Myst Online: Uru Live is an open source massively multiplayer online adventure game developed by Cyan Worlds. The game is the multiplayer component to the 2003 video game Uru: Ages Beyond Myst. Like Uru, Myst Online takes place in 2000s New Mexico, where an ancient civilization known as the D'ni once thrived. The D'ni had the ability to create portals to other worlds or Ages by writing descriptive books of the Age. Players uncover clues and solve puzzles together; plot developments were added via episodic content updates.

Urus multiplayer segment was delayed and only shipped with the single-player component initially; in February 2004 the multiplayer was scrapped entirely. Dedicated fans kept an unsupported version of the game alive through Cyan-maintained servers. Online game distributor GameTap resurrected the game as Myst Online in 2007, but this version was canceled due to a lack of subscribers despite generally positive reviews. Cyan received the rights to Myst Online from GameTap and announced its intention to bring the game back.

In 2010, Cyan Worlds released the game free of charge, under the name MO:ULagain. It is currently hosted on Cyan-maintained servers.

In 2011, Cyan Worlds and OpenUru.org announced the release of Myst Online'''s client and 3ds Max plugin under the GNU GPL v3 license.

GameplayMyst Onlines gameplay is a massively multiplayer online game, where players interact with others to solve puzzles and advance the story. Players communicate with others using a "Ki", an artifact which provides a special interface. Each player has their own personal Age, called Relto; unlike in public areas, each player's Relto is different depending on the player's tastes. In public areas, any action a player takes is persistent and remains part of that world — kick a stone in one player's game, for instance, and the stone will be moved when any other player enters the area.Myst Online takes place in fictitious caverns below Earth's surface. Thousands of years ago, a race known as the D'ni practiced a craft known as The Art. By writing special books describing a location, the D'ni created a link to that world. The D'ni had their own number system and language distinct from the humans dwelling above them. According to the story, archeologists much later discovered the caverns and teamed with a development studio (Cyan Worlds) to produce educational video games based on their findings; thus, the story in the Myst games is canonically findings from the caverns. New content and additions to the story were revealed through "episodes".

Development

After completing Riven—the sequel to the bestselling Myst—in 1997, developer Rand Miller and his company, Cyan Worlds, began development of what would become Uru: Ages Beyond Myst. Initially, the game was to have been called Myst Online and have been a multiplayer-only title, but game publisher Ubisoft pushed for a single-player dimension. The online component, called Uru Live, did not ship with Ages Beyond Myst; in 2004, Uru Live was suspended entirely. In 2006, Cyan developed a stand-in for Uru Live, called Until Uru; this replacement was hosted by players in servers known as "shards", and did not have content updates or official support.

GameTap
On May 9, 2006, Cyan Worlds and GameTap announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo that Myst Online: Uru Live would be returning in the holiday season of 2006. The GameTap version did not require any physical purchase: all the game content was downloaded through GameTap, which was subscribed to for a monthly fee. A major reason for the resurrection of the game was the fan support. According to GameTap's vice president of content Ricardo Sanchez, "One of the reasons [GameTap was] so attracted to Uru Live is that it had this persistent group that kept it alive during the dark days of it not being a product." Closed public beta testing of Myst Online: Uru Live began in August 2006. A period of semi-open beta testing lasted from December 12 to 18, 2006, with an open beta beginning on December 20. On January 18, 2007, it was announced that a Macintosh port of the game was being developed by TransGaming; a beta became available soon after. This coincided with the release of the first new Age, Eder Delin. GameTap brought Myst Online: Uru Live online in February 2007. On May 19, 2007, Myst Online made the move to episodic content releases, with each episode adding new Ages, puzzles, and a plot continuation. It was also released for Mac OS X, the first GameTap game for the platform.

In February 2008, GameTap announced that Myst Online was canceled. Sanchez released a statement that "The decision was a very difficult one and was made for business reasons rather than due to any issues regarding the design and vision of the amazing world that Cyan Worlds and Rand Miller have brought to us. Despite the great Myst Online experience coming to a close, Cyan is still a very valued partner of GameTap, we are on excellent terms, and we look forward to continuing our relationship in the future."

Various explanations for Uru Lives continuing troubles were given. Game designer Ernest Adams stated that "An important part of Mysts atmosphere came from being alone in a very strange place." Adams stated that the realities of online play distracted from the fantasy setting. When asked about the game's commercial failure, Miller responded:

I'm always going to fall back on 'we were ahead of our time,' because it's easy. The biggest thing we did was an all or nothing proposal from an entertainment point of view. It's not like you can start up a new TV network and give one show a month and expect it to be successful ... We couldn't quite pull that off with the money we had."

GameTap parent Turner Broadcasting's product development vice president Blake Lewin added that he did not believe any budget would have worked, due to the difficult content production pipeline. Lewin compared the game's production to the television series Lost, which had difficulties producing a full season. In an article discussing the current state of the adventure game genre, IGN writers Steve Butts and Charles Onyett considered the major issues with Myst Online that while a different kind of adventure game, Myst Online was not accessible to players other than the "hardcore faithful". The authors suggested that the franchise needed "to try something more dramatic than slapping an online architecture onto a game that already released, then periodically putting out small content updates."

MORE and future
After several months of negotiations, Cyan regained the rights to Myst Online for no charge. Miller stated that Cyan was committed to resurrecting Myst Online once again, giving fans the chance to interact with and create content. The new version of Myst Online was dubbed the "Myst Online Restoration Experiment" or MORE, and Cyan planned to reopen the game on their own servers without new content; instead, tools would be released for fans to create new content. Cyan put forward a tentative outline, which started with Cyan running MORE servers, the restructuring of the MystOnline.com web site, the release of MORE tools to players, and the delegation of approving fan-made content given to groups known as "Guilds". The ultimate goal was a continuation of the storyline and new content, with or without fan aid.MORE was postponed after revenue to Cyan was disrupted and the company was forced to lay off all but seven employees in November 2008. The company has since announced that Myst Onlines source code and tools would be given to the fans, making MORE an open-source project. On April 6, 2011, Cyan Worlds released the client and the tools under the GNU GPL v3 license on the OpenUru.org website.

Uru Live Again

On February 8, 2010, Cyan Worlds announced the return of Myst Online under the new title Myst Online: URU Live Again. The game is now being advertised as entirely free to play. In August 2020, fan-led development of the game led to the release of the first fan-created Ages.

ReceptionMyst Online was generally well received by critics. The game has average critic scores of 77% and 83% at aggregate sites Metacritic and GameRankings, respectively. The Ages' varied visuals and strong aesthetic design were praised, as were the ambient sounds and music. The world that persistently changes depending on player actions was also lauded as more sophisticated than other MMOs.

Complaints from Uru: Ages Beyond Myst carried over to Myst Online; for example, Robert Washburne of JustAdventure found that the interface was still clunky. Charles Onyett of IGN said that those who had played through the previous Uru content would not find many changes: "As a result, Myst veterans uninterested in plugging through Uru''s content again will be left with a dearth of things to actually do, shifting the onus of gameplay creation to the community." Onyett continued that the only reason to subscribe to the game was the dedicated fan community and the potential for the game to expand. Sarah Borger of GamesRadar noted that most puzzles could be completed without the help of other players, making the game "a pretty chat room".

References

External links

Official developers' site – includes source code and other resources
 Official forums

2007 video games
Massively multiplayer online role-playing games
Fantasy massively multiplayer online role-playing games
Active massively multiplayer online games
Cyan Worlds games
MacOS games
Myst games
Peter Gabriel
Video games scored by Tim Larkin
Windows games
Adventure games
Open-source video games
Free-to-play video games
Commercial video games with freely available source code
Video games developed in the United States

Myst Online: Uru Live


Antonio Saura Atarés (September 22, 1930 – July 22, 1998) was a Spanish artist and writer, one of the major post-war painters to emerge in Spain in the fifties whose work has marked several generations of artists and whose critical voice is often remembered.

Biography

He began painting and writing in 1947 in Madrid while suffering from tuberculosis, having already been confined to his bed for five years. In his beginnings he created numerous drawings and paintings with a dreamlike surrealist character that most often represented imaginary landscapes, employing a flat smooth treatment that offers a rich palette of colors.
He claimed Hans Arp and Yves Tanguy as his artistic influences.

He stayed in Paris in 1952 and in 1954–1955 during which he met Benjamin Péret and associated with the Surrealists, although he soon parted with the group, joining instead the company of his friend the painter Simon Hantaï. Using the technique of scraping, he adopted a gestural style and created an abstract type of painting, still very colorful with an organic, aleatory design.

The first appearances in his work of forms that will soon become archetypes of the female body or the human figure occur in the mid-1950s. Starting in 1956 Saura tackled the register of what will prove to be his greatest works: women, nudes, self-portraits, shrouds and crucifixions, which he painted on both canvas and paper. In 1957 in Madrid he founded the El Paso Group and served as its director until it broke up in 1960. During this period Saura met Michel Tapié.

During the 1950s he had his first solo exhibition at the Rodolphe Stadler Gallery in Paris, where he regularly exhibited throughout his life. Stadler introduced him to Otto van de Loo in Munich and Pierre Matisse in New York City, both of whom exhibited his work and represented him, and eventually his paintings were collected by major museums.

Limiting his palette to blacks, grays and browns, Saura asserted a personal style that was independent of the movements and trends of his generation. His work followed in the tradition of Velasquez and Goya. Starting in 1959 he began creating a prolific body of works in print, illustrating numerous books including Cervantes's Don Quijote, Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, Nöstlinger's adaptation of Pinocchio, Kafka's Tagebücher, Quevedo's Three Visions, and many others.

In 1960 Saura began creating sculptures made of welded metal elements which represented the human figure, characters and crucifixions. In 1967 he settled permanently in Paris, and joined the opposition to Francoist Spain. In France he participated in numerous debates and controversies in the fields of politics, aesthetics and artistic creation. He also broadened his thematic and pictorial register. Along with his Femmefauteuil (literally "Womanarmchair"), he also worked on the series "Imaginary Portraits", and Goya's Dog and Imaginary Portraits of Goya begin to take shape.

In 1971 he temporarily abandoned painting on canvas to devote himself to writing, drawing and painting on paper. In 1977, Rolf Lauter and Antonio Saura met for the first time in the Rodolphe Stadler gallery Paris and started a dialogue and a long-standing friendship. In 1979, the collaboration gave rise to the first major retrospective at the Galerie de Margarete Lauter Mannheim with more than 50 images and drawings, followed by many other presentations. In 1989 Lauter - then Chief Curator of the Museum für Moderne Kunst Frankfurt - has been co-organizer with Katharina Winnekes of the Frankfurt exhibition The Abused Man with works by Saura, Millares and Canogar. In 1977 Saura began publishing his writings, and he created several stage designs for the theatre, ballet and opera, thanks to the collaboration with his brother, the film director Carlos Saura. From 1983 to his death in 1998, he revisited all of his themes and figures.

Individual exhibitions

 Museum of Contemporary Art, Madrid (1956)
 Galerie Stadler, Paris (1957 & 1979)
 Galerie Van de Loo, Munich (1959)
 Pierre Matisse Gallery, NY (1961)
 The Stedelijk Museum, Eindhoven (1963)
 The Rotterdamsche Kunsling (1963)
 The Musée de Buenos Aires (1963)
 The Musée de Rio de Janeiro (1963)
 The Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam (1964)
 The Kunsthalle, Baden-Baden (1964)
 The Konsthallen, Göteborg (1964)
 Institute of Contemporary Art, London (1965)
 Galerie Maeght, Barcelona (1975 & 1984)
 Galerie Lauter, Mannheim (1979)
 The Abbaye de Sénanque, Gordes (1985)
Galerie Lauter Mannheim (1985-1986)
 The Wiener Secession, Viena (1989)
 Harvard University, Cambridge (1989)
 Musée d'art et d'histoire, Geneva; MNCARS, Madrid; Lenbachhaus, Munich & Réfectoire des Jacobins, Toulouse (1989)
 Museum of Modern Art, Lugano (1994)
 Galerie Daniel Lelong, Paris (1997)
 Kunstmuseum Bern, Bern (2012)

Bibliography
 Saura in Cuenca, monograph. Phrases: Georgina Oliver - images: Félix Rozen. Borgen. Copenhagen, 1983 (limited edition: 1000 copies)

References

External links

Chronology
Official website of Succession Saura, Switzerland
Obituary in The Independent: Antonio Saura (by William Jeffett), 1 August 98
Saura, Memory and Recollection, Hommage to Antonio Saura, Bilbao July 22, 2003
Antonio Saura:The Retrospective, Kunstmuseum Bern, Bern 2012

1930 births
1998 deaths
People from Huesca
Art Informel and Tachisme painters
20th-century Spanish painters
20th-century Spanish male artists
Spanish male painters
Modern painters
Dau al Set
Spanish contemporary artists

Antonio Saura


The evolution of the peppered moth has been studied in detail over the last 150 years. At first, almost all of the moths were light coloured. This gave them camouflage against the light-coloured trees and lichens where they rested during the day. As pollution increased during the Industrial Revolution in England, many of the lichens died out. The trees became blackened by soot, and most of the light-coloured moths, or typica, became rare. At the same time, the dark-coloured, or melanic, moths, carbonaria, flourished. This change took place because  the best camouflaged moths survived better. The term industrial melanism refers to the genetic darkening of species in response to pollutants.

Since then, with an improved environment, light-coloured peppered moths have again become common. As a result of the relatively simple and easy-to-understand circumstances of the adaptation, the peppered moth has become a common example used in explaining or demonstrating natural selection.

Rise and fall of melanism
Melanism has appeared in the European and North American peppered moth populations. Information about the initial rise in melanic frequency is scarce. Much more is known about the subsequent fall in phenotype frequency, because it was measured with moth traps.

A black peppered moth was found in 1811, a rareity, no doubt caused by a gene mutation. By 1864 the darker 'carbonaria' form was the more common morph in  Manchester. By 1895, it reached a frequency of 98% in Manchester.

From around 1962 to the present, the phenotype frequency of carbonaria has steadily fallen. Its decline has been measured more accurately than its rise, because of better scientific studies. Bernard Kettlewell conducted a national survey in 1956, Bruce Grant conducted a similar one in early 1996, and L.M. Cook in 2003.

Similar results were found in America. Melanic forms have not been found in Japan. This may be because peppered moths in Japan do not live in industrialised regions.

Predation experiments

In 1896 J.W. Tutt suggested that the increased proportion of carbonaria was caused by differential bird predation. This meant birds took more light-coloured moths in dark areas, and more dark-coloured moths in light areas. Various experiments have been performed on predation of the peppered moth, and each has supported this hypothesis.

The most famous experiments on the peppered moth were carried out by Bernard Kettlewell under the supervision of E.B. Ford. In one of Kettlewell's experiments, moths were released into a large (18 m by 6 m) aviary, where they were fed on by Great Tits (Parus major). In 1953, Kettlewell experimented at Cadbury Nature Reserve in Birmingham. He marked, released and recaptured the marked moths. He found, in polluted woodland, more typica morphs were taken. This showed that the melanistic phenotype was important to the survival of peppered moths in such a habitat. Kettlewell repeated the experiment in 1955 in an unpolluted woodland in Dorset, and again in polluted woods in Birmingham. He was accompanied by Niko Tinbergen, and they made a film of this. Further studies by others found similar results. Finally, in 1996, work on both sides of the Atlantic found a correlation between changes in melanic frequencies and pollution levels.

A field experiment in biology will always have some artificiality, but that has to be balanced against practicality and costs. The most important aspect is that an experiment gives useful information. The only previous experiments of this type were R.A. Fisher and E.B. Ford's with the Scarlet tiger moth.

Later experiments
In 2000 Majerus developed plans for further experiments. In the main experiment in Cambridge from 20012007 Majerus added an experiment to find if bat predation might have skewed the results – this found that bats preyed equally on both forms of the moth. He observed a number bird species preying on the moths. The overall data led him to conclude that differential bird predation was a major factor responsible for the decline in carbonaria frequency compared to typica in Cambridge during the study period. He described his results as a complete vindication of the peppered moth story, and said "If the rise and fall of the peppered moth is one of the most visually impacting and easily understood examples of Darwinian evolution in action, it should be taught. It provides after all the proof of evolution".

Majerus died before he could complete the writing up of his experiments, but the work was carried on by others. The paper said that "These data provide the most direct evidence yet to implicate camouflage and bird predation as the overriding explanation for the rise and fall of melanism in moths". The new data, coupled with the weight of previous data show that "industrial melanism in the peppered moth is still one of the clearest and most easily understood examples of Darwinian evolution in action".

Camouflage of caterpillars

Biston betularia caterpillars also occur in two forms, each adapted to a different situation. They develop body colours which match the brown or green twigs of their host plant. This is done by a mechanism called polyphenism. Polyphenism is a kind of polymorphism where different forms of an animal are caused by the same genome. The animal inherits the capability, but the environment determines which form develops. This contrasts with genetic polymorphism of the adults, where each morph (form) inherits a slightly different genome.

Polyphenism occurs when the animal inherits a developmental switch. The switch is sensitive to some environmental cue or trigger. In this case, researchers discovered that visual experience triggered precise color matching.

"Their induced body color... matched the wavelength of light to which they were exposed... the potential to change color is retained until the final (sixth) larval instar. Given their broad host range, this directly induced color polyphenism likely provides the caterpillars with strong protection from bird predation".

Related pages
Ecological genetics
Polymorphism
Polyphenism

References

Moths
Evolutionary biology

Peppered moth evolution


The New Jersey Turnpike Authority (NJTA) is a state agency responsible for maintaining the New Jersey Turnpike and the Garden State Parkway, which are two toll roads in the U.S. state of New Jersey.  The agency is headquartered in Woodbridge Township, New Jersey.

The NJTA was created in 1949 to oversee construction and maintenance of the New Jersey Turnpike. In 2003, the authority assumed control of the Garden State Parkway, which had previously been maintained by an agency known as the New Jersey Highway Authority (NJHA).

Board of Commissioners

The New Jersey Turnpike Authority is governed by an eight-person Board of Commissioners (with one current vacant seat). The members of the commission, along with the chairman, are appointed by the Governor of New Jersey. , the commissioners are:
Diane Gutierrez-Scaccetti – Chair
Ulises E. Diaz – Vice Chair
Michael R. DuPont – Treasurer
Ronald Gravino – Commissioner
John D. Minella – Commissioner
Raphael Salermo – Commissioner

History
The New Jersey Turnpike Authority was created by special legislation on April 14, 1949, to regulate the New Jersey Turnpike, which opened to traffic on November 30, 1951. It issued revenue bonds to finance the road based solely on future tolls, without using tax money.

Another agency, known as the New Jersey Highway Authority, was established in 1952 and responsible for maintaining the Garden State Parkway, which opened to traffic in 1954. In July 2003, the New Jersey Legislature approved and Governor James McGreevey signed into law a bill consolidating the New Jersey Turnpike Authority and the New Jersey Highway Authority. The main headquarters of the Turnpike Authority before consolidation was in East Brunswick, while the main headquarters of the Highway Authority was in Woodbridge Township. A few years later, the headquarters of the consolidated Turnpike Authority was relocated to an eight-story office tower on Main Street in Woodbridge, nearby exit 11 on the NJ Turnpike.

The Woodbridge building that once housed the Highway Authority now houses the Statewide Traffic Management Center, from which Turnpike Authority personnel monitor traffic on the Turnpike and the Parkway, broadcast traffic and weather advisories to patrons over three AM radio channels, and operate more than 200 variable message and speed limit signs. The Authority also has closed-circuit TV cameras that show pictures of current traffic conditions on the Turnpike and the Parkway.

The Turnpike Authority is accountable for the inspection and structural integrity of more than 1,000 bridge structures on the Turnpike and Parkway, to comply with the federally mandated National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS).

On July 22, 2014, the New Jersey Turnpike Authority filed a federal lawsuit against Jersey Boardwalk Pizza, a pizza chain in Florida, for using a logo too similar to the signs for the Garden State Parkway. The suit was ultimately dismissed, despite the NJTA having spent $276,000 in legal fees.

Traffic management

The New Jersey Turnpike Authority is one third of the participants of a Traffic Management Center (TMC) called STMC (Statewide Traffic Management Center) located in Woodbridge Township.

STMC is also the home to New Jersey Department of Transportation and the New Jersey State Police.  The STMC is staffed 24/7 and is responsible for the coordination & logistics of statewide resources during major incidents within the State of New Jersey.

See also

References

External links

Letter from Chief Engineer

Toll road authorities of the United States
Government agencies established in 1949
State agencies of New Jersey
Woodbridge Township, New Jersey

New Jersey Turnpike Authority


Bel Paese () is a semi-soft Italian cheese. It was invented in 1906 by Egidio Galbani who wanted to produce a mild and delicate cheese to sell mainly in Italy. The name Bel Paese comes from the title of a book written by Antonio Stoppani (though the reference is much older, being used by Dante and Petrarch). It is Italian for "beautiful country", and is used as a phrase for Italy itself.

Originally produced in Melzo, a small town near Milan in the Lombardy region, it is now made in both Italy and the United States. Bel Paese is a cow's milk cheese.  It matures for six to eight weeks, and has a creamy and light milky aroma. The color is a pale, creamy yellow. It is made in small discs, and is very similar to the French Saint-Paulin cheese and to German Butterkäse. It has a mild, buttery flavor for which it has been popularly eaten with fruity wines, such as dry red or white. It is favored by many as a snack or dessert cheese and melts easily for use on pizzas or in casseroles. It is often used as a substitute for mozzarella cheese.

Genuine Bel Paese cheese can be determined by the wrapping. It has an image of the Italian geologist and paleontologist Antonio Stoppani, whose geological treatise Il bel paese gave its name to Galbani's cheese; but while on the wrapping of the cheese made in Italy Stoppani's image comes with a map of Italy, cheese made in the United States has a map of America.

References

Cow's-milk cheeses
Products introduced in 1906
Lombard cheeses

Bel Paese (cheese)


A mood stabilizer is a psychiatric medication used to treat mood disorders characterized by fast and unstable mood changes. Among the disorders commonly treated are  bipolar disorder and Borderline personality disorder. With these conditions, the mood can change rapidly, between mania and depression. Many mood stabilizers can also prevent convulsions.

Drugs used in psychiatry

Mood stabilizer


Sistim Internasional (lambangna SI, sarua jeung tina asal hartina dina basa Prancis Systéme International d'Unités), nyaéta sistim unit nu pangumumna dipaké. Iwal di AS jeung Inggris, sistim ieu dipaké dina kahirupan sapopoé (utamana dagang) di sakuliah dunya, ogé dina widang ilmiah. SI was selected as a specific subset of the existing Metre-Kilogram-Second systems of units (MKS), rather than the older Centimetre-Gram-Second system of units (CGS). Various new units were added with the introduction of the SI and at later times. SI is sometimes referred to as the metric system (especially in the United States, which has not widely adopted it, although it has been used more commonly in recent yéars, and the UK, where conversion is incomplete). Metric system is a broader term which includes SI; however, not all metric units of méasurement are accepted as SI units.

There are seven base units and several derived units, together with a set of prefixes. Non-SI units can be converted to SI units (or vice versa) according to the conversion of units.

Asal-usul

The units of the SI are decided by a series of international conferences organised by the standards organization Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Buréau of Weights and Méasures). The SI was first given its name in 1960, and last added to in 1971.

The true origins of the SI or metric system date back to approximately 1640. It was invented by French scientists, and was given a huge boost in popularity by the French Revolution of 1789. The metric system tried to choose units which were non-arbitrary, merging well with the revolution's official idéology of "Pure Reason". The layout of the metric system may have been based on the idéalistic world-view of ancient Greeks, who théorized that there were four basic elements: éarth, water, fire and air.

The most important unit is that of length: one metre was intended to be equal to 1/10,000,000thof the distance from the pole to the equator along the meridian through Paris. This is approximately 10% longer than one yard. Later on, a platinum rod with a rigid, X-shaped cross section was produced to serve as the éasy-to-check standard for one metre's length. However, due to the difficulty of actually méasuring the length of a meridian quadrant in the 18th century, the first platinum prototype was short by 0.2 millimetres. Then a multiple of a specific radiation wavelength was introduced to abstractly define the (unchanged) length of the metre unit, and finally the metre was defined as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in a specific period of time.

The unit of mass is the kilogram, which was defined by a cube filled with distilled pure water at its densest (+4° Celsius) and having sides equal to 1/10th of a metre. This volume contains one kilogram of water. One kilogram is about 2.2 pounds. This cubic space was also known as one litre (since slightly revised) so volumes of different liquids could be compared. Later on, a platinum-iridium metal cylinder was manufactured to serve as the one kilogram weight standard and remained so ever since.

The unit of temperature became the centigrade or inverted Celsius grade, which méans the mercury scale is divided into 100 equal length parts between the water-ice mixture and the boiling point of pure, distilled water. Boiling water thus becomes one hundred degrees Celsius and freezing is zero degrees Celsius. This is the metric unit of temperature in everyday use. A hundred yéars later, scientists discovered absolute zero. This prompted the establishment of a new temperature scale, called the absolute scale or Kelvin scale, which relocates the zero place but still uses 100 kelvins between the freezing point and boiling point of water.

The metric unit of time remained the second. One definition of day is 86,400 seconds. The formal definition of the second has been changed several times for enhanced scientific requirements (astronomic observations, tuning fork clock, quartz clock and then caesium atomic clock) but wristwatch users remain relatively unaffected.

The swift worldwide adoption of the metric system as a tool of economy and everday commerce was based mainly on the lack of customary systems in many countries to adequately describe some concepts, or as a result of an attempt to standardize the many regional variations in the customary system. International politics also factored into the choice as many countries made the industrial shift when Britain still had empire status, and had various feelings related to its position in the world. Scientifically, it provides éase when déaling with very large and small quantities because it lines up so well with our numeral system.

Cultural differences can be represented in the local everyday uses of metric units. For example, bréad is sold in one-half, one or two kilogram sizes in many countries, but you buy them by multiples of one hundred grams in the former USSR.

Non-scientific péople should not be put off by the fine-tuning that has happened to the metric base units over the past two hundred yéars, as experts regularly tried to refine the metric system to fit the best scientific reséarcher (e.g. MKG to CGS to SI system changes or the invention of Kelvin scale). These changes seldom affect the everyday use of metric units. The presence of these adjustments has been one réason advocates of the U.S. customary units have used against metrication.

Basis

SI is built on seven SI base units, the kilogram, metre, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela. These are used to define various SI derived units.

SI also defines a number of SI prefixes to be used with the units: these combine with any unit name to give subdivisions and multiples. For example, the prefix kilo denotes a multiple of a thousand, so the kilometre is 1 000 metres, the kilogram 1 000 grams, and so on. Note that a millionth of a kilogram is a milligram, not a microkilogram.

Gaya nulis SI

 Symbols are written in lower case, except the symbols that are derived from the name of a person. This méans that the symbol for the SI unit for pressure, named after Blaise Pascal, is Pa, wheréas the unit itself is written pascal. The official SI brochure lists the symbol for the litre as an allowed exception to the capitalization rules: either capital or lowercase L is acceptable.
 Symbols are written in singular, e.g. 25 kg (not "25 kgs").
 Symbols, unlike abbreviations, do not have a period (.) at the end.
 It is preferable to keep the symbol in upright Roman type (for example, m for metres, L for litres), so as to differentiate from mathematical and physical variables (for example, m for mass, l for length).
 A space is left between the numbers and the symbols: 2.21 kg, 7.3·102 m2
 SI uses spaces to separate decimal digits in sets of three. e.g. 1 000 000 or 342 142 (in contrast to the commas or dots used in other systems, e.g. 1,000,000 or 1.000.000).
 SI used only a comma as the separator for decimal fractions until 1997. The number "twenty four and fifty one hundredths" would be written as "24,51". In 1997 the CIPM decided that the British full stop (the "dot on the line", or period) would be the decimal separator in text whose main language is English ("24.51"); the comma remains the decimal separator in all other languages.
 Symbols for derived units formed from multiple units by multiplication are joined with a space or centre dot (·), e.g. N m or N·m.
 Symbols formed by division of two units are joined with a solidus (/), or given as a negative exponent, e.g. m/s, m s−1, m·s−1 or . A solidus should not be used if the result is ambiguous, e.g. kg·m−1·s−2, not "kg/m/s2".

The system can legally be used in every country in the world, and many countries do not maintain definitions of other units. Those countries that still give official recognition to non-SI units (e.g. the US and UK) have defined the modérn in terms of SI units; for example, the common inch is defined to be exactly 0.0254 metres. Survey distances have, however, not been redefined due to the accumulation of error it would entail. It was adopted by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1960. (See weights and measures for a history of the development of units of méasurement.)

Unit

Unit dasar

Di handap ieu unit-unit dasar ti mana nu séjén diturunkeun, they are dimensionally independent. The definitions stated below are widely accepted.

Dimensionless derived units

The following SI units are derived from the base units and are dimensionless.

Derived units with special names
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The following units are not SI units but are "accepted for use with the International System."

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The following SI prefixes can be used to prefix any of the above units to produce a multiple or submultiple of the original unit.

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Several nations, notably the United States, typically use the spellings 'méter' and 'liter' instéad of 'metre' and 'litre'. This is in keeping with standard American English spelling (for example, Americans also use 'center' rather than 'centre,' using the latter on mostly office buildings; see also American and British English differences). In addition, the official US spelling for the SI prefix 'deca' is 'deka'.

The US government has approved these spellings for official use, but the BIPM only recognizes the British English spellings as official names for the units. In scientific contexts only the symbols are used; since these are universally the same, the differences do not arise in practice in scientific use.

The unit 'gram' is also sometimes spelled 'gramme' in English-spéaking countries other than the United States, though that is an older spelling and use is declining.

Tempo ogé

 Weights and measures
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Tumbu kaluar

Official
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Information
 US NIST reference on SI
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 SI - Its history and use in science and industry
 A Dictionary of Units of Measurement

Further reading

 I. Mills, Tomislav Cvitas, Klaus Homann, Nikola Kallay, IUPAC: Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd ed., Blackwell Science Inc 1993, ISBN 0-632-03583-8.

SI units
Systems of units

Sistem Hijian Internasional


Sir Owen Alfred Saunders, FREng, FRS (24 September 1904 – 10 October 1993) was an English applied mathematician, engineering science academic, and university administrator.

Early life

Owen Saunders was born in Streatham, London, the only son of Alfred George Saunders, an engineer, and Margaret Ellen Saunders (née Jones). Saunders was educated at Emanuel School in south London (1913–19). He attained a general science degree from Birkbeck College, London (1921–23) and went on to study at Trinity College, Cambridge.

Career

From 1926 to 1932, Saunders started work as a scientific officer at the Fuel Research Station, part of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, in Greenwich.  He continued his studies in parallel, gaining a first class BSc in special mathematics and an MSc in physics. He collaborated with Margaret Fishenden and C. H. Lander throughout their careers

In 1932, Saunders joined Imperial College as a lecturer in the Department of Mechanical Engineering. In 1937, he became the first Clothworkers Reader in Thermodynamics. He researched aircraft piston engines and jet engines. In 1942, during World War II, he joined the Ministry of Aircraft Production. He undertook research into turbine engines, working with Sir Harold Roxbee Cox and Sir Frank Whittle. In 1946, he returned to Imperial College as Professor and Head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering.

Between 1964 and 1966, Saunders was the Dean of the City and Guilds College. In 1966, he became Acting Rector of Imperial College after the sudden death of Sir Patrick Linstead, then the Rector. From 1967 to 1969, he was the Vice-Chancellor of the University of London. In 1985, as Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Royal Holloway College, he oversaw its merger with Bedford College.

Honours
Saunders was a Fellow of the Royal Society (elected 1958) and the Royal Academy of Engineering. He was President of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1960 and was made an Honorary Fellow in 1965. He was created a Knight Bachelor for his services in 1965. He won the Max Jakob Memorial Award in 1966.

Personal life
Owen Saunders married Marion McKechney in 1935 and they had three children. After her death in 1981, he married Daphne Holmes. He was a full member of The Magic Circle. He died in Reigate, Surrey.

See also
 List of vice-chancellors of the University of London

References

External links
 Sir Owen Saunders — video and podcast archive

1904 births
1993 deaths
Mathematicians from London
Alumni of Birkbeck, University of London
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Engineering academics
English mechanical engineers
English magicians
Academics of Imperial College London
Rectors of Imperial College London
Vice-Chancellors of the University of London
Fellows of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
Knights Bachelor
People educated at Emanuel School
20th-century English mathematicians
Deans of the City and Guilds College
20th-century British engineers

Owen Saunders


Günther XLIII, Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (also known as Günther I; 13 August 1678 – 28 November 1740) was the ruling Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen from 1720 until his death.

Life
Prince Günther XLIII was son of Prince Christian William I  (1647-1721) and his wife Princess Antonie Sybille (1641-1684), a daughter of Count Albert Fredrick I of Barby-Mühlingen.

He took up government during his father's the lifetime, and in 1720 and continued as a fair, gentle and pious regent until his death.  In 1713, a decree had been issued instituting primogeniture, that is, the Prince's oldest son would be his sole successor, rather than having to share sovereignty with his younger brothers, or dividing the principality.

He made an end to foreign sovereignty over various parts of his principality, thereby increasing its prestige.  He built  new church in Jechaburg and a Princely House in Sondershausen.  His hobby was hunting, and he built a hunting lodge named  on the Hainleite near Sondershausen.  The name of the lodge was derived from a poem by his half-sister Christiane Wilhelmine.

After he died childless in 1740, his half-brother Henry XXXV inherited the principality.

Marriage
On 2 October 1712 Günther married Elisabeth Albertine (1693-1774), a daughter of Prince Charles Frederick of Anhalt-Bernburg. The marriage was childless.

References
 Friedrich Apfelstedt: Das Haus Kevernburg-Schwarzburg von seinem Ursprunge bis auf unsere Zeit,
 Dr. Kamill von Behr: Genealogie der in Europa regierenden Fürstenhäuser, Leipzig, 1870

Princes of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
House of Schwarzburg
1678 births
1740 deaths
18th-century German people


The War of Chioggia () was a conflict between the Republic of Genoa and the Republic of Venice which lasted from 1378 to 1381, from which Venice emerged triumphant. It was the last major conflict of the Venetian–Genoese Wars.
The war had mixed results. Venice and her allies won the war against their rival Italian states, but lost the war against King Louis the Great of Hungary, which resulted in the Hungarian conquest of the Dalmatian city-states.

Background
The two maritime powers, Genoa and Venice, had long been leading commercial powers with ties to Constantinople that had nurtured their growth during the Early Middle Ages. Their rivalry over trade with the Levant and other areas of the eastern Mediterranean had generated a number of wars. Genoa, having suffered previous defeats at the hands of the Venetians, had emerged from submission to the Visconti tyrants of Milan during the 14th century, although it had also been severely weakened by the outbreak of the Black Death in 1348, which killed more than 40,000 people in Genoa. Venice had participated in the dismemberment of the Byzantine Empire in 1204 and gradually taken over land on the Adriatic coast, thereby entering into conflict with the Kingdom of Hungary; on the Italian mainland, its terrestrial acquisitions had generated a rivalry with the nearby largest city, Padua.

Genoa wanted to establish a complete monopoly in the Black Sea area, particularly in the trade of grain, timber, fur, and slaves. In order to do so it needed to eliminate the commercial threat posed by Venice in this region. Genoa felt compelled to initiate the conflict because of the collapse of Mongol hegemony over the Central Asian Trade Route which had hitherto been a significant source of wealth for Genoa. When the Mongols lost control of the area, trade became much more hazardous and far less profitable. Hence Genoa's decision to go to war was to ensure its trade in the Black Sea area remained under its control.

Allies
Genoa's allies included Hungary and Padua. The King of Hungary, Louis I, had conquered Dalmatia from Venice and by 1379 Hungarian forces threatened Venice itself by land from the north. Paduan forces, under the leadership of Francesco I da Carrara, cut off Venice's communications to the west. Genoa's allies also included the Patriarch of Aquileia and Leopold III, the Duke of Austria.

The danger on land seemed trifling to Venice so long as she could keep the sea open to her trade and press the war against the Genoese in the Levant. Venice's allies, which included Bernabò Visconti of Milan, gave her little help on this side, although his mercenaries invaded the territory of Genoa. The Milanese troops were defeated in September 1379 in the Val Bisagno. Bernabò, whose despotism and taxes had enraged the Milanese, was deposed by his nephew Gian Galeazzo Visconti in 1385. Imprisoned in the castle of Trezzo, Bernabò was poisoned in December of that year.

Venice had the support of the Byzantine Emperor John V Palaiologos. In 1376, the Genoese helped Andronikos IV overthrow John V, but in 1379 Venice restored the latter to the throne.

Tenedos

The war was primarily fought over control of the island of Tenedos in the Aegean Sea, and both sides supported different claimants to the throne of the Byzantine Empire. Tenedos had been acquired by Venice from the Byzantine Empire in 1377, but after this conflict, they ceded it to Savoy and evacuated it in 1381. The Pope decided that the castle on Tenedos should be demolished, rather than be a source of contention between the two cities; 4000 Greek islanders from Tenedos were resettled in Crete and Euboea.

Cape d'Anzio (30 May 1378)
During the first stage of the war the plans of the senate were carried out with general success. While Carlo Zeno harassed the Genoese stations in the Levant, Vettor Pisani brought one of their squadrons to action on 30 May 1378 off Cape d'Anzio to the south of the Tiber, and defeated it. The battle was fought in a gale by 10 Venetian against 11 Genoese galleys. The Genoese admiral, Luigi de' Fieschi, was taken with 5 of his galleys, and others were wrecked. Four of the squadron escaped, and steered for Famagusta in Cyprus, then held by Genoa. If Pisani had directed his course to Genoa itself, which was thrown into a panic by the defeat at Anzio, it is possible that he might have dictated peace, but he thought his squadron too weak, and preferred to follow the Genoese galleys which had fled to Famagusta.

Traù (1378)
Pisani returned to the Adriatic and with a fleet of 25 galleys destroyed the port of Sebenico (today's Šibenik, Croatia) and headed towards Traù (Trogir), where 22 Genoese galleys were found, commanded by Luciano Doria.  Pisani attacked Traù, but the port, heavily fortified, resisted his attack.  The Venetians, suffering damage themselves, withdrew to Venice.

Battle of Pola (7 May 1379)
The next spring (1379) the Venetians attempted to attack Traù again, but were repelled.  During the summer of 1379 Pisani was employed partly in attacking Genoa in Cyprus, but mainly in taking possession of the Istrian and Dalmatian towns which supported the Hungarians from fear of the aggressive ambition of Venice. He was ordered to winter on the coast of Istria, where his crews suffered from exposure and disease. Genoa, having recovered from the panic caused by the disaster at Anzio, decided to attack Venice at home while the best of her ships were absent with Carlo Zeno. The Ligurian republic  sent a strong fleet into the Adriatic under Luciano Doria.

Pisani had been reinforced early in the spring of 1379, but when he was sighted by the Genoese fleet of 25 sail off Pola in Istria on the  May 7, he was slightly outnumbered, and his crews were still weak. The Venetian admiral would have preferred to avoid battle, and to check an attack on Venice itself, by threatening the Genoese fleet from his base on the Istrian coast. He was forced into battle by the commissioner (proveditore) Michele Steno, who as agent of the senate had authority over the admiral. The Venetians were defeated with the loss of all their galleys except six. Luciano Doria fell in the battle, and the Genoese, who had suffered severely, did not at once follow up their success.

When Pisani returned home, he was thrown into prison.  However, he was later released when the city of Venice was threatened by the Genoese at the Battle of Chioggia.

Lido and Brondolo (July 1379)

On the arrival of Pietro Doria, with reinforcements, the Genoese appeared off the Lido, the outer barrier of the lagoon of Venice, in July, and in August they entered on a combined naval and military attack on the city, in combination with the Paduans under the Carraresi and the Hungarians.

The Venetians had closed the passages through the outer banks except at the southern end, at the island of Brondolo, and the town of Chioggia. The barrier here approaches close to the mainland, and the position facilitated the co-operation of the Genoese with the Paduans and Hungarians, but Chioggia is distant from Venice, which could only be reached along the canals across the lagoon. The Venetians had taken up the buoys which marked the fairway, and had placed a light squadron on the lagoon. The allies soon occupied Brondolo.

Battle of Chioggia (August 1379–June 1380)

This wider conflict takes its name from the fishing port town of Chioggia, which had a Venetian garrison of 3,000 men.  The Genoese were reinforced by the Hungarians and Paduans, and suddenly and unexpectedly they attacked the south end of the lagoon, brought her fleet into the channels of the lagoon and, with her allies, stormed and captured Chioggia on 16 August 1379. By mid-August 1379 the allies had Venice encircled.

The Venetian senate applied for peace, but when the Genoese replied that they were resolved to "bit and bridle the Horses of Saint Mark" the Venetians decided to fight to the end.  All Venetian reserves were mobilized and Vittor Pisani, imprisoned after the battle of Pola, was released by popular demand.

During the night of 22 December 1379, under cover of darkness, the doge of Venice Andrea Contarini and Pisani blockaded Chioggia.  They thus cut off the occupying forces from both the Paduans and the Genoese fleet.  After launching this diversionary attack on Chioggia, the Venetians managed to sink obstructions closing every channel by which the Genoese fleet might escape from the cul-de-sac at Chioggia.

The Venetian galley fleet that had been on a raiding expedition in the Mediterranean reached the anchorage off Brondolo on 1 January 1380; this fleet was under the command of Carlo Zeno, who had left on a plundering expedition before the battle of Pola and had been inflicting damage on Genoese trade in the Tyrrhenian and Aegean seas as far as Beirut and Rhodes. Zeno returned home in time to join the blockade of Chioggia.  It was the Genoese who now were encircled.

The attack on Genoese-held Chioggia was now pressed with vigour. The Genoese held out resolutely in the hope of relief from home. Months of skirmishes followed.  The Genoese attempted to clear the barricades in the channels and the Venetians to defend them.  Genoese also failed in an attempt to subdue the mercenaries employed by the Venetians who were besieging them.
The heavy Genoese vessels were much hampered by the shallow water and intricate passages through the lagoon. By taking advantage of their embarrassment and his own local knowledge, Pisani carried out a series of movements which entirely turned the tables on the invaders. Pisani executed a succession of night attacks, during which he sank vessels laden with stones not only in the canals leading through the lagoon to Venice, but in the fairways leading from Chioggia to the open sea round both ends of the island of Brondolo. The Genoese were thus shut in at the very moment when they thought they were about to besiege Venice. Pisani stationed the galleys under his command in the open sea outside Brondolo, and during the rest of the year blockaded the enemy closely. The distress of the Venetians themselves was great, but the Doge Andrea Contarini and the nobles set an example by sharing the general hardships, and taking an oath not to return to Venice till they had recovered Chioggia.

But the resources of Genoa had been taxed to fit out the squadrons she had already sent to sea. It was not until 12 May 1380 that her admiral, Matteo Maruffo, was able to reach the neighbourhood of Brondolo with a relieving force. By this time the Venetians had recovered the island, and their fleet occupied a fortified anchorage from which they refused to be drawn. Maruffo could do nothing, and on  24 June 1380 the defenders of Chioggia surrendered.

The naval Battle of Chioggia took place on 24 June 1380 in the lagoon off Chioggia, resulting in a victory for Venice.  The Genoese, near starvation, surrendered and thus allowed the Venetians to regain control of the Adriatic.

Peace of Turin (1381)

Through the mediation of the "Green Count" of Savoy, Amadeus VI, the two sides made a peace treaty at Turin.  It gave no formal advantage to Genoa or Venice. But it spelled the end of their long competition: Genoese shipping was not seen in the Adriatic after Chioggia.

This conflict saw the first use of shipborne cannons in support of amphibious assault operations and perhaps against Genoese galleys.

The conflict was nearly disastrous for both sides, and Genoa was certainly crippled.  Genoa lost the naval ascendency that the city-state had  enjoyed prior to the war.  Venice might have suffered as badly, were it not for its admirals Vettor Pisani and Carlo Zeno. She regained her strength and continued to impressive maturity until her defeat by the League of Cambrai in 1508.

Notes

References

Conflicts in 1376
Conflicts in 1377
Conflicts in 1378
Conflicts in 1379
Conflicts in 1380
Conflicts in 1381
Chioggia
1370s in Europe
1380s in Europe
14th century in the Republic of Genoa
14th century in the Republic of Venice
Wars involving the Duchy of Milan
Wars involving Hungary

War of Chioggia


The 2006 season was the San Diego Chargers' 37th season in the National Football League (NFL), and the 47th overall.  They improved on their 9–7 record in 2005 and finished the campaign as the No. 1 seed in the AFC ending the season at 14–2, the best record in the NFL in 2006.  Their two regular season losses were by a combined 6 points. The team would experience a brutal home-field playoff loss for the second time in the past three seasons losing in the final minutes, this time to the New England Patriots 24–21. This was the first of four consecutive AFC West titles for the Chargers.

Running back LaDainian Tomlinson led the league in rushing with 1,815 yards, as well as setting NFL single-season records for rushing touchdowns (28) and total touchdowns (31). It was the final season the Chargers wore their powder blue-free uniforms.

The 2006 Chargers are widely considered to be one of the greatest teams to not make the Super Bowl.

Off-season
The Chargers did not re-sign All–Pro quarterback Drew Brees to a contract, Brees had suffered a torn  labrum in his throwing shoulder in the final game of the season, and turned instead to 2004 1st round selection Philip Rivers. Brees would later sign a contract with the New Orleans Saints as a free agent and make a complete recovery.

Chargers ownership announced in January that the team would no longer attempt to place a proposal for a new stadium on the November ballot as they were not able to locate private partners to facilitate financing of the project. The team had begun talks with city officials in 2002 stating that Qualcomm Stadium was inadequate to meet the financial needs of the franchise, and that they needed the city's help in building a new stadium to remain competitive.

2006 NFL Draft
In the NFL Draft, the Chargers used their first pick on Florida State cornerback Antonio Cromartie. They used their second pick on Auburn offensive tackle Marcus McNeill. The remainder of their draft picks were Clemson quarterback Charlie Whitehurst, Iowa State linebacker Tim Dobbins, Kansas State offensive tackle Jeromey Clary, Virginia kicker Kurt Smith, North Carolina defensive end Chase Page, and Virginia Tech offensive tackle Jimmy Martin.

NFL Draft

Training camp

Expectations varied for the Chargers' 2006 season. Questions centered on the play of the untested QB Rivers in his first season starting, and with the offensive line, especially at the crucial left tackle position. OLT Roman Oben injury in 2005 had a negative impact on all aspects of the offense and his replacement Lender Jordan ability to protect QB Rivers blindside was unproven. Jordan was injured in training camp and 2nd round draft pick OT Marcus McNeill landed the starting job and went on to have a Pro Bowl season.  Defensively, the front seven remained talented and solid.  LB depth was tested with Steve Foley's off-the-field injury; however, his replacement OLB Shaun Phillips (42 tackles, 23 assists, 11.5 sacks) came through with a major quality performance.  The unit returned numerous key players, including nose tackle Jamal Williams, DE Luis Castillo, DE Igor Olshansky  and 2005 Defensive Rookie of the Year Shawne Merriman, that made the Chargers the best team in the NFL against the run in 2005 season. Another area of concern was in the secondary,  Cromartie, who sat out his last season at Florida State with a knee injury, is talented but inexperience was not expected to contribute right away . Cromartie filled the 3rd CB role for the team and pressed starting CB Drayton Florence for playing time. Safety play became more of a concern particularly with the arrest of DB Terrence Kiel by federal law enforcement officials on drug charges during the regular season and the re-injury to DB Bhawoh Jue's knee.

Roster

Preseason

Regular season

Schedule

Game summaries

Week 1: at Oakland Raiders

The Chargers opened the season on September 11, 2006, with a 27–0 victory over the division rival Oakland Raiders. This second game of a Monday Night Football doubleheader marked the first time the Chargers had shut out the Raiders since a 44–0 win in 1961.

LaDainian Tomlinson led the Chargers with 31 carries for 131 yards, while Philip Rivers, in his debut as an NFL starting quarterback, completed 8 of 11 pass attempts for 108 yards with one touchdown pass and no interceptions. The Chargers' defense stifled the Raiders' running game, holding Raiders RB Lamont Jordan to 20 yards on 10 carries, and recorded 9 quarterback sacks against Raiders QBs Aaron Brooks and Andrew Walter. Three of those sacks belonged to second-year LB Shawne Merriman.

With the win, the Chargers extended their winning streak against Oakland to six games, while head coach Marty Schottenheimer improved his head coaching record against the Raiders to 26–7. Schottenheimer also earned his 187th career victory, passing Chuck Knox to become the seventh-winning-est head coach in NFL history.

That shutout also marked the second time ever that Oakland had been shut out in their own stadium, the second being the Denver Broncos and the third being the St. Louis Rams as the Chargers picked up their 6th straight win over the Raiders and started their season 1–0.

Week 2: vs. Tennessee Titans

The Chargers hosted the Tennessee Titans in their Week 2 home-opener, winning 40–7. Tomlinson rushed for two touchdowns and tied Lance Alworth for the Chargers record for most career touchdowns with 83.  Vince Young spoiled the Chargers bid for a second straight shutout by throwing a touchdown pass late in the fourth quarter, though the 7 straight quarters of holding the opponent scoreless were the most to open a season since the 1977 Raiders.  With the win, the Chargers went into their bye week at 2–0.

Philip Rivers completed 25 passes out of 35 attempts, racking up 235 yards and a touchdown.

Week 4: at Baltimore Ravens

Coming off of their Bye, the Chargers traveled to M&T Bank Stadium to take on the Baltimore Ravens.  The Chargers drew first blood as QB Philip Rivers completed a 31-yard TD pass to WR Malcom Floyd.  However, the Ravens would tie the game up with QB Steve McNair completing a 5-yard TD pass to TE Daniel Wilcox.  In the second quarter, kicker Nate Kaeding would give the Chargers some comfort, as he kicked a 34-yard and a 54-yard field goal (a then career long) to give San Diego the lead at halftime.

After a scoreless third quarter, the Ravens slowly started to climb back.  Late in the fourth quarter, after giving Baltimore an intentional safety (instead of punting deep from their own end zone), the Chargers hoped that their defense could hold up and prevent any chance of a comeback.  Unfortunately, McNair led the offense throughout the closing minutes and scored the game-winning touchdown with a 10-yard TD pass to TE Todd Heap.  With their loss, the Chargers fell to 2–1.

Week 5: vs. Pittsburgh Steelers

Hoping to rebound from their last-second loss to the Ravens, the Chargers flew back home and donned their throwback uniforms for a Sunday Night match-up with the defending Super Bowl champions, the Pittsburgh Steelers.  The Chargers struggled early as their offense actually had −2 total yards, while the defense gave up a 9-yard TD run by RB Willie Parker in the first quarter.  In the second quarter, the Chargers continued to trail, as Steelers kicker Jeff Reed completed a 39-yard field goal.  San Diego would start to get back into the game, as QB Philip Rivers completed a 9-yard TD pass to WR Malcom Floyd.  In the third quarter, the Chargers charged right into the lead, as kicker Nate Kaeding kicked a 28-yard field goal, while Rivers hooked up with TE Antonio Gates for a 22-yard TD strike.  In the fourth quarter, Kaeding put the game away with a 33-yard and a 22-yard field goal, while the defense squashed any hope of a Steeler comeback as the Chargers improved to 3–1.

Week 6: at San Francisco 49ers

Riding high from their win over Pittsburgh, the Chargers traveled up north to Candlestick Park for a Week 6 fight with their other state rival, the San Francisco 49ers.  In the first quarter, San Diego struck first as QB Philip Rivers completed a 57-yard TD pass to TE Antonio Gates, yet the Niners tied the game with QB Alex Smith completing a 15-yard TD pass to WR Bryan Gilmore. RB LaDainian Tomlinson helped the Chargers retake the lead, as he got a 5-yard TD run.  In a topsy-turvy second quarter, points were flying everywhere.  It began with 49ers kicker Joe Nedney kicking a 42-yard field goal.  Afterwards, the Chargers retook the lead as Rivers hooked up with WR Vincent Jackson on a 33-yard TD strike, followed by Tomlinson getting a 1-yard TD run.  Then, Smith connected with FB Moran Norris on a 2-yard pass for San Francisco, which was followed up with the Niners getting a safety from an intentional grounding penalty. Tomlinson would get another 1-yard TD run to end the quarter.  In the second half, San Diego scored 13 unanswered points to seal the game, with kicker Nate Kaeding kicking two field goals (24-yarder in the third quarter and a 44-yarder in the fourth quarter) and Tomlinson iced the game with one more 5-yard touchdown run.  With their victory, the Chargers improved to 4–1

Week 7: at Kansas City Chiefs

The Chargers flew to Arrowhead Stadium for a Week 7 fight with their AFC West rival, the Kansas City Chiefs.  In the first quarter, San Diego fell behind early with KC QB Damon Huard completing an 11-yard TD pass to TE Kris Wilson and a 21-yard TD pass to WR Eddie Kennison.  In the second quarter, the Chargers got on the board with kicker Nate Kaeding making a 39-yard field goal, yet Kansas City would respond with an 11-yard run by RB Larry Johnson.  Kaeding made a 31-yard field goal for San Diego to end the half.  In the third quarter, both teams swapped touchdowns, as QB Philip Rivers threw a 1-yard TD pass to TE Antonio Gates, while Johnson got a 1-yard TD run.  In the fourth quarter, RB LaDainian Tomlinson caught a 37-yard TD pass and then threw a 1-yard TD pass to TE Brandon Manumaleuna. Kansas City  Chiefs kicker Lawrence Tynes was good on a 53-yard field goal to seal the win for Kansas City, dropping San Diego to 4–2.

Week 8: vs. St. Louis Rams

The Chargers returned home for a Week 8 fight with the St. Louis Rams.  In the first quarter, RB LaDainian Tomlinson completed a 2-yard TD run and a 38-yard TD run.  In the second quarter, the Rams climbed into the contest with RB Steven Jackson completing a 3-yard TD run for the Rams' only score of the period.  In the third quarter, San Diego gained some distance in their lead, as free safety Marlon McCree returned a fumble 79 yards for a touchdown.  St. Louis got a field goal, as kicker Jeff Wilkins hit from 34 yards out.  The Chargers also got a field goal, as kicker Nate Kaeding was good from 31 yards out. In the fourth quarter, San Diego RB Michael Turner scored on a 14-yard TD run, while Rams QB Marc Bulger completed a 7-yard TD pass to WR Shaun McDonald. The Chargers responded with QB Philip Rivers completing a 25-yard TD pass to Tomlinson, while Bulger completed a 6-yard TD pass to WR Kevin Curtis, in favor of St. Louis.  In the end, the Chargers improved to 5–2.

Week 9: vs. Cleveland Browns

The Chargers at home, donned their throwback jerseys and played a Week 9 fight against the Cleveland Browns.  In the first quarter, both sides would limit each other to a field goal.  Chargers kicker Nate Kaeding would complete a 29-yard field goal, while Browns kicker Phil Dawson completed a 37-yard field goal.  In the second quarter, Dawson would help Cleveland take the lead on a 20-yard field goal.  San Diego a defensive touchdown as back as LB Marques Harris recovered a fumble in the Browns end zone.  The Brown's would retake the lead with Dawson nailing a 42-yard and a 30-yard field goal.  In the third quarter, the Chargers RB LaDainian Tomlinson got a 41-yard TD run for the only score of the period. In the fourth quarter, Dawson helped the Browns by converting a 36-yard field goal,  San Diego continued to add to their total with Tomlinson getting a 7-yard TD run.  Dawson would get one more field goal (from 35 yards out), the Chargers continued to score touchdowns as Tomlinson ran one in from 8-yard out. QB Philip Rivers completed a 2-point conversion pass to WR Vincent Jackson.  Afterwards, Cleveland would get its only touchdown of the game, as QB Charlie Frye hooked up with WR Braylon Edwards on a 4-yard pass. In the end, San Diego came out on top and improved to 6–2.

Week 10: at Cincinnati Bengals

In a high scoring contest the San Diego Chargers overcame two 21-point deficits to take down the Cincinnati Bengals on the road. The game started off with Carson Palmer completing 7 of his first 10 passes and with two short runs by Jeremi Johnson and Rudi Johnson plus a long pass to Chad Johnson of 51 yards the Bengals were dominating the Chargers going up 21–0 after the first quarter. The Chargers were able to get things working a little bit in the second quarter with LaDainian Tomlinson running a TD in from 9-yds out to shrink the deficit to 21–7, but a 7-yd pass to Chris Henry finished the first half with the Bengals up 28–7. The Chargers came out for the third quarter and rebounded with a 4-yd run by LT and a 46-yd pass from Philip Rivers to WR Malcom Floyd to make it a 28–21 game. Cincinnati responded by driving down field again; however, this time they had to settle for a field goal to make the score 31–21. Philip Rivers lead the Chargers down field with a 9-play 80-yd drive capped off with a 9-yd strike to TE Brandon Manumaleuna to get within 3 making it 31–28. But the Chargers defense lapsed again with no one covering Johnson when Palmer passed him the ball for a 74-yd reception to make it 38–28. The Chargers drove down field again and ended the third quarter in position to shrink the lead allowing the team to start off the final quarter of play with a 2-yd run to make the score 38–35. Then after the kickoff Chargers Linebacker Shaun Phillips sacked Carson Palmer on first down forcing a fumble that was recovered by the Chargers. A 9-yd run by LaDainian Tomlinson gave the Chargers their first lead by the score of 42–38. The Bengals came within one with a 44-yd kick making it 42–41, but the Bolts were not to be denied as Rivers led yet another drive down field ending with a  shovel pass to Manumaleuna who wasn't covered to make the score 49–41 and the Chargers officially tied their biggest comeback in team history with LaDainian Tomlinson getting 108-yds rushing and 4 rushing TDs and Philip Rivers passing for 24 of 36 and 337 yds with three touchdowns.

With the win, the Chargers improved to 7–2.

Week 11: at Denver Broncos

LaDainian Tomlinson made history by becoming the fastest running back to reach 100 career TDs by doing it in 89 games, eclipsing the mark set by Emmitt Smith and Jim Brown of 93 games. He also continued his march toward beating Shaun Alexander's single-season TD record by scoring 4 TDs to bring his total to 22, just 5 short of tying Alexander's mark. Philip Rivers had a good day as well, throwing 19 of 26 for 222 yards and two TDs, although he did throw two picks including a 31-yard interception return for a TD by Denver cornerback Darrent Williams. The game started out with Tomlinson running it in from 3 yards out to make it 7–0 San Diego. Denver's Mike Bell ran for two TDs in during the 2nd quarter to make it a 14–7 Denver lead at halftime. After the break, Denver continued the scoring with a Jason Elam's 42-yd field goal and Williams INT return to make it a 24–7 lead for Denver. But just like last week against the Bengals, the Chargers wouldn't say die putting together two scoring drives including a 3-yard run by LT, his 100th TD, and a 51-yd pass to LT by Rivers to cut the lead to 24–21 at the end of the third quarter. Elam helped the Broncos' cause by hitting a 38-yd kick to extend the Broncos' lead to 27–21, but that only lasted until Rivers found Vincent Jackson open at the back of the end zone to put the Chargers up 28–27. On the ensuing Broncos drive, Drayton Florence then intercepted Jake Plummer's 4th and 4 pass to give the Bolts terrific field position that set up a 1-yard run by LT to make it 35–27; it was his 4th TD of the night and 102nd of his career. That left Denver 1:14 to try to tie the game. They started that drive from their 3 and made it all the way to the Chargers 32 in part to a personal foul on Chargers defensive end Igor Olshansky, who was ejected for punching Broncos center Tom Nalen. The Broncos' hopes for overtime ended when Plummer was sacked by Shaun Phillips and time ran out, giving San Diego their first win in Denver in 7 years as well as sole position of first place in the AFC West and improved their record to 8–2.

Week 12: vs. Oakland Raiders

LaDainian Tomlinson ran in two TDs and threw for one to give San Diego its third straight comeback win. He then had 21 rushing touchdowns on the year and brought his career QB record to 7 completions out of 10 attempts with 6 touchdowns. Philip Rivers, on the other hand, struggled completing 14 of 31 passes and throwing for only a 133 yards with no touchdowns and 1 interception. The Chargers swept the Raiders and had then won seven straight from Oakland. The scoring started with the Raiders  making it 7–0 after a 1-yard pass from Aaron Brooks to Reshard Lee. The Chargers answered back when Antonio Cromartie returned the ensuing kick 91 yards, which set up a 2-yard run by LT to tie the score at 7–7 going into the half. The Raiders took the lead again on a catch and run by rookie John Madsen that set up a 2-yard pass from Brooks to Madsen to make it 14–7 Oakland.  On 4th and 2, Rivers passed to Vincent Jackson for a first down, but Jackson proceeded to get up and throw the ball forward in celebration, but he hadn't been touched down. The initial ruling was that it was a fumble and Oakland's ball; however, after the officials got together for a conference they declared that since it was an illegal forward fumble that it was technically an illegal forward pass and San Diego was then given back the ball and penalized 5 yards, which was still enough for the first down. The game continued and on the next play, Rivers pitched the ball to Tomlinson as if it were a run play but then threw the ball to an open Antonio Gates to tie the score at 14–14. After forcing Oakland to punt, the Chargers drove down field and LT ran it in from 10 yards out to give the Chargers the 21–14 win.

With the win, the Chargers had won 7 straight games over the Raiders and improved their record to 9–2.

Week 13: at Buffalo Bills

Coming off a season-sweep over the Raiders, the Chargers flew to Ralph Wilson Stadium for a cold Week 13 fight against the throwback-clad Buffalo Bills.  This game would also mark the return of San Diego's star linebacker Shawne Merriman after his four-game suspension for failing a test for performance-enhancing drugs.  In the first quarter, the Chargers drew first blood with kicker Nate Kaeding's 42-yard field goal and RB LaDainian Tomlinson's 51-yard TD run.  In the second quarter, San Diego got the only score of the period with QB Philip Rivers completing an 11-yard TD pass to TE Antonio Gates.  In the third quarter, the Bills started to come back with QB J. P. Losman completing a 5-yard TD pass to TE Robert Royal, while RB Willis McGahee got a 2-yard TD run.  In the fourth quarter, the Chargers distanced themselves from Buffalo with Tomlinson's 2-yard TD run.  The Bills would get another touchdown, with Losman completing a 6-yard pass to WR Peerless Price. San Diego would emerge as the victor.  With their sixth-straight win, the Chargers improved to 10–2.

Week 14: vs. Denver Broncos

The game featured newly appointed rookie Denver QB Jay Cutler. In a stark contrast to the come-from-behind victory against Denver earlier in the season, San Diego scored early and often in this game, leading the game 28–3 at halftime. It was all Denver in the 3rd quarter, the Broncos closing the gap to 28–20, but San Diego bounced back in the fourth quarter with 20 unanswered points, winning the game 48–20. The win, as well as a Kansas City Chiefs loss earlier in the day, clinched the AFC West Division for San Diego. With the Indianapolis Colts also losing earlier in the day, San Diego gained the best record in the AFC (11–2). In addition, with his 7-yard rushing touchdown toward the end of the 4th quarter (his third of the game), RB LaDainian Tomlinson broke the NFL single-season touchdown record (29) (26 Rushing, 3 receiving), set by the Seattle Seahawks' RB Shaun Alexander (28) in the previous season.

Week 15: vs. Kansas City Chiefs

After a 3-point loss earlier in the year, the Chargers were set to split the season series with the Kansas City Chiefs. Kansas City meanwhile was reeling from a loss against Baltimore, and the death of the team's owner, Lamar Hunt. In this game the Chargers were again led to victory by LaDainian Tomlinson who scored twice, breaking the NFL single-season scoring record held by Paul Hornung for the last 46 years. The latter was an 85-yard touchdown rush which is the longest of his career. He also broke Shaun Alexander and Priest Holmes's shared Single Season Rushing TD record by getting 28 rushing touchdowns and added to the record he set last week for total touchdowns with 31 (28 rushing, 3 receiving). Moreover, he set the record for most consecutive Multi-Touchdown Games with 8.

With the win, the Chargers improved to 12–2.

Week 16: at Seattle Seahawks

San Diego took the lead late in the second quarter when Philip Rivers threw a TD to WR Vincent Jackson, giving San Diego a 7–0 lead going into halftime. Rivers had a bad first half completing only 1 of 10 passes, the only completion being a touchdown. The 3rd quarter saw San Diego add to their lead making it 10–0. But Seattle RB Shaun Alexander narrowed the gap with a rushing TD making it 10–7, San Diego would answer back with a field goal to make it 13–7, but on Seattle's ensuing drive they allowed another Alexander TD to make the score 14–13 and they would allow a field goal to give Seattle a 17–13 lead. With time running out San Diego drove down the field and Rivers would connect with a 37-yd pass to Jackson to give the Chargers a 20–17 lead with only :29 seconds remaining. The defense would hold and the Chargers continued their winning ways setting a team record 13th win. The win also clinched a first round bye and set up the Chargers to control their own destiny the next week against Arizona, as a win would clinch them homefield advantage throughout the playoffs.

With the win, the Chargers improved to 13–2.

Week 17: vs. Arizona Cardinals

With the San Diego Chargers on their way to owning the AFC's top seed in the playoffs, Rivers threw two touchdown passes after injuring his right foot, and LaDainian Tomlinson also limped off after wrapping up his first NFL rushing title in leading the Chargers to a 27–20 win over the Arizona Cardinals on Sunday.  The Chargers clinched home-field advantage throughout the AFC playoffs. They'd already earned a first-round bye, which gave Rivers and Tomlinson time to heal. Their exact injuries weren't disclosed. Tomlinson ran for 66 yards, giving him 1,815 and the league rushing title. He beat Larry Johnson of the division rival Kansas City Chiefs, who had 1,789. Tomlinson did not score for the second straight game, but he already was the league's most prolific scorer in a single season, with 31 touchdowns and 186 points.

With the win, the Chargers finished the season at 14–2.

Standings

Postseason

The Chargers had a first-round bye as a result of being the number one seed in the AFC.

Game summary

AFC Divisional Playoffs: vs. New England Patriots

In the divisional playoffs, the New England Patriots faced a San Diego Chargers team who were unbeaten at home in the regular season. The Chargers boasted a roster that included eleven Pro Bowlers, six All-Pro players, and league MVP running back LaDainian Tomlinson, who had shattered several league records. However, four turnovers, three of which were converted into Patriots scoring drives, eventually led to the demise of the Chargers. San Diego ended up losing despite outgaining the Patriots in rushing yards, 148–51 and total yards, 352–327, while also intercepting three passes from Tom Brady.

In the first quarter, after San Diego coach Marty Schottenheimer opted to go for it on 4th-and-11 instead of attempting a 47-yard field goal, quarterback Philip Rivers lost a fumble while being sacked by Mike Vrabel, setting up Stephen Gostkowski's 51-yard field goal with 40 seconds left in the period. In the second quarter, Chargers receiver Eric Parker's 13-yard punt return set up a 48-yard scoring drive that ended with LaDainian Tomlinson's 2-yard touchdown run, giving his team a 7–3 lead. Then, on the Patriots' next drive, linebacker Donnie Edwards intercepted a pass from Brady and returned it to the 41-yard line. But the Chargers ended up punting after Rivers was sacked on third down by defensive back Artrell Hawkins. Later in the quarter, Tomlinson rushed twice for 13 yards and took a screen pass 58 yards to the Patriots' 6-yard line, setting up a 6-yard touchdown run by Michael Turner with 2:04 left in the half. New England responded with a 72-yard scoring drive, with receiver Jabar Gaffney catching four passes for 46 yards, including a 7-yard touchdown reception with six seconds left in the half, cutting their deficit to 14–10.

In the third quarter, Brady threw his second interception of the game.  But once again, the Chargers were forced to punt after Rivers was sacked on third down. Mike Scifres' 36-yard punt pinned New England back at their own 2-yard line, and San Diego subsequently forced a punt, but Parker muffed the kick and New England's David Thomas recovered the fumble at the Chargers' 31-yard line. New England's drive seemed to stall after Brady fumbled on 3rd and 13. Patriots' tackle Matt Light recovered it and Chargers defensive back Drayton Florence drew a 15-yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalty for a personal foul. The drive continued and Gostkowski eventually kicked a 34-yard field goal to cut their deficit to 14–13. Then, on San Diego's next drive, linebacker Rosevelt Colvin made an interception of a Rivers pass at the New England 36-yard line. The Patriots then drove to the Chargers 41-yard line, but were halted there and had to punt. After the punt, Rivers completed two passes to tight end Antonio Gates for 31 yards and a 31-yard pass to Vincent Jackson, setting up Tomlinson's second rushing touchdown to give the Chargers an 8-point lead, 21–13.

New England responded by driving to San Diego's 41-yard line. On a fourth-down conversion attempt, Brady's pass was intercepted by Marlon McCree, but Troy Brown stripped the ball, and receiver Reche Caldwell recovered it. Schottenheimer then called a timeout challenging the officials call of interception and fumble by McCree. The Chargers forfeited the time out when the official ruling of the play was upheld. Four plays later, Brady threw a 4-yard touchdown pass to Caldwell. On the next play, running back Kevin Faulk took a direct snap and scored the two-point conversion, tying the game. Then, after forcing a punt, Brady completed a 19-yard pass to Daniel Graham. Two plays later, Caldwell caught a 49-yard pass down the right sideline to set up Gostkowski's third field goal (a 31 yarder) to give them a 24–21 lead with only 1:10 left in the fourth quarter. With no timeouts left, San Diego drove to the Patriots 36-yard line on their final possession, but Nate Kaeding's 54-yard field goal attempt fell short with three seconds remaining in the game.

After the game, the Patriots erupted in a controversial celebration, mocking the "Lights Out" dance of LB Shawne Merriman and stomping on the Chargers mid-field logo which made Chargers' quarterback Philip Rivers and running back LaDainian Tomlinson confront Patriots players. The controversy was a response to remarks made by Schottenheimer after the Chargers snapped the Patriots 21-game home winning streak in 2005 where he noted "I'll have to be honest. During the course of the week, I wondered, 'Is there a breaking point, where all of a sudden you can't find enough fingers to plug the dike?'," referencing the injuries the Patriots faced early in the 2005 season.

Gaffney finished with ten catches for 103 yards and a touchdown. Tomlinson rushed for 123 yards, caught two passes for 64 yards, and scored two touchdowns.

With the brutal loss, it ended the Chargers' season with an overall record of 14–3.

Scoring
First quarter
NE – Stephen Gostkowski 50 yd FG, :40. Patriots 3–0. Drive: 9 plays, 33 yards, 4:35.
Second quarter
SD – LaDainian Tomlinson 2 yd TD run (Kaeding kick), 7:19. Chargers 7–3. Drive: 9 plays, 48 yards, 4:31.
SD – Michael Turner 6 yd TD run (Kaeding kick), 2:04. Chargers 14–3. Drive: 4 plays, 77 yards, 2:23.
NE – Jabar Gaffney 6 yd TD pass from Tom Brady (Gostkowski kick), :08. Chargers 14–10. Drive: 11 plays, 72 yards, 1:56.
Third quarter
NE – Stephen Gostkowski 34 yd FG, 2:11. Chargers 14–13. Drive: 7 plays, 15 yards, 3:09.
Fourth quarter
SD – LaDainian Tomlinson 3 yd TD run (Kaeding kick), 8:35. Chargers 21–13. Drive: 9 plays, 83 yards, 4:44.
NE – Reche Caldwell 4 yd TD pass from Tom Brady (Kevin Faulk 2 pt conversion run), 4:36. Tied 21–21. Drive: 5 plays, 32 yards, 1:40.
NE – Stephen Gostkowski 31 yd FG, 1:10. Patriots 24–21. Drive: 8 plays, 72 yards, 2:16.

Pro Bowl
The San Diego Chargers had more Pro Bowlers for the 2006 season than any other team, with a total of 11. This included QB Philip Rivers (who did not play due to a foot injury), RB LaDainian Tomlinson, K Nate Kaeding, OLB Shawne Merriman, T Jamal Williams, OC Nick Hardwick, FB Lorenzo Neal, ST Kassim Osgood, TE Antonio Gates, LT Marcus McNeil, and LS David Binn.

Awards and records
 LaDainian Tomlinson, Bert Bell Award
LaDainian Tomlinson, NFL MVP
LaDainian Tomlinson, Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year
LaDainian Tomlinson, NFL Offensive Player of the Year

References

San Diego Chargers
San Diego Chargers seasons
AFC West championship seasons
San Diego

2006 San Diego Chargers season


Borage ( or ; Borago officinalis), also known as starflower, is an annual herb in the flowering plant family Boraginaceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region, and has naturalized in many other locales.

It grows satisfactorily in gardens in most of Europe, such as Denmark, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, remaining in the garden from year to year by self-seeding. The leaves are edible and the plant is grown in gardens for that purpose in some parts of Europe.

The plant is also commercially cultivated for borage seed oil extracted from its seeds.

The plant contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids, some of which are hepatotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic (see below under Phytochemistry).

Description

B. officinalis grows to a height of , and is bristly or hairy all over the stems and leaves; the leaves are alternate, simple, and  long.

The flowers are complete, perfect with five narrow, triangular-pointed petals. Flowers are most often blue, although pink flowers are sometimes observed. White-flowered types are also cultivated. The blue flower is genetically dominant over the white flower.

The flowers arise along scorpioid cymes to form large floral displays with multiple flowers blooming simultaneously, suggesting that borage has a high degree of geitonogamy (intraplant pollination).

It has an indeterminate growth habit, which may lead to prolific spreading. In temperate climates such as in the UK, its flowering season is relatively long, from June to September. In milder climates, borage blooms continuously for most of the year.

Characteristics and uses

Traditionally, borage was cultivated for culinary and medicinal uses, although today, commercial cultivation is mainly as an oilseed.

Borage is used as either a fresh vegetable or a dried herb. As a fresh vegetable, borage, with a cucumber-like taste, is often used in salads or as a garnish.

The flower has a sweet, honey-like taste and is often used to decorate desserts and cocktails, sometimes frozen in ice cubes.

Food
Vegetable use of borage is common in Germany, in the Spanish regions of Aragón and Navarre, on the Greek island of Crete, and in the northern Italian region of Liguria.

Although often used in soups, one of the better known German borage recipes is the Frankfurt speciality grüne Soße ("green sauce").

In Liguria, Italy, borage (in Italian, borragine) is commonly used as a filling of the traditional pasta ravioli and pansoti.

It is used to flavour pickled gherkins in Poland and Russia.

The flowers produce copious nectar which is used by honeybees to make a light and delicate honey.

Beverage
Borage is traditionally used as a garnish in the Pimms Cup cocktail, but is nowadays often replaced by a long sliver of cucumber peel or by  mint. It is also one of the key botanicals in Gilpin's Westmorland Extra Dry Gin.

In Persian cuisine, borage tea (using the dried purple flowers) is called گل گاوزبان : gol gâvzabân, "cow's-tongue-flower".

Phytochemistry

The seeds contain 26–38% of borage seed oil, of which 17–28% is gamma-linolenic acid (GLA, an Omega-6 oil), the richest known source.

The oil also contains the fatty acids palmitic acid (10–11%), stearic acid (3.5–4.5%), oleic acid (16–20%), linoleic acid (35–38%), eicosenoic acid (3.5–5.5%), erucic acid (1.5–3.5%), and nervonic acid (1.5%).

The oil is often marketed as "starflower oil" or "borage oil" for use as a GLA supplement, although healthy adults typically produce ample GLA from dietary linoleic acid.

The leaves contain small amounts (2–10 ppm of dried herb) of the liver-toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) intermedine, lycopsamine, amabiline, and supinine and the nontoxic saturated PA thesinine.  PAs are also present in borage seed oil, but may be removed by processing.

The German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment has advised that honey from borage contains PAs, transferred to the honey through pollen collected at borage plants, and advise that commercial honey production could select for raw honey with limited PA content to prevent contamination.

Herbal medicine

Traditionally, Borago officinalis has been used in hyperactive gastrointestinal, respiratory and cardiovascular disorders, such as gastrointestinal (colic, cramps, diarrhea), airways (asthma, bronchitis), cardiovascular, (cardiotonic, antihypertensive and blood purifier), urinary (diuretic and kidney/bladder disorders).

One case of status epilepticus has been reported that was associated with borage oil ingestion.

A methanol extract of borage has shown strong amoebicidal activity in vitro. The 50% inhibitory concentration () of the extract against Entamoeba histolytica was 33 µg/mLl.

In history
Pliny the Elder and Dioscorides said that borage was the nepenthe (νηπενθές : nēpenthés) mentioned in Homer, which caused forgetfulness when mixed with wine.

King Henry VIII's last wife, Catherine Parr, used borage in a concoction to treat melancholy.

Francis Bacon  thought that borage had "an excellent spirit to repress the fuliginous vapour of dusky melancholie."

John Gerard's Herball mentions an old verse concerning the plant: "Ego Borago, Gaudia semper ago (I, Borage, bring always joys)". He asserts:

Companion planting
Borage is used in companion planting. It is said to protect or nurse legumes, spinach, brassicas, and even strawberries. It is also said to be a good companion plant to tomatoes because it confuses the mother moths of tomato hornworms or manduca looking for a place to lay their eggs. Claims that it improves tomato growth and makes them taste better remain unsubstantiated.

See also
 List of companion plants

References

External links

https://persianmama.com/chai-gol-gavzaban-brewed-borage-tea/

https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/557179785128125722/

Boraginoideae
Herbs
Leaf vegetables
Medicinal plants of Asia
Flora of Europe
Edible plants

Borage


Khepri is a god in Egyptian mythology. He is a sun god who is often believed to be the third form of Ra, because of this he has a connection to rebirth. Khepri is the god of scarabs and Dung beetles. Looking at the actions of dung beetles pushing around small balls of dung, it was believed that Khepri was the god who pushed the sun in its orbit.

Egyptian gods and goddesses

Khepri


GetJar is an independent mobile phone app store founded in Lithuania in 2004, with offices in Vilnius, Lithuania and San Mateo, California
.

History
The company was founded by Ilja Laurs in 2004, who is currently its Executive Chairman and Chris Dury is the CEO. Accel Partners and Tiger Global Management are among the investors.

GetJar was started by developers for developers in 2004 as an app beta testing platform. The platform started making free apps available in early 2005.

In February 2014, GetJar was acquired by Sungy Mobile. Sungy is based in China and is said to have paid over $5 million in cash and the then market value of $35 million in Sungy stocks.

As of early 2015, the company provides more than 849,036 mobile apps across major mobile platforms including Java ME, BlackBerry, Symbian, Windows Mobile and Android and has over 3 million downloads per day. GetJar allows software developers to upload their applications for free through a developer portal. In June 2010, about 300,000 software developers added apps to GetJar resulting in over one billion downloads. In July 2011, GetJar had over two billion downloads.

See also
 List of digital distribution platforms for mobile devices

References

External links
 Official website (Mobile)

Mobile software distribution platforms
Android (operating system) software
Lithuanian brands
Internet properties established in 2004
Companies based in Vilnius
Lithuanian companies established in 2004

GetJar


The Central Baptist Association is an association of churches located from South Carolina to Indiana, with most of the churches being in eastern Tennessee and southwestern Virginia. In 1956, some churches of the Eastern District Primitive Baptist Association separated and formed the Central Baptist Association. The churches entering this new organization desired to be more progressive and to provide a home for homeless and destitute children. They adopted the name Central Baptist "as an indication of our acceptance of the Holy Scriptures in their entirety, varying neither to the right or left" (Minutes, 1996, p.4). In 1996 there were almost 4000 members in 34 churches located in five states. Currently they have headquarters in Jasper, Virginia, including a tabernacle, a children's home and a youth Bible camp.

"The work of the Association includes the building of a fellowship of churches to provide, first for a general union of churches; second, to preserve inviolable a chain of communion among the churches; third, to give the churches all necessary advice and help in matters of church difficulty, so far as this is possible by peaceful methods: assisting churches in a Sunday School program for all ages, weekly prayer meetings, worship services, a monthly business meeting, an active youth program, Bible teaching, evangelistic and missionary work, visitation program, aiding established churches in organizing new churches and related projects; also support a home for adults and a children's home, youth camp, and Bible camp for all ages." (Minutes, 1996, p.4)

Sources
 Central Baptist Association minutes
 Baptists Around the World, by Albert W. Wardin, Jr.
 Handbook of Denominations, by Frank S. Mead and Samuel Hill

Christian organizations established in 1956
Baptist denominations in the United States
Baptist denominations established in the 20th century

Central Baptist Association


The Office of the Colorado State Public Defender provides legal assistance to individuals charged with a crime in Colorado state court who are financially unable to retain private counsel. The office consists of 21 regional trial offices, a centralized appellate office that handles appeals from every jurisdiction, and a centralized state administrative office.

History
In 1963, after Gideon v. Wainwright, the Colorado General Assembly passed the Colorado Defender Act. This Act authorized Colorado counties to either establish a public defender's office or remain under the previous ad hoc system of appointing counsel for indigent citizens accused of criminal offenses. Four county public defender offices were established under the Act: Denver, Brighton, Pueblo and Durango. In 1970, the State Legislature passed Senate Bill 126, which created the Office of the State Public Defender as an independent state agency.

Initially, the Colorado Supreme Court appointed the Colorado State Public Defender. Rollie R. Rogers was the first State Public Defender. He served from October 1969 through February 1978. On August 1, 1982, David F. Vela was appointed State Public Defender. He fulfilled the responsibilities of the office for more than 17 years, until his retirement on December 31, 1999. David S. Kaplan became the State Public Defender and served from January 1, 2000 until October 31, 2006. Upon his resignation, Douglas K. Wilson was appointed the 6th State Public Defender, effective November 1, 2006. After Douglas Wilson's retirement in July 2018, Megan A. Ring was appointed the 7th State Public Defender, and currently heads the organization. Ms. Ring is the first female appointed to the position.

Offices
The Public Defender has offices throughout Colorado: Alamosa, Arapahoe, Boulder, Brighton, Colorado Springs, Denver, Dillon, Douglas, Durango, Fort Collins, Glenwood Springs, Golden, Grand Junction, Greeley, La Junta, Montrose, Pueblo, Salida, Steamboat Springs, Sterling, and Trinidad.

Notable defenders and alumni
 Robert E. Allen
 Michael L. Bender
 John L. Kane Jr.
 Claire Levy
 Larry Pozner
 Nancy E. Rice
 Nicholas Sarwark

References

External links
 Official website

State agencies of Colorado
Legal aid in the United States
Criminal defense organizations
Public defense institutions

Colorado State Public Defender