Agatha Christie's Marple (or simply Marple) is a British ITV television programme loosely based on the books and short stories by British crime novelist Agatha Christie.  The title character was played by Geraldine McEwan from the first to the third series, until her retirement from the role, and by Julia McKenzie from the fourth series onwards. Unlike the counterpart TV series Agatha Christie's Poirot, the show took many liberties with Christie's works, most notably adding Miss Marple's character to the adaptations of novels in which she never appeared. Following the conclusion of the sixth series, the BBC acquired the rights for the production of Agatha Christie adaptations, suggesting that ITV would be unable to make a seventh series of Marple.

Overview
Each series consists of four feature-length episodes, except series six which only has three episodes. The first six episodes were all adaptations of Miss Marple novels by Christie. Subsequent episodes were derived both from works featuring Miss Marple and also Christie novels that did not feature the character.  The title of the series removes the word Miss from Miss Marple, to match the title of the Agatha Christie's Poirot series.

Plot outline

Agatha Christie's Marple follows the adventures of Miss Jane Marple, an elderly spinster living in the quiet little village of St. Mary Mead. During her many visits to friends and relatives in other villages (and sometimes when simply being at home), Miss Marple often stumbles upon or hears about mysterious murders, which she helps solve. Although the police are sometimes reluctant to accept Miss Marple's help, her reputation and unparalleled powers of observation eventually win them over.

During her adventures, Miss Marple is aided by close friends, relatives, or other allies that she meets, which include Tommy and Tuppence – protagonists of another series of Christie novels.

Recurring characters
The only character to appear in every episode is Miss Marple herself, played by Geraldine McEwan through series 3 and by Julia McKenzie from series 4 onwards.

A few other characters appear in more than one episode, although they are not always played by the same actor. Exceptions are Joanna Lumley, who plays Mrs Dolly Bantry in The Body in the Library and The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side, and Stephen Churchett, who appears as the coroner in four episodes.

Dr Haydock appears in three episodes, but is played by three actors: Robin Soans in The Body in the Library, Robert Powell in The Murder at the Vicarage and Neil Stuke in The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side. Jason Rafiel, an old friend of Marple's, was voiced by Herbert Lom (who also made an on-screen appearance as Mr Dufosse in The Murder at the Vicarage) in Nemesis and played by Antony Sher in A Caribbean Mystery.

The series also featured real-life characters: Winston Churchill appeared in The Sittaford Mystery, Noël Coward in 4.50 from Paddington, Louis Armstrong in At Bertram's Hotel, and Ian Fleming and James Bond in A Caribbean Mystery.

Adaptations and changes from novels
Christie's twelve novels featuring Miss Marple were all adapted for the series. The Murder at the Vicarage, The Body in the Library, 4.50 from Paddington, and A Murder is Announced in Series 1, Sleeping Murder and The Moving Finger in Series 2, At Bertram's Hotel and Nemesis in Series 3, A Pocket Full of Rye and They Do It with Mirrors in Series 4, The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side in Series 5 and A Caribbean Mystery in Series 6.

In addition, several short stories featuring Miss Marple were adapted into full-length episodes across the series. The Blue Geranium in Series 5, elements of The Herb of Death were incorporated into the adaptation of The Secret of Chimneys in Series 5, while Greenshaw's Folly and The Thumb Mark of St. Peter were combined into one story for Series 6.

Across the twenty-three adaptations, many changes have been made from the source material.

The Body in the Library introduces a lesbian affair and changes the identity of one of the killers.
The Murder at the Vicarage removes or changes some minor characters and manufactures Miss Marple's early life.
4.50 from Paddington removes one character's death and simplifies the killer's motive.
A Murder Is Announced changes some of the characters and makes an implied lesbian relationship an explicit one.
Sleeping Murder changes the killer's motive, some characters backstory, inserts a central romantic relationship, and sideplot involving a travelling band of singers.
The Moving Finger changes the time period and some character backstory, but is largely faithful to the source material.
By the Pricking of My Thumbs inserts Miss Marple into what was originally a Tommy and Tuppence novel, and therefore changes many plot elements, including Tommy and Tuppence's relationship, adding characters, subplots, and changing the time period.
The Sittaford Mystery is very loosely based on the novel (which does not feature Miss Marple) and changes the identity of the killer.
At Bertram's Hotel is only loosely based on the novel, changing many elements of the plot, characters and time period.
Ordeal by Innocence includes significant changes to the characters, adding Marple into the story.
Towards Zero inserts Miss Marple into the story and changes some characters, but is largely true to the original novel.
Nemesis is only loosely based on the novel, and changes characters and setting.
A Pocket Full of Rye is a faithful adaptation of the novel, with only minor changes to the way characters are described.
Murder Is Easy is very loosely based on the novel which does not feature Miss Marple, also changing the murderer's motive.
They Do It with Mirrors combines some characters and adds an arson attack.
Why Didn't They Ask Evans? is only loosely based on the novel, which does not feature Miss Marple, changing the plot and characters.
The Pale Horse is very loosely based on the novel which does not feature Miss Marple.
The Secret of Chimneys is very loosely based on the novel which does not feature Miss Marple, although it uses story elements from The Herb of Death. It also changes the killer's identity.
The Blue Geranium is greatly embellished from the original short story.
The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side keeps closely to the original story.
A Caribbean Mystery keeps closely to the original story, apart from the inclusion of real-life novelist Ian Fleming and ornithologist James Bond.
Greenshaw's Folly combines the short story with elements from The Thumb Mark of St. Peter. The story is embellished, but keeps to the core of the original works.
Endless Night is a faithful adaptation of the novel despite Miss Marple being added, but the story is very similar to The Case of The Caretaker.

Awards and nominations
Geraldine McEwan was nominated for a Satellite Award in 2005 for her role as Miss Marple in Series 1. The first series was also nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in 2005.

Worldwide distribution
Agatha Christie's Marple is aired in the United States on PBS on Mystery!, where it is presented as Agatha Christie's "Miss Marple". The series is broadcast to the whole of Canada on CBC and in French on Radio-Canada. In Australia, Agatha Christie's Marple airs on ABC1.

Marple is also being broadcast on ATV World in Hong Kong, on EBS and MegaTV in South Korea and on CCTV-8 in China. China, however, refused to show The Body in the Library and Murder Is Easy, due to the involvement of a lesbian and an incestuous relationship respectively. Why Didn't They Ask Evans? was extensively edited, due to the involvement of War-period China.

In Norway, the series has been airing on state broadcaster NRK1 as "Miss Marple". In Sweden, Marple airs on TV4, the biggest commercial TV station. In Poland, the series airs on Ale Kino+. In the Czech Republic it is broadcast under the title Slečna Marplová, Czech for "Miss Marple".

In Brazil, the series airs on HBO Brasil. In the Netherlands it is broadcast on BBC First.

DVD releases
The first series of Marple was released in March 2005 in the UK, followed by the second series in July 2006. Series 1 was released in the US (Region 1) in May 2005, followed by the second series in August 2006.

The third series was released in October 2007 in the US, but its UK release was delayed because of ITV's decision to defer airing the final two installments. ITV released the third series on DVD in October 2008, before the broadcast of the final episode, Nemesis in January 2009.

Series 4 was released in the UK in January 2010, before the airing of Why Didn't They Ask Evans? in June 2011. The fourth series was released in Region 1 in August 2009, after the conclusion of the broadcast on PBS Mystery!

Series 5 episodes The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side, The Secret of Chimneys and The Blue Geranium were released in the US (Region 1) in August 2010. The remaining episode of the fifth series, The Pale Horse, was released separately in June 2011, coinciding with its broadcast on PBS Mystery! that year. Series 5 was released in the UK (Region 2) in June 2011.
Series 1 to 5 were released in a 20 DVD box-set as "Agatha Christie's Marple – The Collection" in August 2011 in the UK.

Series 6 was released in the UK (Region 2) on 6 January 2014.
Series 1 to 6 were released in a 22 DVD box-set as "Marple: The Collection" on 13 January 2014.

Location
Marple was filmed in various locations, including London, the villages of Englefield in Berkshire, Chilham in Kent, Turville in Buckinghamshire and Blewbury in Oxfordshire. Windsor Guildhall in Windsor was featured as the fictional Melchester in Murder at the Vicarage. The interior of Highclere Castle was used in 4.50 From Paddington, Knebworth House was used in The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding, 4.50 From Paddington and Greenshaw's Folly. Hatfield House was used as Chimneys in The Secret of Chimneys. Hambleden was used as St. Mary Mead and Dorney Court featured in The Body in the Library as Gossington Hall, home of the Bantrys, and also as the vicarage in "The Moving Finger" Fawley Court in Buckinghamshire was used as Stoneygates in They Do It with Mirrors and The Grotto was used as the exterior of the secret folly in Endless Night. In Why Didn't They Ask Evans?, the Castle Savage scenes were largely filmed at Loseley Park near Guildford. A Caribbean Mystery was filmed in Cape Town, South Africa. The beach scenes were shot at Boulders Beach. Scenes were filmed in Dorchester for Endless Night. The exterior of Marina Gregg's house in The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side were filmed at North Mymms Park. The cemetery in Nemesis was filmed at Waverley Abbey.

Ratings

Series 1

Series 2

Series 3

Series 4

Series 5

Series 6

References

External links

 Agatha Christie's Marple on SonyLIV

2004 British television series debuts
2013 British television series endings
2000s British drama television series
2010s British drama television series
ITV mystery shows
English-language television shows
ITV television dramas
Miss Marple
Period television series
Television shows based on works by Agatha Christie
Television series by ITV Studios
2000s British mystery television series
2010s British mystery television series
British detective television series

Agatha Christie's Marple


Yamato kotoba (kanji: 大和言葉, hiragana: やまとことば) are words that are native to the Japanese language. The word itself is also a native Japanese word, interestingly enough. Yamato kotoba can also be called by its Chinese based name, wago (kanji: 和語, hiragana: わご). It is one of the three main sources of Japanese words, along with kango (kanji: 漢語, hiragana: かんご), or Chinese loanwords, and gairaigo (kanji: 外来語, hiragana: がいらいご), or loanwords borrowed from languages other than Chinese (especially English since the post-WWII era).

Yamato kotoba in Japanese has much in common with native English words in that most of the everyday vocabulary comes from yamato kotoba, while Chinese loanwords words (much like Latin and French loanwords in English) are used for more formal situations (usually writing) and for specialized terms.

How to write yamato kotoba
Usually, words with only one kanji are yamato kotoba, such as katana (kanji: 刀, hiragana: かたな, meaning: sword), sakana (kanji: 魚, hiragana: さかな, meaning: fish), kami (kanji: 紙, hiragana: かみ, meaning: paper), yama (kanji: 山, hiragana: やま, meaning: mountain) te (kanji: 手, hiragana: て, meaning: hand), and oyogu (kanji and hiragana: 泳ぐ, hiragana only: およぐ, meaning: to swim). Most kanji (the Japanese version of Chinese characters) have two different kinds of pronunciation, on'yomi (the pronunciation of the kanji borrowed from Chinese) and kun'yomi (the native pronunciation of Japanese words that use the kanji). Yamato kotoba words use the kanji's kun'yomi.

Since on'yomi came from Chinese monosyllables (words with only one syllable), they themselves are also only one syllable, and like Chinese, they can have a CV or CVC structure. For example, the on'yomi for the following kanji 刀, 魚, 紙, 山, 手, and 泳 are tō, shi, san, shu, and ei. However, kun'yomi can have one or multiple syllables, and those syllables are usually a CV structure, like the examples given above.

Since Japanese uses three different writing systems interchangeably, even yamato kotoba can be written in several different ways. For example, the word sushi can be written entirely in hiragana as すし, entirely in katakana as スシ, in kanji as 鮨 or 鮓, or in ateji (kanji used only to show a word's pronunciation and not its meaning) as 寿司 or 壽司.

Kanji usually show the root meaning of the word. While nouns are usually written only with kanji, they can also be written in kana if they are very common words, like sushi, or if their kanji is not well known, not part of the jōyō kanji (a standard list of 1,945 kanji all Japanese adults are expected to know) or too difficult to remember how to write, like bara, whose kanji is 薔薇, but is usually only written as ばら in hiragana or as バラ in katakana.

Japanese also invented many of its own kanji to name things that could be found in Japan, but not China (usually plants and animals). These are called kokuji (kanji: 国字, hiragana: こくじ) meaning "national characters", or wasei-kanji (kanji: 和製漢字, hiragana: わせいかんじ) meaning "Japanese-made Chinese characters". Kokuji include the names of fish like iwashi (kanji: 鰯, hiragana: いわし, meaning: sardine), tara (kanji: 鱈, hiragana: たら, meaning: codfish), and kisu (kanji: 鱚, hiragana: きす, meaning: sillago), and trees like kashi (kanji: 樫, hiragana: かし, meaning: evergreen oak), sugi (kanji: 椙, hiragana: すぎ, meaning: Japanese cedar), and kaba or momiji (kanji: 椛, hiragana: かば/もみじ, meaning: birch/maple). Most kokuji only have kun'yomi because they are yamato kotoba, but some kanji also have on'yomi, like 働 (on'yomi: dō どう, kun'yomi: hatara(ku) はたら(く), meaning: work), and some have only on'yomi, like 腺 (on'yomi: sen せん, meaning: gland).

Yamato kotoba parts of speech
Other content words like verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are usually written in a combination of kanji and hiragana, where the root of the word is written in kanji and the inflectional morphemes (the parts of the word that don't change the central meaning of the word's root) are written in hiragana. For example, the native Japanes verb meaning "to swim" is oyogu in its plain form, where it is written as 泳ぐ in kanji and hiragana. The kanji 泳 shows the verb's meaning, while ぐ (gu) as in oyo-gu shows that the word is in its plain form. The polite form of "to swim" is oyogimasu, which is written as 泳ぎます in kanji and hiragana. Once again, it has the same kanji, but it ends with different syllables ぎます (gi-ma-su) as in oyo-gimasu to show that the word is in the polite form. Native Japanese adjectives usually end in with the syllable い (-i), like the word hayai (kanji and hiragana: 速い, hiragana only: はやい, meaning: fast), takai (kanji and hiragana: 高い, hiragana only: たかい, meaning: tall, high), and ookii (kanji and hiragana: 大きい, hiragana only: おおきい, meaning: big or large), while native Japanese adverbs are simply adjectives that end in く (-ku) rather than い, like hayaku (kanji and hiragana: 速く, hiragana only: はやく, meaning: quickly).

Nouns based on adjectives end with the syllable さ (-sa), as in hayasa (kanji and hiragana: 速さ, hiragana only: はやさ, meaning: speed), takasa (kanji and hiragana: 高さ, hiragana only: たかさ, meaning: height), and ookisa (kanji and hiragana: 大きさ, hiragana only: おおきさ, meaning: size/largeness).

Sometimes, native Japanese nouns can be written with multiple kanji. These are usually proper nouns like family names or place names. Japanese family names are usually yamato kotoba, like Tanaka (kanji: 田中, hiragana: たなか), Yamamoto (kanji: 山本, hiragana: やまもと), and Kobayashi (kanji: 小林, hiragana: こばやし). Most Japanese place names are also yamoto kotoba, like Ōsaka (kanji: 大阪, hiragana: おおさか), Ehime (kanji: 愛媛, hiragana: えひめ), and Hiroshima (kanji: 広島, hiragana: ひろしま), although there are also plenty of Japanese places with Chinese-based names, like Tōkyō (kanji: 東京, hiragana: とうきょう), Mt. Fuji or Fuji-san (kanji: 富士山, hiragana:ふじさん), and Honshū (kanji: 本州, hiragana: ほんしゅう).

While usually cardinal numbers (numbers for measuring things) in Japanese are based off of Chinese words, most ordinal numbers (numbers for ordering things) and even certain measure words use native Japanese words. The following table has Sino-Japanese numerals (Japanese numbers based on Chinese) on the left and native Japanese numerals on the right.

Japanese language

Yamato kotoba


Allusions in rabbinic literature to the Biblical character Joab, the nephew of King David and commander of his army, contain various expansions, elaborations and inferences beyond what is presented in the text of the Bible itself.

Introduction

Joab appears in the Mishnah as the ideal general. He and David supplemented each other; he would not have succeeded in his wars without David's continuous study of the Torah, and David would not have been able to apply himself to his ideal pursuits without such a reliable general as Joab.

His generosity is indicated by the words "his house in the wilderness" (I Kings 2:34), which are meant that his house was as free as the wilderness, that it was open to everybody to find there food of all kinds, like a wilderness, it was free from robbery. Rabbi Johanan even declared that Joab was not guilty of Abner's death, but that he brought him before the Sanhedrin, which, in the gate of the city (compare Deuteronomy 16:18), condemned Abner for killing Asahel. When Joab had smitten the male children of Edom, David inquired why he had done so; Joab answered, "It is written, 'Thou shalt blot out the males (zachar) of Amalek'" (Deuteronomy 25:19). David retorted, "But it is zecher ("remembrance"), not zachar!" Joab replied that his teacher had made him read zachar.

Joab struggled hard but vainly to dissuade David from numbering the people. Joab made two numberings, a complete and an incomplete one. He intended to render the incomplete numbering; if David became angry, he would give him the complete one. After Joab had fled to the Tabernacle, he was brought before the judges for trial. Declared not guilty of the murder of Abner, as he had only avenged the blood of his brother Asahel, he was condemned for the murder of Amasa; to Joab's defense that Amasa was a traitor because he had failed to execute David's order (compare II Samuel 20:4-5), the judges objected that Amasa, being occupied with the study of the Law, was not bound to execute the king's order. When Benaiah went to execute Joab the latter said: "Let not Solomon condemn me to a double punishment; let him either kill me and take on himself the curses which his father uttered against me [II Samuel 3:29] or let me live and suffer from the curses only."

Solomon took on himself the curses, all of which were fulfilled in his descendants. The Talmudists disagree as to whether Joab left a son or not, as some identify the Joab of Ezra 8:9 with the general of David.

Midrashim
In various midrashim Joab is the subject of a number of hero-tales. Once, hearing David repeat, "Like as a father pitieth his children" (Psalms 103:13), Joab objected that a mother had more pity for her children than a father. David suggested that he should more carefully observe the dispositions of parents toward their children, and to do this, Joab undertook a journey. He arrived at the house of a poor old laborer who had twelve sons and who worked very hard to support his family. In the evening the old man divided the bread which he had won by his day's labor into fourteen equal pieces, for his twelve sons, his wife, and himself. On the following day Joab said to the old man: "You are old and feeble; why do you work for your young sons? Take my advice and sell one of them; and with the money you will be able to live with your family in comfort." The old man rebuked him for such advice and went on to his work; from the mother, however, he succeeded, after meeting many objections, in buying one son for one hundred pieces of gold. In the evening Joab, himself unseen, observed what passed between the father and the mother. The former, having noticed that one of the fourteen pieces of bread remained untouched, asked after his son. His wife at first gave various reasons for his absence, but her husband remained unsatisfied, and she was obliged to tell him the truth. The man took the money, and, having found Joab, demanded the return of his son. As Joab resisted, the man threatened to kill him unless he restored his son to him, which Joab gladly did, and acknowledged that David was right.

Siege of Kinsali

At the head of 12,000 warriors Joab besieged Kinsali, or Ḳinsari, the capital of the Amalekites. After a fruitless siege of six months Joab's men despaired and desired to return to their homes. But Joab, having supplied himself with money, and taking his sword, ordered them to hurl him over the wall from a sling and wait forty days; if at the end of that time they saw blood flowing under the gates they would know that he was alive. His order was executed, and he fell in the yard of a house where lived a widow and her married daughter. Joab was taken and revived by its inmates, meeting their questions by telling them "I am an Amalekite; the Israelites captured me and threw me over the wall; now let me stay with you and I will pay you." At the end of ten days Joab went into one of the 140 streets of the city, entered a smith's shop, and ordered the smith to make a sword like the one which he had, but which was broken. The first two which the smith made Joab shook and broke, but the third one stood the test. Joab asked the blacksmith who should be killed with such a sword, and the answer was "Joab." With the words "Suppose I am Joab" he slew the smith. Then Joab went into the principal street, killed 500 mercenaries whom he met, and returned to the house. In the city it was rumored that Asmodai had killed the mercenaries; when Joab was asked whether he had heard of it he said he had not. Joab paid his hostess for ten more days, and at the end of that time went to the gate of the city, where he slew 1,500 men. This time his hand stuck to the sword, and he returned to the house and asked the young woman for warm water. But she said to him, "You eat and drink in our house and go out to kill our people!" Joab thereupon ran her through with his sword, after which his hand was healed. He then went into the street, killed every one he met on his way to the gates, slew the guard and threw open the gates. The Israelites had seen the blood flowing under the gates and shouted for joy. After ordering them to send for David, Joab climbed onto a tower in order that all might see him, and then saw the twentieth Psalm written on his right foot. Joab slew all the people of the city except the king, whom he left for David himself to kill. Then Joab put the slain king's crown on David's head while his troops were engaged in carrying off the spoils of the city.

Notes

Biblical figures in rabbinic literature

Joab in rabbinic literature


Bob L. Beers (born 1951) is an American politician who was a member of the Nevada Assembly representing District 21 in Clark County, Nevada. Prior to his election in 2006, he was an author involved in graphic arts and illustration.

Originally from Eureka, California, Beers attended Arcata High School and Humboldt State College. He currently resides in Henderson, Nevada with his wife and son.

Political career

Beers was first elected to the Nevada Assembly in November 2006.

It was remarked that he won the Republican primary spending only $153.

As a Republican, he quickly generated controversy when he came to the aid of Nevada's tip-earning workers when Casino Mogul Steve Wynn instituted a program to retain 20% of his dealers' tips in violation of existing Nevada law.

The controversy over Assemblyman Beers' bill, AB357 created an atmosphere that culminated in the first ever dealers union being formed on a strip property. During a hearing on AB357, the vice president of the Las Vegas chapter of the NAACP stated an endorsement supporting Assemblyman Beers continuation as a Nevada legislator.

Other issues Assemblyman Beers took up included the creation of an Armed Services club at McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas. McCarran was the only airport of its size without such a facility. A USO facility was installed through the efforts of Harry Reid's office after Assemblyman Beers created public awareness of the issue.

In 2008 Assemblyman Bob Beers was nominated to be a recipient of the JFK Profiles in Courage Award.

Born March 11, 1951, Beers is a recipient of the Bank of America Award in Art and was the Humboldt-Del Norte champion in the high hurdles in 1969.

In August 2008, Beers lost the 2008 Republican party primary to challenger Jon Ozark. Ozark eventually lost to Ellen Spiegel in the general election by 366 votes.

After leaving office, Bob Beers became a licensed mediator for the Nevada Supreme Court's Foreclosure Mediation Program.

Currently Beers is working as a mediator, consultant and as a published author for the Australian Publisher Writers Exchange Epublishing where he is listed as one of their best-selling authors.

References

External links
http://www.leg.state.nv.us/74th/Legislators/Assembly/Beers.pdf
https://web.archive.org/web/20080102133909/http://www.wynndealers.com/legislation.html
https://web.archive.org/web/20080321111851/http://bobbeers4assembly.com/

1951 births
Living people
Republican Party members of the Nevada Assembly
California State Polytechnic University, Humboldt alumni
People from Henderson, Nevada
People from Eureka, California

Bob Beers (politician, born 1951)


Colonial Heights is a census-designated place (CDP) in Sullivan County, Tennessee, United States. The population was 6,934 at the 2010 census.

It is part of the Kingsport–Bristol (TN)–Bristol (VA) Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is a component of the Johnson City–Kingsport–Bristol, TN-VA Combined Statistical Area – commonly known as the "Tri-Cities" region.

References

Census-designated places in Tennessee
Tri-Cities, Tennessee
Sullivan County, Tennessee

Colonial Heights, Tennessee


The 12th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment in the Union army during the American Civil War.  It was formed on June 14, 1861, in Boston, Massachusetts.  Its original commander was Colonel Fletcher Webster, son of the famed U.S. Senator from Massachusetts, Daniel Webster. The unit was known as the "Webster Regiment" after its first colonel.

Organization and early duty
Col. Webster began recruiting in April 1861 shortly after the attack on Fort Sumter. At that time, most recruits in Massachusetts were used to fill up the ranks in the existing state militia regiments, therefore it was several weeks before Webster had managed to recruit a full regiment. The unit was trained at Fort Warren in Boston harbor.  On July 19, 1861, the regiment was reviewed by Governor John Albion Andrew on Boston Common and presented with its colors.  On July 23, the 12th Massachusetts departed Boston for the war front.

The regimental surgeon was Jedediah Hyde Baxter, son of Congressman Portus Baxter.  J. H. Baxter later served as Surgeon General of the United States Army.

The regiment was first assigned to the Army of the Shenandoah under the command of Major General Nathaniel P. Banks.  Until the spring of 1862, the regiment was employed in uneventful picket duty in the vicinity of Frederick, Maryland. In late February, the 12th Massachusetts, as part of Brigadier General John Abercrombie's brigade, moved into Virginia. On April 18, 1862, while on picket duty along the Rappahannock River the men of the 12th Massachusetts exchanged sporadic fire with Confederates on the other side of the river.  This was the first time the unit was engaged in hostile fire.

At the Battle of Antietam, the regiment lost 67% of its strength, or 224 of 334 men. It was the highest percentage casualty rate of any Union regiment in the battle.

Notable members
 Colonel Fletcher Webster—son of Congressman Daniel Webster.
 Private John Edward Gilman, Company E - 40th Commander-in-Chief of the Grand Army of the Republic, 1910-1911

See also

Massachusetts in the Civil War
List of Massachusetts Civil War units

Notes

References

External links

Units and formations of the Union Army from Massachusetts
Military units and formations disestablished in 1864
Military units and formations established in 1861

12th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment


Beekeeping or apiculture is the farming of honeybees.

Uses
The keeping of bees is usually, and has been in the past, for honey. That is becoming less true. Instead, it is more used for crop pollination and other products. These are wax and propolis.

There is only one queen bee in each hive and she is bigger than the rest. She lays all the eggs, which makes all the other bees in the hive her daughters and sons. However, they do not control the hive.

Types of beekeeping
The largest beekeeping operations are agricultural businesses that are operated for profit. Some people also have small beekeeping operations that they do as a hobby. Urban beekeeping is a growing trend, and some have found that "city bees" are actually healthier than "rural bees" because there are fewer pesticides and greater biodiversity.

Threats
Colony Collapse Disorder is a growing problem, along with mites.

References

Beekeeping


Astra Zarina (August 25, 1929 – August 31, 2008) was an architect and professor in the University of Washington Department of Architecture.  She is best known for her creation of the University of Washington Italian Studies programs and her founding of the UW Rome Center.

Biography
Zarina was born in Riga, Latvia.  She came to the United States with her family after World War II and matriculated at the University of Washington in 1947.  In the UW architecture program, she studied under faculty including Lionel Pries, Wendell Lovett, and Victor Steinbrueck. She completed her B.Arch. in 1953.  After graduation she worked in the office of Paul Hayden Kirk and married architecture classmate Douglas Haner (1930–2011).

Zarina moved to Boston in 1954 and entered the architecture program at MIT;  her husband enrolled at Harvard. At MIT, her thesis focused on retail design in Boston.  Zarina and Haner both graduated in 1955 with M.Arch. degrees and went to work in the office of Minoru Yamasaki outside Detroit.

In 1960, Zarina won the American Academy in Rome Fellowship in Architecture;  she was the first woman to be awarded the Academy's architecture fellowship.  She subsequently won a Fulbright fellowship for study and travel in Italy.  Zarina and Haner subsequently divorced.

Zarina first taught at the University of Washington in a part-time position in the mid-1960s.  In 1970, in coordination with Architecture Department Chair, Professor Thomas Bosworth, Zarina hosted the first program in Rome for architecture students.  Her first students included Steven Holl, Ed Weinstein and John Ullman.  The Rome Program subsequently became a regular offering of the Department.  Zarina was eventually appointed as an Associate Professor and she later became a professor.

In the late 1960s, Zarina, and second husband Anthony Costa Heywood, also an architect, began working on the restoration of the ancient Italian hilltown of Civita di Bagnoregio, located 60 miles north of Rome.

In 1960, Professor Zarina was awarded the American Academy in Rome Fellowship in Architecture, the first in the Academy's history to be awarded to a woman in that field, together with a Fulbright grant for study in Italy.

In 1976, Zarina taught the first summer program on Italian Hilltowns based in Civita di Bagnoregio.

1976 also saw publication of her book, co-authored with Balthazar Korab, on Rome's roofscapes, I tetti di Roma: Le terrazze, le altane, i belvedere.  In 1979, Zarina received the University of Washington Distinguished Teaching Award.

In the early 1980s, working with Gordon Varey, Dean of the College of Architecture and Urban Planning (now College of Built Environments),  Zarina developed the idea for a permanent facility in Rome.  By 1984, the Rome Center was established in the Palazzo Pio, located near the center of Rome.  Zarina was director of the Rome Center until the mid-1990s.  The UW Rome Center continues to house the Architecture in Rome programs, but also hosts programs from many other University of Washington departments and from other American architecture schools.

Zarina retired from teaching about the year 2000.  She lived her last years in Civita, continuing to promote its restoration.  She died there in August 2008.

Awards
 American Academy in Rome Fellowship
 Fulbright fellowship

References

External links
 American Academy in Rome, Society of Fellows
 MIT thesis on DSpace

1929 births
2008 deaths
Architects from Riga
University of Washington College of Built Environments alumni
MIT School of Architecture and Planning alumni
University of Washington faculty
Architects from Seattle
Latvian emigrants to the United States
Latvian World War II refugees
20th-century American architects
American women architects
20th-century American women
American women academics
21st-century American women

Astra Zarina


Nominal identity is the identity in name only as opposed to the individual experience of that identity. The concept is often used in sociology, psychology and linguistics.

Social sciences
Nominal identity is the name to which one identifies, or calls oneself (i.e. general "African American," "Irish," "Straight," "Gay," "Female," "Male"). Whereas virtual identity is the experience of that identity, "The latter is, in a sense, what the name means; this is primarily a matter of its consequences for those who bear it, and can change while the nominal identity remains the same (and vice versa)."

Among those who self-identify as "gay," the term may not confer the same experience for two people or even between various geographical or cultural regions. Similarly, while one may talk about a "chair," "chair" itself can entail many forms, from arm chair to ladder back to even tree stump, if the experience of "chair" is something upon which a person sits.

Pierre Bourdieu uses the term nominal identity in Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste to mean both that which the identity of a subject is named and also where identity is an insignificant measurement or representation of the "perceived reality" of a subject or phenomenon. To further clarify, for Bourdieu nominal identity can often mean "face value" or "appearance." He often mentions the term nominal identity in order to illustrate the idea of a more complex reality, beyond the name, within the studied subject.

Nominal identity in ethnicity
Ethnic identity is a "social identity arising through group formation, individual identification with a group, and interaction between different ethnic groups."

Henry E. Brady and Cynthia S. Kaplan compiled a study called "Categorically Wrong? Nominal versus Graded Measures of Ethnic Identity" that takes a look at ethnicity as a nominal identity. Their study proposed whether or not "the attitudes of members of the group with the more salient identity can be completely explained by its nominal identity while the attitudes of the members of the group with less salient identity require a graded measure of ethnicity."

Brady and Kaplan focused on the country Estonia, where they posited two groups: "Estonians," and one that they call the "Slavs," a collective group of Russians, Ukrainians, or Belarusians. They chose this geographical area in particular because of the "centrality of ethnicity in the politics of transition in the USSR." media usage (such as television, radio, or newspaper, whether it was the Estonia language Republic television or Russian-language media), individuals who identify themselves with another nationality, and the language used at home.

Brady and Kaplan concluded that "ethnicity is not always a nominal characteristic" for these two groups in Estonia. It is only nominal when most salient. "Ethnic identity ... causes individuals within a group to form their attitudes based upon their nominal identity". Individuals may generalize themselves in a certain category such as their nationality, but when it comes down to variables of different degrees in formulating their ethnicity, it is no longer nominal. It is their way of dividing themselves from a generalized name.

Linguistics
Nominal identity in linguistics pertains to the identity of a word or group of words functioning as a noun or an adjective within a sentence's structure. Specifically, it relates to how one can look at a sentence and propose a different understanding of that sentence through the analysis of its identity defined in its lexical construct, such as in the example used by Chris Barker when discussing one of Manfred Krifka's study "Four thousand ships passed through the lock: Object-induced measure functions on events":
"(1) Four thousand ships passed through the lock last year."

On the surface, the proposition suggests that 4,000 distinct ships passed through the lock last year. However, as Krifka points out in his study, one could say that there were fewer than 4,000 distinct ships and that some of those ships passed through the lock more than once. Individuals reading this sentence could argue about the interpretation of this sentence. The outcome could be many interpretations when looking at the sentence more closely and determining what variables were taken into consideration when making this statement.

References

Identity (social science)
Identity (philosophy)
Linguistics
Sociolinguistics

Nominal identity


The Movida viguesa (or Movida gallega) was an important youth cultural movement that took place in Vigo, Spain during the 1980s, coinciding with the Movida Madrileña (the "Golden Age for Spanish Pop"). By the late seventies,  the industrial port city of Vigo suffered high levels of youth unemployment and a massive, industrial reform of the naval sector. Born out of this context, the Movida viguesa was primarily a musical and aesthetic movement: a counterculture centered around nightlife and bars in the historic city center. It challenged the traditional values of the period amidst the general atmosphere of economic crisis as well as political skepticism (resulting from an overall sense of disenchantment during the political transition from Franco's fascist dictatorship to a democracy).

Origins

The movida viguesa was born out of local pubs and bars like Angara and Satchmo. The city boomed with new bands, leading to the rise of music groups like Bar, TrenVigo and Mari Cruz Soriano y los que afinan su piano (later known as Siniestro Total). Heavily influenced by postmodernism, each had with their own distinct style (punk, pop, techno, reggae, ska, funk) with chaotic, comical and irreverent lyrics that reflect the concentrated plurality of voices and opinions.

The movida then spread to other iconic pubs, many of which are still open, such as El Kremlin, El Manco de Lepanto and El Ruralex (now called Vademécum).

Among the more notable bands of this period were Golpes Bajos (a grouped organized by Germán Coppini), Aerolíneas Federales, Os Resentidos (led by Antón Reixa), Semen Up and Ultramarinos Troncoso (the only techno band in Vigo during this period). They enjoyed incredible success, but only Siniestro Total is still active today, achieving international success.

Video art was a particularly significant medium of the time. Director Xavier Villaverde produced one of the most recognizable music videos of the Movida viguesa: "Galicia Caníbal" by Os Resentidos. This song would later become an anthem of the Movida viguesa, achieving national recognition throughout Spain.

During a weekend trip to Galicia in September, 1986, Cabinete Caligari, Los Nikis, Alaska and los Pegamoides effectively married the movida madrileña and the movida viguesa. A planned reunion in Madrid (spring, 1987) failed to take place.

References

External links
 La otra Movida Viguesa

Galician music
Social movements in Spain
20th-century social movements
Vigo
1980s in Galicia (Spain)
1980s in Spanish music

Movida viguesa


Under the laws of the United States of America, the crime of Murder can fall under different jurisdictions. In some cases, the state prosecutes those accused of murder. In other cases, the federal government has jurisdiction. Who the victim of a murder can also determine who has jurisdiction. The military of the United States also prosecutes murder under the Uniform Code of Military Justice.

Jurisdiction
If a murder is committed within the borders of a state, that state has jurisdiction. If the crime is committed in the District of Columbia, the D.C Superior Court has jurisdiction. In cases involving federal property or employees, the federal courts may have exclusive jurisdiction.  The prosecution of murder is similar in Australia.

If the victim is a federal official, an ambassador, consul or other foreign official under US protection, then the federal government has jurisdiction. If the crime took place on federal property or involved crossing state lines it is under federal jurisdiction. Murder on naval or U.S. flagged merchant vessels in international waters is under federal jurisdiction. This is true also if crime happens on U.S. military bases worldwide. Murder by a member of the United States military anywhere in the world is a violation of Article 118 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice. The trial is held by a general court-martial.

Dual sovereignty
In the United States the dual sovereignty doctrine applies to murder as well as to other crimes. In cases where a murder involves both state and federal jurisdiction, the accused can be tried and punished separately by each jurisdiction. Under the dual sovereignty doctrine this is not considered double jeopardy. If another federal law was violated in connection with a murder, then the murder can be prosecuted by a federal court. This is called "piggyback jurisdiction". In the United States there is no statute of limitations on the crime of murder. But most other federal laws have a five-year statute of limitations. An exception is for cases of terrorism where the statute of limitations is eight years. Or if explosives or arson were involved, the statute of limitations is ten years.

References

Other websites
 FBI - Murder
 Murder Law

United States law

Murder (United States law)


Theodora Doukaina Komnene Palaiologina (;  – 4 March 1303), also known as Theodora Vatatzaina (), was the empress consort of the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.

Life
Theodora was a daughter of John Doukas and Eudokia Angelina. Her paternal grandfather was sebastokrator Isaac Doukas Vatatzes (died 1261), the older brother of the Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes (). Theodora's maternal grandfather was protostrator John Angelos; his name indicates he was a member of the Angelos family, but his exact relations to the reigning members of the family are not known.

Empress of Nicaea
Acropolites mentions that the father of Theodora died in young adulthood. Her mother died in the early 1250s. Leaving Theodora to be raised by her great-uncle John III who was said to have "loved her like a daughter". In 1253, John III arranged the marriage of Theodora to Michael Palaiologos, who had been steadily rising in distinction due to a combination of familial connections and military abilities.

John III died on 3 November 1254. He was succeeded by his only son Theodore II Laskaris, who died four years later leaving his only son John IV Laskaris, a youth of seven. Michael maneuvered his way into first becoming regent of John IV, then advancing step by step to despotes making him next in order to Emperor. The final step came at the beginning of 1259 when Michael and John were crowned as co-emperors. There is no clear indication that Theodora was crowned empress at this time, but Alice-Mary Talbot notes the historian George Pachymeres contrasts the imperial couple with the young John who wore less impressive regalia.

Byzantine Empress
On 25 July 1261, Alexios Strategopoulos captured Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire that had been shattered by the Fourth Crusade. Michael took advantage of the success of his general and entered the city on 15 August 1261 and was soon followed by Theodora and their children. In September Michael was crowned Emperor a second time in the cathedral of Hagia Sophia; although D. Geanakoplos assumes that Theodora also received a second coronation, this is not expressly stated by Pachymeres.

About the time of this achievement, Theodora confronted a crisis in her marriage. According to Pachymeres, Michael became enamored of Anna-Constance of Hohenstaufen, who had been briefly married to John Vatatzes before his death; he offered to divorce Theodora if she would marry him. When Theodora learned of this, she turned to Patriarch Arsenios Autoreianos for help. The Patriarch confronted the emperor and pressured him to abandon his plans. Michael yielded and allow Anna to leave for home in December 1261.

There is little evidence for Theodora's political role in the reign of her husband. She took an interest in the marriages of her two daughters Anna and Irene. She also intervened to gain clemency for courtiers who fell into disfavor. The evidence of her activities primarily concern her support of monastic communities. A number of documents survive from the archives of the Patmos and Lembiotissa monasteries from the years 1259 to 1281 attesting to her active involvement. When Michael pursued a policy of church union at the Second Council of Lyons in 1274, there is evidence showing Theodora originally sympathized with the anti-unionists. When she failed to persuade Michael to change his mind, she apparently supported the policy out of loyalty to Michael for she was later forced to publicly recant in 1283.

Empress dowager
At some point after Michael's death in 1282, Theodora undertook the restoration of Lips monastery (now the Fenari Isa Mosque) which had been founded in the 10th century, and added a convent. In reconstructing the convent she added a second church, dedicated to St. John the Baptist. Talbot explains one motivation for her interest in the convent of Lips was to provide a place for her daughters and granddaughters to retire in their old age, per the current custom. Another was to provide a resting place for her family, having seen how Michael had been denied Christian burial. Talbot explains, "Theodora, as dowager empress and matriarch of the family, no doubt was determined to make provision for proper burial for herself and her descendants."

Lastly, Theodora played a role in supporting scholarship and promoting the production of manuscripts. For example, soon after the recovery of Constantinople, she commissioned the monk Arsenios to translate into Greek a work on geometry by the Persian philosopher al-Zanati. The tract is preserved in Naples manuscript (II C 33), with a note that provides information about Theodora's patronage.

Theodora died after a short illness on 4 March 1304. Her son the Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos prepared a magnificent funeral, and she was laid to rest in the church of John the Baptist at Lips convent, where she had prepared her tomb some years earlier. The funeral oration was delivered by Theodore Metochites.

Children
Theodora and Michael VIII had seven children:
 Manuel Palaiologos (c. 1255–before 1259)
 Irene Palaiologina (c. 1256–before 1328), who married emperor Ivan Asen III of Bulgaria
 Andronikos II Palaiologos (1259–1332)
 Anna Palaiologina (c. 1260–1299/1300), who married Demetrios/Michael Komnenos Doukas, third son of Michael II of Epirus
 Constantine Palaiologos (1261–1306), who married Eirene Raoulaina his second cousin
 Theodora Palaiologina, who married King David VI of Georgia
 Eudokia Palaiologina, who married Emperor John II of Trebizond
 Theodore Palaiologos (c. 1263 – after 1310)

Notes

References

See also
 Family tree of Byzantine emperors

Sources

1240s births
1303 deaths
Theodora
13th-century Byzantine empresses
14th-century Byzantine women
Empresses consort of Nicaea
Vatatzes family
Burials at Lips Monastery
Michael VIII Palaiologos
Mothers of Byzantine emperors

Theodora Palaiologina (Byzantine empress)


Mamdouh Mohamed Gad Eldamaty (; born December 6, 1961 in Cairo) is Professor of Egyptology at the Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, Ain Shams University in Cairo. On May 15, 2011, he became Cultural Counselor and Head of Educational Mission at the Embassy of Egypt in Berlin.

Early life and education
He attended high school in Cairo. In 1979, he registered at the Faculty of Archeology, Cairo University. In July 1981, he was looking for a summer job as a student. He went to the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and met with Dr. Mohamed Saleh, the vice director of the museum. He worked there for one month. In summer 1982, he worked at the museum again for a summer student job. He did work that brought him in contact with all departments of the museum. In 1983, he graduated at the Faculty of Archeology, Cairo University.

After his graduation, he worked again for the museum for one month for free. After that, he joined the restoration team of the Coptic Museum for several months. In January 1984, he started his 15 month long conscription service. He worked at the museum again from April 1985 to September 1987. He rejoined his Faculty at Cairo University to resume higher studies. The thesis of his Master's Degree was "St- Meskhnet hall at Dendara Temple, linguistic and cultural study" under supervision of Prof. Abdelhalim Noureldin and partnership of Dr. Ola El-Aguizy.

Through his work at the Museum he became acquainted to many Egyptologists and archaeologists who visited the Museum. Among those was Prof. Erich Winter at Trier University, who along with his wife visited Egypt in 1987 and were accompanied by the young Mamdouh Eldamaty during their 3-day visit to Siwa Oasis. This new contact proved to be quite useful as Prof. Winter encouraged the young Egyptologist to continue his studies under his supervision at the Department of Egyptology at Trier University.

In October 1988 he worked as a curator at Faculty of Archaeology Museum of Cairo University. During his work he got his Master Degree in April 1989 in Egyptology from the same faculty. Immediately he left Egypt for Germany on leave to prepare his PhD.
Trying his luck without any state sponsored scholarship it was rather difficult to get an entry visa to study in Germany without guarantor. Thanks to the help and support of his Professor and guarantor, Prof. Dr. Mohamed Saleh, an entry visa was issued and he started his German courses at Cologne University as soon as he arrived to Germany. He supported his life by working during summer vacation. While in Cologne he held correspondence with Trier University. He got an acceptance from Trier University, which he joined from winter semester 1989/ 1990. He started his Trier residence by learning German until he acquired the 'Prüfung zum Nachweis der Deutsch Sprachkenntnis' that qualified him to regular study at the university. He registered for Egyptology as major subject with classical archaeology and ethnology as minor subject in summer semester 1991.

At the winter semester 1992/ 93 he registered for his PhD with thesis 'Sokar- Osiris- Kapelle im Tempel von Dendera' for which he received a study scholarship from Ministry of Culture at Rhineland Palatia that enabled him to conclude his study in June 1995.
During his stay in Germany, on February 26th 1992 he married Aida Abdelghany Ahmed, who studied sociology at Zagazig University. She accompanied him to Germany where gave birth to their first daughter, Mariam (11.Feb. 1993) in Trier.

Having concluded his PhD, he returned to Egypt in September 1995 but kept visiting Trier frequently in the years 1996, 1997, 1999, 2002, 2004 and 2007 in order to follow recent publications and studies on Egyptology.
Back in Cairo, where the family got a son and another daughter, he resumed his work for the Faculty's Museum until January 1996.

Starting from January 1996 he started as lecturer for Egyptology at Faculty of Tourism and Hotels, Cairo University, Fayoum Branch. Upon founding an archaeological department at the Faculty of arts, Ain Shams University in August 1998, he moved to the new department as a lecturer for Egyptology until end of 2001.

Career

Director General of Egyptian Museum in Cairo
At the beginning of 2001 he was appointed Director General of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, a post that he held until End of January 2004.

During his directorship the Museum witnessed several far reaching activities, developing its cellar (April 2001), restoration of old records of the Museum (May 2001),  preparing for the second chamber for royal mummies (June 2001) and establishing restoration laboratory for papyrus, in cooperation with Corrado Basile, Director of Istituto Internazionale del Papiro, Siracusa in Italy (March 2003).

In July 2001 he laid forward a concept for the centennial of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, which included several projects to promote and develop the old institution. This concept was approved by Dr. Gaballa Ali Gaballa, the then Secretary General of the Higher Council for Monuments and by the Minister of Culture as well.
These activities were performed in late 2002 in the time of the successor of Gaballa, Dr. Zahi Hawas, who gave this ceremony special attention.

Eldamaty was assigned also to supervise the external exhibitions committee from May 2002 till February 2004.

Professor at Ain Shams University
Having concluded his assignment at the Egyptian Museum he returned to his main work in teaching at the Ain Shams University. There he got the post of associate professor of Egyptology at the Faculty of Arts from 25.03.2001 till 20.08.2006. As of 21.08.2006 he became a full professor of Egyptology and presided over the archaeological Department of Faculty of Arts at Ain Shams University from 12.09.2006 till 12.09.2009.

Besides he was assigned to head the college center for studies, consultations and training from 15.10.2008 till 13.10.2009 when he overtook the post of director of open education center from 22.03.2009 till 15.11.2009.
Starting from 13.09.2009 till 14.05.2011 he was the Dean of Faculty of Arts at the Ain Shams University. During his deanship he supervised the project for sustainable development and qualifying for Accreditation. This sustainable development specified certain criteria for selection of university cadres, which was approved by the college council, albeit not by the university council due to the political conditions accompanying the Arab spring in January 2011.

Following the revolution he organized the first election process in Egyptian universities to choose his successor as Dean of the Faculty in March 2011, as he left the country on 15.05.2011 in the capacity of cultural counselor at the Egyptian Embassy to Berlin and head of educational mission there. At this post he supervises all Egyptian students in Germany, Netherlands, Poland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland and Norway.

Teaching in international Universities and Schools
SS.1993 and WS. 1993/94, teaching "Pharaonic art" in the "Volkeshochschule" in
Trier (Germany).
WS 2006 – WS 2007, teaching "Late Period Monuments"; "History of Ancient Egypt art" and "History of Ancient Egypt" in the American University in Cairo (AUC).
Apr. 01. 2005 – Jul. 31. 2005 Guest Professor in the Seminar of Egyptology, Basel University in Switzerland.

Teaching in Egyptian Universities
Oct. 1995 - May 1997, teaching "ancient Egyptian art and Egyptian art in the
Ptolemaic period" in the faculty of archaeology, Cairo university.
Oct. 1995 - May 1998, teaching "ancient Egyptian Language and Egyptian art in
the Ptolemaic time" in the faculty of archaeology, Cairo university, branch of
Fayiom.
Oct. 1996 - May 1999, teaching "ancient Egyptian art" in the high Institute of
Tourism and Hotels.
Oct.1996 – May 2004, teaching "Egyptian art in the Ptolemaic period" in the faculty of Tourism and Hotels, Helwan University.
Oct. 2005 to date, teaching "ancient Egyptian history" in the faculty of Pharmacy, Misr International University.
Oct. 2005 to date, teaching "ancient Egyptian Language" in the faculty of Arabic Language, Al-Azhar University.

Membership and other professional activities
International Committee of Arabic Museums (ICOM-Arab). Vice President of
ICOM-Arab (Sep. 2001 – Oct. 2003).
President of ICOM-Arab (Oct. 2003 - 2004).
International Association of Egyptologists.
Arab Archaeologists Association.
Egyptian Society for historical studies.
The German Archaeological Institute (DAI).
The team in charge of the establishment of the Egypt Archaeological Map.
Board  of  Directors  of  the  antiquities  Museum  of  the  library  of  Alexandria
(Bibliotheca Alexandrina).
Egyptological team in charge of the organization of the exhibits of the New
Museum  of  Egyptian  antiquities  to  be  built  in  Giza  (from  Sep.1999  to
31.01.2004).
Board of Directors of Cairo Museum (from 01.02.2001 to 31.01.2004).
Board  of  Directors  of  permanent  committee  in  SCA.  (From  01.02.2001  to
31.01.2004).
Board of Directors of Museums sector in SCA. (From 01.02.2001 to 31.01.2004).

Awards and Honors

Legion of Honor "Cavalier" from the Italian Government (Oct. 10. 2004).

State Award for Excellence in Social Sciences (Jun. 21. 2010)

Scientific publications
"Squatting statues in the Cairo Museum", in: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo 46, Mainz 1990, 1-13 (Taf. 1-9).
"Isis-Hathor im Tempel von Dendera", in: Aegyptiaca Treverensia 7 (Festschrift für Erich Winter), Mainz 1994, 81-87.
Sokar-Osiris-Kapelle im Tempel von Dendera, Hamburg 1995.
"Eine Szene der Besänftigung der Sachmet im Kiosk von Dendera", in: Journal of  the faculty of  Archaeology 7, Cairo 1996, 147-156.
"Der Goldfalke als Opfergabe in den grichisch-römischen Tempel", in: Göttinger Miszellen 161, Göttingen 1997, 51-64.
"Horus als Ka des Königs", in: Göttinger Miszellen 169, Göttingen 1999, 31-45 (Taf. 1-8).
Catalogue Général of Egyptian Antiquities in the Cairo Museum, Statues of  the XXVth.  and   XXVIth.  Dynasties, Nr.  48601-48649, Cairo 1999. (together with Jack A. Josephson)
"Die Schutzformeln hinter dem König im Kiosk des Tempels von Dendera", in: Bibliothèque d'Étude 138 (Hommages a Fayza Haikal), Cairo 2003, 83-91.
"Die Treppe des Hinaufsteigens zum Dach des Tempels von Dendera im Neujahrfest", in: Egyptology at the dawn of the twenty-first century (proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists, Cairo 2000), vol. 1, Cairo 2003, 171-179.
"The Egyptian Directors of the Cairo Museum 1941-1991", in: Bulletin of the Egyptian Museum 1, Cairo 2004, 7-8. (together with Heba Samy)
Ein ptolemäisches Pristerdekret aus dem Jahr 186 v. Chr. eine neue Version von Philensis II in Kairo, APF-Beiheft 20, München und Leipzig 2005.
"Zur Bedeutung der leeren Kartuschen", in: Göttinger Miszellen 207 (2005), pp. 23–36.
"Stela of Iuyres in Cairo Museum", in: Journal of  the faculty of  Archaeology 10, Cairo 2005, pp 63–69.
"Zwei Stelen mit Sonnenhymnen aus dem Kairener Museum", (FS Mohamed Saleh), in: Bulletin of the Egyptian Museum 2, Cairo 2005, pp. 55–60.
"Die leeren Kartuschen aus der Regierungszeit von Kleopatra VII. im Tempel von Dendera", in: OLA 150 (Leuven, 2007), pp. 511– 544.
"A Statuette of Psamtik I with a Spear", in: Sue H. D'Auria, Servant of Mut: Studies in Honor of Richard A. Fazzini, Leiden 2007, pp. 83–88.
"Die leeren Kartuschen im Tempel von Edfu", in: U. Rössler & T. Tawfik (HRSG.), Die ihr vorbeigehen werdet ... Wenn Gräber, Tempel und Statuen sprechen, Gedenkschrift für Prof. Sayed Tawfik Ahmed, SDAIK 16, Berlin 2009, pp. 81–102, Taf. 9-12.
"Die leeren Kartuschen von Echnaton", in: Sue H. D'Auria (edit.), Offeringsof the Discerning Eye, An Egyptological Medley in Honor of Jack Josephson, (= Culture and Hisrtory of the Ancient Near East 38, Leiden 2010), pp. 79–81.
"Die ptolemäische Königin als Weiblicher Horus", in: A. Jördens und J. F. Quack (edit.), Ägypten zwischen innerem Zwist und äußerem Druck. Die Zeit Ptolemaios' VI. bis VIII., (= PHILIPPIKA, Marburger altertumskundliche Abhandlungen 45, Wiesbaden 2011), pp. 24–57.

Articles in Catalogs of special exhibitions
Cat. No. 78, 79 & 105, in: The Quest for Immortality, Treasures of Ancient
Egypt, Washington 2002. (in USA).
The Third Intermediate Period (together with Isabelle Franco), in: The Pharaohs, Milano 2002, 69-83. (in Italy).
Pro0swpa	thj	Aigu0ptou	Apo0	thn	Gki0za	sto Fagiou0m
(together with Mohamed Saleh), Athens 2003. (in Greece).
Cat.  Nr.  42-46,  in:  Tutanchamun,  das  goldene  Jenseits,  Basel  2004.  (in
Switzerland).
Das Ägyptische Museum in Kairo, in: Tutanchamun, das goldene Jenseits, Basel
2004, 17-26. (in Switzerland).

Editing of
Egyptian Museum collections around the World, Studies for the Centennial of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo 2002 (together with Mai Trad).
Bulletin of the Egyptian Museum, Vols. 1-2, Cairo 2004-2005 (together with Zahi Hawass and Khaled Daoud).

Related pages
List of Egyptian scientists

References

1961 births
Living people
Egyptian academics
Egyptian scientists
People from Cairo

Mamdouh Eldamaty


Abdel Hamid Ibn Abdussalem Ibn Mifta Al Ghazzawi (عبدالحميد ابن عبدالسلام الغزاوي) (born 8 November 1962) is a citizen of Libya who was held from June 2002 until March 2010 in the Guantanamo Bay detainment camps, in Cuba because the United States classified him as an enemy combatant. His internment number was 654.

His attorney has disputed the determination that al-Ghazzawi was an enemy combatant, which he has denied. She has noted that the first Combatant Status Review Tribunal in November 2004 found no evidence of al-Qaeda involvement and ruled he was not an enemy combatant. Lieutenant Colonel Stephen Abraham later submitted an affidavit to the United States Supreme Court about the flaws in the CSRT process, based in part on this case, for which he sat on the original tribunal.

A second tribunal was called in January 2005, 55 days later and with different members; it determined that al-Ghazzawi as an enemy combatant, claiming new "secret" information. His attorney found later that no new information had been introduced, and described the proceeding as a "kangaroo court" on behalf of the Bush administration at the time.

Al Ghazzawi's case was not heard by any other forum. He was never charged or tried by a military commission.

On March 23, 2010, the United States government released Al Ghazzawi from Guantanamo, transferring him to the custody of the nation of Georgia.

Early life
Abdel Hamid Ibn Abdussalem Ibn Mifta Al Ghazzawi was born in Tripoli, Libya in 1962. He had training at the Ministry of Maritime Transport Trade School and the Abu Sitta Naval Training Center for five to six months in 1979–1980. Together with nearly 250 Libyan recruits, he was sent to the Kamaya Point Training Center in Bataan, Philippines, but the program failed and they returned to Libya.

From 1985 to 1987, he worked as an office assistant for the Libyan Civil Aviation Authority. In the late 1980s, he went to Pakistan for work, where he taught school for some time. He was in Afghanistan in 1988 during the Afghan-Soviet War, but said that he never participated in fighting. During this period, the United States supported the mujahedin in their resistance to the Soviets. Al-Ghazzawi received a few weeks' training in 1988–1989, but said he never fired a shot.

By September 2001, al-Ghazzawi had married an Afghan woman and lived in Jalalabad. They had a daughter together.

Capture and detention in Guantanamo
Al Ghazzawi's government file says he was arrested in January 2002 by Afghan Intelligence Forces in Konar, Afghanistan.

He has said that armed men came to his house, taking him away and selling him to Northern Alliance forces. They in turn sold him to the Americans, who were offering bounties for people to be picked up.

Al-Ghazzai was turned over to American forces and first held at Bagram for interrogation. He was transported to Guantanamo Bay detention camp in June 2002. Like other detainees, he was held in secrecy and for years deprived of any access to legal counsel and communication with his family.

As a result of the United States Supreme Court decision in Rasul v. Bush (2004), which said that detainees had the habeas corpus right to challenge detention in an impartial tribunal, such as federal court, the United States Department of Defense quickly created the Combatant Status Review Tribunals. Beginning weeks after the Supreme Court decision, DOD used the CSRTs to review each of the several hundred detainee case to determine whether detainees should be held as enemy combatants.

The Center for Policy and Research at Seton Hall University School of Law has prepared numerous reports about the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, the detainees, and the operations.
In its review of the CSRTs, No-Hearing Hearings: CSRT: The Modern Habeas Corpus? (2006), the Center for Policy and Research found that all detainees were ultimately declared enemy combatants. In the few cases in which detainees were first cleared by their CSRTs as enemy combatants, second tribunals were called which overwhelmingly determined the detainees were enemy combatant. This resulted in hundreds of men being held without charges under harsh conditions at Guantanamo for years more. Among these was Al Ghazzawi, whose case was noted in the report, by his intern number.

At the CSRT for al-Ghazzawi, "On 24 November 2004, a ... Tribunal [unanimously] determined, by a preponderance of the evidence, that Detainee #654 was not properly designated as an enemy combatant." It found he had no al-Qaeda or Taliban involvement.

But, after the results went to Washington, DOD convened a second CSRT there 55 days later. It was held in Washington, with neither Al-Ghazzawi nor his Personal Representative present. "On 25 January 2005, this Tribunal, upon review of all the evidence, determined that detainee #654 was properly [unanimously] designated as an enemy combatant."

The transcripts of subsequent Administrative Review Board hearings show that al-Ghazzawi continued to deny involvement with al-Qaeda, and said he never fought in Afghanistan, nor against the Americans.

By the summer of 2006, H. Candace Gorman began working as Al Ghazzawi's pro bono attorney, a connection made by the Center for Constitutional Rights. She asked to review the CSRT files. Initially she was told the second CSRT had evaluated new, "secret" information as the basis for its revised finding that al-Ghazzawi was an enemy combatant. She had to travel to government offices to review the secret files. She found there was no new information; the second tribunal had simply overturned the conclusions of the first one.

Gorman submitted a habeas corpus petition to the United States Supreme Court on al-Ghazzawi's behalf in August 2006. All pending habeas corpus cases were stayed following passage of the Military Commissions Act of 2006 in October of that year, as it had provisions restricting their use by detainees considered to be enemy combatants or waiting for review of their cases, whose cases were to be heard under the system authorized by the legislation.

Lieutenant Colonel Stephen Abraham's 2007 affidavit
Lieutenant Colonel Stephen Abraham, a reserve officer whose field was intelligence and who is a lawyer in civilian life, served with the Office for the Administrative Review of Detained Enemy Combatants. On June 23, 2007 he submitted an affidavit to the Supreme Court strongly criticizing the entire CSRT process and describing the one Combatant Status Review Tribunal on which he had served, which was that for detainee #654, or al-Ghazzawi.

Abraham was the first member of a military panel to challenge the conduct of the hearings. He said the panels were strongly pressured to rule that detainees were enemy combatants. His panel resisted pressure to change their determination and continued to find the detainee was not an enemy combatant. He was never asked to sit on another panel. His affidavit is believed to have contributed to the Supreme Court's decision to accept the consolidated cases of Boumediene v. Bush and Al-Odah v. United States for its 2007-2008 docket. It had originally declined to hear this case. In  Boumediene v. Bush (2008), the Supreme Court found that detainees had the habeas corpus right for access to federal courts. It found that provisions of the Military Commissions Act of 2006 restricting them to the military system were unconstitutional. In addition, since the CSRTs had been completed in 2005, most detainees were still being held without charges; their cases had not progressed.

Attorneys refiled numerous habeas corpus petitions in federal courts on behalf of detainees to challenge their detention.

Health
H. Candace Gorman, Al Ghazzawi's attorney, said that Guantanamo authorities had told her in October 2006 that the detainee had hepatitis B and tuberculosis, the latter contracted at the camp. In December 2007, Gorman alleged that Al Ghazzawi "has not been treated for his hepatitis or tuberculosis and has developed a severe liver infection", and characterized him as "dying a slow and painful death".

On January 16, 2008, Gorman reported on her blog that Al Ghazzawi told her he has AIDS. The Supreme Court denied her request for access to al-Ghazzawi's medical records, after she appealed DOD's denial. DOD has said that privacy restrictions prevent revealing details about an individual detainee's health, but a spokesman at Guantanamo said that no detainee at the camp has been diagnosed with HIV or AIDS.

Detainee reviews
Beginning in early 2009, the Obama administration conducted reviews of all detainees held at Guantanamo with the goal of repatriating as many as possible or finding safe places for them, and closing the camps. It has arranged placement for numerous detainees to be released who feared returning to their country of origin. It arranged for Georgia to accept Al Ghazzawi and transferred him there on March 23, 2010.

References

External links

 "Horror at Guantánamo: Libyan detainee infected with AIDS", Andy Worthington, 31 January 2008
 Documents concerning al-Ghazzawi hosted by NY Times

Living people
Libyan extrajudicial prisoners of the United States
People from Tripoli, Libya
Guantanamo detainees known to have been released
1962 births

Abdel Hamid al-Ghazzawi


Gun culture refers to the attitudes, feelings, values and behaviour of a society, or any social group, in which guns are used. The term was first coined by Richard Hofstadter in an American Heritage article critiquing gun violence in the United States.

Local gun cultures are found all around the world, and attitudes toward guns vary greatly among places such as the United States, Canada, Israel, United Kingdom, Switzerland, Yemen, and Pakistan. Among the most studied and discussed global gun cultures is that of the United States.

Canada

Like British gun culture, Canadian gun culture largely emphasizes sport-shooting and hunting, rather than self-defense. Sport-shooting has always been a popular activity for both gun-owners and non-gun-owners in Canada. It is also a bridge and a leeway between American and British attitudes towards firearms. The provinces of Ontario, Quebec, and Alberta have large populations of hunters and shooters.

The Conservative Party, over the recent years, has been protective of the sport-shooting community, passing many bills that cater to their needs. In 2012, Bill C-19 eliminated the need to register "non-restricted" firearms (shotguns and regular rifles). In 2015, Bill C-42 converted "Possession-Only" licences to a regular firearms licence or a "Possession and Acquisition Licence", which includes the right to transport firearms to a shooting range without having to notify a chief firearms officer.

Most Canadians who own firearms use them for hunting or sport-shooting. Canadians have mixed opinions about using firearms for self-defence, and the legality of self-defence with a gun in Canada has been a subject of controversy and debate. After the incident of Ian Thomson, a gun owner who was arrested under murder and storage violations for shooting intruders with a firearm, the Canadian parliament amended the Criminal Code to make the use of force in self-defence legal. This finally made it legal for gun owners to use their firearms for self-defence, as technically "anything" within their disposal can be legally used—including firearms themselves. Canadians opposed to the use of firearms for personal protection argue that it is purely an American tradition. Yet despite the Criminal Code amendments, the firearms storage laws still make it rather difficult for citizens to use their firearms for home defence in a situation. In addition, it is still up to the Courts to decide whether the use of force in a situation was "justifiable".

Due to Canada's proximity to and close history and cultural ties with the United States, the cultural and socio-political environment surrounding firearms has recently begun to emulate American attitudes, where those who oppose stricter gun laws as well as the right to use guns for personal protection tend to vote for the Conservative Party as well as other right-leaning groups, and those who support stricter gun laws and are opposed to legalizing the use of firearms for self-defence tend to vote for the Liberal Party, New Democratic Party or other liberal and left-leaning groups in the country.

Although a "right to bear arms" is never explicitly stated in Canada's Charters of Freedom and Rights, conservative-leaning gun owners claim that a right to bear arms is present within the layers of the Canadian nation and Britain's historical documents. Licensed firearm owners share rights common to all other Canadians, including property and multi-cultural heritage rights.

There are many organizations in Canada dedicated to protecting sport-shooting and firearms ownership. These include the National Firearms Association (NFA), the Canadian Shooting Sports Association (CSSA) and the Canadian Coalition for Firearm Rights (CCFR). Out of the three, the NFA advocates self-defence with a firearm and has recently begun to emulate the National Rifle Association of America..

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic gun culture is unique, as it has relatively low firearm ownership per capita, but allows gun ownership for personal protection on shall issue basis, including concealed carry permits. Around 80% of the 300,000 Czech gun owners have an E category license, for personal protection. The reason for this is Czech history of being occupied by foreign powers, i.e. Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, who did not allow most citizens to own guns. Liberal gun laws are also traditional in Czech lands, going with Imperial regulation No. 223 in 1852, which was used during the time of First Czechoslovak Republic. After the Velvet Revolution in 1989, the law was liberalized in 1995, when the legal right to own firearms was restored, and further in 2002, when many other types of firearms were legalized prior to Czech accession to EU, which required the law to be compatible with the European Firearms Directive.

There are two major organizations advocating for legal gun ownership, Lex – sdružení na ochranu práv majitelů zbraní, and Petice proti nesmyslným zákazům legálních zbraní – LIGA LIBE, which was formed by a team behind a petition against the European Firearms Directive, founded in 2014.

Greece
Gun culture in Greece varies greatly through different regions of the country. The country has strict gun laws, allowing gun ownership only for hunting purposes and people at high risk. However there is a strong gun culture in the island of Crete and the Mani peninsula.

Israel
Due to the history of Israel and the many wars it has fought, Israeli society has emphasized the need to be armed and well-trained. Amid the days leading up to Israel's creation, many Jewish paramilitary groups operated in Israel to protect their kibbutzim from Arab militants. These various groups would eventually merge to form the modern-day Israel Defense Forces. During the 2002 Intifada, guns were a common sight as civilians needed to protect themselves. However, the majority of Israeli gun culture is vested within the military and associated with serving in some armed service rather than a fringe militia. Men and women over the age of 18 (with exceptions), are required to serve in the Israel Defense Forces. As part of the terms of their service, Israeli soldiers are allowed to carry their firearms, on or off-duty, in uniform or without the uniform.

Israeli civilians who carry and own firearms are mostly Israeli settlers in the West Bank region of Palestine. Though on the other hand, Israeli gun laws are actually strict. A civilian would need to apply for a gun license, and demonstrate a need to own a firearm. Therefore, it is rather difficult for an average civilian to attain a firearms license, unless he/she lives in an area proven to be dangerous, or has the necessary military experience required by Israeli law.

Pakistan

Gun ownership, especially in the mountainous northwest, is part of traditional Pakistani culture. Rifles are handed down from generation to generation for hunting and for celebratory fire. In the 21st century, increases in terrorist threats, and particularly in urban kidnappings, extortions, and robberies, has led to an increase in civilian demand for guns for self-protection.

Russia
Russia also has a unique firearms culture, though that culture is dedicated heavily towards military use rather than to civilian ownership and much of it originates from the Soviet Union (paradoxically an era of strict gun control) and their war against Nazi Germany. Russia prides itself in having produced some of the world's most famous firearms, most notably the AK-47 and PPSh-41. During the days of the Russian Empire, many people living in the Ural Mountains owned firearms for hunting and training and at one point, Russia had a very high civilian firearms ownership rate.

During World War II, and the years building up to it, saw a surge in firearms culture in the Soviet Union. Rifle-training and marksmanship was seen as a symbol of fighting honor for the Soviet motherland, and later were a source of influence for sniping schools in the United States. During the Battle of Stalingrad, the city's fate also relied on local militias. Firearms were also part of military propaganda, such as in the case of the famous Soviet sniper Vasily Zaytsev. Soviet snipers were essential and important to the Soviet strategy against the German invasion.

Today, the legacy of Russian weaponry is very popular with firearms enthusiasts in the United States and the world, and are some of the most discussed firearms by historians.

The emergence of the AK-47 as one of the world's most popular assault rifles has presented a stereotype of Russians as wielding AK-47s and having a gun culture similar to America. However, the reality of the situation presents the opposite, according to a survey done by the Zircon public opinion research group, over 70% of Russians were opposed to the right to bear arms.

Switzerland

Males with ages between 18 and 30 are conscripted and can choose to do the military service and – as part of that – can keep their issued firearms at home.

The SAT (lit. shooting and off-duty activities) oversees lessons in which every Swiss child in the year of their 15th anniversary to the year of their 20th or the one in which they begin their conscription can learn how to shoot with the SIG SG 550. This activity is free and the Young Shooters are able to take home the rifle between the lessons if they are 17. However, the bolt has to stay at the range in which they attend the lesson. This activity takes place over a span of six years in three-to-four month periods per year and, if wanted, they can pursue and become instructors for the new generation of Young Shooters.

Switzerland holds the biggest gun-fest in the world: the Eidgenössisches Feldschiessen. This competition takes place annually and in 2012 they counted 130,000 participants. Every Swiss who is 10 or older can take part at any federal ranges and will be able to shoot for free with the ordinance rifle.

Guns are widely used for competition in sport-shooting. In 2016 SwissOlympics conducted a study on clubs and members in Switzerland: the Swiss Sport Shooting Federation is ranked 2nd in terms of clubs and 9th in terms of members. Those affiliated with the Federation are shooters who require a license in order to compete.

United Kingdom

The U.K. gun culture is mostly represented by shooting sports. Clay-pigeon shooting is one of the more popular sports and shotguns are by far the most common form of firearm. In March 2021, official figures reported there being 1.3million legally held shotguns in circulation, compared with around 358,000 rifles.  Firearms are predominantly very popular among the rural communities. However outside of the rural areas, the society is overwhelmingly anti-gun, and many anti-gun advocates come from Britain.

Outside of Northern Ireland, self-defence is not considered a "good reason" for the issuing of a firearm certificate, although the use of a legally held firearm in an act of self-defence is not itself unlawful. Outside of Northern Ireland, Police officers are not routinely armed with firearms, and are supported by Authorised firearms officers where the situation requires an armed response.

The main sport-shooting organization in the United Kingdom is the National Rifle Association (not to be confused for or in any way related to the American organization of the same name).

United States

Gun ownership in the United States is constitutionally protected by the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution. Firearms are widely used in the United States of America for self-defense, hunting, and recreational uses, such as target shooting.  Gun politics is polarized between advocates of gun rights, typically conservative and libertarian, and those who support stricter gun control, usually liberal. The gun culture of the United States can be considered unique among developed countries, in terms of the large number of firearms owned by civilians and generally permissive regulations.

Yemen
Yemen's gun culture is very similar to that of Pakistan's, in that firearms ownership is not only used for self-defense, but also used in celebratory fire. Guns also had a higher demand after the 2011 uprisings and other political insecurities throughout the country. Owning a firearm in Yemen is seen in a positive light, as society views it as a symbol of manhood and leadership. Tribesman even carry their firearms to mediate disputes between other tribal leaders.

See also

 Gun ownership
 Gun control
 Gun violence
 History of the firearm
 Index of gun politics articles
 List of countries by firearm-related death rate
 Overview of gun laws by nation

References

External links
 Collins English Dictionary definition of "gun culture"
 Open fire: Understanding global gun cultures

Firearm laws
Gun politics
History of subcultures
Gun violence
Firearms

Gun cultures


Cascais is a coastal toun an municipality in Portugal, 30 kilometres wast o Lisbon, wi aboot 35,000 residents. It is a cosmopolitan suburb o the Portuguese caipital an ane o the richest municipalities in Portugal. The umwhile fishin veelage gained fame as a resort for Portugal's ryal family in the late 19t century an early 20t century. Nouadays, it is a popular vacation spot for baith Portuguese an foreign tourists. It is locatit in the Estoril Coast (named efter Estoril, a ceevil parish), in the Greater Lisbon subregion. It haes an airport for general aviation servin the Lisbon Region in Tires (S. Domingos de Rana), Aeroporto Municipal de Cascais.

History

The coastal dounset o Cascais oreeginatit in the 12t century, dependin admeenistratively on the toun o Sintra, locatit tae the north. In its humble beginnins, Cascais lived frae the products o the sea an land, but aaready in the 13t century, its fish production served the caipital Lisbon, locatit nearbi. Durin the 14t century, the population increased tae the ootside o the waws o its castle. Its prosperity led tae the admeenistrative unthirldom frae Sintra in 1364. The veelage an its surroondins wur awned bi a feudal laird; the maist famous o them wis João das Regras (dee'd 1404), a lawyer an professor o the University o Lisbon that wis involved in the ascension o Keeng John I tae pouer as the first King o the Hoose o Aviz.

Syne the Middle Ages, Cascais lived frae fishin, maritime commerce (it wis a stap for ships sailin tae Lisbon), an frae agricultur, producin wine, olive ile, cereals, an fruits. Due tae its location close tae the Tagus estuary, it wis an aa seen as a strategic post in the defence o Lisbon. Aroond 1488, Keeng John II biggit a sma fortress in the veelage, locatit bi the sea. This medieval fortress wis no enough tae repel the invasion an in 1580, Spainyie troops led bi the Duke o Alba teuk the veelage durin the conflict that led tae the union o the Portuguese an Spainyie crouns. The fortress wis enlairged towards the end o the 16t century bi Keeng Philip I (Philip II o Spain), turnin it intae a teepical renaissance citadel wi the characteristic flat profile an starn-shaped floorplan. Various fortresses wur biggit on the coast aroond Cascais durin the 17t century, an mony o them still exist.

In 1755, the great Lisbon earthquake destroyed a lairge portion o the veelage. Aroond 1774, the Marquis o Pombal, prime-meenister o Keeng José I, teuk protective measures for the commercialisation o the wine o Carcavelos an established the Ryal Factory o Oo in the veelage, which existit till the early 19t century. Durin the invasion o Portugal bi Napoleonic troops in 1807, the citadel o Cascais wis occupee'd bi the French, wi General Junot stayin some time in the veelage.

This situation o decadence stairtit tae chynge when Keeng Luís II decidit tae turn the citadel o Cascais intae his simmer residence. Frae 1870 tae 1908, the Ryal Family came tae Cascais tae enjoy the sea, turnin the somnolent fishin veelage intae a cosmopolitan address. The citadel gained electric licht in 1878, the first in the kintra, thanks tae King Luís. The veelage gained better roads tae Lisbon an Sintra, a casino, a bullfecht rin, a sport club, an impruivements in the basic infrastructure for the population. The railwey arrived in 1889. Mony noble families biggit bonnie manions in Cascais, as can still be seen in the centre an surroondins o the toun.

In 1896, Keeng Carlos I, a lover o aw maritime activities, instawed in the citadel the first oceanographic laboratory in Portugal. The King hissel led a tot o 12 scienteefic expeditions tae the coast, anerlie endit in 1908 wi his assassination in Lisbon.

Anither important step in the touristic development o the aurie wis gien in the first hauf o the 20t century in neighbourin Estoril, in which a casino wis biggit an the infrastructur for luxury vacations wis creatit aroond Monte Estoril.

Due tae Portugal's neutrality in Warld War II an the toun's elegance an ryal past, Cascais became hame tae mony o the exiled ryal families o Europe, includin those o Spain, Italy, Hungary an Bulgarie.

Nouadays, Cascais an its surroondins are a famous vacation spot for the Portuguese an foreigners, aimin at baith the "jet-set" an normal tourism, who seek tae enjoy its beaches.

Tourism
The day, thare is a lairge yacht harbour an several sma saund beaches in an aroond toun. Cascais is easily reached frae Lisbon bi caur, (A5 Lisboa-Cascais heich-gate), or bi frequent inexpensive commuter trains. It haes the ruins o a castle, an airt an sea museum, as well as pairks an the chairmin cobbled streets o the historic centre. The toun haes mony hotels an tourist apairtments as well as mony guid restaurants o varyin cost. It is a fine base tae uise for those visitin Lisbon an its environs who prefer tae stay ootside o the ceety yet in an equally urban an sophisticatit environment.

Cascais is surroondit bi popular beaches, sic as Guincho Beach tae the wast, an the lush Sintra muntains tae the north. Some o its shoreline is cliff-y, attractin tourists for its seascapes an ither naitural sichts sic as the Boca do Inferno. It is an aa becomin a popular golf destination, wi ower 10 gowf courses nearby. Surfin, sailin, windsurfin, an kitesurfin are an aa popular in the region aroond Cascais due tae favourable wather, wind, an sea conditions. In 2007, Cascais wis the offeecial host o the ISAF Warld Championship in sailin for dinghies an racin yachts.

The municipality an aa hosts internaitional tennis an motorcyclin events an hostit for mony years the FIA F1 Portugal Grand Prix. The famous Estoril Casino is ane o the lairgest in Europe. Near the casino is the "Hotel Palácio" (Palace Hotel), a 5-star hotel whaur scenes o the James Bond movie On Her Majesty's Secret Service wur shot.

Internaitional relations

Twin touns — Sister ceeties

Cascais is twinned wi:

References
Notes

Municipalities o Portugal
Populatit places in Lisbon District
Municipalities o Lisbon District
Touns in Portugal
Seaside resorts in Portugal
Marinas in Portugal

Cascais


Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich (German: Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar, Fürst von Metternich-Winneburg zu Beilstein) (May 15, 1773 – June 11, 1859) was an Austrian politician. He is thought of as one of the most important diplomats of all time. Metternich was Foreign Minister for Austria from 1809 to 1848. He got Austria out of a bad treaty with Napoleon, which forced Austria to fight for France. Metternich then helped to build a system in Europe that kept the peace for most of the next 100 years.

In 1809, when Metternich became foreign minister, Napoleon had control of most of Europe. France had taken over some of the closest countries directly. In more distant countries like Austria and Prussia, Napoleon forced them to sign treaties that would make them fight on his side in wars. Metternich thought that was bad for Austria. When Napoleon declared war and raised a huge army for the French invasion of Russia, Metternich told the Russians that Austria would not attack but only defend. Napoleon lost badly in Russia, and Metternich used that excuse to get out of the treaty.

In 1814, troops of the Quadruple Alliance (Prussia, Russia, Austria and the United Kingdom) had entered France, and Napoleon had lost the war. For the next year, diplomats from all over Europe met at the Congress of Vienna to decide the future after Napoleon.

Metternich believed that the best way to keep Europe peaceful was to create a balance of power, with no country being strong enough to beat all the other countries. To make sure that happened, he made some countries stronger so that other countries, especially France, would think twice about going to war. For example, he added Belgium and Luxembourg to the
Netherlands, he turned 300 small countries of Germany into a group of larger countries, and he put together some countries in what we call Italy today.

After making that new order, Metternich also did a lot to keep it together. For example, he Alexander I of Russia Alexander wanted to send troops to Greece to protect Orthodox Christians there fighting the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire, which was Muslim. The Ottomans had become weak, and Alexander would probably have won. Metternich was afraid that if the Ottoman Empire fell apart, all of the powerful countries in Europe would start fighting to get its land. That would upset Metternich's balance and start a huge war. Also, Russia might get too big and too powerful. Therefore, Metternich convinced the Alexander attacking now would make the Ottomans would fall apart before Alexander was ready to take it for himself, and the United Kingdom and France would get most of it. Alexander agreed to help keep the Ottoman Empire going so that Russia could later take all of it. Also, he was talked out of sending troops to Greece.

Metternich kept peace in Europe for a long time, but there were still some revolts in Europe. Finally in 1848, many revolts happened at the same time. One of them was in Austria, and the rebels had Metternich taken out of office. After he was gone, Otto von Bismarck in Prussia managed to become powerful, take over the German Confederation and start a big German country, which still exists. Having one big Germany, however, upset Metternich's balance and helped to cause World War I.

Other websites

1773 births
1859 deaths
Ambassadors of Austria
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Klemens Wenzel von Metternich


Tubal Uriah "Buzz" Butler (21 January 1897 – 20 February 1977), was a Grenadian-born Spiritual Baptist preacher and labour leader in Trinidad and Tobago. He is best known for leading a series of labour riots between 19 June and 6 July 1937 and for forming a series of personalist political parties (the British Empire Citizens' and Workers' Home Rule Party, the Butler Home Rule Party, and finally the Butler Party) that focused its platform on the improvement of the working class.

Biography
Butler was born in St. George's, Grenada, where he attended the Anglican School. Unable to find work after completing his primary school education, at 17 he became a volunteer in the British West Indies Regiment in World War I, serving in the British Army from 1914 to 1918, stationed in Egypt. Returning from military service at the end of the war in 1918, he became active in political pressure groups and workers unions, establishing the Grenada Representative Government Movement, and the Grenada Union of Returned Soldiers. In 1921, aged 24, he went to south Trinidad and was employed at the Roodal Oilfields as a pipe-fitter. He became influenced by the philosophy of Marcus Garvey, according to Garvey's son Dr Julius Garvey.

Butler first came to prominence in 1935 when he led a "hunger march" from the oilfields to Port of Spain. In 1936 he was expelled from the Trinidad Labour Party for his "extremist tendencies". He then formed the British Empire Citizens' and Workers' Home Rule Party. On 19 June 1937 a strike in protest of working conditions, wages, racism and exploitation began in the oilfields in the southern Trinidad. Police attempted to arrest Butler as he addressed a meeting in Fyzabad. His supporters prevented the police from doing so and Charlie King, a police officer was killed. The Labour riots of 1937 resulted in turmoil throughout the oilfields. When strikes spread to the sugar factories, the Colonial government responded by issuing an arrest warrant for Butler. Butler went into hiding and the colonial authorities were unable to locate him. He stayed in contact with the authorities through Adrian Cola Rienzi and although he was promised safe passage by the colonial authorities to testify at a commission of enquiry into the events of June 1937, he was arrested by the colonial government when he emerged to do so.

Butler was imprisoned from 9 September 1937 to May 1939. With the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, he was re-arrested and detained for the duration of the war. After release from prison he formed the Butler Home Rule Party, which later became the Butler Party. The Butler Party captured the largest block of seats in the Legislative Council, but the Governor chose to exclude Butler and instead Albert Gomes became the first chief minister.

In the 1956 General Elections the Butler Party only won two seats. Butler, the fiery radical, was deemed too unstable and threatening to the nation's economic well-being by Eric Williams and the People's National Movement.

Butler is looked upon as the founding father of the Oilfields Workers' Trade Union (OWTU) and the labour movement and is honoured with a statue in Fyzabad. He was awarded the Trinity Cross, the nation's highest honour, in 1970.

Further reading
 Malik, Yogendra K. 1971. East Indians in Trinidad. Oxford University Press.
 Meighoo, Kirk. 2003. Politics in a Half Made Society: Trinidad and Tobago, 1925-2002. Markus Wiener Publishing Inc.

Legacy
The Uriah Butler Highway is named in his honour.

References

1897 births
1977 deaths
British West Indies Regiment soldiers
Butler Party politicians
Members of the Legislative Council of Trinidad and Tobago
People from St. George's, Grenada
Recipients of the Trinity Cross
Trinidad and Tobago activists
Trinidad and Tobago prisoners and detainees
Trinidad and Tobago religious leaders
Trinidad and Tobago trade unionists

Tubal Uriah Butler