Paul Adolph Volcker Jr. (September 5, 1927 – December 8, 2019) was an American economist who served as the 12th chairman of the Federal Reserve from 1979 to 1987. During his tenure as chairman, Volcker was widely credited with having ended the high levels of inflation seen in the United States throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, with measures known as the Volcker shock. He previously served as the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York from 1975 to 1979.

President Jimmy Carter nominated him to succeed G. William Miller as Fed chairman and President Ronald Reagan renominated him once. Volcker did not seek a third term at the Fed and was succeeded by Alan Greenspan. After his retirement from the Board, he chaired the Economic Recovery Advisory Board under President Barack Obama from 2009 to 2011 during the subprime mortgage crisis.

Early life and education
Volcker was born in Cape May, New Jersey, the son of Alma Louise (née Klippel, 1892–1990) and Paul Adolph Volcker (1889–1960).  All his grandparents were of German origin. Volcker grew up in Teaneck, New Jersey, where his father was the township's first municipal manager. Paul Sr. thrived in the role for 20 years as he improved the burgeoning town's economic stability and the local government's effectiveness. Paul Jr. had four older sisters: Ruth (1916–1991), Louise (1918–1966), Elinor (1922–1923) and Virginia Streitfeld (1924–2011). As a child, he attended his mother's Lutheran church, while his father went to an Episcopal church. Volcker graduated from Teaneck High School in 1945, where he participated in several student groups and impressed his peers and teachers with his knowledge of politics.

Volcker attended Princeton University as an undergraduate student and graduated with highest honors from the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs (now the Princeton School of Public and International Affairs) in 1949. In his senior thesis, titled "The Problems of Federal Reserve Policy since World War II", Volcker criticized the Federal Reserve's post-WWII policies for failing to curb inflationary pressures, writing, "a swollen money supply presented a grave inflationary threat to the economy. There was a need to bring this money supply under control if the disastrous effects of a sharp price rise were to be avoided." Following a summer as a research assistant at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, he moved to Harvard University to earn an M.A. in political economy from its Graduate School of Arts and Sciences and Graduate School of Public Administration. He worked a second summer as a New York Fed research assistant before graduating in 1951. After Harvard, Volcker attended the London School of Economics from 1951 to 1952 as a Rotary Foundation Ambassadorial Fellow under Rotary's Ambassadorial Scholarships program.

Career
In 1952 Volcker joined the staff of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York as a full-time economist. He left that position in 1957 to become a financial economist with the Chase Manhattan Bank. In 1962, Robert Roosa, who had been his mentor at the Federal Reserve, hired him at the Treasury Department as director of financial analysis. In 1963, he became deputy under secretary for monetary affairs. He returned to Chase Manhattan Bank as vice president and director of planning in 1965.

Appointed by the Nixon Administration, Volcker served under secretary of the Treasury for international monetary affairs from 1969 to 1974. He played an important role in President Richard Nixon's decision to suspend gold convertibility of the dollar on August 15, 1971, which resulted in the collapse of the Bretton Woods system. Volcker considered the suspension of gold convertibility "the single most important event of his career." Because of his position as under secretary, Volcker served as a board member for OPIC and Fannie Mae. Across the policies he worked on, he acted as a moderating influence on policy, advocating the pursuit of an international solution to monetary problems and acting as a negotiator with other nations' policymakers. After leaving the U.S. Treasury, he spent a year as a senior fellow at Princeton's Woodrow Wilson School (his alma mater). In 1975, he became President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and he retained that role until he became Federal Reserve Chairman in August 1979.

Chairman of the Federal Reserve

After G. William Miller's confirmation as Secretary of the Treasury, President Jimmy Carter's confirmation of Vice Chairman of the Federal Reserve Frederick H. Schultz's role as Acting Chairman sent markets panicking. Carter resultingly sought a reassuring, qualified nominee who would confront inflation head-on, and nominated Paul Volcker to serve as chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System on July 25, 1979. He was confirmed by the
U.S. Senate on August 2, 1979, and took office on August 6, 1979. President Ronald Reagan renominated Volcker to a second term in 1983.

Inflation emerged as an economic and political challenge in the United States during the 1970s. The monetary policies of the Federal Reserve board, led by Volcker, were widely credited with curbing the rate of inflation and expectations that inflation would continue. US inflation, which peaked at 14.8 percent in March 1980, fell below 3 percent by 1983. The Federal Reserve board led by Volcker raised the federal funds rate, which had averaged 11.2% in 1979, to a peak of 20% in June 1981. The prime rate rose to 21.5% in 1981 as well, which helped lead to the 1980–1982 recession, in which the national unemployment rate rose to over 10%. In addition to the rises in key interest rates, the so-called 'Volcker shock' included monetarist-inspired policies, such as monetary targeting. Despite monetarist economists did not recognize Volcker policies to be totally monetarist, some members of the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) claimed to follow monetarist principles.

Volcker's Federal Reserve board elicited the strongest political attacks and most widespread protests in the history of the Federal Reserve (unlike any protests experienced since 1922), due to the effects of high interest rates on the construction, farming, and industrial sectors, culminating in indebted farmers driving their tractors onto C Street NW in Washington, D.C. and blockading the Eccles Building. US monetary policy eased in 1982, helping lead to a resumption of economic growth.

The US current account was in permanent deficit by the 1990s.  Volcker himself tried to remedy the situation by the Plaza Accord in 1986, which called for Germany and Japan to revalue relative to the US dollar.

The combination of the Fed's tight money policies and the expansive fiscal policy of the Reagan Administration (large tax cuts and a major increase in military spending) produced large federal budget deficits and significant macroeconomic imbalances in the U.S. economy. The combination of growing federal debt and high interest rates led to a substantial rise in federal net interest costs. The sharp rise of interest costs and large deficits led Congress to take some steps towards fiscal constraint.

Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz said about him in an interview:

Paul Volcker, the previous Fed Chairman known for keeping inflation under control, was fired because the Reagan administration didn't believe he was an adequate de-regulator.

Congressman Ron Paul, well known as a harsh critic of the Federal Reserve, offered qualified praise of Volcker:

Being in Congress in the late 1970s and early 1980s and serving on the House Banking Committee, I met and got to question several Federal Reserve chairmen: Arthur Burns, G. William Miller, and Paul Volcker. Of the three, I had the most interaction with Volcker. He was more personable and smarter than the others, including the more recent board chairmen Alan Greenspan and Ben Bernanke.

In 1983, Volcker received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards.

Post-Federal Reserve

After leaving the Federal Reserve in 1987, he became chairman of the prominent New York investment banking firm, Wolfensohn & Co., a corporate advisory and investment firm run by James D. Wolfensohn (who later became President of the World Bank).

In 1992, Volcker was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

In 1993 he chaired the Group of 30 Report on the Derivatives market entitled "Derivatives: Practices and Principles" with several appendices and a survey on how practices may have changed since the original 1993 report.  The Group of 30 is a "consultative group on international economic and monetary affairs." Volcker was their Chairman emeritus.

In 1996, he took up the chair of the Independent Committee of Eminent Persons (Volcker Commission) to look into the dormant accounts of Jewish victims of the Holocaust lying in Swiss banks. This included a "massive accounting of Swiss bank records." In the midst of a contentious process (the committee was formed by three Jewish representatives and three representatives of Swiss banks), he was able to bring about an agreement among the parties for a settlement of $1.25 billion.

Volcker was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1992.

In 2000 he accepted the Chairmanship of the IFRS Trustees, the not-for-profit funding arm of the International Accounting Standards Board (later the IFRS Foundation). The IFRS Foundation is a private sector enterprise based in London which seeks to develop a single global accounting model, subject to adoption country by country under their rules of law.

In April 2004, the United Nations assigned Volcker to research possible corruption in the Iraqi Oil for Food program. In the report summarizing its research, Volcker criticized Kojo Annan, son of then-UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, and the Swiss company Cotecna Inspection SA, Kojo's employer, for trying to conceal their relationship. He concluded in his March 2005, report that "there is no evidence that the selection of Cotecna, in 1998, was subject to improper influence of the Secretary General in the bidding or selection process." While Volcker did not implicate the Secretary General in the selection process, however, he did cast serious doubt on Kofi Annan, whose "management performance ... fell short of the standards that the United Nations Organization should strive to maintain." Volcker was a director of the United Nations Association of the United States of America between 2000 and 2004, prior to his being appointed to the Independent Inquiry by Kofi Annan.

As of October 2006, he was the chairman of the board of trustees of the influential Washington-based financial advisory body, the Group of Thirty, and a member of the Trilateral Commission. He had a long association with the Rockefeller family, not only with his positions at Chase Bank and the Trilateral Commission, but also through membership of the trust committee of Rockefeller Group, Inc., which he joined in 1987. That entity managed, at one time, the Rockefeller Center on behalf of the numerous members of the Rockefeller family. He was a chairman and an honorary trustee of International House, the cultural exchange residence and program center in New York City. He was a founding member of the Trilateral Commission and a long-time member of the Bilderberg Group.

In January 2008, he endorsed Democratic Party presidential candidate Barack Obama in the upcoming presidential election.

On April 8, 2008, he was the featured speaker at The Economic Club of New York. Volcker discussed "what appears to be in substance a direct transfer of mortgage and mortgage-backed securities of questionable pedigree from an investment bank to the Federal Reserve," and offered his detailed analysis and evaluation of interrelationships among the U.S. capital markets, Federal Reserve policies, and the economy as whole.

Paul Volcker appeared in the Charles Ferguson's movie Inside Job. He was interviewed about current Wall Street CEO pay, claiming it is "excessive."

Volcker was an economic advisor to President Barack Obama, heading the President's Economic Recovery Advisory Board. Volcker had also been Obama's first pick as United States Secretary of the Treasury, but he was considered too old. During the financial crisis, Volcker was extremely critical of banks, saying that their response to the financial crisis was inadequate, and that more regulation of banks is called for. Specifically, Volcker called for a break-up of the nation's largest banks, prohibiting deposit-taking institutions from engaging in riskier activities such as proprietary trading, private equity, and hedge fund investments (see Volcker Rule).  Volcker left the board when its charter expired on February 6, 2011, without being included in discussions on how the board would be reconstituted.

On January 21, 2010, President Barack Obama proposed bank regulations which he dubbed "The Volcker Rule," in reference to Volcker's aggressive pursuit of these regulations. Volcker appeared with the president at the announcement. The proposed rules would prevent commercial banks from owning and investing in hedge funds and private equity, and limit the trading they do for their own accounts. According to SEC Commissioner Luis A. Aguilar, "[t]he success or failure of the Volcker Rule will depend on the manner in which banking entities comply with the letter and spirit of the rule, and on the willingness of regulators to enforce it."

Volcker was known to defy the stereotype of a Wall Street insider. A profile in The Week for February 5, 2010, stated that Volcker does not agree with the conventional wisdom that "financial innovation" is necessary for a healthy economy. In fact, he likes to say, "the only useful banking innovation was the invention of the ATM."

On April 6, 2010, at the New-York Historical Society's Global Economic Panel, Volcker commented that the United States should consider adding a national sales tax similar to the Value Added Tax (VAT) imposed in European countries, stating "If, at the end of the day, we need to raise taxes, we should raise taxes."

In 2011, Volcker and former Secretary of State George Shultz authored an article in The Wall Street Journal voicing their opinion that the War on Drugs had failed. They did not advocate for the legalization of drugs, but rather for a reexamination of the costs of drug prohibition in the United States.

In 2015, Volcker donated his public service papers to Princeton University's Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library.

World Justice Project
Volcker served as an honorary co-chairman for the World Justice Project. The World Justice Project works to lead a global, multi-disciplinary effort to strengthen the rule of law for the development of communities of opportunity and equity.

Volcker Alliance
In 2013, Volcker founded the nonprofit organization the Volcker Alliance to address the challenge of effective execution of public policies and to rebuild public trust in government. The nonpartisan Alliance works toward that objective by partnering with other organizations—academic, business, governmental, and public interest—to strengthen professional education for public service, conduct needed research on government performance, and improve the efficiency and accountability of governmental organization at the federal, state, and local levels.

Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget
Volcker served on the board of directors of the Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget. The nonpartisan organization is "committed to educating the public on issues with significant fiscal policy impact."

Personal life
Volcker married Barbara Bahnson, the daughter of a physician, on September 11, 1954. They had two children, Janice, a nurse and a Georgetown University graduate, and James, a research assistant and a New York University graduate who was born with cerebral palsy. They also had four grandchildren. His younger sister died young, and two of his three older sisters, Louise and Ruth, never married. His other older sister, Virginia, was married to and divorced from Harold Streitfeld; they have five children.

Volcker was an avid fly-fisherman, who recounted in 1987, "The greatest strategic error of my adult life was to take my wife to Maine on our honeymoon on a fly-fishing trip."

Volcker was known as "Tall Paul" for his height of , standing exactly a foot (30 cm) taller than his first wife, Barbara, when they first met. She died on June 14, 1998, having suffered from lifelong diabetes, as well as rheumatoid arthritis.

Over Thanksgiving, 2009, he became engaged to Anke Dening, a long-time assistant. They married in February 2010.

Death
Volcker died in New York City on December 8, 2019, at age 92. He had reportedly been treated for prostate cancer since being diagnosed the year prior.

Honorary degrees
Volcker received honorary degrees from several educational institutions, including: Baytown Christian Academy, Hamilton College (1980), University of Notre Dame, Princeton University, Dartmouth College, New York University, University of Delaware, Fairleigh Dickinson University, Bryant College, Adelphi University, Lamar University, Bates College (1989), Fairfield University (1994), York University (2001),  Williams College (2003), Northwestern University (2004), Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (2005), Brown University (2006), Georgetown University (2007), Syracuse University (2008), Queen's University (2009), Amherst College (2011), and at the University of Toronto (2015).

Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at Syracuse University, where Volker served on the advisory board from 2001 until his death, established the "Paul Volcker Chair" in Behavioral economics in 2011.

Works
 Changing Fortunes, Paul Volcker and Toyoo Gyohten, Crown, May 26, 1992,
Forbes Great Minds Of Business, Fred Smith, Peter Lynch, Andrew Grove, Paul Volcker (Author), Pleasant Rowland, John Wiley and Paul A. Volcker, Simon and Schuster Audio, October 1, 1997,
 Good Intentions Corrupted: The Oil for Food Scandal And the Threat to the U.N., Paul Volcker, Jeffrey A. Meyer and Mark G. Califano, Public Affairs Gorgias Press, August 28, 2006,
 Keeping at it: The Quest for Sound Money and Good Government (Memoir); Public Affairs 2018,

In popular culture
The political rock band Volcker from Portland, Oregon, formed in early 2015, was named after him.  It released an eponymous album on January 27, 2016. The band was featured on BBC Radio 4's Economics with Subtitles on August 28, 2016.

See also
Distinguished German-American of the Year
List of U.S. political appointments that crossed party lines
Volcker Rule

References

Sources

External links

Paul Volcker Interview
Official biography from the Federal Reserve Bank of New York
The Independent Inquiry Committee into The United Nations' Oil-for-Food Program official website

 Interview transcript from PBS Commanding Heights, September 26, 2000
Time for Paul Volcker To Resign, Nile Gardiner, PhD, The Heritage Foundation, April 21, 2005
Current Economic Recovery Fragile, Corporations Undergo "Healthy Changes," Former Fed Chair Paul Volcker Says in Ubben Lecture, Paul Volcker, DePauw University, October 8, 2003
 Rethinking the Bright New World of Global Finance, Paul Volcker, International Finance, Spring 2008
How to Reform Our Financial System, Paul Volcker, The New York Times, January 30, 2010
 Statements and Speeches of Paul A. Volcker in FRASER
 Paul A. Volcker Papers at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
 Former Fed Chairman Blasts McKinsey and Hedge-Fund Billionaires
 "Other People's Blood", Tim Barker, n+1, Spring 2019

1927 births
2019 deaths
20th-century American economists
Alumni of the London School of Economics
American Lutherans
American people of German descent
Carter administration personnel
Chairs of the Federal Reserve
Economists from New Jersey
Economists from New York (state)
Federal Reserve Bank of New York presidents
Federal Reserve economists
Georgetown University alumni
Group of Thirty
Harvard Kennedy School alumni
Honorary Fellows of the London School of Economics
Lamar University people
Members of the American Philosophical Society
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Obama administration personnel
People from Cape May, New Jersey
Princeton University alumni
Reagan administration personnel
Teaneck High School alumni
United Nations Oil-for-Food scandal

Paul Volcker


Brian Iddon (born 5 July 1940) is a British Labour Party politician, who was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Bolton South East from 1997 to 2010.

Early life
Born in Tarleton, Lancashire and attended the village's Church of England Primary School, Christ Church Boys' School, Southport and the Southport Technical College (now Southport College). He went on to study at the University of Hull where he was awarded a BSc degree in Chemistry in 1961 and a PhD in Organic chemistry in 1964. Later in 1981, he was awarded a DSc for his work in Heterocyclic Organic Chemistry.

He joined the staff of Durham University as a temporary organic chemistry lecturer in 1964 before becoming a demonstrator in organic chemistry in 1965. In 1966, he became an organic chemistry lecturer at the University of Salford until he became a senior lecturer at the university in 1978. In 1986, he became a reader and left the university on his election to the House of Commons in 1997.

Parliamentary career
From 1976 until 1998 he served on the Bolton Borough Council. He was first returned to Parliament in the 1997 election as the MP for Bolton South East following the retirement of David Young. He served as MP until he stood down at the 2010 general election.  He served on the Environmental Audit United Kingdom from 1997 until 2001, was a member of the science and technology committee 2000–07 and a member of the Innovation, Universities, Science and Skills committee since 2007. He also known as a campaigner for the legalisation of cannabis. In October 2006, he announced that he would be standing down at the next general election.

Personal life
He married Merrilyn Muncaster in 1965 in Leeds and they had two daughters before they divorced in 1989, in 1995 he later married Eileen Harrison, and they have two step sons.
In 2009, Iddon was appointed an Honorary Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) in recognition of his long-standing support of the chemistry using industries.

Bibliography
 Opinion: Government seeks more impact from its research investment by B Iddon, Future Medicinal Chemistry, June 2009, Volume 1, Number 3 (http://www.future-science.com/doi/pdf/10.4155/fmc.09.44)
 Radiation Chemistry of Aqueous Solutions of Indole and its Derivatives by B Iddon, GO Phillips, KE Robbins, JV Davies (University of Salford, 1971)
 Radiation Sterilization of Pharmaceuticals and Biomedical Products by R Blackburn, B Iddon, JS Moore, GO Phillips, DM Power, TW Woodward (International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1975)
 The Magic of Chemistry by Brian Iddon (BDH, 1985)
 Bromine Compounds: Chemistry and Applications Edited by D.Price, B. Iddon and B.J. Wakefield (Elsevier, 1998)
 What Is Science Education For? By David Perks, R Sykes, M Reiss, S Singh, Mary Warnock. A Hunt, E Forster, B Iddon, H Teare, G Lawless and Tony Gilland (Academy of Ideas Ltd, 2006)

References

External links
 TheyWorkForYou.com - Brian Iddon MP
 The Public Whip - Brian Iddon MP voting record

News items
 Offensive spam in November 2002
 Calling for legalised brothels in June 2002

Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
1940 births
Living people
People from Tarleton
British republicans
Academics of the University of Salford
Academics of Durham University
Alumni of the University of Hull
Councillors in Bolton
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Bolton South East

Brian Iddon


Giuseppe Grandi (1843–1894) was an Italian sculptor.

Life
Grandi was born and died in Valganna. Taught by Vela at the Accademia di Brera, in 1866 he won the Canonica competition with a sculpture called Ulisse and began to work on a verist sculpture of Tabacchi at Turin. After his Turin period, he returned to Milan, where he joined the Lombard Scapigliatura school. He was a friend of Cremona and Ranzoni, and with them assumed a renewed anti-academist position and shared their common luministic research. Forgetting neoclassical smoothness and the lucidity of Romantic art, he sought the luministic effects of painting in sculpture.

One of his best-known works is the monument to Cesare Beccaria of 1871, along with the lesser-known paggio di Lara of 1873 and his Maresciallo Ney of 1874.

In 1881 his initial design won a public competition to create a monument to the Five Days of Milan in piazza di Porta Vittoria in Milan. For thirteen years he worked intensively at compositions, modelli, bronze casting, and even created a small menagerie of animals as live models for the work. For each of the Five Days he had many different and well-known models pose, but he died in 1894, before he could see his work inaugurated.

The city of Milan has renamed a piazza after him.

Bibliography
 Gariff, David, "Giuseppe Grandi (1843–1894) and the Milanese Scapigliatura." (Ph.D. dissertation), University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 1991.

References

External links

Works
Biography from Galleria Ricci Oddi in Piacenza

1843 births
1894 deaths
19th-century Italian sculptors
Italian male sculptors
People from the Province of Varese
Academic staff of Brera Academy
Brera Academy alumni
Scapigliatura Movement
19th-century Italian male artists

Giuseppe Grandi


JKLF seeks independence of Jammu and Kashmir state from both India and Pakistan.
The JKLF claims that they are not Islamist, but are nationalist, and opposes  the emergence of the territories into either Pakistan or India but rather wants the region of Kashmir to separate from the three countries and become independent.

In 1982 branches were established in Pakistan-administered Kashmir, Pakistan and in 1987 in Indian-administered Kashmir (Jammu and Kashmir).

References

Kashmir
Nationalist organizations in Asia
National liberation movements

Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front


Howland Hill Sargeant (July 13, 1911 – February 29, 1984) was United States Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs from 1952–53, and the president of Radio Liberty from 1954 to 1975.

Biography
Born in 1911 in New Bedford, Massachusetts, Howland H. Sargeant was educated at Dartmouth College, graduating in 1932.  He played for the Dartmouth Big Green baseball team.  In 1932, he was a Rhodes scholar.

Sargeant later joined the United States Department of State.  In 1947, he became Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs.  In this capacity, Sargeant was a member of the United States delegation to UNESCO and in 1950 was Vice-President of the UNESCO General Conference that met in Florence.

During his time as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, Sargeant met actress Myrna Loy, who was a member of the U.S. delegation to UNESCO. Sargeant married Loy on June 2, 1951, becoming Loy's fourth husband.  This marriage would end in a divorce on May 31, 1960, and the couple did not have any children.

In 1952, President of the United States Harry Truman nominated Sargeant to be Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs and Sargeant subsequently held this office from February 21, 1952, until January 29, 1953.

The American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia founded Radio Liberty in 1954, and Sargeant became Radio Liberty's first president.  He held this position until 1975. Radio Liberty merged with Radio Free Europe in 1976.

Sargeant died on February 29, 1984, of an apparent heart attack.

References

United States Assistant Secretaries of State
Dartmouth College alumni
Dartmouth Big Green baseball players
American Rhodes Scholars
1911 births
1984 deaths

Howland H. Sargeant


Rodrigo Javier Hinzpeter Kirberg (born 27 October 1965) is a Chilean lawyer and politician. He was one of the founders of National Renewal, a center-right political party. He was appointed Interior Minister on 11 March 2010 by President of Chile Sebastián Piñera. On 5 November 2012 he was appointed Defense Minister and his term ended on 11 March 2014.

Hinzpeter currently works for the Quiñenco holding and was present during its negotiations with Grupo Cartes in June 2022.

Biography
Hinzpeter was born in Santiago to a Jewish family. He is married and the father of three children.

Hinzpeter studied at the Doctor Chaim Weizmann Hebrew Institute until he was expelled. He graduated from high school at Liceo Alexander Fleming, a subsidized private school. He then studied law at the Gabriela Mistral University and then was accepted at the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile (PUC) through a special admission vacancy. He subsequently majored in legal and social sciences at the university, obtaining his law degree from the Chilean Supreme Court.

Hinzpeter was a professor of civil law at the PUC, and he is the author of La hipoteca (1993).

Hinzpeter is a member of the Chilean Bar Association and he worked as an attorney at Simpson Thacher & Bartlett in New York City.

Hinzpeter has combined his practice as a lawyer with an active role in Chilean politics. He is one of the founders of National Renewal, where he was national secretary and first vice-president. He was a member of its political committee. In 2005, he acted as campaign manager for President-elect Sebastián Piñera and as his general coordinator during the recent presidential elections.

References

External links

1965 births
Living people
Politicians from Santiago
Chilean Jews
National Renewal (Chile) politicians
Chilean Ministers of the Interior
Chilean Ministers of Defense
Pontifical Catholic University of Chile alumni
Chilean people of Austrian-Jewish descent
Chilean people of Russian-Jewish descent
Chilean people of Argentine-Jewish descent
Chilean people of German-Jewish descent
20th-century Chilean lawyers
21st-century Chilean lawyers

Rodrigo Hinzpeter


Arthur Frederick DeFranzo (March 20, 1919 – June 10, 1944) was a United States Army soldier and a recipient of the United States military's highest decoration—the Medal of Honor—for his actions in World War II.

Biography
DeFranzo joined the Army from his birthplace of Saugus, Massachusetts, in November 1940, and by June 10, 1944, was serving as a staff sergeant in the 1st Infantry Division. On that day, near Vaubadon, France, he was wounded while rescuing an injured man from hostile fire. Despite his own injuries, he led an attack on the enemy positions and continued to advance and encourage his men even after being hit several more times. He destroyed an enemy machine gun position just before succumbing to his wounds.

For his actions, he was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor seven months later, on January 4, 1945.

DeFranzo's body returned to the United States in 1947. He laid in state at the Saugus Town Hall from December 8 to December 11, 1947. He was then given a military funeral at Riverside Cemetery in Saugus.

Medal of Honor citation
Staff Sergeant DeFranzo's official Medal of Honor citation reads:
For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life, above and beyond the call of duty, on June 10, 1944, near Vaubadon, France. As scouts were advancing across an open field, the enemy suddenly opened fire with several machineguns and hit 1 of the men. S/Sgt. DeFranzo courageously moved out in the open to the aid of the wounded scout and was himself wounded but brought the man to safety. Refusing aid, S/Sgt. DeFranzo reentered the open field and led the advance upon the enemy. There were always at least 2 machineguns bringing unrelenting fire upon him, but S/Sgt. DeFranzo kept going forward, firing into the enemy and 1 by 1 the enemy emplacements became silent. While advancing he was again wounded, but continued on until he was within 100 yards of the enemy position and even as he fell, he kept firing his rifle and waving his men forward. When his company came up behind him, S/Sgt. DeFranzo, despite his many severe wounds, suddenly raised himself and once more moved forward in the lead of his men until he was again hit by enemy fire. In a final gesture of indomitable courage, he threw several grenades at the enemy machinegun position and completely destroyed the gun. In this action, S/Sgt. DeFranzo lost his life, but by bearing the brunt of the enemy fire in leading the attack, he prevented a delay in the assault which would have been of considerable benefit to the foe, and he made possible his company's advance with a minimum of casualties. The extraordinary heroism and magnificent devotion to duty displayed by S/Sgt. DeFranzo was a great inspiration to all about him, and is in keeping with the highest traditions of the armed forces.

See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II

References

External links

1919 births
1944 deaths
United States Army personnel killed in World War II
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
People from Saugus, Massachusetts
United States Army soldiers
World War II recipients of the Medal of Honor
Battle of Normandy recipients of the Medal of Honor
United States Army personnel of World War II
Military personnel from Massachusetts

Arthur F. DeFranzo


Foreplay is the name for a number of things people do before they have sex. These things do not need to be directly related to having sex. Rather, they are done to sexually arouse people, to make them want each other more, Examples of things that can be used in foreplay differ among people, Most people prefer simple things that make them feel nice such as a person talking softly, a compliment, a Hug, or by being Tickled by a person they like, or even sharing similar hobbies, such as white water rafting, rocky mountain climbing or even how flexible you both are at Yoga,
Not all of these acts are physical, some can also be psychological. Common things done in foreplay include kissing, touching each other, hugging, and stimulating the others erogenous zones.

Foreplay has a well-defined function - it lowers inhibitions and makes people feel better at ease.

Foreplay has been mentioned in historic works.  The Ancient Indian work Kama Sutra mentions different types of embracing, kissing, and marking with nails and teeth. It also mentions BDSM activities such as slapping and moaning as "play."

Based on age, religious and political background, what people do as foreplay can be quite different. Many people think that women demand more foreplay and require more time to become aroused. Recent scientific research has show that this is false, though.  Scientists from McGill University Health Centre in Montreal, Canada used the method of thermal imaging to record baseline temperature change in the genital area as the definition of the time necessary for sexual arousal. Researchers studied the time required for an individual to reach the peak of sexual arousal and concluded that, on average, women and men spend almost the same time for sexual arousal — around 10 minutes.

References

Human sexuality

Foreplay


XGMML (the eXtensible Graph Markup and Modeling Language) is an XML application based on GML which is used for graph description. Technically, while GML is not related to XML nor SGML, XGMML is an XML application that is so designed that there's a 1:1 relation towards GML for trivial conversion between the two formats.

Applications supporting XGMML
 Cytoscape, an open source bioinformatics software platform for visualizing molecular interaction networks, loads and saves networks and node/edge attributes in XGMML
 Biomax BioXM Knowledge Management Environment, a customizable knowledge management system for life sciences, supports export of semantic network graphs as XGMML files
 JNets, a network visualization and analysis tool.

See also
 LOGML, a markup language enabling data mining for web server logs. LOGML is derived from XGMML.

External links
XGMML Reference (archived copy, original link offline)

XML markup languages
Computer file formats
Graph description languages

XGMML


The action of 8 May 1744 was a minor naval engagement of the War of the Austrian Succession in which two French ships of the line, the 60-gun Content, and the 64-gun Mars, captured the British 70-gun HMS Northumberland after a desperate action lasting four hours. Northumberlands captain, Thomas Watson, and her second lieutenant were among those killed.

Battle
On 8 May, Vice-Admiral Sir Charles Hardy's squadron cruising off Berlengas discovered a sail to the north, and the Northumberland was ordered to chase in that direction. The enemy sail was made out by the Northumberland to be a French ship of the line, and was found to be accompanied by two other ships; a 60-gun vessel and a frigate.

Instead of signalling the force of the ships in sight to the vice-admiral, Watson continued standing towards them under full sail, and was soon out of sight of his own fleet. The French ships were much separated; and at 5 pm Northumberland caught up with the stern most, which proved to be the Mars. Mars opened fire upon the Northumberland, which was immediately returned with vigour. But Captain Watson, whose bravery must ever be considered to have ranked higher than his discretion, instead of continuing to engage the Mars, pushed on and endeavoured to close the Content also; maintaining all the time, a running action with the Mars.

When the French ship Content approached, a most furious battle took place. After nine hours of fighting by the Northumberland was rendered wholly unmanageable, and having had her wheel knocked to pieces, the ship flew up into the wind. At the same time Captain Watson was mortally wounded; and the master of the ship, who was later court-martialled, struck the British colours.

Notes

References
 Maurice Dupont, Étienne Taillemite. Les guerres navales françaises: du Moyen Age à la guerre du Golfe.
 Léon Guérin. Histoire maritime de France:contenant l'histoire des provinces et villes maritimes, des combats de mer depuis la fondation de Marseille, 600 ans avant J.-C., de la flibuste, des navigations, voyages autour du monde, naufrages, célèbres, découvertes, colonisations, de la marine en général, avant, pendant et depuis le règne de Louis XIV jusqu'à l'année 1850, Vol. IV
 O. Troude. Batailles navales de la France, Vol. I
 Joseph Allen. (1872) Battles of the British Navy: from A.D. 1000 to 1840. Bell & Daldy Publishing. ASIN B00087UD9S

Conflicts in 1744
Naval battles of the War of the Austrian Succession
Naval battles involving Great Britain
Naval battles involving France

Action of 8 May 1744


The Louis Bolduc House, also known as Maison Bolduc, is a historic house museum at 123 South Main Street in Ste. Geneviève, Missouri. It is an example of poteaux sur solle ("posts-on-sill") construction, and is located in the first European settlement in the present-day state of Missouri. The first historic structure in Ste. Genevieve to be authentically restored, the house is a prime example of the traditional French Colonial architecture of the early 18th century in North America and was designated in 1970 as a National Historic Landmark.

History
Ste. Genevieve was founded in the mid-eighteenth century by French-Canadian settlers, most of whom migrated from villages on the east bank of the Mississippi River, such as Prairie du Rocher, Illinois. Because of repeated flooding from the Mississippi River, with an especially bad occurrence in 1785, they decided to relocate to a higher site further away from the river.

In 1792 Louis Bolduc, a successful merchant and trader, who also had lead mines to the west, built a one-story house at the new village site, about three miles north of the first. First to be built in the one-story house was a large "keeping room", about 26' × 27', where the family conducted most of its activities. It has a large fireplace at the north end, and a wide-plank puncheon floor, made of logs cut flat on only one side, with the curved side laid down. Storage for lead, corn and other goods was in the attic above the room. In 1793, Bolduc had the wide hallway and a large sleeping chamber added, the latter also about 26' × 27' in size. Historians believe the sleeping chamber had two "sleeping cells," areas partially walled off for privacy: one for him and his wife and one shared by their three children. Bolduc had tall windows with glass installed in both large rooms, another mark of his wealth.

The walls of the house were built with heavy oak timbers set about six inches apart and infilled with bousillage, a mixture of mud, straw, and horsehair that hardened to a cement-like texture. Sometimes other animal or human hair was added to the mixture. Diagonal timbers on each supporting wall added stability. The steep hip roof, made of cedar shakes, was supported by heavy, hand-hewn Norman trusses held together by mortise and tenon joinery. It extends over the four sides of the house's porches to provide shade and cooling. The house is surrounded by a reconstructed stockade fence typical of the time (to keep out livestock that roamed in the area). Gardens have been reconstructed on the grounds.

Located at 123 South Main, the property was owned by Bolduc family descendants until the 1940s. Furnished with pieces typical of the period, today it is operated as a historic house museum. Three items are original to the Bolduc family. The property has been owned since 1949 and operated by The National Society of The Colonial Dames of America in the State of Missouri. It was restored in 1956–1957, under the direction of the architectural historian, Dr. Ernest Allen Connally. As may be seen by a comparison of photos below, the house was restored to show its original colonial style, whose elements were intact under later changes. In 1970 the house was designated a National Historic Landmark. It is a contributing property in the Ste. Genevieve Historic District, which has National Historic Landmark status.

Photos of the Bolduc House

Recent

Archival

See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in Missouri
List of the oldest buildings in Missouri
National Register of Historic Places listings in Ste. Genevieve County, Missouri

References

External links

Historic house museums in Missouri
Museums in Ste. Genevieve County, Missouri
National Historic Landmarks in Missouri
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Missouri
Historic American Buildings Survey in Missouri
Houses completed in 1785
French-American culture in Missouri
French-Canadian culture in Missouri
French colonial architecture
French
Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in Missouri
National Society of the Colonial Dames of America
Houses in Ste. Genevieve County, Missouri
National Register of Historic Places in Ste. Genevieve County, Missouri
National Historic Landmark District contributing properties

Louis Bolduc House


DeArmanville is an unincorporated community in Calhoun County, Alabama, United States, located on the southeast boundary of Anniston. DeArmanville has a post office with ZIP code 36257.

Climate
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters.  According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, DeArmanville has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.

References

External links

Unincorporated communities in Calhoun County, Alabama
Unincorporated communities in Alabama

DeArmanville, Alabama


Henry del Vasto (Italia: Enrico del Vasto), died before 1141 was a son of Manfred del Vasto, margrave of Western Liguria, and brother of Adelaide, countess of Sicily (1089–1117) and Jerusalem (1112–1117) and of Boniface, margrave of Savona and Western Liguria.

Early life
His father's family was a branch of the Aleramici, sharing a common descent from Aleramo of Montferrat with the Marquesses of Montferrat. His brothers founded the lines of the Marquesses of Saluzzo, of Busca, of Lancia, of Ceva, and of Savona.

Biography
He received Paternò and Butera in Sicily from either Roger I of Sicily or Adelaide during her regency after 1101. He also married Flandina, a daughter of Roger and his second wife, Eremburga of Mortain. He was considered the count of Lombards of Sicily and Aleramici branch of Sicily. His nephew, Roger II, named one of his sons Henry after the child's great uncle. He was the founder of the Mazzarino family.

According to Alexander of Telese, it was Henry's idea that Roger, who then ruled all of Southern Italy and Sicily, should have the title of king and rule in Palermo, where, he alleged, kings had ruled in the past. Roger was duly crowned in 1130.

Sources
Carlo Alberto Garufi, Gli Aleramici e i Normanni in Sicilia e nelle Puglie, in Centenario della nascita di Michele Amari, I, Palermo 1910
Pasquale Hamel, Adelaide del Vasto, Regina di Gerusalemme. Palermo: Sellerio Editore, 1997.

Year of birth missing
Year of death unknown
12th-century Italian nobility

Henry del Vasto


The Austin 10 wis a smaw car made bi the Austin Motor Company.  It wis launched in Apryle 1932 an wis Austin's best selling car  in the 1930s an continued in production, wi upgrades, until 1947. It fitted in atween the "baby" Austin 7 which haed been introduced in 1922 an the Austin 12 hp which haed been updated in 1931.

The design o the car wis conservative wi a steel body biggit on a ladder chassis.  The chassis wis bought in an wis designed tae gie a law oweraw heicht tae the car bi dipping doun bi 2.75 inches (70 mm) atween the axles.  The 1125-cc fower-cylinder side-valve ingine producin 21 bhp (16 kW) drove the rear wheels throu a fower-speed gearbox an open drive shaft tae a live rear axle.  Suspension wis bi hauf-elliptic springs aw roond an the brakes war cable operated. The electrical seestem wis 6 volt. The fower-door saloon wis made in twa versions.  The basic model cost £155 an, in the road-test, wis capable o reachin 55 mph (89 km/h) wi an economy o 34 mpg wi a De-Luxe version wi openin ruif an leather upholstery at £168.

Late 1932 saw the saloons jynt bi an open twa-seater an dicky tourer,  an a van. A sports model, the 65 mph (105 km/h), 30 bhp (22 kW) wis added in 1933 which wis named the "Ripley" in 1934. Mechanical upgrades for 1934 included a cross-braced chassis, wider rear body, synchromesh on the tap twa gears, direction indicators an 12-volt electrics. The van continued wi a chromed flat radiator as per the oreeginal cars.

The first styling chynge came in August 1934 wi a chynge tae the radiator wi a painted cowl in front an it wis gien a slicht slope.  Synchromesh wis added tae seicont gear an self-cancelling "semaphore" teep indicators war biggit intae the door pillar. The saloon wis gien the name "Lichfield" an got a protruding boot which enclosed the spare wheel. It was10% heavier than the early models. The Twa-seater & dicky became the 'Clifton', the Four-seater tourer became the 'Open Road' an the Cabriolet became the 'Colwyn' - aw wi the mair modren styling.

A new body style wis added in Januar 1936 the sax licht (three windaes doun each side, wi ane behind the rear door) "Sherbourne" but the big chynge came in August 1936 wi the awmaist streamlined "Cambridge" saloon an "Conway" cabriolet. The  changes included Girling rod brakes, balanced on each axle an front tae back, 16-inch steel disc wheels replaced the 18-inch wires an thare wis mair room for passengers bi muivin the ingine forwards bi 4 inches (100 mm). Later in 1936, a downdraft manifold wis fitted. Top speed rose tae 60 mph (97 km/h).  The wecht increased anither 10 %. Thir changes did nae appear on the open cars, which no langer included the Ripley sports. The van anly changed frae the chromed radiator style tae the Cambridge style in August 1937.

In 1938 the engines gained an aluminium cylinder heid, bigger inlet valves, new manifold an bigger waterways producin 32bhp. The rear axle ratio wis increased frae 5.25 tae 5.37:1

A virtually new car wis launched in 1939 wi the body shell incorporating the floor tae gie a semi-unitary structur.  The car wis completely restyled bi Argentine born Ricardo "Dick" Burzi who haed jynt Austin frae Lancia in 1929. The bonnet wis hinged at the rear, replacing the side-openin teep on the auld car an the radiator grille became roondit. A new van wis produced, an thare wis a cabriolet (anly prewar). Efter the outbreak o Warld War II, production o the Austin 10 continued in lairge nummers mainly as the 'Utility' pick-up vehicle (the Tilly). In aw during the war, 53,000 o the saloons, pick-ups an vans war made. The Utility an van haed lairger engines (1237cc) an aw engines haed new cylinder blocks, cranks an gearboxes.

Wi peace in 1945, a chynge wis immediately made tae civilian production acause o the post-war financial crisis. The cars war nearly aw exportit wi the first ane arrivin in the United States in Julie 1945. In September 1945 the first passenger cars produced efter the war's end tae arrive in Switzerland war twa Austin 10s exportit frae England.

The Austin 10 continued in production  anly until October 1947 tae be replaced bi the A40 car an van.

Military operators
: Breetish Airmy, Ryal Navy, RAF

References
 "Austin's Top Ten". Jonathan Wid. The Automobile Mey 1999.

Fremmit airtins
 Austin Memories
The Austin 10 Drivers club
 1937 Austin 10 Cambridge
 Austin 10 Restoration Site

10
1930s automobiles
1940s automobiles
1932 introductions

Austin 10


Jaume Cascalls (early 14th century – 1378) was a Catalan sculptor, born in Berga. He was a representative of the Catalan school of Gothic sculpture. He was married to the daughter of painter Ferrer Bassa, with whom he had a profitable work relationship.

Cascalls' oldest known work is  a white marble altarpiece  in the church of St. Mary at Corneilla-de-Conflent (in what is now southern France), dated and signed 1345. His most extensive work was however a series of sepulchres in the Monastery of Poblet, where he started to work in 1349 along with the master Aloi de Montbrai; the work prolonged for many years due to the numerous modifications required by King Peter I of Aragon.

Cascalls left Poblet when he was appointed director of the construction of the La Seu Vella cathedral in Lleida (1360). he also executed several polychrome marble figures for the Ripoll Monastery and sculptures for the Cathedral of Girona, including the so-called "St. Charlemagne", a polychrome marble which in fact represents Peter I of Aragon.

In the 1370s Cascalls moved to the Cathedral of Tarragona, but he had to return to Poblet three years later, when the King menaced to deprive him of all his assets. He most likely died in 1378, after which the construction of the royal tombs begun by Cascalls at Poblet was assigned to his disciple Jordi de Déu.

Sources

External links
Page at Hiperenciclopèdia

14th-century births
1378 deaths
People from Berguedà
Sculptors from Catalonia

Catholic sculptors

Jaume Cascalls


A hiccup (also spelled hiccough) is sudden tightening of the diaphragm, which is a muscle inside the chest and below the lungs that causes air to be pulled in. A short time after diaphragm contracts, the throat suddenly closes. This closing stops the air from flowing in, and results in the "hic" sound that gives "hiccups" its name. A hiccup is a reflex, a kind of action happens in the body without trying. Hiccups often repeat several times per minute, and end on their own after a few minutes.

Sometimes a single hiccup happens, or they may happen over and over, a few times each minute, in a series called a bout of hiccups. Hiccups are rhythmic: the time between one hiccup and the next usually doesn't change much. A bout of hiccups generally ends by itself, without having to doing anything to end it on purpose. Many home remedies (cures) are often tried to attempt to shorten how long the hiccups last, because hiccups can be uncomfortable and make it hard to pay attention to other things. It is rare that medical help is necessary because it is rare that they last long enough to cause any harm.

Hiccups may be triggered (started) by several common human conditions such as swallowing air, eating very quickly, and laughing for a long time. They can also be caused by some drugs and by some diseases.

The reason that people hiccup is not known for sure. A leading theory (idea) is that hiccups evolved to help human babies and other young mammals obtain milk more easily during breast feeding. This is related to the pattern that hiccups often happen when a bubble of air forms below the diaphragm and takes up space in the belly.

References

Physiology

Hiccups


Egeria densa, the large-flowered waterweed or Brazilian waterweed, is a species of Egeria native to warm temperate South America in southeastern Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Uruguay. It is considered a problematic invasive species due to its use in home aquariums and subsequent release into non-native ecosystems.

Description

Egeria densa is an aquatic plant growing in water up to  deep, with trailing stems to  or more long, producing roots at intervals along the stem. The leaves are produced in whorls of four to eight,  long and  broad, with a pointed leaf tip. The stem system of the plant will grow until it reaches the surface of the water, where it will begin to spread out, creating a thick flower canopy that blocks light from reaching plants below it. It is dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants; the flowers are  diameter, with three broad, rounded, white petals,  long on male plants, and  long on female plants.

Life cycle
Egeria densa typically displays little variation in growth patterns throughout the year when grown in tropical environments; however, when grown in more moderate environments the plant spends most of its energy on starch production and storage in the winter and canopy growth during the summer season

Habitat and ecology

Location
Egeria densa is native to Argentina, Brazil, Amerika, Chile and Uruguay. As a result of its popularity in aquariums the plant has now spread to North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and Africa.

Temperature
Temperature is important to the growth of Egeria densa; however, its growth is mostly stable in temperatures ranging from , with an upper temperature limit of  that results in reduced shoot growth and photosynthetic output. Colder temperatures will limit growth of the plant and can be used as a method of controlling its spread in non-native ecosystems.

Lighting
Egeria densa is able to match photosynthetic output to available light like many macrophyte species. The species' ability to thrive in low light conditions and its ability to form a dense canopy makes it a very successful invader compared with other macrophytes, resulting in a reduction in the diversity of plant species where it is introduced.

Cultivation and uses
Egeria densa is a popular aquarium plant, but is no longer sold in some areas due to its invasive potential. Plants in cultivation are all a male clone, reproducing vegetatively.

It grows well in the cooler aquarium and is suitable for the beginner. It is easily propagated by cuttings. According to reports it secretes antibiotic substances which can help prevent blue-green algae. It grows best in a nutrient-rich, high light environment, but has shown an ability to outcompete other species when it is introduced.

Economics

E. densa, like other macrophytes, are effective when used in wastewater treatment plants due to the same factors that make it a potential invasive plant; mainly its ability to uptake nutrients, and sedimentation of particles from the water column.

Invasive species

Egeria densa has escaped from cultivation and become naturalized and invasive in many warm temperate to subtropical regions of the world, including Europe, southern Africa, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia and North America. In the United States it occurs from New York south to Florida and west to California and Oregon. In the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta of California, it was introduced in the 1960s and has since had a significant adverse impact on the local ecosystem. The plant currently infests , or 12% of the total surface area of the delta, along with other states and even as far north as Canada. Recently, E. densa was reported as naturalized alien species in Iceland where it invaded the naturally heated water bodies. Due to its occurrence in northern Iceland, E. densa is one of the first freshwater alien plant species that reached the Arctic. Most of its impact occurs in the shallow waterways; the plant forms thick mats that obstruct boat passage, clog water intakes and aqueducts, trap sediments, crowd out native vegetation, and impede the migration of anadromous fish.

Role as ecosystem engineer
Though it is sometimes debated, E. densa is referred to as an ecosystem engineer as a result of the impact it has on a environment once it is introduced. Some of these impacts are due to its fast growth and high dispersal rate when fragmented, its ability to adapt to different light and nutrient availability, its uptake of nutrients from the water column and its effect on sedimentation of these nutrients, and the large light-blocking canopy that its flowers form at the surface of the water.

Egeria densa is also responsible for changing the amount of phytoplankton present in the water column due to limiting light availability from the dense canopy that it forms, and from the amount of nutrients that removes from the water column. It can, however, also function as shelter for zooplankton and smaller invertebrates.

Black-necked swans feed on the plant, and decline of E. densa has been linked to the decline of swan populations.

Control
A variety of methods are needed to ensure that growth of E. densa is stopped due to its ability to regrow when fragmented through mechanical means. The best way is to remove the plant in entirety from the water column or use herbicides to kill the plant. One of the potential solutions to the problem are water drawdowns, as the plant is very sensitive to drying out and the plant can die in as short as an hour when removed from water. In addition cold weather has been found to be effective in controlling the plant, though this has practical limitations. When herbicides were applied to the plant, the levels of phosphorus and nitrogen increased but not greatly, suggesting that most of the nutrients remained in the plant biomass and did not reabsorb into the water column.

References

External links

 Species Profile – Brazilian waterweed (Egeria densa) National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library.

Hydrocharitaceae
Freshwater plants
Aquarium plants
Dioecious plants

Egeria densa


In complexity theory, computational problems that are co-NP-complete are those that are the hardest problems in co-NP, in the sense that any problem in co-NP can be reformulated as a special case of any co-NP-complete problem with only polynomial overhead. If P is different from co-NP, then all of the co-NP-complete problems are not solvable in polynomial time. If there exists a way to solve a co-NP-complete problem quickly, then that algorithm can be used to solve all co-NP problems quickly.

Each co-NP-complete problem is the complement of an NP-complete problem.  There are some problems in both NP and co-NP, for example all problems in P or integer factorization. However, it is not known if the sets are equal, although inequality is thought more likely. See co-NP and NP-complete for more details.

Fortune showed in 1979 that if any sparse language is co-NP-complete (or even just co-NP-hard), then , a critical foundation for Mahaney's theorem.

Formal definition
A decision problem C is co-NP-complete if it is in co-NP and if every problem in co-NP is polynomial-time many-one reducible to it. This means that for every co-NP problem L, there exists a polynomial time algorithm which can transform any instance of L into an instance of C with the same truth value. As a consequence, if we had a polynomial time algorithm for C, we could solve all co-NP problems in polynomial time.

Example
One example of a co-NP-complete problem is tautology, the problem of determining whether a given Boolean formula is a tautology; that is, whether every possible assignment of true/false values to variables yields a true statement. This is closely related to the Boolean satisfiability problem, which asks whether there exists at least one such assignment, and is NP-complete.

References

External links

Complexity classes

Co-NP-complete


Daniel Levy (born 8 February 1962 in Essex) is the current chairman of Premier League side Tottenham Hotspur F.C.. He has been the chairman since 2001.

Career

He is managing director of ENIC International Ltd., which is an investment company. He replaced Alan Sugar as chairman of Tottenham in February 2001. This happened after ENIC bought a controlling stake in the club. ENIC is controlled by Joseph Lewis. Levy was before this a director of the Scottish football club Rangers, in which ENIC held a significant stake.  Before this, ENIC has also controlled many other European football clubs including AEK Athens, Slavia Prague and Vicenza. ENIC has also had power in non-football companies such as Warner Bros. and Autonomy.

Tottenham Hotspur

He has changed many managers since becoming chairman, like (George Graham, Glenn Hoddle, David Pleat and Jacques Santini). When Martin Jol was manager, the team finished at 5th place in the Premier League and they qualified for the UEFA Cup also.

In summer of 2011, Chelsea tried to sign Tottenham's important player Luke Modric. But, Levy refused to sell Modric. After that, the club have started season 2011/12 very nicely and have won many matches in the Premier League.

Personal life

Daniel Levy is married. He has four children- Joshua, Oliver, Chloe and Gabriella. He has a degree from Cambridge University in Land Economy.

References

1962 births
People from Essex
English football managers
British businesspeople
Living people

Daniel Levy


A California hurricane is a tropical cyclone that affects the state of California. Usually Pacific hurricanes weaken a lot before getting to land.
O
Normally, rainfall is the only effect that Pacific hurricanes have on California. Sometimes, this rainfall is strong enough to cause flooding and some damage. For example, floods from Hurricane Kathleen in 1976 created damages scattered across the southeastern California area and killed three people.

Why hurricanes do not normally hit California
The main reason why hurricanes do not hit California is because of cold sea surface temperatures off the California coastline and the California Current.

Tropical cyclones usually need sea surface temperatures above 26.5 °C (80 °F) with a depth of 50 meters (160 feet) to survive. But the waters off the California coast are too cold for tropical cyclones, even during the summer. Normally, the waters' temperatures do not get above 17 °C (70 °F), although El Nino effects may periodicly warm the pacific waters off of the California coastline.

Also the California Current moves down from the northwestern US coast to the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula, which is the opposite in which Northern Hemisphere tropical cyclones move. While a few tropical cyclones may hit the southern and central areas of the Baja California peninsula, they do not make landfall any farther north than that.

List of California hurricanes

1950s to 1990s
 August 27 - August 29, 1951: The remnants of a tropical cyclone brought enough rain to wash out some roads in southern California.
 September 10 - September 11, 1976 : Hurricane Kathleen crossed the peninsula of Baja California and moved into California as a tropical storm. Yuma, Arizona reported sustained winds of 91 km/h (57 mph). Rainfall from Kathleen created huge damages to southeastern California and killed at least three people.
 August 18 - August 19, 1977: Hurricane Doreen dissipated off the coast of California. The remnants moved inland and created flooding and crop damage as 7.01 inches (178 mm) of rain fell on Yuma Valley, Arizona.
 October 5 - October 12, 1987: Weather associated with Hurricane Ramon caused moderate to heavy rains in southern California. The highest amount noted was 2.14 inches (54 mm) at Camp Pendleton.
 September 13 - September 14, 1997: Hurricane Linda was at one point predicted to make landfall in California. Instead, it moved out to sea.
 September 25 - September 26, 1997: After making landfall in Baja California, Hurricane Nora kept tropical storm strength into California and Arizona. Moderate to heavy rains fell across southeast California and Arizona, with a new 24-hour maximum for Arizona  305 mm (12 inches) falling in the Mogollon Rim. Damage totaled up to several hundred million, including US$40 million to lemon trees. The remnants of the hurricane knocked down trees in higher areas of Utah as the circulation aloft was slower to spin down than its remnant surface low. There were a few indirect deaths made by the hurricane.

2000s
 September 2000: The remnant low from Hurricane Lane made landfall in California with minimal effects.
 September 2001: The remnants of Hurricane Flossie dissipated over the deserts of the Southwest United States and caused minor damage.
 September 30, 2001: Thunderstorms from the remnants of Hurricane Juliette caused minor damage to California and brought rain of less than an inch (25 mm) to the area.
 September 2006: Remnants of Hurricane John triggered flash flood watches.
 August 26, 2007: Remnants of Hurricane Dean made landfall in Santa Barbara area, triggering heavy rains and minor flooding throughout the Southern California Area.
 August 25 2008: Tropical Storm Julio affects the state.

2010s
 August 6, 2015: Hurricane Guillermo results in a rare dry-season atmospheric river.

Preparations

Because of a possible threat of California hurricanes in the future and from the damaging effects of a 1858 tropical storm, the National Weather Service created tropical cyclone warning stations across the southern California coast. But because of the fact that Pacific hurricanes rarely affected California, the idea of a warning station was later brought down.

The most serious damage from a California hurricane would be from heavy rainfall rather than hurricane force-winds or a storm surge, although distant hurricanes may still create heavy surf, maybe hurting or killing people.

Related pages
 Tropical cyclone

References

Other websites
 Tropical Cyclone Rainfall for the Western United States
 NOAA Tropical Cyclone FAQ Subject G9
 The San Diego Hurricane of 2 October 1858
 NHC International Breakpoints list

Hurricanes in California

Hurricanes in California

List of California hurricanes


Sarah Records was a British independent record label active in Bristol between 1987 and 1995, best known for its recordings of indie pop, which it released mostly on 7" singles. On reaching the catalogue number SARAH 100, the label celebrated its 100th release by throwing a party and shutting itself down. In March 2015, NME declared Sarah to be the second greatest indie label of all time.

Origins
The label was formed in Bristol in 1987 by Clare Wadd and Matt Haynes and grew out of the fanzine scene at the time, Haynes having previously edited Are You Scared To Get Happy? and Wadd Kvatch. Both these fanzines had given away flexidiscs, with Are You Scared To Get Happy? being part of the Sha-la-la organisation, a record label set up solely to produce flexidiscs. Several Sarah releases were fanzines and flexidiscs as, along with the 7"s, it was thought they summed up the aesthetic and politics of the label better than 12" singles and albums. The label also refused to participate in the multi-formatting that was common at the time, or even include singles on albums, feeling that these practices were unfair on fans. In 1990 Wadd and Haynes told Melody Maker that it was "a record company run from a record buyer's point of view ... you shouldn't rip off the people who support you".

Music
Sarah Records was usually perceived as being grounded in the jangly indie-pop sensibility of C86 – though greater influences included the late Seventies DIY scene and stylish, imaginative independent labels such as Postcard Records, Factory and Creation; as well as mid-Eighties fanzine culture. Many Sarah bands, notably The Field Mice and The Orchids, also experimented with dance sounds. Other bands on the label included Heavenly, East River Pipe, The Hit Parade, Even As We Speak, Boyracer, Brighter, Blueboy, Another Sunny Day, Shelley and St. Christopher.

Politics
"It's just POLITICS, not as some distant unreal end, but as something encaptured in everyday life" declared the sleevenotes to the label's first compilation LP, Shadow Factory, and the label always saw itself as political, a response to its years of operation being "the years when CDs took over and vinyl died, when majors set up fake indies and indie became a genre not an ideology ... the years of Margaret Thatcher and John Major, of Clause 28 and the Poll Tax; the years when Lad Culture took hold." Because much of the politics was represented by the label's actions rather than its music, this aspect of Sarah was often missed; but Wadd and Haynes always hoped that those buying the records would discover the politics "by osmosis. One day, they'd suddenly stop and think, 'Hang on, why do I have to spend £3.49 on this Pastels twelve-inch from Creation when the Sea Urchins seven-inch on Sarah only costs £1.49 and they both have three songs on?' And then they'd set fire to the Houses of Parliament." Haynes did admit, though, that "few people spotted that our sleeves didn't use the female image as decoration, that singles didn't appear on albums (except compilations), and that compilations didn't include 'previously unreleased' tracks, so maybe our politics was too subtle." The politics was also always tempered by humour: 12" singles were used as a self-consciously hyperbolic metaphor for capitalism, the capitalist mindset of record collectors was mocked by randomly distributing postcards that formed a jigsaw of Bristol Temple Meads railway station in the sleeves of ten 7"s whose labels featured photos of consecutive stations on the local Severn Beach Line, and the label announced its Autumn 1992 release schedule by taking out quarter-page adverts in the music press, denouncing capitalism and the refusal of bands to accept responsibility for their own marketing practices.

Bristol
Being based in Bristol was very important to Sarah; despite neither being from Bristol, both Wadd and Haynes loved the city and wanted to make the political point that to run a successful record label you didn't have to move to London. Each 7" single featured a picture of the city on its centre label, the label's compilation albums were named after places in and around Bristol (and numbered after the buses that went there) and the city's road layout provided the board for Saropoly – the board game about running an indie record label (packaged as a 7" single) that was the label's fiftieth release.

Press response
Although Sarah releases were featured 15 times as Singles of the Week in NME and Melody Maker, the UK press was mostly hostile, something Wadd and Haynes attributed to male journalists missing the point, being annoyed by it, or worrying that liking a label with a girl's name, co-run by a woman, would bring their own masculinity into question.

The sexism of the music press was a major issue for the label. As Wadd wrote in a letter to Melody Maker, "your treatment of women reinforces the status quo of a woman's role being largely decorative – an object, a stage-prop to be placed at the front of photos … a puppet to smile and dance while the boys at the back (the 'brains') pull the strings. It's hard enough for a woman to carve herself an independent role in music. Stupid basic things like going to gigs on your own and getting back afterwards have to be considered on top of society's everyday constraints … Add to that the implicit criterion that to succeed you need to be physically desirable. What about the not-so-beautiful, the women who aren't so confident about their appearance/sexuality? … You end up with half the population having no creative input.

"Yet even that is eerily disguised because it's always the purely stereotypical (and therefore hardly qualifying as positive discrimination) FEMALE image within a band that the male writer/camera seeks out." The label was always better received outside the UK, with bands playing to big audiences in Europe and Japan, and, after the label had ended, the attitude of the UK press gradually shifted. In March 2015, NME put Sarah at number 2 in its list of greatest indie labels of all time, saying "Sarah's legacy is in thinking gloriously big, and believing that a label is more than a catalogue of disparate releases."

Ending and aftermath

A Day For Destroying Things
Sarah ceased operations in August 1995 with the release of There and Back Again Lane, a booklet telling the story of the label along with a CD of representative tracks. A party was held on the Thekla, a boat moored in Bristol's Floating Harbour, and half-page adverts entitled "A Day For Destroying Things" were taken out in both NME and Melody Maker. "We don't do encores", the advert announced, and the label has stuck by this sentiment, with no further releases.

Retrospective film, book and exhibition
A film about the label, My Secret World, made by Lucy Dawkins for Yes Please! Productions, was previewed at the Arnolfini Gallery in Bristol on 3 May 2014 as part of the exhibition 'Between Hello and Goodbye: The Secret World of Sarah Records', and had its official premiere at the Hackney Picturehouse in London on 12 April 2015. A book, Popkiss: The Life and Afterlife of Sarah Records, by Michael White, was published by Bloomsbury on 19 November 2015.

Shinkansen Recordings
After Sarah ended, Haynes established Shinkansen Recordings in 1996. Named after the Japanese "bullet train", the label was originally going to be called "Metropolitan", but there was already a record label of that name. Shinkansen released new recordings by ex-Sarah artists (including Blueboy and Harvey Williams) as well as other acts including Fosca, Trembling Blue Stars and Tompot Blenny. Haynes went on to edit a zine, Smoke: a London Peculiar, dedicated to writing and art inspired by London.

See also
 Sarah Records discography
 List of record labels
 List of independent UK record labels

References

External links
 Sarah Records Official Website
 A Day For Destroying Things
 Fan site
 Smoke: a London Peculiar
 Shinkansen Recordings
 Sarah Records on TweeNet
 Indiepop Radio

Music in Bristol
Defunct record labels of the United Kingdom
British independent record labels
Record labels established in 1987
Indie pop record labels

Sarah Records


Magnus Haraldsson (Old Norse: Magnús Haraldsson;  – 28 April 1069) was King of Norway from 1066 to 1069, jointly with his brother Olaf Kyrre from 1067. He was not included in official Norwegian regnal lists until modern times, but has since been counted as Magnus II.

A son of King Harald Hardrada, Magnus was in 1058 appointed nominal leader of an expedition into the Irish Sea while still only a child. He appears to have assisted Welsh ruler Gruffydd ap Llywelyn and Ælfgar, Earl of Mercia in their struggles against Wessex, although his primary objective may have been to assert control over Orkney. He later accompanied his father in Harald's campaign against Denmark in 1062, and was appointed regent and made king before Harald's fatal invasion of England in 1066. Magnus briefly ruled Norway alone thereafter, until his younger brother Olaf returned from England in 1067.

Magnus co-ruled with Olaf following his brother's return to Norway, but less than three years into his reign, Magnus became ill and died. His kingship has been downplayed in later history in part due to this. Magnus had only one child, Haakon Toresfostre who was king briefly after Olaf, but who also died young, and without issue.

Early life

Background
Magnus was born in 1048 or 1049. He was the first of two sons of King Harald Hardrada, by his consort Tora Torbergsdatter. There are no known skaldic poems written about Magnus, and he appears only briefly in the Norse sagas. The author of Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum describes him in passing as "a most handsome man." While not mentioned anywhere in the sagas, Magnus appears in contemporary British sources around the year 1058 as the leader of a Norwegian expedition in the Irish Sea.

Expedition to the West
In 1058, Magnus headed an expedition into the Irish Sea that sought to extend Norwegian authority in the region, the Norwegians siding with a faction that opposed the Norse-Gaelic king Echmarcach mac Ragnaill. The expedition also appears to have supported a branch of the Norse-Gaelic dynasty of Ivar that opposed Irish king Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó. Magnus commanded a fleet that, in addition to Norway, recruited men from Orkney, the Hebrides, and Dublin. His forces were later active in Wales and perhaps in England, and English chronicler John of Worcester associates the Norwegian fleet (along with the Welsh ruler Gruffydd ap Llywelyn), with returning the exiled Ælfgar, Earl of Mercia to power. The Irish Annals of Tigernach goes further in claiming that Magnus's goal was to seize power in England, but this is not supported by Welsh and English sources which also includes the Annales Cambriae and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

Magnus's campaign may have been part of his father's plans for an invasion of England, as control over the Kingdom of the Isles would have provided him with more troops. Historian Kelly DeVries has moreover proposed that Harald may have wanted to test the situation in England before a possible invasion, only to find that he could not be at war with Denmark and England at the same time. The expedition of Magnus never made significant landfall in England, but for English king Edward the Confessor it probably signalled renewed Norwegian ambitions from Harald Hardrada, who considered himself Edward's rightful heir. At the same time, the rise in power of Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his sons, in particular Harold Godwinson, had also started representing a threat to Harald's claim.

On the other hand, historian Alex Woolf has suggested that the expedition originally may only have been intended for Orkney, and that in search for plunder it was followed by an expedition into the Irish Sea that by mere luck presented Magnus with the opportunity of raiding with Earl Ælfgar. The exact year that Thorfinn Sigurdsson, Earl of Orkney died is not recorded anywhere, other than that it is stated in the Orkneyinga saga that it was in the later days of Harald Hardrada. Thus, it may be that his death provoked Magnus's expedition, and that the expedition was the occasion on which Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson, Thorfinn's successors as earls, submitted to Harald. Woolf has also proposed that Magnus may have played some part in the war in Scotland in 1057–1058, perhaps supporting Máel Coluim mac Donnchada against Lulach.

Kingship and death

Magnus accompanied his father in Harald's campaign against Denmark in 1062. On his way to Denmark, Harald's fleet clashed with the fleet of Danish king Sweyn Estridsson in a major naval battle at Niså that resulted in Norwegian victory. In 1066, after concluding peace with Sweyn Estridsson, Harald set out on his campaign of conquering England from Harold Godwinson. Before departing, he appointed Magnus as regent and king of Norway in his absence, and had his younger son Olaf accompany him on the expedition. After initial success in the Battle of Fulford, Harald was defeated and killed by Harold Godwinson in the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Olaf survived and returned to Norway with the remaining troops in early 1067, and was proclaimed king and co-ruler with his brother Magnus.

Although it was intended for Magnus and Olaf to rule the kingdom jointly without division, in practice Olaf ruled over Viken (the south-eastern part of Norway), while Magnus controlled the Uplands and Trøndelag (the middle parts of Norway) along with Western Norway and Northern Norway. Despite this division, there are no signs of hostility between the brothers, and their relationship appears to have been peaceful.

Having reigned for less than three years, Magnus became ill and died in Nidaros (Trondheim) on 28 April 1069. The sagas posit that Magnus died of ringworm, but modern scholars have proposed that he instead may have died of ergotism (poisoning by the Claviceps purpurea fungus). Snorri Sturluson writes briefly in the Saga of Harald Hardrade that Magnus was "an amiable king and bewailed by the people."

Magnus's kingship has been downplayed in later history partly due to his short tenure, and because most of it was together with his brother. The subsequently long reign of Olaf also contributed to overshadow Magnus's reign, combined with the fact that the later Norwegian royal dynasties only descended (or claimed descent) from Olaf.

The king known today as Magnus VI (the first Norwegian king known to use regnal numbers) originally used the regnal number IV for himself in contemporary Latin letters, leaving out Magnus Haraldsson. As the numbering system has seen changes in modern times, Magnus Haraldsson is today included as Magnus II.

Family
Magnus had a son, Haakon Magnusson of Norway, who was probably born the same year that Magnus died. Haakon went on to claim what he considered his part of the kingdom (after his father) in 1093 when his uncle Olaf Kyrre died, and shared the kingdom with his cousin Magnus Barefoot (son of Olaf Kyrre). Similar to the reign of his father, Haakon's reign also ended abruptly after a short time as he died young in 1095.

Footnotes

References
Primary sources
 Sturluson, Snorri (). Saga of Harald Hardrade (in Heimskringla). English translation: Samuel Laing (London, 1844).
 Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum (). English translation: M. J. Driscoll (London, 2008).

Modern literature

1040s births
1069 deaths
11th-century Norwegian monarchs
11th-century regents
Burials at Nidaros Cathedral
House of Hardrada
Regents of Norway

Magnus II of Norway


The Interallied Mission to Poland was a diplomatic mission launched by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George on 21 July 1920, at the height of the Polish-Soviet War, weeks before the decisive Battle of Warsaw. The purpose of this mission was to send a number of high level personages from Britain and France to Poland in an attempt to influence Polish policy, possibly through effecting a change in government.

The mission members included French diplomat, Jean Jules Jusserand, general Maxime Weygand, chief of staff to Marshal Ferdinand Foch (the Supreme Commander of the victorious Entente), and the British diplomat, Lord Edgar Vincent D'Abernon. The crucial battle of Warsaw was won in the early days of August, before the mission could achieve anything of importance. The only tangible result was the installation of Weygand as an advisor to the Polish General Staff, where his role was negligible.  Nevertheless, soon after the battle and for various political reasons, a myth arose that Weygand was the author of the Polish victory in the battle of Warsaw.

Sources
 Norman Davies, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919–20, Pimlico, 2003, .
 Piotr Wandycz, General Weygand and the Battle of Warsaw, in Journal of Central European Affairs, vol. 19 (1960), pp. 357–365.

See also
 British Military Mission to Poland
 French Military Mission to Poland

Polish–Soviet War
1920 in Poland
Poland–United Kingdom relations
France–Poland relations
1920 in France
1920 in the United Kingdom
1920 in international relations

Interallied Mission to Poland


Pramoedya Ananta Toer (6 February 1925 – 30 April 2006) was an Indonesian writer. He wrote novels, short stories, essays, and histories of Indonesia and its people. His writing includes much personal and national history. The Dutch Government put him in prison him from 1947 to 1949. Later, the Suharto government sent him to a prison island from 1965 to 1979.

Colonial and later authoritarian governments did not approve of Pramoedya's writings. They often censored his writing in Indonesia even though he was well known outside his home country. The Dutch imprisoned him from 1947 to 1949 during the War of Independence. During the coup when Suharto gained power, Pramoedya was involved in political fighting. Suharto put him in prison from 1969 to 1979 on the Maluku island called Buru. Suharto called Pramoedya a Communist. Suharto thought Pramoedya was still loyal to the Sukarno government even though Pramoedya had struggled with Sukarno.

He created his most famous work, the Buru Quartet, on the prison island. The prison did not allow him to have writing materials, so he told the story aloud to other prisoners. Then it was written down and smuggled out.

Pramoedya was against some policies of Indonesia's first President, Sukarno, and against the New Order regime of Suharto. Often, he did not make direct political criticisms. His writing was subtle. He was outspoken against colonialism, racism and the corruption of the Indonesian Government. During the many years he suffered in prison and house arrest, human rights advocates fought for his freedom of expression.

Early years
Pramoedya was born on February 6, 1925, in Blora in central Java, then a part of the Dutch East Indies. He was the oldest son in his family. Pramoedya's father was a teacher. His father was also active in Boedi Oetomo (the first recognized indigenous national organization in Indonesia). Pramoedya's mother was a rice trader. His maternal grandfather had made the pilgrimage to Mecca. As it is written in his semi-autobiographical collection of short stories "Cerita Dari Blora", his name was originally Pramoedya Ananta Mastoer. But he felt that the family name Mastoer was too aristocratic. The Javanese prefix "Mas" means a man of  the higher rank in a noble family. So, he removes "Mas" and kept Toer as his family name. Pramoedya went to the Radio Vocational School in Surabaya but had just graduated when Japan invaded Surabaya in 1942.

During World War II, Pramoedya supported the occupying forces of Imperial Japan at first. He believed the Japanese to be bad but better than the Dutch. He worked as a typist for a Japanese newspaper in Jakarta. However as the war went on, Indonesians opposed harsh treatment by the Japanese military and wartime rationing. The Nationalist forces loyal to Sukarno switched their support to the incoming Allies against Japan. Pramoedya did as well.

On August 17, 1945, after the news of  Allied victory over Japan reached Indonesia, Sukarno proclaimed Indonesian independence. This started the Indonesian National Revolution against the British and Dutch. In this war, Pramoedya joined a paramilitary group in Karawang, Kranji (West Java). He was sent to Jakarta. In Jakarta, he wrote short stories and books, and propaganda for the Nationalist cause. The Dutch put him in Bukit Duri prison in Jakarta from 1947 until 1949, the year the Netherlands recognized Indonesian independence. While in prison, he wrote his first major novel, The Fugitive.

Importance after Indonesia became independent
In the first years after Indonesia became independent, Pramoedya wrote stories about the problems of the new nation. He also wrote semi-autobiographical works based on his memoirs during World War II. Then he went to live in the Netherlands as part of a cultural exchange program. Later he went on several other cultural exchanges, including trips to the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China.

In Indonesia, Pramoedya built up a reputation as a critic of literature and society. He joined the left-wing writers' group Lekra and wrote in newspapers and literary journals. His writing style became more political. One example is his story Korupsi (Corruption). It is the story of a civil servant who falls into the trap of corruption. This caused problems for him with the Sukarno government.

From the late 1950s, Pramoedya began teaching literary history at the Universitas Res Publica. That university was politically left-wing.  As he prepared lessons, he began to realise that ideas about Indonesian language and literature had been distorted by the Dutch colonial authorities. He searched for materials that had been ignored by colonial educational institutions and by Indonesians after independence.

Pramoedya had spent time in China, so he had good feelings towards Indonesian Chinese people. This was unusual in Indonesia after independence. The Indonesian government had made many laws restricting Indonesian Chinese people's freedom and ethnic Malay or Javanese people often discriminated against Indonesian Chinese. Pramoedya published a series of letters to an imaginary Chinese correspondent discussing the history of the Indonesian Chinese, called Hoakiau di Indonesia (History of the Overseas Chinese in Indonesia). He criticized the government for being too Java-centric and insensitive to the needs and desires of the other regions and peoples of Indonesia. As a result, he was arrested by the Indonesian military and jailed at Cipinang prison for nine months.

Imprisonment under Suharto

In an October 1965 coup the army took power after making a false claim that the assassination of several senior generals was organized by the Communist Party of Indonesia. This was the start of Suharto's New Order. This government was violently anti-communist. Pramoedya was head of People's Cultural Organisation, a literary group connected to the Indonesian Communist Party. So, the New Order regime called him a communist and enemy of the state. During the violent anti-Communist purge in 1965-66, Pramoedya was arrested, beaten, and imprisoned by Suharto's government. He was named a political prisoner. His books were banned and he was imprisoned without trial, first in Nusa Kambangan off the southern coast of Java, and then in the penal colony Buru in the eastern islands of the Indonesian archipelago.
.

He was banned from writing during his imprisonment on the island of Buru, but created his best-known series of work, the Buru Quartet. It is a series of four historical fiction novels telling about the development of Indonesian nationalism. The books are partly based on his own experiences growing up. The English titles of the books are: This Earth of Mankind, Child of All Nations, Footsteps, and House of Glass. The main character of the series is named Minke. He is a minor Javanese royal. The character is similar to an Indonesian journalist named Tirto Adhi Surjo. He was active in the nationalist movement.

The quartet includes strong female characters of Indonesian and Chinese ethnicity. The books show how hard it was for these people to live under colonial rule. They experienced racist discrimination and attacks. They struggled for personal and national political independence. These books are typical of much of Pramoedya's writing. They tell personal stories and focus on individuals caught up in the movements of a nation's history.

Pramoedya Ananta Toer's "Child of all Nations" describes the sorrow of Javanese people under Dutch colonialism. It's the second book in a series called the Buru Quartet, all written by Pramoedya. This book continues the story from the previous one and shows how people in Indonesia fought against the Dutch colonizers in the 1980s. It's against colonialism and shows the difficult lives of women, along with strong feelings of love and anger.

Pramoedya had done research for the books before he was sent to the Buru prison camp. When he was arrested his library was burned and much of his collection and early writings were lost. On the prison colony island of Buru he was not permitted even to have a pencil. Pramoedya thought that he would ever be able to write the novels on paper. He told the stories of the novels to his fellow prisoners. Other prisoners listened to the stories then helped him. They did extra labor so that Pramoedya did not have to work as much. So finally he was able to write the novels down. The final books took their name, "Buru Quartet," from the prison where he created them. They have been collected and published in English. Maxwell Lane translated them. They are also in many other languages. By 2005, they had been published in 33 languages (BIWP).  Many people outside of Indonesia though that these were excellent books. They won many awards. But the Indonesian government banned their publication in Indonesia. So one of Indonesia's most famous literary works was almost impossible to find the country's people whose history it addressed. Indonesians abroad scanned copies and shared them on the Internet with people inside the country.

Pramoedya's works on colonial Indonesia recognised the importance of Islam as a vehicle for popular opposition to the Dutch. His works are not about religion and do not have clear religious themes. He opposed people who used religion to control how people think. Sometimes he wrote negatively about the religiously pious.

Freed from prison and later writing
Pramoedya was freed from prison in 1979. But, he was still under house arrest in Jakarta until 1992. During this time he released The Girl From the Coast, another semi-fictional novel based on his grandmother's own experience (volumes 2 and 3 of this work were destroyed along with his library in 1965).  He also wrote Nyanyi Sunyi Seorang Bisu (1995); A Mute's Soliloquy, an autobiography based on the letters that he wrote for his daughter from imprisonment in Buru but were not allowed to be sent, and Arus Balik (1995).

He wrote many columns and short articles criticizing the Indonesian government.  He wrote a book called Perawan Remaja dalam Cengkeraman Militer (Young Virgins in the Military's Grip), a documentary written showcasing the plight of Javanese women who were forced to become comfort women during the Japanese occupation and were subsequently subject to oppression by their own Indonesian society.  The Japanese military took these women to Buru island. They were raped and sexually abused by the Japanese. Many stayed there instead of returning to Java. Other political prisoners on Buru with Pramoedya were able to meet some of these women. They told the women's stories to Pramoedya. He wrote them down in narrative form in the 1970s. This was the start of the book published in 2001.

Pramoedya was hospitalized on April 27, 2006 for complications from diabetes and heart disease. He was also a heavy smoker of Kretek (clove) cigarettes and had endured years of abuse while in detention. Pramoedya was praised for his writing and won many awards. Many thought he was the best candidate for a Nobel Prize in Literature from Indonesia and Southeast Asia.

Pramoedya's writings on Indonesia address the international and regional currents caused by political events in history and how these events flowed through his homeland and buffeted its people. Pramoedya also shares a personal history of hardship and detention for his efforts of self-expression and the political aspects of his writings, and struggled against the censorship of his work by the leaders of his own people.

Awards
 1988 PEN/Barbara Goldsmith Freedom to Write Award.
 1989 The Fund for Free Expression Award, New York, USA.
 1992 English P.E.N Centre Award, Great Britain.
 1992 Stichting Wertheim Award, Netherland.
 1995 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Journalism, Literature, and Creative Communication Arts.
 1999 Doctor Honoris Causa from the University of Michigan.
 1999 Chancellor's Distinguished Honor Award from the University of California, Berkeley.
 2000 Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Republic of France.
 2000 11th Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize.
 2004 Norwegian Authors' Union award for his contribution to world literature and his continuous struggle for the right to freedom of expression.
 2004 Pablo Neruda Award, Chile
 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll by the Prospect.

Major works

 Kranji-Bekasi Jatuh ("The Fall of Kranji-Bekasi") (1947)
 Perburuan (The Fugitive (novel)) (1950)
 Keluarga Gerilya ("Guerilla Family") (1950)
 Bukan Pasar Malam (It's Not an All Night Fair) (1951)
 Cerita dari Blora (Story from Blora) (1952)
 Gulat di Jakarta ("Wrestling in Jakarta") (1953)
 Korupsi (Corruption) (1954)
 Midah - Si Manis Bergigi Emas ("Midah - The Beauty with Golden Teeth") (1954)
 Cerita Calon Arang (The King, the Witch, and the Priest) (1957)
 Hoakiau di Indonesia (Chinese of Indonesia) (1960)
 Panggil Aku Kartini Saja I & II (Just Call Me Kartini I & II) (1962)
 Gadis Pantai (Girl from the Coast) (1962)
 The Buru Quartet
 Bumi Manusia (This Earth of Mankind) (1980)
 Anak Semua Bangsa (Child of All Nations) (1980)
 Jejak Langkah (Footsteps) (1985)
 Rumah Kaca (House of Glass) (1988)
 Nyanyi Sunyi Seorang Bisu (A Mute's Soliloquy) (1995)
 Arus Balik (1995)
 Arok Dedes (1999)
 Mangir (1999)
 Larasati (2000)
 Perawan Remaja dalam Cengkeraman Militer: Catatan Pulau Buru (2001)
 All That Is Gone (2004)
  Narration for the Dutch film Jalan Raya Pos Great Post Road (film) about the Great Post Road

References

Further reading
Books on Pramoedya Ananta Toer
 Citra Manusia Indonesia dalam Karya Pramoedya Ananta Toer, by A. Teeuw, Pustaka Jaya, Jakarta, 1997.
 , by Eka Kurniawan, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 2006.

Other websites
 Pramoedya Ananta Toer: Why you should know him (Al Jazeera, February 6)

 Pramoedya Ananta Toer information page
 Pramoedya Ananta Toer, 81, Indonesian Novelist, Dies (The New York Times, April 30)

 Pramoedya Ananta Tour digital illustration portraits

1925 births
2006 deaths
Asian novelists
Indonesian writers
Indonesian activists
Socialists
Disease-related deaths in Indonesia
Deaths from heart disease
Deaths from diabetes

Pramoedya Ananta Toer


Scottish English, also known as Scottish Standard English or Standard Scottish English (SSE), is a dialect of English that is spoken in Scotland. People can tell Scottish English from British English by their accents, grammar, and vocabulary.

Scottish English should not be confused with Scots, a language which is very much like, but separate from English. The Scots language itself has affected Scottish English by means of contact with the Standard English after the 17th century. Still, many speakers of both Scots and Scottish English put them into different registers and smoothly switch between the two.

Scotland
British English
Language articles without language codes

Scottish English