European free jazz is a part of the global free jazz scene with its own development and characteristics. It is hard to establish who are the founders of European free jazz because of the different developments in different European countries. One can, however, be certain that European free jazz took its development from American free jazz, where musicians such as Ornette Coleman revolutionised the way of playing.

American origin
Free jazz got its name from the album Free Jazz (Atlantic, 1961) by Ornette Coleman to describe American avant-garde jazz of the 1960s. Besides "avant-garde", it was called "the New Wave", "the New Thing", "action jazz", and in Europe "improvised music".  Germans played a form of free jazz that had something in common with the aleatoric music of Bernd Alois Zimmermann and was performed by Derek Bailey, Joachim Kuhn, Albert Mangelsdorff, Manfred Schoof, John Surman, and Alexander von Schlippenbach.

Free jazz was unpopular and didn't sell well. It was viewed as a musical, political, and social backlash to the structure of jazz and of American society at the time. "For some performers the style was loosely linked to the Black Power movement in the USA, partly because of the radical political outlook of some of its practitioners and advocates (e.g., Archie Shepp and LeRoi Jones – later known as Amiri Baraka) and partly owing to the explosive, expressionistic nature of the music itself". Due to the lack of commercial success of the free jazz music as well as the racial issues, like the Civil Rights Movement, many American free jazz musicians began touring the European continent, playing and spreading their new avant-garde style throughout Europe. Jazz musicians like Ornette Coleman, Albert Ayler, Don Cherry, Bud Powell, Don Byas traveled and performed throughout Europe. In contrast to the lack of commercial success in America, many American free jazz musicians experienced both commercial success and acceptance in Europe, leading to tours of Europe and extended residencies. "A number of jazz musicians migrated to other parts of the world, where they received an opposite response, being considered the ultimate expression of high culture. Thus, many of them remained in exile, and they enjoyed unparalleled success in France, Germany, Japan, Scandinavia, and the Netherlands after the world wars".

Although much of American public believed this music to be structure-less, provocative, and ridiculous, some European listeners enjoyed the "dissonant and seemingly chaotic music". "Many Europeans viewed free jazz as the descriptor most used by the media on both sides of the Atlantic for a musical movement that ignited like a flare in the African-American... and Western European...jazz communities. The social context in both cases included a reaction by musicians against a mainstream jazz culture they felt to be colluding with an oppressive Western hegemony that was intrinsically racist, historically imperialistic and exploitive, venally decadent and vicious as its power was challenged". Due in part to the provocative nature of the music as well as the freedom it granted both the musician and the listener, many Europeans associated the backlash toward American society conveyed in free jazz with the counter-culture and anti-imperialist movements in Europe during the late 1960s.

European acceptance
Contrary to the societal reaction free jazz music received in the United States, many Europeans (musicians, critics and young people alike) identified with this style of music. While many African-Americans associated this avant-garde style with the Civil Rights Movement in America, many Europeans in the 1960s, especially college-aged students, associated this style of music with anti-colonialist movements occurring throughout Europe at the same time.

The music under the "free-jazz" rubric – that of Ornette Coleman, Cecil Taylor, Albert Ayler, John Coltrane, Sun Ra and their bands, to name the major pioneers with the most impact in Europe – ignited the jazz scenes there in the mid-to-late 1960s. The subsequent free-jazz movement in their countries was linked to the events and spirit of the 1968 student protests and riots in Paris and Berlin (the " '68ers") as it was to new assertions of black identity in America. The racial conflict specific to the United States translated in Europe to an international radical leftism – one with a youthful white more than an angry black face – hostile to Western imperialistic capitalism and faux-culture.

As American free jazz musicians continued to play throughout Europe, the free jazz genre and the cultural movements in Europe associated with it began to spread as well, influencing many European jazz musicians to imitate the avant-garde style of playing as well as adopting its techniques to create their own individual sound. "Reflecting their diverse backgrounds, these musicians often blend personal narrative reminiscent of an Afrological perspective with some sonic imagery characteristic of European forms spanning several centuries".

European development of free jazz

The introduction of this new, avant-garde style influenced many European jazz musicians like the German saxophonist Peter Brötzmann, who is known as one of the first European free jazz musicians. The founders of European free jazz usually came from a classic jazz background and then went over bebop and hard bop into free jazz. Brötzmann began playing free jazz in 1964, and he formed a quintet with "Peter Kowald and Sven-Åke Johansson. The following year he toured Europe in a quintet led by Mike Mantler and Carla Bley, and they began an association with the Globe Unity Orchestra that lasted until 1981".

Brötzmann is renowned for his high-strung, fast playing, although the harmonies in his playing are often overlooked. His collaborator Peter Kowald interpreted free jazz on double bass. Kowald helped in creating such organizations as "FMP (1969), which sponsors performances and issues recordings of free jazz, the Wuppertal Free Jazz Workshop, and 360° Spielraum für Ideen, an art gallery and performance space in Wuppertal".

Trombonist Albert Mangelsdorff, although coming from a more classic background, also had great influence. He toured Asia, the United States, and South America and was one "finest trombonists in modern jazz".

Alexander von Schlippenbach's Globe Unity Orchestra created a scandal at its debut in Berlin. In Germany some of the second generation free jazz players came from a more European music background, like Georg Gräwe, Theo Jörgensmann, or Hannes Bauer. In East Germany, trombonist Conny Bauer and drummer Günter Sommer spread free jazz in the Socialist bloc. Bauer "formed Doppelmoppel, a quartet of two trombones and two guitars" in 1982 and participated in the European Jazz Ensemble which celebrated its 20th Anniversary tour in 1996. In the UK saxophonist Evan Parker, who was highly influenced by John Coltrane, took on the role of Brötzmann for Britain. Guitarist Derek Bailey and trombonist Paul Rutherford also developed the British scene. Both Paul Rutherford and Evan Parker experimented with solo improvisation for extended periods of their careers. Slava/Viacheslav/Ganelin, from Soviet Lithuania, came out with a bang in the late 70's, playing with Vladimir Chekasin and percussionist Vladimir Tarasov. Leo Feigin of Leo Records produced dozens of their albums, as well of other musicians from the Eastern Bloc.

In addition to the rise of free jazz musicians in Europe, during the 1960s there was a "sudden surge in critical interest...the emergence of a new cohort of critics – young intellectuals such as Yves Buin, Michel Le Bris, Guy Kopelowicz and Jean-Louis Comolli – who took up the cause of experimental jazz". During this time, free jazz was based less on its American origin and became more European. Through the use of "spontaneous improvisation theoretically free of the diatonic/chromatic and metric systems governing harmony, melody, and rhythm of both pre-free jazz and other Western music", European free jazz musicians created interpretations based on their experience in western Europe. In Europe, this style of music achieved the relative level of success that "'bop,' 'early jazz,' and 'swing' enjoy[ed] in America,"  during their respective musical periods. According to Oxford Music Online, "In Europe (especially England) free jazz is also known simply as 'improvised music,' particularly in performances which emphasize stylistic connections to avant-garde art music rather than to sounds of African-American origin".

Free jazz as an art form in Europe

As free jazz, or 'improvised music' grew and developed as a popular genre of music in Europe, so did its supporters – both casual and scholarly. While there had always been a close association between free jazz and political and social strife in Europe, many supporters of the genre began pushing to depoliticize the music, urging listeners to consider free jazz as an art form rather than simply a provocative statement on society bereft of any actual musicality. Many listeners of the time believed that, "free jazz was as much a political as a musical phenomenon". During this time, there were fears that if free jazz was only considered as a mechanism for political commentary, that it would lose its validity as an art form, or at worst, be subject to censorship by European governments. Due to this possibility, there was a surge amongst the free jazz community to dissociate the word "free" with the political environment it is so commonly associated with. In addition to the depoliticizing of this genre of music, other critics asserted that,"Were jazz to be valued henceforth according to its capacity to reveal something of the social conditions under which it was produced or the political beliefs that its producers espoused, then its relevance for those outside the particular community from which it issues would be limited. In other words, by only associating jazz or free jazz with a particular ideology or thought process, in effect only those of a similar thought process can understand or appreciate it fully. Rather, if the free jazz genre was dissociated from the view that it is simply a vehicle for political commentary, and instead it was viewed objectively as a form of art, it would not only would be accessible to a larger audience, but it would allow itself to be judged as an art rather than the political statement it may or may not be attempting to make.

Aftermath of free jazz
After the popularity of the late 1960s and 1970s in Europe, improvised music began to influence and became influenced by other genres of music. In the United States, Europe, and the rest of the world, musicians continued to play improvisational music, but they also looked to other genres for inspiration. This term 'improvised music' may, of course, be used in the common dictionary sense, and it is particularly useful in references to the pan-genre eclecticism which has characterized much music-making from the 1980s onwards, as musicians draw freely from, or meld together, not only jazz and contemporary art music but also aspects of various mainstream popular musics (blues, rock, soul, pop), heavy metal and world music (ethnic traditions).

Notes

References
 Adams, Simon. "Rutherford, Paul." Grove Music Online. 2nd Edition. Web. 24 Apr 2012.
 Conyers, James. African American Jazz and Rap: Social and Philosophical Examinations of Black Expressive Behavior. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2001. 91. Print.
 Drott, Eric. "Free Jazz and the French Critic." Journal of the American Musicological Society 61.3 (2008): 541–81. Print.
 Europe Jazz Network, 24 Apr 2012
 Gilbert, Mark. "Parker, Evan." Grove Music Online. 2nd Edition. Web. 24 Apr 2012.
 Harris, William. "How You Sound?? Amiri Baraka Writes Free Jazz." Uptown Conversation: The New Jazz Studies. (2004): 3115–25. Print.
 Heffley, Mike. Northern Sun, Southern Moon. 1st ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005. Print.
 Iannapollo and Adams. "Brötzmann, Peter ." Grove Music Online. 2nd Edition. Web. 24 Apr 2012.
 Iannapollo and Adams. "Kowald, Peter." Grove Music Online. 2nd Edition. Web. 24 Apr 2012.
 Kernfeld, Barry. "Improvised Music." Grove Music Online. 2nd Edition. Web. 24 Apr 2012.
 Kernfeld and Noglik. "Bauer, Conrad." Grove Music Online. 2nd Edition. Web. 24 Apr 2012.
 Knauer, Wolfram. "Mangel, Albert." Grove Music Online. 2nd Edition. Web. 24 Apr 2012.
 Lewis, George. "Improvised Music after 1950: Afrological and Eurological Perspectives." Black Music Research Journal. 16.1 (1996): 91–112. Print.
 Robinson, J. "Free Jazz." Grove Music Online. 2nd Edition. Web. 24 Apr 2012.
 Ross, Larry. African-American Jazz Musicians in the Diaspora. 1st ed. Lewiston, New York: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2003. Print.

External links
European Free Improvisation Pages

Jazz genres

European free jazz


iFinger Ltd (NUF) is a Norwegian producer of digital dictionaries founded in 2000. iFinger works by partnering with international publishers such as Oxford University Press, Ernst Klett Verlag, Cappelen Forlag and other respected publishing houses in order to provide their content digitally.

Technology
The iFinger software is based on the LinguistX modules from Inxight Software Inc.

The iFinger search engine works by appearing on the user's screen and delivering results in a drop down window.  It uses an internal browser to present the HTML formatted content. Inxight's LinguistX modules are used for linguistic analysis of the input.

External links
iFinger website
Inxight Software Inc profile
Help Desk Geek description

Dictionary software

IFinger


Landgrave Ernest of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg (8 December 1623 – 2 May 1693) was from 1649 to 1658 Landgrave of Hesse-Rheinfels and from 1658 until his death Landgrave of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg.  Because his brothers died young, all later Landgraves in the Rotenburg Quarter are descendants of Ernest.  Hence, Ernest is known as the ancestor of the Catholic Rotenburg Quarter, a group of junior lines of the House of Hesse.

Family
Ernst was the eleventh child of the second marriage of the Landgrave Maurice of Hesse-Kassel (1572–1632) with Juliane of Nassau-Siegen (1587–1643).  He was a great-grandson of Philip I "the Magnanimous".  Landgrave Ernst married in 1647 in Frankfurt with Countess Maria Eleonore of Solms-Lich (1632–1689).  Two sons from this marriage outlived Ernest: William (1648–1725) and Charles (1649–1711), and one daughter Catherina (1655–1719), who would marry into the aristocratic British Pye Family, through Richard, the son of Sir Robert Pye.

Life
Ernest was brought up as a Calvinist during the Thirty Years' War.  He made his Grand Tour to France and Italy, and fought with Hesse-Kassel during the final years of the war, for example at the Battle of Nördlingen on 3 August 1645.  In 1647, the army of Landgravine Amalie Elisabeth reconquered Lower Katzenelnbogen and returned it to Hesse-Kassel.  In 1649, Ernest came of age and received Lower Katzenelnbogen.  This made him the founder of the Hesse-Rheinfels line.   Hesse-Rheinfels was not considered sovereign: it remained under the sovereignty of Hesse-Kassel, as did the other parts of the Rotenburg Quarter.  Details of the relationship between Hesse-Rheinfels and Hesse-Kassel were laid down in a series of house treaties; nevertheless, political and judicial disputes often arose between the two houses.

Ernest chose Burg Rheinfels castle, above St. Goar on the left bank of the Rhine, as his residence and extended the castle to an imposing fortress.  The new Landgrave made his official entry into St. Goar on 30 March 1649.  The construction activities associated with the extension of his castle and the fact that many landgraviate authorities resided at Rheinfels, contributed significantly to the economic boom of St. Goar, which had suffered severely from the Thirty Years' War.

Ernest and his family converted to Catholicism on 6 January 1652 in Cologne.  However, he could not make Catholicism the established religion in his territory, because it fell under the jurisdiction of Hesse-Kassel and his half-nephew Landgrave William VI would not allow Ernest to undermine his authority and deviate from Calvinism, the established religion in Hesse-Kassel.  In 1654, a compromise was reached: the Treaty of Ravensburg allowed Ernest to create three Catholic parishes in his landgraviate, in St. Goar, Nastätten and Langen-Schwalbach.

After the death of his brothers Frederick in 1655 and Herman IV in 1658, he inherited their sections of the Rotenburg Quarter.  He then called himself Ernest of Hesse-Rotenburg-Rheinfels.

Ernest was very interested in religious matters; he was also religiously tolerant.  In 1666, he had the Rheinfelsen Book of Hymns printed, which contained Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed hymns.  Ernest corresponded with the leading scholars of his time, such as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.

Ernest died in 1693 and was buried, at his request, in the Pilgrimage Church in Bornhofen Monastery in Kamp-Bornhofen.

References

Landgraves of Hesse
House of Hesse
1623 births
1693 deaths
17th-century German people

Ernest, Landgrave of Hesse-Rheinfels


Thorium is a chemical element in actinide group. It is a weakly radioactive metal. It has a shiny, silvery white color. It has the chemical symbol Th and the atomic number 90. Natural thorium has an atomic weight of 232. Thorium is named after Thor, the Norse god of thunder. Its ores are found in nature (that is, on Earth), especially in India, the United States, and Australia.

Thorium would make a good source of nuclear fuel because it makes much less waste and is four times as common as uranium. It does not need the wasteful process of enrichment. It makes 3,200,000 times as much energy as coal and 200 times as much energy as uranium. Scientists believe that there is enough of it to power the world for thousands of years. Thorium has been used for various purposes since the 19th century. It is an alloying agent in magnesium and is also used as an industrial catalyst.

Thorium is safer than uranium. This is because thorium cannot undergo nuclear fission on its own. Usually, plutonium is need to start and maintain a reaction. This is why thorium is considered better for nuclear reactors. Also, nuclear waste from thorium reactors contains far smaller amounts of dangerous transuranic elements than waste from uranium reactors.

References

Other websites
EnergyFromThorium.com
Thorium - WebElements.com
Thorium - World-Nuclear.org

Actinides
Energy
Nuclear power plants

Thorium


A sweep is when a number of people pay to purchase a set of tickets, each representing a horse. The tickets are given out randomly, and each ticket costs the same (usually $1–$10), so there is no skill element involved, and odds are ignored completely. The prize pool is made up of the receipts exclusively, and is divided out to the holders of the tickets for winning horses. Typically, first place will win about half of the prize pool, with the remainder divided on a sliding scale to second, third, and sometimes fourth place. There may even be some money given to last place, considering the random nature of a sweep.

Office sweeps are exceptionally popular in Australia for the Melbourne Cup, and as a social event the sweep becomes the focus of the day's festivities. Daily newspapers such as The Age or Herald Sun include full colour lift-outs with images of each horse which can be cut up and used as tickets, as well as instructions on running the sweep, and space to record the names of who has each ticket.

In New Zealand office based sweeps are equally popular. Similarly to in Australia, major news such as the New Zealand Herald include full page sweeps pull outs.

References

Sports betting
Melbourne Cup

Melbourne Cup sweeps


Jeff Hilson (born 1966) is a British poet.  His works include A Grasses Primer (Form Books, 2000), Stretchers (Reality Street, 2006), Bird Bird (Landfill, 2009), and In The Assarts (Veer Books, 2010).  He also edited The Reality Street Book of Sonnets, published in 2008.  With Sean Bonney and David Miller he co-founded Crossing the Line, a reading series based in London.

Hilson is the son of British diplomat Malcolm Hilson OBE, and brother of the environmental lawyer Professor Christopher Hilson of the University of Reading.  He was educated at Bedford School, where he was a boarder.  He went to Girton College, Cambridge in 1985 to read English literature.  He graduated in 1988 with a second class degree.  He plays cricket for the Energy Exiles Cricket Club.

See also

 British Poetry Revival

Further reading
 Jeff Hilson, The Reality Street Book of Sonnets (ed.) and Stretchers at Reality Street Editions
 Jeff Hilson, Bird Bird at West House Books
 Jeff Hilson, Bird Bird at Landfill Press
 Edmund Hardy, Review of Stretchers
 Piers Hugill, An overview of contemporary British poetry since 1977
 Stephen Thompson, 'The Forlorn Ear of Jeff Hilson', Complicities: British Poetry 1945-2007 ed. Robin Purves and Sam Ladkin (Prague: Litteraria Pragensia, 2007)

External links
  Energy Exiles Cricket Club profile of Hilson
 Jeff Hilson's blog
 Five stretchers at Great Works
 One stretcher at Kate Murr's Press
 Excerpt from In the Assarts at onedit
 Excerpt from Bird Bird at onedit
 Excerpt from Bird Bird at Robert Sheppard's blog
 Excerpt from Bird Bird at PFS Post
 Archive of the Now
 Claire Jones, Review of Stretchers at OCT
 Ron Silliman, Review of The Reality Street Book of Sonnets (ed. Jeff Hilson)
 Jow Lindsay, Miscellany Note 23/10/05, Bad Press Serials 5.X
 Last Night at the Foundry

British poets
Alumni of Girton College, Cambridge
1966 births
Living people
People educated at Bedford School
British male poets

Jeff Hilson


Benito Pablo Juárez García (March 21, 1806 - July 8, 1872) was a Zapotec who served five terms (1858–1861 as interim), (1861–1865), (1865–1867), (1867–1871), and (1871–1872), as President of Mexico. During his presidency he outlawed slavery, especially the mistreatment of the Mexican Native Americans.

His philosophy has influenced many Mexicans and Mexican Americans in the United States, who have fought for the human and civil rights of Latinos for almost two centuries.

In 1843 Benito married Margarita Maza.

Early life
Benito Juarez was born in March 21,1806, San Pablo Guelatao Oaxaca Which is now La Sierra Juarez.  He was an orphan as a toddler. He was full native of Zapotec descent.   He went to Oaxaca at age 12 and worked in fields at a young age.  That is when Benito Juarez learned Spanish because he only spoke Zapotec.  When he was 12 he left his uncle.  He continued his education entering an institute of science and art.  Then he graduated in 1834 with  a law degree.  Also he became a judge in 1841.

He spent time in Cuba.  In New Orleans he plotted against Antonio López de Santa Anna who had overthrown him.  Juan  Alvarez launched a coup.   Juarez to hurried to protect Mexico but Alvarez forces captured the capital.  Alvarez made himself  president and Juarez a minister of Justice .

Rise to leadership
Benito Juarez's political career started on January 1, 1832, when he was appointed alderman in the city of Oaxaca. Then in 1833 Juarez was named local deputy of Oaxaca. After being named local deputy of Oaxaca in February 3, 1834 Juarez became member of the board of health in the state of Oaxaca. Then in April 6, 1838 Benito Juarez became Acting Secretary of the first Chamber of the Superior Court. Therefore, Benito Juarez did not stayed with his hands folded, on December 31, 1839 Juarez became Deputy Minister of the superior court of the department of Oaxaca. Then on July 22, 1841 Juarez was judge of the civil court in the city of Oaxaca. Then on October 3, 1843 Juarez became the Alternate Board of Elections in Oaxaca. In 1847 Juarez was elected federal deputy so he had to move to Mexico city.

Benito Juarez returned to Oaxaca and was internal governor in 1847.  He supported the Mexican–American War but refused to help President Antonio López de Santa Anna when the war was clearly lost.  On January 3, 1853  he became professor substitute for Civil Law at the Institute of Sciences and Arts of Oaxaca. Also after being a professor substitute in the same year, 1853, he was imprisoned in the jail of San Juan de Ulua because of Santa Ana. At the end, Juarez became Minister of Justice and Public Instruction county in 1855, when Juan N. Alvarez took power as internal President of Mexico.

La Reforma
When President Ignacio Commonfort resigned in 1858, Juarez became president. Mexico had a new constitution, with liberal reforms and less power for the Catholic Church. Juarez led the liberals in the resulting Reform War in 1858-1860. He fought against the church and rich landowners. People didn't have to go to church to get married.  Also cemeteries were owned by the government, meaning that people who were not Catholic could bury the person.

When the French Emperor Napoleon III supported a new Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico, President Juarez led the resistance, In 1871 he decided to run for re-election, which caused many of his supporters to turn against him.

1806 births
1872 deaths
Mexican academics
Deputy mayors
Judges
People from Oaxaca
Presidents of Mexico

Benito Juárez


Khushtar Girami (1902–1988) (Urdu: خوشتر گرامی, Hindi: खुश्तर गिरामी) born Ram Rakha Mal Chadda, was a renowned Urdu writer and poet. He is more remembered as the editor of the then India's leading Urdu Monthly Biswin Sadi which he also owned. He started publication of this magazine from Lahore in 1937, and later shifted to Delhi. He is credited with having introduced numerous budding Urdu and Hindi poets, short-story writers, novelists, essayists and literary critics. All renowned Urdu poets and writers were proud regular contributors to Biswin Sadi. His service to Urdu language is unforgettable. In 1977 he sold this magazine to Rehman Nayyar, the erstwhile owner and editor of Ruby, to lead a retired life. His book titled Sihat aur Zindagi published by Book Home in 1980 (reprinted in 2005), is a popular book on this subject.

Khushtar Girami is survived by 2 sons Krishan Kumar Chadda and Vijay Chadda both based in New Delhi. And a daughter Kamal Sabharwal based in California.

References

Urdu-language poets from India
Hindu poets
1902 births
1988 deaths
20th-century Indian poets

Khushtar Girami


The dollar or peso sign ($) is a symbol that is for either the peso or dollar.  These are types of money around the world. Sometimes it is an S with one line through it.  Sometimes it is an S with two lines through it.  When there are two lines it is called a cifrão.  There are many stories about why this symbol is used to mean money.

Currency symbols

Dollar sign


Sir Richard Southey  (25 April 1808 – 22 July 1901) was a British colonial administrator, cabinet minister and landowner in South Africa.

Early life
Southey was the son of 1820 Settlers leader George Southey of Culmstock, Devon, and later of Bloemhof Farm, Albany. He voyaged to South Africa with his family aboard the Kennersley Castle in 1820. The family were the cadet branch of a family of Devonshire gentry and were cousins to Poet Laureate Robert Southey.

Career

Southey began his career as an officer during the Frontier Wars of the Eastern Cape. He was a lieutenant in the Albany Mounted Sharpshooters and Captain of the Corps of Guides.

It was during this conflict, in May 1835, that the Xhosa paramount chief Hintsa was shot in the head by Richard Southey's brother, George. Hintsa had been taken captive by Governor Harry Smith, during peace talks, and was being guarded by Southey's Corps of Guides when he was killed while trying to escape. He was shot in the back of the head by George Southey after asking for mercy. His body was partially dismembered for trophies afterwards, by two of the Southey brothers – George and William – among others.

Richard Southey worked particularly closely with Sir Harry Smith during this time, and later became his Secretary in Natal. He went on to fill two of the highest offices in the colonial government; firstly as Treasurer (1861–1864) and later as Colonial Secretary (1864–1872), replacing his moderate colleague Rawson W. Rawson.

Colonial Secretary (1864–1872)

As Colonial Secretary, he consistently and strongly opposed the growing movement for "Responsible Government" (local democracy) in the Cape, that was led by his fiercest political enemy, John Molteno. He was also noted for his expansionist politics regarding the Cape's neighbouring states. He firmly believed in bringing all southern African states – especially the remaining indigenous African states – under British imperial rule. This strategy, together with his "native policy" was heavily criticised by the local Cape Parliament of the time, which was dominated by liberal politicians such as Saul Solomon.

In 1872, the Cape finally attained responsible government and Southey was then discreetly retired from the post of Colonial Secretary. In a highly unexpected move, Molteno, his victorious enemy, approached him together with the Governor and offered him the post of Prime Minister for the new country.
A surprised Southey refused to have any involvement with the movement he had fought for so many years.

Lieutenant-Governor of Griqualand-West (1873–1875)
The neighbouring state of Griqualand West had recently come under British Imperial control as a separate colony, to the north of the Cape Colony. In 1873, Southey moved there and was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Griqualand-West, where he had previously found one of the first diamonds in South Africa, on a witch doctor. He had laid it on a table before the Cape Parliament and declared "Gentlemen, this is the rock on which the future success of South Africa will be built".

He had previously also done a great deal of work in settling the boundaries and land ownership claims in Griqualand-West. In 1871, soon after the diamond discovery, the land was being claimed by the local Griqua people (represented by their agent David Arnot), by the Orange Free State, by the British, and even by migrant diggers who had staged a revolt. Southey had engineered the eventual British takeover, persuading Chief Waterboer to accept British protection, according to the discovery of the dubious Charles Warren Report, commission and Land Claims court, by Claudine Fourie-Grosvenor in 2004 & 8. Griualand-West itself was annexed to the Cape soon afterwards, ironically thereby gaining Responsible Government, which Southey was so firmly against.

In Griqualand, as in the Cape Colony, he was a firm proponent of British imperial expansion and favoured British annexation of the neighbouring Tswana states. (This controversial annexation of "Bechuanaland" was eventually carried out, but only a decade after Southey had left Griqualand.)

Eastern Cape Opposition (1876–1878)
Southey's opposition to Responsible Government still had considerable support among the highly reactionary British settler population of the Eastern Cape. They were predominantly supportive of more direct British rule, and of annexation of the neighbouring Xhosa land of the Transkei, so when Southey returned to the Eastern Cape, he was soon elected to the Cape Parliament as the member for Grahamstown. In this capacity, he joined fellow easterners John Paterson and Gordon Sprigg, as the opposition to the Cape's ruling government.

Southey's career finally ended in 1878, when Britain suspended the elected Cape Government, and assumed direct control of the Colony.

Later life and family
His residence in Cape Town was Southfield House in Plumstead, where he died in 1901.

His first wife was Isabella Shaw (1810–1869). After her death he married Susan Krynauw (1842–1890) who became Lady Southey. He had two daughters and eight sons, including Richard Southey who gained distinction as a military commander.
His niece was Lady Frost, born Frances Cordelia Powell, married to Sir John Frost.

References
 Dictionary of South African Biography

1808 births
1901 deaths
British colonial governors and administrators in Africa
Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
English emigrants to South Africa
Cape Colony army officers
Members of the House of Assembly of the Cape Colony

Richard Southey (colonial administrator)


Styrene is an organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5CH=CH2. Its structure consists of a vinyl group as substituent on benzene. Styrene a colorless, oily liquid, although aged samples can appear yellowish. The compound evaporates easily and has a sweet smell, although high concentrations have a less pleasant odor. Styrene is the precursor to polystyrene and several copolymers, and is typically made from benzene for this purpose. Approximately 25 million tonnes of styrene were produced in 2010, increasing to around 35 million tonnes by 2018.

Natural occurrence
Styrene is named after storax balsam (often commercially sold as styrax), the resin of Liquidambar trees of the Altingiaceae plant family. Styrene occurs naturally in small quantities in some plants and foods (cinnamon, coffee beans, balsam trees and peanuts) and is also found in coal tar.

History
In 1839, the German apothecary Eduard Simon isolated a volatile liquid from the resin (called storax or styrax (Latin)) of the American sweetgum tree (Liquidambar styraciflua). He called the liquid "styrol" (now called styrene). He also noticed that when styrol was exposed to air, light, or heat, it gradually transformed into a hard, rubber-like substance, which he called "styrol oxide".

By 1845, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann and his student John Buddle Blyth had determined styrene's empirical formula: C8H8. They had also determined that Simon's "styrol oxide" – which they renamed "metastyrol" – had the same empirical formula as styrene. Furthermore, they could obtain styrene by dry-distilling "metastyrol".

In 1865, the German chemist Emil Erlenmeyer found that styrene could form a dimer, and in 1866 the French chemist Marcelin Berthelot stated that "metastyrol" was a polymer of styrene (i.e. polystyrene). Meanwhile, other chemists had been investigating another component of storax, namely, cinnamic acid. They had found that cinnamic acid could be decarboxylated to form "cinnamene" (or "cinnamol"), which appeared to be styrene.

In 1845, French chemist Emil Kopp suggested that the two compounds were identical, and in 1866, Erlenmeyer suggested that both "cinnamol" and styrene might be vinylbenzene. However, the styrene that was obtained from cinnamic acid seemed different from the styrene that was obtained by distilling storax resin:  the latter was optically active. Eventually, in 1876, the Dutch chemist van 't Hoff resolved the ambiguity:  the optical activity of the styrene that was obtained by distilling storax resin was due to a contaminant.

Industrial production

From ethylbenzene
The vast majority of styrene is produced from ethylbenzene, and almost all ethylbenzene produced worldwide is intended for styrene production. As such, the two production processes are often highly integrated. Ethylbenzene is produced via a Friedel–Crafts reaction between benzene and ethene; originally this used aluminum chloride as a catalyst, but in modern production this has been replaced by zeolites.

By dehydrogenation
Around 80% of styrene is produced by the dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene. This is achieved using superheated steam (up to 600 °C) over an iron(III) oxide catalyst. The reaction is highly endothermic and reversible, with a typical yield of 88–94%.

The crude ethylbenzene/styrene product is then purified by distillation. As the difference in boiling points between the two compounds is only 9 °C at ambient pressure this necessitates the use of a series of distillation columns. This is energy intensive and is further complicated by the tendency of styrene to undergo thermally induced polymerisation into polystyrene, requiring the continuous addition of polymerization inhibitor to the system.

Via ethylbenzene hydroperoxide
Styrene is also co-produced commercially in a process known as POSM (Lyondell Chemical Company) or SM/PO (Shell) for styrene monomer / propylene oxide. In this process, ethylbenzene is treated with oxygen to form the ethylbenzene hydroperoxide. This hydroperoxide is then used to oxidize propylene to propylene oxide, which is also recovered as a co-product. The remaining 1-phenylethanol is dehydrated to give styrene:

Other industrial routes

Pyrolysis gasoline extraction
Extraction from pyrolysis gasoline is performed on a limited scale.

From toluene and methanol
Styrene can be produced from toluene and methanol, which are cheaper raw materials than those in the conventional process. This process has suffered from low selectivity associated with the competing decomposition of methanol. Exelus Inc. claims to have developed this process with commercially viable selectivities, at 400–425 °C and atmospheric pressure, by forcing these components through a proprietary zeolitic catalyst. It is reported that an approximately 9:1 mixture of styrene and ethylbenzene is obtained, with a total styrene yield of over 60%.

From benzene and ethane
Another route to styrene involves the reaction of benzene and ethane. This process is being developed by Snamprogetti and Dow. Ethane, along with ethylbenzene, is fed to a dehydrogenation reactor with a catalyst capable of simultaneously producing styrene and ethylene. The dehydrogenation effluent is cooled and separated and the ethylene stream is recycled to the alkylation unit. The process attempts to overcome previous shortcomings in earlier attempts to develop production of styrene from ethane and benzene, such as inefficient recovery of aromatics, production of high levels of heavies and tars, and inefficient separation of hydrogen and ethane. Development of the process is ongoing.

Laboratory synthesis
A laboratory synthesis of styrene entails the decarboxylation of cinnamic acid:
C6H5CH=CHCO2H → C6H5CH=CH2 + CO2

Styrene was first prepared by this method.

Polymerization
The presence of the vinyl group allows styrene to polymerize. Commercially significant products include polystyrene, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), styrene-butadiene (SBR) rubber, styrene-butadiene latex, SIS (styrene-isoprene-styrene), S-EB-S (styrene-ethylene/butylene-styrene), styrene-divinylbenzene (S-DVB), styrene-acrylonitrile resin (SAN), and unsaturated polyesters used in resins and thermosetting compounds.  These materials are used in rubber, plastic, insulation, fiberglass, pipes, automobile and boat parts, food containers, and carpet backing.

Hazards

Autopolymerisation
As a liquid or a gas, pure styrene will polymerise spontaneously to polystyrene, without the need of external initiators. This is known as autopolymerisation. At 100 °C it will autopolymerise at a rate of ~2% per hour, and more rapidly than this at higher temperatures. As the autopolymerisation reaction is exothermic it can be self-accelerating, with a real risk of a thermal runaway, potentially leading to an explosion. Examples include the 2019 explosion of the tanker Stolt Groenland, explosions at the Phillips Petroleum Company in 1999 and 2000 and overheating styrene tanks leading to the 2020 Visakhapatnam gas leak, which killed several people. The autopolymerisation reaction can only be kept in check by the continuous addition of polymerisation inhibitors.

Health effects
Styrene is regarded as a "known carcinogen", especially in case of eye contact, but also in case of skin contact, of ingestion and of inhalation, according to several sources. Styrene is largely metabolized into styrene oxide in humans, resulting from oxidation by cytochrome P450. Styrene oxide is considered toxic, mutagenic, and possibly carcinogenic. Styrene oxide is subsequently hydrolyzed in vivo to styrene glycol by the enzyme epoxide hydrolase. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has described styrene to be "a suspected toxin to the gastrointestinal tract, kidney, and respiratory system, among others".

On 10 June 2011, the US National Toxicology Program has described styrene as "reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen". However, a STATS author describes a review that was done on scientific literature and concluded that "The available epidemiologic evidence does not support a causal relationship between styrene exposure and any type of human cancer". Despite this claim, work has been done by Danish researchers to investigate the relationship between occupational exposure to styrene and cancer. They concluded, "The findings have to be interpreted with caution, due to the company based exposure assessment, but the possible association between exposures in the reinforced plastics industry, mainly styrene, and degenerative disorders of the nervous system and pancreatic cancer, deserves attention". In 2012, the Danish EPA concluded that the styrene data do not support a cancer concern for styrene. The US EPA does not have a cancer classification for styrene, but it has been the subject of their Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) program.

The National Toxicology Program of the US Department of Health and Human Services has determined that styrene is "reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen". Various regulatory bodies refer to styrene, in various contexts, as a possible or potential human carcinogen. The International Agency for Research on Cancer considers styrene to be "probably carcinogenic to humans".

The neurotoxic properties of styrene have also been studied and reported effects include effects on vision (although unable to reproduce in a subsequent study) and on hearing functions. Studies on rats have yielded contradictory results, but epidemiologic studies have observed a synergistic interaction with noise in causing hearing difficulties.

References

External links
American Industrial Hygiene Association, The Ear Poisons, The Synergist, November 2018.
CDC – Styrene – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic
Safety and Health Topics | Styrene (OSHA)
Nordic Expert Group, Occupational Exposure to Chemicals and Hearing Impairment, 2010.

Hazardous air pollutants
Monomers
Vinylbenzenes
C2-Benzenes
Commodity chemicals
Phenyl compounds
Occupational safety and health
IARC Group 2A carcinogens
Sweet-smelling chemicals

Styrene


The Brentford Trilogy is a series of eleven novels by writer Robert Rankin. They humorously chronicle the lives of a couple of drunken middle-aged layabouts, Jim Pooley and John Omally, who confront the forces of darkness in the environs of West London, usually with the assistance of large quantities of beer from their favourite public house, The Flying Swan.

Novels

The novels in this series are as follows:

 The Antipope (1981) – Pooley and Omally take on the resurrected Pope Alexander VI, the last Borgia pope.
 The Brentford Triangle (1982) – Pooley and Omally thwart an alien invasion of Earth when the natives of Ceres (the fifth planet in the solar system before it exploded and became the asteroid belt) come back to the system and seek a new home.
 East of Ealing (1984) – Pooley and Omally are forced to deal with a high-tech Satanic takeover of Earth by way of barcoding the entire population, aided by a temporally-relocated version of Sherlock Holmes.
 The Sprouts of Wrath (1988) – the unlikely decision to site the next Olympic Games in Brentford threatens to disrupt Pooley and Omally's way of life, as the evil Kaleton threatens to turn the stadium into a monster to destroy humanity.
 The Brentford Chainstore Massacre (1997) – as the millennium comes early for Brentford, Dr. Steven Malone finds a way to clone Jesus from the Turin Shroud, as chief executive of the millennium committee called Fred (who sold his soul to the devil for ultimate power) attempts to force Pooley into sabotaging a ceremony that will give his Master power over all the world.
Sex and Drugs and Sausage Rolls (2000) – Omally manages a rock group, the lead singer of whom has the power to heal the sick. This book also sees the return of Soap Distant and Small Dave. In this book, Pooley suffers a brutal, but not long-term death.
Knees Up Mother Earth (2004) – there's big trouble in little Brentford. Property developers are planning to destroy Griffin Park, the borough's beloved football ground, intending to dig up the creature buried underneath it – namely, the serpent that tempted Eve in the Garden of Eden; the source of original sin. As well as being the seventh book in The Brentford Trilogy, it is also the second book in The Witches of Chiswick Trilogy.
The Brightonomicon (2005) – Hugo Rune and his amnesiac assistant Rizla work to stop Count Otto Black from finding the Chronovision.  Unlike the other novels in the series, it is set in Brighton and Omally only makes an appearance in the final chapter. It is revealed that Rizla on this occasion  (Rune's many acolytes are always called Rizla), is actually Pooley.
Retromancer (2009) – the sequel to The Brightonomicon again pairs the young Jim Pooley with Hugo Rune in another series of adventures only set partially in Brentford. This book also forms a prequel to The Antipope. Set in a dystopia, history has been changed: Germany won World War II, America is a nuclear wasteland, and Jim Pooley and Hugo Rune must set it right.
The Lord of the Ring Roads (2017) – the first of the last Brentford Trilogy.
The Chronicles of Banarnia (2019) - second and concluding part of the final Brentford trilogy. Or not.

Several of Rankin's other novels feature Pooley and Omally, but are not part of The Brentford Trilogy:
They Came And Ate Us (Armageddon II: The B-Movie) (1991) – Pooley and Omally make a brief appearance as one of a number of "trick endings".
The Most Amazing Man Who Ever Lived (1995) – Pooley and Omally make a brief appearance, offering their help to Tuppe as he plans to free the book's lead character, Cornelius Murphy, from prison. Before they can put their plan into action Cornelius reveals he has already escaped without their help.
Nostradamus Ate My Hamster (1996) – a movie prop-house worker finds a way to put old stars back on the silver screen. Over the course of the book, he learns of the legends of Pooley and Omally and sets out in search of The Flying Swan, culminating in a desperate race to stop the return of Adolf Hitler.
Web Site Story (2002) – set in the year 2022, Pooley and Omally have long since passed into the myths and legends of Brentford lore. As people start vanishing into thin air in Brentford, the staff of the Brentford Mercury investigate.

Although the books theoretically form a series, actually there is little continuity between volumes. World-changing events that take place in one book are usually ignored in following volumes, and it is very rare for the events of a previous book to be referred to.
For example, the character of shopkeeper Norman Hartnell (not to be confused with the fashion designer of the same name) is abandoned by his wife yet is inexplicably reunited with her in later books. Soap Distant also appears in later books as a Brentford resident despite being declared dead, becoming an albino and dwelling beneath the earth.

Recurring characters
John Vincent Omally and Jim Pooley – an Irishman living in Brentford and his best friend. The 'heroes' of the series.
Neville – the part-time barman (who is actually full-time since nobody knows where the real one is) who holds down the Flying Swan in Brentford.
Norman Hartnell – Brentford shopkeeper and inventor of various bizarre gadgets, including a means of transporting the Great Pyramid from Egypt to Brentford. Not to be confused with the other Norman Hartnell.
Old Pete and Chips – Old Pete (Age unconfirmed, although he seems to be over a hundred) always appears in the Flying Swan, and Chips is his scraggly dog.  He appears as a Victorian street urchin in The Witches of Chiswick but is known by the name 'Winston'.  In Knees Up Mother Earth he accompanied H.G Wells to the 20th century where his older self tells him to buy shares in the Ford Motor Company.
Professor Slocombe – aged, wise magician who often supplies much of the exposition about the various enemies present in the series (He was apparently Merlin in the distant past). Is once described as bearing a resemblance to Peter Cushing. Has a butler named Gammon.
Marchant – John Omally's bicycle, whose anthropomorphic qualities may be a reference to Flann O'Brien's novel The Third Policeman.
Soap Distant – Last of a long line of Distants who have spent their lives searching for the denizens of the inner Earth. Soap is an ordinary man when first seen but returns as a cowled and robed albino after five years 'below'.
Small Dave – Brentford's dwarf postman, known to all as a 'vindictive, grudge-bearing wee bastard'. Raised the ghost of Edgar Allan Poe.
Hugo Artemis Solon Saturnicus Reginald Arthur Rune – mystic, charlatan and confidence trickster and self declared 'most amazing man who ever lived' (was also apparently Merlin in a previous time, See Retromancer). Has an acolyte named Rizla.
Hairy Dave & Jungle John – these two brothers are local jobbing builders who are known for their wild coiffure.
Archroy – former worker at the rubber factory who became a globe trotting master of the martial arts.
Jennifer Naylor – Brentford's sexy lady librarian, later elevated to the town council.
Young Master Robert – the brewery owner's son, and the bane of Neville's existence.
Leo Felix – Rastafarian who drives a tow truck.

References

External links
Sprout Lore Fan club

Book series introduced in 1981
Brentford, London
Literary trilogies
Series of books
Novels set in London

The Brentford Trilogy


David Lake (1943 – October 5, 2009) was a Washington winemaker and Master of Wine.  Born in England to Canadian parents, Lake started in the wine industry working for a British wholesaler. In 1975 he earned his Master of Wine certification before traveling to the United States to enroll into the enology program of University of California-Davis. In 1978 he accepted a position of enologist with the Washington winery Associated Vintners (later renamed Columbia Winery) where he soon rose to the position of chief winemaker. Among Lake's accomplishments was releasing Washington's first single vineyard designated wines and making the states first Cabernet franc, Syrah and Pinot gris wines. He was the first US winemaker to hold a Master of Wine accreditation.

Career
After working in the British wholesale wine industry, David Lake earned his Master of Wine accreditation in 1975. He moved to the west coast of the United States where he enrolled in the enology program at the University of California, Davis. Upon completion of his studies, Lake spent a brief time in the Dundee Hills AVA of Oregon working for Eyrie Vineyards under winemaker David Lett. He also worked briefly in the Eola-Amity Hills AVA for Bethel Heights Vineyard and Amity Vineyards. From there he joined the Woodinville-based winery of Associated Vintners (soon to be known as Columbia Winery). In the early 1980s, Lake pioneered the practice of producing vineyard designated wines when he released Cabernet Sauvignon from the Yakima Valley vineyards of Otis, Red Willow and Sagemoor. Working with Mike Sauer, owner and lead viticulturalist of the Red Willow Vineyard, Lake encouraged the plantings of the first Syrah vines in Washington. Noting similarities between the Red Willow vineyard and the La Chapelle vineyard of the Hermitage AOC in Rhone, Lake arranged for Syrah cuttings to be imported into the state and produced Washington's first Syrah in 1988. By 2009, Syrah would grow to be the third most widely planted red wine grape variety in Washington State.

Through his career, David Lake would promote or pioneer Washington production of a wide range of grape varieties including Merlot, Viognier, Pinot gris and Cabernet franc. Among his many accomplishments, he was the first in Washington to blend Merlot and Cabernet Franc in a style similar to the Right bank of Bordeaux. David Lake's winemaking style was often described by wine experts, such as writer Paul Gregutt, as "European"-producing wines with moderate oak influence and alcohol levels.

Illness and death
Following the 2005 vintage, David Lake began to experience a variety of health problems, including back issues that required surgery, that prompted his retirement from Columbia Winery. After battles with heart disease and cancer, Lake collapsed in his Issaquah, Washington home on October 5, 2009 and died hours later.

References

Masters of Wine
American winemakers
Washington (state) wine
University of California, Davis alumni
1943 births
2009 deaths
People from Issaquah, Washington

David Lake (winemaker)


First-class cricket is the highest-standard international/domestic matches in cricket.

Definition
A first-class match is one of three or more days' scheduled duration between two sides of eleven players each. It is officially adjudged to be worthy of the status by virtue of the standard of the competing teams. Matches must allow for the teams to play two innings each, although in practice a team might play only one innings or none at all.

First-class cricket, along with historical single-wicket and modern limited-overs forms, is one of the highest-standard forms of cricket. The etymology of "first-class cricket" is unknown, but it was used loosely before it acquired official status in 1895, following a meeting of leading English clubs. At a meeting of the Imperial Cricket Conference (ICC) in 1947, it was formally defined on a global basis. A significant omission of the ICC ruling was any attempt to define first-class cricket retrospectively. That has left historians, and especially statisticians, with the problem of how to categorise earlier matches, especially those played in Great Britain before 1895. The solution put forward by the Association of Cricket Statisticians and Historians (ACS) is to classify all pre-1895 matches of a high standard as important matches.

Test cricket
Test cricket is the highest standard of cricket. It is a form of first-class cricket. Although the term "first-class" is mainly used to refer to domestic competitions. A player's first-class statistics include any performances in Test matches.

Bibliography

 Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, 27th edition, editor Charles F. Pardon, John Wisden & Co., 1890
 Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, 32nd edition, editor Sydney Pardon, John Wisden & Co., 1895
 Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, 85th edition, editor Hubert Preston, Sporting Handbooks Ltd, 1948

Cricket

First-class cricket


Muzaffar Adeeb (1926 – 26 May 2006), known mononymously as Adeeb, was a Pakistani film actor. He appeared in 38 Indian films from 1940 to 1962, although he did not start performing in films very actively until the 1950s. In 1962, he shifted from Bombay (now Mumbai), India, to Lahore, Pakistan and resumed his film career that lasted until his death with over 500 films to his credit.

Early life and career
He was born in Bombay in a conservative Pakhtun (Pathan) family from Kashmir. His family moved on to Bombay before independence of Pakistan in 1947 and that is where the actor in him emerged, after the completion of his Master's Degree in Urdu literature from Bombay University, Maharashtra. Unlike his contemporaries, scriptwriting was the first love of Adeeb, who worked in the scriptwriting department with Raj Kapoor's father, Prithvi Raj Kapoor, in Prithvi Theatre and later with Indian National Theatre as assistant director. It is during this time in India that he got to know the basics of acting which later helped him entertain 2 generations of audience.

Although he worked in minor roles in his initial career, it was Zia Sarhadi's Footpath (1953) that gave him his first breakthrough role opposite Dilip Kumar, Meena Kumari and Anwar Hussain (Nargis's brother). He worked in 30 films during his stay in India including Mehndi, Pak Daman (1956) and Jung, before migrating to Pakistan in 1962, on the insistence of director Akbar Ali Akku and actor/director Iqbal Yusuf, son of Adeeb's close friend, director S.M. Yusuf. He settled in Karachi and later moved on to Lahore in search of roles which kept pouring in from the 1960s until his last film – Syed Noor's super-hit Majajan (2006).

In an era when on-screen villainy in Pakistani films was ruled by good looking villains such as Aslam Pervaiz, Masood Akhtar and even Mohammad Ali (in his initial films), Adeeb made his entry with Daal Mein Kala (1964), which was directed by Iqbal Yusuf and featured Syed Kamal and Bahar Begum in the lead along with late actors Nirala and Mohammad Ali.

In the coming years, he became a close friend of Mohammad Ali and the two acted in numerous successful films such as Kaneez (1965 film), Aadil (1966) and Baghi Sardar (1966), Hatim Tai (1967), Mahal (1968), Naaz (1969), Aansoo Ban Gaye Moti (1970), Dushman (1974), Shirin Farhad (1975), Haider Ali (1979), Josh, Sangram (1981), Zanjeer (1986) with Rocky Dada being their last film together in 1987.

He was at ease in both Urdu and Punjabi films, playing memorable roles in countless films opposite other actors such as Sultan Rahi in Maula Jatt (1979) and Andaata, Waheed Murad in Eid Mubarak (1965) and Kaneez, Saaz Aur Awaaz (1965), Rishta Hai Pyar Ka (1967), Aik Nagina (1969), Afsana (1970) and Dushman (1974), Syed Kamal in Daal Main Kaala (1962) and Shab Bakhair and Nadeem in Talaash (1986), Ustadon Kay Ustad (1990) and Khazana (1995). Late directors – Rangeela's Diya Aur Toofan and Riaz Shahid's Gharnata and Yeh Aman (both 1971) – gave Adeeb tailor-made roles in their films to show his true potential. He was one of the few actors to work with actor Shaan's father, Riaz Shahid, and portray the character of his on-screen father.

During his last years, he was more active on stage than in films and depicted the role of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in one of his last TV plays. In a career spanning over 50 years, Adeeb featured in more than 500 films, depicting villainous roles in different shades such as a deceiving brother, cruel father, nasty husband, dishonest friend and brutal landlord.

Personal life
Adeeb married actress Tani Begum but later they both filed for divorce citing irreconcilable differences but remained on good terms.

Death
Adeeb died on May 26, 2006, at the Punjab Institute of Cardiology, Lahore, where he was admitted after suffering a heart attack the previous week.

Filmography

See also
 List of Lollywood actors

References

External links

1934 births
2006 deaths
People from Jammu and Kashmir
Pakistani male film actors
Pashtun male actors
University of Mumbai alumni
Male actors from Lahore

Adeeb


The Indiana University Mathematics Journal is a journal of mathematics published by Indiana University. Its first volume was published in 1952, under the name Journal of Rational Mechanics and Analysis and edited by Zachery D. Paden and Clifford Truesdell. In 1957, Eberhard Hopf became editor, the journal name changed to the Journal of Mathematics and Mechanics, and Truesdell founded a separate successor journal, the Archive for Rational Mechanics and Analysis, now published by Springer-Verlag. The Journal of Mathematics and Mechanics later changed its name again to the present name.

The full text of all articles published under the various incarnations of this journal is available online from the journal's web site. The web site lists all such papers under the Indiana University Mathematics Journal name, but other bibliographies generally use the name of the journal as of the date each paper was published.

External links
 Indiana University Mathematics Journal, official site and archive
 Information about the history of the IUMJ from the USC library

Mathematics journals
Academic journals established in 1952
Indiana University

Indiana University Mathematics Journal


Hikikomori is a Japanese word that describes people who withdraw from society and spend extreme amounts of time on their own. The withdrawal usually happens slowly. Tamaki Saitō was the first person to use the word. In 1998 his book Shakaiteki hikikomori--Owaranai Shishunki was published. An English translation by Jeffrey Angles, Hikikomori: Adolescence without End, was published in 2013. The Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare defines hikikomori as people who refuse to leave their house for over six months. In 2010 there were 700,000 hikikomori. The average hikikomori was 31 years old. Tamaki Saitō thinks that there may be over 1 million hikikomori (1% of the Japanese population).

People who withdrew from society during school refusal is often referred to as futōkō (不登校).

English words with similar meanings include recluse and agoraphobic.

In popular culture
Welcome to the N.H.K., a 2002 novel by Tatsuhiko Takimoto, is about hikikomori.
The main character of the 2002 manga Rozen Maiden is a hikikomori.
The 2008 film Tokyo! has a part about a hikikomori.
On her 2011 album Conatus, American singer-songwriter Zola Jesus has a song called "Hikikomori".
The main character of the anime Anohana: The Flower We Saw That Day is a hikikomori.
In 2013 Hikikomori and the Rental Sister, a novel by Jeff Backhaus, was published. It is about an American hikikomori who has sex with a Japanese immigrant.

References

Japanese culture

Hikikomori


Northwest Airlines, Inc. (often abbreviated NWA) is a subsidiary of Delta Air Lines, Inc., and was a major United States airline. It was headquartered in Eagan, Minnesota, near Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport in the United States. Northwest had three major hubs in the United States: Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport, Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport, and Memphis International Airport. Northwest also operated flights from a small hub in Asia at Narita International Airport near Tokyo and also operated transatlantic flights in cooperation with their partner KLM from Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam. It also had focus city operations at Indianapolis International Airport and Seattle-Tacoma International Airport.

As of 2006 Northwest was the world's sixth largest airline in terms of domestic and international scheduled passenger miles flown and the U.S.'s sixth largest airline in terms of domestic passenger miles flown. In addition to operating one of the largest domestic route networks in the U.S., Northwest carries more passengers across the Pacific Ocean (5.1 million in 2004) than any other U.S. carrier, and carries more domestic air cargo than any other American passenger airline. It is the only U.S. combination carrier (passenger and cargo service) operating dedicated Boeing 747 freighters. The airline, along with its parent company, Northwest Airlines Corporation and subsidiaries, operated under Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection which, in the United States, allows continued operation during the reorganization effort, not stopping flights as in the case in some countries. Northwest emerged from bankruptcy protection on May 31, 2007.

Northwest Airlines' regional flights were operated under the name Northwest Airlink by Mesaba Airlines, Pinnacle Airlines, and Compass Airlines. Its frequent flyer program was WorldPerks. Northwest Airlines' tagline was "Now you're flying smart."

On April 14, 2008, Northwest announced it would be merging with Delta Air Lines, subject to regulatory review. The merger was officially completed on January 31, 2010.

References

Airlines of the United States
Companies based in Minnesota
1926 establishments in the United States
2010 disestablishments in the United States

Northwest Airlines


Cesare Maniago (born January 13, 1939) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender. Maniago played the majority of his National Hockey League (NHL) career for the Minnesota North Stars, for whom he stands second all-time in games played in goal.

Playing career
Originally the property of the Toronto Maple Leafs, the young goalie played seven games for the Leafs in the 1960–61 season. Picked up by the Montreal Canadiens in the inter-league draft the following season, Maniago underwent a lengthy apprenticeship in the minor leagues, spending the better part of five years on the farm. The high point of his years with Montreal was a 14-game stint in relief of the ailing Jacques Plante during the 1963 season. He had a sparkling season for the Minneapolis Bruins of the Central Hockey League in 1965, winning the league's most valuable player award, after which he was dealt to the New York Rangers. Maniago competed against Ed Giacomin and Don Simmons for the starting goal position in 1966, playing 28 games for the last place team. On March 12, 1966, in Chicago, Maniago allowed the Chicago Black Hawks' star left winger Bobby Hull's 51st goal of the season, the first time in league history that any player had scored more than 50 goals in one year. After the game, Maniago insisted that Chicago's crafty forward Eric Nesterenko had interfered with him during the play: "Nesterenko lifted the blade of my stick, and the puck went under it." Giacomin firmly won the job the next season as the much-improved Rangers made the playoffs, and Maniago played in just six games as his backup.

Minnesota
With expansion arriving the next season, Maniago had his opportunity. He was the first draft choice of the expansion Minnesota North Stars, immediately becoming their number one goaltender, a job he kept for the next nine seasons. Maniago's play led the North Stars into the playoffs five of their first six seasons. One of his best years was his first with the team, where he had career highs in wins and shutouts while leading underdog Minnesota into the 1967-68 West Division semi-finals. The North Stars struggled the next season, finishing in last place and missing the playoffs.

Unable to find a suitable goalie to help Maniago with the workload (the other goalies the team tried went a combined 11-35-16 in Minnesota's first three seasons) the North Stars obtained Gump Worsley's rights  from the Canadiens, talking him out of retirement in 1970. The late-season addition rejuvenated the struggling team, who finished strongly, ending up in third place. Over the next three seasons the tandem led the North Stars into the playoffs, including an appearance against Montreal in the 1971 semifinals. In this series, Minnesota was the first expansion team to defeat an Original Six team in a playoff game, beating the Canadiens twice.

Starting in 1974, the fortunes of the Minnesota club sagged and Maniago's play suffered as well. After that season Worsley retired, leaving Maniago as the sole experienced goalie on the struggling team. After the 1976 season, he was traded to the Vancouver Canucks, for whom he played his two final seasons.

Legacy
Maniago retired with 190 wins in 568 games, recording 30 shutouts and a career 3.27 goals against average, leading Minnesota goaltenders in every meaningful statistical category. At the time of his retirement, he was in the top 25 in NHL history in shutouts, fifth in all-time losses and twelfth in all-time games played.

After his retirement, Maniago served several seasons as the Canucks' goaltender coach.

Maniago remains second in all-time games played and minutes played in net for the Minnesota/Dallas franchise behind Marty Turco, and is third in wins and shutouts to Ed Belfour and Turco.

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

References

External links

1939 births
Living people
Baltimore Clippers players
Canadian sportspeople of Italian descent
Canadian ice hockey goaltenders
Minnesota North Stars players
Montreal Canadiens players
New York Rangers players
Quebec Aces (AHL) players
Spokane Comets players
Ice hockey people from Trail, British Columbia
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Toronto St. Michael's Majors players
Vancouver Canucks players

Cesare Maniago


Heinz Robert Holliger (born 21 May 1939) is a Swiss virtuoso oboist, composer and conductor. Celebrated for his versatility and technique, Holliger is among the most prominent oboists of his generation. His repertoire includes Baroque and Classical pieces, but he has regularly engaged in lesser known pieces of Romantic music, as well as his own compositions. He often performed contemporary works with his wife, the harpist Ursula Holliger; composers such as Berio, Carter, Henze, Krenek, Lutosławski, Martin, Penderecki, Stockhausen and Yun have written works for him. Holliger is a noted composer himself, writing works such as the opera Schneewittchen (1998).

Biography
Holliger was born in Langenthal, Switzerland. He began playing the oboe at age eleven, and studied at the conservatory of Bern before taking first prize for oboe in the Geneva International Music Competition in 1959. He studied composition with Sándor Veress and Pierre Boulez.

He has become one of the world's most celebrated oboists, and many composers, Luciano Berio, Elliott Carter, Hans Werner Henze, Ernst Krenek, Witold Lutosławski, Frank Martin, Krzysztof Penderecki, Henri Pousseur, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Sándor Veress and Isang Yun have written works for him. He began teaching at the Hochschule für Musik Freiburg, Germany in 1966.

In 1972 Holliger, Maurice Bourgue (oboe), Klaus Thunemann (bassoon), and Christiane Jaccottet (continuo) et al. recorded the Six Trio Sonatas for Oboe and Bassoon by Jan Dismas Zelenka. This recording is credited for the "Zelenka Renaissance".

Holliger has also composed many works in a variety of media. Many of his works have been recorded for the ECM label.

Invited by Walter Fink, he was the 17th composer featured in the annual Komponistenporträt of the Rheingau Musik Festival in 2007 in chamber music and a symphonic concert that he conducted himself, including works of Claude Debussy and Robert Schumann along with his Lieder after Georg Trakl and Gesänge der Frühe on words of Schumann and Friedrich Hölderlin.

On the occasion of Paul Sacher's 70th birthday, Holliger was one of twelve composer-friends of his who were asked by Russian cellist Mstislav Rostropovich to write compositions for cello solo using his name spelt out in German names for musical notes on the theme (eS, A, C, H, E, Re); Holliger contributed a Chaconne for Violoncello Solo. The compositions were partially presented in Zurich on 2 May 1976. The whole "eSACHERe" project was (for the first time in complete performance) performed by Czech cellist František Brikcius in May 2011 in Prague.

Heinz Holliger was married to the harpist Ursula Holliger née Hänggi (1937–2014) until her death on 21 January 2014.

Awards
 1987: Léonie Sonning Music Prize (Denmark)
 1991: Ernst von Siemens Music Prize
 2007: Zürich Festival Prize
 2008: Rheingau Musikpreis
 2016: Honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 2017: Robert Schumann Prize of the City of Zwickau
 2018: Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts

Selected works
 Sequenzen über Johannes I,32 (1962) for harp
 Siebengesang (1966–1967) for solo oboe, orchestra, voices and loudspeaker
 String Quartet (1973)
 Scardanelli-Zyklus (1975–1991) for solo flute, small orchestra, tape and mixed choir
 Come and Go / Va et vient / Kommen und Gehen (1976/1977), opera to a text by Samuel Beckett
 Not I (1978–1980) monodrama for soprano and tape
 Studie über Mehrklänge (1979) for oboe solo
 Lieder ohne Worte (1982–1994), two sets of works for violin and piano
 Präludium, Arioso and Passacaglia, for two guitars (1985)
 Gesänge der Frühe for choir, orchestra and tape, after Schumann and Hölderlin (1987)
 What Where (1988), chamber opera
 Alb-Chehr (1991) for speaker, singers and chamber ensemble
 Fünf Lieder für Altstimme und großes Orchester nach Gedichten von Georg Trakl (1992–2006)
 Violin Concerto "Hommage à Louis Soutter" (1993–1995)
 Schneewittchen (1998), opera based on a text by Robert Walser
 Puneigä, ten songs with twelve players after Anna Maria Bacher's poems (2000/02)
 Ma'mounia for percussion solo and instrumental quintet (2002)
 Romancendres for cello and piano (2003)
 Induuchlen, four songs for counter-tenor and horn, for Klaus Huber (2004)
 Toronto-Exercises for flute (also alto flute), clarinet, violin, harp and marimbaphone (2005)
Lunea (2018), opera based on texts by Nikolaus Lenau

Discography
 Jan Dismas Zelenka: Trio Sonatas (ECM, 1997)
 Sándor Veress: Passacaglia / Songs / Musica Concertante (ECM, 2000)
 Beiseit / Alb-Chehr (ECM, 2000)
 Lauds and Lamentations (ECM, 2003)

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

 Heinz Holliger Schott Music
 Heinz Holliger ECM Records

 Heinz Holliger on 1969 tour of Southern Africa, organised by Hans Adler
 Holliger Heinz (1939) Cdmc website
 Profile, Colbert Artists Management
Sound recordings of works of the composer from the archives of SRG SSR on Neo.Mx3

1939 births
Living people
People from Oberaargau District
20th-century classical composers
Swiss opera composers
Male opera composers
Swiss classical oboists
Male oboists
Swiss classical composers
Swiss conductors (music)
Male conductors (music)
Contemporary classical music performers
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
People from Langenthal
Academic staff of the Hochschule für Musik Freiburg
Members of the Academy of Arts, Berlin
Recipients of the Léonie Sonning Music Prize
Swiss male classical composers
Ernst von Siemens Music Prize winners
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
20th-century conductors (music)
21st-century conductors (music)
20th-century male musicians
21st-century male musicians
20th-century Swiss composers

Heinz Holliger


Muni is a 2007 Tamil horror comedy film written and directed by Raghava Lawrence who also plays the lead role. Vedhicka, Rajkiran, Kovai Sarala and Rahul Dev played supporting roles in the film.The film released on 9 March 2007 along with a Telugu dubbed version of same name. This film gained average reviews and average box office collections. This movie is the 1000th movie of actor Vinu Chakravarthy..

Story
The story revolves around Ganesh (Raghava Lawrence)who has fear of ghost and his family in a haunted house. Ganesh always fears to move out of the house after 6pm due to his fear. Unknowingly his father(Vinu Chakravarthy) buys a house where Muni, a person was murdered long ago. His ghost was also moving around the house. Muni enters Ganesh's body and Ganesh starts behaving in a rude manner, his family could not understand why his behavior is weird so they seek the help of a priest (Nassar). Priest asks the ghost about his own flashback. The ghost says that he is Muniyaandi (Rajkiran) and starts saying his flashback.

Muniyaandi was a kind-hearted poor man living in the slums with his daughter and other people. Muni's friend is Marakka Dhandapani MLA (Kadhal Dhandapani) uses him to win in elections. The MLA promises that he would give lands to the poor villagers. Dhandapani wins the election but he cheats Muni and the villagers. Muni fights with Dhandapaani but he kills both him and his daughter. Dhandapani lies to the villagers saying that Muni and his daughter had moved with the money he had given him for the welfare of the villagers.

Ganesh with ghost in him, enters Dhandapani's household and scare him and his assistants. Dhandapaani comes to know that the ghost of Muni is inside Ganesh's body so he gets a shaman (meaning:healer) (Rahul Dev) to save his life. Muni agrees to leave Dhandapani if he tells the true to the villagers and give them the money. He tells the true and gives the money. But Dhandapani was planning to get back all his money from the villagers. Ganesh upon hearing this kills Dhandapaani, but acts like as Muni's ghost killed him. The shaman knewing that Ganesh killed him and not the ghost, didn't tell the truth seeing the injustice made by Dhandapani.

Box office
The film earned (grossed) around Rs. 15 crore worldwide and became a commercial success.

Muni series
Success of this film led to a horror comedy film series by Raghava Lawrence. He made two more films from this series named Muni2: Kanchana and Muni3: Kanchana 2. These became a present trendsetter in the Tamil cinema. These two film are also commercially successful and became mass hit films.

References

Tamil-language movies
2000s Indian movies
2007 horror movies
2007 comedy movies
Movies about elections

Muni (movie)


The pawn (♙♟) is the weakest piece in the game of chess. They represent infantry. Each player starts the game with eight pawns, one on each square of the second row (or rank) from the view of the player. In the white pawns start on a2, b2, c2, ..., h2, while the black pawns start on a7, b7, c7, ..., h7.

Moving
Pawns move differently than other pieces. Unlike all the other pieces, pawns cannot move backwards. Most of the time, a pawn moves by going up a single square, but the first time each pawn is moved from its starting place, it can go forward two squares. Pawns cannot use the first two-square move to jump over a square with another piece on it or to capture.  Any piece in front of a pawn, white or black, stops its moving. If a pawn touches the other side it is exchanged by either a queen, a rook, a bishop or a knight.

Capturing

The white pawn at e4 can capture either the black rook at d5 or the black knight at f5, but not the bishop at e5, which blocks its straight way forward. Unlike other pieces, the pawn does not capture in the same way as it moves. A pawn captures diagonally, one square forward and to the left or right. In the diagram to the left, the white pawn can capture either the black rook or the black knight.

En passant
An even more unusual move is the en passant capture.

En passant happens when a pawn uses its first-move option to move two squares forward instead of one. If it passes over a square guarded by an enemy pawn, that pawn can take the first pawn "in passing" as if the first pawn had moved forward only one square. The taking pawn moves into the empty square over which the first pawn moved. The first pawn is removed from the board. To capture en passant can only be done on the move right after the double-square pawn advance. Otherwise the chance is lost.

The en passant move was added in late fifteenth-century Europe, to make up for the then newly added two-square first move rule. We have no record of why the rule was added, but it is easy to see that it works to prevent the position becoming blocked and uninteresting.

Promotion
Once a pawn reaches the other side of the board and cannot move further, it is promoted, meaning it can become any other piece on the board, except the king. Players usually promote their pawns to a queen because it is the next most-powerful piece on the board.

History

As the simplest piece in chess, the pawn was in the oldest version of chess, Chaturanga. It is present in all other types of chess around the world.

The changes which took place in the fifteenth century were aimed at allowing the pieces to develop faster, and make the game more exciting.

Chess pieces

Pawn (chess)


Lewis Hanke (1905–1993) was an American historian of colonial Latin America, and is best known for his writings on the Spanish conquest of Latin America. Hanke, along with two others, Irving A. Leonard and John T. Lanning, presented a revisionist narrative of colonial history that focused on the role of Bartolomé de las Casas, who famously advocated for the rights of Native Americans, and searched for just resolutions to the tensions between the conquistadores and the natives during the colonial period of Spanish rule. Hanke's writings documented Las Casas' work as a political activist, historian, political theorist, and anthropologist. His scholarship also uncovered evidence to support Hanke's claim that Las Casas did not act as the sole voice of conscience during the colonial era, but actually constituted the head of what was a larger reform movement by a number of Spanish colonists to prevent "the destruction of the Indies."

Biography
Born January 2, 1905 in Oregon City, Oregon, Hanke received his B.S. and M.A. in history from Northwestern University. He went on to complete his Ph.D from Harvard University in 1936.  He served as the first chief of the Hispanic Division of the Library of Congress, and headed the Hispanic Foundation until 1951. He began his teaching career at the University of Texas, then moved on to Columbia University.  Hanke later joined the faculty of the University of Massachusetts Amherst in 1969, where he remained until his retirement in 1975.

To many, Hanke is considered the father of the field of Latin American studies in the United States.  He created the Handbook of Latin American Studies, and that, along with his considerable historiographical achievements in Latin American history, continue to figure among the foundational works of Latin American studies research and library collections in both the U.S. and abroad.

Hanke edited the Guide to the Study of US History Outside the US, 1945–1980, and the year before his retirement, he served as the president of the American Historical Association, where he oversaw the re-writing of the AHA's charter.

Hanke died in Amherst, Massachusetts on March 26, 1993, eight days after the death of his wife, Kate Gilbert Hanke. She was "la Querida Compañera de Mi Vida."

Career
At Harvard, Hanke studied under Clarence H. Haring.   During that time, Hanke published the first of his works on Bartolomé de las Casas, Las teorías políticas de Bartolomé de Las Casas and The First Social Experiments in America: A Study of the Development of Spanish Indian Policy in the Sixteenth Century. In 1936, Hanke graduated from Harvard with a degree in history.  Unable to get an academic job during the Great Depression, Hanke was appointed director of the Hispanic Foundation of the Library of Congress in 1939, where he served for 12 years. His most influential work, The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (1949), argues that "… the Spanish conquest of America was far more than a remarkable military and political exploit; that it was also one of the greatest attempts the world has seen to make Christian precepts prevail in the relations between peoples." This underscores Hanke's idealistic view of Las Casas, and cuts against the prevailing narrative, then and now, of the Spanish colonists as a uniformly exploitative, hostile force vis à vis the Native Americans. Hanke went on to pen works that continued to explore the concept of "the Spanish struggle for justice", as well as on topics ranging from the city of Potosi to the Good Neighbor policy.

Awards and accolades
In 1974, Hanke was elected President of the American Historical Association, the first Latin Americanist to hold the position.  In 1989, Hanke received the Kalman Silvert Award from Latin American Studies Association, and in 1992, was honored with the Antonio de Nebrija Fifth Centenary Special Prize from the University of Salamanca.

Major works
The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (1949)
Aristotle and the American Indians: A Study in Race Prejudice in the Modern World (1959)
All Mankind Is One: A Study of the Disputation Between Bartolome De Las Casas and Juan Gines De Sepulveda in 1550 on the Religious and Intellectual Capacity of the American Indians(1974)
Latin America, a Historical Reader (1974)
Selected Writings of Lewis Hanke on the History of Latin America (1979)
Guide to the Study of United States History Outside the U.S., 1945–1980 (1985)
People and Issues in Latin American History: From Independence to the Present (1990)
People and Issues in Latin American History: The Colonial Experience (1993)

References

Further reading

External links
American Historical Association
University of Massachusetts Library Special Collections
Bibliography from the American Historical Association

1993 deaths
1905 births
Northwestern University alumni
Harvard University alumni
People from Oregon City, Oregon
Columbia University faculty
University of Massachusetts Amherst faculty
University of Texas faculty
Library of Congress
20th-century American historians
American male non-fiction writers
20th-century American male writers

Lewis Hanke


Desublimation is a phase transition in which gas turns into solid without passing through the liquid state. It is the reverse of sublimation.

It is how snow forms in clouds, and how frost and hoar frost form on the ground or on windows.

Another example is the soot on walls of chimneys. Soot molecules rise from the fire in a hot and gaseous state. When they come into contact with the walls they cool, and change to the solid state, without forming the liquid state.

The process is sometimes known as deposition (phase transition).

States of matter

Desublimation


The  is a pole weapon used by the samurai class and their retainers in feudal Japan.

Description and use
Although some sources place the origin of the sasumata in the Muromachi period, most sources discuss its use in the Edo period. In Edo period Japan the samurai were in charge of police operations.

The sasumata (spear fork) together with the tsukubō (push pole) and the sodegarami (sleeve entangler) comprised the torimono sandōgu (three tools/implements of arresting) used by samurai police and security forces.  Samurai police in the Edo period used the sasumata along with the sodegarami and tsukubō to restrain and arrest suspected criminals uninjured.  The head of the sasumata would be used to catch around the neck, arms, legs, or joints of a suspect and detain them until officers could close in and apprehend them (using hojōjutsu). The sasumata had a long hardwood pole usually around  in length with sharp barbs or spines attached to metal strips on one end of the pole to keep the person being captured from grabbing the pole. The opposite end of the sasumata pole would often have a metal cap, or ishizuki like those found on naginata and other pole weapons.

Firefighting
There were also firefighting versions of the instrument known as a chokyakusan, rinkaku, tetsubashira, or tokikama.  A similar weapon in China was known as a chang jiao qian, and sometimes called a cha gan or huo cha (fire fork), which had a similar firefighting role.  The sasumata type implements were used by firefighters to help dismantle burning buildings, raise ladders, and otherwise assist with their duties.

Modern use
Today, a modern version of the sasumata is still occasionally used by the police and as a self-defense tool.  These modern sasumata are often made of aluminum, without the sharpened blades and spikes found on their medieval counterparts. They have been marketed to schools due to a growing fear of classroom invasions, which has prompted many schools in Japan to keep sasumata available for teachers to protect themselves and students and to detain a potential threat until the authorities can arrive. The introduction of sasumata to schools came to be popular after the Osaka school massacre in 2001.

Gallery

See also
 Man catcher
 Sodegarami
 Torimono sandōgu
 Tsukubō
 Monk's spade

Citations

Sources
Cunningham, Don. Taiho-jutsu:Law and Order in the Age of the Samurai.  Boston; Rutland, Vermont; Tokyo: Tuttle Publishing, 2004.
神之田常盛. 剣術神道霞流.  萩原印刷株式会社, 2003.
Mol, Serge.  Classic Weaponry of Japan: Special Weapons and Tactics of the Martial Arts. Tokyo; New York; London: Kodansha International, 2003.

External links

Polearms of Japan
Samurai police weapons
Samurai polearms
Ritual weapons
Honorary weapons
Ceremonial weapons

Sasumata


Executioners (), is a 1993 Hong Kong action film and a sequel to The Heroic Trio, both films which were directed by Johnny To, starring Michelle Yeoh, Anita Mui and Maggie Cheung, returning as the main characters of the first film. Other cast include Damian Lau, Anthony Wong, Takeshi Kaneshiro, Lau Ching-Wan, Paul Chun and Kwan Shan.

Plot
Executioners reunites the main characters of The Heroic Trio in a dark, post-apocalyptic story set in a world ravaged by war, torn by social and political strife, and desperately short of uncontaminated water.

The Wonder Woman (Anita Mui) is now the mother of a young girl (named Charlie in the English dubbed version, Cindy in the English subtitled version). She has abandoned her role as a crime fighter in order to become a better mother and wife. But while walking her daughter home from the grocery store, she witnesses an attempted water theft. In a brief display of her true prowess (and to the delight of her daughter), she stops the thief and returns the bagged water to the would-be victim.

The Invisible Girl, (Michelle Yeoh), has finally accepted her true role as a hero and strives to atone for the evil deeds she committed while under the influence of her former Evil Master (as shown in The Heroic Trio), She has become an agent of change, striving to use her abilities for the good of society. She's gone so far as to become the tutor of the masked hunchback Kau, another of the Evil Master's former servants. Lured into a blast furnace in "The Heroic Trio", Kau had been horribly burned and disfigured; somehow, he retains his almost superhuman vitality and ability, yet has no moral compass, other than his allegiance to his tutor. She hopes to reform him and show him a better way, as the Wonder Woman and the Thief Catcher did for her.

The Thief Catcher (Maggie Cheung), is still up to her old ways, just trying to make a profit out of a bad situation. Yet even she is starting to strive for a higher standard, and has come to realize that she is part of a team and has responsibilities to something greater than herself. The three heroes are forced to overcome devastating personal loss, conflicting loyalties, and overwhelming odds, to bring security and justice back to the people.

Cast
 Michelle Yeoh as Ching/San/Carol
 Anita Mui as Tung/Wonder Woman/Dorothy
 Maggie Cheung as Chat/Thief Catcher/Chelsea
 Damian Lau as Inspector Lau
 Anthony Wong as Mr. Kim/Kau
 Takeshi Kaneshiro as Chong Hon/Coda
 Lau Ching-Wan as Ah Te
 Paul Chun as Colonel
 Kwan Shan as President

Production
The film's theme song, "A Woman's Heart" (lyrics by Chik Lam, music by Law Tai-Yau), also the theme of The Heroic Trio, is sung by Anita Mui.

External links

1990s action films
Hong Kong superhero films
Superheroine films
1993 films
1980s Cantonese-language films
Hong Kong sequel films
Films directed by Johnnie To
Films with screenplays by Susan Chan
1990s Hong Kong films
1980s Hong Kong films

Executioners (film)


The United States Coast Guard is one of the 6 branches of the military of the United States.  It is a part of the United States Department of Homeland Security. The Coast Guard's purpose is to protect the people, environment, industry and security of the United States on seas, lakes and rivers.  To do this, the Coast Guard uses boats, ships, helicopters and airplanes to stop smuggling and other crime and terrorism, and to rescue ships and boats in danger.

The Coast Guard traces its roots back to the United States Revenue Cutter Service, which was created by Congress on 4 August 1790. As such, the Coast Guard is the oldest continuous seagoing service of the United States.

The modern United States Coast Guard was started on January 28, 1915. This is when the U. S. Congress ordered the United States Revenue Cutter Service and the United States Life-Saving Service to merge into a single service. The Coast Guard can become part of the Department of the Navy during war, but it is not now. It became part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security in 2003.

History
The U.S. Revenue Cutter Service (USRCS) was set up in 1790 when President George Washington signed an act allowing the building of 10 boats called "cutters". The service was first suggested in a letter by Alexander Hamilton as a way to collect tariffs which were being lost to smuggling. They were also tasked with making sure shipments of goods from the United States were getting through to markets in other countries. The first Coast Guard station was in Newburyport, Massachusetts. Until the re-establishment of the Navy in 1798, the Revenue Cutter Service was the only naval force of the early United States.

The modern Coast Guard can be said to date to 1915, when the Revenue Cutter Service merged with the U.S. Life-Saving Service when Congress formalized the existence of the new organization. In 1939, the Lighthouse Service was brought under the Coast Guard's purview. In 1942, the Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation was transferred to the Coast Guard.
In 1967, the Coast Guard moved from the U.S. Department of the Treasury to the newly formed U.S. Department of Transportation, an arrangement that lasted until it was placed under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security in 2003 as part of legislation designed to more efficiently protect American interests following the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001.

In times of war, the Coast Guard or individual components of it can operate as a service of the Department of the Navy. This arrangement has a broad historical basis, as the Coast Guard has been involved in wars as diverse as the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, and the American Civil War, in which the cutter Harriet Lane fired the first naval shots attempting to relieve besieged Fort Sumter. The last time the Coast Guard operated as a whole within the Navy was in World War II. More often, military and combat units within the Coast Guard will operate under Navy or joint operational control while other Coast Guard units will remain under the Department of Homeland Security.

Notes

References

1790 establishments in the United States

United States Coast Guard