The Black Cloud is a 1957 science fiction novel by British astrophysicist Fred Hoyle. It details the arrival of an enormous cloud of gas that enters the Solar System and appears about to destroy most of the life on Earth by blocking the Sun's radiation.

Plot summary
In 1964, astrophysicists on Earth become aware of a cloud of gas and dust, initially thought to be a Bok globule, that is heading for the Solar System.  The cloud, if interposed between the Sun and the Earth, could wipe out most of the life on Earth by blocking solar radiation and ending photosynthesis.  A cadre of astronomers and other scientists is drawn together in Nortonstowe, England, to study the cloud and report to the British government about the consequences of its presence.

The cloud unexpectedly decelerates as it approaches and comes to rest around the Sun, causing disastrous climatic changes on Earth and immense mortality and suffering for the human race.  As the behaviour of the cloud proves to be impossible to predict scientifically, the team at Nortonstowe eventually come to the conclusion that it might be a life-form with a degree of intelligence.  The scientists try to communicate with the cloud, and  succeed.  The cloud is revealed to be an alien gaseous superorganism, many times more intelligent than humans, which is surprised to find intelligent life-forms on a solid planet. It reconfigures itself to allow sunlight to return to the Earth and humanity is saved.

Although its ill-effects on humanity have ceased, several governments are mistrustful of the cloud and prepare a nuclear attack upon it. When the scientists alert the cloud of this plot, it turns the missiles back upon their senders but does not otherwise retaliate. When the astronomers ask the cloud how its lifeform originated, it replies that they have always existed. One of the characters suggests this is incompatible with the Big Bang theory.

The cloud announces that another nearby (by the cloud's standards) intelligent cloud has suddenly stopped communicating and may have vanished. This has apparently happened many times before and is a long-standing mystery to the clouds; the cloud therefore decides to leave the Solar System to investigate. During their last few days of communication two of the scientists try to learn some of the cloud's vast store of knowledge through visual signals, in order to gain further insights about the Universe. Both of them die in the attempt.

Reception
The Spectator described it as "delightful and fascinating," despite the "slightly chilling" implication of the scientists' attitude to the victims. Galaxy reviewer Floyd C. Gale stated that he had not expected "such a noted cosmological theorist" as Hoyle to be a fiction writer but praised the novel "for the high quality of the narrative." Gale stated that "[w]ith the utmost of apparent ease, Hoyle writes a brand of humor that eludes the pens of pros," and hoped that he would "write more superior fictional ventures like this." Damon Knight described Hoyle's plotting as "masterly," saying the novel was "more elaborately convincing and a lot livelier than the usual gloom-laden treatment" in similar stories. Richard Dawkins (writing in the 2010 Penguin Classics reissue) claimed the novel was "one of the greatest science fiction novels ever written."

Scientific background
Although the presence of a sentient cloud of gas may seem unlikely, the story is grounded in hard science. The detection of the cloud is described using physics equations, all of which are included in the book. Hoyle brought his experience and knowledge as the Director of the Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge, a Fellow of the Royal Society, into the book.

In a plot twist that foreshadows Hoyle's stance on panspermia, the cloud expresses surprise that intelligent life is capable of forming on planets.

Speculative discussions among the fictional scientists about the nature of an encountered extraterrestrial life form (the black cloud), and the reasoning applied to decide that this new entity can be regarded as a form of life, is a major theme of the novel. These scientific discussions relative to a broadly inclusive definition of life, including extraterrestrial life, likely reflected possibilities considered plausible by Fred Hoyle.

The novel has a recurrent theme of the duplicity and shallowness of politicians compared with scientists.

Notes

1957 British novels
1957 science fiction novels
British science fiction novels
Novels by Fred Hoyle
Heinemann (publisher) books
Fiction about nebulae
1957 debut novels
Fiction set in 1964

The Black Cloud


The Numidian language, which is also known as Old Libyan, or simply Libyan is a language that was spoken in North Africa. Texts have been found from around the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. While the writing system has been mostly deciphered, the language itself is unknown. Today, it is though to be an ancestor of the Berber languages. There are some texts that are multilingual (that is: the same text in more than one language). Despite this, the language itself is mostly unknown.

The script

Today, about 1200 texts are known, spread across North Africa. Many of the texts are from modern-day Tunisia, and the areas of Algeria, bordering Tunisia. In this large area, there are two main forms, an eastern form, occurring from Algeria eastwards, and a western form, occurring elsewhere.

 The eastern form is almost completely deciphered, and can be read. The meaning of 22 of the 24 symbols of the alphabet is known. The meaning was found because of a bilingual text (in Punic and Libyan) at the Libyco-Punic Mausoleum of Dougga.The mausoleum is in Tunisia, and dates from the 2nd century BC.
 The western form has more symbols, and cannot yet be read. There are 13 extra symbols, with unknown/disputed meaning. This variant is  known as "Libyan-Berber script". As of 2021, about 100 texts are known. Most of them are short inscriptions on steles.
 There may have been a third form in the Sahara. Modern Berber languages probably developed from that third form.  Modern Berber languages kept most of the writing system, which is called Tifinagh today.

People don't know if the two or three variants were the same language or different languages.

Berber languages

Numidian language


Pakistan's principal natural resources are arable land and water. About 25% of Pakistan's total land area is under cultivation and is watered by one of the largest irrigation systems in the world. Agriculture accounts for about 23% of GDP and employs about 44% of the labor force. Pakistan is one of the world's largest producers and suppliers of the following according to the 2005 Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations and FAOSTAT given here with ranking:

 Chickpea (2nd)
 Apricot (4th)
 Cotton (4th)
 Sugarcane (4th) (National Juice of Pakistan)
 Milk (5th)
 Onion (5th)
 Date Palm (6th)
 Mango (7th) (National fruit of Pakistan)
 Tangerines, mandarin orange, clementine (8th)
 Rice (8th)
 Wheat (9th)
 Oranges (10th)

Pakistan ranks fifth in the Muslim world and twentieth worldwide in farm output. It is the world's fifth largest milk producer.
Agriculture is the back bone of Pakistan's economy. Agriculture has also been the main source of population growth in Pakistan.

References

Pakistan
Economy of Pakistan

Agriculture in Pakistan


Virginia Elizabeth "Geena" Davis (born January 21, 1956) is an American actor and producer. She is the recipient of various accolades, including an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award.

After studying drama at Boston University, Davis made her acting debut in the film Tootsie (1982) and eventually starred in the thriller The Fly (1986), which proved to be one of her first box office hits. While the fantasy comedy Beetlejuice (1988) brought her to prominence, the drama The Accidental Tourist (1988) earned her the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. She established herself as a leading lady with the road film Thelma & Louise (1991), for which she received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress, and the sports film  A League of Their Own (1992), garnering a Golden Globe Award nomination. However, Davis's roles in the box office failures Cutthroat Island (1995) and The Long Kiss Goodnight (1996), both directed by then-husband Renny Harlin, were followed by a lengthy break and downturn in her career.

Davis starred as the adoptive mother of the titular character in the Stuart Little franchise (1999–2005) and as the first female president of the United States in the television series Commander in Chief (2005–2006), winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama for her role in the latter. Her later films include Accidents Happen (2009) and Marjorie Prime (2017). She has portrayed the recurring role of Dr. Nicole Herman in Grey's Anatomy (2014–2015, 2018) and that of Regan MacNeil/Angela Rance in the first season of the horror television series The Exorcist (2017).

In 2004, Davis launched the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media, which works collaboratively with the entertainment industry to dramatically increase the presence of female characters in media. Through the organization, she launched the annual Bentonville Film Festival in 2015, and executive produced the documentary This Changes Everything in 2018. Thanks to the organization, she was awarded with the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award bestowed by the Academy Awards in 2019 and with the Governors Award given by the Primetime Emmy Awards in 2022.

Early life and education
Davis was born on January 21, 1956, in Wareham, Massachusetts. Her mother, Lucille (), was a teacher's assistant, and her father, William F. Davis, was a civil engineer and church deacon. Both were from small towns in Vermont. Davis has an older brother, Danforth ("Dan").

She became interested in music at an early age. She learned piano and flute and played organ well enough as a teenager to be organist at her Congregational church in Wareham. Davis was also a cheerleader and was cheer captain her senior year of high school. She attended Wareham High School and was an exchange student in Sandviken, Sweden, where she became fluent in Swedish. She wanted to study acting at Boston University but missed the required audition during her year in Sweden, so she began her college education at New England College before transferring to Boston University; she didn't earn enough credits to graduate, having received an incomplete in at least one class and an F in movement class. Her first post-university work was as a model for window mannequins at Ann Taylor; she then signed with New York's Zoli modeling agency.

In her 2022 memoir, she states that her brother came up with the nickname Geena shortly after her birth to differentiate her from her Aunt Virginia, who went by the nickname Ginny.

Career

Rise to fame (1982–1987)
Davis was working as a model when she was cast by director Sydney Pollack in his film Tootsie (1982) as a soap opera actor, whom she has described as "someone who's going to be in their underwear a lot of time". It was the second most profitable film of 1982, received ten Academy Awards nominations and is considered a classic. She next won the regular part of Wendy Killian in the television series Buffalo Bill, which aired from June 1983 to March 1984; and had a writing credit in one episode. Despite the series' eleven Emmy Awards nominations, lukewarm ratings led to its cancellation after two seasons. Davis concurrently guest-starred in Knight Rider, Riptide, Family Ties and Remington Steele, and followed with a series of her own, Sara, which lasted 13 episodes.
During this period, she also auditioned for the 1984 science fiction/action film The Terminator, reading for the lead role of Sarah Connor, which eventually went to Linda Hamilton. In Fletch (1985), an action comedy, she appeared with Chevy Chase as the colleague of a Los Angeles Times undercover reporter trying to expose drug trafficking on the beaches of Los Angeles. She also starred in the horror comedy Transylvania 6-5000 as a nymphomaniac vampire alongside future husband Jeff Goldblum. They also starred in the sci-fi thriller The Fly (1986), loosely based on George Langelaan's 1957 short story of the same name, where Davis portrayed a science journalist and an eccentric scientist's love interest. It was a commercial success and helped establish her as an actor. In 1987 she appeared with Goldblum again in the offbeat comedy Earth Girls Are Easy.

Recognition and critical acclaim (1988–1992)

Director Tim Burton cast Davis in his film Beetlejuice (1988) as one of a recently deceased young couple who become ghosts haunting their former house; it also starred Alec Baldwin, Michael Keaton and Winona Ryder. It made $73.7 million from a budget of $15 million, and Davis's performance and the overall film received mostly positive reviews.

Davis took on the role of an animal hospital employee and dog trainer with a sickly son in the drama The Accidental Tourist (1988), opposite William Hurt and Kathleen Turner. Critic Roger Ebert, who gave the film four stars out of four, wrote: "Davis, as Muriel, brings an unforced wackiness to her role in scenes like the one where she belts out a song while she's doing the dishes. But she is not as simple as she sometimes seems [...]". The film was a critical and commercial success, and she received an Oscar as Best Supporting Actress for her appearance in it.

Davis appeared as the girlfriend of a man who, dressed as a clown, robs a bank in midtown Manhattan, in the comedy Quick Change (1990). Based on a book of the same name by Jay Cronley, it is a remake of the 1985 French film Hold-Up starring Jean-Paul Belmondo. Despite modest box office returns, the Chicago Tribune found the lead actors "funny and creative while keeping their characters life-size". Davis next starred with Susan Sarandon in Ridley Scott's road film Thelma & Louise (1991), as friends who embark on a road trip with unforeseen consequences. A critical and commercial success, it is considered a classic, as it influenced other films and artistic works and became a landmark feminist film. Davis received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress for her role. It also featured Brad Pitt in his breakout role as a drifter; in his 2020 acceptance speech for Best Supporting Actor, Pitt thanked director Ridley Scott and Geena Davis for "giving me my first shot."

In 1992, Davis starred alongside Madonna and Tom Hanks in A League of Their Own as a baseball player on an all-women's team. It reached number one at the box office, became the tenth highest-grossing film of the year in North America, and brought Davis a Best Actress Golden Globe Award nomination. She played a television reporter in the comedy Hero (also 1992) alongside Dustin Hoffman and Andy Garcia. Although it flopped at the box office, Roger Ebert felt Davis was "bright and convincing as the reporter (her best line, after surviving the plane crash, is shouted through an ambulance door: "This is my story! I did the research!")".

Downturn, hiatus and television roles (1993–2009)
In 1994's Angie, Davis played an office worker who lives in the Bensonhurst section of Brooklyn and dreams of a better life. The film received mixed reviews from critics, despite much praise for Davis, and was a commercial failure. In her other 1994 release, Speechless, Davis reunited with Michael Keaton to play insomniac writers who fall in love until they realize that both are writing speeches for rival candidates in a New Mexico election. Despite negative reviews and modest box office returns, she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Musical or Comedy for her performance.
Davis teamed up with her then-husband, director Renny Harlin, for the films Cutthroat Island (1995) and The Long Kiss Goodnight (1996), with Harlin hoping that they would turn her into an action star. While The Long Kiss Goodnight managed to become a moderate success, Cutthroat Island flopped critically and commercially and was once listed as having the "largest box office loss" by Guinness World Records. The film is credited to be a contributing factor in the demise of Davis as a bankable star. By the mid and late 1990s, Davis's film career had become less noteworthy and critical acclaim had waned. She divorced Harlin in 1998 and took an "unusually long" two years off to reflect on her career, according to The New York Times. In a 2016 interview with Vulture, she recalled: "Film roles really did start to dry up when I got into my 40s. If you look at IMDb, up until that age, I made roughly one film a year. In my entire 40s, I made one movie, Stuart Little. I was getting offers, but for nothing meaty or interesting like in my 30s. I'd been completely ruined and spoiled. I mean, I got to play a pirate captain! I got to do every type of role, even if the movie failed." She appeared as Eleanor Little in the well-received family comedy Stuart Little (1999), a role she reprised in Stuart Little 2 (2002) and again in Stuart Little 3: Call of the Wild (2005).

Davis starred in the sitcom The Geena Davis Show, which aired for one season on ABC during the 2000–01 U.S. television season. She went on to star in the ABC television series Commander in Chief, portraying the first female president of the United States. While this role garnered her a Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Drama Series in 2006, the series was cancelled after its first season; Davis admitted she was "devastated" by its cancellation in a 2016 interview. "I still haven't gotten over it. I really wanted it to work. It was on Tuesday nights opposite House, which wasn't ideal. But we were the best new show that fall. Then, in January, we were opposite American Idol. They said, 'The ratings are going to suffer, so we should take you off the air for the entire run of Idol, and bring it back in May. I put a lot of time and effort into getting it on another network, too, but it didn't work". She was also nominated for an Emmy Award and a SAG Award for Outstanding Female Actor in a Drama Series. She was awarded the 2006 Women in Film Lucy Award.

Davis was the only American actor to be cast in the Australian-produced film Accidents Happen (2009), portraying a foul-mouthed and strict mother. She stated that it was the most fun she had ever had on a film set, and felt a deep friendship and connection to both of the actors who played her sons. Written by Brian Carbee and based on his own childhood and adolescence, the film received a limited theatrical release and mixed reviews from critics. Variety found it to be "led by a valiant Geena Davis", despite a "script that mistakes abuse for wit".

Professional expansion (2010present)
Following a long period of intermittent work, Davis often ventured into television acting, and through her organization, the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media, saw her career expand during the 2010s. In 2012, she starred as a psychiatrist in the miniseries Coma, based on the 1977 novel Coma by Robin Cook and the subsequent 1978 film. She played a powerful female movie executive in the critically acclaimed comedy In a World... (2013), the directorial debut of Lake Bell. Bell found her only dialogue to be her favorite in the film and called it her "soapbox moment".

In 2014, Davis provided her voice for the English version of the Studio Ghibli animated film When Marnie Was There, as she was drawn to the film's abundant stories and strong use of female characters. She played the recurring role of Dr. Nicole Herman, an attending fetal surgeon with a life-threatening brain tumor, during the 11th season of Grey's Anatomy (2014–15). In 2015, Davis launched an annual film festival to be held in Bentonville, Arkansas, to highlight diversity in film, accepting films that prominently feature minorities and women in the cast and crew. The first Bentonville Film Festival took place from May 5–9, 2015. Davis appeared as the mother of a semi-famous television star in the comedy Me Him Her (2016).

In the television series The Exorcist (2016), based on the 1973 film of the same name, Davis took on the role of grown-up Regan MacNeil, who has renamed herself Angela Rance to find peace and anonymity from her ordeal as a child. The Exorcist was a success with critics and audiences. In 2017, Davis starred in the film adaptation Marjorie Prime, alongside Jon Hamm, playing the daughter of an 85-year old experiencing the first symptoms of Alzheimer's disease, and appeared as the imaginary god of a heavyset 13-year-old girl in the comedy Don't Talk to Irene. Vanity Fair wrote that she stole "every scene" in Marjorie Prime, while Variety, on her role in Don't Talk to Irene, remarked: "There's no arguing the preternatural coolness of Geena Davis—a fact celebrated in self-conscious fashion by Don't Talk to Irene, a familiar type of coming-of-age film whose most distinguishing feature is the presence of the actress".

In 2018, Davis returned to Grey's Anatomy, reprising the role of Dr. Nicole Herman in the show's 14th season, and executive produced the documentary This Changes Everything, in which she was also interviewed about her experiences in the industry. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival, where it was named first runner-up for the People's Choice Award: Documentaries. In 2019, she joined the voice cast of She-Ra and the Princesses of Power as Huntara, and executive produced CBS educational show Mission Unstoppable through her organization. The same year, she joined the cast of GLOW as Sandy Devereaux St. Clair, a former showgirl turned entertainment director of the Fan-Tan Hotel and Casino. In 2022, Davis' likeness was used for the character of Poison Ivy in the DC Entertainment comic book series Batman '89, set between the events of Batman Returns (1992) and The Flash (2023). Davis has been a frequent guest narrator at Disney's Candlelight Processional, appearing at Disneyland in 2015 and Disney World in 2011, 2012, and 2019.

In October 2022, HarperOne published Davis's Dying of Politeness: A Memoir of her journey from childhood conventional New England femininity and trauma to feminist "badassery", one role at a time, on screen and in the real world.

Personal life

Marriages and family

Davis began dating restaurateur Richard Emmolo in December 1977 and moved in with him a month later. The two married on March 25, 1981, but separated in February 1983 and divorced on June 27, 1984. She then dated future Thelma & Louise co-star Christopher McDonald, to whom she was briefly engaged.

In 1985, she met her second husband, actor Jeff Goldblum, on the set of Transylvania 6-5000. The couple married on November 1, 1987, and appeared together in two more films: The Fly and Earth Girls Are Easy. Davis filed for divorce in October 1990, and it was finalized the following year. In 2022, Davis told People that her relationship with him "was a magical chapter in my life."

Bodyguard Gavin de Becker was Davis' boyfriend during the early 1990s. After a five-month courtship, she married filmmaker Renny Harlin on September 18, 1993. He directed her in Cutthroat Island and The Long Kiss Goodnight. Davis filed for divorce on August 26, 1997, a day after her personal assistant Tiffany Browne gave birth to a child fathered by Harlin. The divorce became final in June 1998.

In 1998, Davis started dating Iranian-American craniofacial plastic surgeon Reza Jarrahy, and allegedly married him on September 1, 2001. They have three children: a daughter born April 2002, and fraternal twin sons born May 2004. In May 2018, Jarrahy filed for divorce from Davis, listing their date of separation as November 15, 2017. Davis responded by filing a petition in which she claimed that she and Jarrahy were never legally married. Their divorce became final in December 2021. They agreed to change the last names of their two sons from "Davis-Jarrahy" to "Jarrahy".

Activism

Davis is a supporter of the Women's Sports Foundation and an advocate for Title IX, an Act of Congress focusing on equality in sports opportunities, now expanded to prohibit gender discrimination in American educational institutions.

In 2004, while watching children's television programs and videos with her daughter, Davis noticed an imbalance in the ratio of male to female characters. She went on to sponsor the largest-ever research project on gender in children's entertainment (resulting in four discrete studies, including one on children's television) at the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Southern California. The study, directed by Stacy Smith, showed that there were nearly three male characters to every female one in the nearly 400 G, PG, PG-13, and R-rated movies analyzed. In 2005, Davis teamed up with the non-profit group Dads and Daughters to launch a venture dedicated to balancing the number of male and female characters in children's television and movie programming.

Davis launched the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media in 2007, which works collaboratively with the entertainment industry to increase the presence of female characters in media aimed at children, and to reduce inequality in Hollywood and the stereotyping of females by the male-dominated industry. For her work in this field she received an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from Bates College in May 2009; and an honorary Oscar, the Academy's Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, in 2019.

In 2011, Davis became one of a handful of celebrities attached to USAID and Ad Council's FWD campaign, an awareness initiative tied to that year's East Africa drought. She joined Uma Thurman, Chanel Iman and Josh Hartnett in television and internet ads to "forward the facts" about the crisis.

Athletics
In July 1999, Davis was one of 300 women who vied for a semifinals berth in the U.S. Olympic archery team to participate in the Sydney 2000 Summer Olympics. She placed 24th and did not qualify for the team, but participated as a wild-card entry in the Sydney International Golden Arrow competition. In August 1999, she stated that she was not an athlete growing up and that she entered archery in 1997, two years before her tryouts.

Filmography

Film

Television

Music videos

Awards and nominations

Notes

References

External links

 Geena Davis 1988 interview about The Accidental Tourist from Texas Archive of the Moving Image

 Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media

 Geena Davis  Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America

1956 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Massachusetts
American female archers
American feminists
American film actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
American women film producers
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (television) winners
Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners
Boston University College of Fine Arts alumni
David di Donatello winners
Female models from Massachusetts
Feminist artists
Film producers from Massachusetts
Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award winners
Mensans
New England College alumni
People from Wareham, Massachusetts
21st-century American memoirists
American women memoirists

Geena Davis


Rosina Cazali (born in 1960) is a Guatemalan art critic and independent curator. She serves as an advisory committee member for CIFO (The Cisneros Fontanals Art Foundation). Cazali works as a columnist for El Periódico, a Guatemalan newspaper. She co-curated the 2014 Guatemalan Biennial, XIX Bienal de Arte Paiz, along with Cecilia Fajardo-Hill, Anabella Acevedo and Pablo José Ramírez.

Life and career
She studied arts at Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala and attended the first Cultural Studies lectures organized by FLACSO (Latin American Faculty of Social Sciences, 2011)

She works as an independent curator since 2000 and founded several art projects such as La Curandería and Los Tres Tiempos, art essays editorial (2014)

From 2003 to 2006, Cazali was director of the Spanish Cultural Center in Guatemala where she started projects like the photography festival Foto 30 and the editorial project Colección Pensamiento,a compilation of interviews with Guatemalan intellectuals on contemporary thought, supported by the Spanish Cultural Centre in Guatemala.

Among her notable projects are La Curandería, Colloquia, Octubreazul and Proyecto Laica. She was a member of the first curatorial team of the Bienal de Arte Paiz, which in 2014 has had 19 editions, but prior to 2008 was not a curated event.

Between 2003 and 2005, she curated several exhibitions on contemporary art in Guatemala and Central América. One of them was Outsiders, an important look over indigenous contemporary art in Guatemala.

In 2007, she was invited by Fundación TEOR/éTica of Costa Rica to participate in Estrecho Dudoso (Doubtful Strait), a large-scale visual arts event celebrated at several institutional venues and public spaces of San José, Costa Rica. For this event, she curated a monographic exhibition of Margarita Azurdia, a fundamental Guatemalan artist from the 1960s.

She also participated as a guest curator for Guatemala in different international biennials and as an independent curator for several exhibitions in Guatemala and Latin America. Some of these include Móvil, an exhibition and performance by Guatemalan artist Regina José Galindo at the Museo de Arte Contemporáneo (MUAC) and UNAM's independence bi-centenary celebration project: The Ghost of Liberty, México 2010.

She curated Mirando al Sur, an itinerant show about migration in Central America and México exhibited in Miami, México, the Dominican Republic, Central America and the Pontevedra Biennale in Galicia, Spain, in 2010.

With Laura Terré, she co-curated the exhibition Peso y Levedad, Photography in Contemporary Latin America, for the Instituto Cervantes de Madrid, within the activities of PHOTO España, 2011.

In the same year, she curated with Emiliano Valdés the exhibition El proyecto inconcluso, a panoramic exhibition on contemporary painting in Central America.

She has participated in theoretical events such as: Temas Centrales, organized by Teorética in San José, Costa Rica in 2000 and 2012; Curatorial Practice and Criticism in Latin America, by Bard College's Center for Curatorial Studies, New York, March 2011; IV Diálogos Iberoamericanos/POST Issues, Valencia, Spain 2001; No title, International Symposium on Latin American Art in Global Context, the University of Austin, Texas, March 2006; ARCO's debate forums, Madrid, Spain 2006; Contemporary Art in Guatemala. A Comparative Lecture, New Mexico University, Alburquerque, September 2008; Contemporary Art in Guatemala, 3 type events at the seminar Tras Signos en Rotación, organized by the project Ojo Atómica and Anti-Museo, Spanish Cultural Center in México, 2009;La vida nuda, preliminary encounter at Kasell Documenta in México City and Cairo; Between the museum and practice: Reconsidering Latin American Art in the XXI Century, Museum of Latin American Art, MOLAA, Long Beach, California, in collaboration with the Getty Research Institute, Lima, Perú 2011; Foro Latinoamericano de Fotografía de São Paulo, Brasil, 2013; Daegu Photography Biennial and Symposium, Seul, Korea. 2014.

She participated as a photography reviewer for Photo-España's portfolio review events in Madrid, São Paulo, Managua and Cartagena/Colombia.

In recognition of her work, she was invited to participate in the project 9 Curators, organized by Gerardo Mosquera and the Spanish Cultural Centers in Argentina and Chile.

Cazali is the author of countless essays about contemporary art in Guatemala. In 2010, she published the essay A Brief History of Dissociation, about the work of the Guatemalan artist Luis González Palma. This essay was included in the Latin American Photorgraphers' Library, part of the Photo Bolsillo collection of the editorial house La Fábrica, Spain.

She was invited as a speaker to discuss performance art and video art in Guatemala at the event Performing Localities, organized by the Royal College of Art, London, 2009.

She was part of the Orientation Trip 2010, which took place in Istanbul, Lagos, and Bamako and was realized by the Mondrian Foundation and the Prince Claus Foundation. In 2011 she was invited to teach a workshop entitled Inmonumental, a review, and deconstruction of the symbols and discourses of the monuments as part of the contemporary art project Demolition/Construction, in Córdoba, Argentina. In March 2012, she was invited by ICI, Independent Curators International, to be part of the Curator's Perspective, an itinerant public discussion series that features international curators who distill current happenings in contemporary art, and their views on recent developments in the art world; the New Museum of Art, New York. In 2010, she received the John Simon Guggehnheim Grant to conduct research on contemporary art in Guatemala. She works and resides in Guatemala City, Guatemala. In 2014 she received from Fundación ArsTeorética, San José Costa Rica, a grant for research on Grupo Imaginaria, a collective of artists from the 1980s in Guatemala.

Between December 2008 and March 2010, the Migraciones: Mirando al Sur exhibit traveled through Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Mexico, United States of America, and Costa Rica—showing at the Spanish Cultural Centers of each country. This group exhibit included 12 Central American contemporary artists, including Adán Vallencillo, Lucía Madriz, and Patricia Belli.

In 2014, she coordinated El día que nos hicimos contemporáneos, a theoretical symposium with emphasis in Central American thought and discussions centered in a reflection about contemporary art in the isthmus and its development. The symposium also was the frame for the exhibition with the same name, in celebration of the XX Anniversary of the Museo de Arte y Diseño Contemporáneo, in San José, Costa Rica.

Awards and recognition
In 2010, Cazali was granted a fellowship for Visual Arts Research in the field of Humanities in order to develop research on Guatemalan art production between 2000 and 2010.

In 2014, Cazali was honored with the Prince Claus Awards.

Exhibitions
 Móvil, an exhibition and performance by Regina José Galindo, Museo de Arte Contemporáneo (2011)
 Migraciones: Mirando al Sur Arte, organized by the Spanish Cultural Center Network of AECID and curated by Cazali (2009)
 Imaginaria, Disidente, Centro Cultural de España en Guatemala (2015)

Bibliography
 Cazali, Rosina. Pasos a Desnivel: mapa urbano de la cultura contemporanea en Guatemala. HIVOS & laCuranderia. Guatemala City, 2003. Print.
 Cazali, Rosina. Luis González Palma: PHoto Bolsillo. La Fábrica, 2011. Print.
 Cazali, Rosina. Estados de Excepción, 2014. Print.
 Cazali, Rosina, and Fernando Castro Florez. Regina José Galindo. Milan: Silvana Editoriale, 2011. Print.

References

External links
Independent Curators International

Living people
1960 births
Art curators
Guatemalan art critics
Women art critics
Guatemalan curators
Guatemalan women curators
Guatemalan women writers

Rosina Cazali


"Gin and Juice" is a song by Snoop Doggy Dogg and produced by Dr. Dre, The song pay homage to Seagrams and Tanqueray gin and features Daz Dillinger. The video for "Gin and Juice" features Snoop Dogg wearing hockey jerseys from the Pittsburgh Penguins and the defunct Springfield (MA) Indians of the American Hockey League. The music video was also fourth on MTV2 and XXL's list of the 25 Greatest West Coast Videos.

1994 songs
Songs about drugs

Gin and Juice


téléGrenoble Isère is a private local TV channel of Grenoble's agglomeration in France. It broadcast in digital television and it is also received in a large part of Isère (Voiron and in Oisans for the ski resorts as Alpe d'Huez and Les Deux Alpes).

téléGrenoble Isère began broadcasting on 20 October 2005. It is headquartered rue Eugène-Faure in Grenoble.

In 2016, The Superior Council of Audiovisual authorizes the channel to broadcast in high definition.

Organisation
President : Gérard Balthazard.

Presenters : Thibault Leduc, Marie-Caroline Abrial, Lucile Dailly, Laury Baillet, Olivier Escalon, Fanny Chatchate and Mélanie Tournadre.

References

External links
Official website

Television stations in France
Television channels and stations established in 2005
Mass media in Grenoble

TéléGrenoble Isère


Philip James DeVries (born March 7, 1952) is a tropical biologist whose research focuses on insect ecology and evolution, especially butterflies.  His best-known work includes symbioses between caterpillars, ants and plants, and community level biodiversity of rainforest butterflies.

Biography

Early career
Phil DeVries was born in Detroit, Michigan, son of Henry William DeVries and Helen Mary DeVries (née Brnabic). His early interest in Biology was nourished by close contact with nature during his childhood in rural Michigan. As an undergraduate student at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, DeVries was mentored in botany by professor Warren H. Wagner Jr., known among colleagues as "Herb". In 1975 DeVries received a Bachelor's degree from the School of Natural Resources, University of Michigan, with emphasis in botany. His early exposure to systematic botany continued to be useful in his career.

From 1975 to 1980, DeVries was a curator of Lepidoptera at the Museo Nacional de Costa Rica as a Peace Corps volunteer where he built the country's first major butterfly collection. DeVries traveled widely in Costa Rica, collecting and making observations on butterflies. This eventually provided a large body of information that formed the basis for his two volumes entitled "The Butterflies of Costa Rica and their Natural History" (vol. 1 and 2). In Costa Rica he interacted with many field biologists, including Daniel Janzen, Stephen P. Hubbell, Gary Stiles, Luis Diego Gómez, Isidro A. Chacón, Gordon B. Small, Alwyn Gentry, Robin B. Foster, , Michael C. Singer, Paul R. Ehrlich, and Russell Lande.

DeVries attended the University of Texas at Austin from 1980 to 1987 where he earned a PhD in Zoology. His doctoral work focused on the widespread symbioses between butterfly caterpillars, ants and plants, which he popularized under the nickname "Singing caterpillars". In 1982, DeVries received a fellowship from the Fulbright Program to visit The Natural History Museum in London (then British Museum of Natural History), where he spent a year preparing the first volume of his "The Butterflies of Costa Rica" book.  There he collaborated with Richard I. Vane-Wright, Phillip R. Ackery, Bernard d'Abrera, Ian J. Kitching, Henry S. Barlow, and other curators and visitors deeply rooted in the history of butterfly biology, evolution and systematics.

In 1988 DeVries received a MacArthur Fellowship that allowed him to travel broadly in pursuit of tropical biology in Costa Rica, Panama, Ecuador, and Argentina. Through the MacArthur Fellows Program he became close friends with the artists Lee Friedlander, Steve Lacy, John T. Scott, Brad Leithauser, and the historian Cornell Fleischer.

DeVries was a pre-doctoral (1985–1986) and post-doctoral fellow (1987–1988) at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama, a visiting scholar at the University of Oxford, UK (1990–1991), an associate of the Center for Conservation Biology at Stanford University (1990–1992), and a Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation Fellow at Harvard University (1993–1994).  He is a research associate of the American Museum of Natural History, Missouri Botanical Gardens, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University and the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.

Among other countries, DeVries has done field research in Costa Rica, Panama, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, South Africa, Uganda, Tanzania, Madagascar, Bhutan, Australia, Borneo, Malaysia.

Later career

DeVries was an assistant professor at the University of Oregon (1994–2000), where he developed trapping methods to accrue long-term data sets on tropical butterfly communities. Work with his colleague Russell Lande produced some of the first rigorous insights into the spatial and temporal dynamics of diverse rainforest insect communities. From 2000 to 2004 he was the Director of the Center for Biodiversity Studies and curator of Lepidoptera at the Milwaukee Public Museum in Wisconsin. He is presently a professor at the University of New Orleans in Louisiana, along with his wife and close colleague Carla Penz. DeVries continues to study long-term butterfly community diversity, and speciation. His butterfly trapping methods are used widely in tropical diversity studies and conservation efforts. He also continues work on evolution of butterfly-ant symbioses.

Recent honors include: in 2010, DeVries was elected one of 125 extraordinary University of Texas ex-graduates for the university's 125th anniversary; in 2012, the main-belt minor planet 89131 Phildevries was named in DeVries' honor by astronomer Bill Yeung.

Singing caterpillars

DeVries discovered the substrate-borne calls produced by caterpillars that form symbioses with ants in the butterfly families Riodinidae and Lycaenidae. In these symbioses, ants provide protection against arthropod predators in exchange for food secretions. DeVries demonstrated experimentally that the calls produced by singing caterpillars function to enhance caterpillar-ant symbioses in concert with caterpillar glands that produce food and chemical secretions. He also has shown that singing caterpillars occur widely throughout the world. His studies were the first to show that acoustical calls of one insect species can evolve to attract unrelated species in the context of symbiotic associations, fitting into a field of biological science termed Bioacoustics. Documentation and examination of interactions between organisms of different species integrate the fields of natural history, ecology, and evolution.

Natural history films

For over 20 years DeVries has been involved with natural history documentary films as a writer, scientific advisor and on-camera presenter for production companies such as National Geographic, Partridge Films, Oxford Scientific Films, Big Wave TV, Wildfilms, Granada, and Green Umbrella Films. Fifteen of these documentaries have been televised globally by National Geographic Channel, BBC Television and Scientific American Frontiers.

Photography

DeVries has worked as a natural history photographer, and his photographs have appeared in publications ranging from Ranger Rick and TV Guide to Nature, Science, and scholarly textbooks. He has done photography documenting societal effects after Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans.  A more recent series of black and white film photography focuses on musicians, bystanders, and street scenes in the New Orleans French Quarter and elsewhere.

Selected publications
Books
 DeVries, P.J. (1987). The Butterflies of Costa Rica and their Natural History. Volume I. Papilionidae, Pieridae and Nymphalidae. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 327 pp.
 DeVries, P.J. (1997). The Butterflies of Costa Rica and their Natural History. Volume II. Riodinidae. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 288 pp.

References

 C. Ballard (2006) The butterfly hunter: adventures of people who found their true calling way off the beaten path.  Random House, 271 pp.
Phil DeVries Research Gate Page

External links
Phil DeVries Web Page
 University of New Orleans Department of Biological Sciences
Carla Penz Web Page
Yanayacu Biological Station & Center for Creative Studies

1952 births
Living people
American entomologists
University of Michigan School of Natural Resources and Environment alumni
University of Texas at Austin College of Natural Sciences alumni
Harvard Fellows
Stanford University people
University of Oregon faculty
University of New Orleans faculty
MacArthur Fellows
People associated with the American Museum of Natural History
Missouri Botanical Garden people
Fulbright alumni

Philip James DeVries


Grace Anna Coolidge (née Goodhue; January 3, 1879 – July 8, 1957) was First Lady of the United States.  She was the wife of United States President Calvin Coolidge. She acted as the First Lady of the United States from 1923 to 1929.

Biography
Her parents were Andrew and Lemira B. Goodhue. She was their only child. She spent her childhood at Burlington, Vermont. She graduated from the University of Vermont in 1902. She then started teaching at a school for the deaf children. The name of that school was the Clarke School for the Deaf, Northampton, Massachusetts. There she met Calvin Coolidge. They married in October 1905. The name of their first son was John Coolidge. The name of their second, born in 1908, son was Calvin, Jr.

During all these years, her husband was working as a lawyer. Then, he became the governor. During all these years, Grace Coolidge helped her husband actively. By 1921, her husband has become the Vice President. They moved to Washington. Grace Coolidge soon became very popular in the high society of Washington.

First Lady

President Warren G. Harding died in 1923, and Calvin Coolidge became the President of the United States. Suddenly, their second son aged died at the age of 16 years.

Later life
In 1929, the president retired, and the couple left Washington. They went to Northampton (Massachusetts) to live.
USA's National Institute of Social Sciences awarded her a gold medal. In 1931, many people of America selected her as one of America's living women.

In 1933, her husband died, but she lived for many decades. She died in 1957 at the age of 78. She lived a private life. In between, she took her first airplane ride and a trip to Europe.

1879 births
1957 deaths
19th-century American people
20th-century American people
Calvin Coolidge
People from Burlington, Vermont
First Ladies of the United States
Second Ladies of the United States

Grace Coolidge


Lizard Lick is an unincorporated community in Wake County, North Carolina, United States. The community is located at the crossroads of Lizard Lick Road and NC 97. Lizard Lick has frequently been noted on lists of unusual place names.

The community is approximately  east of the state capital of Raleigh, along NC 97. It is about  north of Wendell and  west of Zebulon.

History
According to NC historian William S. Powell, the town got its name from a "passing observer who saw many lizards sunning and licking themselves on a rail fence."  Regardless of the town name, local community members who are native to the area are proud of their origins, and their economic future in the area.  In May 1997, the state installed the first traffic light in Lizard Lick, marking a new period of "increasing property values" and growth.

Media attention
In March 1998 the small town received publicity when Nintendo first released the Nintendo 64 game, "Yoshi's Story" there, with the name of the host town reflecting the Nintendo character Yoshi's ability to extend his tongue over a long distance. The pre-launch choice of Lizard Lick was the idea of Pasadena, California-based PR consultant Dereck Andrade. Andrade had been retained by the public relations firm Golin-Harris in Los Angeles to launch Yoshi's Story. Andrade chose two cities - French Lick, Indiana and Lizard Lick, as possible launch sites for the game. Lizard Lick was finally chosen over French Lick because the character of Yoshi was a dinosaur, which was related to a lizard. The game's launch in Lizard Lick was the largest event ever covered by the news media for a Nintendo product, bringing national and international news media to the crossroads town, including ABC World News Tonight, the CBS Evening News and NBC's The Today Show.

In September 2009 Lizard Lick once again received publicity, this time on a national level. The Time Warner owned TruTV cable television network became aware of a local towing and recovery company owned and operated by evangelist and Lizard Lick honorary "Mayor" Ronnie Shirley and his wife Amy called Lizard Lick Towing and Recovery.

According to the Eastern Wake News, the television series, originally title Lizard Lick Towing and later titled Lick Life, got its start at the end of August 2008, when the station sent a cameraman down for one day of shooting and that was all it took for a contract to be written. Those at the network were merely scouting out prospects at the time, but after realizing Amy Shirley was not only a power lifter, but a mortician and co-owner of the recovery business, they realized there was more color to the picture than originally anticipated.

In addition, they soon discovered that Ronnie is a "walking reality show". Robyn Hutt, the truTV executive in charge of the show was quoted by the News & Observer (the largest regional daily newspaper of the Research Triangle Park area, covering several counties in North Carolina) "We really fell in love with Lizard Lick". The Shirleys are "dynamic and entertaining characters".

The television series (Lizard Lick Towing) following Ronnie and his company operations was called All Worked Up and had a discussion forum, Ronnie's published poetry, interviews with the stars of the show and further information, including the scheduled show times. The Shirleys now have their own show called Lizard Lick Towing. It is a half-hour program that is shown on the TruTV network. The show premiered on February 7, 2011. It is dedicated entirely to Lizard Lick Towing and Recovery, due to its fast growing popularity from the segments of the show All Worked Up.

References

Unincorporated communities in North Carolina
Unincorporated communities in Wake County, North Carolina

Lizard Lick, North Carolina


Saturn (Latin: Sāturnus) was a Roman god of agriculture and harvest.  He was the father of Ceres, Jupiter, Veritas and others.  He was associated with wealth, liberation, and time.  He was identified with the Greek titan Kronos, whose reign (often referred to as the Golden Age) was regarded as a time of abundance and peace.

The Temple of Saturn situated within the Roman Forum housed the state treasury.  In December, the festival of Saturnalia, perhaps the most famous of all the Roman festivals, was held in his honor — it largely consisted of a public banquet, role reversals, private gift-giving and revelry.  The planet Saturn is named after him and the modern English weekday Saturday (Latin diēs Sāturni - "Day of Saturn") bears his name.

Roman gods and goddesses
Time and fate gods

Saturn (mythology)


The Westinghouse AN/ASQ-153\AN/AVQ-23 Pave Spike is an electro-optical laser designator targeting pod used to direct laser-guided bombs to target in daylight, visual conditions. It contained a laser boresighted to a television camera, which displayed its image on a cockpit screen.

156 examples of the original AN/ASQ-153 were used by USAF F-4 Phantom II aircraft (D and E variants) from 1974 through 1989, replacing the earlier Pave Knife.  The 144-inch-long (3.66 m), 420-lb (209 kg) pod was mounted in the F-4's left forward missile well, in place of an AIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missile.

In 1979, the Royal Air Force acquired a number of the simplified AN/AVQ-23E pods for their Blackburn Buccaneers. Twelve aircraft equipped with the pod were deployed to Saudi Arabia for the Gulf War to initially perform laser designation for other RAF aircraft  Later in the air campaign, these aircraft would carry laser-designated bombs themselves.

The pod is now obsolete, and is being phased out in favor of newer systems like LANTIRN and AN/ASQ-228 ATFLIR.

References

External links

Targeting pods
Equipment of the United States Air Force
Military electronics of the United States
Military equipment introduced in the 1970s

Pave Spike


In economics, the term volatility is used to measure how much the price or value of an economic good or service changes over time. Goods or services where the price changes a lot are said to have a high volatility, those that don't have a low volatility. The word come from the Latin verb "volare" meaning "to fly".

In the securities markets, volatility is often associated with big swings in either direction. For example, when the stock market rises and falls more than one percent over a sustained period of time, it is called a "volatile" market. An asset's volatility is a key factor when pricing options contracts. In statistical terms, volatility is the standard deviation of a market or security's annualised returns over a given period - essentially the rate at which its price increases or decreases. Historical volatility is calculated using a series of past market prices, while implied volatility looks at expected future volatility, using the market price of a market-traded derivative like an option.

Causes of volatility
Market volatility is caused by a host of several factors

 Political and economic factors
 Industry and sector factors
 Company performance
 Volatility overseas

References

Finance

Volatility


Helix is a genus of large air-breathing land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs.

The genus Helix is known from the Oligocene onwards.
This genus is native to Europe and the regions around the Mediterranean Sea.

The best-known species include Helix aspersa, the common, or brown garden snail, and Helix pomatia, the Roman snail, Burgundy snail, or edible snail.  H. pomatia and some other species are eaten as escargots.

Helix snails have been introduced throughout the world, where some, especially H. aspersa, have become garden pests.

Snails in this genus create and use love darts during mating.

Helix snails prefer cool, damp environments, as they easily get dry. Snails are most active at night and after rainfall. During unfavourable conditions, a snail will remain inside its shell, usually under rocks or other hiding places, to avoid being discovered by predators. In dry climates snails will naturally congregate near water sources, including artificial sources such as waste-water outlets of air conditioners.

The common garden snail (Helix aspersa) is herbivorous. These snails are able to digest most vegetation including carrots and lettuce. They also have a specialized crop of symbiotic bacteria that help their digestion, especially by breaking down the polysaccharide cellulose into simple sugars.

References

Gastropods

Helix (gastropod)


Charles Emil Sorensen (7 September 1881 – 11 August 1968) was a Danish-American principal of the Ford Motor Company during its first four decades. Like most other managers at Ford at the time, he did not have an official job title, but he served functionally as a patternmaker, foundry engineer, mechanical engineer, industrial engineer, production manager, and executive in charge of all production.

By the end of his career, he had become an officer of the company: a vice president and a director. Speaking figuratively, he saw himself during most of his career as "a viceroy ruling the production province of the Ford empire," and at the end as a "regent," who managed the company during the "interregnum" between the reigns of Henry Ford I and Henry Ford II.

Early life

Sorensen emigrated from Denmark to the United States with his parents when he was 4. He first worked as a surveyor's assistant and then apprenticed at the Jewett Stove Works in Buffalo, New York as a patternmaker and foundryman.

Early career
In 1900, the family moved to Detroit, and while working at a foundry in Detroit, he met Henry Ford. In 1905, he accepted a job as a patternmaker at Ford Motor Company. By 1907, he was head of the pattern department. He translated Ford's ideas, which came to him in the form of simple sketches or descriptions, into prototypes and into the patterns from which the parts would be cast.

Sorensen (with others, notably Walter Flanders, Clarence Avery, and Ed Martin) is credited with developing the first automotive assembly line, having formulated the idea of moving a product (for cars, that would be in the form of the chassis) through multiple workstations. His innovations were widely applied to the mass production of complex products, which average people could afford.

One Sunday in 1910, at the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant, Sorensen asserted that he and another Ford executive, Charles Lewis, tested his idea. Apparently, by the end of the day, he had determined that moving a car in a straight line from one end of the factory to the other, with parts added along the way by specialized workers performing repetitive tasks, with the stockrooms also placed strategically along the line, was the most efficient and therefore the cheapest way to build an automobile. To prove his theory, he then towed an automobile chassis on a rope over his shoulders through the Ford plant while others added the parts.

Later life

Sorensen was a major contributor to the launch of the Highland Park Ford Plant in 1910, where he was second in command to production chief Peter (Ed) Martin. He then helped with the development of the Fordson tractor and modernization of Edsel Ford's Lincoln when it was purchased by Ford from Henry M. Leland in 1922. Following transfer of auto assembly to the Rouge in the late 1920s, he was a "key leader" in manufacturing as number two man to Ed Martin, who was made vice president of manufacturing in 1924. He was manager of production planning and development. "Ed Martin, who was plant superintendent, and I practically lived at the Rouge." It has been said he considered himself the "Head of Production," and Henry Ford's "right-hand man," but he was only one of at least six company leaders claiming that distinction. (Ford's practice of telling his men to "[j]ust go out there and run the plant […] [a]nd don't worry about titles" contributed to these variations in viewpoints.)

Sorensen's help in innovating foundry practice for mass production earned for him from Henry Ford the nickname of "Cast-Iron Charlie" during the company's first decade, when he invented (or at least independently reinvented) the use of metal patterns, instead of wood ones, to withstand the huge number of moldmaking cycles needed for mass production and methods of core registration to position the cores accurately without relying on the sand under them to assist in the registration. In 1928 Sorensen joined Henry and Edsel Ford as the three US directors out of seven on the board of  Ford's new reorganized independent European operations. During the 1930s, Sorensen was also responsible for production techniques allowing the manufacture of a sophisticated V-8 engine block from a single casting, and using a more automated foundry workflow than ever before. The resulting Ford Flathead engine continued in production until 1953; a derivative design was used in French military vehicles into the 1990s.

During the early 1940s, Sorensen had responsibility for Ford's defense contracts, including Ford's Jeep and aircraft engines and production of the B-24 Liberator bomber. He led the design of the Willow Run plant, where the B-24s were made, applying all of his previous experience in the development and refinement of mass production methods. Each was made up of 488,193 parts, and they were turned out at a still astonishing rate of one per hour; the previous production rate was one per day. He was knighted by the king of Denmark and made a member of the Order of the Dannebrog for his accomplishments.

During his career, he was noted for his brilliance in organization and his hard-driving personality, and also for insensitivity to others and an explosive temper. Sorensen's memoirs intended to show how the Ford industrial empire was kept intact and his hard struggle to bring Henry Ford II to the direction of its destinies. After leaving the navy, a 24-year-old Henry Ford II joined company management as a vice-president on December 15, 1943. Sorensen, who had mentored the young Ford, was not offered a major role by him. He requested retirement in December 1943, to be effective January 1, 1944, as previously agreed with the elder Ford in 1941. His retirement was effective on March 13, 1944. He then accepted a position as president of automaker Willys-Overland, presiding over the transition from wartime production back to civilian-market production. Sorensen effectively retired after clashes with the board but retained a title and salary as vice-chairman from 1946 until full retirement in 1950. Willys became Kaiser Jeep and was later acquired by American Motors Corporation (AMC). AMC was later bought out by Chrysler.

Sorensen retired in Florida and US Virgin Islands. He had extensive land holdings in Cuba (which were seized by the new government after the Cuban revolution). He died on August 28, 1968, at Bethesda Naval Hospital in Maryland. He is buried in Miami Beach, Florida. He was preceded in death by his first wife Helen (née Mitchell) Sorensen and son Clifford Sorensen.

References

Sources
 Bryan, Ford R. (1993). Henry's Lieutenants. .

 Sorensen, Charles M. (great grandson).
 Ohno, Taiichi (1988), Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production, Productivity Press, .

External links

1881 births
1968 deaths
American automotive pioneers
Danish emigrants to the United States
Ford executives
Foundrymen
Patternmakers (industrial)

Charles E. Sorensen


CD-i was a CD-based data storage format that was mostly created by Philips. It was designed to hold programs, similar to CD-ROM. The first CD-i player, the CDI 910/205, was released by Philips in 1991. Along with consoles such as the FM Towns Marty and the Amiga CDTV, the CD-i is one of the first CD-based consoles. The CD-i was a bit of a commercial failure, but still had a long lifespan, with the last one being made in 1998. Its last game, Solar Crusade, released in 1999. The reason for its failure was most likely due to a lack of third party support, poorly received games, and a high selling price.

Video game consoles

CD-i


, better known by the pen name Suihō Tagawa (田河 水泡, Tagawa Suihō), was a Japanese manga artist.

Biography
Born in Sumida, Tokyo, Nakatarō Takamizawa grew up an orphan: his mother died upon his birth, his father and his uncle (who served as one of his stepparents) both died several years afterwards. He graduated from Fukagawa's municipal Rinkai Jinjō elementary school in 1911. In 1919, he was conscripted into the Imperial Japanese Army, serving in Korea and Manchuria, and left in 1922. In 1925, he graduated from Nihon Bijutsu Gakkō ("Japan School of Art"); during his time at the school, he participated in the radical avant-garde movement Mavo, under the pen name Takamizawa Michinao .

In 1926, he became a rakugo author. He began producing manga in 1927. He gained a regular assignment selling manga stories and adopted the pen name , which was later corrupted into :  literally means "water bubble". In 1928 he married  (younger sister of Hideo Kobayashi) in a church ceremony.

In 1931, he began the long-running series Norakuro in Kodansha's anthology magazine Shōnen Kurabu, about an anthropomorphic black and white dog in an army of dogs. Although at first intended to have only a brief lifespan, its immense popularity urged Tagawa to continue producing the strip until 1941. Tagawa  has won numerous awards and is recognized as one of the pioneers of the Japanese manga industry.  He mentored Machiko Hasegawa, who would become the creator of the popular comic series Sazae-san, and he was an influence to Osamu Tezuka, the "God of Manga".  Some other comics by Tagawa are Tako no Yacchan and Gasorin Oyoshi

After World War II he became a bona fide Christian; he credited the faith in helping him overcome alcoholism after several failed attempts. In 1988, he produced the autobiographical Watashi no Rirekisho ("My Résumé") for the Japanese Sankei Shimbun newspaper. He died in 1989 at the age of 90.

References

External links
Biography of Suihō Tagawa
Biography of Suihō Tagawa (in English)

1899 births
1989 deaths
People from Sumida
Manga artists from Tokyo
Japanese Christians
Recipients of the Medal with Purple Ribbon
Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun, 4th class
Imperial Japanese Army personnel

Suihō Tagawa


Pitche Blende was an American garage rock/psychedelic rock band formed in 1967, in Saginaw, Michigan. The group was composed of high school students, mostly from Arthur Hill High School, and became a regional success in the early Michigan Rock culture movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s. The band consisted of six members which included two sisters, vocalist Laurie Seaman (Laurie Beebe Lewis) and bassist Jinny Seaman, guitarist Dennis Malenfant, rhythm guitarist Dan Quinnan, drummer Mike Volker and singer Tom Morris. Clara Jeanne Seaman, mother of Laurie and Jinny, was the band's manager.

History
The band was inspired by some of the heavier rock and psychedelic acts of the 1960s, but in spite of their young age, they played a major role in the burgeoning Michigan rock movement at the time. There was new territory for emerging female rock musicians during a time when women of America were redefining their roles within American society. The sisters of the group were influenced by other acts, such as their all-female Michigan peers, The Pleasure Seekers, whose membership consisted of Suzi Quatro and her sisters, as well as other strong female influences of that era such as Grace Slick and Janis Joplin.

Their approach evolved from the garage/psychedelic sound to more commercial rock as groups such as The Cherry Slush, who had already released two pop hit singles and were rising to the top on Billboard Magazine. Pitche Blende, however, remained experimental in nature. This was during a time when often concerts were three day-long music festival affairs, much like the Monterey Pop Festival of 1967 and Woodstock in 1969, when a numerous bands would perform. Meanwhile, in Michigan, there were other acts such as The MC5, Iggy Pop, Ted Nugent and The Amboy Dukes, Frijid Pink, Bob Seger, Mitch Ryder and the Detroit Wheels, Grand Funk Railroad, Question Mark & The Mysterians, Dick Wagner and The Frost, The SRC, Savoy Brown and The Pleaure Seekers (later Cradle), many of whom would attain national notoriety while routinely performing in clubs throughout the Mid-Michigan area. Dick Wagner supported many of the young musicians in Michigan and produced The Cherry Slush's first record. Pitche Blend frequently opened for Wagner, who became a mentor and family friend to the Seaman sisters, and continued to do work with them through the years.

Pitche Blende's popularity rapidly accelerated during this time, forsaking typical three-minute songs in favor of a new exploratory sound along the lines of more progressive bands such as Traffic, which they covered in their live shows. In 1969, they released their first and only vinyl recording, the single "My World Has Stopped" b/w "Stop", which received regional airplay and allowed them a preferred billing position among the more renowned groups of that time. The two songs were released on the Michigan Mixture Volume 1 LP (and later on the two-disc CD compilation) and are considered by garage rock and psychedelic collectors to be standout songs from the era.  Pitche Blende disbanded in 1970, as tensions ensued with two of the members joining the Jesus movement, while the two sisters had broken up with the other two male band members.

Discography

1968 - Pitche Blende - "My World has Stopped" b/w "Stop" (Valley 1102)

1990 - Michigan Mixture Volume 1 - (Clinging Hysteria CHR1) includes Pitche Blend "My World has Stopped"

2012 - Michigan Mixture Volume 1 (Spiral Groove – SGLP3010) Reissue. Includes Pitche Blend's "My World has Stopped" and "Stop"

References

Garage rock groups from Michigan
Musicians from Saginaw, Michigan
Psychedelic rock music groups from Michigan
Musical groups established in 1967

Pitche Blende


Disco Step-by-Step was a local television show in Buffalo, New York which featured disco music, dance instruction, and hustle dancing. The show was created, written, produced and first hosted by Marty Angelo.

Taped during 1975 and 1976, the show was seen on local Public-access television cable TV channels in Buffalo and western New York State from January 1, 1977 to June 30, 1977; the program was shot in black and white.

On September 23, 1977, the show moved to WBEN-TV (channel 4, now WIVB), where the show saw various technical improvements, including color. The show's host changed with the move, with the duties now passed to Kevin O'Connell, who at the time was also WBEN-TV's weatherman. The program ran in the form of first-run and repeat telecasts on WBEN-TV until January 15, 1980.

Various video clips of the show were featured in 2005 in the Experience Music Project's travelling , a VH1 television disco special, and a DVD disco documentary.

References

Dance television shows
Disco
1970s American television series
1980s American television series
1977 American television series debuts
1980 American television series endings
American public access television shows

Disco Step-by-Step


Suddaby Public School, originally known as Central School, is a public elementary school in Kitchener, Ontario (formerly known as Berlin).  It is located at 171 Frederick Street, in the city's downtown.  It serves grades Junior Kindergarten (JK) through grade 6.

The school building opened in January 1857, and its first principal was Alex Young.  Initially, the school building also accommodated the Berlin Grammar School (later the Berlin High School, now Kitchener-Waterloo Collegiate and Vocational School) in the second-floor room in the northeast corner of the building.  In 1871, due to the growth in population of Berlin and due to school attendance having been made mandatory in Ontario, the school became quite crowded and the high school relocated elsewhere.  Attendance continued to increase, and classes had to be held in Berlin's fire hall in 1874.  In 1876, a four-room addition was built at the back of the school.

In 1877, Ontario's Minister of Education chose the school as a model school for the training of third class teachers.  At that time Alex Young stepped down as principal and was replaced by Jeremiah Suddaby.  In 1882, the first kindergarten in Ontario, taught by Miss Janet Metcalfe, was opened at the school.  In 1886, accommodations again became inadequate.  The Berlin Public School Board decided to resolve this problem by opening new schools—Agnes Street School (now King Edward Public School) in 1886, Courtland Avenue Public School in 1890, and Margaret Avenue Public School in 1894.  The concept of model schools came to an end in 1908.  Suddaby remained principal until his death in 1910, at which point the school was renamed in his honour.

In 1921 plans were made for a large addition to the school.  The cornerstone of the new building was laid on June 10, 1922, and the addition was formally opened on September 24, 1923.

The school celebrated its 100th anniversary in 1957.  At that time, the school's original bell was donated to Doon Heritage Crossroads.

On November 17, 1980, the school building was designated as a heritage property by Kitchener's city council under the provisions of the Ontario Heritage Act.  The designation noted the facade, the archway between the main foyer, the archway between the main foyer and the original kindergarten, and the oil painting of Jeremiah Suddaby that was painted in 1912 by A. Y. Jackson, one of the original members of the Group of Seven.

The basement was home to a special-ed program called McQuarrie Enrichment Program. Unfortunately, the McQuarrie Enrichment Program was transferred to Cederbrae Public School and A.R. Kaufman Public School in 2011.

The school's most famous alumnus is William Lyon Mackenzie King, former Prime Minister of Canada.

See also
List of Waterloo Region, Ontario schools

References
(1942).  "Suddaby School formerly Central School, Kitchener".  Thirtieth Annual Report of the Waterloo Historical Society, Kitchener, Ontario 30: 228–239.
Lamb, Kathryn Hansuld (1982).  "Suddaby School Celebrates 125 Years".  Waterloo Historical Society, Kitchener, Ontario 70: 127–129.  ISSN 0315-5021.
Waterloo Region District School Board - Schools - R-T.  Retrieved February 24, 2006.

Waterloo Region District School Board
Elementary schools in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo
Schools in Kitchener, Ontario
1857 establishments in Canada West
Educational institutions established in 1857
The great Suddaby protest of 2022
This was a protest by the students during school time in which dozens of students protested to go inside against the teachers, an estimate of 100-120 students were involved in this protest.

Suddaby Public School


Viyyur Jail Park is recreational park situated near the Central Prison, Viyyur in Thrissur City of Kerala. The park is the oldest park in Kerala state.

History
The park was created by Parukutty Nethyar Amma, the wife of Maharaja Rama Varma XVI in 1875 in her own land. When Central Prison, Viyyur was shifted to Viyyur from Thrissur city, the same land was used to build the jail. The park now shares a wall with the jail. On her instructions, the park was regained after the jail was shifted. For decades the park was languishing but was later taken over by the Central Prison, Viyyur. In 2013, the Thrissur MLA released the fund to rebuild the park.

References

Parks in Thrissur
Tourist attractions in Thrissur

Viyyur Jail Park


In mid-1981, amid a widespread economic crisis and food shortages in the Polish People's Republic, thousands of Poles, mainly women and their children, took part in several hunger demonstrations, organized in cities and towns across the country. The protests were peaceful, without rioting, and the biggest one took place on 30 July 1981 in Łódź. The situation in Communist Poland was serious enough that it prompted Adam Michnik to write, "Poland faces hunger uprisings".

Background

The summer of 1981 was a very turbulent time in Communist Poland. The creation of Solidarity, the first independent mass political movement in the Eastern Bloc, raised the hopes of millions of Poles, and in the mid-1980s, Solidarity was by far the biggest non-religious organization of the country, with around 10 million members. However, at the same time, the economic crisis was so serious and food shortages in Poland were so common, that in several cities the so-called hunger demonstrations (or hunger processions) took place. The biggest protests occurred in Łódź, the city which suffered in particular from meat shortages.

According to the Rzeczpospolita daily, the summer of 1981 was the "bottom of the crisis". Virtually all products were lacking, including meat, coffee, laundry detergents, sugar, and cigarettes. In Warsaw, buses of the public transit authority had no spare tires and the company announced that only main routes would be kept, adding that the public had to get used to a situation in which "there are shortages of meat, soap, cigarettes and of a decent transportation system". The situation was summarized by a grim Solidarity poster that appeared on Polish streets in early summer 1981. It showed a black skull with a crossed knife and fork under it. The first result of the ninth party congress: a cut in food rations, the poster said, referring to the 20 percent reduction in meat allotments.

According to the statistics, released at the end of July 1981, meat supplies had fallen 17% in the first six months of the year, and the government of Poland tried to control the situation by limiting meat allotments for the population of the country. It was announced, that starting in August 1981, some 16 million citizens would be able to purchase up to  of meats monthly, instead of  before (provided that there was any meat on the market). This announcement raised angry comments, Solidarity demanded control of food production, and there were rumors that the government was keeping meat away from the public. People were spending days, if not weeks, in lines to buy necessary products. In many cases, special Queue Social Committees were formed, which nominated the Head of the Queue – a person who drew up a list of those waiting, and at appointed times, checked the names. Those who did not show up lost their place in the line.

First demonstrations

The first recorded hunger demonstration took place on 25 July 1981, in the town centre Kutno, at a crucial railroad junction. Some 2,000 people participated in it, and it was the first street protest in Poland since August 1980, as Solidarity had previously been trying to limit its actions to factories. The demonstration in Kutno was organized by the local Solidarity office, Interfactory Founding Committee (Międzyzakładowy Komitet Założycielski). The demonstrators in Kutno carried banners proclaiming: We are tired of being hungry, We are tired of queueing, and We demand life on the level of a civilised country, carrying empty pots and pans.

In the following days, demonstrations were organized in numerous cities across whole country, such as Częstochowa, Białystok, Tarnów, Tomaszów Mazowiecki, Olsztyn, Tarnowskie Góry, Konin, Kraków, Piotrków Trybunalski, Bełchatów (July 30, 3,000 participants), Pabianice, Szczecin (July 31, 5,000 participants), Kalisz, and a series of protests in Łódź, where the first demonstration took place on Monday, 27 July at 3 p.m. Banners, held by the residents of Łódź, stated among others: "Our children are hungry", "We stand in lines 24 hours a day", "We want to split bread, not Poland", "The hungry of all countries – unite!", and "We are not going to work hungry". In the following days, further demonstrations took place in Łódź – on 29 July, and on 30 July, when up to 50,000 people protested, blessed on the way by the Bishop of Łódź, Józef Rozwadowski. Most of participants were women and their children, with men walking on the sides and trying to protect the demonstrators. As Jacek Kuroń later said:
"Those crowds wielding banners broke the principle of not leaving factories to take to the streets. They created an atmosphere of such tension that the government probably panicked".

Demonstration in Łódź
The biggest demonstration took place in Łódź, on 30 July 1981, and was organized by a group of local Solidarity activists, such as Andrzej Slowik, Grzegorz Palka, Jerzy Kropiwnicki and Janina Kończak. Łódź was the city in which food shortages were common and chronic. In mid-1981, the only rationed foodstuffs still available there were butter and flour.

It has been estimated that between 30,000 and 50,000 women and children marched on that day along Łódź's main artery, Piotrkowska Street. A reporter of the Życie Warszawy daily described the black procession in Łódź as "Something sublime, yet at the same time depressing. The demonstration takes place in silence, with a feeling of mourning. Most participants are women of different ages, who sing hymns, such as "Boże, coś Polskę" or patriotic songs, including "Rota". The banners read: We want to eat, The hungry of all countries – unite, Our children are hungry, We have no strength to work.

James M. Markham of The New York Times wrote on 30 July 1981: "As planned, policemen halted cross traffic along the route of two and a half miles as the angry placards were borne toward City Hall. They proclaimed: Bread, Hunger, Who Wants to Starve Us? We Are Hungry, The Hungry Will Eat the Authorities and Enough of Lying Explanations. The biggest applause was for the last placard in the procession: How Do You Eat Ration Coupons? With a Knife and Fork? Knots of people broke into applause, holding their hands above their heads. A few older people cried".

Jerzy Kropiwnicki of Łódź's office of Solidarity was one of the main organizers of the protests. This is his recollection of the demonstration:

"In those years, Łódź became famous in Poland with the so-called hunger march, frequently shown on public TV during the Martial law. The communist propaganda was trying to convince the Poles that food shortages were directly connected with strikes. However, back in mid-1981, when the situation in Łódź became tragic and there was no guarantee for one to purchase a piece of cheese or a fish, we realized that we could not control the workers any longer. Therefore, instead of another strike, we organized a street protest. It all began with a demonstration of vehicles belonging to the Państwowa Komunikacja Samochodowa (Motor Transport Company) and several construction companies, which blocked the center of the city. A few days later, along Piotrkowska Street, the biggest demonstration in the history of Łódź started. Some estimates claim that there were 50,000 participants, even though we wanted women only to take part in it. The men walked on the sides, and the handicapped were in front".

References

External links

1981 in Poland
1981 labor disputes and strikes
July 1981 events in Europe
Protests in Poland
Solidarity (Polish trade union)

1981 Polish hunger demonstrations


Grimm's law (also known as the First Germanic Sound Shift) is a set of sound laws describing the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stop consonants as they developed in Proto-Germanic in the 1st millennium BC. First discovered by Rasmus Rask but systematically put forward by Jacob Grimm, it establishes a set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and fricatives and stop consonants of certain other centum Indo-European languages.

History

Grimm's law was the first discovered systematic sound change, creating historical phonology as a separate historical linguistics discipline. Friedrich von Schlegel first noted the correspondence between Latin p and Germanic f in 1806. In 1818, Rasmus Rask extended the correspondences to other Indo-European languages like Sanskrit and Greek, and to the full range of consonants involved. In 1822, Jacob Grimm put forth the rule in his book Deutsche Grammatik and extended it to include standard German. He noticed many words had consonants different from what his law predicted. These exceptions defied linguists for several decades, until they eventually received explanation from Danish linguist Karl Verner in the form of Verner's law.

Overview
Grimm's law consists of three parts, forming consecutive phases in the sense of a chain shift. The phases are usually constructed as follows:

 Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops change into voiceless fricatives.
 Proto-Indo-European voiced stops become voiceless stops.
 Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirated stops become voiced stops or fricatives (as allophones).

This chain shift (in the order 3,2,1) can be abstractly represented as:

  →  →  →
  →  →  →
  →  →  →
  →  →  →

Here each sound moves one position to the right to take on its new sound value. Within Proto-Germanic, the sounds denoted by , ,  and  were stops in some environments and fricatives in others, so  →  indicates  → , and likewise for the others. The voiceless fricatives are customarily spelled , ,  and  in the context of Germanic.

The exact details of the shift are unknown, and it may have progressed in a variety of ways before arriving at the final situation. The three stages listed above show the progression of a "pull chain", in which each change leaves a "gap" in the phonological system that "pulls" other phonemes into it to fill the gap. Alternatively, the shift may have occurred as a "push chain", where the sounds changed in reverse order, with each change "pushing" the next forward to avoid merging the phonemes.

The steps could also have occurred somewhat differently. Another possible sequence of events could have been:

 Voiceless stops are allophonically aspirated under most conditions.
 Voiced stops become unaspirated voiceless stops.
 All aspirated stops become fricatives.

This sequence would lead to the same result. This variety of Grimm's law is often suggested in the context of Proto-Indo-European glottalic theory, which is followed by a minority of linguists. This theoretical framework assumes that PIE "voiced stops" were actually voiceless to begin with, so that the second phase did not actually exist as such, or was not actually devoicing but was losing some other articulatory feature like glottalization or ejectiveness. This alternative sequence also accounts for Verner's law phonetics (see below), which are easier to explain within the glottalic theory framework when Grimm's law is formulated in this manner. Additionally, aspirated stops are known to have changed to fricatives when transiting between Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Italic, so representing a plausible potential change from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic.

Further changes

Once the sounds described by Grimm's law had changed, only one type of voiced consonant was left, with no distinction between voiced stops and voiced fricatives. They eventually became stops at the start of a word (for the most part), as well as after a nasal consonant, but fricatives elsewhere. Whether they were plosives or fricatives at first is therefore not clear. The voiced aspirated stops may have first become voiced fricatives, before becoming stops under certain conditions. But they may also have become stops at first, then become fricatives in most positions later.

Around the same time as the Grimm's law sounds shifted, another change occurred known as Verner's law. Verner's law caused the voiceless fricatives that resulted from the Grimm's law changes to become voiced under certain conditions, creating apparent exceptions to the rule. For example:

 Proto-Indo-European *bʰréh₂tēr ("brother") > Proto-Germanic *brōþēr (Old English broþor, Old High German bruothar/bruodar)
 Proto-Indo-European *ph₂tḗr ("father") > Proto-Germanic *faðēr (Old English fæder, Old High German fatar)

Here, the same sound *t appears as *þ  in one word (following Grimm's law), but as *d  in another (apparently violating Grimm's law). See the Verner's law article for a more detailed explanation of this discrepancy.

The early Germanic *gw that had arisen from Proto-Indo-European  (and from  through Verner's law) further changed with various sorts:

 After *n it was preserved as a labiovelar stop *gw, but later changed to a plain velar *g in West Germanic.
 Following vowels, it seems to have become *w, presumably through a fricative stage *ɣʷ.
 Word-initially, the most plausible reflex is labiovelar stop *gʷ at first, but the further development is unclear. In that position, it became either *w, *g or *b during late Proto-Germanic.
 The regular reflex next to *u would likely have been *g, due to the labial element before a labial vowel being lost in Proto-Indo-European, which continued to act as a surface filter. (See boukólos rule)

Perhaps the usual reflex was *b (as suggested by the connection of bid < *bidjaną and Old Irish guidid), but *w appears in certain cases (possibly through dissimilation when another labial consonant followed?) like warm and wife (provided that the proposed explanations are correct). Proto-Germanic *hw voiced by Verner's law fell together with this sound and developed identically, compare the words for 'she-wolf': from Middle High German wülbe and Old Norse ylgr, one can reconstruct Proto-Germanic nominative singular *wulbī, genitive singular *wulgijōz, from earlier *wulgwī, *wulgwijōz.

Examples

Further changes following Grimm's law, as well as sound changes in other Indo-European languages, can occasionally obscure the law's effects. The most illustrative examples are used here.
{| class="wikitable"
! Proto-Indo-European
! Meaning
! Non-Germanic (unshifted) cognates
! Change
! Proto-Germanic
! Germanic (shifted) examples
|-
|
| "foot"
| Ancient Greek: πούς, ποδός (poús, podós), Latin: pēs, pedis, Sanskrit: pāda, Russian: под (pod) "under; floor", Lithuanian: pėda, Latvian: pēda, Persian:  (pa), Serbo-Croatian: "pod" ("under; floor") and "peta" as in "heel"
! *p > f
| *fōts
| English: foot, West Frisian: foet,  German: Fuß, Gothic: fōtus, Icelandic, Faroese: fótur, Danish: fod,  Norwegian, Swedish: fot
|-
|
| "three"
| Ancient Greek: τρεῖς (treîs), Latin: trēs, Welsh: tri, Sanskrit: tri, Russian: три (tri), Serbo-Croatian: три̑ (trȋ), Lithuanian: trỹs, Polish: trzy, Albanian: tre
! *t > þ
| *þrīz
| English: three, Old Frisian: thrē, Old Saxon: thrīe, Gothic: þreis, Icelandic: þrír
|-
|
| "dog"
| Ancient Greek: κύων (kýōn), Latin: canis, Sanskrit: śván, Welsh: ci (pl. cŵn), Serbo-Croatian: kuče, Persian:  (sag), Russian: собака (sobaka)
! *k > h
| *hundaz
| English: hound, Dutch: hond, German: Hund, Gothic: hunds, Icelandic, Faroese: hundur, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: hund
|-
|
| "what"
| Latin: quod, Irish: cad, Sanskrit: kád, Russian: как (kak), Lithuanian: kas, Serbo-Croatian (Torlakian dialect): кvo (kvo), Serbo-Croatian (Kajkavian dialect): кај (kaj)
! * > hw
| *hwat
| English: what,  Gothic:  ("hwa"), Icelandic: hvað, Faroese: hvat, Danish: hvad,  Norwegian:  hva
|-
|
| "apple"
| Lithuanian: obuolỹs, Gaulish abalom, Serbo-Croatian: ја̏бука (jȁbuka)
! *b > p
| *aplaz
| English: apple, West Frisian: apel, Dutch: appel, Icelandic: epli, Swedish: äpple, Crimean Gothic apel
|-
|
| "ten"
| Latin: decem, Greek: δέκα (déka), Irish: deich, Sanskrit: daśan, Russian: десять (desjat), Welsh: deg, Lithuanian: dešimt, Polish: dziesięć
! *d > t
| *tehun
| English: ten, Dutch: tien, Gothic: taíhun, Icelandic: tíu, Faroese: tíggju, Danish, Norwegian: ti, Swedish: tio
|-
|
| "cold"
| Latin: gelū, Greek: γελανδρός (gelandrós), Lithuanian: gelmenis, gelumà
! *g > k
| *kaldaz
| English: cold, West Frisian: kâld, Dutch: koud, German: kalt, Icelandic, Faroese: kaldur, Danish: kold, Norwegian: kald, Swedish: kall
|-
|
| "alive"
| Lithuanian: gyvas,  Russian: живой (živoj), Sanskrit: jīvá-, Serbo-Croatian: жив (živ), Polish: żywy
! * > kw
| *kwi(k)waz
| English: quick, West Frisian: kwik, kwyk, Dutch: kwiek, German: keck, Gothic: qius, Icelandic, Faroese: kvikur, Danish: kvik, Swedish: kvick, Norwegian kvikk
|-
|
| "brother"
| Sanskrit: bhrātṛ, Ancient Greek: φρατήρ (phrātēr) ("member of a brotherhood"), Latin: frāter, Russian, Serbo-Croatian: брат (brat), Lithuanian: brolis, Polish: brat, Old Church Slavonic: братръ (bratr'''), Old Welsh: braut, Latvian: brālis, Persian:  (barádar)
! * > b
| *brōþēr
| English: brother, West Frisian, Dutch: broeder, German: Bruder, Gothic: broþar, Icelandic, Faroese: bróðir, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: broder|-
|
| "honey"
| Sanskrit: mádhu, Homeric Greek: μέθυ (methu), Lithuanian: medus, Russian: мёд (mjod), Serbo-Croatian: мед (med), Polish: miód! * > d
| *meduz
| English: mead, East Frisian: meede, Dutch: mede, German: Met, Danish, Norwegian: mjød, Icelandic: mjöður , Swedish: mjöd|-
|
| "walk, step"
| Sanskrit: stighnoti, Ancient Greek: στείχειν (steíkhein)
! * > g
| *stīganą
| Old English: stīgan, Dutch: stijgen, German: steigen, Icelandic, Faroese: stíga, Danish, Norwegian: stige, Gothic steigan (all meaning "ascend, climb")
|-
|
| "goose"
| Latin: anser < *hanser, Ancient Greek: χήν (chēn), Sanskrit: hamsa ("swan"), Lithuanian: žąsis (older žansis), Russian: гусь (gus), Persian:  (ğaz), Serbo-Croatian: гуска (guska), Polish: gęś! * > g
| *gans-
| English: goose, West Frisian: goes, guos, Dutch: gans, German: Gans, Icelandic: gæs, Faroese: gás, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: gås|-
|
| "sing"
| Homeric Greek:  (omphē) "voice"
! * > gw (After n)
| *singwaną
| English: sing, West Frisian: sjonge, Dutch: zingen, German: singen, Gothic: siggwan, Old Icelandic: syngva, syngja, Icelandic, Faroese: syngja, Swedish: sjunga, Danish: synge, sjunge|}

This process appears strikingly regular.  Each phase involves one single change which applies equally to the labials () and their equivalent dentals (), velars () and rounded velars ().  The first phase left the phoneme repertoire of the language without voiceless stops, the second phase filled this gap, but created a new one, and so on until the chain had run its course.

Behaviour in consonant clusters

When two obstruents occurred in a pair, the first was changed according to Grimm's law, if possible, while the second was not. If either of the two was voiceless, the whole cluster was devoiced, and the first obstruent also lost its labialisation, if it was present.

Most examples of this occurred with obstruents preceded by *s (resulting in *sp, *st, *sk, *skʷ), or obstruents followed by *t (giving *ft, *ss, *ht, *ht) or *s (giving *fs, *ss, *hs, *hs). The latter change was frequent in suffixes, and became a phonotactic restriction known as the Germanic spirant law. This rule remained productive throughout the Proto-Germanic period. The cluster *tt became *ss (as in many Indo-European daughter languages), but this was often restored analogically to *st later on.

Examples with preceding *s:

{| class="wikitable"
! Non-Germanic examples
! Change
! Germanic examples
|-
| Latin: spuere, Lithuanian: spjáuti! *sp
| English: spew, West Frisian: spije, Dutch: spuwen, German: speien, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish: spy, Icelandic: spýja, Faroese: spýggja, Gothic: speiwan|-
| Latin: stāre, Irish: stad, Sanskrit: sta, Russian: стать (stat'), Lithuanian: stoti, Persian:  (istâdan)
! *st
| English: stand, Icelandic, Faroese, Norwegian: standa, Gothic: standan; West Frisian: stean, Dutch: staan, German: stehen, Danish, Swedish: stå|-
|  Lithuanian: skurdus! *sk
| English: short, Old High German: scurz, Icelandic: skorta|-
| Irish: scéal! *
| English: scold, Icelandic: skáld, Norwegian: skald; West Frisian: skelle, Dutch: schelden, German: schelten|}

 Some linguists dispute the origin of the word "scold", but Julius Pokorny, among others, proposed *skʷetlo as the assumed root.
 Several languages, including English, later have an unrelated change  >  (or >  in the case of Dutch).

Examples with following *t:

 Icelandic nótt  comes from Old Norse nǫ́tt, nátt, from Proto-Germanic *naht-. The Germanic *ht regularly becomes Old Norse tt, and this then becomes preaspirated in Icelandic. Thus, the  of the modern Icelandic form is not Germanic 's direct descendant. The same ancestry holds for Icelandic átta's  as well.

Correspondences to PIE
The Germanic "sound laws", combined with regular changes reconstructed for other Indo-European languages, allow one to define the expected sound correspondences between different branches of the family. For example, Germanic (word-initial) *b- corresponds regularly to Latin *f-, Greek , Sanskrit , Slavic, Baltic or Celtic b-, etc., while Germanic *f- corresponds to Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Slavic and Baltic p- and to zero (no initial consonant) in Celtic. The former set goes back to PIE * (faithfully reflected in Sanskrit and modified in various ways elsewhere), and the latter set to PIE *p- (shifted in Germanic, lost in Celtic, but preserved in the other groups mentioned here).

One of the more conspicuous present surface correspondences is the English digraph wh and the corresponding Latin and Romance digraph qu, notably found in interrogative words (wh-words) such as the five Ws. These both come from . The present pronunciations have further changed, like many English varieties reducing the wh-cluster, though the spellings reflect the history more; see Interrogative word: Etymology for details.

See also
 High German consonant shift
 Glottalic theory
 The Tuscan gorgia, a similar evolution differentiating the Tuscan dialects from Standard Italian.
 The Uralic Hungarian language was also affected by a similar process, leading to a high frequency of f and h, and can be compared to Finnish, which did not change this way.
 Armenian, another Indo-European language, has experienced a similar evolution.
 Stigler's law of eponymy
 Grassmann's law

References

External links
Grimm's law at Encyclopædia Britannica''

Sound laws
Germanic language histories
History of the English language
History of the German language
History of the Dutch language
Proto-Indo-European language

Grimm's law


Adolphe Blanc (24 June 1828 – May 1885) was a French composer of chamber music.

Blanc was born in Manosque, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence.  At the age of 13 he was sent to study violin at the Paris Conservatoire. Though he studied under Fromental Halévy, and though his one-act comic opera Les Deux Billets was performed in 1868, Blanc's refined music lies in the Romantic Viennese tradition of hausmusik for private performance, music that was essentially peripheral to the public musical life of contemporary Paris, which was centered on opera, and as a result Blanc has been largely overlooked.  There are three string trios, four string quartets, seven string quintets of various configurations, 15 piano trios, piano quartets and quintets as well as settings and arrangements, songs, pieces for piano and violin, choral works and some orchestral works.

He was conductor at the Théâtre Lyrique in Paris, 1855 – 1860, and died in Paris.

None of his music, save perhaps the Septet opus 40, can be called familiar. The following have been recorded:

Trio for piano, clarinet and cello op. 23
Quintet for piano, flute, clarinet, horn and bassoon op. 37
Septet for clarinet, horn, bassoon, violin, viola, cello and double bass, op. 40 (1860)
Sonatine concertante for two pianos, op. 64
String quintets numbers 3 (op. 21), 4 (op. 22) and 7 (op. 50)

External links

Kammermusikverlag Kassel: Hans-Ruprecht Bitterhof, "Adolphe Blanc"
Klassika: A list of compositions
Adolphe Blanc Septet in E, Op.40 Sound-bites
Trios, piano, strings, no. 4, op. 35 (From the Sibley Music Library Digital Score Collection)
Romance, piano, oboe, horn, op. 43 (From the Sibley Music Library Digital Score Collection)

1828 births
1885 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century French composers
19th-century French male musicians
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
French male classical composers
French Romantic composers
People from Manosque
Occitan musicians

Adolphe Blanc