Max Verstappen (born 30 September 1997 in Hasselt, Belgium) is a Dutch Formula 1 race driver. He began racing for Red Bull Racing in 2016. He has both the Dutch and the Belgian nationality. His father is Dutchman Jos Verstappen, who also was a Formula one race driver. His mother is Belgian Sophie Kumpen, who was a cart driver champion.Sophie has also raced against Christian Horner, who is the head of the Red Bull team.Max Verstappen has a younger sister named Victoria.

Formula One career

Scuderia Toro Rosso (2014–2016)

During the first practice session at the 2014 Japanese Grand Prix, Verstappen replaced Jean-Éric Vergne as part of his preparation for a full-time seat at Toro Rosso in the  season. Aged 17 years and three days, Verstappen was the youngest person in history to participate in a Formula One race weekend. In August 2014, Verstappen joined the Red Bull Junior Team after testing a Formula Renault 3.5 car. He also considered an offer from Mercedes to join their driver development programme.

Verstappen became the youngest driver to start a World Championship race through joining Toro Rosso's race drivers' lineup with Carlos Sainz as his teammate, in his Grand Prix debut as a full-time driver at the 2015 Australian Grand Prix at the age of  — breaking Jaime Alguersuari's existing record by almost two years. However, at the subsequent race in Malaysia, Verstappen qualified sixth and finished the race in seventh place, scoring his first Formula One points aged , breaking the record of the then-youngest driver to score World Championship points.

At the 2015 Monaco Grand Prix, Verstappen was involved in a high-speed collision with Romain Grosjean, after clipping the back of Grosjean's Lotus on the approach to the tight first corner, Sainte Devote, and crashed into the barriers at high speed. Verstappen was given a five-place grid penalty for causing the accident, and was branded "dangerous" by Williams driver Felipe Massa.

Verstappen continued to regularly finish in the points as well as achieving his best finish of the 2015 season in Hungary by finishing fourth, and equalled this result at the United States Grand Prix. At the end of the season, Verstappen received three awards at the FIA Prize Giving Ceremony, for "Rookie of the Year", "Personality of the Year" and "Action of the Year", for his overtake on Felipe Nasr on the outside of the Blanchimont corner at the Belgian Grand Prix.

Verstappen began the 2016 season at Toro Rosso, again alongside Sainz. Verstappen qualified fifth for the opening race of the season in Australia, but during the race made several radio calls to his team due to frustration at being behind Sainz on track before Verstappen's Toro Rosso came into contact with his teammate's car whilst attempting to pass him with three laps to go, and he eventually finished tenth. Verstappen enjoyed a more successful weekend at the following race in Bahrain, finishing sixth to score Toro Rosso's first-ever points at the Sakhir circuit.

Red Bull (2016–)

On 5 May 2016, following celebrating victory at the 2016 Catalan Grand Prix in Toro Rosso, Red Bull Racing announced that Verstappen would be replacing Daniil Kvyat from the Spanish Grand Prix onwards, with Kvyat returning to Toro Rosso. According to Red Bull Team Principal Christian Horner, "Max has proven to be an outstanding young talent. His performance at Toro Rosso has been impressive so far and we are pleased to give him the opportunity to drive for Red Bull Racing. After qualifying fourth for the Spanish Grand Prix, Verstappen rose to second behind teammate Daniel Ricciardo on the opening lap after Mercedes teammates Lewis Hamilton and Nico Rosberg crashed out of the race. Verstappen took the race lead as he was placed on a two-stop rather than the same three-stop strategy as Ricciardo, and he held off Ferrari's Kimi Räikkönen in the later stages of the race to take his first Formula One victory.

During the Belgian Grand Prix, Verstappen collided with Räikkönen at the first corner, pushed Vettel, Räikkönen and Pérez wide at Les Combes, and aggressively blocked Räikkönen on the Kemmel straight. Verstappen was criticised for his driving, with Räikkönen saying that he "was going to cause a huge accident sooner or later." Christian Horner noted that the driving was "on the edge", and that Verstappen will "look at it and learn for future races." In September, F1 director Charlie Whiting called in Verstappen for a discussion, and later gave him a 'gentle warning' due to his aggressive driving. However, in October, drivers' concerns about Verstappen's defensive tactics led the FIA to disallow moving under braking.

At the 2016 Brazilian Grand Prix, Verstappen qualified fourth. In a rain affected race, he almost hit the barrier after he slid on the main straight due to a loss of traction, causing oversteer. After an additional tyre change from intermediates back to rain tyres, he ran in 16th place with just 15 laps remaining. Verstappen then made several overtakes in quick succession during the closing laps to eventually finish on the podium in third place. He received considerable praise for his performance: rival team Mercedes' team principal, Toto Wolff, labelled it "The Verstappen Show", and described Verstappen's drive as "physics..being redefined". However, Verstappen came under criticism from four-time world champion Sebastian Vettel, who stated that Verstappen had pushed him off the track at the Junção corner late in the race. The race stewards did not share Vettel's view and decided that no reprimand was warranted.

During the first 14 races of the 2017 season, Verstappen suffered seven retirements, four due to mechanical issues, and three due to first lap collisions in Spain, Austria and Singapore. Of the races he finished, however, he claimed a third place in China, and in the another five races he finished fourth or fifth.

From the Malaysian Grand Prix onward, Verstappen enjoyed a surge of success. He won his second Formula One race at the 2017 Malaysian Grand Prix, a day after his 20th birthday, passing then three-time champion Lewis Hamilton for the lead in the early stages of the race.He finished second in the following race in Japan. He then finished third at the United StatesGrand Prix, but was classified fourth after his final lap overtake on Kimi Räikkönen was deemed illegal. He won his third Formula One race at the Mexican Grand Prix, after passing Sebastian Vettel on the opening lap.

2018 season

In the first six races of the season, Verstappen had been involved in at least one incident in each race. In Australia, he qualified fourth but fell behind Kevin Magnussen at the start. In his attempts to retake the position he ran wide multiple times and damaged his car, with a spin causing him to fall further down the order. He recovered to eventually finish the race in sixth place. At the next race in Bahrain, he crashed during qualifying and started in 15th place.He had a productive first lap after which he found himself in the points while challenging Lewis Hamilton. He attempted an overtake on the reigning World Champion at the start of lap two, but collided with the Mercedes driver and suffered a puncture that ultimately led to suspension damage, forcing him out of the race.

At the next race in China, Verstappen qualified fifth and had moved up to third at the end of the first lap. Both Red Bull drivers pitted for fresh tyres during a safety car which left them with a tyre advantage over the front-runners ahead. In an overtake attempt on Sebastian Vettel for third place, Verstappen collided with the championship leader, causing him to fall to eighth and receive a 10-second penalty. He recovered to fourth place, with his penalty causing him to be classified fifth. Teammate Ricciardo went on to win the race. In Azerbaijan, Verstappen was embroiled in a race-long battle with Ricciardo for fourth place. After numerous position changes between the two teammates during the race, Ricciardo ran into the back of Verstappen during an overtake attempt from which the Dutchman aggressively defended, causing the retirement of both cars. Both drivers were blamed by the team and reprimanded by the stewards. Verstappen bounced back in Spain with his first podium of the season by finishing third behind the Mercedes drivers, holding off Sebastian Vettel. However, the race was also not without incident as he had run into the back of Lance Stroll during the virtual safety car period, causing minor front wing damage.

In Monaco, Verstappen made another error and crashed near the end of the third free practice session in an incident which closely resembled a crash he had at the same spot two years earlier. His team could not repair his car in time for qualifying and Verstappen had to start the race from the back of the grid. Verstappen did not compete and did not set a lap time in qualifying, therefore teammate Ricciardo pressed home Red Bull's advantage at the track by taking pole position and the race win. Verstappen managed to salvage 2 points by finishing ninth place, overtaking 6 cars on track. Team principal Christian Horner commented on Verstappen's start of the season, saying he "needed to stop making these mistakes" and that he could "learn from his teammate", while Helmut Marko, head of driver development at Red Bull, said that Verstappen was "too impatient". Verstappen now lay in sixth place in the championship with 35 points, only three points ahead of Fernando Alonso in the McLaren, and 37 points behind his teammate in third, who had taken two wins in the first six races.

In Canada, Verstappen topped all three practice sessions and qualified third, two-tenths off Sebastian Vettel in pole position. He eventually finished third and set the fastest lap of the race. The following race in France brought him second place. In Austria—Red Bull's home track, he started fourth on the grid, passed Kimi Räikkönen before taking advantage of retirement from Valtteri Bottas and a botched pit-stop strategy by Lewis Hamilton, who later had to retire from fourth place, to claim the fourth race victory of his career. In Britain, Verstappen was plagued by issues, finishing the first practice session early due to a gearbox problem and crashing in the second practice session before retiring from the race due to a brake problem. He would then finish fourth in Germany after strategy errors let a recovering Hamilton get past him as he went on to win the race. Verstappen ended the first half of the season with a retirement in Hungary and was narrowly behind his teammate in the championship due to his own recent resurgence and Ricciardo's unreliability.

Verstappen enjoyed a very strong second half of the season, achieving podium finishes in Belgium, Singapore, Japan and the United States, the latter of which he achieved second place having started from 18th on the grid due to a suspension failure in qualifying. Following the qualifying session at the Mexican Grand Prix, Verstappen revealed that a mechanical problem with his Red Bull under braking cost him any chance of becoming the youngest-ever Formula One pole-sitter. As a result, Ricciardo beat Verstappen to pole position by just 0.026 seconds. Verstappen had a better start than Ricciardo and took the lead of the race into the first corner, overtaking the fast-starting Mercedes of Lewis Hamilton. Verstappen earned his fifth career win in Mexico. He was poised to win the 2018 Brazilian Grand Prix, having overtaken Räikkönen, Vettel, Bottas, and Hamilton. However, he collided with Force India driver Esteban Ocon who was trying to unlap himself on faster tyres. Ocon received a 10-second stop-and-go penalty for the incident. After the collision with Ocon, Verstappen finished in second place behind Hamilton. During an argument with Ocon after the race, Verstappen pushed the Force India driver, for which he was given two days of "public service" as a penalty by the FIA. He then finished his season with another podium as he finished third in Abu Dhabi.

Verstappen ended the season in fourth place in the championship with 249 points, claiming two wins, eleven podium finishes, and two fastest laps.

2019 season

In 2019 Red Bull switched from Renault to Honda power units. After Ricciardo moved to the Renault team for 2019, Verstappen was joined at Red Bull by Pierre Gasly. Verstappen qualified in fourth and finished third in Australia, the first podium finish for a Honda-powered driver since the 2008 British Grand Prix. Verstappen was on course for a second third-place finish in Bahrain before a late safety car prevented him from overtaking Charles Leclerc's ailing Ferrari, keeping him in fourth place. Two more fourth-place finishes followed in China and Azerbaijan, and a podium in Spain in third place. In Monaco, Verstappen qualified in third place. He was released into the path of Valtteri Bottas during the drivers' pit stops, gaining second place but receiving a 5-second penalty as a result. Verstappen crossed the line in second place but was demoted to fourth by the penalty.

In Canada, Verstappen's final lap in the second qualifying session was hampered by a red flag brought out by Kevin Magnussen's crash. This caused Verstappen to qualify 11th and start the race in ninth place. He later recovered to finish fifth. In France he started and finished in fourth place. In Austria, Verstappen started third but suffered a poor start, dropping down to eighth. After a charge towards the front, he made his way up to second before controversially passing Leclerc for the lead of the race with three laps to go. This marked the first Honda-powered race victory since the 2006 Hungarian Grand Prix. In Britain, Verstappen, running in third place, was hit from behind during an overtake attempt by Sebastian Vettel and spun into the gravel. Verstappen was able to continue and crossed the line in fifth place.

The wet and chaotic German Grand Prix began similarly to the race in Austria for Verstappen, as a poor start caused him to fall behind. However, he would inherit the lead midway through the race after a crash by race leader Hamilton. Verstappen would go on to extend his lead after the track began to dry, claiming his second victory of the season. In Hungary, he claimed the first pole position of his career and led most of the race before being passed in the closing laps by Hamilton, who had made another stop for fresh tyres in a gamble to catch the leader.

Verstappen on the podium after winning the 2019 Brazilian Grand Prix

Before the Belgian Grand Prix, Verstappen received a new teammate in Alexander Albon after Pierre Gasly was demoted back to Toro Rosso. In the race, Verstappen had a poor start and collided with Kimi Räikkönen at the first corner, resulting in suspension damage and causing Verstappen's first retirement of the season. In Italy, he did not set a time during qualifying after his car lost power in Q1, but he was already required to start from the back of the grid due to an engine component penalty. After damaging his front wing on the first lap, he recovered to finish the race in eighth place. third and fourth-place finishes followed in Singapore and Russia respectively. After suffering damage in a first-lap collision with Charles Leclerc in Japan, Verstappen suffered his second retirement of the season.

In Mexico, he qualified in first place after setting the fastest lap-time of the session, before being handed a grid penalty for ignoring yellow flags after a crash by Valtteri Bottas.Verstappen suffered a puncture early in the race after making contact with Bottas, falling to the back of the field before eventually recovering to sixth place. A third-place finish in the United States followed, before Verstappen took the second pole position of his career with a 1:07.508 pole lap time in Brazil. In a chaotic race, he passed Lewis Hamilton for the lead on two occasions before going on to claim his third victory of the season. Verstappen ended the season with a second-place finish in Abu Dhabi.

Verstappen finished the 2019 season in third place in the championship with 278 points. He claimed three race victories, nine podium finishes, two pole positions, and three fastest laps.

2020 season: Third in the Championship
In 2020, Verstappen signed a contract extension to race for Red Bull until the end of 2023.

Verstappen continued to race for Red Bull in 2020, alongside Albon. At the 2020 Austrian Grand Prix, he started second, but retired early in the race after a flywheel-related problem caused an electronic issue within the power unit. Honda introduced countermeasures in response to the retirement.

At the 2020 Hungarian Grand Prix, he crashed in wet conditions during the formation lap while he was on his way to the starting grid, but he was able to drive the car back to the grid where his mechanics fixed the suspension of the car in the short time that was left before the start of the race. After the repairs, Verstappen progressed from seventh place on the grid to second place by the end of the race. Verstappen won the 70th Anniversary Grand Prix at Silverstone, having started from fourth.

Verstappen clinched second place at the Spanish Grand Prix, after qualifying in third. At the 2020 Belgian Grand Prix, he scored a podium in third place, following his third place on the starting grid. He suffered from two consecutive DNFs at the Italian and Tuscan Grands Prix after which he lost second place in the Championship. At the Russian Grand Prix, Verstappen finished the race in second, his seventh podium finish of 2020. At the Eifel Grand Prix, Verstappen finished in second after qualifying in third. He also managed to get the fastest lap of the race. At the Portuguese Grand Prix, Verstappen qualified third, however a poor first lap meant that he dropped back down the order to fifth place. He recovered to third and took his 40th podium in Formula 1. At the Emilia Romagna Grand Prix, Verstappen looked set to claim second due to Valtteri Bottas' ailing Mercedes slowing down, but a sudden puncture denied him any chance of a podium finish; Verstappen spun, resulting in his fourth retirement of the 2020 season.

During Free Practice for the Portuguese Grand Prix, Verstappen was criticised for comments he made on the team radio after a collision with Lance Stroll, where he used the words "retard" and "mongol" in response to the clash. Verstappen admitted following the session that the word choices he used were "not correct." The Mongolian government and the Mongol identity asked Verstappen to apologise for the comments; the Mongolian government also urged the FIA to take action on the comments he made.

Verstappen finished the 2020 season in third place in the championship with 214 points. He claimed two race victories, eleven podium finishes, one pole position, and three fastest laps.

2021 season: World Champion

At the Bahrain Grand Prix, Verstappen topped all the practice sessions and subsequently took a career fourth pole position. This was the first time he achieved back-to-back pole positions. He fought Lewis Hamilton for the race victory, and on lap 53 Verstappen overtook Hamilton, but went off track whilst doing so, resulting in him being instructed by race control to let Hamilton back into the lead and ultimately finishing second behind Hamilton.p At the next race, the Emilia Romagna Grand Prix, Verstappen qualified third with teammate Sergio Pérez second, marking the first time he was out-qualified by a teammate since the 2019 Italian Grand Prix. At the race start, Verstappen was able to pass both Pérez and pole-sitter Lewis Hamilton to take the lead. He remained in the lead after the first round of pit stops as well as the restart, following the race being suspended on lap 33. Rival Hamilton finished second, reducing his championship lead over Verstappen to one point. In the following Portuguese Grand Prix, Verstappen finished second after a long battle with Lewis Hamilton. At the Spanish Grand Prix, the battle between Verstappen and Hamilton continued, with Hamilton employing a faster two-stop strategy versus Verstappen's one-stop race. This provided Hamilton the advantage of faster tyres, allowing him to overtake Verstappen with several laps remaining in the race. Hamilton took the victory, with Verstappen taking second and the fastest lap, increasing Hamilton's championship lead to 14 points.

At the next race in Monaco, Verstappen qualified second behind Charles Leclerc, but Leclerc suffered a driveshaft failure on the way to the grid and was unable to start the race. Verstappen controlled the race from the front on the way to victory. Hamilton (who qualified seventh) finished seventh, though claiming an extra championship point by setting the fastest race lap. The result enabled Verstappen to take the lead in the Drivers' Championship for the first time in his career, by a margin of four points over Hamilton. At the Azerbaijan Grand Prix, Verstappen qualified third behind Leclerc and Hamilton. Verstappen and Hamilton passed Leclerc in the opening laps before Verstappen took the lead by way of a faster pitstop. Verstappen would comfortably hold the lead until lap 46 when he suffered a tyre failure causing him to crash at high-speed and retire. A mistake by Hamilton on the restart dropped him to last place, meaning Verstappen maintained his championship lead. Verstappen took pole for the French Grand Prix. Verstappen's mistake on the first lap allowed Hamilton to take the lead which Verstappen retook during the pit stop phase. Verstappen pitted for a second time from the lead and set after the Mercedes duo, overtaking Hamilton for the lead on lap 52 of 53. He also took the fastest lap point, extending his championship lead to twelve points.  Verstappen clinched pole position again at the Styrian Grand Prix and led the race from start to finish, to give him his fourth win of the season and further extend his lead to 18 points.

Verstappen took pole position at the Austrian Grand Prix, led every lap from start to finish, set the fastest lap, and won the race for his first career grand slam, being the youngest to do so. With the win, Verstappen also became the first driver to win three races in three consecutive weekends, starting at the French Grand Prix on 20 June, then the Styrian Grand Prix on 27 June and ending with the Austrian Grand Prix on 4 July. At the next race; the British Grand Prix, Verstappen was involved in a high-speed collision at the Copse corner with Hamilton on the first lap. This resulted in a 51 g impact with the barrier. He was taken to the Silverstone circuit's medical centre after the crash and was then taken to Coventry hospital for precautionary checks and further assessment, before eventually being discharged at 22:00 local time on Sunday night. Hamilton would go on to win the race, reducing Verstappen's lead in the championship to eight points. At the next race, the Hungarian Grand Prix, Verstappen's car suffered damage in a multi-car collision on lap 1, where Mercedes driver Valtteri Bottas was deemed at fault. He ended the race in tenth which was promoted to ninth after Sebastian Vettel was disqualified. The outcome of the race allowed Hamilton to take the lead of the championship.

Following the summer break, Verstappen qualified on pole at the Belgian Grand Prix, ahead of Williams driver George Russell in second and Lewis Hamilton in third. The race was run for three laps, all behind the safety car, with the race official race results taken from the running order at the end of the first lap, with Hamilton and Verstappen both retaining their qualifying positions. As less than 75% of the race distance was completed, half points were awarded, resulting in Verstappen closing the gap to Hamilton to three points. At the Dutch Grand Prix Verstappen again qualified on pole, beating Hamilton by 0.038 seconds. During the race Verstappen was able to fend off attacks from both Mercedes drivers to take the win, taking the lead in the Drivers' Championship by three points. For the Italian Grand Prix, Verstappen was required to start at the back of the grid for exceeding his quota of power unit components. He made his way back up the field, and after taking an early pit stop for intermediate tyres late in the race, he finished second. At the Turkish Grand Prix, Verstappen qualified second with Bottas on pole. With the race being run in wet conditions and the drivers on intermediate tyres the whole race, Verstappen finished second behind Bottas, taking the lead in the Drivers' Championship by six points as Hamilton finished fifth.

At the United States Grand Prix, Verstappen took pole position in qualifying, edging Hamilton by 0.209 seconds. Verstappen won the race and extended his lead in the Drivers' Championship to twelve points as Hamilton finished second with the fastest lap. At the 2021 Mexico City Grand Prix, Verstappen qualified third with a gap to pole-sitter Bottas of 0.350 seconds. Verstappen's main opponent Hamilton qualified second. At the race start, Verstappen took the lead from Bottas and Hamilton into turn 1 and won the race, and as a result extended his lead in the championship to 19 points.

Verstappen and Hamilton were on equal points in the Drivers' Championship going into the final round, the Saudi Arabian Grand Prix, with Verstappen leading on countback. Verstappen overtook Hamilton on the final lap to win the race, and his first Formula One World Drivers' Championship. Verstappen, who had qualified on pole position by nearly four tenths of a second, had a slow start off the line at the start of the race and dropped to second place. Verstappen was trailing Hamilton by over ten seconds until a late safety car was called in due to a crash at turn 14 involving Williams driver Nicholas Latifi. The withdrawal of the safety car and the resumption of the race following the safety car period was met with controversy. Race director Michael Masi allowed only a certain number of lapped cars through, which after the race brought from the Mercedes team a protest and stated intention to appeal against the race result, arguing that all lapped cars should be allowed through, Red Bull counter argued that this was not specified by the wording of the regulations. The protest was rejected, although subsequent investigation by the FIA ruled that Masi had misinterpreted the rule and the wording of the rule was amended for the 2022 season to specify that "all" cars will unlap themselves (at the race director's discretion) rather than "any". Verstappen passed Hamilton at turn 5 of the final lap of the race to become the 34th Formula One World Drivers' Champion.

2022 and beyond
In March 2022 Verstappen signed a five-year contract extension with Red Bull Racing for the 2023 to 2028 seasons.

Verstappen suffered two fuel system related retirements in the first three races, finding himself 46 points behind championship leader Charles Leclerc. He responded by winning five of the next seven races, allowing him to take the championship lead and build a gap of 37 points over second place, by then held by his teammate Sergio Pérez.

Complete Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicates fastest lap)

† Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.
‡ Half points awarded as less than 75% of race distance was completed.
* Season still in progress.

References

1997 births
Living people
Dutch racecar drivers
Formula One drivers
People from Hasselt

Max Verstappen


A perm is a unit of permeance or "water vapor transmission" given a certain differential in partial pressures on either side of a material or membrane.

Definitions
U.S. perm
The U.S. perm is defined as 1 grain of water vapor per hour, per square foot, per inch of mercury.

{|
|-
|1 U.S. perm
|= 0.659045  metric perms
|-
|||≈ 57.2135 ng·s−1·m−2·Pa−1
|}

Metric perm
The metric perm (not an SI unit) is defined as 1 gram of water vapor per day, per square meter, per millimeter of mercury.

{|
|-
|1 metric perm
|= 1.51735 US perms
|-
|||≈ 86.8127 ng·s−1·m−2·Pa−1
|}

Equivalent SI unit
The equivalent SI measure is the nanogram per second per square meter per pascal.

{|
|-
|1 ng·s−1·m−2·Pa−1
|≈ 0.0174784 US perms
|-
|||≈ 0.0115191 metric perms
|}
The base normal SI unit for permeance is the kilogram per second per square meter per pascal.
{|
|-
|1 kg·s−1·m−2·Pa−1
|≈ 1.74784x1010   US perms
|-
|||≈ 1.15191x1010  metric perms
|}

German Institute for Standardization unit
A variant of the metric perm is used in DIN Standard 53122, where permeance is also expressed in grams per square meter per day, but at a fixed, "standard" vapor-pressure difference of 17.918 mmHg. This unit is thus 17.918 times smaller than a metric perm, corresponding to about 0.084683 of a U.S. perm.

References
 Michon, Gérard P. (April 29, 2003) "Permeability and permeance". Final Answers: Physics of Gases and Fluids. - accessed August 13, 2007

Customary units of measurement in the United States
Units of measurement

Perm (unit)


Francis Henry Edwards (4 August 1897 – 1 December 1991) was a British leader in the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS Church). Edwards was an apostle and a member of the church's Council of Twelve Apostles from 1922 to 1946 and was a member of the First Presidency from 1946 to 1966.

Early life and imprisonment
Edwards was born to a Latter Day Saint family in Birmingham, England.  During the First World War Edwards, as a conscientious objector, refused to serve in the British military when conscripted. Having been denied recognition by his local Military Service Tribunal, he was arrested, brought before a magistrates' court and handed over to the army. At a court-martial in Worcester on 21 December 1916 he was sentenced to 112 days imprisonment with hard labour, which he served in Wormwood Scrubs. On 30 January 1917 he was interviewed by the Central Tribunal, sitting in the prison, who found him to be a "genuine" conscientious objector, after all, and offered him admission to the Home Office Scheme, whereby conscientious objector prisoners could be released on condition of performing civilian work under civilian control. Edwards was transferred to Princetown Work Centre, set up in the erstwhile Dartmoor Prison, where he remained until the Scheme was wound up in April 1919.

RLDS Church leadership
Edwards immigrated to the United States to join the main gathering of RLDS Church members in Iowa and became a full-time missionary in 1920. On 13 October 1922, RLDS Church president Frederick M. Smith selected Edwards as an apostle of the church. Upon joining the Council of Twelve Apostles, he was selected as the organization's secretary.

Frederick Smith died in 1946 and his brother Israel A. Smith was selected to succeed him. Israel Smith chose John F. Garver and Edwards as his counselors in the First Presidency. When Smith died in 1958 and was succeeded by his younger brother W. Wallace Smith, Edwards was retained as a member of the First Presidency. On 18 April 1966, Edwards was honorably released from membership in the First Presidency and replaced by Duane E. Couey. At this time, Edwards was officially encouraged to "pursu[e] his talents of writing and teaching".

Author and editor
In 1938, Edwards published the first edition of his Commentary on the Doctrine and Covenants, a resource that was updated and republished throughout Edwards's life and is still used today in the Community of Christ in studies of the church's Doctrine and Covenants. From 1967 to 1976, Edwards updated the History of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints to include material from 1896 to 1976, which comprises volumes 5 through 8 of the work.

Family and personal life
On 27 June 1924, Edwards married Alice Smith, a daughter of RLDS Church president Frederick M. Smith. In 1938, Edwards became a citizen of the United States. Edwards attended Graceland University, the University of Kansas and the University of Missouri–Kansas City. Today at Graceland University, there is a F. Henry Edwards Chair of Religious Studies.

Publications
F. Henry Edwards (1932). A Study of the Doctrine and Covenants (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
—— (1933). Life and Ministry of Jesus (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
—— (1936). Fundamentals: Enduring Convictions of the Restoration (Independence, Mo.: Herald House) [Second Edition published in 1948]
—— (1938). A Commentary on the Doctrine and Covenants: A Brief Historical Treatment of Each Section, Stating the Conditions under which It Was Given, Its Import for the Time It Was Given, and Its Application to the Problems and Needs of the Church Today (Independence, Mo.: Herald House) [reprinted and revised in 1986 as ]
—— (1940). Missionary Sermon Studies (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
—— (1943). God Our Help (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
—— (1950). Studies in the Life and Ministry of Jesus (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
Elbert A. Smith, F. Henry Edwards, and Herbert M. Scott (eds., 1951). Compendium of the Scriptures Including Texts of the Standard Books of the Church (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
F. Henry Edwards (1951). Overviews of Church History (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
—— (1953). Challenges of the Restoration (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
—— (1956). Authority and Spiritual Power (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
—— (1959). The Whole Wide World (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
—— (1962). All Thy Mercies (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
—— (1963). For Such a Time (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
—— (1965). The Divine Purpose in Us (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
—— (1975). The Joy in Creation and Judgment (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)
—— (1987). The Power that Worketh in Us (Independence, Mo.: Herald House)

References

1897 births
1991 deaths
Apostles of the Community of Christ
British conscientious objectors
Latter Day Saint missionaries in the United States
Community of Christ missionaries
English Latter Day Saint missionaries
English emigrants to the United States
English Latter Day Saints
English Christian religious leaders
Graceland University alumni
Members of the First Presidency (Community of Christ)
People from Birmingham, West Midlands
University of Kansas alumni
University of Missouri–Kansas City alumni
Prisoners and detainees of the British military
English prisoners and detainees
Doctrine and Covenants people
English members of the Community of Christ

F. Henry Edwards


Oscar Strasnoy (born November 12, 1970) is a French-Argentine composer, conductor and pianist. Although primarily known for his stage works, the first of which Midea (2) premiered in Spoleto in 2000, his principal compositions also include two secular cantatas and several song cycles.

Career
Oscar Strasnoy was born in Buenos Aires and studied piano, conducting and composition there at the Conservatorio Nacional Superior de Música (with Aldo Antognazzi and Guillermo Scarabino), at the Conservatoire de Paris (with Guy Reibel, Michaël Levinas and Gérard Grisey), where he won in 1996 a Premier Prix à l'Unanimité (first prize) and the Hochschule für Musik, Frankfurt (with Hans Zender). He was the Music Director of the Orchestre du Crous de Paris (1996–1998).  He was one of the founding recipients of the Grüneisen Foundation (Mozarteum Argentino) conducting scholarship, and of the French Government Scholarship. In 1999 he was invited by Peter Eötvös to Herrenhaus-Edenkoben in Germany.

Luciano Berio awarded him the 2000 Orpheus Prize for his chamber opera Midea (2) produced at the Teatro Caio Melisso in Spoleto in 2000 and at the Rome Opera in 2001. He was also artist in residence at the Akademie Schloss Solitude in Stuttgart, in 2003 at the Villa Kujoyama in Kyoto (Institut français), and in 2006 at the Civitella Ranieri Foundation in Umbria, Italy. In 2007 he received a John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellowship for Music Composition.
Radio France, in association with the parisian Théâtre du Châtelet, featured Strasnoy as the main composer of the Festival Présences 2012, a retrospective of most of his works in 14 concerts in January 2012.

Compositions
Oscar Strasnoy has composed twelve stage works, including operas performed at Spoleto, Rome, Paris (Opéra Comique, Théâtre du Châtelet), Hamburg, Bordeaux, Aix-en-Provence Festival, Teatro Colón of Buenos Aires), Berlin State Opera; a live-accompanied silent film score for Anthony Asquith's Underground which premiered at the Louvre in 2004 and was subsequently played at the Cine Doré in Madrid, the Mozarteum Argentino, Kyoto, and Tokyo) and a secular cantata, Hochzeitsvorbereitungen (mit B und K). He also composed several pieces of chamber, vocal and orchestral music, including his song cycle Six Songs for the Unquiet Traveller which premiered in 2004 performed by the Nash Ensemble and Ann Murray in a concert to inaugurate the newly refurbished Wigmore Hall in London.

In January 2012 a retrospective of his work in 14 concerts has been presented at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris as part of the Festival Présences of Radio France. Strasnoy's works are primarily published by Universal Edition (Vienna) Chant du Monde (Paris) and Billaudot (Paris). His opera Midea is published by Ricordi (Milan).

Operas and music theatre

 1996-1999: "Midea (2)" chamber opera. Libretto (in Italian) by Irina Possamai. Premièred at the Teatro Caio Melisso, Spoleto, Italy, 8 September 2000 directed by Hennig Brockhaus, conducted by Andrea Molino.
 2002: "Opérette". Libretto (in French) by Witold Gombrowicz. Premièred at the Grand Théâtre of Reims, France, 10 January 2003 directed by Christian Gangneron.
 2003: "Geschichte", operetta a cappella. Libretto (in German) by Galin Stoev and Oscar Strasnoy based on Witold Gombrowicz's play, premièred at Theaterhaus Stuttgart, 31 March 2004, directed by Galin Stoev. Second production in 2011 directed by Titus Selge. Third production at the Berlin Staatsoper, Sept.-Oct. 2015, directed by Isabel Ostermann.
 2005: "Fabula", pocket-opera. Libretto (in Spanish and Yiddish) by Alejandro Tantanian. Premièred at Teatro San Martín, Buenos Aires, 29 November 2005, directed by Renate Ackermann.
 2000-2006: "L'instant", children opera in one act. Libretto (in French) by Alejandro Tantanian. Premièred at Maison des Arts de Créteil, Paris, 2008 (concert version), conducted by Oscar Strasnoy.
 2008-2009: "Le Bal" opera in one act based on Irène Némirovsky's novelette The Ball, libretto (in French) by Matthew Jocelyn, premièred in Hamburg Opera-House, 7 March 2010, directed by Matthew Jocelyn, conducted by Simone Young. Second production: Théâtre du Châtelet, Paris, January 2012, directed (semi-staged) by Matthew Jocelyn, conducted by Anu Tali. Third production: Prinzregententheater of Munich, November 2012, directed by Karsten Wiegand, conducted by Ulf Schirmer.
 2009-2010: "Un Retour", chamber opera in one act, Libretto (in Spanish, French and Latin) by Alberto Manguel based on his novel El Regreso, premièred at Festival d'Aix en Provence, France, 5 July 2010)
 2010: "Cachafaz" opera in two acts. Libretto (in Spanish) by Copi based on dis play, premièred at Théâtre de Cornouaille, Quimper, France, Nov. 2010), directed by Benjamin Lazar, conducted by Geoffroy Jourdain. Second production: Teatro San Martín of Buenos Aires, Nov. 2012, directed by Pablo Maritano and conducted by Pierre Roullier.
 2011-2012: "Случай" (Slutchai, Incidents), chamber opera in two acts. Libretto (in Russian) by Christine Dormoy based on Daniil Kharms writings. Premiered at Bordeaux Opera House, 26 November 2012, directed by Christine Dormoy, conducted by Oscar Strasnoy. Second Production, new version ("Fälle" in German) at Zürich Opera House, premiere on 8 May 2015, directed by Jan Eßinger, conducted by Carrie-Ann Matheson.
 2012-2014: "Requiem", opéra in two acts. Libretto (in English and Latin) by Matthew Jocelyn based on the novel Requiem for a nun by William Faulkner, premièred at Teatro Colón of Buenos Aires, 10 June 2014, directed by Matthew Jocelyn, conducted by Christian Baldini.
 2015-2016: "Comeback", chamber opera. Libretto (in German) by Christoph Hein, based on "Tilla" and "Jannings" by Christoph Hein. Première: Staatsoper Berlin, 30 September 2016.
 2016-2017: "Luther". Libretto (in German) by Christoph Hein. Première: Händel-Halle, Halle, 22 October 2017.
 2022-2023: "Robinson". Libretto (in German) by Sigrid Behrens. Première: Staatsoper Berlin, Halle, 25 February 2023.

Concert works (selection)

 1992: Piano 1: Incognito (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 1995: Piano 2: Britannicus
 1995: Naipes, for Pierrot-Lunaire-type quintet (Ed. Le Chant du Monde/Wise Music)
 1997: Piano 3: à Corinthe  (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 1999: Piano 4: 5 pièces  (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 1999: Two tangos (Ed. Lemoine, Paris)
 2000: Bloc-notes d'Ephemera (1) for ensemble
 2000: Bloc-notes d'Ephemera (2) for two pianos (Ed. Le Chant du Monde/Wise Music)
 2002: Piano 5: Exercices de Latinité (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 2000-(rev. 2005): Hochzeitsvorbereitungen (mit B und K) (cantata) (Ed. Le Chant du Monde/Wise Music)
 2004: Underground, music for the 1928 silent film by Anthony Asquith.
 2004: Six Songs for the Unquiet Traveller (on texts by Alberto Manguel) (Ed. Le Chant du Monde/Wise Music)
 2005: Scherzo (Sum nº 3) for orchestra (Ed. Le Chant du Monde/Wise Music)
 2006: The End (Sum nº 4) for orchestra (Ed. Le Chant du Monde/Wise Music)
 2008: Quodlibet, song cycle, premièred in Stuttgart, 2008.
 2010: "Heine", song cycle on poems by Heinrich Heine  (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 2009-2011: Incipit (Sum nº 1), for orchestra  (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 2009-2011: Y (Sum nº 2, for orchestra)  (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 2012: Odyssée, cantata (libretto: Alberto Manguel), for 12 vocal soloists, 5 choirs and three instrumental groups  (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 2013: Vague-Requiem, for Cello Octet  (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 2014: Müller, song-cycle on poems by Wilhelm Müller, Heiner Müller and Herta Müller for Tenor and piano.
 2015: Double Ostinato, for solo accordion.
 2016: Ghost Stories, for string quartet and 33rpm record  (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 2016: Automaton, for violin and chamber orchestra  (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 2017: Kuleshov, for piano and chamber orchestra  (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 2017: Ittingen-Concerto, for chamber orchestra  (Ed. Billaudot, Paris)
 2017: 2. Juni (from "Tage-Buch"), for violin, horn and 33rpm record.
 2017: 4. Juni, (from "Tage-Buch") for solo violin and 33rpm record.
 2017: 5. Juni, (from "Tage-Buch") for violin and tenor.
 2017: Flashbacks, for 10 instruments. Première: 8 DEC 2017 by the Ensemble Modern Frankfurt, in Munich. Ed. Billaudot.
 2018: d'Amore, for viola d'amore and ensemble. Première: 20 OCT 2018 by Garth Knox and the Ensemble Modern, in Donaueschingen. Ed. Billaudot.
 2019: Trí Amhrán Ghaelacha (Three Irish Songs) for tenor and piano.
 2019: Chanzuns Popularas Rumanchas (Rhaetian Folk Songs) for female singer and ensemble. Première: 29 MAY 2019, La-Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland Universal Edition
 2019: Zaunkönig und -gäste, for orchestra. Première: 1 JUL 2019 by the Musikalische Akademie des Nationaltheater-Orchesters Mannheim conducted by Alexander Soddy. Ed. Billaudot
 2019: Verschiedene Canones - Neue Auflösungen (nach J.S. Bachs Canones, BWV 1087) for baroque orchestra and percussion. Première: 19 OCT 2019 in Berlin, Akademie für Alte Musik Berlin (Universal Edition)
 2019: Für Felice for vocal ensemble (12 voices) and instrument ad libitum. Commissioned by the Ensemble Musicatreize (Universal Edition)
 2020: Three Kamasutra Etudes, for vocal ensemble (12 voices). (Universal Edition)
 2020: Partita I for solo violin (for Isabelle Faust)
 2020: 24 Preludes for piano (for Alexandre Tharaud)
 2022: Saloon for trombone, guitar, piano and analogic live electronics (Ensemble SONGS)
 2022: Partita II for harp.
 2022: Tombeau de Monjeau for piano. (Universal Edition)

Transcriptions and Arrangements

 2010: La Forza del Destino, Overture by Giuseppe Verdi, for ensemble.
 2011: Trois caprices de Paganini, for violin and orchestra.
 2011: "Dido and Aeneas" chamber opera based on Henry Purcell's opera), for seven singers, two pianos, two brass instruments and two percussion players. Premièred in Paris, Théâtre du Châtelet, January 2012 (concert version) conducted by Roland Hayrabedian.
 2017 Two Schubert Menuets (from "Fünf Menuette mit sechs Trios"), Nº 3 and Nº 5 for octet (like Schubert's Octet).
 2019: Romanze Op. 118, Nº 5 (by Johannes Brahms), arrangement for violin and orchestra. Première: 25 APR 2019 at the Elbphiharmonie Hamburg, Isabelle Faust, NDR Elbphilharmonie-Orchester, cond. Antonello Manacorda.
 2020: Saint François d'Assise, opera by Olivier Messiaen (re-orchestration for reduced (à 2) orchestra). Première: 15 OCT 2020 at Theater Basel, Switzerland.

Discography

2022: Tombeau de Monjeau, for piano. Mara Dobresco CD La Scala.

2022: Chanzuns Popularas Rumanchas, for female voice and ensemble. Sarah Maria Sun and Ensemble SONGS CD SONGS OO1.

2020: Kuleshov, Piano Concerto. Alexandre Tharaud, Les Violons du Roy conducted by Mathieu Lussier CD Erato/Warner Classics.

2018: Luther, Oratorio. Staatskapelle Halle conducted by Michael Wendeberg CD Arthaus.

2018: Two Schubert Menuets (from "Fünf Menuette mit sechs Trios"), nº 3 and nº 5, arrangement for octet, Isabelle Faust & Friends. CD Harmonia Mundi.

2017: Berceuse (from "Five Little Pieces for Piano", ed. Billaudot), Mara Dobresco, piano. CD Paraty 107159.

2016: Hanokh, by Erwan Keravec, bagpipe, Donatienne Michel-Dansac, soprano and Vincent Bouchot, baritone, CD Vox.

2014: An Island Far, Ensemble 2e2m, dir. Pierre Roullier, CD Le Chant du Monde.

2013: Orchestral works, Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio France conducted by Dima Slobodeniouk and Susanna Mälkki CD Aeon

2013: Geschichte (fragment), CD du Festival d'Automne de Varsovie. Neue Vocalsolisten Stuttgart.

2010: Un retour, Ensemble Musicatreize, dir. Roland Hayrabedian

2007: Hochzeitsvorbereitungen (mit B und K) CD Chant du Monde, Ensemble 2e2m, dir. Pierre Roullier

2000: Two tangos ("Derrumbe" and "Mano Brava") Paris-Buenos Aires, CD Bis records

1998: Bloc-notes de Midea (5), CD Hochschule für Musik Köln/Conservatoire de Paris, cond. Peter Eötvös

Bibliography
2009 La stratification de la mémoire Colection 2e2m

2010 Un retour Livre-CD Actes-Sud

2017 Automaton, Monroe-Books, Berlin

Awards

 2019: Konex Award.
 2013: Prix de composition "Francis et Mica Salabert" SACEM, France.
 2011: Prix Nouveau Talent Musique SACD, France.
 2010: Grand Prix de la Musique Symphonique, SACEM.
 2007: Guggenheim Fellowship
 2007: Prix de l'Académie du Disque Lyrique.
 2003: Prix "Georges Enesco", SACEM.
 1999: Premio "Orpheus", Spoleto, Italy, for "Midea".

References

Sources
Associated Press (9 March 2000). "Young Argentinean composer wins Italian opera prize"
de la Fuente, Sandra (28 July 2010). "Oscar Strasnoy: «La música pura ya no es suficiente»" (interview with Oscar Strasnoy). Clarín
France Today (5 July 2010). "Live from Aix: World premiere of Un Retour"
France Musique (16 February 2011) Concert du soir
La Nación (9 August 2008). "Muchos compositores son ignorantes" (interview with Oscar Strasnoy)
Mudge, Stephen J. (March 2011). "Cachafaz, Paris, Opéra Comique, 12/13/10". Opera News,Vol. 75, No. 9
Service, Tom (12 October 2004). "Review: Nash/Kildea, Wigmore Hall, London". The Guardian
John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation (2008) Reports of the president and of the treasurer

External links
 Official website
Oscar Strasnoy page at the music publishers Billaudot, Paris
 Catalogue (PDF) at Ed. Billaudot
List of Oscar Strasnoy's scores at the music publisher Chant du Monde, Paris

1970 births
20th-century classical composers
20th-century classical pianists
20th-century conductors (music)
21st-century classical composers
21st-century classical pianists
21st-century conductors (music)
Argentine classical composers
Argentine classical pianists
Argentine conductors (music)
Argentine opera composers
Jewish Argentine musicians
Living people
Male classical composers
Male conductors (music)
Male opera composers
Male classical pianists
Musicians from Buenos Aires
20th-century male musicians
21st-century male musicians

Oscar Strasnoy


Gogigui, Korean barbecue, or Korean short ribs, is marinated beef rib cross-sections cooked over direct heat. It comes from Korea originally but is now popular in many countries. Although Korean barbecue refers to a number of meat-based Korean entrées including bulgogi (beef) and spicy pork, the most common form of meat associated with the term is of the short rib variety. Korean BBQ comprise various spices including onion, soy sauce, and pepper to create a pleasant, unique blend of flavors.

Types of Korean BBQ Meats
There are many types of Korean barbecue meats. Galbi (Grilled Ribs), Samgyeopsal (Pork Belly), Thinly sliced brisket point, Sirloin, and Ribeye steak meat...etc.
Pork belly sam gyeob sal, sam gyeob sal which translates to "three layers of flesh." It's more well known than bacon in Korea.
Marinated beef bulgogi, Another classic dish, bulgogi, or "fire meat," is sweet and chewy.
Galbi is Korean BBQ Short Ribs, takes grilled short ribs and cut different than all others and a sweet and salty marinade.

Difference between American Barbecue and Korean Barbecue
American Barbecue tends to emphasize big hunks of meat like brisket and pork shoulder cooked low and slow behind closed doors.The Korean way of grilling beef, pork, chicken, or other kinds of meat, usually means having a grill right on the table, where people can talk, cook, and eat at the same time. Commonly  the meat is already cut into small pieces before grilling, and are then wrapped into bite-sized lettuce leaf packages ssam with garlic, vegetables, seasoning sauce, salt, and/or sesame oil

Recipe
Bulgogi Recipe

Ingredients: 1/2 pounds rib eye beef (thinly sliced),2 tablespoons soy sauce,2 teaspoons sesame oil,2 teaspoons crushed garlic,2 tablespoons brown sugar,1 tablespoon rice wine (sake), Pinch of black pepper and 1/2 piece of fresh kiwi, juice in a blender.

Step 1- Add all the ingredients into a bowl or container one by one
Step 2- Let the marinade sit overnight or an hour
Step 3- Get the meat and massage the meat in the marinade to make it tender
Step 4- Put the meat on the grill
Step 5- Enjoy!

Side Dishes
The side dishes are the other fun part. The raw, sliced meats come to the table pre-marinated (usually in soy sauce, rice vinegar, toasted sesame oil, and sugar) and share the spotlight with a slew of high-flavor accompaniments. Known as banchan, these allow customizing your Korean BBQ to your taste preferences. On the table, there is a bowl of funky kimchi made with cabbage or radishes, some spicy gochujang (fermented chile pepper paste), a dish of sweet-and-sour cucumbers, a fresh watercress or mung bean salad, a bowl of steamed rice, a dish of sesame salt, a savory dipping sauce dotted with chopped Asian pears, and some crisp lettuce leaves for wrapping it all up. It's like a taco bar with lettuce as the wraps. The many, varied garnishes bring the grilled meat alive. Grill the strips of meat over the charcoal embers just until they are charred by fire and kissed with smoke, then wrap them up with a bit of sweet, a shot of salty, a spark of spice, a lick of acidity, some crunch, and a boatload of savory for what eventually becomes a minor feast of culinary fireworks. There are many other side dishes, some are kongnamul muchim (seasoned bean sprouts), Oi muchim (spicy cucumber salad), Musaengchae (Spicy Radish Salad), Sukju Namul (Seasoned Bean Sprouts), Gamja-salad (potato salad) and so much more side dishes.

Related pages
 Asado
 Barbecue

References

Korean food

Korean barbecue


The Ahom religion is the ethnic religion of the Ahom people. The Ahom people came into Assam in 1228, led by a Tai prince Sukaphaa, and admixed with the local people. The people who came into Assam included two clans of priests, joined later by a third, who brought with them their own religion, rituals, practices and scriptures. The religion is based on ritual-oriented ancestor worship that required animal sacrifice (Ban-Phi), though there was at least one Buddhism influenced ritual in which sacrifice was forbidden (Phuralung). Ancestor worship and the animistic concept of khwan are two elements it shares with other Tai folk religions. There is no idolatry except for the titular god of the Ahom king and though there is a concept of heaven or a heavenly kingdom (Mong Phi, sometimes identified with a part of Tian, China), there is no concept of hell. It was the state religion of the Ahom kingdom in the initial period.

The Ahom kingdom expanded suddenly in the 16th century and the Ahom peoples became a small minority in their own kingdom—though they continued to wield control. Subsequently, they slowly converted and by the early 19th-century, Ahom religion declined to be replaced by Hinduism. In the 1931 survey, all Ahoms listed Hinduism as their religion. Nevertheless, since the 1960s and 1970s due to an Ahom revivalism movement, as well as efforts from scholars, many of the older practices of the Ahom religion are being resurrected.

The three priestly clans (Mo'sam, Mo'hung, Mo'Plong) of the Ahom people are the current custodians of the Ahom religion.

Ahom system of ancestor worship

Dam-Phi (Dam: dead; Phi: god) is the worship of ancestors as gods and it is performed either in individual households (Dam-Phi) or publicly (Me-Dam-Me-Phi). The dead in Ahom society becomes a Dam (literally, 'spirit of the dead'). They are held in awe (fear, wonder, and reverence); worshiped and propitiated for protection. After the fourteenth generation a Dam becomes a god (Phi) and is worshiped by the whole community. There are three grades of Dams graded according to the generation (with the highest living generation numbered one) and the circumstances of death, and they progress from one grade to the next.

Griha Dam
The head of the household and his wife or the parents are called the Na Dam ("new Dam", 2nd generation), the next higher generation the Ghai Dam ("main Dam", 3rd generation) and the next higher generation the Chi Rwan Dam (4th generation). Each Dam is complete only when both the husband and wife are dead. These three Dams constitute the Griha Dam (household Dam) and they are believed to reside in the North-east pillar of the kitchen, Pho Kam (Assamese: Dam Khuta), which is usually raised first during the construction of the house and is considered most sacred place in the entire house. The Dam Phi rituals are directed at the Pho Kam. The household deity, Seng Ka Pha, is also worshiped at the Pho Kam.  Those who die unnaturally, without children or unmarried are called Jokorua Dam and are not included in the Griha Dam and treated and worshiped differently.

Chang Dam
The next nine generations of Dams (5th to 13th) constitute Chang Dam, the Dams who have been let out of the house into the threshold; and are worshiped according to special rites, called No Puruxor Saul Khua (feast for nine generations).

Chao Phi Dam
This is the final stage for Dams and in this stage, the Dams (14th and above) are considered to have become gods (Phi) and merged with original forefathers of the entire community collectively called Chao Phi Dam. In this class of Dams the two evil deities, Ra Khin and Ba Khin too belong, but they are worshiped with lower status and separately. The Jokorua Dams in the fourteenth generation become Khin and join these two deities.

Gods and cosmogony
It is mentioned in the Ahom Scripture Lit Lai Peyn Kaka that at first there was nothing besides the water of the ocean. Pha Tu Ching— which is an omnipotent shapeless, impersonal god almighty—opened his eyes to the void and thus created from his breast the first deity—Khun Theu Kham. Freshly created, and finding nothing to lean on, Khun Theu Kham dove into the water and then laid on his back, and a lotus plant issued from his navel. This was followed by the creation of a crab, a tortoise and an eight-hooded snake that encircled the tortoise. The eight hoods spread in eight directions. Then a white elephant with long tusks and two mountains in the north and south were created, on which pillars were placed. Then a pair of gold-tinted spiders were created that floated in the air and dropped excrement, from which earth came about. The spiders then placed eight pillars in the eight corners of the wall and spun their web to create heaven. Heaven in Ahom religion denotes Tien, a part of Yunnan in Southwest China known as Mong Phi.

Creation of gods
Pha Tu Ching also created a consort for Khun Theu Kham, and Lon Kām (four golden eggs) were born to them. Phā Tu Chin then created a Thaolung to warm the eggs—but the eggs would not hatch for many years. So he sprinkled ambrosia (Nya Pulok) on them and four gods emerged: (1) Pha-Sang-Din-kham-Neyeu, (2) Seng-Cha-Cha-Kham, (3) Seng-Kam-Pha, and (4) Ngi-Ngao-Nham (also called Phu-ra). The fourth son, Ngi-Ngao-Kham stayed back to help create the world. The third son revolted and turned into an evil spirit, though his son Seng Ka Pha became a household deity.

Worshipful gods
According to Ahom beliefs, the supreme, formless, omnipotent being is Pha Tu Ching, who is the creator, sustainer and destroyer of everything. The other gods and the universe are his creation. The Ahom pantheon of gods that generally receive oblations are Lengdon, Khao Kham, Ai Leng Din, Jan Chai Hung, Jasing Pha, Chit Lam Cham, Mut-Kum Tai Kum, Ra-Khin, Ba-Khin and Chao Phi Dam.

Chumpha: The Chumpha (Chumpha-Rung Seng-Mong, was the titular deity of the Ahom dynasty, represented by a relic and which symbolized the Ahom king's sovereignty. It accompanied Sukaphaa across the Patkai on his journey into Assam. It used to be housed in the royal seat, till Suklenmung (1539–1552) moved it away and it played a prominent role during Singarigharutha ceremony.  The relic is said to have been brought down from Mong Phi by Kun Lung and Kun Lai the ancestor of Sukaphaa rulers Of Mong Ri-Mong Ram (Now Xishuangbanna, China) and could be worshiped and handled only by the king.

Other honourable gods
There are many other Gods including Major Ahom Gods. The Tai-Ahom people and generally had numbers of gods and spirits. They believe that in this world of phenomena visible objects have invisible spirits. Here are some of them.
 Langkuri
 Chao Ban (God of the Sun)
 Chao Den (God of the Moon)
 Chao Phai (God of the Fire)
 Chao Pha Kun (God of the Rain)
 Tai Lang (God of the Death)
 Aai Yang Nao
 Kham Seng or Aai A Nang (Goddess of Wealth)
 Lao Khri. (Full Name : Mo-Seng Pha Lao-Khri)
 Pu-Phi-Su (the god of the forest Who live in the Tun-Rung-Rai (ficus tree))
 Khun Theu Kham Krai Pha Rung Kham Pha but rum Shang Dam Pha Ship ip shang Den

Scriptures
The religious aspects are inscribed in scriptures written in the Ahom language on a kind of bark known as xasi. Ahom religion has various manuscripts on divination, prognostication, khwan calling, incantation, and Phralung. The three priestly clans (Mo'sam, Mo'hung, Mo'Plong) widely use these scripts. Some prayer scripts are known as Ban-Seng were found from Habung. Some of them were brought from Yunnan, China.

Rituals
The Ahom religion is based on rituals, and there are two types of rituals: Ban-Phi that involve animal sacrifice and Phuralung that forbids animal sacrifice. Rituals could also be performed at the household level or at the communal level.

Communal ceremonies
Me-Dam-Me-PhiMe-Dam-Me-Phi (Ahom language : Me-worship; Dam-spirit of the dead; Phi-god) is one of the major ceremonies among the Ahom religious rituals that is performed publicly, propitiating the spirits of the dead.  In the modern times, this is held annually on 31 January. The rituals begin with the creation of a temporary structure with bamboo and thatch octagonal in shape, called  ho phi. In it six raised platters on the main platform are placed for the following divinities: Jashing Pha, Jan Chai Hung, Lengdon, Chit Lam Cham, Mut-Kum Tai-Kum, Chao Phi Dam. To the left of the main platform the raised platforms for Khao Kham and Ai Leng Din are placed; and to the right the raised platters of Ra Khin and Ba Khin.

Rik-Khwan Mong Khwan
The Rik-Khwan Mong Khwan (Ahom language : Rik-to call; Khwan-Life/longevity/Soul; Mōng-Nation), is a ritual to worship Khwan, to enhance or to call back the prosperity of the state or a person. The Rik Kwan is an important part of the Tai-Ahom marriage system described in the old Tai script Lai Lit Nang Hoon Pha. In early days Rik-Khwan Mung Khwan was performed by the Tai-Ahom kings on the victory of a war or the installation of the new kings. In the ceremony, devotee propitiates the god Khao Kham (the god of water) and invoke to restore the soul in the original normal place and to grant a long life.

Non-communal rituals
Dam Phi
The Dam Phi rituals are specific to propitiating the Na Dam, Ghai Dam, Chi rwan Dam and the Jokorua Dam at the Pho Kam pillar inside the house. These rituals are offered on all auspicious occasion in the household—the three Bihus, the Na Khua ceremony (feast following new harvest), new birth in the household, nuai tuloni biya (female puberty ceremony), Chak lang (marriage), and annual death ceremonies.

 Similarities With East Asian religions
Ahom religion is primarily based on worshiping Deities called Phi and Dam (Ancestor Spirit). Ancestor worship and the animistic concept of khwan are two elements it shares with other Tai folk religions. While the duality of the individual self Han (Phu) and Pu are concepts that probably came from Taoism Concepts Yin and Yang. The custom sacred offerings consisting of chicken and Lao traditional rice beer, both in diluted (Nam Lao) and undiluted (Luok Lao'') forms can be seen in other Tai folk religion too.

See also
 Bathouism
 Sanamahism

Notes

References

Further reading

Ahom kingdom
Asian ethnic religion
Religion in Assam
Indian religions

Ahom religion


is a 1988 action role-playing game developed by Nihon Falcom. It is a sequel to Ys I: Ancient Ys Vanished and takes place immediately following it. The game first released for the PC-8801 and PC-9801 and has seen several ports and remakes since.

Ys II was later adapted into the anime Ys II: Castle in the Heavens (1992). DotEmu has released the game on Android with the following localizations: English, French, German, Italian, Korean, Japanese and Chinese.

Versions
Like its predecessor, Ys II was ported to various other platforms following its first release, such as the FM-7, X1, MSX2, and Famicom.

It was released along with its predecessor as part of the enhanced compilation, Ys I & II, for the TurboGrafx-CD by Hudson Soft in 1989. For many years this was the only version of Ys II that received an official English release.

An MS-DOS remake called Ys II Special, developed by Mantra, was released exclusively for the South Korean market in 1994. It was a mash-up of Ys II with the anime Ys II: Castle in the Heavens (1992) along with a large amount of new content, including more secrets than any other version of the game. The game was a success in Korea, despite competition from the Korean RPG Astonishia Story that same year.

Years later, a third remake was released for Microsoft Windows-based PCs as Ys II Eternal, and later as Ys II Complete. Versions of the game have also been developed for mobile phone platforms.

Ys II was also remade in 2008 for the Nintendo DS. An English translation of this version was released by Atlus in North America, along with the DS version of Ys I on a single card, as Legacy of Ys: Books I & II in 2009. The Japanese version had been released as a single game when it came out in 2008.

Plot
Ys II picks up immediately where Ys I left off. Adol Christin is transported to the floating island of Ys, where he meets a young woman named Lilia. She takes Adol to her home, Lance Village. It is here that he will begin his quest to unravel the secrets of Ys, and finally, rid it and Esteria of evil.

Gameplay
The player controls Adol as he battles his way across the land of Ys. As in the first game, Adol's strength is measured in a typical RPG fashion: he has numerical statistics such as HP, attack power, and defense power that determine his strength. These stats are increased by raising his experience level through battling.

Also returning from the first game is the 'bump' combat system. The player attacks enemies by running into them, and the enemy takes damage according to Adol's stats, the enemy's stats, Adol's position, and the enemy's position. A new addition to Ys II is the magic system: Adol can acquire several different spells he can use throughout the course of play, such as a fire spell for attack and a time spell which can stop enemies as long as it is active. The use of magic consumes Adol's MP stat. Another major change in combat in this game compared to the previous game is that the bump combat system cannot be used against most bosses. Crashing into all but two of the bosses in this game in an attempt to damage them will only result in Adol taking damage. These bosses must be defeated with the fire spell.

Music
The soundtrack to Ys II was composed by Yuzo Koshiro, Mieko Ishikawa, and Hideya Nagata.

Several music CDs dedicated to the music of Ys II have been released by Falcom. They include:
 Music from Ys II (1988): Contains the soundtrack to the original PC-8801 edition of Ys II, along with four Ys II tracks arranged by Hiroyuki Namba and one vocal track.
 Perfect Collection Ys II (1990): A two-CD set, the first of which is a complete arrangement of the Ys II soundtrack by Ryo Yonemitsu. The second disc contains assorted arrangements from Ys I, II and III.
 Music from Ys II Renewal (1995): The entire Ys II soundtrack, reproduced on more advanced synthesizer equipment.

Reception

Japanese game magazine Famitsu gave the Famicom (NES) version a score of 27 out of 40. Famitsu gave the PCE-CD (TurboGrafx-CD) version a score of 35 out of 40.

References

External links

1988 video games
Action role-playing video games
FM-7 games
Japan-exclusive video games
MSX2 games
NEC PC-8801 games
NEC PC-9801 games
Nihon Falcom games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Sharp X1 games
Single-player video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Yuzo Koshiro
Ys (series)
Dotemu games

Ys II: Ancient Ys Vanished – The Final Chapter


was a Japanese businessman. A graduate of the Imperial College of Engineering (Kobu Daigaku) in Tokyo, he worked as a telegraph engineer for the Japanese government.

Biography
Iwadare left Japan in 1886 and traveled to New York. He was introduced to Charles Batchelor, an assistant of Thomas Edison. Iwadare was hired to work in an Edison facility in Manhattan at Goerck Street. Iwadare was transferred to Edison Machine Works in Schenectady, New York in January 1887.

Iwadare returned to Japan, hoping to participate in building the electrical industry in Japan. He first joined Osaka Dento (Osaka Electric Lamp Company) as an electrical engineer, and after eight years resigned from his post to start his own business as a general sales agent in Japan for General Electric and Western Electric companies.

In 1895 Western Electric wished to expand their telephone equipment sales business in Japan and proposed a limited partnership with Iwadare. Their representative was Walter Tenney Carleton.  Iwadare accepted the proposal and a new firm was created in August, 1898.  In 1899, changes to treaties between Japan and Western countries went into effect.  The limited partnership created in 1898 was restructured into the joint stock company, Nippon Electric Co. Ltd.  Western Electric held 54% of the stock. Iwadare was named managing director of what is now known as  NEC Corporation.  He became chairman of the board in 1926.

Footnotes

References
NEC Corporation, NEC Corporation, The First 80 Years, 1984, .
Mark Mason, Foreign Direct Investment and Japanese Economic Development, 1899-1931, BUSINESS AND ECONOMIC HISTORY, Second Series, Volume Sixteen, 1987.

External links
Kibataro Oki, Pioneer of Telecommunications Industry

Japanese businesspeople
NEC people
1857 births
1941 deaths

Kunihiko Iwadare


Many inhabitants of Abkhazia are Orthodox Christians, With significant minorities adhering to Islam  and the Abkhaz neopaganism, or the "Abkhazian traditional religion". The influence of this last has always remained strong and has been experiencing a revival through the 1990s and 2000s.

There exists a very small number of adherents to Judaism and Jehovah's Witnesses, as well as non-believers. The Jehovah's Witnesses organization has officially been banned since 1995, though the decree is not currently enforced. According to the constitutions of both Abkhazia and Georgia, the adherents of all religions have equal rights before the law.

Abkhaz native religion

The Abkhaz native religion has undergone a revival in recent decades. As of 2003 8% of the population of Abkhazia (thus a higher percentage among ethnic Abkhazians) declares to be "pagan". It is worthwhile to note that the equivalent of the term "pagan" in Abkhazian (as well as Russian) language, язычник yazychnik, means "ethnic" rather than "country dweller" like its Western counterpart. One scholar has asserted that the Abkhazian traditional religion has become so well established and intertwined with the government to be almost the state religion of the country.

In the Abkhaz native religion, Antsua (also spelled Antzva) is the supreme God and the creator of life. The native religion is animistic, there are deities that represents thunder and the weather like Afy, others that represent the forests, wild animals, and hunting like Ayerg and Azhvepshaa. The religion has a host of different Gods that cater for each aspect of the world. Abkhaz gods have "Apaimbari" meaning angels and observers that function as representatives of the Gods on earth. They keep track of everything that is done amongst the people, while reporting everything back to the Gods.

The followers of this religion have 7 holy temples among which 6 have been restored "Dydrypsh-nykha," "Lashkendar-nykha," "Ldzaa-nykha," "Lykh-nykha" and "Ulyr-nykha." The sixth sanctuary "Inal-Kuba" is located in a mountain valley of Pskhu, which is now populated by Russians. However, the name of the 7th temple is still disputed.

Abrahamic religions

Christianity

According to the 2003 census, 60% of respondents identified themselves as Christian. The two main churches active in Abkhazia are the Abkhazian Orthodox Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church. There are approximately 140 church buildings in Abkhazia, most of which date from the first millennium.

The Abkhazian Orthodox Church operates outside the official Eastern Orthodox ecclesiastical hierarchy, as all Eastern Orthodox churches recognise Abkhazia as belonging to the jurisdiction of the Georgian Orthodox church. The Georgian Orthodox Church lost effective control over the Sukhumi-Abkhazian eparchy following the 1992-1993 war in Abkhazia, when ethnically Georgian priests had to flee Abkhazia. It maintains its structures in exile, where the current head is Archbishop Daniel. The Abkhazian Orthodox Church came into existence when the ethnically Abkhaz branch of the Sukhumi-Abkhazian Eparchy declared on 15 September 2009 that it no longer considered itself part of the Georgian Orthodox Church and that it was re-establishing the Catholicate of Abkhazia disbanded in 1814.

The Georgian Orthodox Church has accused the Russian Orthodox Church of interfering in its internal affairs, thereby violating Orthodox canon law, by training and sending into Abkhazia priests, publishing translations of the Gospels into the Abkhaz language and annexing Georgian Orthodox property in Abkhazia. The Russian Orthodox Church claims that the priests it has sent serve in Abkhazia only temporarily while the local Orthodox believers do not have contacts with the Georgian Orthodox Church.

May 15, 2011 at the National Assembly of the Church in the city of New Athos (Anakopiya), proclaimed the establishment of a new church organization - the Holy Metropolis of Abkhazia.

The Catholic Church in Abkhazia is the third largest Christian denomination and mostly consists of mainly Armenians, Poles, and expatriates living in Abkhazia. The Holy See does not have diplomatic relations with Abkhazia, but has enjoyed two high level visits from the apostolic nuncio.

History of Christianity in Abkhazia
The earliest accounts of the introduction of Christianity into the present-day Abkhazia date from the 1st century AD, and from 325, when the bishop of Pityus (present day Pitsunda) participated in the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea. From around the 9th century onwards, the Orthodox dioceses of Abkhazia were governed by the Catholicate of Abkhazia, subordinated to the Georgian Orthodox Church. The Catholicate of Abkhazia and the Georgian Orthodox Church were abolished in 1814 and 1811 and the dioceses taken over by the Russian Orthodox Church. The Georgian Orthodox Church regained its independence in 1917, after the fall of Tsar Nicholas II.

During the 1992-1993 war in Abkhazia, the Georgian Orthodox church effectively lost control of Abkhazian church affairs as ethnically Georgian priests had to flee Abkhazia and the Abkhaz Priest Vissarion Aplaa became acting head of the Sukhumi-Abkhazian eparchy. In the following years, recently consecrated clerics from the neighbouring Russian Maykop Eparchy arrived in Abkhazia, who eventually came into conflict with Vissarion. Through the mediation of Russian church officials, the two sides managed to reach a power-sharing agreement at Maikop in 2005, but this did not hold.

In April 2008, the last Georgian Orthodox priest remaining in the predominantly Georgian-populated Gali district was expelled, reportedly by Abkhaz security officers, after a "special decree" of the Sukhumi-Abkhazian Eparchy, effectively leaving the local Georgian community without access to clergy. After the capture of the Upper Kodori Valley during the August 2008 war, the two remaining monasteries of Georgian Orthodox monks and nuns there were pressured by the Abkhazian authorities to submit to the Abkhazian Orthodox authorities or else leave Abkhazia. The Abkhazian Deputy Foreign Minister Maxim Gvinjia said the Abkhazian authorities did not plan to defend Georgian monks and nuns. The monks and nuns refused, and in April 2009, they were expelled from Abkhazia.

On 15 September 2009, the Sukhumi-Abkhazian Eparchy led by Vissarion declared that it no longer considered itself part of the Georgian Orthodox Church, that it was re-establishing the Catholicate of Abkhazia, and that it would henceforth be known as the Abkhazian Orthodox Church.

Representatives of the Holy Metropolis of Abkhazia, a new church organization in Abkhazia, are quite successful dialogue with the Ecumenical Patriarchate of the decision of the Abkhazian Church issue.

Islam

According to the 2003 census, 16% of respondents identified themselves as Muslim. There are two mosques in Abkhazia, one in Gudauta and one in Sukhumi.

History of Islam in Abkhazia

Islam spread in Abkhazia during the times of Ottoman domination in the region from the 16th until the 18th century. The first evidence of Abkhazian Muslims was given by the Turkish historian Evliya Çelebi in the 1640s, whose mother was Abkhazian. Throughout the 19th century Russo-Turkish wars, Abkhazian nobility was split along religious lines, with Christians being generally pro-Russian, and Muslims siding with the Ottomans against Russia. Russia's final victory in the area in the 1860s-1870s and two Abkhazian revolts forced most of Muslim Abkhaz to emigrate to the Ottoman Empire as Muhajirs in the 1870s.

Thousands of Abkhaz, known as muhajirun, fled Abkhazia for Ottoman Empire in the mid-19th century after resisting the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. Today, Turkey is home to the world's largest Abkhaz diaspora community. Size estimates vary - Diaspora leaders say 1 million people; Abkhaz estimates range from 150,000 to 500,000. In the Caucasus, Governor-General G.S. Golitsyn reported to Konstantin Pobedonostsev, ober-procurator of the Holy Synod, in 1901 with alarm about a "massive movement of the Abkhaz to Islam" in Abkhazia, a matter "especially dangerous on a frontier that borders Muslim states".

In 2009, Muslims in Abkhazia for the first time received an invitation from the King of Saudi Arabia to go on the Hajj to Mecca.

On 19 December 2011, the Spiritual Board of the Muslims in Abkhazia held its fourth congress, after the death of its Chairman First Mufti of Abkhazia Adlia Gablia. Salikh Kvaratskhelia was elected the new Chairman, Roman Jugelia and Timur Dzyba Deputy Chairmen.

Recent murders
Daur Mutsba, a member of the local Muslim community, and his wife Karin Nersesyan were shot dead on 2 July 2007 by an unknown gunman in the yard of the house they rented in the centre of Sukhumi. Mutsba was originally from Adzyubzha, Ochamchira District.
Another murder took place on 17 August 2007 at around 13:00, when Khamzat Gitsba was killed in Gudauta along with Ufa resident Ruslan Assadulina. Gitsba was a member of the Spiritual Board of the Muslims of Abkhazia and an informal leader of Muslims in Gudauta. Gitsba died on the site of the shooting and Assadulina died in hospital. The masked killer had shot the pair through a lowered back window of a Chrysler stolen a few days earlier, using a machine gun with suppressor. The burning wreck of the car was found later on the outskirts of town. The death of Gitsba, who had fought against Georgians during the 1992-1993 war and who had been among the pro-Chechen hijackers of the Turkish passenger ship MV Avrasya in 1996, as well as other perceived anti-Muslim violence led to serious concerns by the Abkhaz Muslim community about their security. A similar incident took place in Gudauta on 8 October 2010, in which 34-year-old Arsaul Pilia was shot dead outside the mosque in a drive-by shooting. The car involved, a Volkswagen Touareg discovered to be registered to a resident of Khimki, Moscow Oblast, was found burned about an hour later, outside the village of Achandara, near Gudauta.

It was announced in June 2012 that, as part of the investigation of the February 2012 assassination attempt on President Alexander Ankvab, police had also reopened the case of the attempted assassination of the Imam of the Sukhumi Mosque Salikh Kvaratskhelia in July 2010.
It was not established whether there was a connection to the killing in Gagra on 17 July 2010, of Emil Chakmach-ogly a member of the Spiritual Board of the Muslims of Abkhazia and a member of the Public Chamber of Abkhazia, he had previously been a Deputy of the People's Chamber of Abkhazia. Chakmach-ogly was shot in the courtyard of his home around 2:00, after returning from his shop.

Judaism

As of 2012, the Jewish population in Abkhazia is estimated at about 150 and is mostly elderly.

See also
 Islam
 Religion in Georgia
 Religion in present-day nations and states
 Ethnic Cleansing of Circassians
 Circassians in Turkey

References

External links

  Official site of the Abkhazian eparchy
 Matsuzato, Kimitaka: "Canonization, Obedience, and Defiance: Strategies for Survival of the Orthodox Communities in Transnistria, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 20

Religion in Georgia (country)
Culture of Abkhazia

Religion in Abkhazia


Hrothgar is a character in the epic poem Beowulf. He is the king of Denmark and in the poem, his kingdom is under attack from the monster Grendel. When the warrior Beowulf arrives, he battles and slays the monster when he attacks the king's mead hall Heorot. After a night of celebrating, Grendel's mother attacks in retaliation for her son's death. Beowulf tracks her down to her lair and slays her, after which he returns to his native Geatland. Nothing is stated about Hrothgar after these events, but he presumably passes away.

Germanic mythology

Hroðgar


The paradox of thrift is the idea that during a recession, people will want to save more money. But if everyone saves money, then the economy can slow down even more, reducing peoples' income as a result. It is often linked with John Maynard Keynes. It is a main theory of Keynesian economics.

It is a kind of prisoner's dilemma: saving benefits each individual but damages the general population. This is a paradox because it is contrary to intuition. Someone might think that what seems to be good for an individual in the economy will be good for the entire population. However, exercising thrift may be good for an individual by enabling that individual to save for a "rainy day", and yet not be good for the economy as a whole.

There is little agreement as to how important this is in a modern economy. Modern economies are huge, and much affected by other national economies.

Paradoxes
Economic theories

Paradox of thrift


The Billy Bishop Home & Museum is a museum and National Historic Site of Canada in Owen Sound, Ontario, Canada that commemorates the life and achievements of World War I flying ace and Victoria Cross winner Air Marshall William Avery "Billy" Bishop VC, CB, DSO and Bar, MC, DFC, and to Canada's aviation history. The museum is located at his birthplace and childhood home before he went to Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario. It features displays of artifacts including uniforms, medals, photos, models, etc. from Canadians who fought in the air during World War I and World War II, as well as a tribute to the "Red Baron" Manfred von Richthofen. The house has the original hardwood floors, Victorian furnishings and other personal possessions of the Bishop family. A gift shop is open during museum hours.

Bishop's modest gravesite is also in Owen Sound in Greenwood Cemetery.
A plaque at the Billy Bishop Museum dedicated to William Avery "Billy" Bishop 1894-1956 was erected by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada. "Billy Bishop was renowned as a pilot with the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force during World War I by shooting down at least 72 enemy aircraft and leading other daring missions against the enemy. For these exploits, he was awarded the Victoria Cross, the D.S.O. and other medals for bravery, becoming Canada's most decorated serviceman next to fellow aviator William Barker. Born in Owen Sound, he was educated here and at Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston. His later life was spent largely in England and Montreal. During part of World War II he served with the Royal Canadian Air Force in Ottawa as an honorary Air Marshal."

Affiliations
The Museum is affiliated with: CMA, CHIN, and Virtual Museum of Canada.

See also
 Billy Bishop
 Billy Bishop Goes to War

References

External links

Biographical museums in Canada
Historic house museums in Ontario
Owen Sound
Museums in Grey County
National Historic Sites in Ontario
Designated heritage properties in Ontario

Billy Bishop Home and Museum


Thomas III of Saluzzo () (1356–1416) was Marquess of Saluzzo from 1396 until his death.

He was born in Saluzzo in north-western Italy to Frederick II del Vasto and Beatrice of Geneva. His maternal grandfather was Hugh of Geneva, Lord of Gex, Anthon and Varey.

He tried to continue the philo-French politics of his father, mainly to face the menace of Duke Amadeus VIII of Savoy, who aimed to conquer the whole Piedmont. In fact, the treaty stating the nominal submission to France was signed by Thomas well before his father's death.

The vassalage to French was also a consequence of the education received by Thomas, who lived in Provence for much of his youth, and travelled there in 1375, 1389, 1401, 1403 and 1405. He was married to the French Marguerite of Roussy.

In 1394 he was captured by Savoyard troops while he was leading a ravage in Monasterolo. Imprisoned first in Savigliano and then in Turin, he was freed only two years later after a ransom of 20,000 golden florins had been paid.

In his late years Thomas assigned the succession to his young son Ludovico, under the regency of his brother Valerano and the marchioness Marguerite.

Culture
A man of great culture, Thomas was the author of one of the most important chivalric texts of the Middle Ages, Le Chevalier Errant, written probably during his imprisonment in Piedmont. The text, written in French, is an allegory of the ideals of knighthood. It inspired the famous frescoes in the Castello della Manta.

Marriage and children
He married Marguerite of Pierrepont. She was a daughter of Hugo II, Count of Roucy and Braine. They had five children:

Carlo Giovanni of Saluzzo (1404–1406).
Giovanna of Saluzzo (born 1405, date of death unknown). Married Guigues IV, Lord of Meollet and Offremont.
Ludovico I of Saluzzo, married to Isabella Palaiologina, daughter of John Jacob, Marquess of Montferrat.
Beatrice of Saluzzo. A nun.
Ricciardia of Saluzzo. Married Niccolò III d'Este.

He also had at least three children with his mistress, Olmeta de Soglio:

Valerano of Saluzzo (died 1443).
Lanzarotto of Saluzzo.
Giovanna, Abbess of Santa Maria di Staffarda.

The existence of illegitimate daughter Elena of Saluzzo is disputed.

External links

1356 births
1416 deaths
People from Saluzzo
Tommaso 3
Italian poets
Italian male poets
Italian writers in French
Aleramici

Thomas III of Saluzzo


Emmet Stagg (born October 1944) is a politeecian in the Republic o Ireland, an a member o the Irish pairlament in Dublin, representin the Labour Pairty.  He represents the North Kildare consteetuency in Dáil Éireann.

1944 births
Livin fowk
Alumni o Dublin Institute o Technology
Labour Pairty (Ireland) politeecians
Local cooncillors in Coonty Kildare
Members o the 25t Dáil
Members o the 26t Dáil
Members o the 27t Dáil
Members o the 28t Dáil
Members o the 29t Dáil
Members o the 30t Dáil
Members o the 31st Dáil
Politeecians frae Coonty Mayo
Teachtaí Dála
Meenisters o State o the 27t Dáil

Emmet Stagg


The Bohol Sea, also called the Mindanao Sea, is a sea located between the Visayas and Mindanao islands in the Philippines. It lies south of Bohol and Leyte and north of Mindanao. Siquijor and Camiguin are its two major islands.

The major cities along the coastline of the sea are Cagayan de Oro, Iligan, Butuan, Dumaguete, Ozamiz and Tagbilaran.

The sea connects to the Philippine Sea through the Surigao Strait, to the Camotes Sea both through the Canigao Channel and Cebu Strait, and to the Sulu Sea through the strait between Negros Island and Zamboanga Peninsula.

Scuba diving
The Bohol Sea is home to a large variety of premier scuba diving locations, dive charter boats, and hotels that cater to divers.  Around the area of Tagbilaran and Balicasag Island there are numerous wall dives that range from .  Water temperatures are very warm and most divers use a 3/2 short wetsuit to dive the location.

Sea life is abundant and includes clownfish, lionfish, barracuda, dolphins, huge coral formations, and other common tropical sea life. Rorquals, including blue whales, have returned to the Bohol Sea, which is a rare trend in any Asian waters.

Gallery

References

External links

Seas of the Philippines
Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean
Geography of Mindanao
Geography of the Visayas
Maritime Southeast Asia
Underwater diving sites in the Philippines

Bohol Sea