Vehicle insurance (also known as car insurance, motor insurance, or auto insurance) is insurance for cars, trucks, motorcycles, and other road vehicles. Its primary use is to provide financial protection against physical damage or bodily injury resulting from traffic collisions and against liability that could also arise from incidents in a vehicle. Vehicle insurance may additionally offer financial protection against theft of the vehicle, and against damage to the vehicle sustained from events other than traffic collisions, such as keying, weather or natural disasters, and damage sustained by colliding with stationary objects. The specific terms of vehicle insurance vary with legal regulations in each region.

History
Widespread use of the motor car began after the First World War in urban areas. Cars were relatively fast and dangerous by that stage, yet there was still no compulsory form of car insurance anywhere in the world. This meant that injured victims would rarely get any compensation in a crash, and drivers often faced considerable costs for damage to their car and property.

A compulsory car insurance scheme was first introduced in the United Kingdom with the Road Traffic Act 1930. This ensured that all vehicle owners and drivers had to be insured for their liability for injury or death to third parties while their vehicle was being used on a public road. Germany enacted similar legislation in 1939 called the "Act on the Implementation of Compulsory Insurance for Motor Vehicle Owners."

Public policies

In many jurisdictions, it is compulsory to have vehicle insurance before using or keeping a motor vehicle on public roads. Most jurisdictions relate insurance to both the car and the driver; however, the degree of each varies greatly.

Several jurisdictions have experimented with a "pay-as-you-drive" insurance plan which utilizes either a tracking device in the vehicle or vehicle diagnostics. This could address issues of uninsured motorists by providing additional options and also charge based on the distance driven, which could theoretically increase the efficiency of the insurance, through streamlined collection.

Australia
In Australia, every state has its own Compulsory Third-Party (CTP) insurance scheme. CTP covers only personal injury liability in a vehicle crash. Comprehensive and Third-Party Property Damage, with or without Fire and Theft  insurance, are sold separately.
 Comprehensive insurance covers damages to third-party vehicles, other third-party property and the insured vehicle.
 Third-Party Property Damage insurance covers damage to third-party property and vehicles, but not the insured vehicle.
 Third-Party Property Damage with Fire and Theft insurance covers the insured vehicle against fire and theft as well as damage to third-party property and vehicles.

Compulsory Third-Party Insurance

CTP insurance is compulsory in every state in Australia and is paid as part of vehicle registration. It covers the vehicle owner and any person who drives the vehicle against claims for liability for death or injury to people caused by the fault of the vehicle owner or driver. CTP may include any kind of physical harm, bodily injuries and may cover the cost of all reasonable medical treatment for injuries received in the crash, loss of wages, cost of care services and, in some cases, compensation for pain and suffering. Each state in Australia has a different scheme.

Third-Party Property insurance or Comprehensive insurance covers the third party with the repairing cost of the vehicle, any property damage or medication expenses as a result of a crash by the insured. They are not to be confused with Compulsory Third-Party insurance, which is for injuries or death of someone in a motor crash.

In New South Wales, each vehicle must be insured before it can be registered. It is often called a 'greenslip', because of its colour. There are five licensed CTP insurers in New South Wales. Suncorp holds licences for GIO and AAMI and Allianz holds one licence. The remaining two licences are held by QBE and NRMA Insurance (NRMA). APIA and Shannons and InsureMyRide insurance also supply CTP insurance licensed by GIO.

A privately provided scheme also applies in the Australian Capital Territory through AAMI, APIA, GIO and NRMA. Vehicle owners pay for CTP as part of their vehicle registration.

In Queensland, CTP is included in the registration fee for a vehicle. There is a choice of private insurer – Allianz, QBE, RACQ and Suncorp and price is government controlled.

In South Australia, since July 2016, CTP is no longer provided by the Motor Accident Commission. The government has now licensed four private insurers – AAMI, Allianz, QBE and SGIC – to offer CTP insurance SA. Since July 2019, vehicle owners can choose their own CTP insurer and new insurers may also enter the market.

There are three states and one territory that do not have a private CTP scheme. In Victoria, the Transport Accident Commission provides CTP through a levy in the vehicle registration fee, known as the TAC charge. A similar scheme exists in Tasmania through the Motor Accidents Insurance Board. A similar scheme applies in Western Australia, through the Insurance Commission of Western Australia (ICWA). The Northern Territory scheme is managed through Territory Insurance Office (TIO).

Bangladesh
For all types of motor insurance policies in Bangladesh, the limit of liability has been fixed by the law. Currently, the limits are too low to compensate the victims. In respect of Act Only Liability Motor Vehicle Insurance, the compensation for personal injuries and property damage to third parties is BDT 20,000 for death, BDT 10,000 for severe injury, BDT 5,000 for injury, and BDT 50,000 for property damage. The limits are under review by the governmental bodies.

Canada
Several Canadian provinces (British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Quebec) provide a public auto insurance system while in the rest of the country insurance is provided privately. The third-party insurance is privatized in Quebec and is mandatory. The province covers everything but the vehicle(s). Basic auto insurance is mandatory throughout Canada (with some exceptions, such as government vehicles) with each province's government determining which benefits are included as minimum required auto insurance coverage and which benefits are options available for those seeking additional coverage. Accident benefits coverage is mandatory everywhere except for Newfoundland and Labrador. All provinces in Canada have some form of no-fault insurance available to crash victims. The difference from province to province is the extent to which tort or no-fault is emphasized. International drivers entering Canada are permitted to drive any vehicle their licence allows for the three-month period for which they are allowed to use their international licence. International laws provide visitors to the country with an International Insurance Bond (IIB) until this three-month period is over in which the international driver must provide themselves with Canadian Insurance. The IIB is reinstated every time the international driver enters the country. Damage to the driver's own vehicle is optional – one notable exception to this is in Saskatchewan, where SGI provides collision coverage (less than a $1000 deductible, such as a collision damage waiver) as part of its basic insurance policy. In Saskatchewan, residents have the option to have their auto insurance through a tort system but less than 0.5% of the population have taken this option.

Facility insurance policies are offered by the "facility association residual market" (or "FARM"), as a last resort since auto insurance is mandatory in Canada, for private and commercial high-risk drivers who cannot buy a policy in the voluntary market (regular auto insurance).

China
Traffic Compulsory Insurance provides protection in the event of third party injuries, third party property losses, etc. The minimum liability cover is RMB180,000 for death and injury/per crash, RMB18,000 for medical expense, and RMB2,000 for physical loss. Additional 3rd Party Liability Insurance  also known as Commercial Motor Insurance provides extra cover up to RMB10,000,000 excluding the driver and passengers. Driver and Passenger insurance covers the driver and passengers, whilst Vehicle Damage and Theft Insurance covers vehicle damage and the objects contained inside. Excess Waiver Insurance is an additional option that waives any deductibles.

Some differences apply in different regions:

Hong Kong
According to section 4(1) of the Motor Vehicles Insurance (Third-Party Risks) Ordinance (Cap. 272 of the Laws of Hong Kong), all users of a car, include its permitted users, must have insurance or some other security with respect to third-party risks. Third party insurance protects the policyholder against liability of death or bodily injury to third party up to HK$100,000,000 and/or damage to third party property up to HK$2,000,000 as a result of crash arising out of the use of the insured vehicle. Comprehensive Motor Insurance is also available.

Macau
The mandatory minimum legal requirement Third Party Liability ("TPL") Cover is MOP1,500,000 per crash and MOP30,000,000 per year, protecting against the legal liability arising from a traffic crash causing loss and damages to any third party.. Comprehensive Motor Insurance is also available.

European Union

In the European Union, the insurance is compulsory with minimum amounts:
 in the case of personal injury, a minimum amount of cover of €1,000,000 per victim or €5,000,000 per claim, whatever the number of victims;
 in the case of damage to property, €1,000,000 per claim, whatever the number of victims.

In some European languages, comprehensive insurance is known as casco.

Germany

Since 1939, it has been compulsory to have third-party personal insurance before keeping a motor vehicle in all federal states of Germany. In addition, every vehicle owner is free to take out a comprehensive insurance policy. All types of car insurance are provided by several private insurers. The amount of insurance contribution is determined by several criteria, like the region, the type of car or the personal way of driving.

The minimum coverage defined by German law for car liability insurance / third-party personal insurance is €7,500,000 for bodily injury (damage to people), €500,000 for property damage and €50,000 for financial/fortune loss which is in no direct or indirect coherence with bodily injury or property damage. Insurance companies usually offer all-in/combined single limit insurance policies of €50,000,000 or €100,000,000 (about €141,000,000) for bodily injury, property damage and other financial/fortune loss (usually with a bodily injury coverage limitation of €8–15,000,000 for each bodily injured person).

Hungary
Third party vehicle insurance is mandatory for all vehicles in Hungary. No exemption is possible by money deposit. The premium covers all damage up to HUF 500m (about €1.8m) per crash without deductible. The coverage is extended to HUF 1,250m (about €4.5m) in case of personal injuries. Vehicle insurance policies from all EU countries and some non-EU countries are valid in Hungary based on bilateral or multilateral agreements. Visitors with vehicle insurance not covered by such agreements are required to buy a monthly, renewable policy at the border.

Indonesia

Third-party vehicle insurance is a mandatory requirement in Indonesia and each individual car and motorcycle must be insured or the vehicle will not be considered legal; this compulsory auto insurance is legally called the Road Traffic Accidents Compulsory Coverage Fund (, DPWKLLJ). Therefore, a motorist cannot drive the vehicle until it is insured. DPWKLLJ was introduced in 1964 and merely covers body injuries, and is operated by a SOE called . DPWKLLJ is included, through an annual premium called the Compulsory Donation to the Road Traffic Accident Fund (, SWDKLLJ), in the annual vehicle tax which is paid to the local Samsat (Sistem Administrasi Manunggal di bawah Satu Atap), which is responsible for cars and roads.

India

Auto insurance in India covers the loss of or damage caused to the automobile or its parts due to natural and man-made calamities. It provides accident cover for individual owners of the vehicle while driving and also for passengers and third party legal liability. There are certain general insurance companies who also offer online insurance service for the vehicle.

Auto insurance is a compulsory requirement for all new vehicles used whether for commercial or personal use. Insurance companies have tie-ups with leading automobile manufacturers. They offer their customers instant auto quotes. Premiums are determined by a number of factors and the amount of premium increases with the rise in the price of the vehicle. The claims of the auto insurance in India can be accidental, theft claims or third party claims. Certain documents are required for claiming auto insurance, like duly signed claim form, RC copy of the vehicle, driving license copy, FIR copy, original estimate and policy copy.

There are different types of auto insurance in India:

Private car insurance – the fastest growing sector in India as it is compulsory for all new cars. The amount of premium depends on the make and value of the car, state where the car is registered and the year of manufacture. This amount can be reduced by asking the insurer for a no claim bonus (NCB) if no claim is made for insurance in previous year.
Two wheeler insurance – covers accidental insurance for the driver of the vehicle. The amount of premium depends on the current showroom price multiplied by the depreciation rate fixed by the Tariff Advisory Committee at the beginning of a policy period.
Commercial vehicle insurance – provides cover for all the vehicles which are not used for personal purposes like trucks and HMVs. The amount of premium depends on the showroom price of the vehicle at the commencement of the insurance period, make of the vehicle and the place of registration of the vehicle.

Auto insurance generally includes:
 Loss or damage by crash, fire, lightning, self ignition, external explosion, burglary, housebreaking or theft, malicious act
 Liability for third-party injury/death, third-party property and liability to paid driver
 On payment of appropriate additional premium, loss/damage to electrical/electronic accessories

Auto insurance generally does not include:
 Consequential loss, depreciation, mechanical and electrical breakdown, failure or breakage
 When the vehicle is used outside the geographical area covered by the policy
 War or nuclear perils and drunken driving

Third party insurance
Third party insurance cover is mandatory under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988. This cover cannot be used for personal damages. This is offered at low premiums and allows for third party claims under "no-fault liability". The premium is calculated through the rates provided by the Tariff Advisory Committee. This is a branch of the IRDA (Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India). It covers bodily injury/accidental death and property damage.

Ireland
The Road Traffic Act, 1933 requires all drivers of mechanically propelled vehicles in public places to have at least third-party insurance, or to have obtained exemption – generally by depositing a (large) sum of money to the High Court as a guarantee against claims. In 1933, this figure was set at £15,000. The Road Traffic Act, 1961 (which is currently in force) repealed the 1933 act but replaced these sections with functionally identical sections.

From 1968, those making deposits require the consent of the Minister for Transport to do so, with the sum specified by the Minister.

Those not exempted from obtaining insurance must obtain a certificate of insurance from their insurance provider, and display a portion of this (an insurance disc) on their vehicles' windscreen (if fitted). The certificate in full must be presented to a police station within ten days if requested by an officer. Proof of having insurance or an exemption must also be provided to pay for the motor tax.

Those injured or suffering property damage/loss due to uninsured drivers can claim against the Motor Insurance Bureau of Ireland's uninsured drivers fund, as can those injured (but not those suffering damage or loss) from hit and run offences.

Italy
The law 990/1969 requires that each motor vehicle or trailer standing or moving on a public road have third-party insurance (called RCA, ). Historically, a part of the certificate of insurance must be displayed on the windscreen of the vehicle. This latter requirement was revoked in 2015, when a national database of insured vehicles was built by the Insurance Company Association (ANIA, ) and the National Transportation Authority () to verify (by private citizens and public authorities) if a vehicle is insured. There is no exemption policy to this law disposition.

Driving without the necessary insurance for that vehicle is an offence that can be prosecuted by the police and fines range from 841 to 3,287 euros. Police forces also have the power to seize a vehicle that does not have the necessary insurance in place, until the owner of the vehicle pays a fine and signs a new insurance policy. The same provision is applied when the vehicle is standing on a public road.

Minimal insurance policies cover only third parties (including the insured person and third parties carried with the vehicle, but not the driver, if the two do not coincide). Third parties, fire and theft is a common insurance policy, while the all-inclusive policies (kasko policy) which include also damages of the vehicle causing the crash or the injuries. It is also common to include a renounce clause of the insurance company to compensate the damages against the insured person in some cases (usually in case of DUI or other infringement of the law by the driver).

The victims of crashes caused by non-insured vehicles could be compensated by the Road's Victim Warranty Fund (), which is covered by a fixed amount (2.5%, as 2015) of each RCA insurance premium.

Netherlands
Third-party vehicle insurance is a mandatory requirement for every vehicle in the Netherlands. This obligation is mandatory based on article 2 of the . When a vehicle is not insured the owner will receive a fine from the RDW (). The third-party vehicle insurance is called a  where WA stands for  which means legal liability. In general there are three types of auto insurance in the Netherlands:  (liability insurance),  (limited frame coverage), and  (full frame coverage). Limited frame and full frame coverage will provide more coverage against certain additional risks which are not covered by the mandatory legal third-party coverage. For example limited frame coverage will provide coverage against damage caused by the weather such as storm and flooding. Also fire damage and theft of the car is covered. Full frame coverage will provide coverage against all risks mentioned plus damage to the car caused by the driver himself.

New Zealand
Within New Zealand, the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) provides nationwide no-fault personal injury insurance. Injuries involving motor vehicles operating on public roads are covered by the Motor Vehicle Account, for which premiums are collected through levies on petrol and through vehicle licensing fees.

Norway
In Norway, the vehicle owner must provide the minimum liability insurance for his/her vehicle(s) – of any kind. Otherwise, the vehicle is illegal to use. If a person drives a vehicle belonging to someone else and has a crash, the insurance will cover for damage done. Note that the policy carrier can choose to limit the coverage to only apply for family members or persons over a certain age.

Romania
Romanian law mandates Răspundere Auto Civilă, a motor-vehicle liability insurance for all vehicle owners to cover damages to third parties.

Russian Federation
Motor vehicle liability insurance is mandatory for all owners in Russian legislation. Insurance of the vehicle itself is technically voluntary, but may be mandated in some circumstances, e.g. if the car is leased.

South Africa
South Africa allocates a percentage of the money from fuel into the Road Accident Fund, which goes towards compensating third parties in crashes.

Spain
Each motor vehicle on a public road is required to have third party insurance (called ).

Police forces have the power to seize vehicles that do not have the necessary insurance in place, until the owner of the vehicle pays the fine and signs a new insurance policy. Driving without the necessary insurance for that vehicle is an offence that will be prosecuted by the police and will receive a penalty. The same provision is applied when the vehicle is standing on a public road.

The minimum insurance policy covers only third parties (including the insured person and third parties carried with the vehicle, but not the driver, if the two do not coincide). Third parties, fire and theft is a common insurance policy.

Victims of accidents caused by non-insured vehicles may be compensated by a Warranty Fund, which is covered by a fixed amount for each insurance premium.

Since 2013 it is possible to contract an insurance by days as is possible in countries such as Germany and the UK.

United Arab Emirates
When buying car insurance in the United Arab Emirates, the traffic department requires a 13-month insurance certificate each time a person registers or renews a vehicle registration. In Dubai, vehicle insurance is compulsory as per the UAE RTA law. There are two types of motor insurance policies in Dubai, Third-Party Liability Insurance and Comprehensive Motor Insurance.

It is mandatory to have third-party liability insurance for every individual vehicle owner in Dubai. This insurance policy is the most basic form of vehicle insurance Dubai as it covers the third-party property damage or bodily injuries caused by the insured vehicle.

Policyholder's own vehicle damage such as fire, theft, and accidental collision is not covered under the third-party liability insurance policy.

United Kingdom

In 1930, the UK Government introduced a law that required every person who used a vehicle on the road to have at least third-party personal injury insurance. Today, this law is contained in the Road Traffic Act 1988 (generally referred to as the RTA 1988 as amended). Section 143 of that Act requires that motorists be insured against liability for injuries to others (including passengers) and for damage to other persons' property, resulting from use of a vehicle on a public road or in other public places.

Formerly, an alternative to compulsory insurance existed, whereby an individual could make a specified deposit (£500,000 in 1991) and keep the sum deposited with the Accountant General of the Supreme Court. However, this option was abolished in 2019.

It is an offence to use a motor vehicle, or allow others to use it without insurance that satisfies the requirements of the Act. This requirement applies while any part of a vehicle (even if a greater part of it is on private land) is on the public highway. No such legislation applies on private land. However, private land to which the public have a reasonable right of access (for example, a supermarket car park during opening hours) is considered to be included within the requirements of the Act.

Police have the power to seize vehicles that do not appear to have necessary insurance in place. A driver caught driving without insurance for the vehicle he/she is in charge of for the purposes of driving, is liable to be prosecuted by the police and, upon conviction, will receive either a fixed penalty or magistrate's courts penalty.

The registration number of the vehicle shown on the insurance policy, along with other relevant information including the effective dates of cover are transmitted electronically to the UK's Motor Insurance Database (MID) which exists to help reduce incidents of uninsured driving in the territory. The Police are able to spot-check vehicles that pass within range of automated number plate recognition (ANPR) cameras, that can search the MID instantly. Proof of insurance lies entirely with the issue of a Certificate of Motor Insurance, or cover note, by an Authorised Insurer which, to be valid, must have been previously 'delivered' to the insured person in accordance with the Act, and be printed in black ink on white paper.

The insurance certificate or cover note issued by the insurance company constitutes the only legal evidence that the policy to which the certificate relates satisfies the requirements of the relevant law applicable in Great Britain, Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Island of Guernsey, the Island of Jersey and the Island of Alderney. The Act states that an authorised person, such as a police officer, may require a driver to produce an insurance certificate for inspection. If the driver cannot show the document immediately on request, and evidence of insurance cannot be found by other means such as the MID, then the Police are empowered to seize the vehicle instantly.

The immediate impounding of an apparently uninsured vehicle replaces the former method of dealing with insurance spot-checks where drivers were issued with an HORT/1 (so-called because the order was form number 1 issued by the Home Office Road Traffic dept). This 'ticket' was an order requiring that within seven days, from midnight of the date of issue, the driver concerned was to take a valid insurance certificate (and usually other driving documents as well) to a police station of the driver's choice. Failure to produce an insurance certificate was, and still is, an offence. The HORT/1 was commonly known – even by the issuing authorities when dealing with the public – as a "Producer". As these are seldom issued now and the MID relied upon to indicate the presence of insurance or not, it is incumbent upon the insurance industry to accurately and swiftly update the MID with current policy details and insurers that fail to do so can be penalised by their regulating body.

Vehicles kept in the UK must now be continuously insured unless a Statutory Off Road Notification (SORN) has been formally submitted. This requirement arose following a change in the law in June 2011 when a regulation known as Continuous Insurance Enforcement (CIE) came into force. The effect of this was that in the UK a vehicle that is not declared SORN, must have a valid insurance policy in force whether or not it is kept on public roads and whether or not it is driven.

Insurer, and Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) / licence data, are shared by the relevant authorities including the police and this forms an integral part of the mechanism of CIE. All UK registered vehicles, including those that are exempt from VED (for example, Historic Vehicles and cars with low or zero emissions) are subject to the VED taxation application process. Part of this is a check on the vehicle's insurance. A physical receipt for the payment of VED was issued by way of a paper disc which, prior to 1 October 2014, meant that all motorists in the UK were required to prominently display the tax disc on their vehicle when it was kept or driven on public roads. This helped to ensure that most people had adequate insurance on their vehicles because insurance cover was required to purchase a disc, although the insurance must merely have been valid at the time of purchase and not necessarily for the life of the tax disc.  To address the problems that arise where a vehicle's insurance was subsequently cancelled but the tax disc remained in force and displayed on the vehicle and the vehicle then used without insurance, the CIE regulations are now able to be applied as the Driver & Vehicle Licence Authority (DVLA) and the MID databases are shared in real-time meaning that a taxed but uninsured vehicle is easily detectable by both authorities and Traffic Police. From 1 October 2014, it is no longer a legal requirement to display a vehicle excise licence (tax disc) on a vehicle. This has come about because the whole VED process can now be administered electronically and alongside the MID, doing away with the expense, to the UK Government, of issuing paper discs.

If a vehicle is to be "laid up" for whatever reason, a Statutory Off Road Notification (SORN) must be submitted to the DVLA to declare that the vehicle is off the public roads and will not return to them unless the SORN is cancelled by the vehicle's owner. Once a vehicle has been declared 'SORN' then the legal requirement to insure it ceases, although many vehicle owners may desire to maintain cover for loss of or damage to the vehicle while it is off the road. A vehicle that is then to be put back on the road must be subject to a new application for VED and be insured. Part of the VED application requires an electronic check of the MID, in this way the lawful presence of a vehicle on the road for both VED and insurance purposes is reinforced. It follows that the only circumstances in which a vehicle can have no insurance is if it has a valid SORN; was exempted from SORN (as untaxed on or before 31 October 1998 and has had no tax or SORN activity since); is recorded as 'stolen and not recovered' by the Police; is between registered keepers; or is scrapped.

Road Traffic Act Only Insurance differs from Third-Party-Only Insurance (detailed below) and is not often sold, unless to underpin, for example, a corporate body wishing to self-insure above the requirements of the Act. It provides the very minimum cover to satisfy the requirements of the Act. Road Traffic Act Only Insurance has a limit of £1,000,000 for damage to third-party property, while third-party-only insurance typically has a greater limit for third-party property damage.

Motor insurers in the UK place a limit on the amount that they are liable for in the event of a claim by third parties against a legitimate policy. This can be explained in part by the Great Heck Rail Crash that cost the insurers over £22,000,000 in compensation for the fatalities and damage to property caused by the actions of the insured driver of a motor vehicle that caused the disaster. No limit applies to claims from third parties for death or personal injury, however UK car insurance is now commonly limited to £20,000,000 for any claim or series of claims for loss of or damage to third-party property caused by or arising out of one incident.

The minimum level of insurance cover generally available, and which satisfies the requirement of the Act, is called third-party-only insurance. The level of cover provided by Third-party-only insurance is basic, but does exceed the requirements of the act. This insurance covers any liability to third parties, but does not cover any other risks.

More commonly purchased is third party, fire and theft. This covers all third-party liabilities and also covers the vehicle owner against the destruction of the vehicle by fire (whether malicious or due to a vehicle fault) and theft of the insured vehicle. It may or may not cover vandalism. This kind of insurance and the two preceding types do not cover damage to the vehicle caused by the driver or other hazards.

Comprehensive insurance covers all of the above and damage to the vehicle caused by the driver themselves, as well as vandalism and other risks. This is usually the most expensive type of insurance. It is custom in the UK for insurance customers to refer to their Comprehensive Insurance as "Fully Comprehensive" or popularly, "Fully Comp". This is a tautology as the word 'Comprehensive' means full.

Some classes of vehicle ownership, or use, are "Crown Exempt" from the requirement to be covered under the Act including vehicles owned or operated by certain councils and local authorities, national park authorities, education authorities, police authorities, fire authorities, health service bodies, the security services and vehicles used to or from Shipping Salvage purposes. Although exempt from the requirement to insure, this provides no immunity against claims being made against them, so an otherwise Crown Exempt authority may choose to insure conventionally, preferring to incur the known expense of insurance premiums rather than accept the open-ended exposure of effectively, self-insuring under Crown Exemption.

The Motor Insurers' Bureau (MIB) compensates the victims of road crashes caused by uninsured and untraced motorists. It also operates the MID, which contain details of every insured vehicle in the country and acts as a means to share information between insurance companies.

Soon after the introduction of the Road Traffic Act in 1930, unexpected issues arose when motorists needed to drive a vehicle other than their own in genuine emergency circumstances. Volunteering to move a vehicle, for example, where another motorist had been taken ill or been involved in a crash, could lead to the "assisting" driver being prosecuted for no insurance if the other car's insurance did not cover use by any driver. To alleviate this loophole, an extension to UK Car Insurances was introduced allowing a Policyholder to personally drive any other motor car not belonging to him/her and not hired to him/her under a hire purchase or leasing agreement. This extension of cover, known as "Driving Other Cars" (where it is granted) usually applies to the Policyholder only. The cover provided is for Third-Party Risks only and there is absolutely no cover for loss of, or damage to the vehicle being driven. This aspect of UK motor insurance is the only one that purports to cover the driving of a vehicle, not use.

On 1 March 2011, the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg ruled that gender could no longer be used by insurers to set car insurance premiums. The new ruling came into action from December 2012.

Investigation into repair costs and fraudulent claims

In September 2012, it was announced that the Competition Commission had launched an investigation into the UK system for credit repairs and credit hire of an alternative vehicle leading to claims from third parties following an crash. Where their client is considered to be not at fault, Accident Management Companies will take over the running of their client's claim and arrange everything for them, usually on a 'No Win – No Fee' basis. It was shown that the insurers of the at-fault vehicle, were unable to intervene in order to have control over the costs that were applied to the claim by means of repairs, storage, vehicle hire, referral fees and personal injury. The subsequent cost of some items submitted for consideration has been a cause for concern over recent years as this has caused an increase in the premium costs, contrary to the general duty of all involved to mitigate the cost of claims. Also, the recent craze of "Cash for crash" has substantially raised the cost of policies. This is where two parties arrange a collision between their vehicles and one driver making excessive claims for damage and non-existent injuries to themselves and the passengers that they had arranged to be "in the vehicle" at the time of the collision. Another recent development has seen crashes being caused deliberately by a driver "slamming" on their brakes so that the driver behind hits them, this is usually carried out at roundabouts, when the following driver is looking to the right for oncoming traffic and does not notice that the vehicle in front has suddenly stopped for no reason. The 'staging' of a motor collision on the Public Highway for the purpose of attempting an insurance fraud is considered by the Courts to be organised crime and upon conviction is dealt with as such.

United States

The regulations for vehicle insurance differ with each of the 50 US states and other territories, with each U.S. state having its own mandatory minimum coverage requirements (see separate main article). 48 U.S. states and the District of Columbia require drivers to have insurance coverage for both bodily injury and property damage, with New Hampshire and Virginia being the exception, but the minimum amount of coverage required by law varies by state. For example, minimum bodily injury liability coverage requirements range from $30,000 in Arizona to $100,000 in Alaska and Maine, while minimum property damage liability requirements range from $5,000 to $25,000 in most states.

Malaysia
In Malaysia, renewing car insurances is a very common thing. In general, there are four types of car insurance available for Malaysians:

 Act cover
This is the minimum cover corresponding to the terms of the Road Transport Act 1987. The insurance concerns the legal liability for death or physical injury to the third party (not include the passengers), so it is hardly ever written by insurers.

 Third-party coverage
This type is compulsory to buy for every vehicle so it is the most basic and common car insurance, which insures you against claims for the injury or damage to the third party or its property in a crash.

 Third-party, fire, and theft coverage
In addition to third-party coverage, this policy also provides insurance for your own vehicle due to fire, crash or theft.

 Comprehensive coverage
This policy provides the widest coverage, i.e. the third party's physical injury and death, third party's vehicle damage and your own vehicle's damage caused by fire, theft or a crash. This type of insurance is usually designed for luxury vehicles.

Coverage levels
Vehicle insurance can cover some or all of the following items:
 The insured party (medical payments)
 Property damage caused by the insured
 The insured vehicle (physical damage)
 Third parties (car and people, property damage and bodily injury)
 Third party, fire and theft
 In some jurisdictions coverage for injuries to persons riding in the insured vehicle is available without regard to fault in the auto crash (No Fault Auto Insurance)
 The cost to rent a vehicle if yours is damaged.
 The cost to tow your vehicle to a repair facility.
 Crashes involving uninsured motorists.

Different policies specify the circumstances under which each item is covered. For example, a vehicle can be insured against theft, fire damage, or crash damage independently.

If a vehicle is declared a total loss and the vehicle's market value is less than the amount that is still owed to the bank that is financing the vehicle, GAP insurance may cover the difference.  Not all auto insurance policies include GAP insurance.  GAP insurance is often offered by the finance company at time the vehicle is purchased.

Excess

An excess payment, also known as a deductible, is a fixed contribution that must be paid each time a car is repaired with the charges billed to an automotive insurance policy. Normally this payment is made directly to the crash repair "garage" (the term "garage" refers to an establishment where vehicles are serviced and repaired) when the owner collects the car. If one's car is declared to be a "write-off" (or "totaled"), then the insurance company will deduct the excess agreed on the policy from the settlement payment it makes to the owner.

If the crash was the other driver's fault, and this fault is accepted by the third party's insurer, then the vehicle owner may be able to reclaim the excess payment from the other person's insurance company.

The excess itself can also be protected by a motor excess insurance policy.

Compulsory excess
A compulsory excess is the minimum excess payment the insurer will accept on the insurance policy. Minimum excesses vary according to the personal details, driving record and the insurance company. For example, young or inexperienced drivers and types of incident can incur additional compulsory excess charges.

Voluntary excess
To reduce the insurance premium, the insured party may offer to pay a higher excess (deductible) than the compulsory excess demanded by the insurance company. The voluntary excess is the extra amount, over and above the compulsory excess, that is agreed to be paid in the event of a claim on the policy. As a bigger excess reduces the financial risk carried by the insurer, the insurer is able to offer a significantly lower premium.

Basis of premium charges

Depending on the jurisdiction, the insurance premium can be either mandated by the government or determined by the insurance company, in accordance with a framework of regulations set by the government. Often, the insurer will have more freedom to set the price on physical damage coverages than on mandatory liability coverages.

When the premium is not mandated by the government, it is usually derived from the calculations of an actuary, based on statistical data. The premium can vary depending on many factors that are believed to affect the expected cost of future claims. Those factors can include the car characteristics, the coverage selected (deductible, limit, covered perils), the profile of the driver (age, gender, driving history) and the usage of the car (commute to work or not, predicted annual distance driven).

Neighbourhood
The address of the owner can affect the premiums. Areas with high crime rates generally lead to higher costs of insurance.

Gender
Because male drivers, especially younger ones, are on average often regarded as tending to drive more aggressively, the premiums charged for policies on vehicles whose primary driver is male are often higher. This discrimination may be dropped if the driver is past a certain age.

On 1 March 2011, the European Court of Justice decided insurance companies who used gender as a risk factor when calculating insurance premiums were breaching EU equality laws. The Court ruled that car-insurance companies were discriminating against men. However, in some places, such as the UK, companies have used the standard practice of discrimination based on profession to still use gender as a factor, albeit indirectly. Professions which are more typically practised by men are deemed as being more risky even if they had not been prior to the Court's ruling while the converse is applied to professions predominant among women. Another effect of the ruling has been that, while the premiums for men have been lowered, they have been raised for women. This equalisation effect has also been seen in other types of insurance for individuals, such as life insurance.

Age
Teenage drivers who have no driving record will have higher car insurance premiums. However, young drivers are often offered discounts if they undertake further driver training on recognized courses, such as the Pass Plus scheme in the UK. In the US many insurers offer a good-grade discount to students with a good academic record and resident-student discounts to those who live away from home. Generally insurance premiums tend to become lower at the age of 25. Some insurance companies offer "stand alone" car insurance policies specifically for teenagers with lower premiums. By placing restrictions on teenagers' driving (forbidding driving after dark, or giving rides to other teens, for example), these companies effectively reduce their risk.

Senior drivers are often eligible for retirement discounts, reflecting the lower average miles driven by this age group. However, rates may increase for senior drivers after age 65, due to increased risk associated with much older drivers. Typically, the increased risk for drivers over 65 years of age is associated with slower reflexes, reaction times, and being more injury-prone.

U.S. driving history
In most U.S. states, moving violations, including running red lights and speeding, assess points on a driver's driving record. Since more points indicate an increased risk of future violations, insurance companies periodically review drivers' records, and may raise premiums accordingly. Rating practices, such as debit for a poor driving history, are not dictated by law. Many insurers allow one moving violation every three to five years before increasing premiums. Crashes affect insurance premiums similarly. Depending on the severity of the crash and the number of points assessed, rates can increase by as much as twenty to thirty percent. Any motoring convictions should be disclosed to insurers, as the driver is assessed by risk from prior experiences while driving on the road.

Marital status
Statistics show that married drivers average fewer crashes than the rest of the population so policy owners who are married often receive lower premiums than single persons.

Profession
The profession of the driver may be used as a factor to determine premiums. Certain professions may be deemed more likely to result in damages if they regularly involve more travel or the carrying of expensive equipment or stock or if they are predominant either among women or among men.

Vehicle classification
Two of the most important factors that go into determining the underwriting risk on motorized vehicles are: performance capability and retail cost. The most commonly available providers of auto insurance have underwriting restrictions against vehicles that are either designed to be capable of higher speeds and performance levels, or vehicles that retail above a certain dollar amount. Vehicles that are commonly considered luxury automobiles usually carry more expensive physical damage premiums because they are more expensive to replace. Vehicles that can be classified as high performance autos will carry higher premiums generally because there is greater opportunity for risky driving behavior. Motorcycle insurance may carry lower property-damage premiums because the risk of damage to other vehicles is minimal, yet have higher liability or personal-injury premiums, because motorcycle riders face different physical risks while on the road. Risk classification on automobiles also takes into account the statistical analysis of reported theft, accidents, and mechanical malfunction on every given year, make, and model of auto.

Distance
Some car insurance plans do not differentiate in regard to how much the car is used. There are however low-mileage discounts offered by some insurance providers. Other methods of differentiation would include over-road distance between the ordinary residence of a subject and their ordinary, daily destinations.

Reasonable distance estimation
Another important factor in determining car insurance premiums involves the annual mileage put on the vehicle, and for what reason. Driving to and from work every day at a specified distance, especially in urban areas where common traffic routes are known, presents different risks than how a retiree who does not work any longer may use their vehicle. Common practice has been that this information was provided solely by the insured person, but some insurance providers have started to collect regular odometer readings to verify the risk.

Odometer-based systems
Cents Per Mile Now (1986) advocates classified odometer-mile rates, a type of usage-based insurance. After the company's risk factors have been applied, and the customer has accepted the per-mile rate offered, then customers buy prepaid miles of insurance protection as needed, like buying gallons of gasoline (litres of petrol). Insurance automatically ends when the odometer limit (recorded on the car's insurance ID card) is reached, unless more distance is bought. Customers keep track of miles on their own odometer to know when to buy more. The company does no after-the-fact billing of the customer, and the customer does not have to estimate a "future annual mileage" figure for the company to obtain a discount. In the event of a traffic stop, an officer could easily verify that the insurance is current, by comparing the figure on the insurance card to that on the odometer.

Critics point out the possibility of cheating the system by odometer tampering. Although the newer electronic odometers are difficult to roll back, they can still be defeated by disconnecting the odometer wires and reconnecting them later. However, as the Cents Per Mile Now website points out:
As a practical matter, resetting odometers requires equipment plus expertise that makes stealing insurance risky and uneconomical. For example, to steal  of continuous protection while paying for only the 2000 in the 35000 to 37000 range on the odometer, the resetting would have to be done at least nine times, to keep the odometer reading within the narrow  covered range. There are also powerful legal deterrents to this way of stealing insurance protection. Odometers have always served as the measuring device for resale value, rental and leasing charges, warranty limits, mechanical breakdown insurance, and cents-per-mile tax deductions or reimbursements for business or government travel. Odometer tampering, detected during claim processing, voids the insurance and, under decades-old state and federal law, is punishable by heavy fines and jail.

Under the cents-per-mile system, rewards for driving less are delivered automatically, without the need for administratively cumbersome and costly GPS technology. Uniform per-mile exposure measurement for the first time provides the basis for statistically valid rate classes. Insurer premium income automatically keeps pace with increases or decreases in driving activity, cutting back on resulting insurer demand for rate increases and preventing today's windfalls to insurers, when decreased driving activity lowers costs but not premiums.

GPS-based system
In 1998, the Progressive Insurance company started a pilot program in Texas, in which drivers received a discount for installing a GPS-based device that tracked their driving behavior and reported the results via cellular phone to the company.  The program was discontinued in 2000. In following years many policies (including Progressive) have been trialed and successfully introduced worldwide into what are referred to as Telematic Insurance. Such 'telematic' policies typically are based on black-box insurance technology, such devices derive from a stolen vehicle and fleet tracking but are used for insurance purposes. Since 2010 GPS-based and Telematic Insurance systems have become more mainstream in the auto insurance market not just aimed at specialised auto-fleet markets or high value vehicles (with an emphasis on stolen vehicle recovery). Modern GPS-based systems are branded as 'PAYD' Pay As You Drive insurance policies, 'PHYD' Pay How You Drive or since 2012 Smartphone auto insurance policies which utilise smartphones as a GPS sensor. A detailed survey of the smartphone as measurement probe for insurance telematics is provided in

OBDII-based system
The Progressive Corporation launched Snapshot to give drivers a customized insurance rate based on recording how, how much, and when their car is driven. Snapshot is currently available in 46 states plus the District of Columbia. Because insurance is regulated at the state level, Snapshot is currently not available in Alaska, California, Hawaii, and North Carolina. Driving data is transmitted to the company using an on-board telematic device. The device connects to a car's OnBoard Diagnostic (OBD-II) port (all petrol automobiles in the USA built after 1996 have an OBD-II.) and transmits speed, time of day and number of miles the car is driven. Cars that are driven less often, in less-risky ways, and at less-risky times of day, can receive large discounts. Progressive has received patents on its methods and systems of implementing usage-based insurance and has licensed these methods and systems to other companies.

Metromile also uses an OBDII-based system for their mileage-based insurance. They offer a true pay-per-mile insurance where behavior or driving style is not taken into account, and the user only pays a base rate along with a fixed rate per mile. The OBD-II device measures mileage and then transmits mileage data to servers. This is supposed  to be an affordable car insurance policy for low-mileage drivers. Metromile is currently only offering personal car insurance policies and is available in California, Oregon, Washington, and Illinois.

Credit ratings
Insurance companies have started using credit ratings of their policyholders to determine risk. Drivers with good credit scores get lower insurance premiums, as it is believed that they are more financially stable, more responsible and have the financial means to better maintain their vehicles. Those with lower credit scores can have their premiums raised or insurance canceled outright. It has been shown that good drivers with spotty credit records could be charged higher premiums than bad drivers with good credit records.

Behavior-based insurance
The use of non-intrusive load monitoring to detect drunk driving and other risky behaviors has been proposed. A US patent application combining this technology with a usage-based insurance product to create a new type of behavior based auto insurance product is currently open for public comment on peer to patent. See Behavior-based safety. Behaviour based Insurance focusing upon driving is often called Telematics or Telematics2.0 in some cases monitoring focus upon behavioural analysis such as smooth driving.

Repair insurance

Auto repair insurance is an extension of car insurance available in all 50 of the United States that covers the natural wear and tear on a vehicle, independent of damages related to a car crash.

Some drivers opt to buy the insurance as a means of protection against costly breakdowns unrelated to a crash. In contrast to more standard and basic coverages such as comprehensive and collision insurance, auto repair insurance does not cover a vehicle when it is damaged in a collision, during a natural disaster or at the hands of vandals.

For many it is an attractive option for protection after the warranties on their cars expire.

Providers can also offer sub-divisions of auto repair insurance. There is standard repair insurance which covers the wear and tear of vehicles, and naturally occurring breakdowns. Some companies will only offer mechanical breakdown insurance, which only covers repairs necessary when breakable parts need to be fixed or replaced. These parts include transmissions, oil pumps, pistons, timing gears, flywheels, valves, axles and joints.

In several countries insurance companies offer direct repair programs (DRP) so that their customers have easy access to a recommended car body repair shop. Some also offer one-stop shopping where a damaged car can get dropped off and an adjuster handles the claim, the car is fixed and often a replacement rental car is provided. When repairing the vehicle the car body repair shop is obliged to follow the instructions regarding the choice of original equipment manufacturer (OEM), original equipment supplier parts (OES), Matching Quality spare parts (MQ) and generic replacement parts. Both DRPs and non OEM parts help to keep costs down and keep insurance prices competitive. AIRC (International Car body repair Association) General Secretary Karel Bukholczer made clear that DRP's have had big impact on car body repair shops.

See also
 Alcohol exclusion laws
 Assigned risk
 Automobile costs
 Damage waiver for rental cars
 Extended coverage
 Family purpose doctrine
 Guaranteed asset protection insurance
 Health insurance
 International Motor Insurance Card System
 Insurance Information and Enforcement System
 Omnibus clause

References

External links

Types of insurance
Car costs

Vehicle insurance


Lina Ben Mhenni () (22 May 1983 – 27 January 2020) was a Tunisian Internet activist, blogger and lecturer in linguistics at Tunis University. She was internationally recognised for her work during the 2011 Tunisian revolution and in the following years.

Activism

A renowned blogger

Ben Mhenni's blog, A Tunisian Girl, is written in Arabic, English, and French. During the rule of former Tunisian President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali until 2011, Ben Mhenni was one of the few bloggers to blog using her real name rather than adopting a pseudonym to protect her identity. Her blog, as well as her Facebook and Twitter accounts, were censored under the Ben Ali regime.

Ben Mhenni began posting photos and video of protests of those injured throughout Tunisia. In an effort to make the government responsible for its actions and to the people who were harmed in these uprisings, she visited local hospitals and took pictures of those harmed by police.

Tunisian Revolution
In May 2010, Ben Mhenni was among the core organizers of a protest in Tunis against the government's suppression of media and censorship of the internet.

In January 2011, she covered the early weeks of the Tunisian Revolution from Sidi Bouzid Governorate in the interior of the country. Ben Mhenni was the only blogger present in the interior cities of Kasserine and Regueb when government forces massacred and suppressed protesters in the region. Her reports and posts provided uncensored information to other Tunisian activists and the international media.

Continued activism

Since the Tunisian Revolution began and until she died, Ben Mhenni played a prominent role amongst Tunisia's bloggers and democracy activists. She participated in the interim government's reforms to media and information laws, but resigned shortly after. She continued to work in tracking press freedom and human rights in the country.

She was vocal against continuing corruption in the Tunisian regime, criticized the Islamist party Ennahda for a "double discourse" that espoused reactionary views on social media while its leaders presented a different image to traditional media, and demanded the release of Alaa Abdel-Fatah upon his arrest in October 2011. In a 2014 editorial for CNN, she wrote that her activism after Ben Ali's overthrow had led to her receiving death threats and requiring close protection of the police.

Ben Mhenni stated that Tunisia's revolution "cannot be called an internet revolution", and insisted that the revolution against Ben Ali was fought "on the ground" through demonstrations and resistance. She also stated her belief that "action in the digital world must be combined with actions in the real world." She was quoted as saying: "It is not enough to publish a status, or a video, or share a hashtag. You have to work in the field, meet people, and be present during the demonstrations."

She continued to act on her words until she died. Along with her father, she started an initiative to create libraries in prisons to promote culture and counter terrorism. In her final months, she denounced the state of hospitals in the Tunisian capital.

Personal life
Ben Mhenni's parents were both activists; her father, Sadok, was a political prisoner, and her mother Emna was part of the student union movement. Ben Mhenni suffered from Lupus. In 2007, she received a kidney transplant from her mother and became very vocal about the importance of organ donation. In 2007 and 2009, she participated in the World Transplant Games, winning several medals.

Recognition

In 2011, Ben Mhenni was reported to have been a candidate for the Nobel Peace Prize for her contributions and activism during the Tunisian Revolution, along with Egyptian human rights defenders Israa Abdel Fattah and Wael Ghonim.

In October 2011, she won El Mundo's International Journalism Prize for her "fight for freedom".

She was awarded the Deutsche Welle International Blog Award for "A Tunisian Girl" in April 2011. The awards were presented as part of the Deutsche Welle Global Media Forum on 20 June 2011 in Bonn, Germany. "I'll continue my work and try to protect the fruits of the revolution", she said during the ceremony.

In November 2012, she was awarded the Sean MacBride Peace Prize by the International Peace Bureau (IPB).

On 3 March 2020, La Poste Tunisienne published a stamp with her portrait. It is part of a series of stamps aimed at honouring those who have fought for the liberty of expression, for free access to the internet, and for human rights.

In May 2020, The Delegation of the European Union to Tunisia launched the Prix Lina Ben Mhenni pour la liberté d'expression (The Lina Ben Mhenni Prize for the Liberty of Expression). It will honour the best articles defending the principles and values of democracy, the freedoms and rights shared by Tunisia and the European Union.

Works

Death

Ben Mhenni died on 27 January 2020, aged 36, in a hospital, was caused by a stroke resulting from complications of an autoimmune disease. Media outlets from different countries highlighted the relevance of her work and contribution to the human rights struggle in the country and the region.

See also
 Tunisian revolution
 Arab Spring
 Amira Yahyaoui
 Slim Amamou
 Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
 Mohammed Bouazizi
 Randa Kassis
 List of conflicts in Africa
 History of Tunisia
Global Voices

References

External links
A Tunisian Girl blog

1983 births
2020 deaths
21st-century Tunisian women writers
Internet activists
Kidney transplant recipients
People of the Tunisian Revolution
Academic staff of Tunis University
Place of death missing
Tunisian bloggers
Tunisian women bloggers
Tunisian democracy activists
Tunisian women activists

Lina Ben Mhenni


James Wilcox (born April 4, 1949 in Hammond, Louisiana) is an American novelist and a professor at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge. James Wilcox worked at Random House and Doubleday in New York after graduating from Yale. Wilcox was a recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1986.

Wilcox is the author of nine comic novels mostly set in, or featuring characters from, the fictional town of Tula Springs, Louisiana:
 Modern Baptists (1983)
 North Gladiola (1985)
 Miss Undine's Living Room (1987)
 Sort of Rich (1989)
 Polite Sex (1991)
 Guest of a Sinner (1993)
 Plain and Normal (1998)
 Heavenly Days (2003)
 Hunk City (2007)
Wilcox's first book Modern Baptists remains his best known work.

Guest of a Sinner is set in New York City with characters from Tallahassee. Polite Sex and Plain and Normal are set mainly in New York City, but they do have a few characters who come from Tula Springs.

Wilcox is also the author of three short stories that were published in The New Yorker between 1981 and 1986. He was the subject of an article by James B. Stewart in The New Yorker's 1994 summer fiction issue; entitled "Moby Dick in Manhattan", it detailed his struggle to survive as a writer devoted purely to literary fiction.

Wilcox's book reviews have appeared in The New York Times Book Review, The Los Angeles Times Book Review, and Elle. He has been a judge for the Hemingway Foundation/PEN Award for the best first-published book of fiction by an American writer published in 1991; for the 1994 Barnes & Noble Discover Great New Writers Award; for the Pirate's Alley Faulkner Society novella contest in 1999; and for the Eudora Welty Prize for Fiction given by The Southern Review in 2005. He was the recipient of an ATLAS grant for 2007-08. Wilcox was the recipient of the 2011 Louisiana Writer Award presented by the Louisiana Center for the Book in the State Library of Louisiana at its annual Louisiana Book Festival.

He was the Robert Penn Warren Professor at LSU from 2004–2007 and then Donald and Velvia Crumbley Professor from 2007–2010. LSU recognized him as the 2008 Distinguished Research Master of Arts, Humanities, & Social Sciences. In 2009 he won an LSU Distinguished Faculty Award. Wilcox currently has held the MacCurdy Distinguished Professorship since 2010. He also serves as Director of Creative Writing at LSU.

References

External links
 New Yorker article "Moby Dick in Manhattan"
 New York Times review of Hunk City
 Louisiana Writer Award: James Wilcox

1949 births
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
Living people
Louisiana State University faculty
Writers from Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Yale University alumni
People from Hammond, Louisiana
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from Louisiana

James Wilcox (novelist)


The Rakatu Wetlands is a 270 ha wetland restoration project in the South Island of New Zealand. They officially opened on 18 March 2006.

It is administered by the Waiau Fisheries and Wildlife Habitat Enhancement Trust.  The Trust was set up in 1996 to address the environmental effects of the construction of the Manapouri Power Station. Since much of the natural flow of the Waiau River was diverted through the power station and out to sea the ecological characteristics of the river and the wetlands were changed due to lower river levels.

The Trust has constructed walkways and interpretation panels at the wetland.

See also
Wetlands of New Zealand
Conservation in New Zealand

References

External links
Waiau Fisheries and Wildlife Habitat Enhancement Trust

Wetlands of Southland, New Zealand
Protected areas of Southland, New Zealand
Protected areas established in 2006

Rakatu Wetlands


Nallur (; ) is an affluent suburb in  Jaffna, Sri Lanka.  It is located 3 km south from Jaffna city centre. Nallur is most famous for Nallur Kandaswamy temple, one of Sri Lanka's most sacred place of pilgrimage for Sri Lankan Hindus. Nallur is also famous for being the historical capital of the old Jaffna Kingdom and birthplace of renowned philosopher and theologian, Arumuka Navalar.

Etymology
The name Nall-ur was colloquially used by natives in Jaffna to refer to the town as the 'place of high castes'. The first part of the word Nallur ( Nall ) derives from the Tamil word 'Nalla' which means 'good'. In the past, it was Tamil linguistic tradition to refer to somebody of a higher or more socially upward caste as 'Nalla akkal' (good people). The second part to the name ( Ur ) means place or region.

This loosely used name for the town is believed to have been adopted in the 17th century, replacing its original regal name of 'Singai Nagar' after the collapse of the Jaffna Kingdom.

History
Nallur's proclamation as capital can be traced to the earliest origins of the Jaffna Kingdom by the first Aryacakravarti king, Kalinga Magha while Kopay was second capital of the Jaffna Kingdom. For years it was the focal point at which political, religious and cultural importance was built and domain of the ruling elite of royalty, ministers and other officials of the kingdom. Soon after its proclamation as capital, in 948 A.D the first temple was built by Puvenaya Vaku, chief minister to King Kalinga Magha for Lord Murugan in a place called Kurukkal Valavu in Nallur.

The mid 15th century witnessed invading Sinhalese armies sent from the south to capture the capital Nallur and bring Jaffna under the suzerainty of Kotte. At the helm of this operation was Prince Sapumal Kumaraya (Bhuvanekabahu VI of Kotte) – who successfully ousted the native Tamil king of Jaffna Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan to India to instead instate himself as regional ruler. The early years of his rule were noted as being oppressive with the destruction of Nallur temple in 1450 and the renaming of Nallur with the Sinhalese name 'Srirangabodhi Bhuvanesubagu'. However, later regretting his actions Prince Sapumal Kumaraya embarked on building programmes to heighten the splendor of Nallur's past. Fueled by this, in 1457 efforts begun to reconstructing the temple a few kilometers eastwards from its original location to a place called 'Muthirai Chanthai' which was then a bustling market place. The death of  Prince Sapumal Kumaraya's father Parakramabahu VI in 1467 consequently left  Prince Sapumal Kumaraya no other choice but to leave Nallur to take kingship over the Kingdom of Kotte. With the absence of Prince Sapumal Kumaraya, the Tamil kingdom quickly re-established itself with the return of Kanakasooriya Cinkaiariyan to Nallur.

In 1621 a new threat from invading Portuguese imperialist brought an end to the four centuries-long Aryacakravarti dynasty once and for all. Commandor Philip de Oliverira sanctioned Nallur temple be destroyed to its foundations again along with all the royal palace buildings and any other buildings hinting of the past glory of the capital. All that remains is the facade of what is believed to have once been the gateway to one of the palace buildings. This is now mapped as 'Sangali Thoppu'. The very spot on which the 15th century Nallur Kandaswamy temple was located now stands St. James' Church, Nallur, erected by the Portuguese but later rebuilt and changed from the denomination of the Roman Catholic Church into Anglican during British occupancy in 1827.

Under a calmer Dutch rule, permission was eventually secured for the temple to be built at its original site in Kurukkal Valavu. Given its long history of demolition it was thought a simpler style was best suited for the reconstruction of the temple rather than anything heavily ornate. Though the temple has undergone a series of changes in appearance, it remains in the present site from when it was rebuilt in 1749.
During the thirty-year-long civil war Nallur was seen as a comparatively safe haven for people living across the Jaffna peninsula. The strict no fire zone imposed by the Sri Lankan Air Force over Nallur temple in 1987 resulted in a wave of displaced people from all over the peninsula seeking refuge in the temple and its immediate surroundings.

Tradition
All of the historical information contained above is based on local tradition, or word of mouth handed down from father to son. Documentary proof to substantiate the transition of the capital from the Aryachakrvarti rule through to Colonial rule and to modern times remains rather blurred. However, there is a verbal tradition accepted by the older families and peoples of the peninsula that deals with the transition of the town of Nallur during the last days of the Kingdom of Jaffna which reads as follows: This information citing the  is found on a Wikipedia article titled Tissanayagam family and on a corresponding website maintained by the family.
The Yalpana Vaipava Malai also mentions nine other villages of Jaffna in connection with Prince Paranirupasinghe, at the time of the transition of the Kingdom to colonial rule. It states "that the usurper King Sankili in order to appease Prince Paranirupasinghe (the legitimate heir) appointed him co-regent over seven villages, namely Kalliyan-kadu, Mallakam, Sandiruppai, Arali, Achchuveli, Uduppiddi, and Kachchai.  After the fall of the Jaffna Kingdom; and the execution of Sankili, the Portuguese, in recognition of Paranirupasinhe's loyalty to them appointed him the chief minister of the realm. They also reconfirmed his authority over the seven villages over which he was co-regent under Sankili. In addition they also gave him Nallur the capital, and the village of Mathakal. Many years later, before his death, Paranirupasinghe is said to have re-distributed these villages amongst his descendents as follows:"

" He gave:
1.	Nallur and Kalliyan-kadu to Alakanmai-valla-muthali and placed him in his palace of Nallur.
2.	Mallakam to Thanapala-singka-muthali;
3.	Sandiruppai to Vetti-vela-yutha muthali;
4.	Arali to Visaya-theyventhira-muthali;
5.	Achchuveli to Thida-vira-singka-muthali;
6.	Uduppiddi to Santhirasekara-mappana muthali;
7.	Kachchai to Iraya-redna-muthali;
8.	Mathakal to his daughter Vetha-Valliyar whom he bestowed in marriage to a Vellalan of that district."

However none of the available Portuguese documents of the period corroborate the above information nor do any of the names mentioned above appear therein.

Demography
Nallur like most other towns in Jaffna is made up of predominantly Tamil people.  The social importance of Nallur temple also correlates with the Shaiva sect of Hinduism being the most popular religion.
Nallur, having been the place from which various Aryacakravarti kings ruled was also the surface of Tamil aristocracy. This is reflected in the castes of those still living in Nallur today, generally seen as more upwards in the caste system, being mostly Chettiar and Vellalar. Prior to the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora, Nallur was home to the highest level of Chettiar found anywhere else in the peninsula. This is remnant even today in the names of roads in Nallur like ' Chetty street'.
Nallur for centuries now has also been home to the largest clan of Brahmins (priestly caste) as a result of Nallur temple being the single largest employer of priests – tending to be concentrated in close vicinity to temple grounds. Tradition has it this is why the present location of Nallur Kandaswami temple is called 'Kurrukkal Valavu' – meaning land of the chief priests.

Geography

Gallery

See also
Jaffna Palace ruins
Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil

References

Jaffna kingdom
Towns in Jaffna District
Nallur DS Division
Suburbs of Jaffna

Nallur, Jaffna


Mime is a type of acting that does not use words or speech. Mime is all about physical movement and exaggerating your expressions. Mimes (people who practice mime) must use their actions to send a message or tell a story. They are not allowed to speak directly to the audience.

Probably the most well-known mime was Marcel Marceau. Mime originates from Rome and Greece. Some people also believe that cavemen used mime to communicate as they could not talk.

Other websites
The World of Mime Theatre

Related pages
Pantomime
Physical theatre

Entertainment occupations

Mime


Wallace Larry Haney (born November 19, 1942) is an American former Major League Baseball catcher. He played from 1966 to 1978 for the Baltimore Orioles, Seattle Pilots / Milwaukee Brewers, Oakland Athletics, and St. Louis Cardinals. Haney later served as bullpen coach with the Brewers. His son, Chris Haney, pitched in the majors, primarily for the Kansas City Royals. During a 13-year baseball career, he hit .215, with 12 home runs and 73 runs batted in.

Haney was valued by teams mainly for his defensive abilities. In addition to his .985 fielding percentage and skill at working with pitching staffs, he threw out 110 of 282 stolen base attempts (39.0%) and picked off nine baserunners during his career. He was acquired three separate times by the Oakland A's, and was on their roster during their entire World Championship year of 1974.

On July 27, 1966, Haney hit a home run in his first major league game (second at bat) against John O'Donoghue of the Cleveland Indians.

On September 6, 1968, Haney had his first and only four-hit game, when he hit three singles and a double against the Chicago White Sox. He also recorded five three-hit games in his career.

Haney played in two World Series games for the Oakland A's in 1974 against the Los Angeles Dodgers.

In his minor league career, he led California League catchers with 18 double plays and 38 passed balls while playing for the Stockton Ports in 1962, and led Eastern League catchers with 17 double plays while playing for the Elmira Pioneers in 1963.

After his major league career, Haney went to work for the Milwaukee Brewers organization. He was a major league coach in 1978–91, serving as bullpen coach from 1978 until 1989 and pitching coach in 1990 and 1991. He continued working for the Brewers in various capacities until .

Haney's Topps baseball cards for 1968 and 1969 are popular because the 1969 card is simply the reverse image of the 1968 card. He appears as a left-handed throwing catcher (with a mitt that fits on his right hand) in the 1969 card. The player/coach in the background (of both cards) is also reversed.

References

External links
, or Retrosheet

1942 births
Living people
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
Baltimore Orioles players
Baseball players from Charlottesville, Virginia
Bluefield Orioles players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
Elmira Pioneers players
Florida Instructional League Orioles players
Hawaii Islanders players
Iowa Oaks players
Major League Baseball bullpen coaches
Major League Baseball catchers
Milwaukee Brewers coaches
Milwaukee Brewers executives
Milwaukee Brewers players
Milwaukee Brewers scouts
Oakland Athletics players
Rochester Red Wings players
Seattle Pilots players
St. Louis Cardinals players
Stockton Ports players
Tigres de Aragua players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Tucson Toros players
Winnipeg Whips players

Larry Haney


Francis John Byrne (1934 – 30 December 2017) was an Irish historian.

Born in Shanghai where his father, a Dundalk man, captained a ship on the Yellow River, Byrne was evacuated with his mother to Australia on the outbreak of World War II. After the war, his mother returned to Ireland, where his father, who had survived internment in Japanese hands, returned to take up work as a harbour master.

Byrne attended Blackrock College in County Dublin where he learned Latin and Greek, to add to the Chinese he had learned in his Shanghai childhood. He studied Early Irish History at University College Dublin where he excelled, graduating with first class honours. He studied Paleography and Medieval Latin in Germany, and then lectured on Celtic languages in Sweden, before returning to University College in 1964 to take up a professorship.

Byrne's best known work is his Irish Kings and High-Kings (1973). He was joint editor of the Royal Irish Academy's New History of Ireland (9 volumes). A festschrift in his honour was published in 1999 under the editorship of his former student Alfred P. Smyth.

He retired in 2000, and died in December 2017.

References

Select bibliography
 Irish Kings and High-Kings. 3rd revised edition, Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2001.
 Smyth, Alfred P. (ed.), Seanchas: Studies in Early and Medieval Irish Archaeology, History and Literature in Honour of Francis J. Byrne. Dublin: Four Courts, 1999.

External links
 UCD President's Report 2000 Announcement of Francis J. Byrne's retirement and biographical note

1934 births
2017 deaths
Alumni of University College Dublin
Celtic studies scholars
20th-century Irish historians
21st-century Irish historians
Irish writers
People educated at Blackrock College

Francis John Byrne


The A35 wis a smaw (compact) caur sauld bi the Breetish Motor Corporation unner the Austin marque in the 1950s.

Design
Introduced in 1956, it replaced the hiehlie-successfu Austin A30.  The name reflected the lairger an mair-pouerful 34 hp (25 kW) A-Series straight-4 engine, enabling a slichtly higher tap speed an better acceleration.

The A35 wis vera seemilar in appearance tae the A30, except for a lairger rear windae aperture an a painted front grille, wi chrome horse-shae surroond, instead o the chrome grille featurt on the A30. Baith haed  wheels. The semaphore turn-signal indicators wur replaced wi present-day front- an rear-mounted flashin lichts. A slichtly easier tae operate remote-control gear-chynge wis providit. Much of the improved performance wis a result of different gearbox ratios. The A30 haed the first three ratios close thegither then a big gap tae tap (4t gear). The A35 ratios war better spaced and gae a max speed in third o  against aboot  for the A30.

Lik the A30, the A35 wis offered as a 2- or 4-door saloon or 2-door "Countryman" estate an an aa as a van. The latter model continued in production throu tae 1968.  A rare pickup version wis an aa produced in 1956, wi juist 475 sauld.

The A35 passenger caurs wur replaced bi the new body shape A40 Farina models in 1959 but the estate caur version continued until 1962 an van until 1968.

The A35 wis quite successfully raced in its day an can still be seen the day at heestoric race meetins.

Performance
A twa door de luxe saloon wi the 948 cc engine wis testit bi the Breetish Motor magazine in 1956 an wis foond tae hae a tap speed o  and coud accelerate frae 0- in 30.1 seconds. A fuel consumption o  wis recorded. The test caur cost £554 includin taxes o £185.

Film an media appearances
A 1964 model A35 van carryin a 1953 tax disk wi a 1978 registration (HOP 2 1T), an nae front "sidelights", features in the 2005 Aardman movie, Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit. Anither ane wis seen in A Matter of Loaf and Death wi the registration DOH NUT5.

Notable A35 Owners
1976 F1 World Champion, James Hunt, drove an A35 van as his daily transport.
Dooble F1 World Champion, Graham Hill, raced an A35 saloon in the early 1960s. The caur wis later sauld tae Frank Williams, a current F1 team awner, who an aa raced it in the UK.

Production
Saloons: 130,000
Others: 151,000.

Engines
 1956–1962 - 948 cc A-Series I4, 34 hp (25 kW) at 4750 rpm and 50 ft·lbf (68 Nm) at 2000 rpm
 1962–1968 - 1098 cc A-Series I4, 55 hp (41 kW) at 5500 rpm and 61 ft·lbf (83 Nm) at 2500 rpm (Van)

References

External links
 Austin Memories—History of Austin and Longbridge

A35
1950s automobiles
1960s automobiles
Vehicles introduced in 1956

Austin A35


Nebula Electronics Ltd were a small UK company specialising in digital terrestrial cards for Windows PCs. The brand-name for their hardware is DigiTV.

Many users recommended the DigiTV cards due to their easy-to-use software, which was very similar to set top boxes. The installation routine is also very simple, especially for the USB models, which do not require opening up the PC.

Nebula Electronics operated entirely from the United Kingdom, including production and direct sales but they also had distributors in Australia, Finland, France, Italy, Germany, Spain, and Sweden. They were renowned for offering the majority of features for the Freeview service including Audio description and MHEG-5, something that contemporary competing products did not.

In December 2007 liquidators were appointed to wind up the company. and the company was finally dissolved in June 2009.

Rights to the DigiTV software and branding were bought by its sister company Nebula Media Solutions Ltd, and was re-released in December 2010 after a significant facelift with support for Windows 7.

As of the second week of January 2013, the Nebula electronics website and the forum both disappeared, no official announcement has been made as to the seeming demise of this company.

References

External links
Nebula Electronics official web site

Digital television
Electronics companies of the United Kingdom

Nebula Electronics


Zap Mama is a Belgian musical group founded and led by Marie Daulne.  She says that her mission is to be a bridge between the European and the African and bring the two cultures together with music. "What I would like to do is bring sounds from Africa and bring it to the Western world, because I know that through sound and through beats, that people discover a new culture, a new people, a new world." They sing in French and English with deep African roots.

Zap Mama performed their first concert in 1989. In 1991, the group recorded their first record, Zap Mama, at Studio Daylight in Brussels, Belgium. The album was released by Crammed Discs.

Discography
 Zap Mama (1991)
 Adventures in Afropea 1 (1993)
 Sabsylma (1994)
 Seven (1997)
 A Ma Zone (1999)
 Ancestry in Progress (2004)
 Supermoon (2007)
 ReCreation (2009)

References

Other websites

Belgian musical groups
World music
1990s music groups

Zap Mama


Peter Armstrong (April 9, 1929 – November 17, 2009), a.k.a. The Pigskin Priest, was an American Roman Catholic priest incardinated in the Archdiocese of San Francisco. He served as the chaplain for the San Francisco 49ers for all five of their Super Bowl victories. Armstrong was named a monsignor in the Catholic Church in 1966. He served in active ministry as a priest for 55 years before retiring in 2001 and held many civic and ministerial positions related to youth, sports, and social justice.

Personal life
Armstrong was born in San Francisco, California. His father was a banker and his mother was a teacher. He said that he knew from a young age that he was called to be a priest. When he was in high school, he went on a religious retreat where he felt the call to the priesthood.

Ministerial career
Armstrong attended Saint Patrick Seminary in Menlo Park. After being ordained in 1954, he was assigned to St. Pius Parish where he started a Teen Club. In 1959, he moved to Washington, D.C., to attend The Catholic University of America, where he earned a master's degree in social work. After graduating, he returned to San Francisco where he eventually became the head of the Catholic Youth Organization (1965). He served as the head of the CYO until 1979.  In 1969, he was appointed as Director of Youth Activities of the Archdiocese of San Francisco.

In 1971, he became the President of the San Francisco Comprehensive Health Planning Council. In 1975, he became the Director of St. Vincent's School for Boys in San Rafael.

Armstrong grew up with San Francisco's mayor George Moscone. In 1976, Moscone asked Armstrong to serve on the city's Park and Recreation Commission. As a member of the commission, Armstrong convinced the 49ers owner, Eddie DeBartolo, to remove the artificial turf from Candlestick Park.

Armstrong also served as the chairman of the Social Justice Commission of the Archdiocese and the Archdiocesan Pastoral Planning Commission.

NFL career
In 1977, Armstrong became the chaplain for the 49ers. Two years later, he returned to St. Pius where he served for the next 22 years until retiring in 2001. As both the chaplain for the 49ers and pastor for St. Pius, Armstrong had busy Sundays. If the 49ers were playing at home, he would officiate Mass at 8 am for the team and at 9:30 and 5:30 at his church. If the 49ers had an away game, he traveled with the team.

Armstrong met the owner of the 49ers when he was serving on San Francisco's Commission on Parks and Recreation. The owner hired Armstrong to serve as the team's chaplain. From 1977 to at least 2001, Armstrong led Mass before every game the 49ers played. Armstrong flew on the corporate jet and sat in the owner's box for every game. Bill Walsh said that Armstrong served the 49ers as more than just a priest, but as an adviser and counselor for the whole team regardless of one's religious beliefs. Walsh credits Armstrong with helping the team succeed.

As the chaplain for the 49ers, Armstrong played a key role in Walsh's conversion to Catholicism. He baptized Jerry Rice's children and officiated Joe Montana's, Dwight Clark's, and Ronnie Lott's marriages. As the team's official chaplain, the 49ers presented him with Super Bowl rings for each of their five championships.

References

1929 births
2009 deaths
20th-century American Roman Catholic priests
Catholic University of America alumni
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Francisco
San Francisco 49ers
People from San Rafael, California
Catholics from California

Peter Armstrong (priest)


James Shepherd Pike (September 8, 1811 – November 29, 1882) was an American journalist and a historian of South Carolina during the Reconstruction Era.

Biography
Pike was born in Calais, Maine, and was a journalist in the United States during the mid 19th century. From 1850 to 1860 he was the chief Washington correspondent and associate editor of the New York Tribune. The Tribune was the chief source of news and commentary for many Republican newspapers across the country. Republican editors reprinted his dispatches prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War. In 1854 he led the fight against the Kansas-Nebraska Act, calling for the formation of a new political entity to oppose it. Pike wrote that a "solid phalanx of aggression rears its black head everywhere south of Mason and Dixon's line, banded for the propagation of Slavery all over the continent." His reports were, "widely quoted, bitterly attacked or enthusiastically praised; they exerted a profound influence upon public opinion and gave to their author national prominence, first as an uncompromising anti-slavery Whig, and later as an ardent Republican."

President Abraham Lincoln appointed Pike to be minister to the Netherlands, where he fought Confederate diplomatic efforts and promoted the Union war aims from 1861 to 1866. On returning to Washington in 1866, Pike resumed writing for the New York Tribune and also wrote editorials for the New York Sun.

Pike was an outspoken Radical Republican, standing with Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner and opposing President Andrew Johnson. Long before black suffrage became a major issue Pike had come to believe that the freed slaves must be given the vote. Pike in 1866–67 strongly supported Black suffrage and the disqualification of most ex-Confederates from holding office.

Pike did not admire Ulysses S. Grant as a politician, and drifted away from the Republican party. By 1872 Pike was disenchanted with Black suffrage and the corruption and failures of Reconstruction.  He argued the federal government should withdraw its soldiers from the Southern states. He was a strong supporter of the Liberal Republican movement that in 1872 opposed President Ulysses Grant, denouncing the corruption of his administration. Pike's boss, New York Tribune editor Horace Greeley, was the Liberal Republican nominee in 1872. Greeley lost to Grant by a landslide, then died. The new editor of the Tribune Whitelaw Reid sent Pike to South Carolina to study the conditions in the deep South under Reconstruction.

Pike's reports on South Carolina
In 1873 Pike toured South Carolina and wrote a series of newspaper articles, reprinted in newspapers across the country and republished in book form in 1874 as The Prostrate State: South Carolina under Negro Government. During February and March, Pike closely observed the South Carolina General Assembly in Columbia, the sessions of which he described as a "huge system of brigandage". It was a widely read and highly influential first hand account of the details of Reconstruction government in South Carolina, that systematically exposed what Pike considered to be corruption, incompetence, bribery, financial misdeeds and misbehavior in the state legislature. His critics argued that the tone and emphasis was distorted and hostile toward African Americans and Grant Republicans.

The Prostrate State painted a lurid picture of corruption. Historian Eric Foner writes:
The book depicted a state engulfed by political corruption, drained by governmental extravagance, and under the control of "a mass of black barbarism." The South's problems, he insisted, arose from "Negro government." The solution was to restore leading whites to political power.

Historian John Hope Franklin said, "James S. Pike, the Maine journalist, wrote an account of misrule in South Carolina, appropriately called The Prostrate State, and painted a lurid picture of the conduct of Negro legislators and the general lack of decorum in the management of public affairs. Written so close to the period and first published as a series of newspaper pieces, The Prostrate State should perhaps not be classified as history at all. But for many years the book was regarded as authoritative—contemporary history at its best. According to Robert Franklin Durden, Pike did not really attempt to tell what he saw or even what happened in South Carolina during Reconstruction. By picking and choosing from his notes those events and incidents that supported his argument, he sought to place responsibility for the failure of Reconstruction on the Grant administration and on the freedmen, whom he despised with equal passion.

Durden wrote that the fundamental clue to Pike's hostile characterization of African Americans in his book The Prostrate State was that "in the 1850s no less than in the 1870s, . . . [we see] his constant antipathy toward the Negro race."

In his biographical study of Pike, Durden concluded that Pike had been ardently "free soil" before the American Civil War because he thought that the West should belong to the white man. Durden said Pike despaired of living alongside arrogant slaveholders and their repulsive human property, and that he urged peaceful secession during the 1860-61 crisis partly because he had one eye cocked on the chance of getting rid of a "mass of barbarism" and that during some of the Civil War's darker days he would have settled for a compromise peace if it meant only that a Gulf coast or Deep South "negro pen" would be lost to the Federal Union. Durden wrote that The Prostrate State makes sense only in this context, and to the extent that Pike's racial views were representative, "the Civil War and Reconstruction take on a new dimension of tragedy."

Historian Mark Summers concludes that Pike stressed the sensational, but "however maliciously and mendaciously he shaded his evidence, his accounts squared with those of his colleagues Charles Nordhoff of the New York Herald and H. P. Redfield of the Cincinnati Commercial. James Freeman Clarke, a leading Boston abolitionist, visited South Carolina and reported back to his Boston congregation that the facts presented by Pike, "were confirmed by every man whom I saw."

Durden (2000) reports:
A sweeping indictment of Republican rule in this state (and, by inference, other southern states), Pike's dramatic, "eye-witness" account gained much attention throughout the country. The book was so popular because it was seen as the work of an allegedly impartial Maine Republican and old foe of slavery who had come to his senses about the "wicked corruption" of the carpetbaggers and their "ignorant and barbaric" Negro allies. Pike's book not only played a role in the ending of Reconstruction but was much used by historians well into the twentieth century. In fact, it was far from objective, simply reflecting Pike's long-standing racism.

Bibliography
 Durden, Robert F. James Shepherd Pike. Republicanism and the American Negro, 1850–1882 (Duke University Press, 1957).
 Durden, Robert F. "Pike, James Shepherd"; American National Biography Online February 2000
 Historian John Hope Franklin discusses Pike's work
 Franklin, John Hope. Race and History: Selected Essays 1938-1988, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989.
 James M. McPherson. The Abolitionist Legacy: From Reconstruction to the NAACP (1975)
 Pike, James Shepherd, The Prostrate State: South Carolina Under Negro Government(New York, 1874). full text online at Making of America, University of Michigan; paperback edition with introduction by Durden (1974)
 Pike, James Shepherd, First Blows of the Civil War (1879), collection of Pike's Tribune editorials and political letters  online edition
 Mark Wahlgren Summers, The Press Gang: Newspapers and Politics, 1865-1878 (1994)
 Van Cleve, Thomas C. "Pike, James Shepherd, (Sept. 8, 1811 - Nov. 29, 1882)" in Dictionary of American Biography (1934)

References

External links
  James Shepherd Pike Find A Grave Memorial
  Guide to the James Shepherd Pike Papers, Raymond H. Fogler Library, University of Maine
  The Prostrate State: South Carolina under Negro Government, 1874 edition—Complete text.

1811 births
1882 deaths
African-American history of South Carolina
Ambassadors of the United States to the Netherlands
American abolitionists
American political writers
Bleeding Kansas
Crime in South Carolina
Historians of South Carolina
Historians of the Reconstruction Era
Legal history of South Carolina
New York (state) Liberal Republicans
New York (state) Republicans
People from Calais, Maine
People of the Reconstruction Era
Politics of the Southern United States
Radical Republicans
19th-century American diplomats
19th-century American journalists
American male journalists
1854 in American politics
1870s in South Carolina
19th-century male writers
Maine Whigs

James Shepherd Pike


The Certificate in Investment Performance Measurement (CIPM) is a professional accreditation in the field of investment performance analysis.  It includes investment performance measurement and attribution. It is offered by the CIPM Association, a body associated with the CFA Institute.

Professional accreditation
Historically, global investment firms have been subject to a diverse patchwork of laws, regulations, and market customs that dictate how investment performance results can be measured and advertised.  For example, the well-known warning that "past investment returns may not be predictive of future investment returns", has long been encouraged in advertisements for managed funds by regulators such as the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).

Recognising that there was likely to be continuous growth in the worldwide patchwork of regulation covering investment return calculations and advertising, the global investment management industry has agreed on a set of standards known as the Global Investment Performance Standards (GIPS).

The GIPS standards relate to the following issues:

Candidates for the CIPM qualification must adhere to the same body of professional ethics and professional conduct that has been devised for Chartered Financial Analysts by the CFA Institute.  To obtain the Certificate, one must sequentially pass two examinations (known respectively as Principles and Expert).  The content of each of these examinations includes 13% on ethics and professional standards.  A certain level of practical experience is also required before obtaining the certificate.  After obtaining the Certificate, Certificate-holders are required to engage in continuing education, and to file a Professional Conduct Statement (PCS) annually.  Misconduct can render a certificate-holder liable to professional discipline.

Trademarks
GIPS, CFA, and CIPM are registered trademarks of the CFA Institute.

Historical pass rates

References

External links
CIPM Association web site
GIPS Standards web site
History of the GIPS Standards
What is CIPM?

Investment management
Professional certification in finance