bacterial disease can be identified.

See also
Bacterial lawn

References

External links
 Streaking agar plate method for getting isolated colonies (video).

Microbiology techniques
Bacteriology

Streaking (microbiology)


Gauldal or Gauldalen () is a valley and traditional district in Trøndelag county, Norway.  The river Gaula runs through the  long valley from the Røros mountains near the lake Aursunden to the Trondheimsfjorden.  The narrow valley runs northwards from Røros to the Haltdalen area, where it widens some, turns and heads generally to the west to the village of Støren.  At Støren it turns again and heads north through what is now a wide, agricultural valley until it reaches the sea just south of the city of Trondheim.  The Rørosbanen and Dovrebanen railway lines follow the Gauldalen valley on their way to Trondheim.  The European route E6 highway and the Norwegian County Road 30 also follow the valley.

The traditional district of Gauldal includes the municipalities of Holtålen, Midtre Gauldal, and Melhus. The municipality of Røros is often (traditionally) counted as a part of the district, even though it lies outside the actual Gaula river valley.

History

In September 1345, there was a landslide just north of the village of Støren. The landslide was at a very narrow point in the valley and possibly  of gravel and dirt from the mountainside fell and blocked the valley and Gaula river below creating a dam on the river that was possibly  high. This tremendous landslide then created a quickly rising lake that began to flood the valley up to  upstream from the dam. This newly formed lake flooded and destroyed 25 upstream farms in the narrow valley. The vast amount of water building up behind the earthen dam from the landslide did not hold long and, when it burst, the water rushed though the dam and caused a major flood downstream, killing about 500 people and destroying another 25 farms as well as several churches. The downstream flash flood continued to just past the village of Melhus, not far from the mouth of the river Gaula. This was one of the worst natural disasters ever in Norway.

Media gallery

References

Districts of Trøndelag
Holtålen
Midtre Gauldal
Melhus
Røros
Valleys of Trøndelag

Gauldal


The book of the 3 Maccabees is found in most Orthodox Bibles.
However, the book actually has nothing to do with the Maccabees. It does not have anything to do with their revolt against the Seleucid Empire, either (as described in 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees).  Instead, it tells the story of persecution of the Jews under Ptolemy IV Philopator (222-205 BC). The name of the book seems to come from the similarities between this book and the stories of the martyrdom of Eleazar and the Maccabeean youths in 2 Maccabees. The High Priest Shimon is also mentioned.

Books of the Bible

3 Maccabees


The Love Pageant Rally took place on October 6, 1966—the day LSD became illegal—in the 'panhandle' of Golden Gate Park, a narrower section that projects into San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury district. The 'Haight' was a neighborhood of run-down turn-of-the-20th-century housing that was the center of San Francisco's counterculture in the 1960s.

The major instigators of the rally were Allen Cohen and artist Michael Bowen, the creators of the San Francisco Oracle, which first hit the streets in September 1966. The occasion was the banning of LSD, by the California legislature in Sacramento, an enactment which virtually created a neighborhood of outlaws in the Haight, where 'acid' was a staple of community culture. Since the new law was to go into effect on October 6, 1966, Cohen and others related the event to the number of the Beast of Revelation. On a more serious level, busts for drugs were ramping up locally and on the national level, and confrontations between the hippie communes and the local police were getting more intense and led to street protests and rioting, followed by neighborhood curfews. A better form of protest, more suited to hippie culture was needed.

"Without confrontation," said Allen Cohen, "we wanted to create a celebration of innocence. We were not guilty of using illegal substances. We were celebrating transcendental consciousness. The beauty of the universe. The beauty of being."

Posters advertising the event invited participants to "Bring the color gold... Bring photos of personal saints and gurus and heroes of the underground... Bring children... Flowers... Flutes... Drums... Feathers... Bands... Beads... Banners, flags, incense, chimes, gongs, cymbals, symbols, costumes, joy."

Thousands showed up for the event, read a "prophecy of a declaration of independence" written by Cohen, after which many placed a tab of acid on their tongues and swallowed in unison. Music was provided by the Grateful Dead and Janis Joplin, both invited to play by Michael Bowen for free. Ken Kesey was on hand with the Merry Pranksters in the legendary bus.

The Love Pageant Rally drew several thousand people. It was a warm-up for the Human Be-In the following January, which brought 30,000 together and established media attention to hippie culture that then led to The Summer of Love.

References
Perry, Charles, The Haight-Ashbury: A history.

Notes

External links
Allen Cohen's website, with history from an insider
Haight-Ashbury in the 1960s 'Rockument' commentary and sound bites
Footage of the Rally, with earliest known film footage of Janis Joplin in performance and footage of Furthur

Counterculture festivals
Haight-Ashbury, San Francisco
History of San Francisco
1966 in San Francisco

Love Pageant Rally


The Port and Airport Development Strategy (PADS) () is an infrastructure project in Hong Kong. It is better known as the Rose Garden Project ().

Background
In the early 1980s, the Hong Kong Government already foresaw the incapability of the existing airport and container port to keep up with the growth of Hong Kong. The blueprints for the new airport and container port had already been drawn. However, the government decided to postpone the plan owing to the uncertainty of Hong Kong's future.

After the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the government reproposed the plan in order to restore confidence among Hong Kong's populace. It presented a rosy picture for the future to the Hong Kong people in order to halt the wave of emigration.

Infrastructure
 Airport Core Programme (ACP) in North Lantau
 New container ports in Kwai Chung, Stonecutters Island, Tsing Yi Island and East Lantau (plans for the East Lantau port were later abandoned)
 Railways
 Highways

Politics
The government of People's Republic of China (PRC) cast a great concern in the project for fear that the British would withdraw the monetary reserve of Hong Kong to Britain before the reunification with China 1997. There was a lengthy series of conferences on the matter. Some Chinese officials also urged a downscaling of the project such as building one runway at the airport instead of two.

Transport in Hong Kong
Urban planning in Hong Kong

Port and Airport Development Strategy


Jawani Zindabad () is an Indian romance film directed by Arun Bhatt. This film was released in 1990, starring  Aamir Khan and Farha Naaz. It was released on 17 August 1990. The film was a remake of  the Kannada film Avale Nanna Hendthi (1988).

Plot
Shashi Sharma, Akbar ,and a group of young people pledge never to give nor receive a dowry in protest against the dowry system. Shashi had an elder sister who lost her life being a victim of the dowry system. Acting against his mother's wishes, Shashi marries Sugandha Srivastav without asking for any dowry. He arranges his other sister, Rama's marriage with Ravi Verma, the son of Goverdhan and Shakuntala.

Goverdhan is an MLA and is a very greedy man. As he does not get any dowry, he and his wife become quite upset, though Ravi is happy. Both want Ravi to remarry so that they can get dowry. Meanwhile, Rama becomes pregnant and so the in-laws try to eliminate her at the earliest. Goverdhan gets Ravi transferred to Delhi. After sending him away, Goverdhan plans to kill Rama in a fashion similar to an accident. But things did not turn up as he expected and his wife gets badly burned, who has to be hospitalized. Taking this opportunity, Goverdhan blames Rama for attempting to kill Shakuntala, and has her arrested. He also hires goons to kill Shashi. Shashi along with Ravi overcomes all obstacles after a fight with the goons and reaches the hospital with Ravi being seriously injured. Goverdhan becomes remorseful after seeing his injured son and asks for Rama's forgiveness. Rama who has just given birth to a daughter, forgives him. Goverdhan too pledges that no one would take nor receive any dowry henceforth in his family.

Cast

Soundtrack

References

External links

1990 films
1990s Hindi-language films
1990s Urdu-language films
Urdu-language Indian films
Films scored by Anand–Milind
Hindi remakes of Kannada films

Jawani Zindabad


A fake passport is a counterfeit of a passport (or other travel document) issued by a nation or authorised agency. Such counterfeits are copies of genuine passports, or illicitly modified genuine passports made by unauthorized persons, sometimes called cobblers. Its purpose is to be used deceptively as if it were a legitimate travel or identity document. A passport obtained from an authorized issuer by providing false information may also be considered fake.

Such falsified passports can be used to leave a country from which exit is barred, for identity theft, age fabrication, illegal immigration, and organized crime.

Other comparable documents include camouflage passports, which are not copies of a valid form of document, but are designed to look like a passport issued by a body that cannot issue legitimate passports, such as "Republic of Mainau", or a "Baltic Trade Mission" diplomatic document. Fantasy passports, such as the World Passport, are passport-like documents issued by non-official organizations or micronations as a novelty or souvenir, to make a political statement, or to show loyalty to a political or other cause.

Incidents
Adolf Eichmann (high-ranking Nazi often referred to as "the architect of the Holocaust") after the end of World War II traveled to Argentina using a fraudulently obtained laissez-passer issued by the International Red Cross and lived there under a false identity.

Alexander Solonik (Russian hitman in the early 1990s) lived in Greece with a fake passport, which he had obtained from the Greek consulate in Moscow.

In October 2000, Alexander Litvinenko (Russian dissident and writer) fled to Turkey from Ukraine on a forged passport using the alias Chris Reid, as his actual passport was impounded by Russian authorities after criminal charges were filed against him.

In May 2001, Kim Jong-nam, the son of North Korean leader Kim Jong-il,  was arrested at Narita International Airport, in Tokyo, Japan, travelling on a fake Dominican Republic passport. He was detained by immigration officials and later deported to the People's Republic of China. The incident caused Kim Jong-il to cancel a planned visit to China due to the embarrassment caused by the incident.

In June 2005, American actor Wesley Snipes was detained in South Africa at Johannesburg International Airport for allegedly trying to pass through the airport with a fake South African passport. Snipes was allowed to return home because he had a valid U.S. passport.

In early 2020 the Brazilian soccer player Ronaldinho and his brother were detained in Paraguay while trying to enter the country with fake Paraguayan passports.

References

External links

Passports
International travel documents
Identity documents
Passport

Fake passport


Hugh Edward Richardson  (22 December 1905 – 3 December 2000) was an Indian Civil Service officer, British diplomat and Tibetologist. His academic work focused on the history of the Tibetan empire, and in particular on epigraphy. He was among the last Europeans to have known Tibet and its society before the Chinese invasions which began in 1950.

Biography and career
Born in St. Andrews, Fife, the son of a British Army medical officer, Richardson studied classics at Keble College, Oxford. He entered the Indian Civil Service on 9 October 1930. Transferring to the Foreign and Political Service of the Government of India, Richardson was posted to Baluchistan as an Assistant Political Agent. In July 1936, he was appointed as the British Trade Agent at Gyantse. He represented Britain in Lhasa, capital of Tibet, from 1936 to 1940 and again from 1946 to 1950, in the final years having become the diplomatic representative of the recently independent India.

Of the Tibetan government during his time in Lhasa, Richardson said:

"My counterparts were...experienced negotiators. . .and masters of procrastination and evasion, and might assume the cloak of simple people with no experience of the outside world. . .There could be no doubt I was dealing with ministers of a government that was completely independent in both its internal and external affairs."

Like many ICS officers, Richardson was an accomplished linguist who spoke Bengali fluently, a skill he put to use when conversing with Rabindranath Tagore, and his fluent Tibetan was described by the Tibetan politician Tsepon W.D. Shakabpa as "impeccable Lhasa Tibetan with a slight Oxford accent." As Secretary to the Agent-General for India at Chungking, he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1944 New Year Honours list, and was further appointed a Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire (CIE) on 14 August 1947, in the last imperial honours list. After Indian independence, Richardson remained in the renamed Indian Administrative Service, serving in Lhasa until his retirement in September 1950. After his retirement from public service he taught in Seattle and Bonn. He subsequently returned to St. Andrews and spent the remainder of his life as an independent scholar.

He was an advocate of the right of Tibetans to a separate political existence, a case he made in two books, Tibet and Its History (1962) and A Cultural History of Tibet (1968), and at the United Nations when the issue of Chinese oppression of Tibet was raised by the Irish Republic, represented by Frank Aiken, during the 1959 UN General Assembly debate on Tibet. There, in the words of one commentator, "he acted valiantly as a man of honour in a cause which has been largely lost because of the notions of political expediency, where sides are taken without regard to principle and in order not to risk aligning oneself with a potential loser, however deserving he may be" – a position which reportedly earned him the displeasure of both the British and Indian delegations to the UN Assembly. He remained a close personal friend of the 14th Dalai Lama and of the Tibetan government-in-exile until his death, with the latter describing Richardson as "very precious to us/"

He later wrote: "The British government, the only government among Western countries to have had treaty relations with Tibet, sold the Tibetans down the river and since then have constantly cold-shouldered the Tibetans so that in 1959 they could not even support a resolution in the UN condemning the violation of human rights in Tibet by the Chinese."

Richardson also said that he was "profoundly ashamed", not only at the British government's refusal to recognise that Tibet had a right to
self-determination, but also at the government's treatment of the 14th Dalai Lama.

Personal interests
"His hobbies were ornithology, botany and gardening and he was also an enthusiastic photographer. Another of Richardson's passions was golf, which he introduced to Tibet, although he noted that the ball tended to travel 'rather too far in the thin air'."

Works
1949 "Three ancient inscriptions from Tibet" Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal 15, (1949): 45–64.
1952. Ancient historical edicts at Lhasa and the Mu Tsung / Khri Gtsung Lde Brtsan treaty of A.D. 821–822 from the inscription at Lhasa. London: Royal Asiatic Society Prize Publication Fund 19, 1952.
1952–3 "Tibetan inscriptions at Zva-hi Lha Khang" London: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, (1952): 133–54 (1953): 1–12.
1954 "A ninth-century inscription from Rkong-po." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. London, (1954): 157–73.
1957 "A Tibetan Inscription from Rgyal Lha-khang" Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society London, (1957): 57–78.
1964  "A new inscription of Khri Srong Lde Brtans." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society London. (1964): 1–13.
1965a "How old was Srong-brtsan Sgam-po ?", Bulletin of Tibetology, vol. 2, no. 1, 6–8. Repr. in Richardson 1998: 3–6.
1965b	"A fragment from Tun-huang", Bulletin of Tibetology, vol. 2, no. 3, 33–38. Repr. in Richardson 1998: 7–11.
1968 with David Snellgrove. A Cultural History of Tibet. 1995 2nd Edition with changes. Shambhala. Boston & London. .
1969 "The inscription at the Tomb of Khri Lde Srong Btsan", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1969): 29–38
1969b "Tibetan chis and tschis." Asia Major 14 (1969): 154–6.
1972 "The rKong-po Inscription." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society London. (1972): 30–39.
1973 "The Skar-cung inscription." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. (1973): 12–20.
1974 Ch'ing Dynasty Inscriptions at Lhasa. (Serie Orientale Roma v. 47). Rome: Instituto italiano per l'africa e l'oriente. 1974.
1978 "The Sino-Tibetan treaty inscription of A.D. 821/823 at Lhasa." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: (1978): 137–62.
1982 "Memories of Tshurphu", Bulletin of Tibetology, Vol. 18, No.1, 1982: Karmapa Commemoration Volume, Repr. in Richardson 1998, pp: 730–733.
1983 "Bal-po and Lho-bal" Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 46 (1983): 136–8.
1985. A corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions. (James G. Forlong Series no. 29). Hertford: Royal Asiatic Society, 1985. .
1987 "Early Tibetan Inscriptions: Some Recent Discoveries" The Tibet Journal 12.2.Dharamsala: Library of Tibetan works and archives, (1987): 3–15. (reprinted with 2 short notes added) Bulletin of Tibetology n.s. 3. Gangtok Sikkim Research Institute of Tibetology, (1987): 5–18. High Peaks, Pure Earth. London: Serindia, 1998: 261–275.
1988 "More Early Inscriptions from Tibet" Bulletin of Tibetology. New Series  2. Gangtok Sikkim Research Institute of Tibetology. (1988): 5–8. High Peaks, Pure Earth. London: Serindia, 1998: 276–278.
1989 "Early Tibetan law concerning dog-bite", Bulletin of Tibetology, new ser. 3, 5–10. Repr. in Richardson 1998: 135–139.
1990 "Hunting accidents in early Tibet", Tibet Journal, 15-4, 5–27. Repr. in Richardson 1998: 149–166.
1995a	"The Tibetan Inscription attributed to Ye shes 'od" Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 3rd Series 5.3. (1995): 403–404.
1995b	"The inscription at Ra-tshag Dgon-pa" Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 58 (1995): 534–9; High Peaks, Pure Earth. London: Serindia, 1998: 286–291.
1997 Adventures of Tibetan Fighting Monk with Khedrup Tashi, White Orchid Books; , Orchid Press, 2006,
1998 High peaks, pure earth: collected writings on Tibetan history and culture, Serindia publications, London.

Footnotes

References
 Tibetan Studies in Honour of Hugh Richardson. Edited by Michael Aris and Aung San Suu Kyi, p. 284. (1979). Vikas Publishing house, New Delhi.
French, Patrick. Tibet, Tibet: A Personal History of a Lost Land (2003) Knopf.

1905 births
2000 deaths
People from St Andrews
Alumni of Keble College, Oxford
Tibetologists
Scottish orientalists
Tibet freedom activists
Independent scholars
Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Indian Civil Service (British India) officers
20th-century British historians
Honorary Fellows of the British Academy

Hugh Edward Richardson


A bowl is a container for food. It can hold liquids, such as soups and solids, like popcorn. People also prepare salads in it. A bowl is like a ball cut in half. Bowls are usually made from glass, ceramic, wood or plastic. There is a lot of history regarding bowls, but they are known to first be found in China, 20,000 years ago.

Kitchenware

Bowl


The Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (), is a royal order of chivalry established in 1831 and found today throughout the Commonwealth of Nations, Hong Kong, Ireland and the United States of America.  Its world-wide mission is "to prevent and relieve sickness and injury, and to act to enhance the health and well-being of people anywhere in the world." It is often simply called the Order of St. John, or as the Venerable Order of Saint John (VOSJ) to distinguish it from other similarly named orders.

The order's approximately 25,000 confrères, supported by 4,000 employees and 250,000 volunteers, are mainly Anglicans, though those of other Christian denominations or other religions are accepted into the order, and honorary membership is presented to distinguished adherents of other religions. Membership in the order is by invitation only, except via appointment to certain government or ecclesiastical offices in some realms.  People may not petition for admission. It is perhaps best known through its service organizations, St. John Ambulance and St John Eye Hospital Group, the memberships and work of which are not limited to any denomination or religion.

History

The original order was divided into langues (tongues).  These were groups based on the tongue, or language, that the group spoke.

The Order of St. John's biggest leap forward came in 1888, when Queen Victoria granted the society a royal charter, yet again renaming the order, this time as the Grand Priory of the Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem in England. This was altered in 1926 to the Grand Priory in the British Realm of the Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem, and then in 1936 as the Grand Priory in the British Realm of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem. In 1961 it played a role in the establishment of the Alliance of the Orders of St. John of Jerusalem, and thereafter finally received through a concordat in 1963 collateral recognition by the Order of Malta. The most recent royal charter was issued in 1955, with a supplemental charter released in 1974, recognizing the world-wide scope of the organization by setting its present name. In 1999, the order was granted special consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council.

Structure

Officers and grades
The reigning monarch of each of the Commonwealth realms is the Sovereign Head of the Order of St. John

Knights and Dames receive the award from the Grand Prior when they are touched on the shoulder with a sword and are given their robes and insignia. Post-nominal letters of the order are not used outside the organization itself, and a Knight and Dame may not use the prefix sir or dame, though they may request from their local heraldic authority a personal coats of arms, should they not already possess any, and have it adorned with emblems of the Order of St. John. Further, membership in the order only grants precedence within the society, which is as follows:

 The Sovereign Head
 The Grand Prior
 The Lord Prior of St. John
 The Prior of a Priory or the Knight or Dame Commander of a Commandery when within the territory of the establishment
 The Prelate of the Order
 The Deputy Lord Prior or the Deputy Lord Priors and if more than one in the order of seniority in their grades
 The Sub-Prior of the Order
 Former Great Officers
 Bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross
 The Prior of a Priory or the Knight or Dame Commander of a Commandery outside the territory of the establishment
 Members of the Grand Council not included above in the order of seniority in their grades
 The Principal Officers in the order of their offices
 The Sub-Prelates and the Honorary Sub-Prelates
 The Hospitaller of the Order
 Knights and Dames
 Chaplains
 Commanders
 Officers
 Serving Brothers and Serving Sisters
 Esquires

Precedence within each grade is dictated by dates of appointment, save for those in Grade I who are either a head of state or a member of the royal family of a Commonwealth realm, another Commonwealth country, or foreign state, in which case they all precede the other members of the grade in the following order:

 Members of the Commonwealth realms' royal family
 Heads of state from the Commonwealth of Nations
 Foreign Heads of State
 Members of other Commonwealth royal families
 Members of foreign royal families

Priories and commanderies
Following constitutional changes made in 1999, the Priory of England and The Islands was established (including the Commandery of Ards in Northern Ireland) alongside the existing Priories of Wales, Scotland, Canada, Australia (including the Commandery of Western Australia), New Zealand, South Africa, and, since 1996, the United States, each of which is governed by a Prior and a Priory Chapter. Commanderies, governed by a Knight or Dame Commander and a Commandery Chapter, may exist within or wholly or partly without the territory of a Priory, known as Dependent or Independent Commanderies, respectively. Any country without a Priory or Commandery of its own is assumed into the "home priory" of England and The Islands, many of these being smaller Commonwealth of Nations states in which the order has only a minor presence.

The Order of St. John is said to have arrived in Canada in 1648, as the second Governor of New France, Charles de Montmagny, was a member of the original order, but it was not until 1883 that the first branch of the modern organization was established in the country, at Quebec City, growing to 12 branches by 1892. The Order of St. John today forms part of the Canadian national honours system, and the Priory, established in 1946 out of the Commandery of Canada, is the largest outside of the United Kingdom, with some 6,000 members. The Canadian monarch's viceroy, the governor general, serves as the Prior and Chief Officer in Canada, while the provincial viceroys the lieutenant governors act as the Vice-Priors, overseeing the administration of the order in their respective province. These individuals thus automatically become Knights or Dames of Justice or Grace upon their swearing-into viceregal office.

An American Society of the Order of St. John was established in 1957 as a foundation to assist the order with charitable work, after 1961 focusing its efforts specifically on the St. John Ophthalmic Hospital in Jerusalem and some other organizations aiding the sick. This branch was successful enough that Queen Elizabeth II in 1996 officially created the Priory of the United States of America, the seventh priory at the time, with John R. Drexel as the first Prior. By late 2000, the US priory had approximately 1,100 members. As citizens of a country that did not have the sovereignty of the Order of St. John vested in its head of state, American inductees who first joined the new Priory were specifically asked to only "pay due obedience" to the governing authorities of the order "in all things consistent with your duty to your own country," thus eliminating any question of loyalty to a foreign head of state superseding American postulants' duties as US citizens.

Vestments and insignia
Upon admission into the Order of St. John, confrères are gifted various insignia of the organization, each level and office being represented by different emblems and robes for wear at important occasions for the order. Common for all members except Esquires is the badge, consisting of an eight-pointed Maltese cross embellished in the four principal angles alternately with two lions passant guardant and two unicorns passant. That for the Sovereign Head is gold with arms of white enamel and the embellishments rendered in gold, all surmounted by a jeweled St. Edward's Crown, while those for the officers of the order are the same save for the Grand Prior's having the crown made only of gold; the Lord Prior's having in place of the St. Edward's Crown the coronet in gold of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales; and the Prelate's having instead a representation of a Mitre in gold. Thereafter, the badges are prescribed as follows:

All Bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross may wear their badges either at the left hip on a  (for men) or  (for women) wide, black watered silk ribbon over the right shoulder or from a  wide black band at the collar. Male Knights Justice or Grace must carry their badges on a 16.5mm wide ribbon at the neck, and Commanders, Officers, and Members have theirs on a  straight ribbon suspended from a medal bar on the left breast, while females in all grades may wear their insignia either on a ribbon bow pinned at the left shoulder or hung from a medal bar in the men's fashion, depending on the circumstance and clothing worn. Bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross, Knights and Dames of Justice or Grace, and Chaplains may all also wear a breast star, which appears the same as their badges, only at a diameter of  and without embellishments for those in Grade I and  for those in Grade II. Further, those in these groups are also given a button for wear on the lapel of non-formal civilian clothing, for events such as business meetings of the order. In general, the insignia of the Order of St. John may be worn at all occasions where other decorations are worn, not only those connected with the ceremonies of the order.

All members of the Order of St. John are also required to wear specific robes for formal occasions of the society, including a mantle, sopra vest, and hat. The mantles of the Sovereign Head and Grand Prior are all of black silk velvet and lined with white silk, the former's differentiated by an additional train. Bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross and, prior to 1926, Knights of Justice formerly wore black silk robes with a lining of the same material and colour; these members now wear the same mantle as Commanders, Officers, and Esquires, which are made of black merino wool faced with black silk. The only other unique mantles are those of the Medical Officer of the St. John Ophthalmic Hospital, which bears a special pattern, and of Chaplains, which is a black silk robe with full sleeves. Each cloak also bears on its left side a rendition of the order's star in white silk: the Sovereign Head, Grand Prior, and those in the first two grades of the order all have a  diameter emblem; the Sovereign's and Grand Prior's are of white silk with gold adornments, the former's also surmounted by a St. Edward's Crown, while those for Bailiffs and Dames Grand Cross, Knights and Dames of Justice, and Knights and Dames of Grace are rendered in white linen, the first two groups having embellishments in gold silk, the latter in white silk. Similarly, the star for Commanders and Officers is of white linen with white silk ornamentation, though they are only  and  in diameter, respectively. The Secretaries of the order, the priories, and the commanderies also wear the badge superimposed upon two goose quill pens embroidered saltire-wise in white silk.

The sopra (or supra) vest is a long drape of thin, black cloth that buttons close down the neck and to one side, falling to the ankles and cut so as to entirely cover the body. It is similar to a cassock, though it is actually derived from the supra vesta a black surcoat worn in the mid 13th century by the Knights of St. John. Confrères in Grade I have a plain, white, 300mm diameter Maltese cross on their sopra vests, while members of Grades II and III, plus Chaplains, have a plain garment, though the wearer's Order of St. John medallion hangs outside the vest, 152mm below the collar. Clerical inductees of the order may, when officiating, wear over their cassock and surplice a tippet of black with red lining, edging, and buttons, a 76mm wide star worn on the left breast and the accordant badge suspended at the neck. When full mantles and sopra vests are worn a black velvet Tudor style hat is included.

Eligibility and appointment
The Sovereign makes all appointments to the order as she, in her absolute discretion, shall think fit, though the constitution does impose certain limitations: the maximum number of members is set at 35,000,

To be inducted, new members must recite the organization's declaration:
"I do solemnly declare that I will be faithful and obedient to The Order of St. John and its Sovereign Head as far as it is consistent with my duty to my [Sovereign/President] and to my country; that I will do everything in my power to uphold its dignity and support its charitable works; and that I will endeavour always to uphold the aims of this Christian Order and to conduct myself as a person of honour."

Notwithstanding the order's devotion to Christian ideals of charity, and its official position that the order has a "Christian character," its Grand Council has since 1999 affirmed that "profession of the Christian Faith should not be a condition of membership of the Order." The issue of the order's Christian character and the issue of "inclusive membership" was dealt with in the Grand Council's Pro Fide Report in 2005, wherein it was said that the order's life is shaped by Christian faith and values, but that "[r]ather than the emphasis being primarily upon 'spiritual beliefs or doctrine' it is on works of mercy rendered through St. John"; therefore, while the Great Officers are required to profess the Christian faith, the same is "not an essential condition of membership" and "[t]he onus is on the man or woman who is invited to the privilege of membership to decide whether he or she can with a good conscience promise to be faithful to the stated aims and purposes of this Christian lay order of chivalry." On the subject of inclusive membership, the report stated "Christian hospitality is a criterion which can be applied to the Order's relationships to persons of other religious faiths," and "the Order needs to be characterized by a hospitable disposition towards other faith traditions while holding fast to its own origins and foundational identity in Christian faith."

Precedence in each realm
As the Order of St. John is open to the citizens of sixteen different countries, each with their own system of orders, decorations, and medals, the order's place of precedence varies from country to country. Unlike with other multi-level orders, all the Order of St. John's grades rank between the society's predecessor and successor; some examples follow:

Related pages
 List of the priors of St John of Jerusalem in England
 Museum of the Order of St John
 Sovereign Military Order of Malta
 Service Medal of the Order of St John

Notes

References

Bibliography

Other websites

Venerable Order of Saint John


The Tragically Hip are a Canadian rock band from Kingston, Ontario. The Tragically Hip have four members in the band; the current band members are Rob Baker, Gord Sinclair, Johnny Fay and Paul Langlois. Singer Gord Downie was in the band until he died in 2017.

The band was formed in 1983. They released a self-titled EP in 1987 and released their debut album Up to Here on August 30, 1989. The band released their eleventh studio album, Now for Plan A, in 2012. The band was given a star on Canada's Walk of Fame in 2002 and was inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame in 2005. They have won many Juno Awards as well.

Discography

Studio albums
Up to Here (1989)
Road Apples (1991)
Fully Completely (1992)
Day for Night (1994)
Trouble at the Henhouse (1996)
Phantom Power (1998)
Music @ Work (2000)
In Violet Light (2002)
In Between Evolution (2004)
World Container (2006)
We Are the Same (2009)
Now for Plan A (2012)

EPs
The Tragically Hip (1987)

References

Other websites
Official website

1980s music groups
1990s music groups
2000s music groups
2010s music groups
Canadian rock bands

The Tragically Hip


Ergative-absolutive languages, sometimes called ergative languages, are languages where the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb behave the same way in a sentence. Both behave differently to the subject of a transitive verb.

In English and other nominative languages, the agent ("doer", she in She walked the dog) of a transitive verb and the subject ("doer", she in She walked) of an intransitive verb are both in the nominative case, and the object ("done-to", dog in She walked the dog) is in the accusative case.

In an ergative language, the agent of a transitive verb is in the ergative case, while the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb are in the absolutive case.

Some examples of ergative-absolutive languages include Basque, Georgian, Mayan, Tibetan, Tagalog and the Kurdish language.

If one sets: A = agent of a transitive verb; S = argument of an intransitive verb; O = object of a transitive verb, then we can contrast normal nominative–accusative English with a hypothetical ergative English:

Accusative English:
He (A) found me (O).
He (S) traveled.
(S form = A form)

Hypothetical ergative English:
He (A) found me (O).
Him (S) traveled.
(S form = O form)

Linguistics

Ergative–absolutive language


Exner Revival Cars were created by noted automobile designer, Virgil Exner. He produced a series of "Revival Car" concepts for a December 1963 issue of Esquire magazine. His designs included an updated model for four famous American marques: Stutz, Duesenberg, Packard, and Mercer.  He later designed updated Bugatti, Pierce-Arrow, and Jordan cars. Little came of these designs, though they became well known as plastic model kits produced by Renwal.

A show version of the Bugatti was built by Ghia on the last Bugatti Type 101 chassis. The Bugatti Revival Car concept was shown at the Turin Motor Show in 1965 but at the time it failed to spark another revival of that marque.

Exner's Mercer design was also produced as a concept car. A body was crafted for a shortened (by ) Shelby Cobra chassis, and the Mercer-Cobra was presented in 1965.

Exner's Duesenberg revival had the most success. Exner penned a new design for 1966, and a company was formed under Fritz Duesenberg, son of August Duesenberg to produce the cars on Chrysler Imperial chassis. A prototype was again produced by Ghia, and 50 buyers signed up, including Elvis Presley and Jerry Lewis. The company fell on financial trouble before production could begin, however, with the prototype seized as payment of outstanding debts.

References

Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States

Exner Revival Cars


Antoine Vitez (; 20 December 1930 – 30 April 1990) was a French actor, director, and poet. He became a central character and influence on the French theater in the post-war period, especially in the technique of teaching drama. He was also translator of Chekhov, Vladimir Mayakovsky and Mikhail Sholokhov.

Early life

Antoine Vitez was born in Paris and trained to be an actor, finding his first acting job at the age of 19 in Ils attendent Lefty at the Théâtre Maubel. He failed to enter the National Conservatory of Dramatic Art in Paris and became a Communist activist, which he continued until 1979, when he left the Communist Party following the invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR.

He met Louis Aragon in 1958 and became his private secretary from 1960 to 1962. He worked in the theater Balachova Tania, and wrote reviews published by Jean Vilar in the magazine Théâtre populaire. Vitez also found work reading on the radio and voice-dubbing in films. He had his first opportunity as director with Sophocles' Electra at the Maison de la Culture de Caen in 1966.

Career

Vitez' production of Electra was successful and he continued directing with Russian and Greek repertoire, directing Mayakovsky's Les Bains in 1967, Eugene Schwartz's Le Dragon in 1968, and Chekhov's La Mouette in 1970. After this initial period, he began working more with French and German repertoire, directing works by Racine, Jakob Lenz, Goethe, Brecht and René Kalisky. He later expanded his work to both traditional and classical theatrical repertoire, including Sophocles, Shakespeare,  Marivaux, Molière, Jean Racine, Paul Claudel, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Pierre Guyotat, Jean Metellus and Jean Audureau.

Vitez became a professor at the National Conservatory of Dramatic Arts in 1968, and in 1972 he founded the Théâtre des Quartiers d'Ivry. In the same year, he founded the Ateliers d'Ivry workshop, where amateurs and professionals could share a common theatrical practice. He became director at the Chaillot National Theatre in 1981, and was appointed deputy head of the Comédie Française in June 1988, a post he held until his sudden death in Paris in 1990. In 1978, Vitez' workshop sessions were recorded by film-maker Maria Koleva, who made five films on different workshop sessions.

Aesthetic

Vitez often presented his plays in locations with non-theatrical elements and without any descriptive function, employing an aesthetic of "free play" and "association of ideas," according to Georges Banu. Vitez' work required thought on the part of the audience, more than the reality of a set. He saw the theater as a "force field" and demanded an "elitist theater for all." He defended the great classical texts as "sunken galleons," works that were remote, archaic and mythological.

Legacy
Théâtre Antoine Vitez on the campus of the University of Provence, now Aix-Marseille University is named for him.
Théâtre d'Ivry Antoine Vitez in Ivry-sur-Seine, is also named for him.

Filmography

References

1930 births
1990 deaths
French theatre directors
Male actors from Paris
Administrators of the Comédie-Française
French male film actors
French male television actors
French male stage actors
20th-century French male actors
20th-century French translators
20th-century French poets
French male poets
20th-century French male writers
French male non-fiction writers

Antoine Vitez


Chepauk Stadium (M. A. Chidambaram Stadium) is a cricket stadium in Chennai, India. The stadium, most commonly known as Chepauk, was established in 1916 and it is the oldest continuously used cricket stadium in the country. Its alternative name is after M. A. Chidambaram, former President of BCCI and the stadium was formerly known as Madras Cricket Club Ground. It is the home ground of the Tamil Nadu cricket team and the Indian Premier League team Chennai Super Kings. Chepauk hosted its first Test match on 10 February 1934, the first ever Ranji Trophy match in 1936 and Indian cricket team's first ever test victory in 1952 against England. The 1986 India-Australia match held at Chepauk was only the second ever Tied Test in the history of the game. As of 19 Aug, 2017 it has hosted 32 Tests, 21 ODIs and 1 T20I.

Crowd
The Chepauk crowd is known to be amongst the most appreciative in the country. The crowd gave a standing ovation to Saeed Anwar after scoring the highest ever ODI score of 194 against India in 1997. The crowd was again appreciative when Pakistan won a Test match in 1999 and the Pakistani team made a lap of honour in appreciation of the spectators' sporting behaviour.

Records of the stadium and in the stadium
India hold the record for the highest score on the ground when they hit 759-7d runs against England in 2016. India hold the record for the lowest score at the ground when England restricted them to just 83. Sunil Gavaskar (1018 runs) had scored the most number of runs in this stadium followed by Sachin Tendulkar (876 runs) and Gundappa Vishwanath (785 runs) in Tests. Anil Kumble (48 wickets) had taken the most wickets in this stadium followed by Kapil Dev (40 wickets) and Harbhajan Singh (39 wickets) in Tests.

The highest ODI score here was made by Pakistan in 1997 when Pakistan scored 327–5, India replied with 292 all out, which is the third highest score here. The second highest score is 299–8 made by India on 22 October 2015 against South Africa which India defended successfully. The fourth highest score is 289–4 made by Australia against New Zealand. Yuvraj Singh has scored the most number of runs here with 255 runs in ODIs. Mohammad Rafique has taken the most number of wickets (14 wickets), followed by Ajit Agarkar, who is the highest wicket taking Indian cricketer.

Notable events
 The first ever match of the Ranji Trophy was held on 4 November 1934 between Madras and Mysore at Chepauk. M J Gopalan of Madras bowled the first ball to N Curtis.
 India recorded their first test victory, in their 24th match, against England at Cheupak in 1952.
 The second ever Tied Test in cricket history was played here between India and Australia in 1986.
 Sunil Gavaskar scored his 30th test match century in 1983 breaking Don Bradman's record for most centuries in test cricket.
 Narendra Hirwani's 8 wickets for 61 runs against the West Indies in January 1988 are the best bowling figures by an Indian on Test début and the third overall. As of December 2014, he is the only Indian cricketer to take ten or more wickets in Test debut. Hirwani's figures of 16 wickets for 136 runs in the match are a record for any bowler on début.
 Saeed Anwar of Pakistan scored 194 against India in 1997, the highest ODI score at that time.
 On 15 October 2004, Shane Warne surpassed Muttiah Muralitharan's tally of 532 Test wickets to become the highest wicket taker during the time.
 Virender Sehwag scored 319 against South Africa, in the home series in April 2008 in the first Test at M A Chidambaram Stadium in Chennai, having reached 300 off just 278 balls, the fastest triple century in test history. Sehwag became only the third batsman after Donald Bradman and Brian Lara to score two triple centuries in Test Cricket. He scored 257 runs the third day of the match, which was the most runs scored by an individual batsman on a single day of a Test match since 1954.
Sachin Tendulkar has scored more runs in Chepauk than any other venue in India with 876 runs in nine Tests at an average of 87.60.
 On 22 March 2001, India defeated Australia by 2 wickets to clinch the Border Gavaskar Trophy following India's win in Kolkata which ended the 16 match winning streak of Australia in test matches.
 India's 387/4 in the fourth innings of the first Test against England in December 2008, became the highest successful run chase in a test match in India.
 MS Dhoni became the first Indian wicket keeper Batsman to score a double century in the first test between 22–26 February 2013 against Australia, which also is the highest score by a wicket keeper captain
 Karun Nair scored 303* not out in the 5th test against England in the home series on 19 December 2016. India declared in the innings on 759–7. He became the 6th youngest batsman to score 300 and the 2nd Indian (after Virender Sehwag) to do so. He was dropped on 34 by England captain Alastair Cook.

References

Cricket in India
1916 establishments
1910s establishments in India
Buildings and structures in India

Chepauk Stadium


Machanaim is an organization dealing with the spiritual absorption of Jewish people from the former USSR in Israel. The movement's work and its goals spawned its name, the Hebrew word  from  meaning "two camps", in this case referring to Jerusalem and Moscow.

Machanaim's founders are Rabbi Dr. Zeev Dashevsky,  Dr. Pinchas Polonsky, and Dr. Michael Kara-Ivanov. Machanaim began in Moscow behind the Iron Curtain in 1979, during the period of Brezhnev stagnation, as a group of young people who gathered to study Jewish history and tradition and pass on this knowledge on to their fellow Jews. Over time it developed into an organized underground network for studying Torah, Jewish philosophy, and Jewish law. Almost all the group members were refuseniks. Classes were sometimes interrupted by the KGB.

In 1987 most of the Machanaim activists received permission to emigrate to Israel. There they set two main goals: to work with new immigrants and to provide assistance in Jewish education for those Jews still in the CIS.

The organization has produced many books and classes, especially for conversion to Judaism. Its other main projects include teaching Judaism via the media, running a synagogue and other activities in Ma'aleh Adumim. It is an important proponent of Religious Zionism among Russian-speaking Jews.

Other uses of the name

Machanaim is also the name of a popular game played at Jewish summer camps and schools. It is sometimes spelled Machanayim.

References
 Machanaim online
 From Russia with faith, Dan Izenberg, Jerusalem Post, 17.10.1997
 "Machanaim: The search for a spiritual revival of Judaism among Russian Jews" by Miriam Kitrossky, Michael Kara-Ivanov and Pinchas Polonsky in "Conversations. Orthodoxy and Diversity", issue 7, spring 2010/5770, pp. 54–65

Jewish outreach
Jews and Judaism in the Soviet Union
Jewish organizations established in 1979
1979 establishments in the Soviet Union

Machanaim


This is a list of notable people who were born, lived or are/were famously associated with Jerusalem. The list is in chronological order.

List

Ancient
Melchizedek, Jebusite King of Salem and priest who blesses Abram
Abdi-Heba, Hurrian chieftain
Zadok, Levitical High Priest
King David (c. 1040 BCE – c. 970 BCE), second King of the united Kingdom of Israel
Araunah, Jebusite vendor of land
Solomon the Great (c. 1011 BCE – c. 931 BCE), third King of Israel
Hezekiah, thirteenth king of Judah
Isaiah, a major prophet of ancient Israel living around the time of 8th-century BC Kingdom of Judah
Joel, a prophet of ancient Israel, the second of the twelve minor prophets

Antiquity
Judas Maccabeus (d. 160 BCE), leader of the Maccabean revolt against the Seleucid Empire
Herod the Great, (d. 4 BCE), a Roman client king of Judea who expanded the Second Temple in Jerusalem and built the fortress at Masada
Hillel the Elder (110 BCE – 10 CE), a famous Jewish religious leader and one of the most important figures in Jewish history, associated with the development of the Mishnah and the Talmud
Josephus (37–100), Jewish-Roman historian
James the Just (d. 69), Jewish-Christian Bishop of Jerusalem
Simon bar Kokhba (d. 135), leader of the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE

Medieval
al-Muqaddasi (946–1000), Arab geographer
Aaron of Jerusalem, was a Karaite scholar of the eleventh century
Ibn al-Qaisarani (1056–1113), Arab historian
Judah Halevi (1075–1141), Spanish Jewish physician, poet and philosopher
Baldwin IV of Jerusalem (1161–1185), King of the Crusader State in Jerusalem
Nahmanides (1194–1270), prominent medieval Jewish rabbi and physician

Modern
born 1820–1849
William Holman Hunt (1827–1910), English painter, cofounder of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
Conrad Schick (1822–1901), German architect, archaeologist and Protestant missionary
Yousef Al-Khalidi (1829–1907), Mayor of Jerusalem and Member of the Ottoman Parliament
Haim Aharon Valero (1845–1923), banker, entrepreneur and a prominent figure in the Jewish community of 19th century Jerusalem
Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (1858–1922), Litvak lexicographer and newspaper editor credited for the revival of the Hebrew language in the modern era

born 1850–1879
Shlomo Moussaieff (1852–1922), a founder of the Bukharim neighborhood
Herbert Plumer (1857–1932), senior British Army officer of the First World War
Menachem Ussishkin (1863–1941), Zionist leader and head of the Jewish National Fund
Abraham Isaac Kook (1865–1935), first Ashkenazi chief rabbi of Mandatory Palestine
Khalil al-Sakakini (1878–1953), Palestinian Christian scholar and Arab nationalist

born 1880–1909
Shmuel Yosef Agnon (1888–1970), Israeli Nobel Prize laureate writer and was one of the central figures of modern Hebrew fiction
Helena Kagan (1889–1978), physician, Israeli pioneer in pediatrics
Rachel Bluwstein (1890–1931), Hebrew poet
Ludwig Blum (1891–1975), Czechoslovakia-born Israeli painter, known as "the painter of Jerusalem"
Daniel Auster (1893–1963), three time Mayor of Jerusalem
Haj Amin al-Husayni (1897–1974), Palestinian Arab nationalist and influential Muslim leader in Mandatory Palestine
Yaakov Ades (1898–1963), Sephardi Hakham, Rosh Yeshiva, and Rabbinical High Court judge

born 1910s
Teddy Kollek (1911–2007), mayor of Jerusalem and founder of the Jerusalem Foundation
Ruhi al-Khatib (1914–1994), Palestinian nationalist and politician
Ruchoma Shain (1914–2013), teacher and author
Ephraim Katzir (1916–2009), biophysicist and fourth President of Israel
Yigael Yadin (1917–1984), Israeli archeologist, politician, and second Chief of Staff of the IDF
Menachem Lewin (1918–2011) Israeli chemist working in polymer, fiber and nanotechnology research

born 1920s
Yitzhak Navon (1921–2015), politician (fifth President of Israel), diplomat, and author
Yitzhak Rabin (1922–1995), general, the fifth Prime Minister of Israel, and Nobel Peace Prize winner
Trude Dothan (1922–2016), Austrian Jewish archaeologist in Israel
Yitzchok Scheiner (1922–2021), rabbi
Shlomo Hillel (1923–2021), Israeli diplomat, Speaker of the Knesset, Minister of Police and Minister of Internal Affairs
Zundel Kroizer (1924–2014), rabbi
Walid Khalidi (born 1925), Palestinian historian
Uzi Narkiss (1925–1997), Israeli general and commander of the Israel Defense Forces units in the Central Region during the Six-Day War
Rehavam Ze'evi (1926–2001), assassinated Israeli general, historian, founder of the Moledet party, and Minister of Tourism
Yaakov Blau (1929–2013), rabbi

born 1930s
Reuven Adiv (1930–2004), Israeli and international actor, director and drama teacher
Robert Aumann (born 1930), Israeli-American mathematician and game-theorist, received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2005 for his work on conflict and cooperation through game-theory analysis
Naseer Aruri (1934–2015), Palestinian scholar and activist
Edward Said (1935–2003), Palestinian author and political theorist
A.B. Yehoshua (1936–2022), Israeli novelist, essayist, and playwright
Shlomo Aronson (1936–2018), Israeli landscape architect
Yehoram Gaon (born 1939), Israeli singer, actor, director, producer, TV and radio host, and public figure
Amos Oz (1939–2018) Israeli writer, novelist, and journalist
Reuven Rivlin (born 1939), former Minister of Communications and Speaker of the Knesset, former President of Israel
Ada Yonath (born 1939), Israeli crystallographer best known for her pioneering work on the structure of the ribosome, winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009

born 1940s
Matan Vilnai (born 1944), Minister of Science, Culture & Sport, Minister of Science and Technology, Minister for Home Front Defense, Ambassador to China, IDF Major General
Makram Khoury (born 1945), Israeli Arab actor and winner of the Israel Prize
Ehud Olmert (born 1945), former Mayor of Jerusalem and Prime-Minister of Israel
Mahmoud al-Zahar (born 1945), co-founder of Hamas
Yoni Netanyahu (1946–1976), commander of Sayeret Matkal; killed in action during Operation Entebbe
Esther Farbstein (born 1946), Holocaust scholar
Nahman Shai (born 1946), Israeli journalist, Deputy Speaker of the Knesset, IDF spokesman
Dan Meridor (born 1947) Israeli Minister of Justice, Minister of Finance, and Deputy Prime Minister

born 1950s
Munib Younan (born 1950), president of the Lutheran World Federation
Mustafa Barghouti (born 1954), Palestinian physician, activist, and PLO politician
Anat Hoffman (born 1954), Israeli activist and director of Women of the Wall
Francis Martin O'Donnell (born 1954), former United Nations diplomat, Ambassador of Sovereign Military Order of Malta, author
Saeb Erekat (1955–2020), Palestinian negotiator of the Oslo Accords with Israel
Sallai Meridor (born 1955), Israeli Ambassador to the United States, Chairman of the Jewish Agency for Israel and the World Zionist Organization
Jamal Dajani (born 1957), Palestinian-American journalist and producer, co-founder of Arab Talk Radio
Uri Malmilian (born 1957), Israeli soccer player with most appearances for Beitar Jerusalem F.C.
Eli Ohana (born 1957), all-time top-scorer for Israel's Beitar Jerusalem F.C.

born since 1960
Guy Starik (born 1965), Olympian shooter with world record in 50 m rifle prone
Elisha Abas (born 1971), Israeli pianist, composer, and former professional soccer player
Jonah Lotan (born 1973), actor
Natalie Portman (born 1981), Israeli-American actress, lived in Jerusalem until she was three years old
Shahar Pe'er (born 1987), Israeli tennis player, highest world singles ranking # 11, highest world doubles ranking # 14
Or Sasson (born 1990), Israeli Olympic medalist judoka

unknown date of birth
Meche Marchand, Puerto Rican actress and writer

Honorary citizens
People awarded the honorary citizenship of Jerusalem are:

See also

Demographic history of Jerusalem
List of Israelis
List of Palestinians
Mayor of Jerusalem
Timeline of Jerusalem

References

External links

People
People
Jerusalem
Jerusalem
Jerusalem

List of people from Jerusalem


A drain commissioner is an elected official in county government of the U.S. state of Michigan who is responsible for planning, developing and maintaining surface water drainage systems under Public Act 40 of 1956. In counties with a population under 12,000, the office of drain commissioner may be abolished with its statutory duties and responsibilities performed by the county's board of road commissioners. Unlike other county-wide officeholders, drain commissioners were created by statute and are not mandated by the Michigan Constitution. Drain commissioners are elected on the partisan ballot in presidential election years for a term of four years.

History and reform
The office of drain commissioner dates to Michigan's statehood in 1837, as much of the state's land was swamps and wetlands. An early bill passed by the Michigan Legislature was a drainage act, which led to the creation of drain commissioners at the township level. In 1897, township drain commissioners were abolished and the position was transferred to county government.

Over the years, proposals have been made to reform and even abolish the office. Successful efforts have changed the law to allow individual counties to rename the office to public works commissioner or water resources commissioner.

An unsuccessful reform proposal in 2009 was led by the then-drain commissioner of Cheboygan County, Dennis Lennox, who sought to abolish the office in counties with a population of less than 35,000. This proposal was introduced in both houses of the Legislature after being approved by the Cheboygan County Board of Commissioners.

In 2012, the Schoolcraft County Board of Commissioners abolished the office of drain commissioner and transferred its duties and responsibilities to the county's road commissioners.

Duties and responsibilities
It is the only elected office in Michigan that can directly levy taxes and borrow money without a vote of the people. This led one drain commissioner to declare he is more powerful than the governor. While the powers of the drain commissioner are immense, the office has become a sinecure in some counties, meaning it requires little to no responsibility.

Nevertheless, drain commissioners are responsible for overseeing the county's drains. In Michigan, a drain may be a natural or artificial creek or ditch, or a massive pipe for carrying storm water. The territory served by a particular drain, its watershed, is typically organized as a drainage district and the drain commissioner levies tax assessments and directs construction or maintenance of drains and culverts on behalf of each district. Drainage districts are public corporations, with legal rights similar to other political subdivisions of state government. Counties typically have dozens even hundreds of drainage districts.

See also
 Government of Michigan
Drainage law

References

External links
 Michigan Association of County Drain Commissioners

Local government in Michigan
Water law in the United States
Government occupations
Land management in the United States
Water management

Drain commissioner


Inge Müller (born Inge Meyer) (13 March 1925 – 1 June 1966) was an East German author and the second wife of East German playwright Heiner Müller.

Life
Inge Müller was born in Berlin in 1925.  During World War II, she participated in the Reichsarbeitsdienst in different towns in Styria until she would be sent to Berlin as a Luftwaffe aide.  Her parents died in an air strike. They lay buried together under rubble for three days with a dog. This was a traumatic experience which would accompany Inge for the rest of her life.

In the post war era, she was a secretary, Trümmerfrau, a worker, a journalist and a correspondent.  Her first marriage to Kurt Loose lasted only a short time but produced a son.  Already by 1948, she married Herbert Schwenker who was the leader of the variety theatre Friedrichstadtpalast and later the Circus Busch.  She became a member of the SED and lived  in Lehnitz, a district of the town of Oranienburg, from 1954 until 1959 where she enjoyed a privileged and unburdened existence.

In autumn of 1953, she became acquainted with Heiner Müller at a function of the Young Authors Working Group (Arbeitsgemeinschaft Junger Autoren).  She soon afterwards moved into a shared apartment with him and they were married in 1955.  The pair, who now earned their money as freelance writers, worked together on radio drama and theater pieces.

However, Inge Müller's dream of working together with Heiner as equals soon began to fade.  She stood in the shadow of Heiner, who considered her more a coworker rather than as an equal partner.  She began an affair with Heiner's 16-year-old brother Wolfgang Müller in 1956 which failed and relations with her husband worsened noticeably. The awarding of the Heinrich Mann Prize to the both of them in 1959 did nothing to improve the situation.  In addition, the expulsion of Heiner from the authors union of the GDR (Schriftstellerverband der DDR) compounded these problems.  Plagued by depressions and psychosomatic troubles she attempted suicide several times.  She ultimately died by suicide on 1 June 1966.  Only 41 years old, the writer died in her apartment on Kissingenplatz 12 of medication overdose and poisonous gas.  The Aufbau Verlag made a futile endeavour to publish a volume with her poetry shortly after her death.  Her works quickly passed into oblivion because a suicide did not fit in the literary picture of East German politics and, also, Heiner reclaimed the sole authorship of the collaboration.  The first posthumous publication of her works was carried out by Bernd Jentzsch in 1976 in his first series , first appeared in 1985, 20 years after her death, a book, which made accessible Inge Müller's literary work of broad public nature, with Richard Pietraß' .

Her final resting place is in Friedhof Pankow III, a cemetery in Berlin.

Works
In her lifetime, Inge Müller published only a little among them the children's books Wölfchen Ungestüm (1955) and Zehn Jungen und ein Fischerdorf (1958), the emancipating and time relevant radio drama Die Weiberbrigade and the collaboration with Wiktor Rosows Auf dem Wege.  Many stayed only fragments like the novel Ich Jona.  With Heiner Müller, she created the dramas Der Lohndrücker (1956), Die Umsiedlerin (1956), Die Korrektur (1957), Klettwitzer Bericht (1958) and Unterwegs (1963).

She had remained above all a poet.  Although nearly 300 lyrical works were created in her lifetime, only a few were published, mostly in the anthology In diesem besseren Land.

References

Literature

Biographies:
 Ines Geipel:  Verlag 2002,
 Review of 'Dann fiel...' http://www.zeit.de/2005/37/L-Inge_M_9fller in German
 Sonja Hilzinger: . Aufbau Verlag Berlin 2005,

Works published:
 Richard Pietraß (Editor): . Aufbau Verlag Berlin 1985,
 Sonja Hilzinger (Editor): . Aufbau Verlag Berlin 2002,

1925 births
1966 suicides
1966 deaths
Writers from Berlin
East German writers
East German women
German women poets
Socialist Unity Party of Germany members
Heinrich Mann Prize winners
Suicides in East Germany
Suicides by gas
20th-century German women writers
20th-century German poets
Communist women writers
German-language poets
Reich Labour Service members
Luftwaffe personnel of World War II

Inge Müller


The Interlude of Youth is an English 16th-century morality play. It is one of the earliest printed morality plays to have survived. Only two or three copies of any edition are known to exist. Waley's edition of the work appeared probably about the year 1554, and has a woodcut on the title-page of two figures, representing Charity and Youth, two of the characters in the interlude. Another edition was printed by William Copland, and has also a woodcut on the title-page, representing Youth between Charity, and another figure which has no name over its head. The colophon is: "Imprinted at London, in Lothbury, over against Sainct Margarytes church, by me, Wyllyam Copland." A fragment of a black-letter copy of the interlude has survived at Lambeth Palace.

Medieval drama
British plays
1550s plays

Interlude of Youth


Butter cake is a cake with butter as a main ingredient.

The traditional English pound cake used equal parts of butter, flour, sugar, and eggs to produce a heavy, rich cake. This was the first butter cake.  The invention of baking powder during the 19th century made it possible to have lighter, fluffier cakes using these same ingredients, making the modern butter cake.

Butter cakes are often made by beating the butter and sugar until fluffy. This is called creaming.  Eggs are added, then the other ingredients.
Butter cakes taste best when stored at room temperature, because they dry out and lose taste when refrigerated.

Cakes
Cake

Butter cake


Eucrites are achondritic stony meteorites that originate from the surface of the asteroid 4 Vesta, and as such are part of the HED meteorite group. They are the most common achondrite group with well over 100 distinct finds at present.

Eucrites consist of basaltic rock from the crust of 4 Vesta. They are mostly made up of Ca-poor pyroxene, pigeonite, and Ca-rich plagioclase (anorthite).

Eucrites are named from a Greek word meaning "easily distinguished".

Other websites
 HED Group - Meteorites from Vesta

Meteorites

Eucrite


Mack Williams Jr. is a rap artist who performs under the name Mr. Mack. He was born in Alcoa, Tennessee, and graduated from Alcoa High School.

He had released several independent mixtapes prior to signing with Universal Republic Records. His biggest hit to date, the 2006 single "Where You From? (Da 865)", became a statewide anthem in the Tennessee rap scene.
In 2007, "Where You From?" was featured on a compilation album, Preview Presents Greeting From Knoxville, released by Knoxnews.com.

Mr. Mack is currently  working on his debut album Self Made. It is targeted for release in late fall.
Mack has had several popular songs released on regional radio.
He was recently also featured in the award winning documentary "East Tennessee Hard Hitters" directed by Shannon M. Grier and Blu Chez.
He has many live videos on YouTube, as well as having been featured on the television and radio program Studio 865, broadcast by the University of Tennessee. Mr. Mack has released several projects recently including his latest album "BLOW" which is nominated for Album of the Year @ the 2012 SEA Awards, he also just released a new video "Think It Over" f/ Project Pat & Young Ralph directed by AXTION... His son Jae Williams is also an aspiring rapper...

References

External links
 http://www.myspace.com/mrmackbr
 http://www.nyfilmvideo.com/2006/laseptember06/movieads/east-tenn/index.htm

American male rappers
Living people
People from Alcoa, Tennessee
Rappers from Tennessee
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American male musicians

Mr. Mack


Margaret Brainard Hamilton (December 9, 1902 – May 16, 1985) was an American movie actress. She is best known for playing the Wicked Witch of the West in the 1939 movie The Wizard of Oz. In movies, she often played  older, unmarried women from New England who was extremely practical but did not enjoy jokes. Hamilton's plain looks helped to bring steady work as a character actress. Late in life she appeared in sitcoms and television commercials.

She was born in Cleveland, Ohio. She married Paul Boynton Meserve in 1931. They had a son. They divorced. She never married again. She lived in New York City for most of her adult life.  She later moved to Millbrook, New York. She died of a heart attack on May 16, 1985 in Connecticut. She was cremated at Poughkeepsie Rural Cemetery. Her ashes were scattered.

Actors from Cleveland
American movie actors
American television actors
Deaths from myocardial infarction

1902 births
1985 deaths

Margaret Hamilton