Norsk Air was a Norwegian airline based at Sandefjord Airport, Torp. At its height from the mid-1980s and onwards it operated scheduled flights to Stavanger, Bergen, Trondheim and Copenhagen, and for shorter periods also other Norwegian and international destinations. The airline had 156 employees and 150,000 annual passengers in 1989. The company was established as a sole proprietorship by Øyvind Skaunfelt as Vestfoldfly in 1961, after purchasing Thor Solberg's aviation school at Tønsberg Airport, Jarlsberg. In addition to an aviation college, the company operated various charter services using mostly Cessna aircraft. The company split into a flying school and an airline in 1972, with the latter taking the name Norsk Flytjeneste. Three 50-passenger Douglas DC-6 were subsequently bought and were among other places flown with aid charters to Bangladesh. Both the DC-6 and later charter flights with business jets proved unprofitable and were quickly terminated.

The company turned to regular charter services to Bergen and Stavanger in the 1980s, and from 1984 served the routes with scheduled flights, using seven-passenger Beechcraft 200 King Air. In 1985 the company was converted to a limited company and bought by Kosmos. It subsequently acquired four 30-passenger Embraer EMB 120 Brasilias—as the second European airline. It introduced several new routes, including international flights to Denmark and the United Kingdom, and took the name Norsk Air. The company bought Norving's Skien Airport, Geiteryggen division in 1987 and started operations from a second base. Kosmos failed in 1988 and Norsk Air was eventually given for free to Widerøe in 1990. Skien operations were discontinued the following year and the airline changed name to Widerøe Norsk Air. It remained a subsidiary until being amalgamated in 1996.

History

Vestfoldfly
The airline was established as Vestfoldfly by Øyvind Skaunfelt in 1961. He had been working at Thor Solberg's aviation school at Tønsberg Airport, Jarlsberg, and offered to purchase the school and airplanes when Solberg retired. Two years earlier, Sandefjord Airport, Torp had opened a civilian sector and Skaunfelt decided to establish his company there. In May 1961, he received government permission for commercial flying. He started a newspaper route to Oslo Airport, Fornebu, and could also carry three passengers in his single-engined Cessna. The route continued onwards from Sandefjord to Tønsberg, Larvik and at Skien Airport, Geiteryggen. Vestfoldfly also started offering scenic trips and charter. During the summer, the airline also flew seaplanes south along the coast to Kragerø, Risør and Arendal. Other activities involved crop dusting of forest for Felleskjøpet. The airline also provided a target service for the military. Four aircraft were permanently used to tow a target about  behind the aircraft, and military personnel would practice shooting at the target.

During the 1960s, Vestfoldfly never received a concession for a regular, scheduled flight from Sandefjord to Oslo. The reason was that the Skien-based Fjellfly held the concession for the routes from Oslo to Sandefjord, Tønsberg and Skien. Fjellfly never used its landing rights at Sandefjord, but nevertheless still hindered Vestfoldfly from starting a competing route. Skaunfelt eventually split his activity in two, demerging the aviation school and renaming it Den Norske Luftfartsskole, which remained in operation until 1999. The other activity was renamed Norsk Flytjeneste. In 1969, Norsk Flytjeneste and Jotun, a large Sandefjord-based industrial company, established Penguin Air Service, where Norsk Flytjeneste owned 25 percent of the shares. Penguin Air Service company bought a six-seat Piper PA-31 Navajo and started charter services for Jotun. In 1975, Bugge Supplyship also joined the joint venture and a second aircraft was bought. Most of the traffic was for the oil industry to Stavanger.

Norsk Flytjeneste

In 1972, Norsk Flytjeneste purchased two 50-passenger Douglas DC-6Bs from Braathens SAFE and leased one from Sterling Airways. They were used for domestic and international charter. The largest contract was from the Norwegian Church Aid, who contracted Norsk Flytjeneste to fly aid to Bangladesh. However, the airline failed to make money on the DC-6s, mostly because of the high operating costs, and sold them after a year. The company followed up with purchasing a ten-seat Cessna Citation business jet that they offered in the charter market. However, the market was not large enough, and the jet was sold.

The main market for the charter services was Stavanger Airport, Sola, mainly serving transport of personnel in the oil industry. By the 1980s, Norsk Air had up to four daily round trips between the two cities. In 1983, the airline received concession to start a regular scheduled service to Stavanger. A ten-seat Beechcraft Super King Air was bought and services started on 12 January 1984. Services to Bergen Airport, Flesland started on 10 July. Soon there were four daily round trips to both cities, supplemented by charter trips operated by Penguin. Starting on 26 March 1984, Norsk Flytjeneste experienced competition on the routes from Sandefjord to Bergen and Stavanger, when Busy Bee, on contract with Braathens SAFE, started flights using 50-passenger Fokker F27s. However, they operated only one round trip, with the same aircraft serving Sandefjord–Stavanger–Haugesund–Bergen.

In 1984, Norsk Flytjenesete started negotiations with the Sandefjord-based conglomerate Kosmos, who were seeking to invest in a local airline. Kosmos had decided to start a diversification strategy to spread their risk. Norsk Flytjeneste was at the time not making money on its routes, but Kosmos was willing to carry the loss as an investment. The airline was sold to Kosmos on 15 April 1985. At the time of the take-over, Norsk Flytjeneste had four Cessna 310s and one Piper Navajo. The airline's seven-passenger Beechcraft 200 and C90 King Airs were already owned by Kosmos. The company was changed from a sole propriatoriship to a limited company. Kjell Riege from Kosmos was appointed managing director while Tor Lundstrøm continued as chief pilot.

Norsk Air

On 30 July 1985, Norsk Flytjeneste opened their first international route, to Copenhagen Airport in Denmark. The concessions had a limitation on not using aircraft with more than ten seats. However the limitation was lifted later in the year. Under Kosmos' management, Norsk Flytjeneste started an aggressive expansion. Applications were made for concessions from Sandefjord to Gothenburg in Sweden, and from Oslo via Hamar and Røros to Trondheim. Norsk Flytjeneste also needed larger aircraft, and the airline evaluated several types, including the Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia, the 30-passenger Saab 340 and the Fokker F27. The company chose to order four 30-passenger Brasilias. During the negotiations with Embraer, the company realized that Norsk Flytjeneste was a difficult name for foreigners, since the Brazilians could not pronounce "Flytjeneste". When the new aircraft were delivered, the airline rebranded as Norsk Air.

The company also joined the joint venture Commuter Service along with other Norwegian regional airlines, Coast Aero Center, Mørefly and Trønderfly. The intention was to create a cooperative company which could compete in a more diversified market. The group's lawyer stated that the organizational structure among regional airlines was 15 years out of date and that the group would take market shares in a growing market, especially by starting new niche direct services.

Norsk Air was the second airline in Europe to order the Brasilia, after Air Excel. Three were financed with loans from Banco de Brasil and the last was leased. With the introduction of the Brasilias in 1986, the airline started a route from Sandefjord to Trondheim Airport, Værnes. From 1985 to 1986, the airline's costs doubled, but not their income. In 1987, Terje Røsjode, former bank chief for Christiania Bank in Sandefjord, took over as managing director. The Brasilias had state-of-art technology, and although airlines purchase new aircraft to reduce their maintenance costs, this was not the reality for Norsk Air because they did not have sufficient competence to maintain the aircraft. In particular, they lacked sufficient electronic expertise, due to the increase of electronic components in the aircraft. All the other aircraft were sold.

In 1986, the company established a duty-free shop at Torp. By 1987, Norsk Air was losing NOK 20 million per year. The company established a route from Sandefjord to Göteborg Landvetter Airport and to London Stansted Airport, but neither were profitable, and were quickly terminated. Norsk Air started a route from Fagernes Airport, Leirin to Oslo and Bergen on 4 November 1987. The route turned out to be unprofitable, and was terminated on 1 June 1988, after the company had lost NOK 5 million on the route.

To develop the company, Kosmos and Norsk Air bought the Kirkenes-based airline Norving, which also operated flights from Skien Airport, Geiteryggen—about one hour's drive from Sandefjord—to Bergen, Trondheim and Stavanger. Norving had seven types of aircraft, but was losing large amounts of money, although the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications covered their losses on some state-subsidized regional routes. The purchase of Norving caused an internal organization conflict between the two organizations. The operations from Skien were merged into Norsk Air, while the rest of Norving was sold. The latter went bankrupt in 1993. Norsk Air also showed interest in purchasing Widerøe, but none of the large owners were interested in selling.

Widerøe Norsk Air
Kosmos was bought by the Skaugen Group in 1988, and on 21 October, Kosmos' Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Bjørn Bettum and Chairman Otto Grieg Tidemand were fired. The Skaugen Group decided to integrate Kosmos' shipping and oil-related activities into their group. All other investments, including Norsk Air, were to be sold or closed. At the time, Norsk Air had 140 employees. Norsk Air's CEO, Mr. Røsjodet, made contact with Bård Mikkelsen, who was CEO of Widerøe, to try to convince them to purchase Norsk Air. Widerøe was at that time solely occupied with flying on the subsidized regional routes. The company was interested in having some non-subsidized routes to better benchmark its operations. The two largest owners, Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) and Braathens SAFE, did not want to purchase Norsk Air, but the third-largest owner, Fred. Olsen & Co. liked the idea, and bought SAS' and Braathens SAFE's 62.3 percent stake in Widerøe to make the deal possible. Other possible purchasers who had negotiated with Norsk Air were Sterling Airlines, Partnair and Jan Einar Johansen, former owner of Scandi Line.

By 1989, the airline had 156 employees and 150,000 annual passengers. On 9 February 1989, Norsk Air's board decided to start the termination process if a sale was not made. The employees agreed to cut their wages 10 percent and not take sick days during the sales process. One of the main difficulties in the sales process was that Widerøe could not afford to purchase Norsk Air's hangar at the airport. Widerøe intended to continue operations at both Torp and Geiteryggen for a year to see where to establish its base. In fear that the airline would move to Skien, the municipalities of Sandefjord and Stokke, who owned the majority of the airport, agreed to purchase the hangar, which had been built for NOK 20 million in 1987, for NOK 11.5 million. Half the hangar would be rented to Widerøe for NOK 500,000 per year. This was insufficient to cover the NOK 1.2 million in annual interest costs.

Widerøe took over Norsk Air free of charge on 1 May 1989, and changed the company's name to Widerøe Norsk Air. The company was kept as a subsidiary to avoid cross-subsidization of the subsidized routes. Widerøe started negotiations with Busy Bee, and agreed to lease the Fokker 50 used by Busy Bee to Sandefjord, in exchange for Busy Bee terminating the route in 1990. Widerøe Norsk Air also decided that it was not profitable to fly from both Skien and Sandefjord, and terminated all Skien services. Starting on 28 October 1991, the airline also started a route from Sandefjord via Kristiansand Airport, Kjevik to London. This route was terminated one year later. In 1993, Widerøe sold its Fokker 50 to Norwegian Air Shuttle. On 1 May 1996, Widerøe Norsk Air was merged with Widerøe and ceased to exist. After the merger, Widerøe phased out the Brasilias and replaced them with de Havilland Canada Dash 8 aircraft.

Destinations
The following is a list of destinations served by Norsk Air in regular scheduled services. It includes the city, country, airport and the period in which the airline served the airport. Hubs are denoted with a dagger ().

References
Bibliography

Notes

Defunct airlines of Norway
Airlines established in 1961
Airlines disestablished in 1996
Companies based in Sandefjord
Widerøe
Sandefjord Airport, Torp
1961 establishments in Norway
1996 disestablishments in Norway

Norsk Air


Sir James Young Simpson (born June 7, 1811 in Scotland) was a qualified doctor by the age of 21 but changed to work as a clerk, due to his traumatic reaction to witnessing mastectomies during his medical training. He sat in several lecture courses as a student, but the anatomical lecture by a Doctor Knox made him choose the career path of midwifery and obstetrics. He became a qualified professor of midwifery at the age of 29, in 1840.

Due to his traumatizing observations of surgery as a student, he decided to experiment with anesthetics. He tried using ether and chloroform, but refused to use ether due to its bad odor. He discovered the anesthetic properties of chloroform, using it in obstetrics, to make childbirth easier and safer. He also invented a new design for the forceps, to make them safer to use. They are now known as "Simpsons' forceps". He was one of the earliest doctors to use midwifes in hospitals.

Chloroform was a good idea, as it put people to sleep, making surgical procedures safer, pain-free, and better for the individuals. It was recognized as an achievement when Queen Victoria herself received chloroform to give birth to her fourth child. :)

History of medicine
1811 births
British inventors
Scottish medical doctors

James Young Simpson


The {{nihongo|Fuji Bank, Limited|株式会社富士銀行|Kabushiki-gaisha Fuji Ginkō}} was one of Japan's major banks during the post–World War II era. It combined with Dai-Ichi Kangyo Bank and the Industrial Bank of Japan in 2000 to form Mizuho Financial Group, and changed its name to Mizuho Corporate Bank in 2002 after transferring its retail banking operations to Mizuho Bank.

History

Foundation and development
Fuji Bank traces its history as far back as the old Yasuda zaibatsu.

Zenjiro Yasuda, a migrant from Toyama, opened a dry goods store in the Nihonbashi area of Edo in 1864, known as Yasuda-ya (lit. House of Yasuda). After the Meiji Restoration in 1869, the company underwrote bonds for the Japanese government, whose credit standing was low then, and financed many public works such as railroads, harbor constructions, and so forth. The company was incorporated in 1880 with a share capital of 10 million yen, and changed its name to Yasuda Bank.

In the Taishō period, the Japanese banking community was thrown into financial difficulties because of World War I and the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. In the immediate wake of the earthquake, Yasuda absorbed ten smaller regional banks which lacked a sufficient financial base to cover their deposits. This merger made Yasuda Bank the largest in Japan by several measures, with share capital of 150 million yen, deposits of 542 million yen, loans of 521 million yen, 211 branches and 3,700 employees.

After World War II
Following World War II, the Yasuda zaibatsu was dissolved by the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers. On October 1, 1948, Yasuda Bank changed its name to The Fuji Bank, Limited, named after Mount Fuji. Fuji formed the Fuyo Group, one of the largest keiretsu, together with other former Yasuda zaibatsu companies.

As the Japanese economy was rebuilt after the war, Fuji Bank expanded its business in syndicated lending, corporate banking, public money management, mortgages and retail financial services. However, the formation of Dai-Ichi Kangyo Bank (DKB) in 1971 dethroned Fuji from its top status in the Japanese banking industry. In an attempt to restore its preeminence, Fuji agreed to merge with Osaka-based Sanwa Bank in the late 1970s, but failed to win approval from the Ministry of Finance. Sumitomo Bank also rose as an intense competitor to Fuji in the 1980s, and both banks aggressively courted similar corporate banking clients, growing their loan portfolios dramatically with what would later become non-performing loans.  Fuji Capital Markets Corp. was founded in New York in 1990 going on to become one of the lead players in the swaps market. FCMC went on to open an offices in London in 1992 and Hong Kong in 1994 which still exist as Mizuho Capital Markets Corp. FCMC was one of the first Japanese Banks to connect to the internet, registering the fcmc.com domain in 1993.  However, following the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble in the early 1990s, Fuji and other Japanese banks were increasingly troubled by bad loans and inadequate back-office systems. Fuji attempted to diversify its domestic services, establishing Fuji Securities and Fuji Trust & Banking Co. in 1994, but neither subsidiary was able to make substantial profits.

On November 24, 1997, Yamaichi, Fuji Bank's affiliated securities firm, announced it would cease operations and was declared bankrupt by the Tokyo District Court. Fuji's inability to support Yamaichi led to a rapid fall in Fuji's stock price on the Tokyo Stock Exchange. Between 1998 and 2000, Fuji laid off thousands of employees and borrowed one trillion yen of public funds.  Yasuda Trust & Banking, Fuji's affiliated trust company, entered severe financial difficulties in 1999 and sought an additional capital injection from Fuji. Fuji was still experiencing its own difficulties and could not afford to rescue Yasuda. However, Fuji and DKB were able to negotiate a three-party transaction in which Fuji and DKB merged their respective trust banks, and the merged company acquired the corporate and pension divisions of Yasuda Trust.

Merger
On September 29, 2000, all shares of Fuji, DKB and the Industrial Bank of Japan were acquired by a newly formed Mizuho Holdings. The three banks continued to operate separately pending their final legal merger.

At the time of the September 11, 2001 attacks on New York's World Trade Center, Fuji Bank's United States offices were located at the impact zone of United Airlines Flight 175 in 2 World Trade Center (the South Tower) occupying the office space on the 79th through 82nd floors. After the North Tower was hit, the managers rushed to evacuate their employees. Within fifteen minutes, the managers had successfully evacuated 120 employees. However, 23 Fuji Bank employees died in the attack. Fuji Bank employee Stanley Praimnath was one of only eighteen remaining people located at the South Tower's collision zone to survive. DKB's offices were located in the North Tower.

On April 1, 2002, Fuji acquired the corporate banking operations of DKB and absorbed all operations of IBJ, renaming itself Mizuho Corporate Bank. DKB simultaneously acquired the individual banking operations of Fuji and renamed itself Mizuho Bank. Both banks became wholly owned subsidiaries of Mizuho Financial Group. The legal merger of Mizuho Corporate Bank with Mizuho Bank took place on July 1, 2013.

References

External links

 Mizuho Financial Group

Japanese companies established in 1948
Banks established in 1948
Companies formerly listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange
Companies formerly listed on the London Stock Exchange
Defunct banks of Japan
Mizuho Financial Group
Fuyo Group
Financial services companies based in Tokyo

Fuji Bank


Latitudinarianism, in at least one area of contemporary philosophy, is a position concerning de dicto and de re (propositional)  attitudes.  Latitudinarians think that de re attitudes are not a category distinct from de dicto attitudes; the former are just a special case of the latter.

The term was introduced into discussions of de dicto and de re attitudes by Roderick Chisholm in his "Knowledge and Belief: 'De Dicto' and 'De Re'" (1976). Latitudinarianism has since also sometimes been called an "unrestricted exportation" view.

References and further reading
 Baker, Lynne Rudder (1982). "De Re Belief in Action" The Philosophical Review, Vol. 91, No. 3, pp. 363–387.
 Chisholm, Roderick (1976). "Knowledge and Belief: 'De Dicto' and 'De Re'" Philosophical Studies 29, pp. 1-20.
 Quine, W.V. (1956). "Quantifiers and Propositional Attitudes" Journal of Philosophy 53.  Reprinted in Quine's Ways of Paradox (1976), pp. 185–196.
 Sosa, Ernest (1995). "Fregean Reference Defended" Philosophical Issues, Vol. 6, Content, pp. 91–99.

Epistemological theories
Philosophy of language

Latitudinarianism (philosophy)


The Order of Myths is a 2008 documentary film directed by Margaret Brown. It focuses on the Mardi Gras celebrations in Mobile, Alabama, the oldest in the United States. It reveals the separate mystic societies established and maintained by Black and White groups, and acknowledges the complex racial history of a city with a slaveholding past.

While showing the mystic societies' ties to economic, class and racial stratification, the film showed the beginnings of interaction between the Black and White courts. It tells some of the history of Africatown, a community formed north of Mobile in 1860 by Africans from Ghana, transported illegally as slaves to Mobile decades after the end of the slave trade.

The film competed in the Documentary Competition at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival. It had a limited release in New York in July 2008, and ran on Independent Lens, a PBS series featuring independent films, in 2009. It was distributed by The Cinema Guild.

Critical reception
The film appeared on several critics' top-ten lists of the best films of 2008. Andrew O'Hehir of Salon named it the 9th-best film of 2008, as did Ella Taylor of LA Weekly (along with Moving Midway) and Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe.

References

External links

The Order of Myths (2008), documentary by Margaret Brown about Mobile Mardi Gras, website

2008 films
American independent films
Films shot in Mobile, Alabama
American documentary films
Documentary films about racism in the United States
Documentary films about American politics
Mardi Gras
Documentary films about Alabama
2000s English-language films
2000s American films

The Order of Myths


An association fallacy  is a logical fallacy that occurs when someone says that a quality of one thing must apply to another just because they both share a similar quality or belief. It can be used in a positive or negative way.

It follows the general outline, A is a B, A is also a C, therefore, all Bs are Cs.

An example of an association fallacy being used in positive way (called pro hominem, or honour by association) is as follows:
 Citizens of Country X won more Nobel Prizes, gold medals, and literary awards than citizens of Country Y. Therefore, a citizen of Country X is superior to a citizen of Country Y.

An example of an association fallacy being used in a negative way (called guilt by association) is as follows:
 John is a shoplifter. John has black hair. Therefore, all people with black hair are shoplifters.

References

Logical fallacies

Association fallacy


Elizabeth of the Trinity, OCD (), born Élisabeth Catez (18 July 1880 – 9 November 1906), was a French Discalced Carmelite, a mystic, and a spiritual writer. She was known for the depth of her spiritual growth as a Carmelite as well as bleak periods in which her religious calling was perceived to be unsure according to those around her; she however was acknowledged for her persistence in pursuing the will of God and in devoting herself to the charism of the Carmelites.

Elizabeth was a gifted pianist and had strong feelings for the Carmelite charism. Of that experience as a professed religious she wrote in a letter: "I can't find words to express my happiness. Here there is no longer anything but God. He is All; He suffices and we live by Him alone" (Letter 91).

Pope John Paul II celebrated her beatification in Paris on 25 November 1984; Pope Francis approved her canonization on 3 March 2016. The date was decided at a gathering of cardinals on 20 June 2016 and she was canonized as a saint on 16 October 2016.

Life
She was born on 18 July 1880 as Élisabeth Catez at the military base at Avord in Cher as the first child of Captain Joseph Catez and Marie Rolland. She was baptized at the camp's chapel on the following 22 July. Elizabeth's father died unexpectedly on 2 October 1887 and as a result the family moved to Dijon. During that same year she made her first confession. Her First Communion was on 19 April 1891 at , and her Confirmation was at Notre-Dame on the following 8 June.

Elizabeth had a terrible temper as a child. After receiving her First Communion in 1891 she gained more self-control and had a deeper understanding of God and the world. She also gained a profound understanding of the Trinity to which she cultivated an ardent devotion. Elizabeth visited the sick, sang in the church choir and taught religion to children who worked in factories.

As she grew older Elizabeth became interested in entering the Discalced Carmelite Order, though her mother strongly advised against it. Men had asked for Elizabeth's hand in marriage, but she declined such offers because her dream was to enter the Discalced Carmelite monastery that was located 200 meters from her home. Elizabeth entered the Dijon Carmel on 2 August 1901. She said: "I find Him everywhere while doing the wash as well as while praying." Her time in the convent amongst other Carmelites had some high times as well as some very low times. She wrote about when she felt she needed a richer understanding of God's great love.

At the end of her life, she began to call herself "Laudem Gloriae". Elizabeth wanted that to be her appellation in Heaven because it means "praise of glory." She said: "I think that in Heaven my mission will be to draw souls by helping them to go out of themselves in order to cling to God by a wholly simple and loving movement, and to keep them in this great silence which will allow God to communicate Himself to them and to transform them into Himself." Her spirituality is considered to be remarkably similar to that of her contemporary and compatriot Discalced Carmelite sister, Thérèse of Lisieux, who was cloistered at the Carmel in Lisieux; the two share a zeal for contemplation and the salvation of souls.

Elizabeth died at the age of 26 of Addison's disease, which had no cure. Though her death was painful, Elizabeth gratefully accepted her suffering as a gift from God. Her last words were: "I am going to Light, to Love, to Life!"

Sainthood
In Dijon the beatification process started in 1931. The process lasted a decade until 1941. Her writings were gathered and after careful investigation were incorporated into the cause and approved as being valid additions on 28 January 1944. A second process opened in 1948 and closed in 1950; the official introduction of the cause – under Pope John XXIII – came on 25 October 1961 and bestowed the title of Servant of God on the late nun.

The third and final process was opened in 1963 and closed in 1965 while two decrees ratified both processes in 1969 and on 13 March 1970; this allowed the Congregation of Rites to assume control of the cause to further investigate her life and her spiritual works. After an extensive investigation that spanned more than a decade, on 12 July 1982 she was made Venerable after Pope John Paul II acknowledged the fact that she had lived a full life of heroic virtue.

The miracle needed for her beatification was investigated from 1964 and closed in 1965; it received validation in 1969. John Paul II approved the healing as being a legitimate miracle in 1984, allowing for Elizabeth to be proclaimed "Blessed."

Pope John Paul II on the occasion of an apostolic visit to Paris beatified Elizabeth on 25 November 1984.

The second miracle needed for sanctification was investigated in the diocese of the healing's origin from 11 July 2011 until 25 August 2012; it received ratification several months later on 28 June 2013.

Pope Francis on 3 March 2016 approved the second healing as being a miracle attributed to Elizabeth's intercession and thus approved her canonization as a saint. A date of canonization was determined at a gathering of cardinals on 20 June 2016. Her canonization was celebrated on 16 October 2016.

The postulator of the cause at the time of her canonization was Father Romano Gambalunga.

Feast and patronage
Her liturgical feast is celebrated annually on 8 November. Her most famous prayer is: "Holy Trinity Whom I Adore", written out of her love of the Most Blessed Trinity. Elizabeth of the Trinity is a patron against illness, of sick people, and of the loss of parents.

See also
 Constitutions of the Carmelite Order
 Saint Elizabeth of the Trinity, patron saint archive

References

External links

 Saints SQPN

 Elizabeth of the Trinity. Complete Works. 2 vol. Trans. Alethia Kane and Anne Englund Nash. Washington, DC: ICS Publications, 1984, 1995.
 Moorcroft, Jennifer. He Is My Heaven: The Life of Elizabeth of the Trinity. Washington, DC: ICS Publications, 2001.
 Lilles, Anthony. "Elizabeth of the Trinity: A Saint for Our Time", National Catholic Register

1880 births
1906 deaths
20th-century venerated Christians
20th-century Christian mystics
People from Cher (department)
People from Dijon
Discalced Carmelite nuns
Venerated Carmelites
20th-century French nuns
Carmelite mystics
Deaths from Addison's disease
People with Addison's disease
Beatifications by Pope John Paul II
Canonizations by Pope Francis
French Christian mystics
French saints
Carmelite saints
Venerated Catholics by Pope John Paul II

Elizabeth of the Trinity


Jacques Herbrand (12 February 1908 – 27 July 1931) was a French mathematician. Although he died at age 23, he was already considered one of "the greatest mathematicians of the younger generation" by his professors Helmut Hasse and Richard Courant.

He worked in mathematical logic and class field theory. He introduced recursive functions. Herbrand's theorem refers to either of two completely different theorems. One is a result from his doctoral thesis in proof theory, and the other one half of the Herbrand–Ribet theorem. The Herbrand quotient is a type of Euler characteristic, used in homological algebra. He contributed to Hilbert's program in the foundations of mathematics by providing a constructive consistency proof for a weak system of arithmetic. The proof uses the above-mentioned, proof-theoretic Herbrand's theorem.

Biography
Herbrand finished his doctorate at École Normale Supérieure in Paris under Ernest Vessiot in 1929. He joined the army in October 1929, however, and so did not defend his thesis at the Sorbonne until the following year. He was awarded a Rockefeller fellowship that enabled him to study in Germany in 1930-1931, first with John von Neumann in Berlin, then during June with Emil Artin in Hamburg, and finally with Emmy Noether in Göttingen.

He submitted his principal study of proof theory and general recursive functions "On the consistency of arithmetic" early in 1931. While the essay was under consideration, Gödel's "On formally undecidable sentences of Principia Mathematica and related systems I" announced the (general) impossibility of proving the consistency of a theory, using merely the theory itself. Herbrand studied Gödel's essay and wrote an appendix to his own study explaining why Gödel's result did not contradict his own. "On the consistency of arithmetic" was published posthumously.

Death
In July 1931, Herbrand was mountain-climbing in the French Alps with two friends when he fell to his death in the granite mountains of Massif des Écrins.

Quotation
"Jacques Herbrand would have hated Bourbaki" said French mathematician Claude Chevalley quoted in Michèle Chouchan, "Nicolas Bourbaki Faits et légendes", Éditions du choix, 1995.

Bibliography

Primary literature:
 1967. Jean van Heijenoort (ed.), From Frege to Gödel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Univ. Press.
 1930. "Investigations in proof theory," 525–81.
 1931. "On the consistency of arithmetic," 618–28.
 1968. Jean van Heijenoort (ed.), Jacques Herbrand, Écrits logiques. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
 1971. Warren David Goldfarb (transl., ed.), Logical Writings of Jacques Herbrand Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

See also
 Herbrand interpretation
 Herbrand structure
 Herbrand Award – by the Conference on Automated Deduction, for automated deduction
 Prix Jacques Herbrand – by the French Academy of Sciences, for mathematics and physics
 Herbrandization – a validity-preserving normal form of a formula, dual to Skolemization
 Herbrand's theorem on ramification groups
 Rollo Davidson (1944–1970) – another mathematician who died in a mountain climbing accident
 (Gödel-Herbrand) computability thesis: before Church and Turing, in 1933 with Kurt Gödel, they created a formal definition of a class called general recursive functions.

References

External links

1908 births
1931 deaths
French logicians
Logicians
École Normale Supérieure alumni
University of Paris alumni
Proof theorists
20th-century French mathematicians
French male non-fiction writers
Mountaineering deaths
Sport deaths in France
Scientists from Paris
20th-century French philosophers
20th-century French male writers

Jacques Herbrand