The Dead River is a tributary of the Passaic River that has its source in Somerset County, New Jersey in the United States.

For several miles it forms the northern border of Warren Township with Bernards Township, both in Somerset County. It joins the Passaic just north of Exit 36 of I-78, and the junction was moved northward, away from the Exit, to allow enough room for the exit ramps. There the river is crossed by King George Road. At the next I-78 westward, Exit 33, the river is crossed by the Martinsville-Liberty Corner Road, and there is extensive commercial development in both Warren and Bernards north of the Exit and south of the river. The Somerset Hills Hotel is on the banks of the river in Warren, and its sister hotel, now Indigo, is to the west on its banks in Bernards. For many years the Indigo was known as The Inn at Somerset Hills, and its lounge-tavern was known as The Dead River Pub. Between the two I-78 exits the river is crossed by one road, known in Warren as Dead River Road and Bernards as Acken Road. Prior to World War II there were several brick works along the river due to the good clay found there.

A 1960s housing development in Warren, originally called Dead River Estates, found more success when renamed Whispering Hills. The Dead River Road bridge was for a long time closed due to flooding and disrepair, and a controversary over whether it should be repaired and reopened significantly affected the 1983 election for Warren Township Committee. From river source to the Passaic the land is very flat, which, except during heavy rainfalls, results in hardly any detectable flow in the river, hence its name—which has absolutely nothing to do with anything "dead" along its course, save the river itself.

References

See also
List of New Jersey rivers

Tributaries of the Passaic River
Rivers of New Jersey
Rivers of Somerset County, New Jersey

Dead River (New Jersey)


Elvira Lindo (born 23 January 1962) is a Spanish journalist and writer.

Lindo was born in Cádiz. At the age of 12 Lindo moved to Madrid, where she studied journalism at Complutense University of Madrid.  She did not get her degree, as she began to work in television and radio as a speaker, actress and scriptwriter.  Her first novel was based on one of her fictional radio characters, the madrileño boy Manolito Gafotas, who has become a classic of Spanish children's literature.  Manolito is the son of a trucker and lives a humble life in the working-class quarter of Carabanchel.  The character was the protagonist of several first-person novels written with a solid style that includes humour, irony and sharp social criticism.

Lindo has also written adult novels and plays; she is the screenwriter of the film La primera noche de mi vida, and collaborated with director Miguel Albaladejo on the screenplays for Manolito Gafotas and Ataque verbal. She also adapted the screenplay Plenilunio from the novel by her husband, Antonio Muñoz Molina.

Ever since her husband Antonio Muñoz Molina was appointed director of the Instituto Cervantes of New York City, Lindo has lived in New York City. She often writes for the Spanish-language newspaper El País, contributing editorials, and writes freelance work for other magazines and newspapers.

In 1998 Lindo was awarded the Premio Nacional de Literatura Infantil y Juvenil (National Award for Children's and Youth Literature) for her book Los trapos sucios de Manolito Gafotas, and she received the Premio Biblioteca Breve for her adult novel Una palabra tuya. Her next book, Lo que me queda por vivir was released on 3 September 2010.

Lindo debuted as a film directed by co-helming Alguien que cuide de mí along with Daniela Fejerman.

References

External links

1962 births
Living people
People from Cádiz
Spanish women writers
Spanish women journalists
El País columnists
21st-century Spanish screenwriters
Complutense University of Madrid alumni

Elvira Lindo


Hanriot H.230 was a French twin-engined advanced trainer. The construction of the aircraft was initiated in 1936 by Hanriot's chief designer Montlaur. The aircraft was produced by the nationalized factory SNCAC.

History
The prototype H.230.01, made its first flight in June 1937. The aircraft resembled its predecessor, the H.220 fighter-bomber, but had a lightened and simplified structure.

The H.230.01 was powered by two  Salmson 6Af engines and its configuration included a short crew canopy faired into the upper decking of the rear fuselage and a conventional strut-braced tail unit, and the fixed main landing gear units incorporated spatted wheel fairings. During further tests it was decided to introduce considerable dihedral at the wingtips to improve stability, but the H.231.01 which followed in May 1938 had dihedral increased over the whole wing span, and the unusual wingtip arrangement of the modified H.230 was eliminated. Twin fins and rudders were introduced and the power was increased with new  Salmson 6Af-02 engines. The Hanriot H.232.01 had a single fin and rudder and was equipped with twin  Renault 6Q-02/03, (left and right hand propeller rotation), engines plus retractable landing gear. The H.232.02, which made its maiden flight in August 1938, introduced a redesigned cockpit. The aircraft was tested between October 1938 and May 1939. The type was then given a twin fin and rudder tail assembly and was flown in this new configuration in December 1939, then redesignated H.232/2.01.

The French Air Ministry made an initial order of 40 H.232.2's. This order was though soon was extended to 57. The French Air Force started to receive their H-232.2's in February, 1940, and received a total of 35 before the defeat against the Germans in June 1940. The Germans captured 22 aircraft of this type, and since they did not have any use of them, Finland placed an order for three aircraft from the Germans. One was destroyed in an accident during the ferry flight to Finland, the other two saw service as advanced trainers in the Finnish Air Force and were written off on January 2, 1950. During the Winter War the French had planned to send 25 aircraft of this type to Finland. The German aircraft were scrapped in 1942.

Variants
H.230
Twin-engined trainer derived from the Hanriot H.220, powered by 2x  Salmson 6Af engines, one built.
H.231
Further development, powered by two 2x  Salmson 6Af-02 engines, two built.
H.232
Production prototype with single fin and rudder replacing earlier twin fins, powered by two Renault 6Q-02/03 engines.
SNCAC NC.232/2
Production aircraft, 57 ordered but only 35 delivered before the fall of France in 1940. Three delivered to Finland (one written off on the delivery flight).
SNCAC NC.600 Further development of the H.232 curtailed by the German invasion in 1940.

Operators

Finnish Air Force

French Air Force

Luftwaffe

Specifications (SNCAC NC-232.2)

See also

References

Bibliography

External links
Hanriot H.230.01
Hanriot H.231
Hanriot H.232

1930s French military trainer aircraft
H.230
Aircraft first flown in 1937

Hanriot H.230


A terrella (Latin for "little earth") is a small magnetised model ball representing the Earth, that is thought to have been invented by the English physician William Gilbert while investigating magnetism, and further developed 300 years later by the Norwegian scientist and explorer Kristian Birkeland, while investigating the aurora.

Terrellas have been used until the late 20th century to attempt to simulate the Earth's magnetosphere, but have now been replaced by computer simulations.

William Gilbert's terrella

William Gilbert, the royal physician to Queen Elizabeth I,  devoted much of his time, energy and resources to the study of the Earth's magnetism. It had been known for centuries that a freely suspended compass needle pointed north. Earlier investigators (including Christopher Columbus) found that direction deviated somewhat from true north, and Robert Norman showed the force on the needle was not horizontal but slanted into the Earth.

William Gilbert's explanation was that the Earth itself was a giant magnet, and he demonstrated this by creating a scale model of the magnetic Earth, a "terrella", a sphere formed out of a lodestone. Passing a small compass over the terrella, Gilbert demonstrated that a horizontal compass would point towards the magnetic pole, while a dip needle, balanced on a horizontal axis perpendicular to the magnetic one, indicated the proper "magnetic inclination" between the magnetic force and the horizontal direction. Gilbert later reported his findings in De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure, published in 1600.

Kristian Birkeland's terrella

Kristian Birkeland was a Norwegian physicist who, around 1895, tried to explain why the lights of the polar aurora appeared only in regions centered at the magnetic poles.

He simulated the effect by directing cathode rays (later identified as electrons) at a terrella in a vacuum tank, and found they indeed produced a glow in regions around the poles of the terrella. Because of residual gas in the chamber, the glow also outlined the path of the particles. Neither he nor his associate Carl Størmer (who calculated such paths) could understand why the actual aurora avoided the area directly above the poles themselves. Birkeland believed the electrons came from the Sun, since large auroral outbursts were associated with sunspot activity.

Birkeland constructed several terrellas. One large terrella experiment was reconstructed in Tromsø, Norway.

Other terrellas
The German Baron Carl Reichenbach (1788–1869) also experimented with a terrella. He used an electromagnet, placed within a large hollow iron sphere, and this was examined in the darkroom under varying degrees of electrification.

Brunberg and Dattner in Sweden, around 1950, used a terrella to simulate trajectories of particles in the Earth's field. Podgorny in the Soviet Union, around 1972, built terrellas at which a flow of plasma was directed, simulating the solar wind. Hafiz-Ur Rahman at the University of California, Riverside conducted more realistic experiments around 1990. All such experiments are difficult to interpret, and are never able to scale all the parameters needed to properly simulate the Earth's magnetosphere, which is why such experiments have now been completely replaced by computer simulations.

Recently the terrella experiments have been further developed by a team of physicists at the Institute of Planetology and Astrophysics in Grenoble, France to create the "planeterrella" which uses two magnetised spheres which can be manipulated to recreate several different auroral phenomena.

Notes

References

External links
NASA Educational Website on the Terrella

Physics experiments

Terrella


is a vertically scrolling manic shooter arcade game developed by Raizing and published by Eighting in 1998. The player controls teams of flying jet bikes (Batriders) each with their own pilot; players can choose up to three of nine standard characters plus another
nine unlockable characters from the previous games of Raizing Mahou Daisakusen and Battle Garegga. In 2022, the game was included as part of the Sega Astro City Mini V, a vertically-oriented variant of the Sega Astro City mini console, marking its first appearance outside the arcades.

Gameplay

Gameplay takes place across up to seven stages, with a varying number of bosses depending upon the player selection and whether certain hidden tasks have been performed during gameplay. During Advanced course, it is possible to fight as few as seven or as many as all eighteen of the game's bosses. Small and Large Shot powerups, Option powerups and medals drop frequently from popcorn enemies and fall down off the screen from where they spawn. Extra lives are granted every 1,500,000 points.

Pressing A fires the main Shot and, if the requisite powerups have been collected, the player's Options. Pressing B fires the Bomb and pressing nothing powers up the Aura, a small energy field at the front of the player which causes damage.

Batrider contains up to seven stages along with a large number of secrets, which are either unlockable with codes or DIP switch settings, or hidden within the game itself. In addition to selectable difficulty levels via dipswitch, there are also four player-selectable variants of the game:
Training course lasts for three stages; Manhattan City, one of the three Stage Edit stages below (unless left or right is held while selecting the course), and Highway. The game will automatically use any remaining bombs if the player takes a hit.
Normal course lasts for five stages; Manhattan City, Sky High/Airport/Sewage System in random order unless Stage Edit is enabled, and finally Highway, as well as Bashinet II's secret boss stage Colosseum, Mech-Bull in the stage Future Jungle and Gigant-Mech Goromaru JR in the stage Bangkok.
Advanced course is the full game of seven stages; the above, Zenovia City, and Building, as well as more secret boss stages, Black Heart II's Airport, Bashinet R's Night Flight, Glow Squid's Night View, God-Mech Saint George's Outer Space and Gigant Mech-Anakonda's Blue Hell.
Special course is a boss rush mode using the Advanced course versions of the bosses, with the same criteria determining which bosses are fought as the other modes. On Japanese versions, it must be enabled via dipswitch.

Plot
In the year 2014, Manhattan was plagued with unprecedented levels of crime. No measure of law enforcement seemed able to combat the strife and violence, and so a desperate plan was brought forth by GiganTech Cybertronics Corporation. This plan was the artificial island Zenovia, two kilometers south of Manhattan, which would be patrolled by GiganTech's own robotic creations. A rapid exodus from Manhattan to Zenovia resulted.

However, by 2019, the promise of tranquility has not been fulfilled. Even with all the expansions to Zenovia the population influx called for, it has become something of a slum, except for the massive GiganTech headquarters. There have been quarrels over whether or not Zenovia should be regarded as being the jurisdiction of the United States, or just GiganTech. Crime, amazingly, has grown even more rapidly than Manhattan ever knew—partly because the GiganTech machines have been promoting everything EXCEPT law and order. The most horrific aspect, though, is the result of an intelligence investigation from the government.

GiganTech's own executives, both then and now, are actually among the most dangerous criminals the country has ever known. Zenovia, far from being planned as a refuge from violence, was actually a trap and a testing ground for the weapons GiganTech plans to use to become the sole power of the underworld.

Neither police nor armies are willing to commit against the mechanical forces that GiganTech commands and invade Zenovia. Therefore, nine fighters—three police, three convicts, and three psychics—have been drafted as "Zero-Cops", riding the BatRider airbikes against the forces invading Manhattan and charging into Zenovia to take down GiganTech's CEO and his ultimate weapon, known only as "Discharge".

Reception
In Japan, Game Machine listed Armed Police Batrider on their March 15, 1998 issue as being the sixth most-successful arcade game of the month.

References

External links
Official website
Armed Police BatRider at Arcade History

1998 video games
Arcade video games
Cooperative video games
Eighting games
Japan-exclusive video games
Science fiction video games
Vertically scrolling shooters
Video games about police officers
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Atsuhiro Motoyama
Video games scored by Hitoshi Sakimoto
Video games scored by Manabu Namiki
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games set in 2019
Multiplayer and single-player video games

Armed Police Batrider


Untermensch (plural: Untermenschen)  is a term many racist ideologiers use. It can be translated as sub-human or under-human. Nietzsche, and others developed the term Übermensch, to refer to someone who has outgrown himself, and who no longer has all the problems ordinary people have For the Nazis, the Übermensch was someone of Aryan descent. The Untermensch, on the other hand was used for all the people of the races seen as inferior, such as the Jews, the Slavic people, gypsies or black people.

When the Nazis invaded the Soviet Union, Heinrich Himmler published a booklet, called "Der Untermensch". This brochure was distributed in Germany: it was made to increase the hatred towards the people of the Soviet Union (note: not the Slavic people, the term Slavic people never occurs in the brochure). The booklet was very popular, also with the German allies, such as the people in Croatia, Slovakia or Bulgaria. These people received copies in their own language. The booklet didn't provide much information about the Soviet union, it was mainly used to race hatred. Some people in the Nazi government were against the publication of the booklet: they thought they could convince the common people of the Soviet Union to fight against the Bolsheviks in power. During 1942, the publication of the booklet was stopped.

In 1924, Fritz Lang published his movie Die Nibelungen, where he shows that the smith Mime (also called Mimir) as an Untermensch. During the Wochenschau, the Nazis showed several movies with Russian people in simple wooden houses, travelling on badly maintained roads. This was done to show the German people how inferior the people of the Soviet Union were. Needless to say: these clips also were propaganda.

Movies that were made after the second world war, also show the concept of Untermensch: Louis de Funès has a few of these movies: In his movies, the term is not used for people of other nations seen as inferior, but rather: for people of the own nations, who have character traits that are seen as bad.

During the Second World War, Japan expanded to China and in Southeast Asia. During that time, prisoners of war and civilians were used for experiments on humans. Unit 731 became known for experiments with chemiclal agents and pathogens, such as those causingthe plague, or smallpox. They also did experiments with poison gas. In Japanese, the people were called maruta, which can be translated as wood, or material. This a similar value judgement than that of Untermensch.

Racism

Untermensch


Manufacture Jaeger-LeCoultre SA, or simply Jaeger-LeCoultre (), is a Swiss luxury watch and clock manufacturer founded by Antoine LeCoultre in 1833 and is based in Le Sentier, Switzerland. Since 2000, the company has been a fully owned subsidiary of the Swiss luxury group Richemont.

Jaeger-LeCoultre is regarded as a top-tier Richemont brand. It has hundreds of inventions, patents, and more than one thousand movements to its name, including the world's smallest movement, one of the world's most complicated wristwatches (Grande Complication), and a timepiece of near-perpetual movement (the Atmos clock).

History

Early history

The earliest records of the LeCoultre family in Switzerland date from the 16th century, when Pierre LeCoultre (circa 1530 – circa 1600), a French Huguenot, fled to Geneva from Lizy-sur-Ourcq, France to escape religious persecution. In 1558, he obtained the status of "inhabitant" but left the following year to acquire a plot of land in the Vallée de Joux. Over time, a small community formed and in 1612, Pierre LeCoultre's son built a church there, marking the founding of the village of Le Sentier where the company's Manufacture is still based today.

In 1833, following his invention of a machine to cut watch pinions from steel, Antoine LeCoultre (1803-1881) founded a small watchmaking workshop in Le Sentier, where he honed his horological skills to create high-quality timepieces. In 1844, he invented the world's most precise measuring instrument at the time, the Millionomètre, and in 1847 he created a keyless system to rewind and set watches. Four years later, he was awarded a gold medal for his work on timepiece precision and Mechanization at the first Universal Exhibition in London.

In 1866, at a time when watchmaking skills were divided up among hundreds of small workshops, Antoine and his son, Elie LeCoultre (1842-1917), established the Vallée de Joux's first full-fledged manufacture, LeCoultre & Cie., pooling their employees' expertise under one roof. Under this set-up, they developed in 1870 the first partially mechanised production processes for complicated movements.

By the same year, the Manufacture employed 500 people and was known as the "Grande Maison of the Vallée de Joux", and by 1900, it had created over 350 different calibres, of which 128 were equipped with chronograph functions and 99 with repeater mechanisms. From 1902 and for the next 30 years, LeCoultre & Cie. produced most of the movement blanks for Patek Philippe of Geneva.

Re-organization
In 1903, Paris-based watchmaker to the French Navy, Edmond Jaeger, challenged Swiss manufacturers to develop and produce the ultra-thin movements that he had invented. Jacques-David LeCoultre, Antoine's grandson who was responsible for production at LeCoultre & Cie., accepted the challenge, giving rise to a collection of ultra-thin pocket watches, including the thinnest in the world in 1907, equipped with the LeCoultre Calibre 145.

The same year, French jeweller Cartier, one of Jaeger's clients, signed a contract with the Parisian watchmaker under which all Jaeger movements for a period of fifteen years would be exclusive to Cartier. The movements were produced by LeCoultre. Edmond Jaeger also acquired the patent for the atmospherically driven clock Atmos from its inventor Jean-Léon Reutter and licensed it to LeCoultre from 1936 for France, and in 1937 for Switzerland.

The collaboration between Jaeger and LeCoultre led to the company being officially renamed Jaeger-LeCoultre in 1937. Before that, LeCoultre of Switzerland and Jaeger of France also formed a company in England, Ed. Jaeger (London) Limited, in 1921 to make instruments for prestige car manufacturers. In 1927 Jaeger LeCoultre sold 75 per cent of the company to S Smith & Sons and in 1937 the company name was changed to British Jaeger Instruments Limited. The 1930 Bentley Speed Six also features gauges made by Jaeger and a clock by S. Smith & Sons.

American LeCoultre watches 1932-1985
Due to the Smoot Hawley Tariff Act, from 1932 to approximately 1985 watches were cased in locally produced cases in North America and sold under the name LeCoultre by the company Vacheron-LeCoultre, a subsidiary of Longines-Wittnauer, with slightly different case designs.

After 1985, Jaeger-LeCoultre was adopted uniformly worldwide. According to factory records, the last movement to be used in an American LeCoultre watch was shipped out of Le Sentier in 1976.

Some collectors and misinformed dealers have made the erroneous claim that American LeCoultre is not associated with Jaeger-LeCoultre Switzerland. The confusion stems from the 1950s, when the North American distributor of LeCoultre watches was the Longines-Wittnauer Group, which also was responsible for the distribution of Vacheron Constantin timepieces. Collectors have confused this distribution channel with the manufacture of the watches. According to Jaeger-LeCoultre enthusiast Zaf Basha, the "Galaxy", an upmarket mysterious dial diamond watch, is a collaboration between Vacheron & Constantin and LeCoultre for the American market. It features "LeCoultre" on the front and "Vacheron & Constantin — LeCoultre" stamped on the case. Watches for ladies also bore "LeCoultre" on the front.

The LeCoultre trademark expired in 1985 and was replaced by the Jaeger-LeCoultre trademark.

Watch manufacturing

Notable inventions and patents

Since Jaeger-LeCoultre's founding, the company has produced over 1,242 different calibres, registered approximately 400 patents and created hundreds of inventions.

 In 1844, Antoine LeCoultre invented the Millionomètre, which was the first instrument in history capable of measuring the micron, allowing for the precise manufacture of watch parts. The invention was never patented, as no such system existed in Switzerland at the time. However, its unique composition was kept a closely guarded secret, used by the company for more than fifty years. It was presented at the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1900.
 In 1847, Antoine invented a keyless watch, the second simple and reliable winding and time-setting system to do without a key after Patek Philippe's version of 1845. Instead, it relied on a small push-piece that activated a lever to change over from one function to another. Again, the invention was not patented, allowing other watchmakers to quickly implement the system.
 In 1866, for the first time in watchmaking history, LeCoultre & Cie. began to manufacture calibres with small complications in small series, and in 1891 combined the chronograph and minute repeater complications into a double complication calibre. This subsequently led in the mid-1890s to the production of grandes complications, or watches comprising at least three classic horological complications, such as a perpetual calendar, chronograph and minute repeater. In 2004, the Manufacture created the Gyrotourbillon I, its first grande complication wristwatch, featuring a tourbillon gravitating on two axes, along with a perpetual calendar with double retrograde indicators and a running equation of time. In 2006, it released the Reverso grande complication à triptyque, the first watch in history to be equipped with three dials driven by a single movement, and in 2009 the company produced one of the world's most complicated wristwatches, the Hybris Mechanica à Grande Sonnerie with 26 complications.
 In 1907, the LeCoultre Calibre 145 set the record for the world's thinnest movement at 1.38 mm thick, appearing in pocket watches that remain to this day the thinnest in their category. From 1907 until the 1960s, the movement was produced in some 400 copies.

Environmental rating

In December 2018, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) released an official report giving environmental ratings for 15 major watch manufacturers and jewelers in Switzerland. Jaeger-LeCoultre, along with 3 other manufacturers including Vacheron Constantin and Cartier, was given an average environmental rating as "Upper Midfield", suggesting that the manufacturer has taken first actions addressing the impact of its manufacturing activities on the environment and climate change.

In jewelry and watchmaking industry, there are general concerns over the lack of transparency in manufacturing activities and the sourcing of precious raw materials such as gold, which is a major cause of environmental issues such as pollution, soil degradation and deforestation. The situation is especially serious in the developing countries which are top producers of gold, including China, Russia and South Africa. It is estimated that the watch and jewelry sector uses over 50% of world's annual gold production (over 2,000 tons), but in most cases the watch companies are not able to or are unwilling to demonstrate where their raw materials come from and if the material suppliers use eco-friendly sourcing technologies.

Notable models

Reverso

Its name inspired by the Latin "I turn around", the Reverso was created in 1931 as a watch capable of surviving the hard knocks of a polo game: The origin of the watch creation is rooted in the early 1930s when a group of Polo players asked César de Trey, a watch dealer, to create a timepiece that could withstand the rigours of their sport. César de Trey followed up on the request with a letter to his colleague and watch manufacturer, Jacques-David LeCoultre. René-Alfred Chauvot, was a French engineer with LeCoultre, and was engaged to develop this new watchcase. Mr. Chauvot designed a reversible case that could protect the fragile dial and glass of the watch. The final design, that is still in use today, allows for the case to be swivelled in its carrier to protect the watch glass. The design is considered a classic of Art Deco.

A list of notable watches from the Reverso line include the following:

 The Reverso Classic Large Duoface Small Second, available in stainless steel.
 The Reverso Tribute Small Seconds Burgundy Red, available in stainless steel.
 The Grande Reverso Ultra Thin Tribute to 1931, available in stainless steel.

Duoplan
In 1925, the LeCoultre Calibre 7BF Duoplan was created in an effort to bring together miniaturisation and precision. The fashion of the period was for small wristwatches, however small calibres often suffered from a loss of reliability. Created by Henri Rodanet, the technical director of Etablissements Ed. Jaeger, the Duoplan was built on two levels – hence its name – enabling it to maintain a large-size balance.

The Duoplan was also one of the first gem-set steel watches and, in 1929, its glass was replaced with sapphire crystal, a first in watchmaking. The Duoplan was insured by Lloyd's of London with a special after-sales service, and a damaged movement could be replaced in a few minutes, leading London-based store owner Tyme to display in its shop window: "You won't have time to finish your cigarette before your watch is repaired".

Joaillerie 101
The Duoplan led to the creation in 1929 of the world's still-smallest mechanical movement, the Calibre 101, whose 74 original parts (98 today) weighed a total of approximately one gram. The second family of watches equipped with the Calibre 101, Joaillerie 101 Étrier appeared in the 1930s. In 1953, Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom wore a Jaeger-LeCoultre Calibre 101 wristwatch for her coronation.

Atmos

The Atmos Clock is a timepiece of near-perpetual movement needing no human intervention and almost no energy. Invented by Swiss engineer Jean-Léon Reutter in 1928 in Neuchâtel, the Atmos clock has been the Swiss government's official gift for important guests since 1950. Patented in 1928, the first version – known today as the Atmos 1 – was marketed by La Compagnie Générale de Radiologie (CGR) in 1930.

It derives energy from small temperature and atmospheric pressure changes in the environment, and can run for years without human intervention. Wound by a capsule filled with a mixture of temperature-sensitive gases, a 1 °C fluctuation is enough to store sufficient energy to supply the clock with two days' autonomy. Its balance, suspended from a steel-alloy wire thinner than a hair, performs two vibrations per minute; its gearing requires no lubricant. The Atmos' gearing is known for its accuracy: the moon-phase model, for example, accumulates a one-day discrepancy only once every 3,821 years.

The patents were subsequently purchased by Jaeger-LeCoultre in France 1936 and in Switzerland in 1937. The company then spent ten years perfecting the clock before beginning to manufacture it in its current technological form in 1946. In 1988, the Kohler and Rekow design agency created a two-piece limited edition showcase for the clock and, in 2003, the Manufacture released the Atmos Mystérieuse, driven by the Jaeger-LeCoultre Calibre 583 and comprising 1,460 parts.

Futurematic
In 1951, the Manufacture released the Futurematic, the first automatic movement that lacked the ability to be hand wound, the calibre 497, Calibre 497 debuted with the Jaeger-LeCoultre Futurematic and was much more advanced than the earlier JLC 476 and JLC 481. It features a larger balance for improved accuracy and hacking seconds. One unique feature is a lock that holds the swinging weight in place when the mainspring is fully wound. It also features a special 6 hour power reserve, allowing the watch to immediately function when it is put on, rather than requiring it to be wound first.

The Calibre 497 featured a power reserve indicator along with small seconds located at the unusual position of 3:00. There is no crown on either side of the case. The crown to set the time is on the rear of the case.

Calibre 817 was used in the Jaeger-LeCoultre Futurematic and was a modification of the existing Calibre 497. Like that movement, it has a power reserve indicator at 9:00 and small seconds 3:00, but in Cal. 817 and Cal. 837 these are tiny round windows rather than being full subdials. Calibre 827 returned to the full subdial format.

Calibres 817, 827, and 837 were produced from 1956 through 1958, with just 3,500 movements made. About 3,000 of Cal. 817, 1,000 of Cal. 827, and just 500 of Cal. 837 were made.

Approximately 52,500 examples of Calibre 497 were produced between 1951 and 1958.

It has been said that the whole project for the Futurematic almost made the company bankrupt, as they never fully recovered their investment from sales of the Futurematic series of watches.

Memovox

In 1950, the Manufacture released the Memovox (portmanteau of memoria and vox, "voice of memory"), a year after the model cricket was released by Vulcain. Its striking mechanism could be used as an alarm for waking up, appointments, timetables, etc. The first models were hand wound and equipped with the Jaeger-LeCoultre Calibre 489.

In 1956, a Memovox featuring the Jaeger-LeCoultre Calibre 815 became the first self-winding alarm watch in history, while shortly thereafter the company marked its 125th anniversary by releasing the Memovox Worldtime. In 1959, the Memovox Deep Sea was equipped with a specific alarm to remind divers to begin their ascension, and in 1965, the Memovox Polaris was released with a patented triple case back to optimise the transmission of sound under water.

The latter model would go on to inspire the current Master Compressor and AMVOX lines. It was reproduced in 2008 under the name Memovox Tribute to Polaris.

Geophysic
In honour of the International Geophysical Year in 1958, Jaeger-LeCoultre created a watch protected against magnetic fields, water and shocks. The Geophysic chronometer was proposed by long-time employee Jules-César Savary as a watch intended for scientific bases in Antarctica. The watch was fitted with the Jaeger-LeCoultre Calibre 478BWS and featured seventeen jewels, a Breguet overcoil, a regulating spring on the balance-cock, a shock-absorber and a Glucydur balance. The year of its release, the Geophysic was offered to William R. Anderson, the captain of the Nautilus, the first American nuclear submarine to travel between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans via the North Pole.

Grand Complication
JLC produces some complicated watches (Grand complication), e.g. the Master Gyrotourbillon 1 with a spherical Tourbillon. The Duomètre Sphérotourbillon is equipped with a tourbillon adjustable to the nearest second; the Reverso Répétition Minutes à Rideau is equipped with a minute-repeater shutter as a third face covering one of its two dials; the Master Grande Tradition Grande Complication is equipped with a flying tourbillon that follows the rhythm of celestial phenomena and indicates sidereal time, and a minute repeater comprising cathedral gongs; the Hybris Mechanica à Grande Sonnerie is equipped with gongs capable of playing the entire Big Ben chime; the Reverso Gyrotourbillon 2 is equipped with a spherical tourbillon principle, a reversible case and a cylindrical balance; the Master Compressor Extreme LAB is oil-free; the Gyrotourbillon 1 is equipped with a tourbillon evolving in three dimensions to compensate for the effects of gravity in all positions.

Notable patrons and owners

Artists

 Charlie Chaplin, English comic actor & filmmaker
 Pablo Picasso, Spanish artist

Celebrities

Pierce Brosnan, Irish actor
Leonardo DiCaprio, American actor
Robert Downey, Jr., American actor
Kit Harington, English actor
 Jay Z, American rapper
 Amanda Seyfried, American actress
 Stromae, Belgian Artist
John Mills, English actor

Intellectuals
Amelia Earhart, aviation pioneer & author

Politicians
Winston Churchill, British Statesman and soldier
Lyndon B. Johnson, 36th President of the United States
 Bill Clinton, 42nd President of the United States
Douglas MacArthur, American Five-star General
 Salvador Allende, 28th President of Chile (1970-1973).

Royalty

 Edward VIII, King of the United Kingdom and Duke of Windsor
 Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom

Sponsorship and philanthropy
Since 1931, Jaeger-LeCoultre has held close ties with the equestrian sports community and counts the Polo Club de Veytay as one of its partners.

In 2004, Jaeger-LeCoultre teamed with Aston Martin to launch the Aston Martin Jaeger-LeCoultre gentleman's watch - the AMVOX1. The design of the timepiece was inspired by a 70-year historical link between the two companies. The dashboard of the 1930s, 1.5-litre Aston Martin LM – a regular class winner in international motorsport – contained instruments created by Jaeger-LeCoultre.

In October 2011, the Responsible Jewellery Council announced that Jaeger-LeCoultre had obtained certification for its commitment to human rights and for meeting the ethical, social and environmental standards established by the RJC's Member Certification system.

In 2012, in partnership with the Italian luxury leathergoods brand Valextra, Jaeger-LeCoultre began offering a two-tone version of its ladies' Reverso watch.

Jaeger-LeCoultre and the International Herald Tribune have joined forces with UNESCO's World Heritage Centre in support of the World Heritage Marine Programme. The partnership provides funding and media exposure for one of the World Heritage Committee's priority programmes, leading to the listing of new marine sites and protection measures for the 46 sites already listed. Each year, the programme as well as the sites are featured in print and online news articles by the International Herald Tribune, thus offering increased visibility to the partnership.

In addition, the company partners with the Venice Film Festival to present the Jaeger-LeCoultre Glory to the Filmmaker Award.

See also

 List of watch manufacturers
Manufacture d'horlogerie
Atmos clock

References

External links

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Watch manufacturing companies of Switzerland
Swiss watch brands
Clock manufacturing companies of Switzerland
Richemont brands
Luxury brands
Manufacturing companies established in 1833
Swiss companies established in 1833

Jaeger-LeCoultre


Secondary sex characteristics are features which make it possible to tell the sexes of a species apart. They are not directly linked to reproduction.

Male birds usually have much more colourful feathers (plumage). Females are usually better able to hide, and their plumage is camouflaged. This makes sense, because the female birds carry the "precious package".

Well-known secondary sex characteristics in humans are for men: low voice tone, facial hair (mustache and beard) and more muscular build, shoulders wider, bones heavier, hands and feet bigger, height taller. In women, those characteristics usually cited are more prominent breasts, lips, eyes, long/fast growing hair, no facial hair, wider hips, more fat, and a higher voice tone. Average length of the tongue is greater in females, sometimes quite noticeably. It is reasonable to think this is also a secondary sexual character.

Faces, generally, make a big impact. It is the part other people interact with when meeting each other.

Some features are based on necessity. The wider hips of women are needed to give birth. Babies are born through the space between the three bones of a woman's pelvis. So is doubtful to call this a secondary characteristic, except so far as the width helps attract mates. Breasts are also essential, but in humans they are much larger in proportion to other mammals, and they do serve to attract males.

Evolutionary ideas
Charles Darwin thought that sexual selection, or competition within a species for mates explains many of the differences between sexes. Behaviour, such as male-to-male combat and female choice of males is a kind of secondary sex characteristic. Many 'ornaments' such brighter plumage, colouration, and other features have no immediate function except to improve the male's chances of being selected by females for breeding. Weapons such as antlers may serve both as defence against predators, and as status symbols advertising health and fitness.

Related pages
Sexual dimorphism
Sexual selection
Sexual reproduction

References

Sexuality

ru:Половые признаки

Secondary sex characteristic


Higher Ground is a 501(c)3 non-profit based in Royal Oak, Michigan providing a support group for people living with HIV/AIDS in Metro Detroit and Southeast Michigan. The organization was founded by 2002 by Rick Henning, who received a "Spirit of Detroit Award" from the Detroit City Council in 2007, in part for his work on Higher Ground.

Support activities
The organization offers many support services to persons living with HIV-AIDS.

Monday night discussion
This is the primary function of the organization.  It opens with a guided meditation, afterward everyone is encouraged to participate in discussion and to assist each other in the resolution of personal challenges. Topics of discussion often include new diagnosis, status disclosure, friends/family/workplace, doctor relationships, medication choices, dating/relationships, economic/insurance conflicts and long term challenges.

Guest speakers
Featured almost monthly they coincide with a member potluck dinner. Previous speaker topics focused on the spiritual and physical aspect of life with HIV/AIDS and covering topics such as:
 Accupunture
 Buddhist meditation by The Muddy Water Zen Center
 Financial planning by Advisor Reid Beyerlein
 Kabbalah
 Nutrition by Holistic Practitioner Stefan Brink
 Legal issues by The Law Office of Kendra S. Kleber

Annual retreat
Occurs each spring or fall, depending on schedules. Previous retreats were held at Kettunen Center in 2006, Double JJ Ranch in 2007, Ronora Lodge in 2008, and Retreat Center in 2009. Members participate in activities with others also living with HIV/AIDS and have previously included:

Annual blanket drive for AIDS
Higher Ground members are encouraged to give back to the community. Blankets are collected during the Holiday season by Higher Ground volunteers. About two dozens agencies have benefited including:
 Children's Hospital of Michigan
 Ruth Ellis Center

Movie night
Periodic selections are based on applications to living with HIV-AIDS. Previous viewing among others have included:
 Deepak Chopra's Body Mind And Soul
 Girl Positive
 Incredible Mrs. Ritchie
 The Secret (2006 film)
 The 24th Day

Hatha yoga
Hatha yoga practice is held on Thursday evenings for persons with HIV-AIDS.

Reiki
Reiki practice is occasionally held in conjunction with the Monday night support meeting.

References
 Between The Lines Newspaper November 13th, 2008
 Pride Source June Banquet 2007 Spirit Of Detroit Award recipients
 CW50 TV News Events
 WDET 101.9 FM Radio Events
 Michigan HIV News October 2008
 Royal Oak Mirror News November 16th, 2008
 City Of Detroit Health Department World AIDS Day Event Press Release November 25th, 2008
 Soho Bar Fund Raiser Event Metro Times 2008
 Detroit Free Press December 7th, 2008
 93.9 FM The River Detroit Radio  2007 Blanket Drive support
 World AIDS Day Campaign 2006
 Oakland County Mental Health Agencies And Organizations
 Red Ribbon Bowl To Throw A Strike For HIV/AIDS, Between The Lines, March 5th, 2009
 FGI gundraiser, Hometown Life News November 12th, 2009

External links
 Higher Ground Website

HIV/AIDS organizations in the United States
Non-profit organizations based in Michigan
Support groups

Higher Ground (support group)


Balearic trance, also known as Ibiza trance is a trance music subgenre which evolved from Balearic beat. The earliest known Balearic trance compositions date back to a few years after the emergence of Balearic beat in the 1990s.

History
It came out of Balearic house in the 1980s, and named after the Balearic island of Ibiza. Inconsistently, the style name has always been connected to trance and Balearic beat.

Style
Balearic trance keeps the same "Balearic" timbre as Balearic beat, while Balearic trance is characterized by a higher tempo of around 125 bpm to 145 bpm, typically around 130 bpm. Being based in Spain, it is often derived from Latin music. It has a primary focus on atmosphere, making it similar in many regards to dream trance.

"This music seems to capture the mood of a soft, Mediterranean sunset perfectly, maybe because of its use of string instruments, like Spanish guitars and mandolins and things associated with the Mediterranean, like oceans, birds, and other things borrowed from ambient trance."

See also

Balearic beat
Progressive house

References

External links
 An interview with Faruk Gandji about the Ku on Ibiza (part 2) - "the birth of the Balearic Trance"
 Ibiza Trance - Description

20th-century music genres
Balearic music
Culture of Ibiza
Trance genres

Balearic trance


Margam Moors () is a community of Neath Port Talbot county borough, Wales.  Together with the community of Margam, it forms the Margam electoral ward.

There were three inhabitants in Margam Moors at the 2001 census, and most of the area is open moorland with the central and northern areas occupied by Port Talbot Steelworks and Port Talbot Docks.  The south west of the community is Margam Sands beach.

Communities in Neath Port Talbot

Margam Moors


Mnemba Island is a single small island located about 3 km off the northeast coast of Unguja, the largest island of the Zanzibar Archipelago, Tanzania, opposite Muyuni Beach. It is roughly triangular in shape, about  in diameter and about  in circumference. It is surrounded by an oval reef seven by four kilometres in extent. These reefs have been declared a marine conservation area. Mnemba Island and its reef are sometimes called Mnemba Atoll which is incorrect because an atoll is an island that encircles a lagoon, which is not the case for Mnemba Island.

Mnemba Island is a popular scuba diving site, with a wide variety of corals and associated species, as well as occasional sightings of larger species such as turtles and dolphins. Calm conditions are most frequent in November and March, with maximum visibility. The island itself is privately owned and can be visited only as a guest at a price of US$1155 to US$1600 per person per night (2015 rates). As Mnemba is a private island, non-guests are not permitted to land on the island. The island has a 200-meter exclusion zone around the island within which non-guests are not permitted.

Mnemba Island is a 90-minute drive from Stone Town across the main Zanzibar Island, before a twenty-minute boat crossing.

The marine reserve comprises four distinct habitats which are home to a diverse array of Indian Ocean wildlife:
 Nesting place of threatened green sea turtles (monitoring and protection project has been underway since 1996)
 Humpback whales (July to September)
 Three species of dolphin
 Whale sharks (the world's largest fish)
 Migratory and resident shore birds feed and roost on the Island
 Approximately 600 species of coral reef fish.

Green sea turtles can be seen laying their eggs on the beaches between February and September.

References
 Finke, J. (2006) The Rough Guide to Zanzibar (2nd edition). New York: Rough Guides.

External links

 Government of Zanzibar

Zanzibar Archipelago
Uninhabited islands of Tanzania
Private islands of Africa

Mnemba Island


Superbrothers: Sword & Sworcery EP is an indie adventure video game created by Superbrothers and Capybara Games, with music by Jim Guthrie. It was initially released for iOS devices, with a version for Microsoft Windows via Steam coming later. Mac OS X and Linux ports were included with the release of Humble Indie Bundle V, while a port to the Android platform was released as part of the fourth Humble Bundle for Android. Additionally, a port to Nintendo Switch was released, combining both mobile and computer-like control schemes, as well as adding controller support. The iOS and Android versions make use of device orientation during gameplay.

Gameplay
The player taps where they want the character, a Scythian warrior, to go. The accelerometer is incorporated into the gameplay, with the user turning the device 90 degrees to make the Scythian take out her sword (the PC version uses the right mouse button). The player taps the shield button or the sword button to use them. If the Scythian is harmed during a conflict, the player can heal by finding and consuming small, red mushrooms. Eating these mushrooms also activates a special musical track, only played in such an event.

Most of the dialogue is done through thoughts, once the user has acquired the "Megatome", a magic book that lets the character read people's minds. The character can jump between two worlds; the "real" world and the "dream" world. The user jumps from one world to the other by letting the Scythian sleep, which is done through making them sit down at a specific place in the game.

Touching and holding on the Scythian will initiate a "song of sworcery", a mechanic that allows the player to telepathically interact with the environment. This is usually used to solve environmental puzzles which summon sprites. The sprites are needed to obtain trigons.

Certain events and passages of play, including discovering some sprites, may only happen if the moon is in a certain phase. The moon phase in the real world is synchronised with the game world based on the system clock. However, moon phases can also be skipped by visiting the "moon grotto". This is a hidden cave that is unlocked late in the game. Entering this cave will also play a unique musical track that can not be found on the official soundtrack.

Plot

In the game, there are 4 "sessions". In Session I, The Scythian travels through the countryside near the Caucasus Mountains on a quest. She meets a black-haired girl, colloquially called Girl (Samae in the Switch version), tending to some sheep in a meadow near the start of her journey. Eventually she comes upon a man cutting wood named Logfella, and a dog named Dogfella. Logfella reluctantly agrees to lead them to the mountain Mingi Taw. The path ends at a canyon, on the other side of which is a massive face carved into the mountain, the mouth being an entrance to a cave.

The Scythian raises her sword under a rainbow near the canyon and a "tongue" extends from the mouth. The Scythian crosses into Mingi Taw alone. The Scythian arrives at her goal deep under the mountain: a book of powerful "sworcery" known as the Megatome. The Scythian's sword reacts to the presence of the Megatome, and she uses it to cut the book free from the skeletal hands that hold it in place. Suddenly, the hands and an antlered skull hovering above it come alive and chase the Scythian through the caves of Mingi Taw. The Scythian escapes, but the eyes and mouth of the face on Mingi Taw close and exude black smoke, and a thunderstorm begins overhead. A wolf-like creature with three eyes pursues the Scythian, the dog, and Logfella as they make their way to Logfella's cabin. The first "session" ends with the Scythian triumphant having obtained the Megatome.

Afterwards, the player is presented with the second session by "The Archetype". He monitors the Scythian's progress throughout the story, calling her journey a series of tests, or sessions. Shortly thereafter, the player returns to the Scythian, teleporting to a platform east of Logfella's cabin. The Scythian makes it back to Logfella's cabin, where Girl suggests awakening several nearby sylvan sprites – mystical creatures that grant miracles to those who summon them – to break up the thunderstorm. She reminds the Scythian that these sprites emit bubbles (which could be interpreted as a scent) and a specific sound whenever they are around. The Scythian travels the countryside, locating the three sylvan sprites and breaking up the thunderstorm. To reach the third sylvan sprite, the Scythian traverses to the side of Mingi Taw, but the door to the path leading there is locked. Logfella, who holds the key, tells the Scythian that he lost it while dreaming. He explains that by sitting near the hearth of the fire inside the cabin one enters a dream space.

Inside the dream, the Scythian watches a Boor who's dancing about. Approaching it, the Boor begins to run away. Following it, she reaches the side of a lake, where Logfella's key is. With it, she travels to the side of Mingi Taw to awaken the third sylvan sprite and break up the storm.  When all the sylvan sprites are awakened, Girl and Logfella see this event as a "time of miracles", as told in tales between folks of the Caucasus. Once the storm has passed, a mysterious light emanates at a maze-like structure in the meadow near Logfella's cabin. After chanting a song of sworcery, a geometric figure appears. This geometric figure, an upside-down triangle, is recognized in the Megatome to be the "Golden Trigon", a piece of the Trigon Trifecta. Approaching the Golden Trigon, the Scythian readies her sword and shield as it begins to attack. The Trigon's attacks begin with a projectile-like beam before progressing to lasers being shot out of an eye-like figure which the Trigon assumes, all of which follow the pattern of the song being played during the battle. After defeating the Golden Trigon, the Scythian stores it in the Megatome, and the session ends.

In the third session, the Scythian searches the dreams of Girl and Logfella and finds the remaining two Trigons. Each of those Trigons can only be obtained during a certain moon phase. The Scythian then attends a rock concert, with the musician Jim Guthrie, where she reassembles the Trigon Trifecta.

The Archetype introduces the player to the final session, explaining that completing the Scythian's woeful errand will be fatal. The Scythian uses the Trigon Trifecta to teleport to Mingi Taw to vanquish the antlered being (referred to as the Gogolithic Mass). After a final showdown with the three-eyed wolf, the Scythian detonates the Trigon Trifecta and the Megatome at the summit of Mingi Taw, sacrificing herself and vaporizing the Gogolithic Mass. Logfella and Girl somberly cremate the Scythian's body.

Development
A trailer was released for the game in February 2011, and the iPad version was released on March 24, 2011. Superbrothers: Sword & Sworcery EP won the Independent Games Festival Mobile Achievement in Art award in 2010. The developers initially stated that they had no intention of creating an Android version of the game. However, on November 8, 2012 it was announced that Sword & Sworcery will come to Android initially through the release of a beta version within the Humble Bundle for Android 4 package. It later was widely released on Google Play on December 21, 2012. On November 30, 2018, a port of the game was released on Nintendo Switch via the Nintendo eShop.

Reception

The game has sold over 1.5 million copies. Superbrothers: Sword and Sworcery EP won the Visuals award at IndieCade 2011. It was also featured as a free download on the 5th Anniversary of Apple's Appstore. Pocket Gamer awarded it both Most Innovative Game and iPad Game of the Year in 2012

In a review of Superbrothers: Sword & Sworcery EP in Black Gate, John ONeill said "On the surface Sword & Sworcery looks like a point-and-click adventure game, circa 1995. But the artistic design and innovative touches make this unlike any game you've ever seen."

References

External links

2011 video games
Adventure games
Android (operating system) games
IOS games
Linux games
Indie games
MacOS games
Nintendo Switch games
Single-player video games
Video games developed in Canada
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games featuring non-playable protagonists
Windows games
Art games
Action-adventure games
Capybara Games games
Superbrothers games

Superbrothers: Sword & Sworcery EP


Hispaniola is an island in the Caribbean Sea. It is the second largest island (after Cuba) of the West Indies, east of Cuba and west of Puerto Rico.

The Republic of Haiti occupies the western three-eighths, the Dominican Republic the rest. Hispaniola is one of two Caribbean islands in which there are two countries; the other is Saint Martin.

History

Pre-Columbian history
When Columbus arrived to America, some groups of native people, coming from northern South America, had lived in the Caribbean Islands since a very long time. That movement from South America to the Caribbean islands was not continuous but it happened in several waves during almost twelve centuries.

Archeological studies suggests that those people from South America came to the Caribbean islands during four periods.

The first period began around 5000 B.C. For most Caribbean islands, this period ended around 2000 years ago except in Cuba and Hispaniola where there were some small populations in western Cuba and southwestern Hispaniola when the Europeans arrived to these islands. They were called Ciboney or Siboney by the Taínos, meaning "man that lives among rocks" (Ciba means stone and eyeri man).

The second group was the Igneri, the first Arawak Indians to come to the Caribbean Islands. They displaced the Ciboney people and, later, they were displaced by another group of Arawak Indians, the Taínos. Taínos occupied all the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico) and they developed a culture different from the culture of the Arawaks of South America. They were the first people that the Spanish met in the Americas.

The fourth and last group was the Carib. The Carib were also Arawaks but with a different language. Even if they used to go to Puerto Rico and the Hispaniola to fight against the Taínos, they lived only in the Lesser Antilles when Columbus got to America.

At the moment when the Spanish came to the Hispaniola, most of the island was occupied by Taínos; only in the western tip of the Southern Peninsula (in modern Haiti), there were some small groups of Ciboney In the northeastern part of the island (Samaná Peninsula and north of the Northern mountain range), there was a group called Ciguayos, and sometimes Macorix, with the same culture of the Taínos but a different language. It seems that they were Carib that took the Taíno culture. They were the first Indians that fought against the Europeans.

Discovery, conquest and colony

Christopher Columbus arrived to the island on December 5, 1492, naming it as La Española, meaning The Spanish Island. When Peter Martyr d'Anghiera wrote in latin about this island, he wrote Hispaniola, meaning Small Spain; that was not correct. Because the book of Anghiera was translated into English very soon, the name Hispaniola is the most used in English-speaking countries and in scientific works.

For centuries, other names were used for the island. The most common were Santo Domingo Island (the Dominican constitution still uses that name) and Haiti.

Hispaniola was the only island that Columbus visited in all his four travels to the Americas. He saw the island for the first time on December 5, 1492 but he stayed on his ship during the night; the next day, he went to land. The Spaniards spent the rest of December traveling along the north coast of Haiti; on December 12, Columbus took possession of the island in the name of the King and Queen of Spain and named the island as "La Española".

On Christmas Eve, December 24, the main ship ("Santa María") was badly damaged. The next day, Christmas Day, Columbus gave orders to use the wood of the ship to build a small fort on what is now Môle Saint-Nicolas, Haiti. That fort was named La Navidad ("Navidad" means Christmas) and was the first European building on American soil. Columbus left 39 men there because there was not space in the other two ships for all the people.

From "La Navidad", they traveled east along the north coast of the island and in Samaná they had a small fight with some natives ("Ciguayos", not Taíno Indians) and named the bay as "Golfo de las Flechas" (Gulf of the Arrows), but now is called "Samaná Bay". From there, they went back to Spain.

In 1493, Columbus found, when he returned in his second trip, that "La Navidad" was destroyed by the Indians and all Spaniards killed. Then he went to the east, founding the first European city in the American continent, near the present city of Puerto Plata; he named the city "La Isabela" in honor of Queen Isabella of Castile. The first Catholic mass in America was celebrated at La Isabela on January 6, 1494. From La Isabela, Columbus sent groups of persons to explore and take control of the island.

Because La Isabela was an unhealthy site, Bartholomew Columbus, brother of Christopher, established a new city, La Nueva Isabela (The New Isabela) on the south coast of the island, on the left side of the Ozama river. Because a hurricane destroyed the city, it was built again but on the right side of the river and with the new name of Santo Domingo. It is the oldest permanent European city in the Americas.

The Taíno population of the island decreased very fast because a combination of new diseases, like smallpox, and abuses by the Spaniards. Even if some black slaves were brought from Spain since 1501, the colony began to import African slaves when the colony began to grow sugar cane, around 1516, to produce sugar.

Spain kept conquering new regions of the Americas and, for the Spanish people, those new regions were more interesting because there was more gold; the population of the island grew very slowly. By the early 17th century, the island and its smaller neighbors (above all, the Tortuga island) became places often visited by Caribbean pirates. In 1606, the king of Spain gave the order that all inhabitants of Hispaniola had to move close to the city of Santo Domingo, to avoid interaction with pirates and Protestant people. This resulted in French, British and Dutch pirates establishing bases on the abandoned north and west coasts of the island.

In 1665, the presence of French people on the island had the official approval of the French king Louis XIV and he named Bertrand d'Ogeron as the governor of the western part of Hispaniola (in French, Saint-Domingue). By the Treaty of Ryswick, Spain gave the western third of the island to France and kept the eastern part. The development of the French "Saint-Domingue" was very fast, both in wealth and population, and it became the richest colony in the Caribbean. The eastern, Spanish colony of "Santo Domingo" remained poor and with a very low population.

Geography
The island of Hispaniola has an area of . There are two countries: the Republic of Haiti is in the western part of the island and the Dominican Republic in the eastern part. These two countries are separated by an artificial border, except in the northern and southern extremes where they are separated by the rivers Dajabón and Pedernales, respectively.

The island is separated from Cuba by the Windward Passage (81 km from Punta Maisí in Cuba to Cape Saint-Nicolas in Haiti), from Jamaica by the Jamaica Channel ( from Point Morante in Jamaica to Cape Irois in Haiti) and from Puerto Rico by the Mona Channel, as  from Punta Higüero in Puerto Rico to Punta de Agua in the Dominican Republic.

The maximun length, east to west, is  from Cape Engaño to Cape Irois. The maximum width, north to south, is  from Cape Isabela to Cape Beata. The highest point of the island, and of the Caribbean is Duarte Peak (Pico Duarte) in the Dominican Republic with ; the lowest point is in the Enriquillo Lake, which is about  under sea level.

Islands
There are many smaller islands around the Hispaniola. The largest are:
 Gonâve (French, Île de la Gonâve), in the Gulf of Gonâve. It is part of Haiti and has an area of 743 km². Its Taíno name was Guanabo.
 Tortuga (French, Île de la Tortue), close to the northern coast of Haiti, in the Atlantic Ocean. It is part of Haiti and has an area of . Its Taíno name was Baynei. It is very famous because many pirates lived here.
 Saona, close to the southeastern coast of the Hispaniola, in the Caribbean Sea. It is part of the Dominican Republic and has an area of . Its Taíno name was Iai  or Adamanay. Columbus named this island as Savona after the Italian city of the same name but the use during years has eliminated the letter v.
 Île à Vache, also called Île-à-Vaches, close to the soutwestern coast of Hispaniola. It is part of Haiti and has an area of . Its Taíno name was Iabaque.
 Beata, in the southern coast of the Hispaniola, in the Caribbean Sea. It is part of the Dominican Republic and has an area of . Nobody knows its Taíno name. Columbus named this island as Madama Beata.
 Cayemites, two islands, Petite Cayemite and Grand Cayemite, in the Gulf of Gonâve. They are part of Haiti with a total area of 45 km². The Taíno name was Cahaimi.
 Catalina, very close to the southeastern coast of the Hispaniola, in the Caribbean Sea. It is part of the Dominican Republic and has an area of 9.6 km². Its Taíno name was Iabanea but some writers, including poets, say that it was called Toeya or Toella. It was discovered by Columbus who named it as Santa Catalina.
 Navassa (French, La Navasse), in the Jamaica Channel with 5.2 km². It is administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The island is also claimed by Haiti.

Mountains and valleys
The Hispaniola is an island with many mountains, and the highest peaks of the West Indies are here. The chains of mountains show a direction northwest-southeast, except in the Southern peninsula (in Haiti) where they have a direction west-east. The mountains are separated by valleys with the same general direction.

From north to south, the mountain ranges and valleys are:
 Cordillera Septentrional (in English, "Northern Range"). It is a Dominican chain, with extensions to the northwest, the Tortuga Island, and to the southeast, the Samaná Peninsula (with its Sierra de Samaná). Its highest mountain is Diego de Ocampo, close to Santiago, with 1,249 m.
 The Plaine du Nord (Haiti) and Cibao Valley (Dominican Republic) is the largest, and perhaps the most important, valley of the island. This long valley stretches from North Haiti to Samaná Bay.
 The Massif du Nord (Haiti, with the Gros Morne, 1.198 m) and Cordillera Central (Dominican Republic, also called Sierra de Cibao) with the highest mountains of the West Indies: Duarte Peak, 3,087 m, and others above 3,000 m. Near the center of the island, this range divides itself in two branches: Cordillera Oriental or Sierra del Seibo, separated from the main chain by a depression and with a west-east direction, and a second branch with a north-south direction called Sierra de Ocoa.
 The Plateau Central (Haiti), San Juan Valley and Plain of Azua (Dominican Republic), are big valleys with elevation from 0 to 600 m.
 The Bombardopolis Plateau (640 m), Montagnes de Terre Neuve (1,100 m, Morne Goreille), Montagnes Noires (1,700 m, Pic Bonhomme). All this chains are in Haiti and form one group of mountains.
 Artibonite Plain and Valley, in Haiti, between those mountains mentioned above and below.
 Chaîne des Matheux (Morne Delpech, 1,600 m) and the Montagnes du Trou d'Eau (Morne Ma Pipe, 1,510 m) form one group that get together with the previous group of mountains to form, in the Dominican Republic, the Sierra de Neiba, with Mount Neiba the highest mountain with 2,279 m. An extension to the southeast of Sierra de Neiba is the Sierra Martín García (Loma Busú, 1,350 m).
 The Cul-de-Sac (Haiti) or Hoya de Enriquillo (Dominican Republic), is a remarkable valley, with a west-east direction, of low elevation (on average 50 m with some points below sea level) and with two great salt lakes: Êtang Saumatre, in Haiti, and Enriquillo Lake, in the Dominican Republic.
 Massif de la Hotte (Pic Macaya, 2,405 m) and Massif de la Selle (Pic or Morne La Selle, 2,680 m, the highest Haitian mountain) are in the Southern Peninsula. The Massif de la Selle is called Sierra de Bahoruco in the Dominican Republic. The Gonâve Island (Morne La Pierre, 776 m) belongs, in geological terms, to the Massif de la Selle. This southern group of mountains have a geology very different to the rest of the island.
 Llano Costero del Caribe (in English, "Caribbean Coastal Plain") is in the southeast of the island (and of the Dominican Republic). It is a large prairie east of Santo Domingo.

Rivers and lakes
The sources of the longest rivers of Hispaniola are in the mountains of the Cordillera Central (Dominican Republic) - Massif du Nord (Haiti).

The 10 longest rivers of the island are:
 Artibonite. It is the longest river of the island and of Haiti. It is 321 km long (68 km in the Dominican Republic, 253 km in Haiti). Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows into the Gulf of Gonâve. Its watershed has an area of 9,013 km² (2,614 km² in the Dominican Republic, the rest in Haiti).
 Yaque del Norte. With 296 km, it is the second longest river of the island but the longest of the Dominican Republic. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the Atlantic Ocean. Its watershed has an area of 7,044 km².
 Yuna. It is 209 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the east into Samaná Bay. Its watershed has an area of 5,498 km².
 Yaque del Sur. It is 183 km long and its sources are in the Cordillera Central. It flows to the south into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 4,972 km².
 Trois Rivières (Three Rivers). It is 150 km long and its sources are in the Massif du Nord and flows into the Atlantic Ocean.
 Ozama. It is 148 km long. Its sources are in Sierra de Yamasá (a branch of the Cordillera Central). It flows into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 2,685 km².
 Camú. It is 137 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows into the Yuna River. Its watershed has an area of 2,655 km².
 Nizao. It is 133 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the south into the Caribbean Sea. Its watershed has an area of 974 km².
 San Juan. It is 121 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the south into the Yaque del Sur River. Its watershed has an area of 2,005 km².
 Mao. It is 105 km long. Its sources are in the Cordillera Central and flows to the north into the Yaque del Norte River. Its watershed has an area of 864 km².

The largest lake of the Hispaniola, and of the West Indies, is the Lake Enriquillo. It is in the Hoya de Enriquillo with an area of 265 km². There are three small islands within the lake. It is around 40 meters below sea level and is a saline lake with a higher concentration of salt than the sea water.

The second largest lake, Étang Saumâtre (also known as Lake Azuei), is close to Lake Enriquillo but in Haiti, in the Cul-de-Sac. It is also a saline lake with an area of around 170 km².

Others lakes are Rincón (fresh water, area of 28.2 km²), Oviedo (brackish water, area of 28 km²), Redonda Limón, Étang de Miragoâne.

Climate
Hispaniola has a tropical climate but modified by elevation and the trade winds (winds that come from the northeast, from the Atlantic Ocean). At sea level, the average temperature is 25 °C, with small changes from one season to another. In the highest mountains, the temperature in winter can be as low as 0 °C.

There are two wet seasons: April-June and September-November. The most dry period is from December to March.

Rainfall varies greatly; eastern regions, like the Samaná Peninsula, get an average of over 2,000 mm in a year, but less than 500 mm fall in the southwest (Hoya de Enriquillo - Cul-de-Sac).

From June to November, hurricanes are frequent and can do much damage in the island.

Population
Hispaniola has a total population, estimated for July 2013, of 20,113,564 inhabitants, for a density of 263 inhabitants per km².

In Haiti, 95% of the population belongs to the black ethnic group, and in the Dominican Republic it is about 70% of the population.

In the Dominican Republic, only Spanish is spoken (except for groups of immigrants) even if Haitian Creole is gaining importance because the massive immigration from Haiti. Both French and (Haitian) Creole are spoken in Haiti, and both are official languages.

In both countries, the main religion is Roman Catholicism. Protestant groups are important, more in Haiti (15% of the population) than in the Dominican Republic (5%).

The most important cities in the island are Santo Domingo (capital of Dominican Republic), Port-au-Prince (capital of Haiti), Santiago (Dominican Republic), Carrefour (Haiti).

References

Other websites
An old map of Hispaniola from 1639

Caribbean islands
Geography of the Dominican Republic
Geography of Haiti

Hispaniola


73 (seventy-three) is a number. It comes after seventy-two, but before seventy-four. 73 is the 21st prime number. Its mirror, 37, is the 12th, and its mirror, 21, is the product of multiplying seven and three and in binary, 73 is a palindrome, 1001001, which backwards is 1001001.

Integers
Prime numbers

73 (number)


Twin Towers could mean:

In architecture:
 The World Trade Center, formerly in New York City, United States
 The Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
 The Deira Twin Towers in Dubai, United Arab Emirates
 The Deutsche Bank Twin Towers in Frankfurt, Germany
 The Torres de Santa Cruz in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
 Twin Tower, a 1970s Hong Kong residential block design
 For other twin towers, see List of twin buildings and structures

In movie and literature:
 Twin Towers (movie), a 2003 Oscar-winning documentary
 In The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, the fictional location on Ursa Minor Beta where the Guide is published

In sports:
 A San Antonio Spurs front court consisting of Tim Duncan and David Robinson
 The Twin Towers (professional wrestling), a former professional wrestling tag team consisting of Akeem and the Big Boss Man

Twin Towers


Adaptive radiation is rapid evolutionary radiation. It is an increase in the number and diversity of species in each lineage. It produces more new species, and those species live in a wider range of habitats.

Some definitions phrase it in terms of a single clade: "Adaptive radiation is the rapid proliferation of new taxa from a single ancestral group". However, in the most striking cases, such as occurred in the Triassic after the greatest extinction event in Earth history, many lines underwent rapid radiation simultaneously. This must have something to do with the availability of ecological niches and relative little competition.

The Ediacaran biota were the result of an early metazoan radiation. The greatest radiation of all took place early in the Cambrian period, when most of our animal phyla evolved: see List of animal phyla.

With less competition, groups diversify to fill available habitats and niches. This is an evolutionary process driven by natural selection.

The term was introduced and discussed by George Gaylord Simpson, the palaeontologist who contributed to the modern evolutionary synthesis. Others prefer not to use the term. Robert L Carroll prefers to use the term major evolutionary transitions, though it turns out that all or most of these could also be described as adaptive radiations. Others use terms like macroevolution, or even megaevolution, as if the processes are different from those which occur below species level. It is part of evolutionary theory that all processes take place at the level of populations. All agree, though, that the speed of evolution does change, however it is measured.

Measurement of rates of change
Records of timing are bedevilled by gaps in the fossil record, often at those crucial early stages when numbers are low and geographical distribution is severely restricted. "In reality, there are long periods within nearly every lineage for which the fossil record remains unknown".p297 These gaps affect our knowledge of timing, and of changes in body shape and function.

Nevertheless, when several distinctly new lines appear within a short period, it seems reasonable to say that the rate of change has been surprisingly fast. An example would be the appearance of new reptilian groups in the Upper Triassic. Using the term 'reptile' broadly, the groups include dinosaurs, pterosaurs, Chelonia (turtles), crocodylomorphs (early Crocodilia), phytosaurs, and ichthyosaurs a bit earlier (Middle Triassic).

These radiations occurred after the great Permian–Triassic extinction event that ended the Palaeozoic era. The Triassic itself had several lesser (but still significant) extinctions. Unfortunately, the Triassic has the poorest fossil record of the whole of the Mesozoic era.

Causes

Innovation
The evolution of a new feature may let a group diversify because it makes possible new ways of living. A most striking example is the cleidoic egg, which developed in early amniotes, and permitted vertebrates to invade the land. The cleidoic egg must have been developed in the latest Devonian or early Carboniferous. Amphibians, who branched off before this event, still lay their eggs in water, and so are limited in the extent to which they can exploit land environments.

An example of a more modest innovation is the evolution of a fourth cusp in the mammalian tooth. This trait permits a vast increase in the range of foodstuffs which can be fed on. Evolution of this character has thus increased the number of ecological niches available to mammals. The trait arose a number of times in different groups during the Cenozoic, and in each instance was immediately followed by an adaptive radiation. With birds, the evolution of flight opened new possibilities, and at least two huge adaptive radiations occurred (one before and one after the K/T extinction event). Even more striking was the evolution of insect flight, which led to huge radiation in the Mesozoic era. Then, these insect groups developed ways of feeding on flowering plants. They now outnumber all other forms of animal life by quite a margin.

Opportunity
Adaptive radiations often happen when organisms enter environments with unoccupied niches, such as a newly formed lake or an isolated island chain. The colonizing population(s) may diversify rapidly and take advantage of all possible niches. Opportunities occur when land bridges form between areas which were previously separate, and whenever species get to new place in the world.

In Lake Victoria, an isolated lake which formed recently in the African rift valley, over 300 species of cichlid fish radiated from one parent species in just 15,000 years.

Vacant islands
In about , the Hawaiian Islands have the most diverse collection of drosophilid flies in the world, living from rainforests to mountain meadows. About 800 Hawaiian drosophilid species are known.

Studies show a clear "flow" of species from older to newer islands. There are also cases of colonization back to older islands, and skipping of islands, but these are much less frequent. By potassium/argon radioactive dating, the present islands date from 0.4 million years ago (mya) (Mauna Kea) to 10mya (Necker). The oldest member of the Hawaiian archipelago still above the sea is Kure Atoll, which can be dated to 30 mya. The archipelago itself, produced by the Pacific plate moving over a hot spot, has existed for far longer, at least into the Cretaceous. The Hawaiian islands plus former islands which are now beneath the sea make up the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain; and many of the underwater mountains are guyots.

All of the native drosophilid species in Hawaii have apparently descended from a single ancestral species that colonized the islands, about 20 million years ago. The subsequent adaptive radiation was spurred by a lack of competition and a wide variety of vacant niches. Although it would be possible for a single pregnant female to colonise an island, it is more likely to have been a group from the same species.

There are other animals and plants on the Hawaiian archipelago which have undergone similar, if less spectacular, adaptive radiations.

Mass extinctions
Adaptive radiations commonly follow mass extinctions. After an extinction event, many niches are left vacant. A classic example of this is the replacement of the non-avian dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous with mammals in the Palaeocene.

Great radiations
The Cambrian explosion: the most famous of all adaptive radiations. Most phyla appeared during or just before the Cambrian.
Flight: all forms of flying animals are highly successful
Flight in insects: the Pterygota: the greatest number of living species are flying insects.
Flight in birds: the origin of birds: the greatest number of land vertebrates.
The Upper Triassic radiation of dinosaurs.
The Upper Cretaceous radiation of flowering plants.

Related pages
 Adaptation

References

Evolutionary biology
Paleontology

Adaptive radiation


International health means two different, but related, things. It means care of people who travel from one country to another, and knowledge of diseases foreign to the traveler. It also means people from one country trying to improve health in another.

Groups
There are different kinds of groups that are involved in international health. They engage in international health for different reasons and with different ethics and rules.

Governments of rich, "developed" countries are often interested in the health of other countries. They are especially interested in the health of neighbor countries. The reasons for this are many: if they have extra resources, they may want to share them with their neighbors; but also they may want to stop spread of diseases from their neighbor country across the border. For example, the United States is a richer country than Mexico and has little problem with measles (in children) or rabies (in mammals) in the interior, but along the border with Mexico these diseases are more common.

The Western Hemisphere's countries have formed PAHO, the Pan American Health Organization, to deal with these kinds of problems  in an organized way. PAHO knows that people and goods flow across borders in both directions, and a problem in one country will soon be a problem in its partner countries. PAHO is an example of an international organization.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are associations organized outside of the government by volunteers and others, and which serve a particular interest. Often, NGOs interested in health perform important functions in international health, both in direct care and in development.

References

Health
Travel

International health


Otsego Hall was a house in Cooperstown, New York. It was the ancestral home of American author James Fenimore Cooper. It was built by his father William Cooper, who also founded the village of Cooperstown. This village was  where the Hall was located. Building began in 1796. The Hall was completed in 1799. It was the largest private home in central New York for a long time.

In June 1834 James Fenimore Cooper decided to reopen the Hall. He had lived in other places for almost sixteen years.  The Hall had been closed for a long time. It was falling into decay. Repairs were begun at once, and the Hall was quickly restored. At first, James spent his winters in New York City and his summers in Cooperstown. Eventually he made Otsego Hall his forever home.  The Hall burned down a few years after he died.  The surrounding property was sold. His daughter and secretary, Susan Fenimore Cooper, built her home in Cooperstown with bricks and other materials from the ruins of Otsego Hall.

Buildings and structures in New York (state)

Otsego Hall


Gottlieb Hufeland (29 October 1760 – 25 February 1817) was a German economist and jurist.

Biography
Born in Danzig (Gdańsk), Royal Prussia, Crown of Poland, Hufeland was educated at the gymnasium of his native town, and completed his university studies at Leipzig and Göttingen. He graduated at Jena, and in 1788 was there appointed to an extraordinary professorship. Five years later he was made ordinary professor.

His lectures on natural law, in which he developed with great acuteness and skill the formal principles of the Kantian theory of legislation, attracted a large audience, and contributed to raise to its height the fame of the University of Jena, then unusually rich in able teachers. In 1803, after the departure of many of his colleagues from Jena, Hufeland accepted a call to Würzburg, from which, after but a brief tenure of a professorial chair, he proceeded to Landshut. From 1806 to 1812 he acted as burgomaster in his native town of Danzig. Returning to Landshut, he lived there until 1816, when he was invited to the University of Halle.

In political economy Hufeland's chief work is the Neue Grundlegung der Staatswirthschaftskunst (2 vols, 1807 and 1813), the second volume of which has the special title, Lehre vom Gelde und Geldumlaufe. The principles of this work are for the most part those of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, which were then beginning to be accepted and developed in Germany; but both in his treatment of fundamental notions, such as economic good and value, and in details, such as the theory of money, Hufeland's treatment has a certain originality.

Two points in particular seem deserving of notice. Hufeland was the first among German economists to point out the profit of the entrepreneur as a distinct species of revenue with laws peculiar to itself. He also tends towards, though he does not explicitly state the view that rent is a general term applicable to all payments resulting from differences of degree among productive forces of the same order. Thus the superior gain of a specially gifted workman or specially skilled employer is in time assimilated to the payment for a natural agency of more than the minimum efficiency.

Hufeland died in 1817 in Halle an der Saale.

Works
Hufeland's works on the theory of legislation:
Versuch über den Grundsatz Naturrechts (1785)
Lehrbuch des Naturrechts (1790)
Institutionen des gesammten positiven Rechts (1798)
Lehrbuch der Geschichte und Encyclopadie alter in Deutschland geltenden positiven Rechte (1790)
They are distinguished by precision of statement and clearness of deduction.

References

 Wilhelm Roscher, Geschichte der National-Ökonomik in Deutschland, 1874, pp. 654–662.

1760 births
1817 deaths
German economists
German jurists
Writers from Gdańsk
People from Royal Prussia
Leipzig University alumni
University of Göttingen alumni
University of Jena alumni
Academic staff of the University of Jena
Academic staff of the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg
Mayors of Gdańsk

Gottlieb Hufeland


Fujitsu's Application [1997] EWCA Civ 1174 is a 6 March 1997 judgment by the Court of Appeal of England and Wales. The judges' decision was to confirm the refusal of a patent by the United Kingdom Patent Office and by Mr Justice Laddie in the High Court. Lord Justice Aldous heard the appeal before the Court of Appeal.

Facts
Fujitsu's claimed invention was a new tool for modelling crystal structures on a computer. A scientist wishing to investigate what would result if he made a new material consisting of a combination of two existing compounds would enter data representing those compounds and how they should be joined into the computer. The computer then automatically generated and displayed the new structure using the data supplied. Previously, the same effect could only have been achieved by assembling plastic models by hand - a time-consuming task.

Discussion
 UK courts should look to the decisions of the European Patent Office for guidance in interpreting the exclusions.
 A "technical contribution" is needed to make a potentially excluded thing patentable, proclaiming that this was a concept at the heart of patent law and referring to the European Patent Office's decision in T 208/84, VICOM.
 There is a difficulty inherent in determining what is and is not "technical", such that each case should be decided on its own facts.
 The substance of an invention should be used to assess whether or not a thing is patentable, not the form in which it is claimed. Thus a non-patentable method cannot be patented under the guise of an apparatus.

Judgment
The claimed invention was certainly a useful tool. However, as claimed, the invention was nothing more than a conventional computer which automatically displayed a crystal structure shown pictorially in a form that would in the past have been produced as a model. The only advance expressed in the claims was the computer program which enabled the combined structure to be portrayed more quickly. The new tool therefore provided nothing that went beyond the normal advantages that are obtained by the use of a computer program. Thus, there was no technical contribution and the application was rejected as being a computer program as such.

See also
List of judgments of the UK Courts relating to excluded subject matter
Software patents under United Kingdom patent law
Software patents under the European Patent Convention

References

External links
Software Patents After Fujitsu. New Directions or (another) Missed Opportunity?
 Is the extension of the patent system to include software related inventions desirable?
 A STEP FORWARD: EXCLUDING 'TECHNICAL' FROM THE TEST FOR PATENTABLE SUBJECT MATTER
 Inherent Patentability as related to computer software written after High Court judgment but before Court of Appeal had issued their judgment
 Sviluppo Web ed eCommerce
 Digital Marketing ed eCommerce

Software patent case law
United Kingdom patent case law
Court of Appeal (England and Wales) cases
1997 in United Kingdom case law
1997 in British law
Fujitsu

Fujitsu's Application


South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut is a 1999 American adult animated musical comedy movie based on the Comedy Central animated series South Park.

Cast
Trey Parker as Kenny McCormick, Eric Cartman, Timmy Burch, Butters Stotch, Millie Larsen, Bebe Stevens, Craig Tucker
Matt Stone as Kyle Broflovski, Stan Marsh, Jimmy Valmer, Tweek Tweak, Clyde Donovan, Annie Knitts
Mary Kay Bergman as Wendy Testaburger, Jessie
Isaac Hayes as Narrator
Eric Idle as Children's voices
George Clooney as Children's voices
Minnie Driver as Children's voices

Plot
Eric Cartman, Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, his younger brother Ike and Kenny McCormick wanted to go see the new Terrence and Phillip movie. They were denied access due to the R-rating. They snuck in and learned a lot of obscene words by the Canadian duo. The kids starting swearing to their classmates and the school became just as profane. The parents, including Shelia Broflovski were unhappy that the kids had seen the Terrence and Phillip movie. Mr. Mackey gave the kids advice to use non-profane words, which helped. The kids snuck in to see Asses of Fire again. Kenny attempted to fart a fire but he burned himself. He was sent to Hell, where Satan and Saddam Hussein live. The Mothers Against Canada declared war against Canada for making the youth obscene. Cartman was given a V-chip implanted into his brain so when he curses, he gets an electric shock.

Production
Trey Parker and Matt Stone have made changes to the movie because they were afraid it would get an NC-17 rating from the MPAA.

Reception
The movie was very well-liked and considered a step up from the first two seasons of the original show. The success of the movie helped Trey Parker and Matt Stone make more seasons of the show. "Blame Canada" got nominated Best Original Song at the Oscars but lost to "You'll Be in My Heart" by Phil Collins from Tarzan. It is considered one of the most profane animated movies of all time with 300 obscene words used.

1999 animated movies
1999 comedy movies
1990s musical movies
American animated movies
American musical comedy movies
Adult animated movies
Movies set in Colorado
Paramount movies
South Park
Political movies

South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut


Orbetello Airfield Agostino Brunetta, is an abandoned World War II military airfield in Central Italy, which is located approximately 5 km north-northeast of Orbetello in the province of Grosseto (Tuscany).

Built from the Regia Marina in Lagoon of Orbetello for the Italian Navy Aviation, in 1925 was transferred to Regia Aeronautica. The airfield was the main Italian seaplane base.

The minister Italo Balbo himself led some transatlantic flights from Orbetello. The most famous was the 1930 flight of twelve Savoia-Marchetti S.55 flying boats from Orbetello Airfield to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil between 17 December 1930 and 15 January 1931. From 1 July to 12 August 1933, he led a flight of twenty-four flying boats on a round-trip flight from Rome to the Century of Progress in Chicago, Illinois. The flight had seven legs; Orbetello — Amsterdam — Derry — Reykjavík — Cartwright, Labrador — Shediac — Montreal ending on Lake Michigan near Burnham Park. After it was used by the 31º Stormo.

The airfield was a former Luftwaffe base seized by the United States Army in June 1944.

After its capture, it was used by the United States Army Air Force Twelfth Air Force.

 HQ, 64th Fighter Wing, 19  June–19 July 1944
 86th Fighter Group, 19  June–12 July 1944, P-47 Thunderbolt
 439th Troop Carrier Group, 18  July–24 August 1944, C-47 Skytrain

According to the group historian of the 86th, the airfield was put into use by the group with the front lines just a few miles north of the field.  When the first elements arrived, they found a burnt-out German half-track with numerous casualties in it, along with numerous empty German helmets scattered around.  At Orbetello the 86th transitioned from the A-36 Apache to the P-47 Thunderbolt and was redesignated a Fighter Group from its former Fighter-Bomber designation.  Also, the 64th Fighter Wing set up headquarters on the airfield.

As part of the invasion of southern France (Operation Dragoon), the 439th Troop Carrier Group flew three squadrons of C-47s on the base where Army paratroopers had assembled and were flown to their drop zones in southern France during the invasion.

When the Americans moved out the airfield was closed and dismantled. Today, the location of the airfield is visible in aerial photography, with its runway visible.  However the remainder of the airfield has been obliterated by agricultural use of the land.

References

 Maurer, Maurer. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History, 1983. .

External links

Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Italy
Airports established in 1943
Italian Air Force
Pier Luigi Nervi buildings

Orbetello Airfield


Jill Raitt (born 1931) was the first woman to receive tenure at Duke University's Divinity School faculty. She has been influential in the increasing acceptance of women in professional ministerial positions.

Early life
Jill Raitt was born on May 1, 1931, in Los Angeles, California, the daughter of Neysa Atherton Raitt and Arthur Taylor Raitt. She grew up with one older brother, Richard Arthur Raitt. As a child, Raitt enjoyed adventure and time spent outside. While working on a cattle ranch during high school, she developed an attachment to horses and farms that would follow her into adulthood.

Education
After graduating from Santa Monica High School as Salutatorian in 1949, Raitt began her first year at Radcliffe College where she studied Latin and English. After her sophomore year, Raitt worked as a nanny and studied in Rome for nine months. In Rome she attended the General Historicum of the Society of Jesus where she studied philosophy and theology under the guidance of E. J. Burrus. During this time Raitt felt called to join the Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Upon returning from Rome, Raitt transferred from Radcliffe College to San Francisco College for Women, run by the Religious of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, where she studied philosophy, graduating in 1953.

After graduation, Raitt joined the Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and spent eleven years in the cloister. During these eleven years, she lived in upstate New York, California, and Rome. In the summer of 1964, after leaving religious life, Raitt enrolled at Marquette University to continue her theological education. She primarily dedicated her research to medieval and reformation theology, completing her masters in Theology in 1965. She then entered the University of Chicago Divinity School. Raitt was among the first Roman Catholics to enroll in the Divinity School. She received her PhD in Theology from the University of Chicago in 1970. While completing her dissertation, Raitt took a teaching position at the University of California-Riverside in 1969, where she taught for four years.

Duke Divinity School
In 1973, Raitt joined the faculty of Duke Divinity School in Durham, North Carolina, as an associate professor; she taught at Duke until 1981. She was the first woman on the school's faculty. Her mother lived with her in Durham. To aid students in their effort to make Duke Divinity more inclusive of women, Raitt donated her office to start the school's Women's Center. In August 1975, Raitt moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts to spend a year as a National Endowment for the Humanities fellow and a Fellow of the Radcliffe Institute. While in Cambridge, Raitt was diagnosed with breast cancer. After a year in Cambridge, Raitt returned to Durham in May 1975, where she underwent two years of chemotherapy. The treatment was successful in eliminating her breast cancer. In 1977, she was granted tenure, making her the first woman to receive tenure at Duke Divinity School.

University of Missouri
In 1981, Raitt was invited by the University of Missouri in Columbia, Missouri to found a Department of Religious Studies. That same year the Divinity School of the University of Chicago named Raitt Alumna of the Year. After establishing a successful department, Raitt taught full-time at the University of Missouri from 1981 to 2001, and, after retirement, part-time from 2002 to 2008. In 2008, she began a three-year term at Fontbonne University (in St. Louis) as the CSJ endowed chair in Catholic thought, followed by an appointment as visiting professor at St. Louis University. She returned to the University of Missouri as a part-time visiting professor in 2013.

American Academy of Religion
In 1972, Raitt was elected the National Secretary of the American Academy of Religion, a position she held for three years. In 1979, she was elected Vice-President, then President elect, and President of the American Academy of Religion. In 1981, Raitt was  awarded fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Center for the Humanities in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, an honor she declined because of her appointment at the University of Missouri. In 1987-88 Raitt was a fellow at the National Humanities Center in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.

Writing
Raitt has published and edited five books and numerous articles.
The Colloquy of Montbéliard: Religion and Politics in the Sixteenth Century (1993)
The Eucharistic Theology of Theodore Beza: The Development of the Reformed Tradition (1972, reprinted 1987)
Encyclopedia of the Reformation (1996),
 Christian Spirituality: High Middle Ages and Reformation: ed. (1987)
Shapers of Traditions in Germany, Switzerland and Poland, 1560-1600 (1981)

References

1931 births
Living people
Duke Divinity School faculty
University of Missouri faculty

Jill Raitt