, better known by the pen name of , was a Japanese novelist and short-story writer active during the Shōwa period of Japan. He was noted for his popular literature, and is known to have published works under at least fourteen different pen names.

Early life
Yamamoto was born in what is now Otsuki city in Yamanashi prefecture, to a family in impoverished circumstances.  Lack of money forced him to drop out of secondary school, but he continued his education part-time, while living as a boarder above a used bookstore. His pen-name came from the name of the store where he lived.

Literary career
Yamamoto's literary debut was with a short story called Sumadera fukin, and a stage drama in three acts, called Horinji iki, which were both published in 1926. His early works were aimed primarily at children. In 1932, he turned to popular stories for adults with Dadara Dambei, which received little serious notice from the literary world, so he continued to write popular detective stories and adventure stories for juvenile audiences. These included a series of short stories with samurai themes from 1940–1945, and stories on heroic historical women from 1942–1945, both themes being preeminently suitable for wartime Japan.

His preference for historically themed writings carried over into the postwar era, with Momi no ki wa nokotta (The Fir Trees Remain) and the Flower Mat. His works are characterized by a marked sympathy for the underdog, a dislike of authority, and with homage to traditional, popular virtues. His Nihon fudōki (Lives of Great Japanese Women) was nominated for the 17th Naoki Award, one of Japan's most prestigious literary prizes, but Shūgorō refused to accept, stating modestly that his "popular writings" should not be considered "literature".

Yamamoto died in Yokohama of acute pneumonia, and his grave is at the Kamakura Public Cemetery.

Legacy
A literary prize, the Yamamoto Shūgorō Prize, was established in 1987 on the twentieth anniversary of the founding of the Shinchō Society for the Promotion of Literary Arts (Shinchō Bungei Shinkō Kai). It is awarded annually to a new work of fiction considered to exemplify the art of storytelling. The winner receives a commemorative gift and a cash award of 1 million yen.

Many of his works were turned into films or into television series, notably by Akira Kurosawa into the films Sanjuro (adaptation of the short story Nichinichi hei-an ("Peaceful Days")), and Dodes'ka-den (adaptation of the book Kisetsu no nai machi ("The Town Without Seasons")). Takashi Miike also filmed his novel Sabu.

Major works
 Lives of Great Japanese Women (日本婦道記, 1942–1945)
 The Fir Trees Remain (樅ノ木は残った, 1954–1958)
 The Tales of Dr. Redbeard (赤ひげ診療譚, 1958)
 The Tale of Blue Beka Boat (青べか物語, 1960)
 A City Without Seasons (季節のない街, 1962)
 Sabu (さぶ, 1963)

See also
 Japanese literature
 List of Japanese authors

Further reading
 Yamamoto, Shugoro. The Flower Mat. Tuttle Publishing (2006). .

References

External links
 Shugoro Yamamoto at J'Lit Books from Japan

1903 births
1967 deaths
Japanese children's writers
Japanese male short story writers
People from Ōtsuki, Yamanashi
Writers from Yamanashi Prefecture
Deaths from pneumonia in Japan

Shūgorō Yamamoto


Teresa of Jesus of Los Andes (13 July 1900 – 12 April 1920), born as Juana Enriqueta Josephina de Los Sagrados Corazones Fernández Solar, () was a Chilean nun of the Discalced Carmelites. Fernández Solar was a pious child but had an often unpredictable temperament for she could be prone to anger and being vain but could also demonstrate her charitable and loving nature; she seemed transformed when she decided to become a nun and her character seemed to change for her sole ambition was to dedicate herself to the service of God. But her time in the convent was cut short due to her contracting an aggressive disease that killed her - she knew she would die but was consoled knowing she would be able to make her profession before she died.

Her canonization process opened on 23 April 1976 under Pope Paul VI and she became titled as a Servant of God. The confirmation of her life of heroic virtue on 22 March 1986 allowed for her to be titled as Venerable. Solar was beatified on 3 April 1987 in Chile after a miracle attributed to her from her native land cleared her for beatification while another miracle coming from Chile led Pope John Paul II to canonize her as a saint on 21 March 1993 in Saint Peter's Square.

Life
Juana Enriqueta Josefina de los Sagrados Corazones Fernández Solar was born in 1900 in Santiago in Chile to the upper class Miguel Fernández and Lucia Solar as the fourth of six children; three males and two females not including herself. Her brothers were Luis and Miguel and Ignacio and her sisters were Lucía and Rebeca (d. 31 December 1942). Rebeca became a Discalced Carmelite nun at the same convent as Juana as "Teresa of the Divine Heart". Her mother was Lucía Solar de Fernández, her father was Miguel Fernández Jara and her maternal grandfather was Eulogio Solar. Her baptism was celebrated in the parish church of Santa Ana.

Fernández Solar received her education in a college managed by French nuns from the Sacred Heart order, and she remained there from 1907 until 1918. In 1914, she decided to consecrate herself to the Lord and become a Discalced Carmelite. On 8 December 1915, she made a vow to remain chaste and she renewed it on a regular basis. Fernández Solar was pious in character, but could also be stubborn and vain; she also lost her temper on some occasions. On one particular occasion, her sister Rebeca grew so fed up with Juana that she hit her while the red-faced Juana grabbed her with anger but stopped and kissed her cheek. Rebeca was confused and unsure but chased her off and said: "Get out of here! You have given me the kiss of Judas!" Juana was hospitalized in 1913 for acute appendicitis. In her childhood, she also liked singing and dancing and played croquet and tennis. She was an able swimmer and could play the piano and harmonium. In 1916, she made a retreat for the Spiritual Exercises.

In her childhood, she read the autobiographical account that Thérèse of Lisieux had written and the experience had a profound effect on her pious and innocent character while also coming to the realization that she wanted to live for God alone. Fernández Solar had to work to overcome her initial self-centered character towards that of one directed to the caring of others above all. Her further inspiration for this self-transformation was her upcoming First Communion which led her to this commitment in an effort to achieve worthiness of what she was soon to receive. Fernández Solar received her Confirmation on 22 October 1909 and made her First Communion later on 11 September 1910. In September 1917 she sent a letter to the prioress of the Discalced Carmelite convent close to her home expressing her desire to enter the order. On October 18, 1917, a nun distributed candies to the children but she grew frustrated when she was given a small piece so hurled it out of her hand and refused another piece that the nun offered her. In late 1917 she and her mother left church and she turned to her mother in abruptness and asked whether she knew she would become a religious to which her mother told her that decision was for her father to make. Solar did not pursue it until from school she sent a letter to her father on 25 March 1919 that received no response; she returned home for a brief period but did not mention it and her father never alluded to it either but before she left for school again he consented when she asked him about it.

On 7 May 1919 she entered the novitiate of the Discalced Carmelites in Los Andes at which time she was given the new religious name of "Teresa of Jesus"; she later received the habit on the following 14 October. Toward the end of her short life the new nun began an apostolate of letter-writing in which she shared her thoughts on the spiritual life with others. But she soon contracted typhus that was diagnosed as fatal. However, some historians have suggested that she might have contracted Spanish flu, which was devastating Chile at this time. In any case, her condition grew worse on 2 April 1920 - Good Friday. Sister Teresa was still three months short of turning 20 and had six months to complete her canonical novitiate so as to make her religious vows. But she nevertheless was allowed to profess her vows "in articulo mortis" ("facing death") on 7 April 1920. Sister Teresa received the final sacraments on 5 April 1920 and later died at 7:15pm on 12 April 1920, one week after Easter. Her remains were later relocated in 1940 to a new chapel.

Sainthood

Teresa of Jesus remains popular with the estimated 100 000 pilgrims who visit on an annual basis the shrine where her remains are venerated in the Shrine of Saint Teresa of Los Andes in Los Andes. The nun is Chile's first saint and is popular more so among women and adolescents. Teresa of Jesus was the first Discalced Carmelite outside of Europe to be proclaimed as a saint and is the fifth saint of the order with the name "Teresa".

The beatification process began in an informative process in the Diocese of San Felipe from 20 March 1947 until its closure a few decades later on 14 January 1972; Bishop Roberto Bernardino Berríos Gaínza inaugurated this process while Enrique Alvear Urrutia oversaw its closure in a solemn Mass. Theologians collected her writings for assessment and approved them as being in line with the faith on 7 March 1975. The formal introduction to the cause came on 23 April 1976 under Pope Paul VI and she henceforth became titled as a Servant of God. There was a cognitional process that was also opened in San Felipe and it spanned from 17 November 1976 until 18 March 1978 while the Congregation for the Causes of Saints validated the two previous processes in Rome on 20 March 1981. The postulation later submitted the Positio to the C.C.S. in 1985 at which point theologians approved the cause on 3 December 1985 as did the cardinal and bishop members of the CCS on 18 March 1986. The confirmation of her model life of heroic virtue on 22 March 1986 allowed for Pope John Paul II to title her as Venerable after the C.C.S. Prefect Cardinal Pietro Palazzini bought the document to the pope for promulgation.

The process for a miracle attributed to her opened in Chile where the healing originated in and it was subjected to a diocesan process for investigation from 19 October 1984 until 16 October 1985 while the C.C.S. later validated it on 23 May 1986. The board of medical experts approved this healing to be miraculous on 21 January 1987 while theologians did so as well on 20 February 1987 as did the C.C.S. on 3 March 1987. John Paul II approved this healing to be a legitimate miracle on 16 March 1987 and thus confirmed her beatification. John Paul II beatified the late nun on 3 April 1987 in O'Higgins Park in Chile while her brother Luis was present at her beatification; he was the last direct relative of hers still alive then.

The process for a miracle attributed to her - the definitive one for sainthood - was investigated from 4 December 1990 to 12 June 1991 again in Chile while it received validation not long after on 18 October 1991. Medical experts this healing on 2 June 1992 as did theologians on 19 June 1992 and the C.C.S. on 7 July 1992. John Paul II confirmed the healing as a miracle on 11 June 1992 while he later canonized her on 21 March 1993 in Saint Peter's Square.

In popular media
Her life was used for the a Chilean television miniseries spanning from 6 August until 10 September 1989 starring Paulina Urrutia as Teresa of Jesus. Other films have been made about her life.

She was also mentioned in the Young Pope,  a 2016 religious drama TV miniseries.

See also
 Constitutions of the Carmelite Order

References

External links
 Hagiography Circle
 Saints SQPN
 Santi e Beati
 Help Fellowship
 Discalced Carmelites of the Australia-Oceania Region
 Holy See

1900 births
1920 deaths
20th-century venerated Christians
20th-century Christian saints
20th-century Chilean people
20th-century Christian mystics
Beatifications by Pope John Paul II
Burials in Chile
Canonizations by Pope John Paul II
Carmelite saints
Christian female saints of the Late Modern era
Chilean Roman Catholic religious sisters and nuns
Chilean Roman Catholic saints
Deaths from typhus
Discalced Carmelite nuns
People from Santiago
Venerated Carmelites
Venerated Catholics by Pope John Paul II
Carmelite mystics

Teresa of the Andes


China Cotton Association (CCA) is a Chinese non-profit federation specializing in cotton, which is voluntarily established by cotton farmers, cotton farmers' cooperative organizations, enterprises engaged in cotton production, purchase, processing and operation, cotton textile enterprises, cotton research institutes and other organs and which accepts the supervision and management of the Chinese Ministry of Civil Affairs and the professional guidance of the All-China Federation of Supply and Marketing Cooperatives.

Function of CCA
The CCA is made up of players from the cotton sector, cotton farm groups, those in the cotton production sector, buyers, sub-contractors, vendors, exporters, warehousing companies, the clothing industry and cotton research organizations.

Members of the association are either organizations or businesses working in the cotton sector that wish to participate in a Chinese consultation structure. Set up in September 2003, the association has since actively developed numerous service and conciliation activities, set up a code of ethics and internal regulations as well as professional protection services within the sector.

The association has become one of the major partners and an important relay between official organizations, governmental structures and agricultural and industrial players in the Chinese cotton sector.

It is a major player in the steady and stable development of the Chinese cotton sector. Over the last four years, it has established numerous working relationships and many regular exchanges with international organizations in the cotton trade and industry in the main producer and cotton-buying countries worldwide.

Industry
China is the largest cotton producing country in the world (35.8 million bales, 2007)
China has about 24 million cotton farmers
7,500 textile companies which produce an estimated RMB 488 billion of cotton cloth
Chinese cotton production requires an average 3,000 to 5,000 cubic metres of water per hectare
30–40% of all pesticides applied in China are applied to cotton, making it the most heavily treated agricultural crop.
Xinjiang is the country's top cotton growing area.

Chinese cotton sector
Chinese cotton production in 2006 related to a planted area of nearly five and a half million hectares (5,410,000 hectares), i.e. eighty one million 'mous' (a 'mou' is the traditional area unit used in rural China, which is about a fifteenth of a hectare ) (81,130,000 'mous'). According to the official Chinese Statistics Office figures, production in 2006 was 6,730,000 tonnes. Of this, a third of the production came from the Xinjiang province, 2,180,000 tonnes. Based on these production figures, it is estimated that it was needed to import 4,300,000 tonnes of cotton in order to meet the demand, but in fact between September 2006 and August 2007 (which is the annual cotton season in China) the country only had to import 2,280,000 tonnes of cotton, i.e. 47% less than predicted. Two million tonnes less than predicted. Actual production in Xinjiang was over 3,200,000 tonnes of cotton. Production in China is in the region of 7,700,000 tonnes.they take the cotton to a machine that will ship it and then makes it into the thread they need to make cotton.

Mill production is increasing quite rapidly. According to the Chinese Statistics Office, between September 2006 and August 2007 China produced 19,030,000 tonnes of yarn. It is up 18.8%, but is however an increase that is 8 points down on the same period in the previous year.

According to a study undertaken by the Chinese Cotton Association, in 2007 in China the planted area of cotton was 82,600,000 'mous' (around 5 and a half million hectares), a slight increase on the previous year. Production forecasts anticipate production remaining stable against the previous year, with perhaps a slight increase to reach around 7,700,000 tonnes once again.

Demand in China is constantly increasing. Specialists estimate that textile production for 2007 will continue to grow. It is thought that the production of cotton thread will increase 10% to reach around 21 million tonnes. With a cotton requirement of 12 million tonnes, China needs to import around 4 million tonnes of cotton.

Further reading
China's Cotton Supply and Demand: Issues and Impact on the World Market Outlook Report No. (CWS-07I-01) 20 pp, November 2007
China - cotton production - U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Economic Research Service report World Cotton Situation,  Oct, 1991
Cotton Textiles in China: Chronology and Economic Overview by Kenneth Pomeranz
Cotton Textiles in China, 1650–2003
A study on rational location of the cotton production in China

See also
Cotton
Agriculture in China
History of agriculture in the People's Republic of China
Cotton paper
Organic cotton

External links
 China Cotton Association - official website
 www.cottonchina.org - China Cotton Index & Commodity Trading Exchange
 China Cotton Textile Association
 China National Textile & Apparel Council
 Committee for International Co-operation between Cotton Associations - China became its 17th member in February 2007

Cotton organizations
Industry in China
Cooperatives in China
Textile industry of China
Agricultural organizations based in China
Textile industry associations

China Cotton Association


Privas (;  , also ) is a city located in France, in the department of Ardèche.

With its 8,465 inhabitants (2019), it is the least populated prefecture (capital of a department).

It was the location of the 1629 Siege of Privas. Today, Privas is known for the purée made from the local chestnuts, and for its sweetened marron glacé.

History
The earliest traces of the commune are attested in the hamlet of Lac where recent archaeological excavations have revealed a Roman villa dating to the beginning of the Empire, as well as a medieval burying-ground. Moulds for counterfeiting coinage found in the 19th century on the slopes of Mont-Toulon had not been interpretable as signifying a local centre of population.

Privas possibly comes from the old Gallic word briva meaning thoroughfare, or more specifically a wooden causeway over a ravine or water. This may refer to a river crossing now spanned by the Pont Louis XIII, just to the south of the town centre. Privas inhabitants are called Privadois.

The earliest bourg of Privas developed around the church of Saint-Thomas (place de la République), a dependency of the Cluniac priory of Rompon. The château (castri) of Privas on the site of the present collège-couvent des Récollets is not attested prior to the 13th century, when the town was walled. Laid waste in 1621 and again following the siege of 1629, nothing of it remains.

In the twelfth century Privas belonged to the seigneurie of the Poitiers-Valentinois, comtes de Valence, whose liege lords were the counts of Toulouse. Aymar de Poitiers, in 1281, and his son in 1309, granted charters to the town, guaranteeing its traditional liberties, and its fiscal, economic and military rights.

In the 13th century the town expanded from two originals centres, Bize and Clastre, to develop on the level towards the east, in two new quarters, Claux and Mazel.

In the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation took swift and deep roots in Privas, among common people, the high bourgeoisie and the nobles alike. Fierce repression was organized: many Protestant inhabitants were killed, and others fled to Geneva. Nevertheless, the reform movement spread, and for nearly seventy years no Catholic mass was said at Privas, where the church itself was demolished in 1570 and the French garrison refused entry. There were no Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacres at Privas.

Though the king's mistress Diane de Poitiers was made baronne of Chalencon and of Privas, and in 1566 the barony was divided between her two daughters, the elder retaining the honour of Privas, in the French Wars of Religion Privas remained a major centre of Huguenots, called the "Rampart of Reform", and the "Geneva of the country", a symbol of resistance to the Catholic monarchy. The seigneurie was sold to Jacques de Chambaud, a head of the Protestants, who became the first Huguenot seigneur of Privas.

In the Huguenot rebellions of 1621–29, Privas was besieged in 1629 by royal forces, with Louis XIII in attendance. Defended by Montbrun with 800 men, the city was taken and destroyed.

During the siege of 1629, the town of Privas was well defended by walls and ditches. Privas also has gorges to its south, east and north that provide a natural defence. Given this topography, the Huguenots in the town did not believe that a strong attack from the east was possible. Nevertheless, on 22 May, the Swiss mercenaries of the attacking Royalist Catholic army of Cardinal Richelieu managed to haul by hand six huge pieces of artillery, each weighing about four tons, from Tauléac across the Ouvèze river and up the zig-zag path onto the plateau of Le Vanel, to the east of the town walls. From this decisive vantage point they bombarded the town until its surviving defenders were forced to evacuate and take their last stand on Mont Toulon on its west. During the siege, five hundred Royalist attackers and one thousand Protestant defenders were killed. Surviving defenders were executed, imprisoned, or deported to be galley slaves. By fire or cannon, the majority of the buildings in the town were destroyed. Privas was a ghost town for many years after. It is estimated that as a result of the defeat of the Huguenots in the region, one-fifth of the Protestant population of the Ardèche emigrated. After the defeat of the Camisard revolt (1702–1715) a further 50,000 Archèche Protestants left France. Many fled to England or Switzerland.

During the French Revolution in the 1790s a guillotine was erected in the Place de la République. A number of clerics were executed. With the administrative reordering of the French Revolution, Privas, in alternation with Annonay, Aubenas, Bourg-Saint-Andéol and Tournon-sur-Rhône, became an administrative centre of Ardèche. After a brief interval as chef-lieu of its district, it was attached to the district of Coiron.

Before about 1870 only a minority of people in the area spoke (or even referred to themselves as) French. They spoke a Provençal-Occitan patois, similar to Catalan. 'Les français' were the incomers or the educated middle-class, who spoke French as their main language. There was also a cultural divide between the people of the Ardèche plateau (known as Padgels) and the valley inhabitants (known as a Royols).

Economy

In the nineteenth century the town hosted a number of water-powered silk mills. Iron-ore mining was also a major activity, in the Ouvèze valley to the west of Privas. But mining had declined to the point of extinction by the First World War and the silk industry was mostly extinct by the Second. The town used to be linked to the main railway system by a branch line railway, and there were tramways to both Aubenas and Le Pouzin. These rail communications no longer exist. Privas's most famous products today are sugared chestnuts. A little wine is also produced in the area.

As a town and a préfecture, many people are employed as administrators. But local employment in the préfecture has been declining since the 1990s because of the amalgamation of many services within the Ardèche and Drôme départements. Tourism is a more vibrant sector for employment.

Tourism

Privas has hotel accommodation, gîtes and camping sites. There are many local walks and other recreational activities. It is also a noted area for fossils. Situated with easy access to both the Rhône Valley and the Ardèche Gorges, tourist activity is increasing in the district.

Population

Personalities
The French historian and Trotskyist Pierre Broué was born in Privas.
The French footballer Cyril Théréau was born in Privas.
The writer Dominique Dunois (1876–1959), winner of the 1928 edition of the Prix Femina, died in Privas.
The Huguenots Marie Durand and her brother Pierre were born in Le Bouchet just north of Privas

International relations
Privas is twinned with:
  Tortona, Italy
  Weilburg, Germany
  Wetherby, United Kingdom
  Zevenaar, Netherlands

See also
Communes of the Ardèche department

References

External links
Official website

Communes of Ardèche
Prefectures in France
Vivarais
Ardèche communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia

Privas


Stanisław Jackowski (1887 in Warsaw – 1951 in Katowice) was a Polish sculptor, and nephew of novelist Bolesław Prus. In 1909-11 Jackowski studied sculpture at the Academy of Fine Arts in Kraków (Akademia Sztuk Pięknych) under Konstanty Laszczka, as well as the history of art at Kraków University.  In 1911-12 he attended the Académie Colarossi in Paris, France.

Stanisław Jackowski was born in 1887 to Polish parents in Warsaw, in the part of Poland then ruled by the Russian Empire following the Partitions of Poland.

Jackowski completed his art studies before the First World War in Kraków, the Austrian-ruled part of Poland, and throughout the Interwar period lived and worked in Warsaw.  He was a member, and for many years president, of the Rzeźba (Sculpture) Society.

Jackowski died in 1951 in Katowice, Poland.

Works
In 1912 Jackowski designed the Powązki Cemetery tomb of his uncle, novelist Bolesław Prus.  The monument bears on three sides, respectively, the writer's actual name Aleksander Głowacki, his dates of birth and death, and his pen name Bolesław Prus.  On the fourth side is the inscription "Serce serc" ("Heart of hearts"), borrowed from the Latin inscription "Cor cordium" on the tomb of English Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley in Rome's Protestant Cemetery; and below this inscription is the figure of a little girl embracing Prus' tomb — a figure emblematic of Prus' well-known empathy and affection for children.

Jackowski created over a dozen monuments, including those of Tadeusz Kościuszko and Jan Kiliński in Warsaw.

He also designed many portraits in marble and bronze, including the 1936 memorial to Bolesław Prus in Warsaw's Holy Cross Church.  Set into the marble plaque is a bronze bas-relief profile of Prus, his actual and pen names, dates of birth and death, and the inscription, "great writer and teacher of the nation."

Jackowski also produced a series of sculptures, Tańcerka (Dancer), one of which, created in 1927, stands in Warsaw's Skaryszewski Park.

See also
List of Polish artists

Notes and references

Katalog rzeźb Stanisława Jackowskiego (Catalog of Sculptures by Stanisław Jackowski), Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie (Society of Friends of the Fine Arts in Kraków), Kraków, 1951.
Dariusz Kaczmarczyk, Rzeźba polska od XVI do początku XX wieku:  Katalog zbiorów Muzeum Narodowego w Warszawie (Polish Sculpture from the 16th to the Beginning of the 20th Century:  Catalog of Collections of the National Museum in Warsaw), Warsaw, 1973.
Hanna Kubaszewska, Słownik artystów polskich i obcych w Polsce działających:  Malarze, rzeżbiarze, graficy (Dictionary of Polish and Foreign Artists Active in Poland:  Painters, Sculptors, Graphic Artists), vol. 3, Wrocław, 1979.
Miłosz Kotarbiński, "Kilka luźnych wspomnień o Bolesławie Prusie" ("Several Loose Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus"), in Stanisław Fita, ed., Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie (Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus), Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1962, pp. 147–48, 151.
Tadeusz Hiż, "Godzina u pani Oktawii" ("An Hour at Oktawia Głowacka's"), in Stanisław Fita, ed., Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie (Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus), Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1962, p. 279.
Gabriela Pauszer-Klonowska, Ostatnia miłość w życiu Bolesława Prusa (The Last Love in the Life of Bolesław Prus), Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1962.

1887 births
1951 deaths
Artists from Warsaw
20th-century Polish sculptors
Polish male sculptors
20th-century male artists
Académie Colarossi alumni

Stanisław Jackowski


Else Frenkel-Brunswik (August 18, 1908, in Lemberg – March 31, 1958, in Berkeley, California, US) was a Polish-born Austrian Jewish psychologist. She was forced to leave Poland and later Austria as a result of anti-Jewish persecution. She is best known for her contributions to The Authoritarian Personality (1950), her collaboration with Theodor W. Adorno, Daniel Levinson, and Nevitt Sanford. It is considered a milestone work  in personality theory and social psychology.

Early life in Europe
Else Frenkel was born August 18, 1908, in Lemberg, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the second of three daughters of Jewish department store owner Abraham Frenkel and his wife Helene Frenkel. In 1914, her family moved from Galicia to Vienna to escape the pogrom.

They went to Vienna, where Else completed her Doctorate dissertation under supervision of Karl Bühler at the University of Vienna in 1930. Her thesis topic was Das Associationsprinzip in der Psychologie. She held an associate professorship at the Psychological Institute from 1931 to 1938, working as a research assistant to Charlotte Bühler. She went through psychoanalysis with Ernst Kris.

In 1938, after the Anschluss, she had to leave Austria.

Life in America
Like many of her peers of Jewish origin escaping Nazi persecution, Else made her way to the USA, where she became a citizen in 1938. In the same year she married Egon Brunswik, Bühler's former student who had joined the faculty of Berkeley in 1937.

From 1939 to 1958 Else Frenkel-Brunswik worked as a research associate at the Institute of Child Welfare, Department of Psychology of the University of California at Berkeley.  Else Frenkel initially worked in the area of personality studies. Mechanisms of Self-Deception (1939) explained the tenets of psychoanalysis to an American audience.

As part of the Berkeley Public Opinion Study (University of California), she studied antisemitism, working with Theodor W. Adorno,  social psychologist R. Nevitt Sanford and the psychiatrist and psychologist Daniel J. Levinson, who had been one of her students. The work was supported by the American Jewish Committee. Their research identified anti-Semitism as the outcome of a more general ethnocentrism characterized by an authoritarian personality structure that was intolerant of ambiguity. Such individuals were unable to genuinely experience the self and others, instead seeking power and success and relying on rigid stereotypes to ensure order and safety.

In 1950, as product of her collaboration with Theodor W. Adorno, Daniel Levinson, and Nevitt Sanford, The Authoritarian Personality appeared. It is a milestone work  in social psychology. Her experience in psychoanalysis and personality studies were crucial to the research project.

In 1950, she went to the University of Oslo as a visiting lecturer and research consultant. In 1954–1955 she held a fellowship at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University.

In 1955, her husband Egon committed suicide after a long illness. This deeply impacted Else' professional and personal life. Although she was unanimously elected to a full professorship in the psychology department at Berkeley, after her husband no longer was employed there, the recognition brought her little comfort.  She suffered from severe depression and committed suicide 31 March 1958 by overdose of barbital.

Her biography is included into prestigious  Notable American Women  collection.

Writings
 Else Frenkel, Edith Weisskopf: Desire and Duty in the Structure of Human Life. Gerold & Co., Vienna 1937 (Psychological research on the CV. Edited by Charlotte Bühler and Else Frenkel. Volume 1).
 Else Frenkel-Brunswik: Motivation and Behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs. Vol. 26, 1942, pp 121–265.
 Theodor W. Adorno, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel J. Levinson, R. Nevitt Sanford: The Authoritarian Personality . New Harper and Brothers, New York the 1950s.
 Else Frenkel-Brunswik: Selected Papers. Edited by Nanette Heiman and Joan Grant. International Universities Press, New York 1974th
 Else Frenkel-Brunswik: Studies the Authoritarian Personality. Selected Writings (edited and introduced by Dietmar Paier). Library of social science emigrants. Vol. 3. Nausner and Nausner, Wien 1996.
 Else Frenkel-Brunswik, R. Nevitt Sanford: "The anti-Semitic personality. A research report". In: Erich Simmel (ed.): Anti-Semitism. Fischer, Frankfurt a.M., 1993, S, 119–147. (An earlier version of the Journal of Psychology, Vol. 20, 1945, pp 271–291).
 Nathan W. Ackerman, Theodor W. Adorno, Bruno Bettelheim, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Marie Jahoda, Morris Janowitz, Daniel J. Levinson, R. Nevitt Sanford: The Authoritarian Character. Volume 2: Studies on Authority and Prejudice. Amsterdam: De Munter, Amsterdam 1969.
 Dietmar Paier: "Else Frenkel-Brunswik 1908–1958". Archive for the History of Sociology in Austria. Newsletter (Graz), no. 13, June 1996 pp 9–11. (see[1] )

References

External links
 https://web.archive.org/web/20050226091336/http://www.kfunigraz.ac.at/sozwww/agsoe/bestand/25_agsoe/25bio.htm
 https://web.archive.org/web/20060719210557/http://www.kfunigraz.ac.at/sozwww/agsoe/archiv/arch_3c.htm
 http://www.webster.edu/~woolflm/frenkel.htm
 https://feministvoices.com/profiles/else-frenkel-brunswik
 Literature from Else Frenkel-Brunswik in the German National Library catalog

1908 births
1958 deaths
Austrian psychologists
American women psychologists
20th-century American psychologists
American women social scientists
Jewish American social scientists
Jews from Galicia (Eastern Europe)
Jewish emigrants from Austria after the Anschluss to the United States
20th-century American women scientists
Austrian women academics
Jewish women scientists
20th-century American Jews

Else Frenkel-Brunswik


Edmond de Caillou or Raymond de Caillou (also spelt Calhou, Calhau, Cailow; died 1316) was a Gascon knight who fought during the First War of Scottish Independence.

Life
Caillou is believed to have been a native of Bordeaux. It has also been suggested that he was a nephew of Piers Gaveston, Edward II of England's favourite. Certainly another nephew of Gaveston with the same name, Bertrand de Caillou, was working to secure Gaveston's position in early 1312. King Edward, like his father Edward I, as Duke of Aquitaine, used men such as Caillou, drawn from his French fiefs in his Scottish wars especially to man the frontier in such Castles such as Roxburgh and Berwick.

In some sources Caillou is described as the governor of Berwick Castle, but the governor at that time was Sir Maurice de Berkeley It is more likely that Caillou was the Captain of the Gascon troops within the garrison.

In 1315 the harvest failed in southern Scotland and Northern England and by winter the garrison at Berwick was at such extremity that they were forced to eat their horses, and was being affected by desertion. Caillou and others of the Gascons suggested a raid into Scots held territory to replenish the stores of the Castle, Berkeley refused his permission as the countryside was full of Scots soldiery, and his main commission was the defence of the town and castle of Berwick. Caillou and the others mutinied, saying it were better to die fighting than starve behind the walls.

On 14 February 1316, Caillou lead his men in a foray to within two leagues of Melrose Abbey, and split his men into companies to seize livestock and sufficient menfolk from the peasantry to herd them. Caillou's company once they had seized sufficient spoils returned towards Berwick driving the cattle before them. Caillou's progress was noted by Sir Adam de Gordon whose lands had been ravaged and he reported this to the King's lieutenant and Warden of the Marches, Sir James Douglas. Douglas with Sir William de Soulis, and Henry de Baliol of Branxholme, with a company of men rode after the Gascons, and came across them just north of the town of Coldstream. On hearing of the pursuit. Caillou ordered the cattle and prisoners on to Berwick, and formed up in battle line to meet Douglas. Douglas's force was faced by double the number of Gascons that had been reported to him, earlier accounts of the numbers of men having been underestimated because of their dispersal throughout the countryside.

Douglas drew his outnumbered men up behind a ford, and awaited the onslaught from the Gascons, Douglas and Caillou met at the first opportunity and mortal combat between them commenced. Caillou was slain by Douglas, and his men dispirited by the loss of their captain fled. Douglas was later to say that his fight against Caillou and his Gascons at the Battle of Skaithmuir was the toughest fight he had had in his career.

References

Notes

Sources
Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland, ed. Bain, J. Vol III, AD 1307–1357. Edinburgh 1887.
Balfour Paul, Sir James, Scots Peerage IX vols. Edinburgh 1904.
Davis, I.M., The Black Douglas. London 1974.
Barbour, J., The Brus ed.Mackenzie, W.M. London 1909.
Fraser, Sir William, The Douglas Book IV vols. Edinburgh 1885.
Haines, R.M, King Edward II: Edward of Caernarfon, his life, his reign, and its aftermath-1284-1330. McGill-Queens Univ. Press. 2003.
Maxwell, Sir Herbert, History of the House of Douglas II vols. London 1902
Michel, F.X.,Les Écossais en France, les Français en Écosse II vols. London 1862. (in French)
Ross, D.R., James the Good-The Black Douglas. Glasgow 2008.

1316 deaths
People of the Wars of Scottish Independence
English military personnel killed in action
Gascons
Military personnel from Bordeaux
13th-century births

Edmond de Caillou


Tuanaimato is a geographical area near Apia, Samoa.

It is the site of the one hundred acre Faleata Sporting Complex which houses, among other facilities, a 12,000 seater soccer stadium (home of Tuanaimato Breeze, a Samoan soccer team), a baseball stadium, hockey fields and an 'aquatic centre' (for swimming, diving, synchronised swimming and water polo).

The Tuanaimato area was also the venue for much of the 2007 South Pacific Games.

List of sports facilities
Archery field
Baseball field
Beach volleyball courts
Cricket oval
Gymnasium
Hockey fields
Lawn bowls Centre
Samoa Aquatic Centre
Softball Field
General sports Centre
Squash Courts
Toleafoa S.Blatter Soccer Stadium

External links
Faleata Sports Complex at the 2007 South Pacific Games website

Sports venues in Samoa
Tuamasaga

Tuanaimato


Minster is an honorific title given to particular churches in England, most notably York Minster in Yorkshire, Westminster Abbey in London and Southwell Minster in Nottinghamshire.

The term minster is first found in royal foundation charters of the 7th century, when it designated any settlement of clergy living a communal life and endowed by charter with the obligation of maintaining the daily office of prayer. Widespread in 10th-century England, minsters declined in importance with the systematic introduction of parishes and parish churches from the 11th century onwards. The term continued as a title of dignity in later medieval England, for instances where a cathedral, monastery, collegiate church or parish church had originated with an Anglo-Saxon foundation.

Eventually a minster came to refer more generally to "any large or important church, especially a collegiate or cathedral church". In the 21st century, the Church of England has designated additional minsters by bestowing the status on certain parish churches, the most recent elevation to minster status being St Mary Magdalene church in Taunton, Somerset on 13 March 2022, bringing the total number of current Church of England minsters to 31 (listed below).

Etymology
The word minster (Old English mynster) was a rendering of the Latin monasterium, from Greek "μοναστήριον" ("monasterion"). In early English sources, monasterium and mynster were used interchangeably. They were applied to all communities who had devoted their lives to Christian observance, regardless of the gender of the occupants or the activities in which said occupants typically engaged. Monasterium was for instance applied equally to a small community of men living away from other secular settlements, to a large community of men and women living in a planned enclosure designed around a church, and to a widow and her unmarried daughters living in seclusion.

The modern English term "monastery" does not express the same connotations as the Latin monasterium, from which it derives, or the Old English mynster. This is because the term has come to be associated with contemplative regularity, such as that observed by the Benedictine or Cistercian orders, although this does not apply to the situation in Anglo-Saxon England prior to the tenth century.

By the tenth century, a gradual distinction between a "church" and a "mynster" began to emerge. For instance, in the Leechdoms, the sixteenth day was propitious for establishing a mynster, and the sixth day of the moon for founding a church. This suggests that by the tenth and eleventh centuries, mynster was being used to refer to a "superior church" which was regarded as long-established and to which people paid their dues.

An early appearance was in the Ecclesiastical History of the Venerable Bede (731).

History

Early and mid Anglo-Saxon periods
The first minsters in the English-speaking parts of Britain were founded in the century after the mission to the Saxons led by Augustine of Canterbury in 597. The first cases for which documentary evidence has been preserved are Oswy's programme of 654/5, in which he endowed 12 small minsters, and a gift from Alhfrith to Wilfrid in around 660 to accompany the foundation of the minster at Ripon. An expansion of monasteries began around 670, with many substantial royal gifts of land. Kings made grants of land to named individuals to found a minster. In 734 Bede wrote a letter to Ecgbert (Archbishop of York), warning that noble families were abusing the privileged legal status accorded to the clergy, by making excessive landed endowments to minsters under their control. This reduced the overall stock of lands carrying the obligations of military service to the Northumbrian state.

Alan Thacker states:

The word derives from the Old English "mynster", meaning "monastery", "nunnery", "mother church" or "cathedral", itself derived from the Latin "monasterium" and the Ancient Greek "μοναστήριον", meaning a group of clergy where the Brothers would cloister themselves to meditate . Thus, "minster" could apply to any church whose clergy followed a formal rule: as for example a monastery or a chapter; or to a church served by a less formal group of clergy living communally. In the earliest days of the English Church, from the 6th to the 8th centuries, minsters, in their various forms, constituted the only form of Christian institution with a permanent site. At the beginning of the period, they were the only form of permanent collective settlement in a culture that had not developed towns or cities. Kings, nobles and bishops were continually on the move, with their respective retinues, from estate to estate.

Minsters were commonly founded by the king or by a royal thegn, receiving a royal charter and a corporate endowment of bookland and other customary agricultural rights and entitlements within a broad territory; as well as exemption from certain forms of customary service (especially military). The superior of the minster was generally from the family of the founder. The minster's primary purpose was to support the king and the thegn in the regular worship of the divine office; especially through intercession in times of war. Minsters are also said to have been founded, or extensively endowed, in expiation for royal crimes; as for example Minster-in-Thanet near Ramsgate. Minsters might acquire pastoral and missionary responsibilities, for instance the three minsters of north-east Herefordshire, Leominster, Bromyard and Ledbury, all active in their areas before the towns were founded on episcopal manors; but initially this appear to have been of secondary importance. In the 9th century, almost all English minsters suffered severely from the depredations of Viking invaders; and even when a body of clergy continued, any form of regular monastic life typically ceased. The important role of minsters in the organisation of the early Christian church in Anglo-Saxon England has been called the "Minster hypothesis".

Late Saxon and Norman periods
Following the English recovery in the 10th century, surviving minsters were often refounded in accordance with the new types of collective religious bodies then becoming widespread in Western Europe, as monasteries following the reformed Benedictine rule, or as collegiate churches or cathedral chapters following the rule of Chrodegang of Metz. Consequently, by the 11th century, a hierarchy of minsters became apparent; cathedral churches, or head minsters having pre-eminence within a diocese; surviving old minsters being pre-eminent within an area broadly equivalent to an administrative hundred; while newer lesser minsters and field churches were increasingly proliferating on local estates; the difference being that lesser minsters had graveyards, where field churches did not. Of particular importance for these developments, was the royal enforcement in this period of tithe as a compulsory religious levy on arable production. This vastly increased the resources available to support clergy; but at the same time strongly motivated local landowners to found their own local churches, so as to retain tithe income within their own estates.

In the 11th and 12th centuries former lesser minsters and field churches, typically served by individual priests, developed into the network of parishes familiar to this day. The old minsters mostly then were designated as parish churches. For these parish churches, their former pre-eminence was acknowledged by the occasional retention of the honorific title; and sometimes by the continued recognition of former estate churches within their ancient territories as being, in some degree, of subsidiary status and dignity. Otherwise however, old minsters might continue collective worship as collegiate churches; their clergy initially being designated as 'portioners', as each canon was supported by a set portion of the college's endowment income.  During the 11th and 12th centuries many such former minsters were provided with new statutes by which their endowments were split between their complement of canons, such that each canonry then became a 'prebend'; but otherwise numbers of former minsters continued as 'portioner' colleges through the medieval period.

Late-20th- and 21st-century additions
The Church of England has designated additional minsters in the 20th and 21st centuries, by adding an honorific title to existing parish churches. These have included Dewsbury (1994), Sunderland Minster (1998), Preston (2003), Rotherham (2004),  Stoke (2005), and  Newport (2008). St Andrew's Church, Plymouth became a minster church in late 2009. The Parish Church of St. John the Baptist in Halifax, West Yorkshire was elevated to minster status in November 2009. St James's Church in Grimsby was dedicated as a minster on 16 May 2010. Croydon Parish Church was rededicated as Croydon Minster on 29 May 2011 by the Bishop of Southwark. The elevation of two churches in the Diocese of Norwich was announced in October 2011: St Margaret's Church Kings Lynn and St Nicholas, Great Yarmouth. Leeds Parish Church became Leeds Minster on 2 September 2012. St Mary's Church, Cheltenham became Cheltenham Minster on 3 February 2013. Holy Trinity, Hull became a minster on 13 May 2017. The most recent elevation to minster status is St Mary Magdalene, Taunton, which became Taunton Minster on 13 March 2022.

Current

Footnotes

Sources

History of cathedrals
Churches in England
Types of church buildings

Minster (church)


A stock split or stock divide increases the number of shares in a company. For example, after a 2-for-1 split, each investor will own double the number of shares, and each share will be worth half as much.
A stock split causes a decrease of market price of individual shares, but does not change the total market capitalization of the company: stock dilution does not occur.

A company may split its stock when the market price per share is so high that it becomes unwieldy when traded. One of the reasons is that a very high share price may deter small investors from buying the shares. Stock splits are usually initiated after a large run up in share price.

Effects
The main effect of stock splits is an increase in the liquidity of a stock: there are more buyers and sellers for 10 shares at $10 than 1 share at $100.
Some companies avoid a stock split to obtain the opposite strategy: by refusing to split the stock and keeping the price high, they reduce trading volume. Berkshire Hathaway is a notable example of this. The company has never had a stock split and each share trades at over US$400,000.

Other effects could be psychological. If many investors believe that a stock split will result in an increased share price and purchase the stock the share price will tend to increase. Others contend that the management of a company, by initiating a stock split, is implicitly signaling its confidence in the future prospects of the company.

In a market where there is a high minimum number of shares, or a penalty for trading in so-called odd lots (a non multiple of some arbitrary number of shares), a reduced share price may attract more attention from small investors. Small investors such as these, however, will have negligible impact on the overall price.

Split ratios
Ratios of 2-for-1, 3-for-1, and 3-for-2 splits are the most common, but any ratio is possible. Splits of 4-for-3, 5-for-2, and 5-for-4 are used, though less frequently. Investors will sometimes receive cash payments in lieu of fractional shares.

In the above examples 'y-for-x' Shows the number of shares before (x) and after (y).  Other common reporting nomenclatures are 'x-y' and 'stock dividend' of [=]y-x. In the above '3-for-1' example (or 1-3 and 2 share stock dividend) would mean a stockholder holding 100 shares (on record date) will receive 200 new shares after the split for those 100 shares.

Example
A company which has 100 issued shares priced at $50 per share, has a market capitalization of $5000 = 100 × $50. If the company splits its stock 2-for-1, there are now 200 shares of stock and each shareholder holds twice as many shares. The price of each share is adjusted to $25 = $5000 / 200. The market capitalization is 200 × $25 = $5000, the same as before the split.

Currency
The analog in currency would be redenomination. This would be where a currency increases in value so that people have to use small fractions. Then a new unit (such as dollar) can be introduced, such that an old unit is equal to 10 (or some number) new units.

An example is with the Australian currency. In 1966 the Australian pound was split into two Australian dollars.

Effect on historical charts
When a stock splits, many charts show it similarly to a dividend payout and therefore do not show a dramatic dip in price. Taking the same example as above, a company with 100 shares of stock priced at $50 per share. The company splits its stock 2-for-1. There are now 200 shares of stock and each shareholder holds twice as many shares.

The price of each share is adjusted to $25. As a result, when looking at a historical chart, one might expect to see the stock dropping from $50 to $25. To avoid these discontinuities, many charts use what is known as an adjusted share price; that is, they divide all closing prices before the split by the split ratio. Thus, when looking at the charts it will seem as if the price was always $25. Both the Yahoo! historical price charts and the Google historical price charts show the adjusted close prices.

See also
Reverse stock split
Share repurchase also known as stock buyback
Market depth

References

Stock market
Corporate finance
he:הון מניות#פיצול ואיחוד מניות

Stock split


Žemaičių Kalvarija (Samogitian: Žemaitiu Kalvarėjė, , ) is a town in Plungė district municipality, Lithuania. It is known as a major site for Catholic pilgrimage.

Every July the town hosts a large Church festival, known as the Great Žemaičių Kalvarija Festival. It attracts many tourists from all over Lithuania and abroad. It is one of the few "must visit" locations for most Roman Catholics of Lithuania. The main church of the town boasts a sculpture of crucified Jesus and picture of St. Maria, which was brought to this town in middle of 17th century from Rome. The picture is considered to be saintly.

History of the name
This place was mentioned in 1253 as Garde (Gardaí). In the 17th century, when the main church and road of cross was built, people started  calling it the New Jerusalem, but after some time it was named Kalvarija after the name of the hill where Jesus was crucified. In the 20th century, the town was renamed to Žemaičių Kalvarija to avoid misunderstandings, because there is another town in south-west of Lithuania called Kalvarija.

During the Soviet years, 1964–1989, the town was renamed to Varduva after Varduva river that flows near the town. At that time, people, who visited this place as pilgrims were persecuted by KGB. Only in 1989 town's name was restored back to its historic name Žemaičių Kalvarija.

The Great Žemaičių Kalvarija Church Festival

The Great Žemaičių Kalvarija Church Festival (, Samogitian: Dėdlė̄jė Žemaitiu Kalvarėjės atlaidā) takes place every June. There are 21 Stations of the Cross in this town. Undertaking the station of the cross is a very important procession for a Catholic, it should be done often. It is one of the most important pilgrimage routes for Roman Catholics. This festival dates back to 1742. The Pope is the main guardian and supporter of this festival.

During the festival there are days dedicated to youth. Many events take place, which may serve spiritual needs of young people. There are special Masses held, dedicated to youth and children.

The festival attracts many tourists from Samogitia and Lithuania, many Catholic churches in Lithuania organize trips for people. Since 2004 there were more tourists and pilgrims coming from the EU States, especially  from Poland, Ireland, Germany and Spain.

Transport
There are regular bus services to the town from Klaipėda and Plungė. The Closest airports are Palanga International Airport (Lithuania), Riga International Airport, Kaunas Airport and Liepāja International Airport (Latvia).

External links

 Žemaičių Kalvarija pictures
 Former Dominican abbey
 Maps
 Žemaičių Kalvarija as Sacret place
 Town's history (in Lithuanian)

Towns in Lithuania
Towns in Telšiai County
Catholic pilgrimage sites
Duchy of Samogitia
Kovno Governorate
Plungė District Municipality

Žemaičių Kalvarija


The Symphony No. 94 in G major is a symphony by Joseph Haydn. It was first performed in London on 23 March 1792 under Haydn's direction. It is nicknamed the Surprise Symphony. The symphony's nickname is derived from the sudden loud chord played by the entire orchestra in the second movement. This movement is a set of variations on a sweet, gentle theme. The chord was Haydn's afterthought; it does not appear in the manuscript. One theory suggests Haydn inserted this loud chord saying, "That will make the ladies jump!". Another theory suggests he inserted it to wake up the music lovers who had dozed off after their dinners and drinks. Another theory suggests he inserted it to make the symphony memorable in light of the competition he faced from a series of London concerts directed by Ignaz Pleyel.

References
 Woodstra, Chris, et. al. 2005. All Music Guide to Classical Music. All Media Guide, LLC. pp. 574–575.

Symphony 094

Symphony No. 94 (Haydn)


Methoxyflurane (brand name: Penthrox) is an Australian liquid analgesic (a painkiller) which turns into a gas when it is exposed to the air.

It is breathed in through a special inhaler which is known in some places as the "Big Green Whistle".  It makes a slight whistling noise when the patient breathes through it.

The patient takes the medicine themselves in the presence of someone trained in its use. It can make them feel sick (nausea) or cause them to be sick (vomit). It also causes dizziness.

Analgesics
Organochlorides
Organofluorides

Methoxyflurane


An alarm is something used to alert people quickly to something. Most alarms use loud noises and/or flashing lights. Some alarms may use other ways of attracting peoples attention quickly, such as turning off loud machinery, shaking a bed or pillow.

Types of alarms
 Alarm clock - A clock designed to make noise to wake up people.
 Burglar alarm - An alarm that sounds if a person tries to enter a building without permission.
 Siren on an emergency vehicle (ambulance, fire truck, police car).
 Severe weather sirens - Used to warn of severe weather, such as tornadoes or tsunamis.
 Klaxon - A type of siren, known for it's distinct sound. Often found on submarines.
 Fire alarm - An alarm for warning of fire inside of a building.

Electronics

Alarm


Minna Bluff is a rocky promontory at the eastern end of a volcanic Antarctic peninsula projecting deep into the Ross Ice Shelf at .  It forms a long, narrow arm which culminates in a south-pointing hook feature (Minna Hook), and is the subject of research into Antarctic cryosphere history, funded by the National Science Foundation, Office of Polar Programs.

The bluff is mentioned repeatedly in the history of Antarctic exploration.  It was first sighted in June 1902, during Captain Robert Falcon Scott's Discovery Expedition, 1901–04.  It was thereafter recognised as a key landmark and location for vital supply depots for southern journeys towards the South Pole.  Originally identified simply as "the Bluff", it was later named by Scott after the wife of Royal Geographical Society former president Sir Clements Markham.

Every expedition that followed Scott on this route after his pioneering journey (including Ernest Shackleton in 1908, Scott himself in 1911 and Shackleton's Ross Sea party in 1914-16) used Minna Bluff to position depots and as a critical marker to guide homeward journeys.  Because of the state of the ice in its immediate vicinity, the polar route was established some  to its east, depots being laid on this route within sight of the Bluff.

The researches of George Simpson, meteorologist on Scott's Terra Nova Expedition established that Minna Bluff has an effect on polar weather.  The mass of the Bluff deflects eastward the southerly winds which sweep along the Ross Ice Shelf's eastern edge, and this deflection is then divided when the winds reach Ross Island some  further north. One stream sweeps into McMurdo Sound, the other goes eastward to Cape Crozier. This division of the wind direction is, among other consequences, the cause of the "windless bight" area on the southern coast of Ross Island, an exceptionally cold area of fogs and low winds, encountered on various land journeys between McMurdo Sound and Cape Crozier undertaken on Scott's two expeditions.

The bluff is often regarded as the southernmost point of Victoria Land, and separates the Scott Coast to the north from the Hillary Coast of the Ross Dependency to the south.

Minna Hook () is a massive hook-shaped volcanic feature, 9 nautical miles (17 km) long and rising to , that forms the southeast termination of the peninsula named Minna Bluff at the south end of Scott Coast. The name derives from Minna Bluff and was first used in a geologic sketch map and report by Anne Wright-Grassham in 1987.

Minna Saddle () is a sweeping snow saddle, several miles long and wide, at the junction of Minna Bluff and the east slopes of Mount Discovery. It was named in 1958 for its association with Minna Bluff by the New Zealand party of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1956-58.

See also
Eady Ice Piedmont, lying south of Mount Discovery and Minna Bluff
Moore Embayment, between Shults Peninsula and Minna Bluff

References

Sources

External links
 Collaborative Research: Late Cenozoic Volcanism and Glaciation at Minna Bluff, Antarctica:  Implications for Antarctic Cryosphere History

Cliffs of Victoria Land
Cliffs of the Ross Dependency
Scott Coast
Hillary Coast

Minna Bluff


Clement Hall Sinnickson (September 16, 1834 – July 24, 1919), was an American Republican Party politician, who served in the United States House of Representatives, where he represented New Jersey's 1st congressional district from 1875 to 1879. He is the grandnephew of Thomas Sinnickson, who was also a former Representative from New Jersey.

Born in Salem, New Jersey, he attended private schools, and the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, before graduating from Union College, New York, in 1855. While at Union he became a member of Theta Delta Chi. After his collegiate career, he studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1858, commencing the practice of law in Salem. During the Civil War Sinnickson served as Captain in the Union Army. He was elected as a Republican to the Forty-fourth and Forty-fifth United States Congresses, serving in office from March 4, 1875, to March 3, 1879. After his stint in Washington, he resumed the practice of law in Salem. He also served as a delegate to the 1880 Republican National Convention, and he was appointed judge of the Court of Common Pleas in 1896 and reappointed in 1901 and 1906.

Sinnickson died in Salem, New Jersey on July 24, 1919, and was interred at St. John's Episcopal Cemetery.

External links

Biography for Clement Hall Sinnickson from The Political Graveyard

1834 births
New Jersey lawyers
New Jersey state court judges
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute alumni
People from Salem, New Jersey
1919 deaths
Union College (New York) alumni
Burials at St. John's Episcopal Cemetery, Salem, New Jersey
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from New Jersey
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American judges
19th-century American lawyers

Clement Hall Sinnickson


The Gods Are Not To Blame is a  1968 play and a 1971 novel by Ola Rotimi.  An adaptation of the Greek classic Oedipus Rex, the story centres on Odewale, who is lured into a false sense of security, only to somehow get caught up in a somewhat consanguineous trail of events by the gods of the land.

The novel is set in an indeterminate period of a Yoruba kingdom. This reworking of Oedipus Rex was part of the African Arts (Arts d'Afrique) playwriting contest in 1969. Rotimi's play has been celebrated on two counts: at first scintillating as theatre and later accruing a significant literary aura. This article focuses specifically on the 1968 play.

Characters

Odewale: The king of Kutuje, who had risen to power by unknowingly murdering the old king, King Adetusa, whom, also not to his knowledge, was his father. The manner in which he kills his father is revealed in a flashback when his childhood friend, Alaka, comes to Kutuje to ask him why he was not in the village of Ede as he said he would be when he departed at age thirteen. Similar in nature to the Greek play, Oedipus Tyrannus his royal parents receive a prophecy from Baba Fakunle that Odewale would grow up to kill his parents. To prevent this from occurring, King Adetusa orders for Odewale to be killed. Instead, he is wrapped in a white cloth (symbolizing death) and left in a bush far from Kutuje. He is found and picked up by a farmer hunter Ogundele  and raised by him along with his wife Mobe. Odewale is confronted by Gbonka, a messenger, who tells of the event that lead to King Adetusa's end. Along with the Ogun Priest, it is revealed to him that the old king was his father, and that Ojuola was his mother.

 Ojuola: Wife of the late King Adetusa. Current wife of King Odewale. She is the mother of six children: two under King Adetusa (Odewale and Aderepo), and four under King Odewale (Adewale, Adebisi, Oyeyemi, Adeyinka). She was given a prophecy, along with King Adetusa, that their child, Odewale, would one day grow up to usurp the thrown, killing his father and marry his mother. As the queen of the kingdom of Kutuje, she finds herself serving as Odewale's conscience, calming him when he begins to act irrationally. When it is revealed by the Ogun Priest that Ojuola is, in fact, Odewale's mother, she goes to her bedroom and kills herself.

 Aderopo: Brother of Odewale, and son of King Adetusa and Ojuola. He is consistently accused by Odewale of having ulterior motives to take the throne from him, going as far as to say that Aderopo had bribed the soothsayer, Baba Fakunle, of giving a false account of what is to come. Aderopo is also accused of spreading the rumor that Odewale was the one who murdered the old king, Adetusa.

King Adetusa: Former king of Kutuje. Despite his best efforts to curb the prophecy that his child, Odewale, would grow up to take the throne by murdering him, he is inevitably slain when he encounters his son, now fully grown, in the village of Ede.

Baba Fakunle: A blind, old man, Baba Fakunle serves as a soothsayer to those who seek him. He is summoned by Odewale to ask of a way to rid the suffering of his kingdom. Baba Fakunle tells him that the source of the kingdom's ails lay with him. After a dispute, Baba Fakunle calls Odewale a "murderer," alluding to the assault that occurred on the yam patch in Ede, in which Odewale kills King Adetusa, unknowingly his father.

Alaka: Odewale's childhood friend. Alaka hails from the village of Ishokun. He comes to Kutuje to tell Odewale that the man he called father had passed two years prior and that his mother, though old, was still in good health. It is during the course of the play that Odewale reveals to Alaka why it was that he left the village of Ede, where Odewale said he would live after leaving Ishokun when he was thirteen.

Gbonka: The former messenger of the late King Adetusa. Gbonka was present when King Adetusa was slain at the hands of Odewale. Near the play's end, Gbonka retells this event to Odewale, which leads to the discovery that Odewale was in fact the son of the former king, and the son of the current queen, and his birth mother, Ojuola.

Plot

 Number of Acts and Scenes
The play consists of three acts and ten scenes as follows;

Act 1 : 2 scenes

Act 2 : 4 scenes

Act 3 : 4 scenes

Prologue

Ola Rotimi's The Gods Are Not To Blame is the series of unfortunate events that occur in King Odewale's life. Rotimi seals Odewale's fate by having an omen placed over his life at birth. Odewale's horrible fate, whether it had been the Seer being silent, or even his parents not ordering his death.

Act I

Odewale storms Kutuje with his chiefs flanking by his side, and is declared King by the town's first chief. The King expresses sympathy to the townspeople for the illness that has been plaguing them. He brings his sick children for the town to see,  that  way they know that his family is also suffering. Aderopo  gives good news to Odewale from Orunmila concerning the sickness going around the kingdom, but along with the good news comes the bad. Odewale learns that there is a curse on the land, and in order for the sickness to stop going around the curse has to be purged. Odewale finds out that the man who is cursed killed King Adetusa I.

Act II

The village elders gather round to discuss the allegations that have been made against Odewale. A blind soothsayer, Baba Fakunle, is brought in to share with Odewale the murderer of the old king. Odewale begins to make accusations of a plot being made against him, spearheaded by Aderopo, to one of the village chiefs in response to Baba Fakunle's silence. Aderopo arrives and is immediately confronted by Odewale about his suspicions. Aderopo denies the allegations, and Odewale calls forth the Priest of Ogun. Odewale banishes Aderopo from the kingdom.

Act III

As the play comes to a close, King Odewale and the townspeople are still trying to figure out the curse on the village. At this point we are introduced to Alaka, who claims to have known King Odewale since before he came to conquer Kutuje. Odewale confesses that his life spiraled out of control when he killed a man. Later, Ojuola explains that Baba Fakunle made her kill her first born son, convinced that her first son had brought bad luck. Odewale says to the land that the biggest trouble today is not their sickness but instead the plague in their hearts. In the last part Odewale leaves. Odewale brings real facts to the people of the land. Odewale closes the play by stating, ″the gods have lied″ Nathaniel.

Theme and motifs
African symbolism

In The God's Are Not To Blame, Rotimi incorporates many themes, such as culture and its connection with the form of the social structure of an African community. The culture represents "the way of life for an entire society", as noted in Pragmatic Functions of Crisis – Motivated Proverbs in Ola Rotimi's The Gods Are Not to Blame. All the messages conveyed, although bring the play together and provide the audience with insightful readings, the play may also serve as a symbol as to how some of the African societies model the structure presented in the play. The practices exhibited in Yoruban culture show the structure of both a social and economical factors. The leadership in the play forms a comparison to that of the King and many of the townspeople. One finds that their roles compared to King Odewale's serve as a primary example of the social aspect. In the economic structure, one observes the resources the Yoruban culture considers vital to maintain wellness and health. During their time of sickness, the townspeople solely depend on the herbs used as an attempt to cure the "curse" put on the people.

Yoruba culture and influences

The Gods Are Not to Blame is influenced by Yoruba and Yoruban culture. Ola Rotimi had an immense knowledge and interest in African cultures, as indicated in his ability to speak several ethnic languages, such as Yoruba, Ijaw, Hausa, and pidgin. In his work, Rotimi took traditional Yoruban myths, songs, and other traditional African elements, and applied it to the Greek tragedy structure.

The comical character Alaka, for example, represents Odewale's childhood growing up in the village of Ishokun. Ishokun, in the play, is a small farming village, wherein Odewale learned to harvest yams. By juxtaposing Alaka in Odewale's new environment, Kutuje, Rotimi illustrates the cultural differences between traditional Yoruban life, with that of the industrialized west. Rotimi, in response to the Nigerian Civil War, says that the root cause of the strife among Nigerians, of the bloodshed, was in their lingering mutual ethnic distrust which culminate in open hostility. He says that in post-colonial Africa, much of the blame over the suffering incurred by native Africans was the result of the colonial powers. To this Rotimi argues that while some of the suffering may have been the result of attempted colonial conquests, the lingering animosity that is felt and dispersed among fellow Nigerians, by fellow Nigerians, cannot be blamed solely on an outside party. He felt that the future of Nigerian culture cannot continue to be blamed forces from the past, much like Odewale would blame the suffering of his people, in his kingdom, on the sins of the old king, Adetusa.

Yoruba theory
The Gods Are Not To Blame reflects critically on perhaps the most cherished myth of cultural transmission that civilization entertains about itself as a means of explaining its own perpetuation. Rotimi's play does so not only by dramatizing this myth with certain ironic instance, but also by juxtaposing this myth with a Yoruba model of cultural transmission.

Colonization

According to Barbara Goff and Michael Simpson, "the play as an allegory of colonization and, indeed decolonization" The events concerning colonization in The Gods Are Not To Blame represent politics in African history. When the old man takes over Odewale's land it is a metaphor of colonialism. It's about having power over the land and Odewale no longer has the power because the old man took it from him, which is why he turns a hoe, which is a gardening tool, into a sword. The old man happens to also be his father, though Odewale is not aware of this at the time. His father father does to Odewale what European colonizers did to Africa.

Language

The use of myths with dances in the play. Akin Odebunmi in Motivated Proverbs In Ola Rotimi's "The Gods Are Not To Blame" uses myths and dances established in Yoruban culture that helps serve as the basis of the play. Some aspects of the sociocultural and linguistic problems of teaching English to students of one of Nigeria's major language groups"

 Odebunmi" Language,Culture and Proverbs". Simply suggest, the use of language is part of culture. Indeed, culture is the way of life.

Scholar Odebunmi says, the concept of this is to understand referring to the actual context of a word said in a play (dialogue) has developed similarities with speech and how it works in culture. In the Yoruban culture, like many others, have symbolic. Odebunmi (2008) then says, language, therefore, expresses the patterns and structures of culture, and consequently influences human thinking, manners and judgement. I believe this scholar is claiming to the idea that proverbs deal with issues in the Yoruban culture. Adewale a character in the play, as Ola Romiti explains in The Gods Are Not To Blame adds that was used for functional means......

Performances and renewed interest

The Gods Are Not To Blame made its début in Nigeria in 1968. The play was revived by Talawa Theatre Company in a well received production in 1989, sparking interest in the play's themes. It was nominated for an award at the ESB Dublin Fringe Festival 2003. It was launched again in February 2004, Bisi Adigun and Jimmy Fay's Arambe Productions presenting what Roddy Doyle described as an exhilarating and exciting version of the play to the O'Reilly Theatre. It was in a 2005 performance at the Arcola Theater in London, however, that brought with it renewed discussion.

Notes

References

Further reading
 Martin Owusu, Drama of the Gods: A study of seven African plays, Omenana, Roxbury, Massachusetts, 1983

External links
"The Gods Are Not to Blame.", eNotes.com,  2006. Retrieved 2011-02-19.
 Bookrags Staff, (Emmanuel) (Gladstone) Ola(wale) Rotimi, 2005. Retrieved 2011-02-19.
 BBC World Drama:  Stages of Independence - A celebration of 50 years of African drama, BBC World Service, broadcast 16, 17 October 2010. Retrieved 2011-03-09.

Nigerian English-language novels
1971 Nigerian novels
Nigerian plays
1968 plays
Tragedy plays
Plays set in Africa
Novels set in Nigeria
Novels based on plays
Plays based on Oedipus Rex
Plays based on classical mythology
Postcolonial literature

The Gods Are Not to Blame


The Polis box is a public phone box for the uise o members o the polis, or for members o the public tae contact the polis. It wis introduced in the United States in 1877 an wis uised in the United Kinrick throughout the 20t century frae the early 1920s. Unlik an ordinary callbox, its telephone wis locatit behind a hinged door sae it coud be uised frae the ootside, an the interior o the box wis, in effect, a miniature police station for uise bi police officers tae read an fill in reports, tak meal breaks an even temporarily haud prisoners until the arrival o transport.

Police boxes predate the era o mobile telecommunications; nou members o the Breetish police cairy twa-wey radios an/or mobile phones rather than relying on fixed kiosks. Most boxes are nou disuised or hae been withdrawn frae service.

The teepical police box contained a telephone linked directly tae the local police station, allouin patrolling officers tae keep in contact wi the station, reporting anything unusual or requesting help if necessar. A licht on tap o the box wad flash tae alert an officer that he/she wis requested tae contact the station.  Members o the public coud an aw uise the phone tae contact a police station in an emergency or, in the case o the Metropolitan Police, for assistance wi ony matter normally within the purview o the police.

Police boxes war uisually blue, wi the maist notable exception bein Glesga, whaur thay war reid until the late 1960s.  In addition tae a telephone, thay contained equipment sic as an incident beuk, a fire extinguisher an a first aid kit.

The blue police box is eften associated wi the science fiction telly programme Doctor Who, in which the protagonist's time machine, a TARDIS, is in the shape o a 1960s Breetish police box.

References

Telecommunications equipment

Polis box


Paul Arcand (born May 12, 1960) is a Canadian radio host, journalist and film producer. He has been a popular francophone radio host for many years. His latest film is "Québec sur ordonnance" a documentary filmed with a point of view, on the subject of Quebecers taking ever more prescribed medication. Quebec has public health care, financed by the government.

Arcand was born in Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec.  He began his career with CKBS in St. Hyacinthe in 1978 as a journalist.  He was hired by Montreal station CKVL in 1980, and moved to the old CJMS the following year.  He would become news director of CJMS and the Radiomutuel network in 1985, and in addition became the PM drive show host in 1988.

He made his debut as morning man in 1990.  When CJMS was closed as part of the Télémédia/Radiomutuel merger in 1994, he moved to CKAC.

In 2000, he was hired by the TVA television network for a weekly show consisting of a half-an-hour interview.  The program, simply titled "Arcand", achieved great popularity and lasted until April 2005.

Arcand announced his departure from CKAC in October 2003, and announced he was joining CKOO-FM (now CHMP-FM) a few weeks later as part of that station's new news/talk format, but due to legal requirements he was forced to remain on CKAC until the end of the Spring 2004 BBM ratings period.

While Arcand is promoted, and largely viewed, as one who "asks real questions" ("celui qui pose les vraies questions"), he is not particularly controversial, and his politics are generally close to the centre of the political spectrum.

He produced in 2005 a documentary called Thieves of Innocence (Les Voleurs d'enfance), which dealt with child abuse in Quebec.

References

1960 births
Film producers from Quebec
Canadian radio hosts
Journalists from Montreal
Living people
People from Saint-Hyacinthe
French Quebecers

Paul Arcand


Boy with the Blues is an album by the rock band Oasis.  It was released in early July 2009 as an iTunes exclusive EP.  It contained two songs not previously available on general release and also a remix of "(Get Off Your) High Horse Lady" from their album Dig Out Your Soul.

Track listing
 "Boy with the Blues"
 "I Believe in All"
 "(Get Off Your) High Horse Lady" - the May 29th Devendra Banhart Mix

The first two tracks were only available on the Dig Out Your Soul Deluxe Boxset Bonus Disc, while the third track had only been released as a listen only track on Oasisinet's Radio Supernova.

2009 albums
Oasis (band) albums

Boy with the Blues (EP)


Toyin Sokefun-Bello (born 14 January 1978), better known as TY Bello, is a Nigerian singer, songwriter, photographer and philanthropist. Prior to pursuing a solo career, she was a member of the now defunct gospel band Kush. Bello is a member of the Nigerian photography collective, Depth of Field. She is best known for her singles "Greenland", "Ekundayo", "This Man", "Freedom" and "Funmise".

Life and career

Early life and career beginnings
Bello was born on 14 January 1978, in Ogun State, Nigeria. She attained a degree in economics from the University of Lagos. She briefly practised journalism and eventually ventured into photography. Bello emerged onto Nigeria's musical landscape as a member of the defunct group Kush, an acronym for Kinetically Ushering Salvation into Hearts and Homes. Other members of the group included Lara George, Dapo Torimiro and rapper Emem Ema. Kush gained popularity in the early 2000s with the single "Let's Live Together"; the group managed to release an album before disbanding.

2008–2013:Greenland, The Future, The Jubilee Collection and anti-rape campaign
In 2008, Bello released her debut studio album Greenland. It was produced by Mosa Adegboye and took two years to develop. The album earned her a Nigeria Music Award and a Sound City Award. Bello describes the album as a journey of her everyday life. The album's lyrical content explores themes of love, family and nation. Its title track is an inspirational song written to motivate Nigerians to liberate themselves from a place of despair to a place of hope.

Bello first revealed plans about her second studio album, The Future, while speaking to Ariya Today. The album was originally slated for release in 2011, and was ranked 12th on Nigerian Entertainment Today'''s list of the 12 Albums to Buy in 2011. The singer said she worked with producer Mosa and recorded the album in a few months. On 19 February 2011, TY Bello released "The Future" as the lead single from the album of the same name. The song urges Nigerian youth to be the change they seek. The Kemi Adetiba-directed music video for "The Future" was released on 3 April 2011. It features cameo appearances from Tara Fela-Durotoye, Sound Sultan, Chude Jideonwo and Banky W. Ore Fakorede awarded the song 7 stars out of 10, saying its "soft tribal drums, synths and a piano provide a vivid backdrop for TY to contrast her unmistakable voice against, and this she does brilliantly, bringing the poignancy in the song's lyrics to life." Dapo Osewa of Sahara Reporters described the video as "a narrative in itself that dares to capture the varying and boundless composition of emotion that is the face of the Nigerian." Makeup brand House of Tara launched The Jubilee Collection, a limited edition line of makeup inspired by "The Future" single.

In October 2011, Bello was one of the celebrities featured in an eight-minute anti-rape video compiled by the Nigerian Ministry of Youth Development. The anti-rape video sheds light on the victim of a gang rape at Abia State University in 2011. In December 2013, TY Bello released the Wale Adenuga-assisted single "Yahweh". The song features additional vocals from Nwando Okeke and Mosa. Bello wrote the song's first line in 2004 during a photo-shoot.

2014:The Morning Songbook
On 10 October 2014, Bello released her third studio album The Morning Songbook for free digital download on SoundCloud. It was released without any promotion and comprises 10 tracks, including "Yahweh", "Thirsty" and "Jesu Jesu". The album features collaborations with M Sugh and Fela Durotoye. Udochukwu Ikwuagwu of the Breaking Times gave the album 7 stars out of 10, commending its production and Bello's songwriting.

Photography career
Bello was the official photographer to former President Goodluck Jonathan during his tenure in office; she also does work for Thisday fashion magazine.

2016: Tinie Tempah and a discovery
Bello was working in Lagos where she was creating a photo shoot for the British rapper Tinie Tempah. She later discovered that there was a remarkable looking woman in the background. In an attempt to find Olajumoke Orisaguna, she arranged for Orisaguna's picture to appear on the cover of Style magazine.

Humanitarian work
Bello organizes an annual photography exhibition to raise funds for orphans in Nigeria. She is also the director of Link-a-child, an NGO dedicated to proliferating information on orphanages in Nigeria and seeking sponsorship on their behalf. In July 2011, Bello was honoured by the non-profit Communication For Change organisation in a five-part documentary film series, titled RedHot.

Personal life
Bello is married and gave birth to twin boys named Christian and Christopher on 10 October 2014, which coincidentally marked the release of The Morning Songbook.

DiscographyGreenland (2008)The Future (2011)The Morning Songbook (2014)Africa Awake (2020)We Are Fire (2022)Heaven Has Come'' (2023)

Awards and nominations

Soundcity Music Video Awards

!Ref
|-
|2009
|"Ekundayo"
|Best Female Video
|
|

Nigeria Entertainment Awards

!Ref
|-
|2008
|Herself
|Best New Act of the Year
|
|

The Headies

!Ref
|-
|rowspan="4"|2008
|rowspan="2"|Herself
|Recording Artiste of the Year
|
|rowspan="4"|
|-
|Hip Hop World Revelation of the Year
|
|-
|TY Bello for "Ekundayo"
|Best Vocal Performance (Female)
|
|-
|TY Bello & Abbey for "Greenland"
|Best Music Video (Director)
|

Creative Industry Awards

!Ref
|-
|2013
|Herself
|Visual Arts
|
|

See also
 List of Nigerian gospel musicians
 Lola Akinmade Åkerström
List of Nigerian Women Photographers

References

External links

TY Bello at SoundCloud

Living people
Musicians from Ogun State
Nigerian gospel singers
Nigerian photographers
Nigerian women photographers
Nigerian philanthropists
University of Lagos alumni
Yoruba-language singers
English-language singers from Nigeria
Yoruba women musicians
Yoruba photographers
Yoruba women philanthropists
21st-century Nigerian singers
1978 births

TY Bello


Roanoke Island is an island that is part of Dare County, North Carolina.

History
Roanoke was first settled around 8,000 B.C. At time of European Contact the island was home to Algonquian Natives.

The Roanoke Colony was an early settlement in what would become the United States. It was located on what is now the coast of North Carolina. Walter Raleigh and others lived there from 1585 to 1587. After a few years the people left, and nobody knows why. Virginia Dare, the first English child born in the New World, was born on Roanoke.

A battle of the American Civil War battle was fought on this island in February 1862. Union forces had the advantage because they outnumbered the Confederate defenders. The Confederate Army believing that the swamps on the island were impassable did not post guards there. Union soldiers then approached the Confederate defenders on their sides, forcing the Confederate commander Henry Shaw to surrender. Union soldiers stayed on the island until the war. It was during these years (1862-1865) the Freeman's colony of black slaves was founded and created. After the war the freeman's colony was dispersed. Some of the African Americans on Roanoke Island today trace their heritage or descent back to freeman's colony.

In 1870 the town of Manteo was formally founded and chartered or established with the state of North Carolina. Manteo first grew as a small harbor prospering from trade with larger towns in North Carolina like Elizabeth City.

Manteo is the largest town on the island and the county seat of Dare County. To the south of the island there is a town called Wanchese, which is not incorporated unlike Manteo. These towns are named after the Indians who first met the English expeditions that took place in the 1570s and 1580s.

Islands of the United States
Geography of North Carolina

Roanoke Island


James William Tankard Jr. (June 20, 1941 – August 12, 2005), communication scholar, author of The Statistical Pioneers and coauthor of Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, Uses (issued in five editions and translated into six languages).

Academic career and degrees
At the time of his death, Tankard was Professor Emeritus in the School of Journalism at the University of Texas at Austin, where he served on the faculty for 32 years and held the Jesse H. Jones Professorship in Journalism. Prior to joining the Texas faculty in 1972, he served on the journalism faculties of Temple University and the University of Wisconsin - Madison.

Tankard earned a general science B.S. from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and an M.A. in Journalism from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. After working for the Associated Press and the Raleigh Times, he earned his Ph.D. from Stanford University with a dissertation on eye contact as a communication channel.

Academic publications
During his years in academia, Tankard authored or co-authored six books and more than fifty research articles and book chapters. His six books reflect the breadth of his interests and contributions:
 Michael Ryan and James W. Tankard Jr., Basic News Reporting Palo Alto, Calif.: Mayfield, 1977.
 James W. Tankard Jr., The Statistical Pioneers Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Books, 1984.
 T.M. Pasqua, J.K. Buckalew, R.E. Rayfield and James W. Tankard Jr., Mass Media in the Information Age Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990.
 Werner J. Severin and James W. Tankard Jr., Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, and Uses in the Mass Media 5th ed. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 2001.
 Pamela J. Shoemaker, James William Tankard Jr., Dominic L. Lasorsa, How To Build Social Science Theories Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2004.
 Michael Ryan and James W. Tankard Jr., Writing for Print and Digital Media New York: McGraw-Hill: 2005.

Tankard also served as the editor of Journalism Monographs from 1988 to 1994.

Posthumous honors
The Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC), the national association of journalism and mass communication scholars and media professionals to which Tankard devoted much of his professional life, posthumously honored him as the 2006 recipient of the Eleanor Blum Distinguished Service to Research Award. This award, created in 1980 to recognize a person who has devoted a substantial part of his or her career to promoting research in mass communication, is so selective that it has only been given ten times during the past 25 years.

AEJMC's board of directors also established the James W. Tankard Jr. Book Award, an annual book competition, to honor him and recognize books published by AEJMC members. The winner of the inaugural (2007) Tankard Book Award was The African American Newspaper: Voice of Freedom, by Patrick S. Washburn and published by Northwestern University Press.

Notes

References
Obituary listing at Memorial Obituaries
In Memoriam: James William Tankard Jr. (University of Texas at Austin official obituary)

External links

University of Texas at Austin faculty
1941 births
2005 deaths
Communication theorists
20th-century American non-fiction writers

James W. Tankard Jr.