The Law of the Twelve tables ( or Duodecimo Tabulae) was the legislation that stood at the foundation of Roman law. Formally promulgated in 449 BC, the Tables were mostly a summary earlier traditions written down as a set of laws.

Displayed in the Forum, "The Twelve Tables" stated the rights and duties of the Roman citizen.  Their formulation was the result of considerable agitation by the plebeian class, who had until then been excluded from the higher benefits of the Republic.  Before that, the law had not been written down. Higher-class priests, the pontifices, intepreted it.   Cicero (106–43 BC) stated that the "Twelve Tables...seems to me, assuredly to [be better than] the libraries of all the philosophers, both in weight of authority, and in [usefulness]".  Cicero hardly exaggerated; the Twelve Tables formed the basis of Roman law for a thousand years.

The Twelve Tables are rather comprehensive, they have been described as a 'code'. Modern scholars consider this characterization exaggerated. The Tables were a sequence of definitions of various private rights and procedures. They generally took for granted such things as the institutions of the family and various rituals for formal transactions. The provisions were often highly specific and diverse.

Influence and significance

The Twelve Tables are often cited as the foundation for ancient Roman law. The Twelve Tables provided an early understanding of some key concepts such as justice, equality, and punishment.  Although legal reform occurred soon after the implementation of the Twelve Tables, these ancient laws provided social protection and civil rights for both the patricians and plebeians. At this time, there was extreme tension between the privileged class and the common people. This meant that some form of social order was needed. While the existing laws had major flaws that were in need of reform, the Twelve Tables eased the civil tension and violence between the plebeians and patricians.

The Twelve Tables also heavily influenced and are referenced in later Roman Laws texts, especially The Digest of Justinian I. Such laws from The Digest that are derived from the Twelve Tables are the legal recompense for damage caused by an animal, protocol for inheritances, and also laws about structural property damage.

The influence of the Twelve Tables can still be seen today. The Twelve Tables play a significant role in the basis of the early American legal system. Political theorists, such as James Madison have highlighted the importance of the Twelve Tables in crafting the United States Bill of Rights. The idea of property was also perpetuated in the Twelve Tables, including the different forms of money, land, and slaves. Another example: the Twelve Tables are tied into the notion of Jus Commune, which translates as "common law", but is commonly referred to as "civil law" in English-speaking countries. Some countries including South Africa and San Marino still base their current legal system on aspects of jus commune. In addition, law school students throughout the world are still required to study the Twelve Tables as well as other facets of Roman Law in order to better understand the current legal system in place.

The Twelve Tables no longer exist: although they remained an important source through the Republic, they became obsolete, and were only of historical interest.  The original tablets may have been destroyed when the Gauls under Brennus burned Rome in 387 BC. Cicero claimed that he learned them by heart as a boy in school, but that no one did so any longer. What we have of them today are brief excerpts and quotations from these laws in other authors, often in clearly updated language. They are written in an archaic, laconic Latin (described as Saturnian verse). As such, though it cannot be determined whether the quoted fragments accurately preserve the original form, what is present gives some insight into the grammar of early Latin. Some claim that the text was written as such so plebeians could more easily memorize the laws, as literacy was not common during early Rome. Roman Republican scholars wrote commentaries upon the Twelve Tables, such as L. Aelius Stilo, teacher of both Varro and Cicero.

Like most other early codes of law, they were about the procedure: They specified in detail, how something needed to be done. They also gave the same detail, about what the punishment was if the procedure wasn't followed.  In most of the surviving quotations from these texts, the original table that held them is not given. Scholars have guessed at where surviving fragments belong by comparing them with the few known attributions and records, many of which do not include the original lines, but paraphrases. It cannot be known with any certainty from what survives that the originals ever were organized this way, or even if they ever were organized by subject at all.

References

Further reading

 Cornell, T.J. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 B.C.). London: Routledge, Routledge History of the Ancient World.
 Harries, Jill. 2007. "Roman Law Codes and the Roman Legal Tradition." In Beyond Dogmatics: Law and Society in the Roman World, Edited by Cairns, John W. and Du Plessis, Paul J. Edinburgh studies in law; 3, 85-104. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Pr.
 Tellegen-Couperus Olga ed. 2011. Law and Religion in the Roman Republic. Mnemosyne supplements. History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity, 336.   Leiden; Boston: Brill.
 Watson, Alan. 1992.  The State, Law and Religion: Pagan Rome. University of Georgia Press.
 Westbrook, Raymond. 1988. "The Nature and Origins of the Twelve Tables." Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte. Romanistische Abteilung, CV, 74-121.

Ancient Roman law

Twelve Tables


Burn My Eye was the debut EP recorded by Sydney punk rock band Radio Birdman, in October 1976. It was a low-budget EP recorded at Trafalgar Studios, Sydney and released on the studio's own Trafalgar label after the band had been rejected by many other labels. Part of the reason that many labels were reluctant to sign the band was because of their unconventional sound, which was quite different from the music then popular in the Australian rock scene during the 1970s.

The members of Birdman were not impressed with the acoustics of Trafalgar, a typical 1970s studio which they described as "dead sounding and quiet", in contrast to the high tempo, hard-rock sound for which Birdman is known. To the sound engineers' horror, Birdman decided to alter the studio's sound more to their liking by hauling sheets of corrugated iron from nearby demolition sites up the stairs of the studio and covering the walls with them to 'lighten up the sound'.

Birdman also experimented with some other unconventional sounds on the EP, such as the smashing of VB cans on their heads, as a percussion instrument throughout the recording.

The Burn My Eye EP was only produced once and has not been re-issued, so original copies of the EP are extremely rare. All tracks from the EP appear on the bonus disk of the 2015 CD reissue of the Trafalgar version of their first album, Radios Appear.

Track listing
"Smith and Wesson Blues"
"Snake"
"I-94"
"Burned My Eye"

Personnel
Radio Birdman
Rob Younger - lead vocals
Chris Masuak - guitar, vocals, piano
Deniz Tek - guitar, vocals
Warwick Gilbert - bass
Ron Keeley - drums

See also
Proto-Punk

References

External links
http://www.divinerites.com/dr_birdm.htm
https://web.archive.org/web/20090331163740/http://www.radio-birdman.com/ - Official Radio Birdman Website

1976 debut EPs
Radio Birdman albums

Burn My Eye


Walter Rudolf Hess (17 March 1881 – 12 August 1973) was a Swiss physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1949 for mapping the areas of the brain involved in the control of internal organs. He shared the prize with Egas Moniz.

Life
Hess was born in Frauenfeld as the second of three children to Clemens Hess and Gertrud Hess (née Fischer). His father encouraged him to pursue a scientific career and with him he conducted experiments in his physics laboratory. He started to study medicine in Lausanne in 1899 and then in Berlin, Kiel and Zurich. He received his medical degree from the University of Zürich in 1906 and trained as surgeon in Münsterlingen (in the same canton as his birthplace Frauenfeld) under Conrad Brunner (1859–1927). He developed a viscosimeter to measure blood viscosity and published his dissertation in 1906 titled Zum Thema Viskosität des Blutes und Herzarbeit. In 1907, he went to the University of Zurich to study under Otto Haab to be trained as an
ophthalmologist and opened his own private practice in Rapperswil SG. In these years, he developed the "Hess screen", married Louise Sandmeier and in 1910 their daughter Gertrud Hess was born. In 1913 his son Rudolf Max Hess was born.

In 1912, he left his lucrative private practice as an ophthalmologist and went into research under Justus Gaule (1849–1939),
habilitating in 1913 to become Privatdozent. His primary interests were the regulation of blood flow and respiration. During the First World War he spent a year at the Physiological Institute of the University of Bonn under Max Verworn. In 1916, Gaule retired and Hess first became interim director of the Department of the Physiological Institute at the University of Zürich. Hess served as full professor and director of the institute from 1917 until his retirement in 1951.

In the 1930s, he began mapping the parts of the diencephalon that control the internal organs using cats. This research won him the Nobel prize in Physiology and Medicine 1949. Hess also helped to found the meteorological research foundation International Foundation for the High Alpine Research Station Jungfraujoch in 1930 and served as its director until 1937. Furthermore, he politically campaigned against the anti-vivisectionists that wanted to forbid animal experimentation.

Hess retired in 1951 but continued working at the university in an office. In 1967, he moved to Ascona and died of heart failure in 1973 at the age of 92 in Locarno, Switzerland. His widow died in 1987.

Research
Hess used brain stimulation techniques developed in the late 1920s. Using electrodes, Hess stimulated the brain at well-defined anatomical regions. This allowed him to map regions of the brain to specific physiological responses. He developed a special technique he called "interrupted direct-current (DC) stimulation" which used stimuli of long duration (typically 12.5 or 25 ms) with ramp-like upward and downward slopes. Also, the stimuli were rather weak (around 0.5–1.5 V) and of low frequency (2–12 Hz, usually 8 Hz) and he used very fine electrodes with a diameter of 0.25 mm.

By stimulating the hypothalamus, he could induce behaviors from excitement to apathy; depending on the region of stimulation. He found that he could induce different responses when stimulating the anterior (lateral) hypothalamus compared to stimulating the posterior ventromedial hypothalamus. When stimulating the anterior part, he could induce fall of blood pressure, slowing of respiration and responses such as hunger, thirst, micturition (urination) and defecation. Stimulation of the posterior part led to extreme excitement and defense-like behavior.

Hess also found that he could induce sleep in cats – a finding that was highly controversial at the time but later confirmed by other researchers, including his son Rudolf Max Hess.

Honours
 Marcel Benoist Prize (1932)
 Honorary doctorates at the University of Bern, University of Geneva, McGill University, University of Freiburg
 Nobel prize in Physiology and Medicine (1949)

Notes and references

External links
  including the Nobel Lecture, 12 December 1949 The Central Control of the Activity of Internal Organs

1881 births
1973 deaths
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
People associated with the University of Zurich
University of Zurich alumni
Academic staff of the University of Zurich
Swiss ophthalmologists
Swiss neuroscientists
Swiss Nobel laureates
People from Frauenfeld

Walter Rudolf Hess


On a Clear Day is a 2005 Scottish drama film written by Alex Rose and directed by Gaby Dellal. It stars Peter Mullan as Frank Redmond, an engineer in the shipyards on the River Clyde, who becomes stagnant and quickly sinks into depression following his redundancy.  A naturally strong swimmer, Frank gets an idea while on a 'booze cruise' with his friends to swim the English Channel. Featuring an ensemble cast, it co-stars Brenda Blethyn, Sean McGinley and Billy Boyd, among others.

The filmed won two BAFTA Scotland Awards for Best Film and Best Screenplay.

Plot
The story is set in Glasgow, Scotland near the banks of the River Clyde. After completing the construction of the ship RFA Mounts Bay, Frank Redmond (played by Peter Mullan) and a few of his co-workers are laid off from the shipyards after 36 years service. This, along with his grief still suffered over the drowning of one of his sons many years ago, plummets Frank into a deep depression. He gets on well with his wife, Joan (Brenda Blethyn), but their relationship is distant. His other son, Rob (Jamie Sives), is a devoted house husband who looks after his twin sons, while his wife, Angela (Jodhi May) works full-time at the local Jobcentre. Rob has a troubled relationship with his father, feeling the guilt of being the 'surviving' son.

After a violent panic attack, Frank realizes that he needs some focus in his life, and, after a booze cruise along the English Channel, decides to focus his efforts on swimming across it. Frank trains with the help of friend and local chip shop owner Chan (Benedict Wong) and former co-workers Danny (Billy Boyd), Eddie (Sean McGinley) and Norman (Ron Cook) until he feels he is fit and ready for the attempt. A successful crossing alleviates the family tensions.

Filming locations
The majority of the film was shot in Glasgow. The production visited Kent to shoot at the foot of the White Cliffs of Dover where Frank starts his swim of the English Channel and the famous cliffs can also be seen in the background throughout his challenge. The Port of Dover was used for the scenes where Frank's family and friends race to meet him in France at the end of his swim.

Cast
 Peter Mullan as Frank Redmond
 Brenda Blethyn as Joan Redmond
 Jamie Sives as Rob Redmond
 Jodhi May as Angela Redmond
 Billy Boyd as Danny
 Benedict Wong as Chan
 Sean McGinley as Eddie
 Ron Cook as Norman
 Shaun Dingwall as Observer
 Tony Roper as Merv

External links

References

2005 films
Scottish films
Focus Features films
Icon Productions films
Films about grieving
Films directed by Gaby Dellal
Films scored by Stephen Warbeck
English-language Scottish films
2000s English-language films

On a Clear Day (film)


USS Alabama (SSBN-731) is the sixth  nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine, and the seventh United States vessel to be named for the state of Alabama. The boat's motto duplicates the state's motto, Audemus Jura Nostra Defendere ("We dare defend our rights").

Construction and commissioning
The contract for Alabamas construction was awarded on 27 February 1978 and her keel was laid down on 14 October 1980 at Groton, Connecticut, by the Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics. She was launched on 19 May 1984, sponsored by Mrs. Barbara E. Dickinson, wife of William Louis Dickinson, Representative from Alabama, and commissioned at Naval Submarine Base New London at New London, Connecticut, on 25 May 1985.

Operational history
After commissioning, Alabama departed Connecticut to conduct her shakedown cruise off the coast of Florida. After several domestic maneuvers and crew changes, Alabama visited Mobile, Alabama, before heading for the Panama Canal and from there to Bangor, Washington. Alabama operated out of Bangor until mid-May 1986, when she embarked on her first strategic deterrent patrol. Operating from the Pacific Northwest, Alabama carried out four deterrent patrols between June and December 1986.

In May 1988, Alabama conducted a successful test ballistic missile firing, launching two Trident I C4 ballistic missiles. On 1 September 1988, Alabama moored at Bangor to complete her ninth deterrent patrol and the 100th strategic deterrent patrol by a Trident-armed submarine. An official ceremony commemorating the event was held pier-side with then-Undersecretary of the Navy H. Lawrence Garrett III heading the official greeting party. Alabama conducted another test ballistic missile firing in August 1989, launching four Trident I C4 ballistic missiles.

In the 1990s Alabama conducted routine refit operations out of Bangor Washington, post-refit sea trials operations in Dabob Bay, and patrol operations in the Pacific Ocean. Ports-of-call included Seattle, Washington; San Diego and Long Beach, California; and Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

In February 1991, Alabama was selected as the change of command platform for the Commander-in-Chief Pacific Fleet (CINCPACFLT) in Pearl Harbor. August 1992, Alabama embarked Commander-in-Chief, United States Strategic Command (CINCSTRATCOM) and his entourage of senior U.S. Air Force and Navy Officers for an at-sea submerged orientation tour concerning SSBN strategic deterrent operations. In January 1996, the boat was awarded the Battle Efficiency E and the Strategic Operations S by the Commander of Submarine Squadron 17. In March she was awarded the U.S. Strategic Command's Omaha Trophy for ballistic missile unit excellence. In March 1999, Alabama conducted exercises with the  battle group and . In September she conducted underway operations for the Defense Advisory Counsel on Women in the Services.

After completing 47 strategic deterrent patrols, Alabama underwent a refit in 1999 and returned to service with numerous tactical and survivability upgrades. In spring 2000, Alabama completed her 50th strategic deterrent patrol and celebrated her 15th birthday. During February 2000 she conducted exercises with the  battle group. In April she conducted a VIP cruise in Dabob Bay, Washington to host the Chief of Defense of Japan and members of his staff. In August she again conducted exercises with the USS Abraham Lincoln battle group.

Alabama entered the Bremerton Annex of Naval Base Kitsap at Bangor in 2005 to undergo a nuclear reactor refueling overhaul and conversion of her ballistic missile systems to support the Trident II D5 ballistic missiles, which replaced her Trident I C4 ballistic missiles and launchers; Alabama was the last Trident C4-equipped submarine to be refitted with the Trident D5 missile system. The refueling overhaul and Trident D5 conversion was completed in February 2009.

As of April 2014, Alabama is part of Submarine Group 9 and her home port is at Naval Submarine Base, Bangor, Washington.

Alabama is the recipient of the 2016 and 2017 Battle "E", her second and third time receiving this award.

In popular culture
 Alabama is the setting for the 1995 film Crimson Tide, starring Denzel Washington and Gene Hackman. The boat itself is seen in the movie during the diving scene as it leaves port.
 Alabama is featured in the films Time Under Fire, On the Beach, and Danger Beneath the Sea, which reused footage from Crimson Tide.

References

External links

Ships built in Groton, Connecticut
Ohio-class submarines
Cold War submarines of the United States
Nuclear submarines of the United States Navy
1984 ships
Submarines of the United States

USS Alabama (SSBN-731)


The Age of Sail Heritage Centre (also known as the Age of Sail Heritage Museum) is a museum and heritage centre at Port Greville, Nova Scotia, Canada. It focuses on the history of Parrsboro Shore communities along the Minas Channel of the Bay of Fundy with an emphasis on the area's shipbuilding and lumbering heritage.

The Site

The Museum consists of a number of historic buildings moved to a central site on the banks of a scenic ravine beside the tidal Greville River. The main building is a former 1854 Methodist Church. In addition to the original building the site is home to a cafe/gift shop, the Port Greville Lighthouse, a boat shed, a blacksmith shop and a band saw shed. Several walking trails lead from the museum to historic and natural features along the river.

History
The heritage centre began with the Greville Bay Recreation and Development Group formed in 1981 to develop the Port Greville area. The group at first developed a picnic park on the old Red House Landing Site and worked on building and maintaining washrooms and a picnic area. In 1988 the chair of the group Ross Colins put forward the idea of a museum. In 1991, the Greville Bay Shipbuilding Museum Society was incorporated with the goal of protecting and preserving working heritage" with a "hands-on shipbuilding museum" focusing on the Parrsboro Shore's extensive lumbering and shipbuilding history.

Later that same year the committee took on the task of clearing and cleaning the site and erected an information building. In 1992 the McLeod family donated a building, formerly the Cochrane Hall and originally a Methodist church built in 1854.  It was dismantled and moved 2 kilometres to the site where it sat for a year as funding was raised. In 1993, reconstruction began.

In 1994, the Age of Sail Heritage Centre Museum was opened to the public. After its first year the centre won a provincial architecture award for innovative design.  An expansion is underway for 2011 to provide public events, research and conservation space.

The museum is staffed chiefly by volunteers with community support. A curator as well as 2 or 3 students are hired per season. Items in the collections number over 2,000 with everything from period fashion, to hand tool, models and equipment as well as numerous photographs and archives. The museum is one of the attractions of the Fundy Shore Ecotour.

References

External links

"Age of Sails Heritage Centre" Museum Profile Virtual Museum of Canada

Museums established in 1994
Maritime museums in Nova Scotia
Museums in Cumberland County, Nova Scotia
1994 establishments in Nova Scotia

Age of Sail Heritage Centre


Olivier Strebelle (20 January 1927 – 29 July 2017) was a Belgian sculptor.

Strebelle was born in Brussels, Belgium on 20 January 1927.
His monumental (usually bronze) sculptures adorn many public places in Brussels as well as in Germany, Israel, Italy, Russia, Singapore, Switzerland, and the United States.

Strebelle was a prolific artist for more than 65 years, and his works are found in private collections and public settings around the world. His style has evolved from robust, organic abstract forms to the sinuous lines seen in Athletes' Alley, on the site of the Beijing Olympic Games.

His sculpture The Abduction of Europa () has been on display in the Square of Europe, Moscow since September 2002.

Athletes Alley

Athletes Alley is a sculpture meant as a gift from Belgium to the city of Beijing, but was not completed in time. It opened shortly after the games ended, having cost over 5 million euros.

The abstract installation is composed of 5 tubular polished stainless steel modules that reach up to 20m height and 100m length (weighing 120T), and is meant to evoke the Olympic rings.

The production of Athletes Alley involved a technological collaboration between the image laboratory of Université Libre de Bruxelles, Tsinghua University, a French engineering consultancy specialising in metallic frame-works (C&E Ingénierie) and a German software company, Sofistik.

Gallery

References

External links

Official website
  Athletes Alley (Official website)

1927 births
2017 deaths
2008 Summer Olympics
Culture of Belgium
Belgian sculptors
Buildings and structures in Beijing
People from Uccle
Prix de Rome (Belgium) winners

Olivier Strebelle


Friday the 13th is an American horror franchise that comprises twelve slasher films, a television series, novels, comic books, video games, and tie‑in merchandise. The franchise mainly focuses on the fictional character Jason Voorhees, who was thought to have drowned as a boy at Camp Crystal Lake due to the negligence of the camp staff. Decades later, the lake is rumored to be "cursed" and is the setting for a series of mass murders. Jason is featured in all of the films, as either the killer or the motivation for the killings. The original film, created to cash in on the success of Halloween (1978), was written by Victor Miller and was produced and directed by Sean S. Cunningham. The films have grossed over $468 million at the box-office worldwide.

Frank Mancuso, Jr., a producer of the films, also developed the television show Friday the 13th: The Series after Paramount released Jason Lives. The television series was not connected to the franchise by any character or setting, but was created based on the idea of "bad luck and curses", which the film series symbolized. While the franchise was owned by Paramount, four films were adapted into novels, with Friday the 13th Part III adapted by two separate authors. When the franchise was sold to New Line Cinema, Cunningham returned as a producer to oversee two additional films, in addition to a crossover film with character Freddy Krueger from A Nightmare on Elm Street film series. Under New Line Cinema, thirteen novellas and various comic book series featuring Jason were published.

Although the films were not popular with critics, Friday the 13th is considered one of the most successful media franchises in America—not only for the success of the films, but also because of the extensive merchandising and repeated references to the series in popular culture. The franchise's popularity has generated a fanbase who have created their own Friday the 13th films, fashioned replica Jason Voorhees costumes, and tattooed their bodies with Friday the 13th artwork. Jason's hockey mask has become one of the most recognizable images in horror and popular culture.

Films

In the original Friday the 13th (1980), Mrs. Pamela Voorhees (Betsy Palmer) stalks and murders the teenagers preparing Camp Crystal Lake for re‑opening. She is determined to ensure the camp does not reopen, after her son Jason (Ari Lehman) drowned in the lake, due to the negligence of two staff members. The last counselor, Alice Hardy (Adrienne King), fends off Mrs. Voorhees long enough to grab a machete and decapitate her. In Friday the 13th Part 2 (1981), Jason (Steve Daskewisz/Warrington Gillette) is revealed to be alive and fully grown. After killing Alice Hardy, Jason returns to Crystal Lake to guard it from all intruders. Five years later, a group of teenagers arrive at Crystal Lake to be trained as camp counselors, but Jason murders them. Ginny Field (Amy Steel), the last counselor Jason attempts to kill, finds a cabin in the woods with a shrine built around the severed head of Mrs. Voorhees. Ginny fights back and slams a machete through Jason's shoulder. Jason is left for dead as Ginny is taken away in an ambulance.

During the events of Friday the 13th Part III (1982), Jason (Richard Brooker) removes the machete from his shoulder and finds his way to Chris Higgins' (Dana Kimmell) local homestead. Chris returns to her property with some teens, and Jason kills anyone who wanders into the barn where he is hiding. Taking a hockey mask from a victim to hide his face, Jason leaves the barn to kill the rest of the group. Chris seemingly kills Jason with an axe to his head, but the night's events drive her into hysteria as the police take her away. Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter (1984) continues where Part III leaves off, with Jason (Ted White) found by the police and taken to the local morgue after removing the axe. Upon arrival, Jason awakens to kill the coroner and a nurse before returning to Crystal Lake. A group of teens rents a house on Crystal Lake and fall victim to Jason's rampage. After killing the teens, Jason seeks out Trish (Kimberly Beck) and Tommy Jarvis (Corey Feldman), who live next door. While distracted by Trish, Jason is attacked and ultimately killed by Tommy.

Friday the 13th: A New Beginning (1985) follows Tommy Jarvis (John Shepherd), who was committed to a mental health institution after the events of The Final Chapter and grew up constantly afraid that Jason (Tom Morga) would return. Roy Burns (Dick Wieand) uses Jason's persona to become a copycat killer at the halfway home to which Tommy has moved. Tommy, supervisor Pam (Melanie Kinnaman), and a young boy named Reggie (Shavar Ross) manage to defeat Roy. They eventually learn that Roy had a son who was murdered by one of the patients at the institution, triggering Roy to take on Jason's likeness and kill everyone there. Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives (1986) begins with Tommy (Thom Mathews) visiting Jason's grave after being released from another mental institution. Tommy inadvertently resurrects Jason (C. J. Graham) with a piece of the fence surrounding the cemetery acting as a lightning rod. Jason immediately heads back to Crystal Lake and kills the people working at the new summer camp. Tommy eventually chains Jason to a boulder that he tosses into the lake, where he leaves Jason who is revealed to be alive.

Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood (1988) begins an indeterminate length of time after Jason Lives. Jason (Kane Hodder) is resurrected again by the telekinetic Tina Shepard (Lar Park Lincoln), who is trying to resurrect her father whom Tina caused to drown in the lake  when she was a child. Jason once again kills those who occupy Crystal Lake and is returned to the bottom of the lake after a battle with Tina. Jason is resurrected again in Friday the 13th Part VIII: Jason Takes Manhattan (1989) by an underwater electrical cable. He follows a group of students on their senior class cruise to Manhattan, where he kills the ship's crew and the majority of the students. Upon reaching Manhattan, Jason chases Rennie (Jensen Daggett) and Sean (Scott Reeves), the two remaining students, into the sewers. Jason eventually melts away because the sewer is flooded with toxic waste.

In Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday (1993), Jason, through an unexplained resurrection, is hunted by the FBI at Crystal Lake. The FBI sets up a sting that successfully kills Jason. Through possession, Jason manages to survive by passing his black heart from one being to the next. It is revealed that he has a sister and a niece, and that he needs them to get his body back. Jason resurrects himself, but his niece, Jessica Kimble (Kari Keegan), stabs him with a mystical dagger and he is dragged into Hell. Jason X (2001) takes place in the future, when Jason has again been inexplicably resurrected. A scientist, Rowan LaFontaine (Lexa Doig), decides that cryonic suspension is the only method of stopping him, but Jason breaks free and kills the army personnel guarding him before he can be again imprisoned. Rowan manages to lure Jason into the cryo‑chamber, but he ruptures the tank and freezes both himself and Rowan. Over 400 years later, a team of students studying Earth discover Jason's body and take it into space. Upon being thawed by the team, he proceeds to murder everyone aboard the spacecraft. He is seemingly killed, but is then resurrected via nanotechnology as a cyborg version of himself. Finally, he is ejected into space and incinerated by Earth Two's atmosphere, his mask falling to the bottom of a lake.

The next Friday the 13th film, Freddy vs. Jason (2003), was a crossover with A Nightmare on Elm Street. Set in the contemporary period, Freddy Krueger (Robert Englund) resurrects Jason (Ken Kirzinger) and sends him to Springwood hoping that he will create enough fear among the residents that Freddy will be strong enough to invade their dreams. Jason accomplishes this but refuses to stop killing. A battle ensues both in the dream-world and at Crystal Lake. The outcome is left ambiguous, as Jason surfaces from the lake holding Freddy's severed head, which winks and laughs.

In 2009, a new Friday the 13th film which restarted the film series continuity was released. In this film, after witnessing his mother being beheaded at a young age, an adult Jason (Derek Mears) follows in her footsteps and kills anyone who comes to Crystal Lake. Jason subsequently kidnaps a young woman, Whitney Miller (Amanda Righetti), who resembles his mother at a young age. Six weeks after her disappearance, her brother, Clay Miller (Jared Padalecki), comes to look for her. The pair reunite and work together to seemingly kill Jason.

Production

The original Friday the 13th was produced and directed by Sean S. Cunningham, who had previously worked with filmmaker Wes Craven on The Last House on the Left (1972). Cunningham, inspired by the success of John Carpenter's Halloween (1978), wanted Friday the 13th to be shocking, visually stunning, and "[make] you jump out of your seat". Distancing himself from The Last House on the Left, Cunningham wanted Friday the 13th to be more of a "roller coaster ride". The first film was meant to be "a real scary movie", and at the same time make audiences laugh. The concept for Friday the 13th began as nothing more than a title. A Long Night at Camp Blood was the working title Victor Miller used while he drafted a script, but Cunningham believed in his "Friday the 13th" moniker and rushed to place an advertisement in International Variety. Worrying that someone else owned the rights to the title and wanting to avoid potential lawsuits, Cunningham thought it would be best to find out immediately. Cunningham commissioned a New York advertising agency to develop his visual concept of the Friday the 13th logo, which consisted of big block letters bursting through a pane of glass. In the end, Cunningham believed there were "no problems" with the title, but distributor George Mansour contends that there was an issue: "There was a movie before ours called Friday the 13th: The Orphan. Moderately successful. But someone still threatened to sue. It is unknown whether Phil [Scuderi] paid them off, but the issue was eventually resolved."

Following the success of Friday the 13th in 1980, Paramount Pictures began plans to make a sequel and immediately acquired the worldwide distribution rights. According to Paramount Pictures' Chairman and CEO Frank Mancuso Sr., "We wanted it to be an event, where teenagers would flock to the theaters on that Friday night to see the latest episode." Initial ideas for a sequel involved the Friday the 13th title being used for a series of discontinuous films, released once a year, and each would be a separate "scary movie" of its own right. Phil Scuderi—a co‑owner of Esquire Theaters with Steve Minasian and Bob Barsamian and a producer of the original film—insisted that the sequel must have Jason Voorhees, Pamela's son, even though his appearance at the end of the original film was only meant to be a joke. Steve Miner, associate producer of the first film, believed in the idea, and he ultimately directed the first two sequels after Cunningham opted not to return to the director's chair.

The studio continued to generate sequels over the years, based on the financial success they produced compared to their relatively low budgets. With every film repeating the same basic premise, the filmmakers came up with subtle adjustments so the audience would return. Changes involved the addition of a subtitle—as opposed to just a number attached to the end—like "The Final Chapter" and "Jason Takes Manhattan", or filming the movie in 3-D, as Miner did for Friday the 13th Part III. The third film would also be the birthplace of one of the most recognizable images in popular culture, that of Jason's hockey mask. Producer Frank Mancuso Jr. eventually decided to kill Jason for good, after he experienced problems finding new films to produce that were more than just horror movies, because his name brought constant association to the Friday the 13th film series.

Jason would not stay buried for long, as the success of The Final Chapter ensured another Friday the 13th film. Mancuso Sr. stated, "Quite simply, the public still wanted to see these films. So until they really stopped coming, why not continue to make more?" A New Beginning shifted the focus of the story to the character of Tommy Jarvis and how he battles his inner demons, hallucinations, and "rages to kill" after his ordeal with Jason in The Final Chapter. This premise was not repeated, as the very next installment brought Jason back from the dead. Jason Lives attempted to create a "funnier, faster, and more action-packed [...] Friday" than had previously been done. The limited financial success of Jason Lives provided enough incentive to create another sequel, The New Blood. The idea proposed by screenwriter Daryl Haney stemmed from his realization that the films always ended with Jason battling the "final girl". Haney decided that this final girl should have telekinetic powers, which led Producer Barbara Sachs to dub the film, Jason vs. Carrie.

Plans were made to take Jason away from Crystal Lake and place him in a larger environment for the eighth film. New York City was selected as the main setting, with Jason spending approximately a third of the movie on a boat before reaching New York. The film was then subtitled Jason Takes Manhattan. Ultimately, the character spent the majority of the time on the cruise ship, as budget restrictions forced scenes of New York to be trimmed or downgraded. Vancouver had to substitute for the majority of the New York scenes.

When Jason Takes Manhattan failed to perform successfully at the box office, Sean Cunningham decided that he wanted to reacquire the rights to Friday the 13th from Paramount and start working with New Line Cinema on Freddy vs. Jason, as New Line owned the Nightmare on Elm Street franchise. The concept of a fight between Freddy and Jason was not new, since Paramount had approached New Line about filming a crossover years before the latter had gained the licensing rights to Friday the 13th. At that time, both companies wanted the license to the other's character so that they could control the making of the film. Negotiations on the project were never finalized, which led Paramount to make The New Blood. After Jason Takes Manhattan was released in 1989, the rights reverted to Scuderi, Minasian, and Barsamianto, who sold them to New Line. Before Cunningham could start working on Freddy vs. Jason, Wes Craven returned to New Line to make New Nightmare. This effectively put Freddy vs. Jason on hold, but allowed Cunningham the chance to bring Jason back into the spotlight with Jason Goes to Hell. The ninth installment "turned a healthy profit", though it was only intended to open the door for a crossover with Freddy Krueger rather than to start a new series for New Line. Ultimately, the film series would go through another sequel before that would happen.

Cunningham's "frustration" with the delayed development of the Freddy vs. Jason project forced him to create another sequel in an effort to keep the franchise in the minds of audiences. Based on Jason Takes Manhattans concept of taking Jason away from Crystal Lake, the 10th film would put the titular character in space. The film suffered from the loss of its biggest supporter, President of Production Michael De Luca, when he resigned from his position. Lack of support forced the finished film to sit for two years before finally being released on April 26, 2002, and it would go on to become the lowest-grossing film in the franchise at the domestic box office. It also held the distinction of having the largest budget of any of the previous films at that time. After more than 15 years of off-and-on development, and approximately $6 million spent in 18 unused scripts from more than a dozen screenwriters, New Line finally produced a Freddy and Jason crossover for 2003. One of the biggest hurdles for the film was developing a story that managed to bring the two horror icons together. Potential stories varied widely, from Freddy having molested and drowned Jason as a child, to a cult of Freddy worshipers called the "Fred Heads".

In January 2007, Platinum Dunes producers Andrew Form and Brad Fuller outlined their intended goal to bring a Friday the 13th reboot to life. New Line approached Fuller and Form to create a reboot, but because Paramount still owned certain copyrights to the first film, the reboot would not be able to use anything from the original. Paramount, who wanted to be included in the development of a reboot, approached the producers and gave them license to use anything from the original films, including the title. With Paramount on board, Fuller and Form decided they wanted to use pieces from the early films. Fuller said, "I think there are moments we want to address, like how does the hockey mask happen." Shannon and Swift, writers of Freddy vs. Jason, were brought on to pen the script for the new film, with Marcus Nispel, director of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre remake of 2003, hired in November 2007 to direct.

Music
When Harry Manfredini began working on the musical score for the 1980 film, the decision was made to play the music only alongside the killer so as not to trick the audience into believing that the killer was around during moments that they were not supposed to be. Manfredini explains that the lack of music for certain scenes was deliberate: "There's a scene where one of the girls [...] is setting up the archery area [...] One of the guys shoots an arrow into the target and just misses her. It's a huge scare, but if you notice, there's no music. That was a choice". Manfredini also noted that when something was about to happen, the music would cut off so that the audience would relax a bit, which allowed the scare to become more effective.

Since Mrs. Voorhees, the killer in the original Friday the 13th, does not show up until the final reel of the film, Manfredini had the job of creating a score that would represent the killer in her absence. Manfredini was inspired by the 1975 film Jaws, where the shark is not seen for the majority of the film, but the motif created by John Williams cued the audience as to when the shark was present during scenes and unseen. While listening to a piece of Krzysztof Penderecki music, which contained a chorus with "striking pronunciations", Manfredini was inspired to recreate a similar sound for Friday the 13th. He came up with the sound "ki ki ki, ma ma ma", based on the line "Kill her mommy!", which Mrs. Voorhees recites repeatedly in the final reel. The "ki" comes from "kill", and the "ma" from "mommy". To achieve the unique sound he wanted for the film, Manfredini spoke the two words "harshly, distinctly, and rhythmically into a microphone" and ran them into an echo reverberation machine. Manfredini finished the original score after a few weeks and recorded it in a friend's basement. Victor Miller and assistant editor Jay Keuper have commented on how memorable the music is, with Keuper describing it as "iconographic". Manfredini makes note of the mispronunciation of the sounds: "Everybody thinks it's cha, cha, cha. I'm like, 'Cha, cha, cha'? What are you talking about?"

When Manfredini returned for the first sequel, he had an easier time composing since he only needed to perfect what he had already created. Over the course of the sequels, Manfredini loosened the philosophy that the theme should be reserved just for the killer. Manfredini describes the style of the sequels as more of a "setting 'em up and knocking 'em down" approach, which meant that there were more "McGuffins and red‑herrings" that required the killer's theme music be played to try to trick the audience. Manfredini explains: "The original had the real myopic approach, and then we had to start thinking of the sequels as more conventional films". For Part 3, Manfredini only returned to score the first and last reels of the film because he was busy with a Broadway production. Jack Tillar pieced together portions of the score from the first two films to fill the remaining time for Part 3, while Michael Zagar composed an opening and closing theme. Manfredini and Zagar met at the latter's apartment, where Zagar rescored the original opening theme using a disco beat. Manfredini returned for The Final Chapter, and although there were similar elements to the score, everything was newly recorded for the fourth Friday the 13th.

When he began work on the score for A New Beginning, Manfredini created a theme just for the character of Tommy Jarvis. The idea was to suggest that there was "madness afoot", which he believed helped to "'point the finger' at various characters [...] to suggest that things were not as you might expect". For Jason Lives, Tom McLoughlin instructed Manfredini to create a score that would not alert the audience about what was happening or about to happen, "but instead allow the audience to do it to themselves". McLoughlin took this idea from John Carpenter's 1978 film Halloween, which would always follow any shock in the film with Carpenter's "Eeeeeeee!" sound. McLoughlin wanted something more subtle, with a "Gothic" resonance.

Manfredini did not score The New Blood and Jason Takes Manhattan because of prior film engagements, but his scores from previous films were reused. While Manfredini was working on Sean Cunningham's DeepStar Six, producer Iain Paterson hired Fred Mollin, who was scoring Friday the 13th: The Series, to finish composing the music to The New Blood. Manfredini's original music only filled half the film. Mollin returned to fully score Jason Takes Manhattan, and worked with Steve Mizer to write an original song reminiscent of Robert Plant for the opening credits. Manfredini would score the next two entries in the series before being replaced on Freddy vs. Jason. The official reason for Manfredini's replacement was because New Line wanted to take the series in a "new direction", but Manfredini contends that the final cut of Freddy vs. Jason was "just the same thing".

Reception

Box office and response
The Friday the 13th series, when compared to the other top-grossing American horror series—A Nightmare on Elm Street, Child's Play, Halloween, Saw, Scream, and The Texas Chainsaw Massacre—and adjusting for 2023 inflation, is second at the domestic box office with $908.4 million, Halloween is the highest-grossing horror series at approximately $1.09 billion.  It is followed by the Nightmare on Elm Street series with $793.5 million. The Scream film series is in fourth place with $779.5 million, followed by the Saw series with $688.3 million, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre with $459.7 million, and the Child's Play film series rounding out the list with $305.2 million. The financial success has extended to home release, with more than five million DVDs sold by 2005.

Impact
In December 2006, IGN ranked Friday the 13th seventh in the top 25 film franchises. Qualifications included: the franchise must have at least three films released before December 2006; the franchises must be either a commercial or artistic success; and the franchise must have had some form of impact on popular culture. Three senior editors, the editor-in-chief, and IGN's entertainment editorial manager judged the various film franchises. In commenting on Friday the 13ths seventh-place ranking, the general consensus among the reviewers was that even though the Halloween franchise started the slasher genre, Friday the 13th became one of "the most influential franchises of the 1980s" and that its commercial success through 11 films, novelizations, comic books, and other collectables is proof of its legacy. ABC Online's Arts and Entertainment reporter, Gary Kemble, makes note of the popularity of the franchise throughout popular culture. Kemble points out that Jason's mask, which was not adopted until the third film in the series, is one of the most widely recognizable images in popular culture. Talking with Brenna O'Brien, co‑founder of the Fridaythe13thfilms.com website, the pair discusses how the fan base of the franchise has become so impassioned with the series that they have created films, latex body suits to emulate Jason's appearance, and tattoos of Jason and the Friday the 13th moniker on their body.

S. T. Karnick, editor of American Culture, wrote an article for the National Review detailing the impact Friday the 13th has had on the slasher genre and noting that the reasons critics have deplored the films are the same reasons why the franchise has had such a strong influence. Karnick explained that Friday the 13th did not try and recreate the same "clever" film that John Carpenter made in 1978, but instead "[codified] the formula" of Halloween, and "[boiled] it down to its essentials" so that it could be copied by other filmmakers. In his assessment, Friday the 13th changed the horror genre by purposefully not providing back‑stories for characters so that when the audience witnessed a character's death, they are "strangely unaffected". Instead, Friday the 13th focuses on the history and motivations of the killer, who would exact revenge not on the people directly responsible, but on innocent people—a formula Karnick notes was replicated in A Nightmare on Elm Street, Child's Play, Scream, I Know What You Did Last Summer, Saw, the Hannibal Lecter films, and the Halloween sequels. As Karnick sees it, "these films spoke directly to fears of increasing crime and social dislocation [and] provided audiences with ways to detach from these worries and conquer their fears of violence by laughing at it".

In Karnick's eyes, contemporary critics have failed to see how the film has affected audiences and subsequently branded the film series as "both irresponsible (for numbing audiences to violence) and puritanical (for showing the murders of sexually active teens)". Quoting director John Carpenter, Karnick emphasized that "teens thus dispatched became victims not as punishment for sexual activity but simply because they were too preoccupied to notice the presence of a murderer". Pointing to Roger Ebert as a prime example of how critics have misunderstood the films (Ebert wrote that during a screening of Friday the 13th Part 2, he noticed that the audience had no sympathy for the victims and cheered during death scenes), Karnick explains that Ebert's remarks show how the film series forces "audiences to experience the very thing that motivates the murders: a lack of compassion". In closing, Karnick suggested that these films were not puritanical, but proved that audiences "could be just as indifferent and callous as the characters in the films".

Cancelled projects

Warner Bros. Pictures: 2009–2010
Shortly after the 2009 reboot's theatrical release, producers Brad Fuller and Andrew Form expressed an interest in producing another Friday the 13th film, citing the enjoyment they had working on the reboot. In October 2009, Warner Bros. Pictures planned to release the Friday the 13th sequel on August 13, 2010, but on December 10, the studio pulled the sequel from the planned release slot and listed its release as "TBD" (to be determined). Warner Bros. also announced that Damian Shannon and Mark Swift were penning the sequel. In April 2010, Fuller announced on his Twitter page that a sequel to the 2009 remake was no longer in the works, declaring it, "dead — not happening". In a later interview, Fuller explained that the 2009 reboot was the result of a joint effort between Paramount and New Line Cinema, as both owned portions of the Friday the 13th franchise. With financial problems, both studios were limiting the films they produced each year, opting to produce films carrying lower risks and higher rewards. Accordingly, the companies put Friday the 13th Part 2 on hold in hopes that they would move forward with this next installment when the economy bounced back. Form explained that neither studio would walk away from the sequel's production to allow the other to move forward as the primary producing house, each studio concerned that its players would look like "idiots" should the sequel perform well without its involvement. Form and Fuller also mentioned that the Friday the 13th sequel may be a 3‑D film, should it ever again be green-lit for production by the studios.

Paramount: 2013–2017
Shannon and Swift completed the script for the sequel in February 2011, according to Fuller's claim on Twitter. He was ready to begin production, but that New Line Cinema was not. In June 2013, Warner Bros. relinquished its film rights to the Friday the 13th series to Paramount as part of a deal that would allow Warner Bros. to co-produce Interstellar. One week later, Derek Mears revealed that Paramount was working with Platinum Dunes to make a new installment "as fast as possible". David Bruckner was set to direct the next installment of Friday the 13th. Bruckner's original script was co-written with Ian Goldberg and Richard Naing and was a found footage film, as mandated by the studio. After altering the release date numerous times, Paramount set the film for a May 13, 2016 release date. TV writer Nick Antosca was announced to write the script in March 2015. Later in October, Paramount pushed back the film's release date to January 13, 2017. Two months later, Aaron Guzikowski was negotiating a deal to write a new script, but Bruckner, who had purportedly left the project in 2015, was no longer involved as a director. At the end of May 2016, Fuller revealed that the reboot would be an origin story for Jason, and his mother would be in the film. On August 8, Breck Eisner was in talks to direct the reboot. In September, Paramount pushed back the reboot's release date from January 13 to October 13, 2017.

The reboot's working title was reported as Friday the 13th: Part 13, Platinum Dunes was looking for someone to play a young Jason Voorhees, and production to begin in March, slated for October 13, 2017 release date. On February 6, Paramount officially canceled the project, and Paramount assigned the planned October release date to its then-upcoming film, Mother!.  On October 10, Shannon and Swift revealed the title of their proposed sequel, Friday the 13th: Camp Blood – The Death of Jason Voorhees. The rights to the franchise reverted back to New Line/Warner Bros. in 2018.

Lawsuit and other projects: 2018–2022
Victor Miller, who wrote the original Friday the 13th screenplay, asserted that Horror Inc. derived its current copyright to the screenplay from Miller's transfer of copyright to Horror Inc.'s predecessor-in-interest, the Manny Company. Miller sent a Notice of Termination to Horror Inc. on January 26, 2016, purportedly reclaiming his rights to the screenplay and the content contained therein through termination of the transfer of rights he had formerly made to the Manny Company.

Original film producer Sean S. Cunningham claims that Miller wrote the screenplay for Friday the 13th as a work-made-for-hire for the Manny Company. Under copyright law, an employer is considered the statutory author and copyright holder if a work is made in the employee's scope of employment. If, as Cunningham contends, Miller wrote the screenplay as the Manny Company's employee, he never held a copyright to the screenplay to transfer or reclaim. A lawsuit seeking the parties' declaration of rights was filed in a federal court in Connecticut. On September 28, 2018, Miller won the rights against Cunningham. Cunningham appealed, the appeal was withdrawn due to technical reasons, and then reinstated by the deadline of April 12 following year. On September 30, 2021, Miller won the domestic rights for the lawsuit.

In October 2018, LeBron James and his production company SpringHill Entertainment (alongside Vertigo Entertainment) were in talks to co-produce the next film. A month later, screenwriter Clint Ford started writing a prequel screenplay for the franchise titled Friday the 13th: The Beginning. In July 2019, Tom McLoughlin, writer and director of Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives, revealed that he authored a speculative script for a sequel film titled Jason Never Dies. McLoughlin confirmed the film would have served as a direct sequel to Jason Lives, ignoring the other films in the franchise. In 2022, McLoughlin also wrote another film with co-writer James Sweet which was a prequel to the 1980 film titled Diary of Pamela Voorhees.

Future

Television series prequel
On October 31, 2022, a Friday the 13th prequel series was announced, titled Crystal Lake.  It will be written and executive produced by Bryan Fuller and Victor Miller, along with executive producers Marc Toberoff and Rob Barsamian. A24 will serve as the studio behind the series and will air on Peacock. In January 2023, Adrienne King was cast in a recurring undisclosed role. She previously portrayed Alice Hardy in the 1980 original film. Writing for the series was slated to begin in late January 2023 with Kevin Williamson writing one episode for season one.

Potential film reboot
In January 2023, writer Jeff Locker said that he alongside Jeremy Weiss and Sean Cunningham pitched a new Friday the 13th reboot, while also having a plan for an alternate direct sequel to the original film.

Literature

Novels

Six of the twelve films have been adapted into novels—Friday the 13th 1 – 3, Jason Lives, Jason X, and Freddy vs. Jason—with Friday the 13th Part 3 being adapted twice. The first novel was Michael Avallone's 1982 adaptation of Friday the 13th Part 3; Avallone had previously adapted Beneath the Planet of the Apes and Shock Corridor. The author chose to use an alternate ending, one that was filmed for Part 3 but never used, as the conclusion for his adaptation. In the alternate ending, Chris, who is in a canoe, hears her boyfriend Rick's voice and immediately runs back to the house. When she opens the door, Jason is standing there with a machete and kills her. The next book was not published until 1986, when Simon Hawke adapted Jason Lives. Hawke would also adapt the first three films into novels, and his adaptation of the original Friday the 13th was published in 1987, with novelizations of Part 2 and 3 both being published in 1988. Hawke's first adaptation, Jason Lives, introduced the character of Elias Voorhees, Jason's father, who was supposed to appear in the film before being cut by the studio. The book explains how Elias has Jason's body buried, instead of the planned cremation, after his death in The Final Chapter.

In 1994, four young adult novels were released under the title of Friday the 13th. These stories focused on different people finding Jason's mask and becoming possessed by his spirit, but the actual character did not appear in the novels. The novels were written by author William Pattinson, under the pen name Eric Morse, and published in 1994. The books are titled Mother's Day, Jason's Curse, The Carnival, and Road Trip. In 2003 and 2005, Black Flame published novelizations of Freddy vs. Jason and Jason X. After the release of the Jason X novel, Black Flame began publishing two series of novels. One set was published under the Jason X title, while the second set used the Friday the 13th moniker. The Jason X series consisted of four sequels to the 2005 adaptation. The first to be published was Jason X: The Experiment, which saw the government attempting to exploit Jason's indestructibility to create an army of "super soldiers". The second novel, Planet of the Beast, follows the efforts of Dr. Bardox and his crew as they try to clone a comatose Jason and stay alive when Jason awakens. Death Moon revolves around Jason crash-landing at Moon Camp Americana, and the final novel, To the Third Power, is about the discovery of a Jason clone underneath a prison.

The Friday the 13th series of novels are not connected to the Jason X series and do not continue any story set forth by the films. Instead, each novel developed the character of Jason in its own way. Friday the 13th: Church of the Divine Psychopath has Jason resurrected by a religious cult. In Friday the 13th: Hell Lake, a recently executed serial killer, Wayne Sanchez, persuades Jason to help him escape back to the real world. In Hate-Kill-Repeat, two religious serial killers attempt to find Jason at Crystal Lake, believing that the three of them share the same contempt for those that break the moral code. The Jason Strain places Jason on an island with a group of death row convicts—placed there by television executives running a reality game show—while a scientist attempts to create an age-retarding "super drug" from Jason's DNA. Instead, she creates a virus that reanimates the dead into zombies. The character of Pamela Voorhees returns from the grave in Carnival of Maniacs, and she searches for Jason, who is now part of a traveling sideshow and about to be auctioned off to the highest bidder.

Comic books
Since New Line Cinema's acquisition of the franchise, several Friday the 13th comic books have been published by Topps Comics, Avatar Press, and DC Comics imprint WildStorm. The first comic book release for the franchise was the 1993 Topps Comics adaptation of Jason Goes to Hell, written by Andy Mangels. The three-issue series was a condensed version of the film with a few added scenes. Topps Comics published another series in 1995, with Nancy A. Collins writing a three-issue, non‑canonical miniseries involving a crossover between Jason and The Texas Chainsaw Massacre's Leatherface - Jason Vs. Leatherface. The story involves Jason stowing away aboard a train and eventually meeting Leatherface. The two initially become friends, with Leatherface adopting Jason into the former's family. After a series of misunderstandings, Jason and Leatherface turn on each other.

On May 13, 2005, New Line first exercised their rights to use the Friday the 13th moniker when they, along with Avatar comics, released an issue of Friday the 13th Special. Written by Brian Pulido and illustrated by Mike Wolfer and Greg Waller, the story takes place after the events of Freddy vs. Jason, where siblings Miles and Laura Upland inherit Camp Crystal Lake. Knowing that Jason caused the recent destruction, Laura, unknown to her brother, sets out to kill Jason with a paramilitary group so that she and her brother can sell the property. The issue pre‑sold more than 17,500 copies. Avatar released a three-issue miniseries titled Friday the 13th: Bloodbath in September 2005. The series was written by Brian Pulido, illustrated by Mike Wolfer and Andrew Dalhouse, and revolves around a group of teenagers who come to Camp Tomorrow, a camp near Crystal Lake, for work and a "party-filled weekend". The teenagers begin to discover that they share common family backgrounds and soon awaken Jason, who proceeds to kill them. Brian Pulido returned for a third time in October 2005 to write another special issue for Avatar, titled Jason X. Picking up after the events of the Jason X film, Jason is now on Earth 2 where a bioengineer, Kristen, attempts to subdue him in hopes that she can use his regenerative tissue to save her own life and the lives of those she loves. In February 2006, Avatar published their final Friday the 13th comic, a two-issue miniseries titled Friday the 13th: Jason vs. Jason X. The series was written and illustrated by Mike Wolfer. The story takes place after the events of the film Jason X, where a salvage team discovers the spaceship Grendel and awakens a regenerated Jason Voorhees. The "original" Jason and Über-Jason, a version of Jason with mechanical limbs, are drawn into a battle to the death. In June 2006, a one-shot comic titled Friday the 13th: Fearbook was released, written by Mike Wolfer with art by Sebastian Fiumara. In the comic, Jason is captured and experimented upon by the Trent Organization. Jason escapes and seeks out Violet, the survivor of Friday the 13th: Bloodbath, whom the Trent Organization is holding in their Crystal Lake headquarters.

In December 2006, WildStorm began publishing Friday the 13th comics, beginning with a six-issue miniseries that involves Jason's return to Crystal Lake, a lone survivor's tale of the murder of her friends by a monster, a new revelation about the evil surrounding Crystal Lake, and the truth of what Jason embodies. The miniseries pre‑sold approximately 60,318 copies altogether, with each issue pre‑selling 15,800, 9,600, 8,964, 8,637, 8,715, and 8,602 copies, respectively. The trade paperback of the series, released in September 2007, contained a foreword by musician Andrew W.K. On July 11 and August 15, 2007, WildStorm published a two-part special titled Friday the 13th: Pamela's Tale. The two-issue comic book covers Pamela Voorhees' journey to Camp Crystal Lake and the story of her pregnancy with Jason as she recounts it to hitchhiker Annie, a camp counselor who is killed in the original film. The miniseries pre‑sold a combined 16,051 copies.

WildStorm released another comic book special, titled Friday the 13th: How I Spent My Summer Vacation, consisting of two issues that were released on September 12 and October 10, 2007. The comic book provides insight into the psychology of Jason Voorhees as he befriends a boy born with a skull deformity. The first issue of How I Spent My Summer Vacation pre‑sold approximately 7,837 copies. WildStorm released a six-issue sequel to Freddy vs. Jason, titled Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash, starring the two aforementioned killers and Ash from the Evil Dead film series. The story focuses on Freddy using the Necronomicon, which is in the basement of the Voorhees home, to escape from Jason's subconscious and "gain powers unlike anything he's had before". Freddy attempts to use Jason to retrieve the book, but Ash, who is working at the local S‑Mart in Crystal Lake, learns of the book's existence and sets out to destroy it once and for all. The story, by Jeff Katz, was a sequel to the Freddy vs. Jason film in development before the former film had been theatrically released. After meeting with executives, the negotiations ended and the story was shelved. Following the success of Freddy vs. Jason, the idea of including Ash was brought up again, but New Line ultimately decided they would put the story in comic book form and bring in James Kuhoric to write and Jason Craig to do the artwork. On January 9 and February 13, 2008, WildStorm released another two-issue miniseries, titled Friday the 13th: Bad Land, which was written and illustrated by Ron Marz and Mike Huddleston, respectively. The series explores the history of Crystal Lake before Pamela and Jason Voorhees arrived. Bad Land takes place in two time frames, the "present day" and 250 years before "present day". It follows three hikers in the present and three fur trappers in the past, each of whom is snowed in by a blizzard at Crystal Lake. Each group experiences similar events, suggesting that there is a connection between the two groups. A one-shot comic, titled Friday the 13th: Abuser and the Abused, written by Joshua Hale Fialkov with artwork by Andy B., was released on April 30, 2008. The story involves a teenager named Maggie tricking her abusive boyfriend into travelling to Crystal Lake, where she plans to murder him, but she encounters Jason shortly after arriving at the camp. On June 24, 2009, the six-issue sequel to Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash, subtitled The Nightmare Warriors, began. Written by Katz and James Kuhoric, and illustrated by Jason Craig, the miniseries has Ash and survivors of both Freddy and Jason banding together to defeat the two after Freddy is released from the world of the Deadites by government operatives who had discovered the Necronomicon.

Other media

Video games
In May 1986, Domark released Friday the 13th: The Computer Game for the Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, and ZX Spectrum. The plot involved the player picking a "sanctuary" and attempting to persuade others to hide there. Jason is "disguised as a friend" until he decides to attack the player. Three years later, LJN published a game for the Nintendo Entertainment System. In 2007, Xendex released their own Friday the 13th game for mobile phones. In the game, the player plays as one of the counselors at Camp Crystal Lake. While the staff is preparing the camp for its first summer weekend, an "unknown stalker" begins murdering each of them. The player must discover the truth and escape the camp alive.

Electronic Gaming Monthly announced in January 2015 that a new survival horror, multi-platform "asymmetrical, co-operative and competitive multiplayer predator/prey horror experience" is in development, with a tentative release date of October 2015. This game was originally titled Slasher Vol. 1: Summer Camp, in which it was originally developed by IllFonic, but Gun Media joined and helped develop, in which they will publish the game. The game was raised through BackerKit and Kickstarter, with BackerKit collecting US$271,439.20 from 16,109 backers and Kickstarter collecting US$823,704.20 from 12,128 backers, collecting a total of US$1,095,143.40 from an overall 28,237 backers, with a confirmed title of Friday the 13th: The Game. A developer panel for Gun Media and IllFonic was opened at PAX South 2016 in January with alpha footage and a list of kill animations. A mobile game available on iOS, Android and Steam, Friday the 13th: Killer Puzzle, was released on January 20, 2018. It has also been released on the Xbox One and PlayStation 4.

Television
On September 28, 1987, Paramount began airing Friday the 13th: The Series, a television series that focuses on two cousins' attempts to recover cursed antiques that were sold from a shop they inherited from their uncle. The show starred John D. LeMay as Ryan Dallion and Louise Robey as Michelle Foster. It was created by Frank Mancuso Jr. and Larry B. Williams originally under the title of The 13th Hour, and the series ran for 72 episodes. Mancuso Jr. never intended to link the television show directly to the film series, but he utilized "the idea of Friday the 13th, which is that it symbolizes bad luck and curses". The creators wanted to tie‑in Jason's trademark hockey mask to the series, but the idea was discarded so that the show could have a chance to exist on its own. Mancuso Jr. was afraid that mentioning any events from the films would take the audience away from "the new world that we were trying to create". The decision to name the show Friday the 13th over the original title was made because Mancuso Jr. believed a "Friday the 13th" moniker would better help to sell the show to networks. Filming took place in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Friday the 13th: The Series initially aired in first-run syndication in a late-night spot; the success of the series as a late-night show prompted some broadcasting stations to move it to primetime. Produced on a budget estimated below $500,000 per episode, the first season placed second in the male 18- to 49-year-old demographic, just behind Paramount's Star Trek: The Next Generation. In addition, the first season placed fifth in the female 18- to 49-year-old demographic.

In September 2003, during a panel session at the Maniafest convention, Sean S. Cunningham spoke about the possibility of bringing Friday the 13th to television, with the series focusing on a group of teenagers living in the Crystal Lake area. In October 2005, Cunningham discussed the potential series further. He explained that the idea was to call the series Crystal Lake Chronicles, and "set [it] in a town with all this Jason history". The series would focus more on "coming-of-age issues", in a similar style to Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Dawson's Creek, and Smallville, with Jason as more of a recurring "background" character.

In April 2014, Emmett/Furla/Oasis Films and Crystal Lake Entertainment planned to produce an hour-long Friday the 13th television series. The series was intended to focus on a group of characters at Crystal Lake, who have to deal with the return of Jason Voorhees, as well as discover new information about him and his family. The series was being developed by The CW as of August 2015. Steve Mitchell and Craig Van Sickle were hired to write the plot, while Sean S. Cunningham, Randall Emmett, George Furla and Mark Canton were to be the executive producers, but one year later the network decided to not move forward with the series. The CW president Mark Pedowitz explained: "We had better pilots. The bottom line is we felt we had stronger things to go with, and we didn't go forward with it. It was well-written, it was darker than we wanted it to be, and we didn't believe it had sustainability... We didn't believe that it was a sustainable script, a sustainable series. It was a very good pilot, but not a sustainable series".

Merchandise
In addition to the films, television series, and various literature based on the Friday the 13th franchise, there are over 100 licensed products that have grossed more than $125 million in revenue. Over the years, the characters of Friday the 13th have been marketed under various toy lines. In 1988, Screamin' Toys produced a model kit of Jason Voorhees. Six years later, Screamin' Toys issued a second model kit based on Jason's appearance in Jason Goes to Hell. Both kits are no longer in production. In 1998, as part of McFarlane Toys' Movie Maniacs 1 collection, a figure of Jason from Jason Goes to Hell was released. Jason was one of the three most popular figures sold from the Movie Maniacs 1 collection, and the other two were Freddy Krueger and Leatherface. The following year,  scale models of Jason and Freddy in a glass display case were released by MacFarlane Toys. In 2002, as part of its Movie Maniacs 5 collection, McFarlane released a model of Über-Jason from Jason X. McFarlane did not release another Friday the 13th collectable until November 2006, when a 3-dimensional movie poster was released. Since 2002, there has been a steady production of action figures, dolls, and statuettes, with more merchandise tying into the film Freddy vs. Jason.

Apart from video games and toys, the series has also seen the release of its films' soundtracks. In 1982, Gramavision Records released an LP album of selected pieces of Harry Manfredini's scores from the first three films. On September 27, 2005, BSX Records released a limited edition CD of Fred Mollin's scores. On January 13, 2012, La-La Land Records released a limited edition 6-CD boxset containing Manfredini's scores from the first six films. Beginning with Jason Goes to Hell, each film in the series has had their musical score and soundtrack released for sale.

Non-fiction works

Books

There have been two books released chronicling the making of the Friday the 13th films and one about making Friday the 13th: The Series - Curious Goods: Behind the Scenes of Friday the 13th: The Series. In February 2005, FAB Press published their book containing interviews with the cast and crew of the Friday the 13th series of films. David Grove, a film journalist who has written for Fangoria, Cinefantastique, and various other British magazines detailing the creation of the Friday the 13th films, wrote the comprehensive book, Making Friday the 13th: The Legend of Camp Blood. Grove interviewed over 100 "key personnel involved in making the films" to collect "detailed production histories of each of the 11 films", not including interviews with other film professionals like Wes Craven. Grove's book also includes previously unseen production photos which were acquired from private collections.

Eight months after the release of Grove's book, Titan Books, in association with Sparkplug Press, released a detailed history on the Friday the 13th series. Peter M. Bracke released Crystal Lake Memories: The Complete History of Friday the 13th on October 24, 2005. The book chronicles the creation of the series up to the release of Freddy vs. Jason. Bracke spent three years researching the series and collecting more than 200 interviews from the cast and crew of each of the films. Bracke's extensive work for the book prompted Sean S. Cunningham to provide a foreword. Crystal Lake Memories also includes images, storyboards, concept art, and publicity material that had not been released to the public. A private party was held on October 22 at Universal Studios CityWalk Hollywood for the book's premiere.

Documentaries
A documentary film, titled His Name Was Jason: 30 Years of Friday the 13th, was released in February 2009. This film was directed by Daniel Farrands, who had also written the film Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers as well as a documentary on The Amityville Horror. The film was broadcast on the Starz television channel during the first week of February, and afterwards it was released on DVD on February 3, 2009. The documentary is hosted by special make‑up effects artist Tom Savini, who interviews the cast and crew members of each of the Friday the 13th films, asking them questions on the choices they made during filming. It also features interviews with journalists and other filmmakers who offer their opinion of the series.

In September 2013, Farrands wrote and directed a second documentary film on the Friday franchise, Crystal Lake Memories: The Complete History of Friday the 13th, this time directly inspired by Bracke's book of the same name. This documentary discusses each of the twelve films, from the original to the 2009 reboot, as well as the television series. It is narrated by Corey Feldman, and also features interviews with key individuals in the franchise's history. Farrands has suggested that his work on the well-received 2010 film, Never Sleep Again: The Elm Street Legacy, which documented the making of the Nightmare on Elm Street series, demonstrated the possibility for a documentary film that was more in depth and more comprehensive than his previous effort, His Name Was Jason. In making such a film, Farrands turned to Bracke's book, which he had also worked on, and drew from its structure and content. It grossed $591,835 in home sales.

References

External links

Databases
 Friday the 13th film series at Allmovie
 Friday the 13th film series at Box Office Mojo

Miscellaneous
 Fridaythe13thfilms.com
 Interview with Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti —writers of Windstorm's six-issue Friday the 13th comic
 Bloody Disgusting - "13 days of Friday the 13th"—a series of articles exploring the series
 Q&A with Ronnie Hobbs and Randy Greenback, developers of Friday the 13th: The Game

Horror film franchises
Zombies and revenants in popular culture
American film series
Films adapted into comics
Films adapted into television shows
Film series introduced in 1980
Mass murder in fiction
Mass media franchises introduced in 1980
Paramount Pictures franchises
Warner Bros. Pictures franchises
New Line Cinema franchises

Friday the 13th (franchise)


Calendars are commonly based on the rotation of celestial bodies, such as the sun or the moon. These calendars periodically add a certain time unit, to make the calendar follow the rotation more closely, which is known as intercalation. As an example, the solar year is about 365,25 days long. The Gregorian calendar says that the year has 365 days, but that roughly every four years, an extra day is added.

Another example is the Jewish calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar. In addition to the 365,25 days of the solar year, there are the 29.5 days in a lunar month. This gives the problem that the year does not have twelve months, but about 12.4 months. The calendar solves this problem by adding an extra month in certain cases.

Calendars

Intercalation (timekeeping)


Colm Patrick Condon (16 July 1921 – 9 August 2008) was an Irish barrister who served as Attorney General of Ireland from 1965 to 1973.

Condon served in office as Attorney General of Ireland during the beginning of the Troubles in Northern Ireland in the late 1960s.

He was born in Ashbourne, County Meath, the third child of Thomas Condon, an accountant and Irish Republican Army (IRA) activist, who had taken part in the 1916 Easter Rising. His mother was Margaret McGuire, a teacher in Ashbourne. Thomas Condon was also briefly a Senator representing the Fianna Fáil party as well as having been a member of Meath County Council.

Condon was educated at Terenure College in Dublin and subsequently at University College Dublin. He practised cases including those involving defamation and personal injury.

Condon was called to the Bar in 1944, and became a senior counsel in 1959. He was appointed as Attorney General of Ireland, serving under Taoiseach Seán Lemass. He remained in office under Lemass's successor, Jack Lynch. He argued on behalf of the State during the 1970 Arms Trial which involved future Taoiseach Charles Haughey.

In 1972, he helped draft legislation that set up the Special Criminal Court.

In 1997, Condon appeared before the Moriarty Tribunal in which he sided with Haughey challenging the powers of the tribunal.

Condon was married twice. He had two sons Colm and Eoin, and two daughters, Stephanie and Carolyn by his first marriage.

References

1921 births
2008 deaths
Attorneys General of Ireland
Irish barristers
Lawyers from County Meath
20th-century Irish lawyers
21st-century Irish lawyers
People from Ashbourne, County Meath

Colm Condon


The Araliaceae are a family of flowering plants, also known as the Aralia family (after its type genus Aralia) or ivy family. The family includes 254 species of trees, shrubs, lianas and perennial herbaceous plants in two subfamilies. Species usually bear pinnately or palmately compound leaves, and usually have small flowers produced in large panicles.

Araliaceae


The standard state is a common way for measuring properties of chemicals. Standard state normally is room temperature (25°C) and normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi). Normally when no temperature or pressure is given, standard state is implied. If an article says "bromine is a liquid" it means bromine is a liquid in the standard state.

Chemistry

Standard state


Bonded labour or debt bondage (or debt slavery) is a term used to refer to a situation where someone (a debtor) has to work for the person who lent him money. Generally, the conditions of this form of forced labour are close to slavery. Bonded labour is one of the most common forms of modern-day slavery-like conditions. Usually, the person working gets paid very little money in return for very hard work. Very often, the exact amount to be re-paid is not defined clearly. The person doing the bonded labour will never be able to pay off the debt through work.

A regular work contract usually gives rights to the person being employed, and the amount of work. In a normal working contract, difficult, dangerous or exhausting work will usually get paid better. This is not the case with debt bondage.

Debt bondage is banned by the Convention of United Nation on slavery in 1956.

References

Related pages
 Child labour
 Slavery
 Indentured servant

Modern-day slavery
Poverty
Money
Debt bondage

Debt bondage


The sulfur cycle is the way sulfur moves between rocks, waterways and living systems.

Sulfur (S) is an element important to ecosystems and the climate. The majority of sulfur is stored underground, for example under the ocean or in rocks. It also occurs naturally in places like swamps (where organisms have decomposed) and volcanoes. Humans add excess sulfur into this cycle, usually through atmospheric pollution caused by fossil fuel combustion.

Steps of the sulfur cycle
As rocks are worn down by erosion they release sulfur that was once stored, becoming SO4 once it touches the air
Plants absorb this sulfur through photosynthesis and make this sulfur organic
Animals, specifically herbivores and omnivores consume the sulfur when they eat the plants
Sulfur moves through the food chain as secondary consumers and tertiary consumers eat the primary consumers
When animals and plants die, the sulfur dissipates into the atmosphere as sulfate and also through the body of the decomposers
The sulfur in the atmosphere is returned to the soil and water cycle when it rains
Sulfur can also be naturally released when volcanoes explode. The hydrological cycle plays a critical role in moving sulfur around.

Human Impact on the sulfur cycle
Humans are responsible for 1/3 of the sulfur in the atmosphere. Sulfur is released by the combustion of fossil fuels, as mentioned above, and is most prevalent as sulfur dioxide. Sulfur is one of the root causes of acid rain along with nitrogen and carbon which negatively affects the environment. Acid rain is created when the H2O falls and combines with the Sulfur trioxide to create Sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid is also used in most fertilizers and so can be introduced into the water cycle from runoff off of nearby farms into rivers and lakes. This causes eutrophication and algal blooms, and so reduced the Dissolved oxygen and biodiversity in that water system. Sulfur in the atmosphere as sulfur dioxide also absorbs radiation, however which keeps the earth's surface cooler and combats some of the effects of global warming.

Biochemistry

Sulfur cycle


Televisions with plasma display panel (PDP) are much thinner than cathode ray tubes and are usually higher definition. Only a few televisions use a PDP.

Plasma screens are made of two sheets of glass with two gases stored between the sheets. The gases are xenon and neon and they fill thousands of tiny chambers, or spaces. Behind each space are a series of red, blue and green phosphors that give off light when struck by radiation. When electricity connects to the plasma chambers the colored phosphors produce the right color on your screen. They work in a very similar way to fluorescent lamps used for lighting.

Plasma screens have been in use since 1964 but only two colors could be produced then. Now we have high definition Plasma screens up to 150 inches in size. In the early 21st century fewer plasma screens were made as people bought more liquid crystal displays.

Advantages

Plasma TVs have more pixels (tiny dots that when put together can create an image on a picture) per inch than the old fashioned cathode ray tube (CRT) screens so they can produce a much sharper image. In the old style of CRT screens the pictures were made up of lines. If you look closely at a Plasma screen you will not see any lines. You will find out that most Plasma screens have a wide screen option so you can see movies in the way they were intended for movie theaters. They are also ideal for the latest digital broadcasting methods.

One of the big advantages is the space saving. The problem with old cathode ray tubes is that they needed a lot of space so that the rays can fire upon all areas of the screen. The wider the screen, the larger the volume of the television would be. The average Plasma television is around 6 to 8 inches deep. Moving your Plasma onto the wall can really increase the amount of floor space and they can be looked at from almost any point in the room (usually 180 degrees)

Plasma screens are also very light especially when compared to a rear projection TV. A 40-inch Plasma TV will weigh from  and provided you purchase a suitable bracket (that can hold the TV up to the wall) they can be hung very easily to a suitable wall.  When fixing to the wall you need to make sure you choose a bracket which s strong enough.  Most brackets can be tilted if you want to view from a different angle.

Plasma TVs can display up to 16 million colors so not only are they great for watching TV programs, they also make a good screen for the latest computer games consoles. Most Plasma TV's have inputs for HDMI and laptop computers connections making them ideal to use to display products and sales messages in offices and shops.

You will also find out that they are very easy to watch even on a sunny day or a very bright room. Unlike the old CRT screens they are not hard to see in bright areas.

Disadvantages
Because of the phosphor technology in Plasma TVs, it is possible for traces of an image to be 'burned-in' to the display, meaning you might see little traces of it even while watching other images.  This is a concern in commercial uses, where images are shown for long periods of time.  Burn-in can generally be avoided by making sure the screen does not show the same image for a long time (sometimes as little as 20 minutes), either by turning the television off, or changing the channel.

Though Plasma TVs are much brighter than rear-projection TVs, direct view and LCD TVs are often brighter still. Latest generation Plasma TVs have improved on brightness, but a warning is do not view where it is too bright or sunny.

Although Plasma TVs are much lighter and thinner than direct view and rear projection TVs, an LCD TV can be even more light and slim. LCD TVs use the same technology as used in most laptop computers.  Plasma TVs are available in larger sizes that LCD TVs.  Plasma screen TVs cost more than CRTs and LCDs.

How Long Do They Last?

Compared to other television technologies, Plasma TVs have a shorter life span. Most Plasma TVs have a life span of 20,000-30,000 hours based on maker's estimates. This life span is commonly referred to as the Plasma TV half-life, as it is the number of hours over which the Plasma TV will lose approximately half of its brightness.

Plasma TVs break easily, and the parts are quite easy to damage.  They should only be moved carefully.

As technology has been made better, Plasma screens have a much longer life and you should expect 30,000 hours of use. In other words, your television would need to be on for 16 hours a day, every day for the next 5 years. By the time your TV needs replacing higher definition models will have become available.

Worth the money?

The first Plasma televisions for home use were expensive, as much as US$5000 for a basic small model. As the technology improved and production increased, prices became smaller.  In the 21st century some 37-inch models sold for $1000 or even less.  Buying a CRT television became rare as LCD became the usual kind.

Sources
 http://www.howstuffworks.com/plasma-display.htm -Retrieved on 12 July 2009
 http://www.cheap-plasma-tv.com/disadvantages-of-plasma-tv.htm  -Retrieved on 12 July 2009

Display technology
Television technology

Plasma display


The John Brown Anti-Klan Committee (JBAKC) was an anti-racist organization based in the United States. The group protested against the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and other white supremacist organizations and published anti-racist literature. Members of the JBAKC were involved in a string of bombings of military, government, and corporate targets in the 1980s. The JBAKC viewed themselves as anti-imperialists and considered African Americans, Native Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Mexicans to be oppressed colonial peoples.

The JBAKC was started in 1978 by a group of white anti-racist activists with ties to the Weather Underground. They named the organization after abolitionist John Brown, who advocated and engaged in violence as a means to end slavery in the U.S. According to founding member Lisa Roth, the event that triggered the formation of the group was the discovery that the KKK was actively organizing in New York State prisons. The JBAKC soon had chapters in several states, but was most active in New York City, Chicago, and San Francisco. The group promoted itself by distributing fliers at punk rock concerts, and was supported by benefit concerts from punk bands like the Dead Kennedys, The Contractions, and Dirty Rotten Imbeciles.

The JBAKC shared members with several other radical groups active at the time, and some have claimed that it was a front organization for the May 19th Communist Movement.

Publications

In 1980, the John Brown Anti-Klan Committee distributed a pamphlet entitled "Take a Stand Against the Klan", which outlined the group's "Principles of Unity":
Fight White Supremacy in All Its Forms! Death to the Klan! Support the Struggle of the Black Nation for Self-Determination! Support the Struggle to Free the Land!
Follow Black and Other Third World Leadership
Support the Struggle of Third World People for Human Rights! Oppose White Supremacist Attacks!

The John Brown Anti-Klan Committee published a quarterly national newsletter, originally called Death to the Klan, and later renamed No KKK, No Fascist USA!. The paper had a circulation of 10,000 and focused on issues such as the racist nature of tracking in schools, homophobia, and political prisoners. The New York chapter also published a local newsletter called Up South. In 1991 the JBAKC released a video about fascism and anti-fascism in the US entitled Behind the Burning Cross: Racism USA.

Protests

The JBAKC directly confronted white supremacists when they held rallies, and the confrontations sometimes became violent. In 1983 the group worked with the Brown Berets to disrupt a KKK march in Austin, Texas. The protesters hurled rocks and bottles at the marchers, and the ensuing fights resulted in 12 injured people and 11 arrests. The Austin police chief blamed the violence on the JBAKC and Brown Berets, but one police officer was found to have used excessive force in the arrest of a Brown Beret member. Later that year, three members were arrested for participating in a riot outside an Arlington, Virginia high school, where neo-Nazis held a demonstration to mark "White Pride Day".

When a group of KKK members protested at a Gay Pride Parade in Chicago in 1986, they were met by counter-demonstrators from JBAKC and another anti-racist group. A crowd of around 2,500 Klan supporters chased the anti-Klan groups, leading to 17 arrests and minor injuries to eight police officers.

In addition to confronting white supremacists, the John Brown Anti-Klan Committee also took a stand against what they saw as police brutality. In 1983, 20 members of the Los Angeles chapter demonstrated outside the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department to protest the shooting of a five-year-old black boy by a white police officer from the Stanton Police Department. The protesters passed out a pamphlet headlined "Stop Killer Cops!" and claimed that the officer overreacted because he felt threatened being in a black community. A police spokesperson claimed that the child had waved a realistic toy gun at the officer.

As part of their effort to challenge white supremacy, the group worked to clean up antisemitic and racist graffiti in the Lincoln Park neighborhood of Chicago. The swastikas and similar graffiti were spray-painted on the 40th anniversary of Kristallnacht, when Jewish-owned businesses across Germany were vandalized. The vandalism was attributed to William G. Leinberger, a member of the neo-Nazi group Chicago Area Skin Heads.

Despite their work opposing certain forms of antisemitism, not all Jewish groups supported the John Brown Anti-Klan Committee. At two California anti-Klan rallies, the JBAKC were confronted by protesters from the Jewish Defense League (JDL), who accused the group of antisemitism for their strong positions against Zionism. JDL spokesman Irv Rubin said of the Committee, "They hate Israel with a passion". The Anti-Defamation League also criticized the JBAKC, claiming that the organization "actually promotes racism and advocates organized violence." The JBAKC, for its part, referred to Zionism as "the enshrinement of white supremacy," accused Zionists of "work[ing] with the Klan and other white supremacist groups," and asserted that there was no inherent opposition between "Zionism and Nazism."

Bombings
Between 1982 and 1984 a group of radical activists planted a string of bombs at military, government, and corporate targets along the East Coast to protest apartheid in South Africa and what they saw as American aggression in Central America, Grenada and Lebanon. The activists used a variety of names, such as the Armed Resistance Unit, Guerrilla Resistance, United Freedom Front, and the Revolutionary Fighting Group, but the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) believed that a single group was responsible. While the John Brown Anti-Klan Committee never claimed responsibility for the bombings, three members of the group were later convicted for their participation in them. Laura Whitehorn and Marilyn Buck served long prison sentences for related crimes, and Linda Evans was released in 2001 when President Bill Clinton commuted her 40-year sentence after she had served 16 years. Five members of the JBAKC and one member of the New Movement in Solidarity with Puerto Rican Independence and Socialism were found in contempt of court for refusing to testify before a grand jury regarding the bombs planted at the U.S. Capitol and two military targets during the bombing campaign.

Footnotes

Anti-fascist organizations in the United States
Anti-racist organizations in the United States
Anti-Zionist organizations
Anti-Zionism in the United States
Politics and race in the United States
Far-left politics in the United States
Left-wing militant groups in the United States
Terrorism in the United States
Organizations established in 1978
Police brutality in the United States
1978 establishments in the United States

John Brown Anti-Klan Committee


Danish Architecture Center (Danish: Dansk Arkitektur Center), (DAC), is Denmark's national center for the development and dissemination of knowledge about architecture, building and urban development.

DAC's objective and legitimacy consist in promoting co-operation across the professional boundaries of the construction sector and architecture so that the players, working together, are able to contribute to the forward-looking development of architecture and construction specifically and Danish society in general.

The DAC's core funding is provided by a public-private partnership between Realdania and the Danish government. The government is represented by: the Ministry of Business Denmark and the Ministry of Culture Denmark.

History
DAC was founded in 1985 through a collaboration between the Danish Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Economic and Business Affairs and the Realdania foundation.

See also
 Architecture of Denmark

References

External links

 Official website

Museums in Copenhagen
Architecture museums
Organizations based in Copenhagen

Danish Architecture Centre