The Royal Order of Kalākaua I (Kalākaua I e Hookanaka) was instituted on 28 September 1874 by King Kalākaua I to commemorate his accession to the throne of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi on 12 February 1874.

Grades
The Order was awarded in four grades with an additional superior class:

  Knights Grand Cross - 12 individuals
  Grand Officer - 20 individuals
  Commander - 50 individuals
  Companion - 60 individuals

The Knights Grand Cross with Collar was only given for head of states. Granting the insignia and awards of the Order was determined by the number of living members of the Order.

History
The Royal Order of Kalākaua I (Kalākaua I e Hookanaka) was instituted on 28 September 1874 by King Kalākaua I to commemorate his accession to the throne of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi on 12 February 1874.  This order was granted to both native Hawaiians and foreigners for superlative service to the monarch and to the kingdom. It was last conferred by Queen Liliʻuokalani on 1 August 1892; in 1893, the Order became abeyant.

In the duration the Order, it was granted 239 times by King Kalākaua I, and 15 times by his sister Queen Liliʻuokalani.

Number of awards in the history of the Order:
 Knights Grand Cross - 38 recipients
 Grand Officer Star - 49 recipients
 Commander Cross - 95 recipients
 Companion Cross - 73 recipients

Annuity
Recipients of the Order who were residents in the Hawaiian islands received a yearly salary depending upon their grade:  $150 for the Knights Grand Cross, $125 for the Grand Officer Star, $100 for the Commander Cross and $50 for the Knight.

Grand Council
The Grand Council of Order, which consists of the Order's Cavaliers resident on the Hawaiian islands, convened yearly on 12 February.  Members absent from the annual meeting and without a written message stating as such without a valid reason, were penalized $20.  Of all the Royal Hawaiian Orders, only this one and the Royal Order of Kamehameha I gathered at regular intervals.

Insignia of the Order

The badge of the order is a Maltese cross in gold or silver with Prussian blue and white enamel, surmounted by a Hawaiian crown. The arms of the cross have a border strip of white enamel, the center being blue - separated by a thin band of gold or silver.  A gold or silver wreath and a pūloʻuloʻu (kapu sticks - ball and stick insignia) is found between the arms connecting them.  On the cross is a blue and white enamel locket.  On a white strip, the inscription KALAKAUA FEBRUARY 12 1874 circles a kāhili (feathered standard of royalty) on a background of blue.  The reverse comprises a locket of blue and white.  At the center of the locket is the date 1874, surrounded by the inscription KEOLA (eternal life) - both in gold.

Knights Grand Cross with Collar: The insignia are a collar chain and a breast star.  The collar chain is composed of alternating monograms "K.I.K." and kahili of red and yellow enamel.  The central component of the chain, from which is hung the badge of the Order, is the monogram "K.I.K." surrounded by a gold wreath.  The breast star is identical to that of the Knights Grands Cross, as detailed below.

Knights Grand Cross: The insignia of the Knights Grand cross comprises a breast star, the badge of the Order and a grand cordon sash.  The breast star is an octagonal silver star to which is affixed the badge of Order without the crown - in gold.  The sash is deep blue.  The badge of the Order is fastened to a bow on the sash on a bow, resting on the left hip.

Grand Officer: The insignia of Grand Officer Star is only a breast star.  Initially, the size of the cross affixed to the star was smaller than that of the Knights Grand Cross; however from 1879 onwards, both were identical in size.  The wreath of Grand Officer Star is silver.

Commander: The insignia of the Commander Cross is identical that of the Grand Officer Star, except it is worn on a neck ribbon of five alternating white and blue stripes.

Companion: The Companion Cross comprises a breast badge suspended by a ribbon of white and blue stripes.

Recipients
Among those awarded with Knights Grand Cross were:
 Emperor of Austria-Hungary, Franz Joseph I (1878)
 King of Serbia, Milan I Obrenović (1882)
 Prince of Wales, Albert Edward (1881)
 Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, Tewfik Pasha (1881)
 Bey of Tunis, Muhammad III as-Sadiq (1881)
 Vatican Secretary of State, Luigi Jacobini (1881)
 President of France, Marie François Sadi Carnot (1889)
 President of Venezuela, Antonio Guzmán Blanco (1878)
 Presidents of Mexico, Manuel González and José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori (both 1884)

The Knights Grand Cross with Collar was bestowed twice in the Order's history - both times by King Kalākaua I - first to the Prince of Wales, Albert Edward, and second to King Kalākaua I by himself.

Notes

References
Medcalf, Donald & Ronald Russell (1978). Hawaiian Money: Standard Catalog: Includes Tokens, Medals & Royal Orders. Honolulu: Nani Stamp & Coin LTD.  .
Werlich, Robert (1965). Orders & Decorations of All Nations: Ancient & Modern, Civil & Military.  Quaker Press. .

Hawaiian Kingdom
Hawaii culture
Kalākaua
Awards established in 1874
1874 establishments in Hawaii
Awards disestablished in 1893
1893 disestablishments in Hawaii

Royal Order of Kalākaua


Language reform is a type of language planning. Language reforms make big changes to a language. These changes are usually done to make a language simpler to understand or to write. Sometimes changes are done to make the language purer; that is, to get rid of foreign parts of the language, or to get rid of parts of the language that are not grammatical.

Simplification makes the language easier to use. It tries to regularise spelling, vocabulary, and grammar. Purification makes the language similar to a version of the language that people think is more pure.

Sometimes language reforms were done to unite the people speaking the language. For this reason, many language reforms happened in 19th century Europe when there was a rise of nationalist movements.

Simplification
The most common form of language reform involves changing the orthography of words.  This is known as spelling reform.  The grammar of a language also may be changed to simplify inflection, syntax, vocabulary and word formation.  English for example uses many different prefixes that mean the opposite of, like un-, in-/im-, a(n)-, de-.  A language reform might suggest using only one prefix to mean the opposite of, for example un-.  On top of this, there are words such as "good" and "bad" that roughly mean the opposite of each other, but would be better (in terms of simplicity) portrayed as "good" and "ungood", so the word "bad" is not part of the language anymore.

Another good example of what language simplification can do is the word flammable. Flammable means that something can catch fire easily. Originally the word was inflammable, from Latin inflammare - put something on fire. In- is also a prefix that can mean the opposite of, like with transparent, intransparent. Today most instructions use flammable rather than inflammable, in order not to confuse people that the in- in this case does not mean the opposite of.

Several major world languages have been subject to big spelling reforms: French (in the 16th, 18th, 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries), Spanish (in the 18th century), Portuguese (in 1910, in Portugal, and in 1946 and 1972, in Brazil), German (in 1901/02 and 1996/98) and  Russian (in 1728 and 1919).

Purification
Some people feel that it is bad to change a language. They want to keep a language the way it is now, or they want to take back changes to the language that have been done earlier. Sometimes, purism can make a language more complex, because people add false etymologies:
 iland became island (from the Latin insula. Island is actually a Germanic word, compare German Eiland)
 ile became isle (also from insula)

Examples
Examples of language reforms are:
 Chinese
 (1920s) – replaced Classical Chinese with Vernacular Chinese as the standard written language.
 Mandarin was chosen at a committee from several Chinese dialects.
 (1950s PRC) – reformed the script used to write the standard language by introducing Simplified Chinese characters (later adopted by Singapore and Malaysia, but Traditional Chinese characters remain in use in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and various overseas Chinese communities). About 2,000 Chinese characters have been simplified, most of them being common characters in day-to-day life.
 Czech (19th century) – The dictionary of Josef Jungmann contributed to the renewal of the vocabulary. In the 1840s the letter w became replaced by v.
 Estonian (1910s/1920s) – reform movement led by Johannes Aavik and Johannes V. Veski renewed the vocabulary, borrowing a lot of roots from Finnish and other Uralic languages and even inventing some roots that do not exist anywhere.
 French (most recent in 1990): Simpler plurals of composite words, some modifications to hyphenation, some changes to accents; The past participle of transitive verbs in combinations with laisser (let) is now invariable, it was changed to reflect feminine forms and plural forms beforehand.
 German (1901/02) – unified the spelling system nationwide (first in Germany, with later adoption by other Germanophone countries).  Further reforms were enacted more recently, in the German spelling reform of 1996.
 Greek (1970s/1980s) – while the written "pure" language, the katharevusa was full of Old Greek words, the spoken "popular" language, the dhimotiki was not. After the fall of the military rule, a law was promulgated, making the latter become the written language as well. For example, on Greek coins, the plural of the currency was drachmai (katharevusa form) before and became drachmes (dhimotiki form) after 1982.
 Hebrew (1920s) – Modern Hebrew was created from Ancient Hebrew by simplification of the grammar (especially of the syntax) according to Indo-European models, coinage of new words from Hebrew roots based on European models, and simplification of pronunciation rules.
 Hungarian (late 18th and early 19th centuries) – more than ten thousand words were coined, out of which several thousand are still actively used today.
 Irish (1940s) – spelling system greatly simplified e.g. Gaedheal became Gael, Ó Séigheadh became Ó Sé.
 Korean (1446, after division of Korea in 1945) – in the year 1446, King Sejong hired scholars to create a writing system that was both easy to learn and accurately represented the sounds of the Korean language. The alphabet he made is hangul. It was only used by common people until 1945. In North Korea, Kim Il-sung's government completely abolished hanja (Chinese characters used for the Korean language) and made hangul the only writing system of North Korea. Also, many Chinese loanwords (which was previously 60-70% of Korean vocabulary) were removed and replaced with native Korean words to purify the Korean language, although North Korea had also adopted some Russian loanwords due to its trade relations with the Soviet Union. In South Korea, hangul has largely replaced hanja, making it the main writing system in South Korea, although many South Koreans still know some hanja and write them on official documents like contracts and job applications. Hanja is usually used only for Chinese loanwords and homophones where the word's meaning isn't clear by context. Koreans are expected to know around 1,900 hanja today.
 Norwegian (20th century) – as Norway became independent from Denmark (1814), Norwegian started to drift away from Danish. The reforms in 1907 and 1917 made Riksmaal the written standard Norwegian, renamed Bokmaal in 1929. Bokmaal and the more vernacular Nynorsk were made closer by a reform in 1938. Today both language forms are spoken: on Norwegian coins, the name of the country is alternately Norge (Bokmaal) and Noreg (Nynorsk).
 Portuguese (20th century) – replaced a cumbersome traditional spelling system with a simplified one (asthma, for instance, became asma and phthysica became tísica).
 Romanian (19th century) – replaced the Cyrillic alphabet with the Latin alphabet, deprecated hundreds of Slavic words in favor of Romance ones.
 Somali (1970s) – with the assistance of Bogumil W. Andrzejewski, who started his linguistic work in Somalia in 1949, a Latin alphabet was elaborated, made compulsory in 1972 by strongman General Mohamed Siad Barre. Also the vocabulary was renewed; a lot of new words became coined from existing Somali roots.
 Turkish (1930s) – language and writing system were reformed starting in the 1920s, to the point that the older language is called by a different name, Ottoman Turkish. The Ottoman alphabet was based on the Arabic alphabet, which was replaced in 1928 by the new, Latin-based Turkish alphabet. Loanwords of Persian and Arabic origin were dropped in favor of native Turkish words or new coinages based on Turkic roots.
 Vietnamese (20th century) – during the French colonial rule,  the classical vernacular script based on Chinese characters was replaced with the new Latin alphabet.

Instances in popular culture
(Fictional): In George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, English has become Newspeak, a language designed to make official propaganda easy to understand and to make politically undesirable thoughts impossible to express.

Related pages
Language revival
Constructed language

Bibliography

Geoffrey Lewis, The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success, Oxford University Press, 2002, .

Linguistics

Language reform


Snowmass Village is a home rule municipality in Pitkin County, Colorado, United States.  The population was 3,096 at the 2020 census. A popular winter resort location for skiing and snowboarding, the town is well known as the location of the Snowmass ski area, the largest of the four nearby ski areas operated collectively as Aspen/Snowmass. In 2010, the accidental discovery by a bulldozer operator of fossilized elements of a Pleistocene ecosystem in the ice age lake bed at the Ziegler Reservoir (commonly referred to as the Snowmastodon site) put Snowmass Village prominently on the paleontological map of North America.

History
The Brush Creek Valley was settled circa 1910 by ranching families including: Sinclair, Melton, Stapleton, and Hoaglund. As a child, Hilder Hoaglund would ride her horse into Aspen to go to school. Her father, Charles Hoaglund, immigrated from Sweden in the 1800s. After a school was built in Brush Creek valley, she attended the Brush Creek Frontier School, now called the Little Red Schoolhouse, located on Owl Creek Road. She became a teacher at that school and then at the Red Brick School in Aspen. At the schoolhouse, she played the accordion or piano for community dances. When she married Bill Anderson, the Hoaglund Ranch became the Anderson Ranch.

Paul Soldner, a ceramic artist noted for developing American Raku, established a studio in the Anderson Ranch buildings in 1966. He founded the Anderson Ranch Arts Center and incorporated it into a non-profit in 1973. The Anderson Ranch Arts Center on Owl Creek Road uses many of the original buildings from the Hoaglund Ranch, although not in their original location, farther down stream on what is now Snowmass Club Circle.

Under the leadership of Bill Janss and DRC Brown, the American Cement Company developed Snowmass Village as a ski resort starting in 1966. * Hayfields were subdivided and the lots sold for houses. Brush Creek is an unappealing name for a ski area, so they named the resort Snowmass after the valley to the west of Brush Creek. Fritz Benidict acted as the architect of the Snowmass ski area.  The Campground Chairlift serving the western edge of the ski area, actually does extend into the Snowmass Valley. Five chairlifts were installed: Fanny Hill, Burlingame, and Sam's Knob, the Big Burn, and Campground.

The Snowmass ski area first opened on December 16, 1967. The new ski area hired Olympic medalist Stein Eriksen to direct the ski school. Besides experience as a skier and instructor, Stein Eriksen brought an aura of European glamor to the raw new resort.

Brush Creek Road was paved in 1968. The former hayfields still had mostly alfalfa into the 1970s. The Snowmass Golf Course was first laid out with nine holes in (need date). It was expanded and redesigned several times (need dates), the latest in 2001 by James Engh. The periodic re-landscaping of the golf course led to the relocation of ranch houses and to changes in the valley floor from flat or sloping fields to rolling hills with ponds.

The Snowmass Wildcat Fire Protection District was founded in 1971 and the firehouse built on Owl Creek Road.

Notorious serial killer Ted Bundy abducted and murdered Caryn Campbell in Snowmass Village on January 12, 1975. Her body was later found along the Owl Creek road near what is now the Facilities Maintenance Division.

In 1977, the community incorporated as the Town of Snowmass Village.

The Snowmass Chapel was built near the firehouse on Owl Creek Road in 1988. Previous to this time, church services were held in the Opticon Movie Theater or in the open air Aspen Grove Chapel, where benches were set up under aspen trees separating two ski runs. Later the area was cleared for more condominiums off Wood Road.

Today, Snowmass Village has experienced a building boom, as new condominiums, luxury homes, mountainside mansions, and Base Village have recently been constructed. Westin Hotels and the Viceroy Hotel Group have recently built a respective hotel in Snowmass. Snowmass Village is also experiencing a rising influx of wealthy tourists and skiers.

Geography
Snowmass Village is located at  (39.214104, -106.945288).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which  is land and  (0.35%) is water.

Snowmass Village is to the north and at the base of the Snowmass Ski Area. It is located on Brush Creek, not Snowmass Creek. Within the area of the town, Owl Creek and Brush Creek join and then flow north into the Roaring Fork River.
Visible from the village from east to west are Burnt Mountain Ridge, Burnt Mountain, Baldy Mountain, Chapel Peak, Garret Peak, Clark Peak, Mount Daly, and Capitol Peak. Neither Snowmass Mountain nor Snowmass Peak, at the headwaters of Snowmass Creek, are visible from Snowmass Village.

The geologic unit Mancos Shale underlies most of the area. On slopes too steep for vegetation, this shale is visible as gray expanses of eroding bedrock. On south-facing slopes, the alkaline soil that develops from the shales supports Gambel oak, sagebrush, serviceberry, and chokecherry. The north-facing slopes feature aspen, subalpine fir, Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, and blue spruce.

The area around Snowmass Village has abundant wildlife including black bears which feed on the acorns and berries of the south-facing slopes.

Demographics

See also

Snowmass Ski Area
Snowmastodon site

References

External links
Snowmass Tourism website
Town of Snowmass Village website
CDOT map of the Town of Snowmass Village
Snowmass-Wildcat Fire Protection District

Towns in Pitkin County, Colorado
Towns in Colorado
Roaring Fork Valley

Snowmass Village, Colorado


The Bundesstraße 6 (abbr. B6) is a German federal highway running from Bremerhaven on the North Sea coast in a southeasterly direction through the states of Lower Saxony, Bremen, Saxony-Anhalt and Saxony to Görlitz on the Polish border.

History
East of Leipzig, the B6 (except of the ring roads around Meißen, Dresden and Bischofswerda) largely follows the historic course of the Via Regia Lusatiae Superioris, part of the medieval Via Regia.

In 1937, the northwestern section of the former Reichsstraße 6 (R6) was extended from Bremerhaven (Wesermünde) to Cuxhaven. Before World War II and the implementation of the Oder–Neisse line, the R6 road continued southeastwards from Görlitz via Hirschberg (present-day Jelenia Góra, Poland) and Schweidnitz (Świdnica) to the Silesian capital Breslau (Wrocław) and from there via Oels (Oleśnica) as far as the former Polish border near Groß Wartenberg (Syców). The sections between Görlitz/Zgorzelec and Syców then became part of the Polish National road 4 (today largely replaced by the A4 autostrada) and the National road 8.

In the days of German partition, the section on East German territory was known as the F6 (Fernverkehrsstraße 6 or "trunk road"). In Dresden the road went past the headquarters of VEB Tabakkontor Dresden, a tobacco firm formerly known as Yenidze. This led to the urban myth that the road had given its name to the cigarette brand f6.

As a result of the opening of the A 27 motorway between Cuxhaven and Bremen-Nord (formerly Bremen-Burglesum) in the mid- to late-1970s the B6 was replaced by the A 27. Until that point the B6 had linked the two cities of Bremen and Bremerhaven in the state of Bremen and also connected them to Cuxhaven.

The old route in Cuxhaven from the start (Poststraße/Deichstraße crossroads), apart from the Rohdestraße as far as the branch to the motorway slip road at Altenwalde junction was renamed the B73. The rest of the route to Bremen, with the exception of a short section in Bremerhaven, was downgraded to Landesstraße 135.

See also

 List of federal roads in Germany
 B 6n – new four-lane B6 road

External links

006
Transport in Hanover
Transport in the Harz
Transport in Bremen (state)
Transport in Lower Saxony
Transport in Saxony
Transport in Saxony-Anhalt
Roads in Saxony-Anhalt

Bundesstraße 6


The Walter Roth Museum of Anthropology is a museum of anthropology in Georgetown, Guyana and claims to be the oldest such museum in the English-speaking Caribbean region.  It was established in 1974, but not opened to the public until 1982. It is located at 61 Main Street, North Cummingsburg, Georgetown.

Objectives

The museum is a non-profit institution created by the Government of Guyana to collect, exhibit and conserve artifacts relating to the ancient cultures of Guyana, to conduct anthropological research and disseminate knowledge of the Indigenous Peoples of Guyana through its in-house and out-reach programmes.

In particular, pursuing the aims and objectives relating to its mission and function as a museum of anthropology involves:

promoting and make the museum accessible to students, researchers, and the general public through the rendering of professional assistance and service to them;
marketing the museum as an institution for the acquisition of, insight into and understanding of the various cultures of the Indigenous peoples of Guyana;
encouraging continuing research on different aspects of the collection by students and academics;
providing appropriate storage facilities for the collection store and preserve the collection under optimum conditions in line with its mission as a depository of artifacts of anthropological and archaeological significance;
expanding the collection in keeping with the mission of the museum.

Collections

The museum was founded with the collections of Guyanese archaeologist Dr. Denis Williams. In 1980 the ethnographic collections of Dr. Walter Roth, Mr J.J. Quelch and Sir Everard im Thurn were transferred to the Walter Roth Museum from the Guyana Museum. An ethnographic collection of the Waiwai was presented to the museum in 1991 by Guyanese Cultural anthropologist Dr George P. Mentore. The museum's collections also include excavated artifacts from all of the ten Administrative Regions of Guyana.

Publications

Archaeology and Anthropology, the museum's journal is published annually and subscribers include leading universities and libraries of the United States, the United Kingdom, South Africa and the Caribbean. Other publications include monographs by renowned scholars in the sub-disciplines of anthropology and children's books on prehistoric Guyana.

The museum's out-reach programme caters for the nursery, primary and secondary levels of formal education while the library is equipped to supply information for all levels of research.

Scientific advisory committee

A scientific advisory committee monitors and advises the Walter Roth Museum of Anthropology on the research programmes generally, but particularly with respect to the coordination of national programmes with ongoing investigations in anthropology in South America and the Caribbean. The committee also monitors the museum's journal the objective of maintaining and/or improving its scientific standard. The committee advises in the matter of professional appointments to the museum in the fields of anthropology and museology and in museum management, training, and policies relating to museum collections.

Possible relocation
The possibility of rehousing the collections has been discussed.

References

External links
 Walter Roth Museum of Anthropology

Museums in Guyana
Anthropology museums
Buildings and structures in Georgetown, Guyana
Museums established in 1974
1974 establishments in Guyana

Walter Roth Museum of Anthropology


Ruchill Church Hall, designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, was built as a mission for the Free Church of Scotland and completed in 1899. It is located at 15/17 Shakespeare Street, a side road off Maryhill Road, Glasgow, Scotland, close to the bridge which takes Ruchill Street across the Forth and Clyde Canal to the Ruchill area, and near a shopping centre on the main road. The adjacent church closer to the canal was constructed later, designed by a different architect.

The building provides two halls, with the main hall having a section divided off by a sliding folding partition, and two committee rooms. It is in active use by the congregation of the church, and is open daily providing community facilities as well as a "Mackintosh Tea Room" providing teas and snacks in the main hall for anyone wanting to visit.

Entering from Shakespeare Street, a committee room is to the right, while to the left a passageway leads past a screened washbasin to a door to the stairwell. Next on the left is a small kitchen / servery, while straight ahead from the main entrance doors lead into the corner of the main hall. On the right a large bay is separated off from the main hall with a sliding folding partition incorporating high level glazed panels with Mackintosh's characteristic stained glass inserts.

The stair leads up to a short corridor past toilet facilities located above the kitchen, leading to an upper committee room directly above the committee room downstairs, and to an upper hall above the bay off the main hall. These two rooms are separated by a sliding folding partition which can be opened to form one long rectangular space. The roof structure to the upper committee room and hall is exposed, with roof lights to both rooms, and its gable forms a strong shape to the right of the front elevation.

Additional pictures

External links

information including opening times
Ruchill Church Hall - Charles Rennie Mackintosh

Churches completed in 1899
19th-century churches in the United Kingdom
Category A listed buildings in Glasgow
Charles Rennie Mackintosh buildings
Art Nouveau architecture in Glasgow
Churches in Glasgow
Maryhill

Ruchill Church Hall


Clarence "Skip" Ellis (May 11, 1943 – May 17, 2014) was an American computer scientist, and Emeritus Professor of Computer Science and Cognitive Science at the University of Colorado at Boulder. While at the CU-Boulder, he was the director of the Collaboration Technology Research Group and a member of the Institute of Cognitive Science. Ellis was the first African-American to earn a PhD in Computer Science (1969), and the first African-American to be elected a Fellow of the ACM (1997). Ellis was a pioneer in Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) and Groupware. He and his team at Xerox PARC created OfficeTalk, one of the first groupware systems. Ellis also pioneered Operational Transformation, which is a set of techniques that enables real-time collaborative editing of documents.

References

1943 births
2014 deaths
African-American people
American computer scientists

Clarence Ellis (computer scientist)


Edward Donnall "Don" Thomas (March 15, 1920 – October 20, 2012) was an American physician.

Thomas won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1990 with Joseph E. Murray for his help in the development of cell and organ transplantation.

Life
He was born on March 15, 1920 in Mart, Texas. His father was a general practice doctor and often shadowed him. In 1941, Thomas earned his B.A. and studied chemistry and chemical engineering at the University of Texas at Austin. He also earned his M. A. from there in 1943. Thomas met his wife, Dorothy (Dottie) Martin while he was an undergraduate. He had three children with her. In 1943, he went to Harvard Medical School. Thomas worked closely with his wife after she became a lab technician during this time to support their family. He did residency at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital before he joined the US Army. "In 1955, he was appointed physician in chief at the Mary Imogene Bassett Hospital, now Bassett Medical Center, in Cooperstown, N.Y., an affiliate of Columbia University."

He studied rodents that received lethal doses of radiation who were then saved by an infusion of marrow cells at Mary Imogene Bassett. At the time, patients who underwent bone marrow transplantation had all died due to either infections or immune reactions that were not seen in the rodent studies. He began to use dogs as a model system. He moved his lab to the United States Public Health Service in Seattle in 1963. In 1990, he received the National Medal of Science. He was one of 22 Nobel Laureates that signed the Humanist Manifesto in 2003.

References

1920 births
2012 deaths
American physicians
People from Texas

E. Donnall Thomas


Trevor John Wood (born 3 November 1968) is a former footballer who played as a goalkeeper. He played 130 league games in the English Football League, 100 league games in the League of Ireland, and won one international cap for Northern Ireland in 1995.

He began his career at Brighton & Hove Albion, but did not feature in the first team before he signed with Port Vale in May 1988. Mostly a back-up keeper for the "Valiants", he moved on to Walsall in May 1994. He helped the "Saddlers" to promotion out of the Third Division in 1994–95, before he signed with Hereford United in 1997. He then moved to Ireland to play for St Patrick's Athletic, and helped his new club to the League of Ireland title in 1997–98 and 1998–99, before he retired in 2001.

Playing career
Wood was a squad member for Brighton & Hove Albion before having a successful trial with John Rudge's Port Vale in May 1988. He kept a clean sheet on his debut; a 2–0 home win over Huddersfield Town on 3 October 1988. Despite this he was used mainly as a reserve keeper, and made only two appearances in the Third Division as back-up to Mark Grew and loanee Mike Stowell during the promotion campaign of 1988–89. He played just three Second Division games in 1989–90, with Grew retaining his place between the sticks at Vale Park. Wood earned the first team jersey in August 1990. He injured his thigh however, in a 2–0 defeat at Oldham Athletic on 16 February 1991, and took two months to win his first team place back. He made 37 appearances in all competitions in 1990–91, being preferred ahead of Grew. In August 1991 he once more fell out of favour, as Grew played every minute of the 1991–92 campaign. Wood was in goal for the 4–3 defeat on penalties to Go Ahead Eagles in the TNT Tournament on 9 August 1992, a tournament the Vale still managed to win. He started the 1992–93 season as first choice keeper, but lost his place to new signing Paul Musselwhite after five league games, having conceded a penalty at Vetch Field in an 'off the ball' incident with a Swansea player. At the end of the 1993–94 season, Wood was given a free transfer, and signed with Walsall in May 1994.

The "Saddlers" won promotion out of the Third Division as runners-up in 1994–95 under the stewardship of Chris Nicholl. They then went on to finish eleventh in the Second Division in 1995–96, before Wood moved on to Graham Turner's Hereford United in the 1996–97 campaign. The "Bulls" finished bottom of the Football League, and were relegated into the Conference.

He then signed for St. Patrick's Athletic and played in the Champions League preliminary round against Celtic in 1998, keeping a clean sheet in a 0–0 draw at Celtic Park. Celtic won the second leg 2–0 at Tolka Park. The "Saints" won the League of Ireland title in 1997–98 and 1998–99, also boasting the best defensive record on both occasions. However they dropped to sixth and fifth in 1999–2000 and 2000–01, and Wood left the club, having made 100 league appearances.

International career
FIFA regulations at the time allowed a player born outside of the United Kingdom with a British passport to choose which national team he wanted to represent, despite the Jersey Football Association having county football association status within England's Football Association. Wood was the first player to take advantage of the lax regulations when he was called up for a qualifying game against Republic of Ireland for UEFA Euro 1996 in March 1995.

Wood earned a Northern Ireland cap on 11 October 1995 during the same qualifying campaign, coming on for Alan Fettis at half-time in a 4–0 win over Liechtenstein at the Sportpark Eschen-Mauren. He had been suggested to coach Bryan Hamilton by Chris Nicholl, his manager at Walsall. He then slipped down the international pecking order behind Fettis, Tommy Wright, Roy Carroll, and Aidan Davison. On 26 March 1996, he played in a rare Northern Ireland B team game, a 3–0 win over Norway Olympic XI at The Showgrounds in Coleraine.

Career statistics
Source:

Honours
Walsall
Football League Third Division second-place promotion: 1994–95

St Patrick's Athletic
League of Ireland: 1997–98 & 1998–99

References

1968 births
Living people
People from Saint Helier
Jersey people of Irish descent
Jersey men's footballers
Northern Ireland men's international footballers
Northern Ireland men's B international footballers
Men's association football goalkeepers
Brighton & Hove Albion F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
Walsall F.C. players
Hereford United F.C. players
St Patrick's Athletic F.C. players
English Football League players
League of Ireland players

Trevor Wood


Margrave Charles Philip of Brandenburg-Schwedt (5 January 1673 in Sparnberg – 23 July 1695 in Casale Monferrato) was a Hohenzollern prince and a titular Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt. Near the end of his life he became Grand Master of the Order of Saint John (Bailiwick of Brandenburg).

Life
Charles Philip was the third surviving son of the "Great Elector", Frederick William of Brandenburg (1620–1688) from his second marriage with Sophia Dorothea (1636–1689), the daughter of Philip, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg.

In 1693, Charles Philip proved himself at the Battle of Neerwinden and was promoted to Lieutenant General by his brother Frederick I. He participated in the War of the Palatine Succession at the head of an auxiliary contingent.  He joined the main force of Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia in Turin.

In Turin, he met Countess Caterina di Salmour (1670-1719), widow of Giovanni Gabaleone, Count di Salmour and daughter of Geofredo Alberico Balbiani, Marchese di Colcavagno by his wife, Marta-Maria Benso di Cavour, heiress of Isolabella. On the afternoon of 29 May 1695 three officers of Brandenburg's army, Col. Ludwig von Blumenthal, Lt. Col. von Hackeborn and Col. von Stille learned that Charles Philipp had lodged in the recently ruined Palace of Venaria, near Turin, where he was about to marry the Countess di Salmour in secret. They hurried towards La Venaria. As they neared the château, the Margrave's Master of the Horse met them on the road and confirmed the rumour. The Margrave had invited a small gathering to his secret wedding, including three women who were friends of the Countess, her brother Flaminio Balbiano, and some local Torino notables; on the German side were a Prince of Hesse-Cassel and a Captain Beaupré, currently serving in Brandenburg's army. The local priest Fr. Galli was summoned, and before him and in the presence of Abbot Alexander del Marro and the Chevalier Parella, they declared their determination to marry. But the priest refused to co-operate on the grounds that they were not his parishioners. The Abbot and Captain Beaupré fought; Staff intervened and the Margrave then fell upon the Master of Horse with drawn sword, who fled.

Riding on, the three colonels came upon the Margrave, heading for the Countess' house in Turin in his carriage with his escort. They joined the cavalcade, and when they reached the destination the Prince's advisors implored him not to carry on. Neither the Elector of Brandenburg, nor the Duke of Savoy recognized the marriage. To avoid diplomatic complications, Duke Victor Amadeus imprisoned Caterina in a convent. The Curia supported Charles Philip's claim that the marriage was legal, in the hope that he would convert to Catholicism.  While the issue was still being debated, Charles Philip died of a fever or (it was said) of a broken heart. He was buried in the Hohenzollern family crypt in Berlin Cathedral.

Two years later, Rome ruled that the marriage was valid.  The Elector still did not recognize it.

In 1707, Caterina married the Saxon general Count .

References
 Johann Daniel Ferdinand Neigebaur: Die Heirath des Markgrafen Carl von Brandenburg mit der Markgräfin Catharina von Balbiano, Kern, 1856, (Online)
 Rob. Prütz: Deutsches Museum, vol. 1, J.C. Hinrichs, 1856, p. 509
 Rudolf, Count von Kanitz: Aus dem Deutschen Soldatenleben: militairische Skizzen zur Deutschen Sittengeschichte, W. Hertz (Bessersche Buchhandlung), 1861, p. 261 ff

Footnotes

House of Hohenzollern
1673 births
1695 deaths
Margraves of Brandenburg-Schwedt
17th-century German people
Burials at Berlin Cathedral
Sons of monarchs

Charles Philip of Brandenburg-Schwedt


The following lists events that happened during 1984 in Afghanistan.

Resistance against the Soviet-backed government increases sharply during the year. Afghanistan continues to be dependent on the USSR for military aid, food supplies, fuel, and even medical treatment for its leaders. Afghanistan's relations with the West remain strained, and its relations with Asian nations, with the exception of India, show no visible improvement. After five years of Soviet military presence, the nation is slowly but steadily becoming a satellite of Moscow.

Incumbents
 General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan: Babrak Karmal
 Chairman of the Revolutionary Council:  Babrak Karmal
 Chairman of the Council of Ministers: Sultan Ali Keshtmand

January 1, 1984
New draft laws are proclaimed under which all Afghan youths over 18 years of age are to be conscripted into the Army. The move is seen as part of a desperate attempt to check the depletion of the Army, which has fallen to 30,000-40,000 personnel from 80,000 to 90,000 before the Soviet invasion.

January 2, 1984
The U.S.S.R. rejects a UN resolution demanding the withdrawal of foreign troops from Afghanistan. The resolution, which did not name the U.S.S.R. directly, was co-sponsored by 44 countries and adopted in the General Assembly the previous November.

January 10, 1984
Heavy fighting is reported from Kandahar, Afghanistan's second largest city. According to some sources, over 100 troops are killed in the operation, but the city remains under insurgent control. The Afghan media denies these reports.

February 1, 1984
Radio Kabul claims successes against the insurgents, reporting that 600 "bandits" - the official term for insurgents - have been killed during January.

April and July 1984
In the continuing battle for control of the strategic Panjsher Valley near Kabul, the government launches major offensives, claiming on each occasion that it has cleared the valley of rebels, though the claim is disputed by Western diplomats and by subsequent events. Independent reports put casualties among Soviet and Afghan troops during the July 18–24 offensive at 2,000, with the insurgents and valley residents suffering equally.

July 9–August 3, 1984
Karmal is in Moscow for "medical treatment".

July and August 1984
Pakistan claims that air and artillery attacks on Pakistan from Afghanistan have killed some 100 people. The allegation is promptly denied by Kabul, but Pakistan-based foreign journalists taken on a tour of the affected areas confirm the attacks. The affair heats up when the U.S. State Department issues a statement on August 24 "deploring the attacks on Pakistan".

Late August 1984
The most important diplomatic development of the year takes place in Geneva, where talks are held under UN auspices. Afghan Foreign Minister Dost and his Pakistani counterpart Khan do not meet face to face but hold negotiations through Cordovez. Nothing concrete emerges from the talks, however; UN officials refuse to comment, except to say privately that another round of discussions will be held later, possibly in 1985. The three main items under discussions are international guarantees of Afghanistan's security, the return to Afghanistan of the approximately 4.5 million refugees from Pakistan and Iran, and withdrawal of more than 100,000 Soviet troops from Afghanistan.

August 31, 1984
A bomb explodes outside the international airport at Kabul, killing 13 people and wounding 207. Karmal accuses Pakistan of masterminding the incident.

November 1984
Western diplomats say the Soviets are sending Afghan children to the Soviet Union for ten years of indoctrination. However, there is no independent confirmation of the report.

December 3, 1984
Abdul Qadir is replaced as defense minister by Nazar Mohammad.

Afghanistan
Years of the 20th century in Afghanistan
Afghanistan
1980s in Afghanistan

1984 in Afghanistan


A Homing pigeon is a special breed of pigeons. These pigeons have been domesticated. They have been selectively bred to find their way home. They can do this over very long distances. The wild rock pigeon from which these birds are bred also has this homing ability. This means  that it will generally return to its own nest and its own mate. This made it relatively easy to breed from the birds that repeatedly found their way home over long distances. Flights as long as 1800 kilometers have been recorded by birds in competition pigeon racing. Speeds of up to 95 km/h (59 mph) have been observed.

Homing pigeons are called carrier pigeons when they are used to carry messages. This is possible where a message is written on thin light paper (such as cigarette paper) and rolled into a small tube attached to the bird's leg; this is called pigeon post. Pigeons can only go back to one "mentally marked" point that they have identified as their home. So "pigeon mail" can only work when the sender is actually holding the receiver's pigeons. White homing pigeons are used in Release Dove ceremonies at weddings, funerals, and some sporting events.

References

Domesticated animals

Homing pigeon


John Lacey (February 4, 1755 – February 17, 1814) was an American military officer during the American Revolutionary War. He was appointed a brigadier general in the Pennsylvania militia by the Pennsylvania Supreme Executive Council in January 1778.

A native of Buckingham Township in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, Lacey was a member of local militia unit which was incorporated into the Pennsylvania Line of the Continental Army. He served as a captain under Colonel Anthony Wayne on the Canadian frontier in 1776, but he and Wayne got along poorly and Lacey resigned his commission and went home.  In 1777, he served as a lieutenant colonel in a Bucks County Regiment of militia, during which he fought at Germantown, and Matson's Ford. He gained such a reputation for skill and courage that Pennsylvania Supreme Executive made him a Brigadier General in the Pennsylvania Militia on January 9, 1778. He commanded the American forces in the Battle of Crooked Billet.

He was 59 years old when he died. Later, several communities were named in his honor, including Lacey Park, Pennsylvania and Lacey Township, New Jersey.

The Gen. John Lacey Homestead was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

References

1755 births
1814 deaths
Continental Army officers from Pennsylvania
Militia generals in the American Revolution
Pennsylvania militiamen in the American Revolution
Military personnel from Bucks County, Pennsylvania
People of colonial Pennsylvania

John Lacey (general)


In law, an answer was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defense, a reply to a question or response, or objection, or a correct solution of a problem.

In the common law, an answer is the first pleading by a defendant, usually filed and served upon the plaintiff within a certain strict time limit after a civil complaint or criminal information or indictment has been served upon the defendant.  It may have been preceded by an optional "pre-answer" motion to dismiss or demurrer; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant must file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse default judgment.

In a criminal case, there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the defendant comes to court.  The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is usually either guilty or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as restitution or a permanent injunction. Criminal cases may lead to fines or other punishment, such as imprisonment.

The famous Latin Responsa Prudentium ("answers of the learned ones") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative.

During debates of a contentious nature, deflection, colloquially known as 'changing the topic', has been widely observed, and is often seen as a failure to answer a question.

Notes

Common law
Legal documents

Answer (law)


Aston University is a public university in the city centre of Birmingham, England. It received its royal charter from Queen Elizabeth II on 22 April 1966.

Aston is famous for having a placement year as part of many of its undergraduate degree courses. It pioneered the integrated placement year concept from its start in 1966.

History

Predecessor institutions

In 1875, a School of Metallurgy was formed in the Birmingham and Midland Institute. In 1895, the Birmingham Municipal Technical School separated from the Institute. It taught chemistry, physics, metallurgy and electrical engineering. In 1911, commercial classes were introduced. By 1916, this had grown into an independent School of Commerce. In 1927, the school changed its name to the Birmingham Central Technical College. This was to reflect its changing approach to teaching technology.

In 1951, the Technical College was renamed the College of Technology, Birmingham.
Work began on the Main Building at Gosta Green. Princess Margaret laid one of the first foundation stones at the base of the new building in 1951. The building is said to be one of Europe's largest freestanding brick buildings. In 1956 it became the UK's first College of Advanced Technology. It had a major expansion. The college expanded again to a design by the City Architect of Birmingham Alwyn Sheppard Fidler between 1957 and 1965.

University status
On 22 April 1966, it it was given its Royal Charter. It became the University of Aston in Birmingham. On 10 May 1966, the first Chancellor of the University, Lord Nelson of Stafford, was installed. The Charter of the University outlines its objectives. These are appropriate to a technological university:

Due to the history of the institution, there is emphasis given to the sandwich course system and the maintenance of strong links with industry. The motto of the University is the same as that of the City of Birmingham – Forward.

In 1983, Aston University, Birmingham City Council, and Lloyds Bank, established Birmingham Technology Ltd.. This company manages the Aston Science Park. The science park is next to the university site. In 1984, the area was granted its own postal address "The Aston Triangle". This made the campus an official district of Birmingham. The logo of the establishment takes from the shape of the area.

2000 to present

In September 2010, Aston University hosted the British Science Festival. This is one of Europe's largest public science events. Since May 2011, Sir John Sunderland has been the Chancellor. The university is a lead sponsor of Aston University Engineering Academy. This university technical college (UTC) opened in September 2012. The UTC is for students aged 14 to 19 wishing to study and have a career in engineering. It is located at the edge of the Aston University campus.

In October 2014, the University announced a £35 million cash injection for a major upgrade of the campus. This included a new £19 million revamp of Aston Business School and improvement work to the Aston Institute of Photonic Technologies and the School of Languages and Social Sciences. In October 2015, Aston launched the Aston Medical School. This was for postgraduate research students. In September 2018 the first Bachelor of Medicine MBChB course started. The course takes five years.

In February 2017, the University launched its online programme website. Four MSc programmes are offered 100% online to students in the UK and worldwide. It also offers the Aston Business School's MBA. In July 2017, Aston became the first University in the UK to award degree apprenticeship graduates. Aston began working in close partnership with Capgemini, to create the first degree apprenticeship: Digital and Technology Solutions in 2012.

Campus

The university sits on a 40-acre campus at Gosta Green, in the city centre of Birmingham, England.  The campus has accommodation for over 3000 students. It has sports facilities, a library, cafés, restaurants, pubs, shops, travel centre, hairdresser, health centre, dentist, places of worship, opticians, a bank, automated teller machines and outside leisure space.

Library
Aston University Library is on four floors. It contains over 250,000 books and 800 current printed periodicals. It has over 700 reader places. It provides online access over 3,400 electronic journals. The Library is open 24 hours a day to Aston students and staff during exam time,and 12 hours a day during term time.

IT
Around the campus there are open-access IT suites. They offer computer and internet access 24 hours a day. They offer access to software packages, database systems and computer-aided learning materials.

Sports
Aston University sports facilities include a 25m swimming pool, sauna and steam room, two sports halls, a gym, weights and fitness rooms, and a two storey dance studio. It has 35 sports clubs. The campus also has two floodlit sports pitches. Many of the University clubs train and compete in the British Universities and Colleges Sports (BUCS) Leagues. Away from the campus, the University manages a 40-acre sports ground with floodlit pitches and a pavilion for all outdoor sports.

Organisation and administration

Faculties and departments
All of the Aston University's faculties are based on one campus. They are organised into the following five schools:

School of Engineering and Applied Science
 Applied Physics
 Chemical Engineering & Applied Chemistry
 Computer Science
 Electronic Engineering
 Engineering Systems and Management
 Mathematics
 Mechanical Engineering and Design
School of Life and Health Sciences
 Audiology
 Biology
 Biomedical Science
 Optometry
 Pharmacy
 Psychology

School of Languages and Social Sciences
 Modern languages & translation studies
 International relations, politics & European studies
 English language
 English literature
 History
 Sociology & public policy
Aston Business School
 Aston Law
 Economics and Strategy
 Finance and Accounting
 Marketing Group
 Operations and Information Management Group
 Work and Organisational Psychology
Aston Medical School

Coat of arms

The university's arms were granted on 18 March 1955 by Garter, Clarenceux and Norroy and Ulster Kings of Arms to the Birmingham Corporation. This was for use by the former College of Technology. They were designed to show the College's connection with the City and with the teaching of technology. The arms consist of a shield and crest.

The shield has two sections – the field (the main background) and a chief (the broad band across the top of the shield). The field is
coloured blue. The chief is coloured silver. On the field is a diagonal line of five gold diamonds joined one to the other. This is similar to the first quarter of the Arms of the City of Birmingham. It is incorporated in the Arms of the College to show its connection to the City. On the chief is depicted an open book bound in red placed between two black hammers. This shows the connection of the University with technology. The book represents learning. The hammers represent engineering and allied trades.

The crest is designed to stress the pursuit of knowledge. It consists of a red torch held erect by a forearm between two branches of gold laurel. Originally it would have been worn on the helmet of a fully armed person. The crest is always placed on the top of the helm. The method of joining the crest to the helm was usually concealed by decoration. In the University's arms this is done by the use of a wreath and a crown. The wreath is silver, red, and black. These colours being taken from the shield. On top is a mural crown (resembling a wall). This is reserved in modern grants for persons and organisations connected with public corporations. The cloth mantling hangs down from the top of the helm. This represents the cloak which was originally worn to protect the armour. It is coloured blue and gold. These being the two principal colours of the shield.

In 2016, Her Majesty's College of Arms granted the favour of supporters to Aston University's arms. This marked the 50th anniversary of the University. Professor Julia King, the Baroness Brown of Cambridge, the Vice-Chancellor, had made the request.
The Letters Patent was formally presented to Aston University by the York Herald, Michael Peter Desmond O'Donoghue Esq.. This was made in a service at St Phillips Cathedral, Birmingham, on 29th September 2016.

The arms are supported by a Canada goose and a red squirrel. The Canada goose is a symbol. It represents the family of geese living on the University campus. The squirrel is the crest of the arms of Aston Manor. This is a rebus. (The picture is a pun on the persons name. The owners of Aston Manor were the Holte family and a squirrel's nest is called a holt). This explains the ancient connection between the squirrel and Aston. The animal also appears on the University mace. It also appears on the Chancellor's chain of office. This chain was originally the property of the Mayor of Aston Manor.

The gorse around the animals' necks is a reference to Gosta Green. It was known as Gostie Green during the 18th century. This combined the name of the landowner (William de Gorsty) with the local plant called 'gorse'

Academic dress

The academic dress for graduates of the University is as follows:
 Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Engineering and Master of Engineering
 Gown: Black stuff of special design, having coat-type sleeve, narrow facings which continue round the neck and with extra wide gathers round the back
 Hood: Black stuff, modified simple shape, faced inside for three inches with University lining
 Hat: Black mortar board
 Master of Science
 Gown: Black stuff of special design, having coat-type sleeve, narrow facings which continue round the neck and with extra wide gathers round the back
 Hood: Black stuff, modified simple shape, fully lined with University lining
 Hat: Black mortar board
 Master of Philosophy
 Gown: Black stuff of special design, having coat-type sleeve, narrow facings which continue round the neck and with extra wide gathers round the back
 Hood: Blue stuff, modified simple shape, fully lined with University lining
 Hat: Black mortar board
 Doctor of Philosophy
 Gown: Claret colour cloth robe, having coat-type sleeve, narrow facings which continue round the neck and with extra wide gathers round the back
 Hood: Modified simple shape, in University Red stuff, faced inside for three inches with University lining
 Hat: Black cloth bonnet with cord and tassels of University Red
 Doctor of Science
 Gown: Same shape as for Doctor of Philosophy but in University Red, with facings on collar of University lining and gold cuffs on sleeves
 Hood: Same shape as for Doctor of Philosophy but of gold silk and fully lined with University lining
 Hat: Black velvet bonnet with cord and tassels in gold

Academic profile

Research
In the 2008 Research Assessment Exercise, Aston University was ranked in the top 12 in the UK in all four of its broad subject areas. Of the research undertaken, 86% was described as 'internationally significant'. 88% of Aston academic staff were submitted for research assessment. This is one of the highest proportions in the UK. According to the Research Assessment Exercise, the university's strengths include Business and Management, General Engineering, subjects allied to Medicine (Optometry, Biology, Pharmacy and Psychology), Languages and European Studies.

Rankings
In the 2012 QS World University Rankings, graduate employers ranked Aston University 51st for graduate employability. Aston was ranked in the top ten of all UK universities for its graduate employment record.

In 2012, Aston University was responsible for educating 2.3 per cent of the UK's millionaires. This placed Aston at number 8 in the UK.

In 2015, Aston was ranked as the 42nd best university in the world under 50 years old.

For 2018, it was put in the top 55 universities in the UK. It was ranked 18th for student experience in the Sunday Times Good University Guide.

Aston is ranked 34th in the University League Tables 2020.

Aston Business School

Founded in 1947, Aston Business School (ABS) is one of the largest and oldest business schools in the UK.

In 1999, ABS was the first UK business school to be awarded the prestigious EQUIS accreditation.

The school's most recent Research Assessment Exercise was in 2008. All research areas submitted ranked in the top 12 in the UK. 45% of the research submitted was judged to be "excellent" or "world-leading".

In 2012, the business school's Masters Management course was ranked by the Financial Times as 36th in the world.

In 2014, Aston was 2nd in the UK for developing marketing professionals, 7th for finance professionals,23rd for accounting professionals. This was based on the career outcome data of more than 313 million LinkedIn members.

In 2019, Aston is in the top 1% of Business Schools Worldwide with Triple Accreditation (AMBA, AACSB and EQUIS). It is in the World Top 100 Universities for Business and Management Studies (QS Ranking 2019).

Student life

Students' Union
Aston Students' Union (SU) used to be called Aston Guild of Students. It is a non-profit independent charity. It was set up to represent and support its members. Most members are current students at Aston University. The SU operates a number of commercial and non-commercial services. These include; the Advice & Representation Centre (ARC), the Aston Athletic Union, the Aston Societies Federation, the SU Shop, Copyshop and B4 Bar. The Aston Athletic Union supports the university sports clubs. The Aston Societies Federation supports non-sporting societies.

The SU is funded by grant income from Aston University. This is added to by funds raised by the SU's commercial services. The SU is led by a Trustee Board of elected students and external trustees. Day-to-day management is by a team of permanent staff and the Executive Committee. The Executive Committeeby is an elected student team.

The SU building consists of 5 floors and is located in the centre of the Aston University Campus.

On 29 November 2006, the students voted to disaffiliate the Guild (now Union) from the National Union of Students. On 26 November 2014, they voted to re-affiliate.

Student housing
In the 1970s, three tower blocks containing student accommodation were constructed on Aston University campus. They were named Dalton, Lawrence and Stafford Towers. In August 1999, the Lakeside complex added further student accommodation on to the campus.

In April 2007, Aston University submitted a planning application for demolition of the three 1970s towers. They were to be replaced by new student accommodation blocks, apartments for tutors, retail units and administrative offices.
On 8 May 2011, Lawrence and Dalton Towers were demolished.
On 27 April 2014, Stafford Tower, Gem Sports Centre and Lakeside Conference Centre were demolished. This made way for a new entrance to Aston University and a five-acre green space. The new landscaped area includes a walkway into the university from the city centre. It also contains a pavilion for teaching. The pavillion is also used as a catering facility for outdoor events. The new buildings are named the William Murdoch, the James Watt, the Harriet Martineau and the Mary Sturge Residences.

In 2016, Aston sold all of the student housing that it owned to UNITE Students.

Notable people

Chancellors
 Lord Nelson of Stafford (May 1966 – September 1979)
 Sir Adrian Cadbury (September 1979 – September 2004)
 Michael Bett  (September 2004 – May 2011)
 John Sunderland (Since May 2011)

Vice-Chancellors
 Peter Venables (April 1966 - July 1969)
 Sir Joseph Pope (August 1969 - September 1979)
 Frederick W. Crawford (July 1980 - August 1996)
 Michael T. Wright (September 1996 - November 2006)
 Dame Julia King (November 2006 – September 2016)
 Alec Cameron (September 2016 – Present)

Lecturers
 Prof. Geoffrey Vernon Ball - The first full-time lecturing professor of ophthalmics, (1948-1981)

Alumni

 Chris Banks, British businessman
 Keith Bradley, Baron Bradley, Labour Party politician and life peer
 Rob Brighouse, Managing Director Chiltern Railways
 Frankie Boyle, Stand-up, Television
 Rūta Bunkutė, IFBB/NPC Amateur fitness and figure competitor from Lithuania
 Anthony Cheung, Secretary for Transport and Housing in Hong Kong
 Stewart Clegg, Australian sociologist
 Paul Drayson, Baron Drayson, vaccine manufacturer and Minister of State for Science, Drayson Racing Driver
 Simon D'Ujanga, State Minister for Energy in Uganda
 Veronica German, Scientist, Member of the National Assembly for Wales
 Malcolm Harbour, British politician
 Tony Hayward, Former chief executive of BP Group
 Abdollah Jassbi, President of Azad University
 Laura Jones, BBC Journalist
 Mohammad Nizar Jamaluddin, Former Chief Minister of the state of Perak
 Ravi Kant, Vice Chairman of TATA Motors, India
 Ashok Kumar, Labour Party politician
 Rachel Maclean, Conservative Party politician
 Kevin Morley, Former Managing Director of the former Rover Group
 Ivan Noble, BBC journalist
 Rob Perrins, Managing Director of Berkeley Group Holdings
 Terry Pitt, Political adviser and former Member of the European Parliament
 Phil Popham, Global Operations Director for the global Jaguar Land Rover business
 Rahul Potluri, Founder of ACALM, Doctor, Researcher, Scientist
 John Rickard, Former Chief Economic Advisor to the British Government

 Nic Robertson, Senior International Correspondent at CNN
 Jeff Rooker, Baron Rooker, Labour Peer
 Adam Ryland, British programmer
 Claire Curtis-Thomas, British Labour Party politician and former MP
 Gregor Townsend MBE, Scottish and British Lions Rugby Union Player
 Kate Walsh, Television presenter
 Robert Walter, Conservative MP
 Kevin Warwick, Professor of cybernetics and Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research) at Coventry University
 Steve Wharton, British academic
 Salma Yaqoob, Leader, and former vice-chairman, of Respect – The Unity Coalition

References

Other websites

 Aston University website
 Aston University online programmes
 Aston Guild of Students

Universities in England
1895 establishments in England

Aston University


Arnold Joseph Poovey (May 10, 1941 – October 6, 1998), often credited on record and stage as "Groovey" Joe Poovey (in various alternate spellings), was an American rockabilly and country singer, songwriter, guitarist and radio disc jockey.  His best known record was "Ten Long Fingers", recorded in 1958.

Life and career
Born in Dallas, Texas, he was encouraged to be an entertainer as a child.  He initially learned the steel guitar, and made his first recordings at the age of 10.  Two years later, in 1953, he formed a group, the Hillbilly Boys, and started weekly broadcasts on radio station KRLD, soon followed by work as a disc jockey on the "Big D Jamboree" radio show. He also recorded several Christmas-themed songs, including "Santa's Helper", written by his father Bernice Poovey.  After opening a show for Elvis Presley in 1955, he instantly changed his musical style from traditional country music to rockabilly.  In 1957, as Jumping Joe Poovey, he recorded "Move Around" on the Dixie label, produced by Jim Shell in Dallas.  It was followed the next year by "Ten Long Fingers", a tribute to Jerry Lee Lewis, on which he was credited as "Groove Joe Poovey" .   Although the record was later acclaimed as a classic rockabilly number, featuring piano by local prodigy C.B. Oliver, it was only locally successful, and Poovey remained working in the Dallas and Fort Worth area, recording occasionally for small local labels.

In the 1960s he returned to playing country music and worked as a songwriter, his songs being recorded by such musicians as George Jones and Johnny Paycheck.  In 1966, using the pseudonym Johnny Dallas, he recorded "Heart Full of Love", which reached no. 62 on the Billboard country chart.  However, follow-ups failed to match its success, and he retired from performing to concentrate on his work as a disc jockey, working on various radio stations in the Dallas – Fort Worth area.  In the 1970s, his earlier records began to be recognised by rockabilly fans in Europe, where he first performed in 1980, and unreleased recordings from the 1950s were made available.  He also began recording again, releasing several new singles under the name Texas Joe Poovey.  At the same time, he worked as a chauffeur on the film set of the Dallas TV series.

He continued to make regular visits to Britain and Europe, performing both country and rockabilly music, into the 1990s.  Shortly before the release of a retrospective album, Golden Grooves, he died at the age of 57 from a heart condition.

External links
  Discography

References

1941 births
1998 deaths
American country singers
American country songwriters
American rockabilly musicians
Musicians from Dallas
Radio personalities from Dallas
Country musicians from Texas
20th-century American musicians
20th-century American singers

Joe Poovey


Elly Berkovits Gross (born February 14, 1929) is a Holocaust survivor and author of several Holocaust related books of poetry and prose. She currently resides in the United States, where she is a frequent invited speaker at museums and schools around the country.

Biography
Elly born in Șimleu Silvaniei, Romania to Eugene and Irina Berkovits. In 1944, her father was inducted by the invading Hungarian forces into a forced labor camp, where he perished on the Russian front.  Elly and her remaining family, her mother and younger brother Adalbert, were taken to Cehei ghetto 'the day after Pesach' in 1944 along with most other Jews in Sălaj County.  Six weeks later, her family, along with thousands of other Jews were transported via cattle cars to Auschwitz concentration camp. She was separated from her mother and brother, and never saw either again.  Elly credits her survival of the camp to 'miracles', noting that few others of her age group survived the ordeal.

Elly was transferred to Fallersleben, a part of the Neuengamme concentration camp, where she performed slave labor for Volkswagen until she was liberated at Salzwedel by the Allies on April 14, 1945. Elly returned to her home town, where she soon married family friend Ernest Gross.  They have two children and five grandchildren, who also reside in the United States.  Elly graduated from LaGuardia Community College with an associate degree in Fine Arts in 1993 at the age of 64.

Works
'Poems of Elly Gross: Memories of a Holocaust Survivor.'
'Storm against the Innocents and other stories'
'Elka's Growing Up in a Changing World' (Book and DVD)
'Elly: My True Story of the Holocaust'
'Of Miseries and Miracles: The Holocaust Testimonial of Elly Berkovits Gross' (DVD only)
'Vanished World: A Memoir of Ernest'

Several of these works have been translated into Spanish and Romanian.

References

1929 births
Living people
Jewish American writers
People from Șimleu Silvaniei
American people of Romanian-Jewish descent
Romanian Jews
Romanian emigrants to the United States
Auschwitz concentration camp survivors
Neuengamme concentration camp survivors
Nazi-era ghetto inmates
21st-century American Jews

Elly Gross


Carom billiards, also called French billiards and sometimes carambole billiards, is the overarching title of a family of cue sports generally played on cloth-covered,  billiard tables. In its simplest form, the object of the game is to score  or "counts" by  one's own  off both the opponent's cue ball and the  on a single shot. The invention as well as the exact date of origin of carom billiards is somewhat obscure but is thought to be traceable to 18th-century France.

There is a large array of carom billiards disciplines. Some of the more prevalent today and historically are (chronologically by apparent date of development): straight rail, one-cushion, balkline, three-cushion and artistic billiards.

Carom billiards is popular in Europe, particularly France, where it originated. It is also popular in Asian countries, including Japan, the Philippines, South Korea, and Vietnam, but is now considered obscure in North America, having been supplanted by pool in popularity. The Union Mondiale de Billard (UMB) is the highest international governing body of competitive carom billiards.

Etymology
The word carom, which simply means any strike and rebound, was in use in reference to billiards by at least 1779, sometimes spelled "carrom". Sources differ on the origin. It has been pegged variously as a shortening of the Spanish and Portuguese word carambola, or the French word carambole, which are used to describe the red object ball. Some etymologists have suggested that carambola, in turn, was derived from a yellow-to-orange, tropical Asian fruit also known in Portuguese as a carambola (which was a corruption of the original name of the fruit, karambal in the Marathi language of India), also known as star fruit. But this may simply be folk etymology, as the fruit bears no resemblance to a billiard ball, and there is no direct evidence for such a derivation.

In modern French, the word  means 'successive collision', currently used mainly in reference to  or  shots in billiards, and to multiple-vehicle car crashes.

Equipment

Table
The billiard table used for carom billiards is a pocketless version, and is typically .

Most cloth made for carom billiard tables is a type of baize that is typically dyed green, and is made from 100% worsted wool with no nap, which provides a very fast surface allowing the balls to travel with little resistance across the table .

The slate bed of a carom billiard table is often heated to about 5 °C (9 °F) above room temperature, which helps to keep moisture out of the cloth to aid the balls rolling and rebounding in a consistent manner, and generally makes a table play faster. An electrically heated table is required under international tournament rules 'in order to ensure the best possible rolling', although temperatures are not specified. It is an especially important requirement for the games of three-cushion billiards and artistic billiards, and even local billiard halls often have this feature in countries where carom games are popular. Queen Victoria (1819–1901) had a billiard table that was heated using zinc tubes, although the aim at that time was chiefly to keep the then-used ivory balls from warping. The first use of electric heating was for an 18.2 balkline tournament held in December 1927 between Welker Cochran and Jacob Schaefer Jr. The New York Times announced it with fanfare: "For the first time in the history of world's championship balkline billiards a heated table will be used ..."

Balls

The three standard balls in most carom billiards games consist of one white cue ball, a second yellow cue ball and a third, red object ball. Historically, the second cue ball was white with red or black spots to differentiate it; both types of ball sets are permitted in tournament play. The balls are significantly larger and heavier than their pool or snooker counterparts, with a diameter of , and a weight ranging between  with a typical weight of .

Billiard balls have been made from many different materials throughout the history of the game, including clay, wood, ivory, plastics (including early formulations of celluloid, Bakelite, and crystalate, and more modern phenolic resin, polyester and acrylic), and even steel. The dominant material from 1627 until the early- to mid-20th century was ivory. The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental or animal-welfare concerns but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters. It was in part spurred on by a New York billiard table manufacturer who announced a prize of $10,000 for a substitute material. The first viable substitute was celluloid, invented by John Wesley Hyatt in 1868, but the material is volatile and highly flammable, sometimes exploding during manufacture.

Cues
Carom billiard cues have specialized refinements making them different from cues used in other cue sports. Carom cues tend to be shorter and lighter overall, with a shorter , a thicker  and , a wooden joint  (in high-end examples), and  wood-to-wood joint. They have a sharply conical , and a smaller  diameter as compared with pool cues. Typical carom cues are  in length and  in weight – lighter for straight rail, heavier for three-cushion – with a tip  in diameter. These dimensions make the cue significantly stiffer, which aids in handling the larger and heavier balls used in carom billiards. It also acts to reduce  (sometimes called "squirt"), which is displacement of the cue ball's path away from the parallel line formed by the cue stick's direction of travel. It is a factor that occurs every time  is employed, and its effects are magnified by speed. In some carom games, deflection plays a large role because many shots require extremes of side-spin, coupled with great speed; this is a combination typically minimized as much as possible, by contrast, in pool.

History of games

Straight rail

Straight rail is thought to date to the 18th century, although no exact time of origin is known. The object of straight rail is simple: one point, called a "count", is scored each time a player's cue ball makes contact with both object balls (the second cue ball and the third ball) on a single . A win is achieved by reaching an agreed upon number of counts.

At straight rail's inception there was no restriction on the manner of scoring. However, the technique of crotching, or freezing two balls into the corner where the rails meet—the crotch—vastly increasing counts, resulted in an 1862 rule which allowed only three counts before at least one ball had to be driven away. Techniques continued to develop which increased counts greatly despite the crotching prohibition, especially the development of a variety of "" techniques. The most important of these, the , involves the progressive nudging of the object balls down a rail, ideally moving them only a small amount on each count, keeping them close together and positioned at the end of each stroke in the same or near the same configuration such that the nurse can be replicated again and again.

Straight rail is still popular in Europe, where it is considered a fine practice game for both balkline and three-cushion billiards. Additionally, Europe hosts professional competitions known as pentathlons in which straight rail is featured as one of five billiards disciplines at which players compete, the other four being 47.1 balkline, cushion caroms, 71.2 balkline, and three-cushion billiards.

Straight rail was played professionally in the United States from 1873 to 1879, but is uncommon there today.

Balkline

In 1879, a variant called the "champion's game" or "limited-rail" was introduced with the specific intent of frustrating the rail nurse. The game employed diagonal lines at the table's corners to regions where counts were restricted. Ultimately, however, despite its divergence from straight rail, the champion's game simply expanded the dimensions of the balk space defined under the existing crotch prohibition which was not sufficient to stop nursing.

Balkline succeeded the champion's game, adding more rules to curb nursing techniques. In the balkline games, the entire table is divided into rectangular balk spaces, by drawing pairs of balklines lengthwise and widthwise across the table parallel from each rail. This divides the table into nine rectangular balkspaces. Such balk spaces define areas of the  in which a player may only score up to a threshold number of points while the  are within that region. Additionally, rectangles are drawn where each balkline meets a rail, called anchor spaces, which developed to stop a number of nursing techniques that exploited the fact that if the object balls straddled a balkline, no count limit was in place.

For the most part, the differences between one balkline game to another is defined by two measures: the spacing of the balklines and the number of points that are allowed in each balk space before at least one ball must leave the region. Generally, balkline games and their particular restrictions are given numerical names indicating both of these characteristics; the first number indicated either inches or centimeters depending on the game, and the second, after a dot or a slash, indicates the count restriction in balk spaces, which is always either one or two. For example, in 18.2 balkline, one of the more prominent balkline games and of US origin, the name indicates that balklines are drawn 18 inches distant from each rail, and only two counts are allowed in a balk space before a ball must leave. By contrast, in 71.2 balkline, of French invention, lines are drawn 71 centimeters distant from each rail, also with a two-count restriction for balk spaces.

In its various incarnations, balkline was the predominant carom discipline from 1883 to the 1930s, when it was overtaken by three-cushion billiards and pool. Balkline is still popular in Europe and the Far East.

One-cushion

One-cushion carom, or simply cushion carom, also arose in the late 1860s as another alternative to the repetitive play of straight rail, inspired by an early variant of English billiards. The object of the game is to score cushion caroms, meaning a carom off of both object balls with at least one rail cushion being struck before the hit on the second object ball. One-cushion carom is still popular in Europe.

Three-cushion

In three-cushion carom, the object is to carom off both object balls with at least three   being contacted before the contact of the cue ball with the second object ball.

Three-cushion is a very difficult game. Averaging one point per  is professional-level play, and averaging 1.5 to 2 is world-class play.

Wayman C. McCreery of St. Louis, Missouri, is credited with popularizing the game in the 1870s. At least one publication categorically states he invented the game as well. The first three-cushion billiards tournament took place 14–31 January 1878, in St. Louis, with McCreery a participant and Leon Magnus the winner. The high run for the tournament was just 6 points, and the high average a 0.75. The game was infrequently played, with many top carom players of the era voicing their dislike of it, until the 1907 introduction of the Lambert Trophy. By 1924, three-cushion had become so popular that two giants in other billiard disciplines agreed to take up the game especially for a challenge match. On 22 September 1924, Willie Hoppe, the world's balkline champion (who later took up three-cushion with a passion), and Ralph Greenleaf, the world's straight pool title holder, played a well advertised, multi-day,  to 600 . Hoppe was the eventual winner with a final score in of 600–527.

Three-cushion billiards retains great popularity in parts of Europe, Asia, and Latin America, and is the most popular carom billiards game played in the US today. UMB, as the governing body of the sport, had been staging world three-cushion championships since the late 1920s.

Artistic billiards

In artistic billiards players compete at performing 76 preset shots of varying difficulty. Each set shot has a maximum point value assigned for perfect execution, ranging from a 4-point minimum for lowest level difficulty shots, and climbing to an 11-point maximum for shots deemed highest in difficulty level. There is a total of 500 points available to a player.

Each shot in an artistic billiards match is played from a well-defined position (in some venues within an exacting two millimeter tolerance), and each shot must unfold in an established manner. Players are allowed three attempts at each shot. In general, the shots making up the game, even 4-point shots, require a high degree of skill, devoted practice and specialized knowledge to perform.

World title competition first started in 1986 and required the use of ivory balls. However, this requirement was dropped in 1990. The highest score ever achieved in competition overall is 427 set by Walter Bax on 12 March 2006, at a competition held in Deurne, Belgium, beating his own previous record of 425. The game is played predominantly in western Europe, especially in France, Belgium and the Netherlands.

Competition disciplines

 Triathlon: Straight rail, balkline and one-cushion; or balkline, one-cushion, and three-cushion; the latter format is used in the ANAG Billiard Cup
 Pentathlon: Straight rail, balkline (47.2 and 71.2), one-cushion, and three-cushion.

References

External links

Union Mondiale de Billard — world tournament sanctioning body
Archival Billiard Resource
Kozoom.com: Online Carom Billiard Magazine live streaming all UMB events
Animation showing the "rail nurse" with a description
USBA 3-Cushion Billiard Rules USBA 3-Cushion Billiard Rules
Billiard Diamond System Calculator simulates cue ball path on billiard table

Articles containing video clips
Cue sports

Carom billiards


The Battle of Santa Rosa was a battle between the forces of Costa Rica and those of Nicaragua. It was one of the most important battles in the history of Costa Rica. The battle took place on March 20, 1856 at Santa Rosa, Costa Rica.

The cause
The fighting was caused by the arrival of William Walker in Nicaragua. Walker was an American soldier who believed slavery was good. He told the people of Nicaragua that he wanted to help the country. What he really wanted was to conquer the five free nations of Central America. The president of Costa Rica, Juan Rafael Mora Porras thought that Walker wanted to conquer them. On February 27, 1856, Mora declared the war against Walker and Nicaragua.

The fighting
President Mora called all of his forces to fight. On March 4th, Mora led the forces as they started their march towards Nicaragua.  On March 12th, they arrived in Liberia. There they join with Jose Maria Cañas and his battalion. When the filibusters found out what was happening in Costa Rica, they sent troops. Their troops got to Hacienda Santa Rosa on March 19th. On March 20th, the three thousand Costa Ricans walked to Hacienda Santa Rosa where the filibusters had formed their post at La Casona. At four o'clock, the Costa Rican battalions began the attack against the invaders. After fourteen minutes, the Costa Rican forces won the battle. The few filibusters that had escaped went to Nicaragua. William Walker armed a new army. President Mora quickly moved on to Rivas with his 3000 men, and the Battle of Rivas started.

Santa Rosa
History of Costa Rica
History of Nicaragua
1856
19th century in North America
March events

Battle of Santa Rosa


Carl Robert Brown (November 26, 1930 – August 20, 1982) was an American teacher and mass murderer who fatally shot eight people and injured another three in a Miami welding shop on August 20, 1982. He was later fatally shot by two witnesses while cycling away from the scene.

Biography
Brown was born on November 26, 1930 in Chicago, Illinois. He joined the U.S. Navy and was honorably discharged in 1954. People later stated that Brown always kept a military bearing about himself and was quite militaristic. In 1955, he moved from Chicago to Florida, where he graduated from the University of Miami in 1957 and in 1964 from East Carolina College in Greenville, North Carolina, earning a master's degree in education. After working briefly for Keyes Realty, he got a full-time job as history teacher at Hialeah Junior High School in 1962 and moonlighted at Miami-Dade Community College as an accounting instructor from 1964 to 1970.

Brown was married twice and had three children. His first wife died and his second marriage failed, according to his second wife, Sylvia, because he refused to seek psychological help. As a consequence, his condition began to deteriorate, resulting in an increasingly disheveled and gaunt appearance, and, though once being a rather gregarious person, he began isolating himself more and more. A neighbor later described him looking "as if he were 80 years old". Reportedly, one of his daughters once tried to have him hospitalized, though as his admission had to be voluntary, her request was declined. Additionally, his career began to suffer. At Hialeah Junior High, Brown was an alleged bigot who hated everyone, and was transferred to Drew Middle School, a school with a black majority, in 1981. There he taught American history until March 3, 1982, when he was relieved of his teaching duties for medical leave to treat his psychiatric problems.

Though neighbors described Brown as a quiet, kind and helpful man, who was working hard to keep his duplex neat and clean, and praising him overall as a landlord, it was also said that he made a habit of walking into other people's yards early in the morning, waking them by yelling "United States!" and that during the night, shots were heard from his house. It was also reported that he once broke a window when firing a pellet gun, and picked grapefruit from a neighbor's tree wearing only his underwear. Apparently, he also collected aluminum cans.

After a trip abroad, which he had taken shortly before the shooting, he came back in worse shape than before and stated that nothing in the United States stood for anything.

School problems
While Brown wrote in his application for a job as a teacher in 1961 that he "always enjoyed being with younger people" and felt that he "could benefit these younger people with his abilities", his work began to suffer as his psychological problems aggravated over the years. Being seen as a competent teacher for a long time, more and more complaints were filed against him as his condition worsened. Students began to refuse to sit in his class as he rambled incoherently about his personal problems and topics unrelated to his curriculum and conducted confusing conversations where he strung together completely unrelated things. Students would often take advantage of this by asking him a question that resulted in him talking for the rest of the period. On one occasion, on May 5, 1977, Brown sent three girls to detention because they refused to sit in his class, as they were "sick and tired of hearing him talk." He was also known to be very prejudiced, to make threatening remarks, and to insult people of other races.

During his time at Hialeah Junior High, Brown wrote a letter to the principal for "the enlightenment of the assistant principals," discussing the misbehavior of his students in rambling and poorly constructed sentences. "I don't read the students their rights as infants, you all do ... If you ever study business law, until a child is 18, the child can do just about anything the child desires to do and get away with the abuse. Any adult interfering, is accountable as an adult, but with infancy laws, the child is a child."

In the summer of 1981, Brown was transferred to Drew Middle School. There, on December 3, he had a dispute with two students, whom he accused of throwing books. During the argument, Brown described his sexual behavior with a girlfriend and chased the boys with a stapler. The school board's director of personnel control, Pat Gray, described this as "a classroom incident ... wherein Mr. Brown demonstrated a significant lack of adult judgment, an overtone of sexual fixation, and definitive aggression toward students." The school's principal wrote: "I found Mr. Brown to be incoherent and unable to grasp the severity of the situation at hand. I, also, fear for the safety of the students since during my conference with Mr. Brown he demonstrated no regret for his actions pointing to the fact that he is a 'man' and any man would have reacted in the same manner."

Principal Octavio Visiedo wrote in his last evaluation of Brown: "I find Mr. Brown to be a negative force. Today I did a follow-up observation of Mr. Brown's second-period class and I continue to be alarmed about the potential for disaster in that class. As you can see, from today's observation, there is absolutely no discipline or control in that class and I am concerned for the safety of the students and also Mr. Brown." Further, he stated that Brown's class was in "total and complete chaos", with students talking constantly, wandering about at will, and leaving without permission.

Brown reacted by writing a response in which he suggested that the principal "should seek the help" of the school board's employee assistance program, to which he himself was referred to in January 1982.

Psychiatrist Dr. Robert A. Wainger examined Brown, saying that "Mr. Brown is suffering from rather severe anxiety associated with some paranoid and grandiose ideas" and that he also "demonstrates a probable thinking disorder". Though Wainger wrote that these symptoms would affect Brown's work, he was also of the opinion that he would be able to continue teaching if given psychotherapy and medication. Wainger also wrote that "although he may appear to be rather unusual and disorganized to the people around him, he (Brown) does not represent a danger to either."

After his examination, Brown wrote to Wainger: "I wish to thank you for the very interesting and informative meeting I experienced yesterday. Please stress blood analysis, heart cartograph  and urine plus the other mental health features of your program." Finally, on March 3, Brown was relieved of his duties to seek psychiatric help and he agreed to seek further treatment from Wainger, though in a meeting with Pat Gray, Brown apparently said: "Wainger wants to study me, that's all. I can cure Dr. Wainger. I will treat him. I will change his seeds."

According to his former wife, Sylvia, Brown asked to return to work two days prior to the shooting, but his psychiatrist, who later stated that Brown showed no aggressiveness at that time, declined his request.

The shooting

On August 19, the day before the shooting, Brown had a heated argument with Jorge Castalleda, an employee at Bob Moore's Welding & Machine Service Inc., about a $20 bill for repairing a lawnmower engine he wanted to use to power his bicycle, saying the work was poorly done. He was also angry because his traveler's check was refused. Realizing that his complaints were of no avail, Brown left the shop, stating that he would come in and kill everybody; no one took him seriously.

Early the next day Brown went to a gun store a few blocks from his home in Hialeah and purchased two shotguns, a semi-automatic rifle and ammunition. An hour before starting his rampage, Brown invited his 10-year-old son to join him in "killing a lot of people" telling him that the final destination would be Hialeah Junior High School.

Shortly before 11:00 a.m. he arrived at the welding shop on his bicycle, wearing a Panama hat and carrying one of the shotguns, which was initially mistakenly identified as a 12 gauge Mossberg 500 Persuader but was later identified as an Ithaca 37 with a pistol grip, slung over his shoulder. He entered the shop through a side door and began shooting while yelling that he would send everybody to Germany. According to police, Brown walked through the building methodically shooting everyone, most of the time at close range and sometimes twice, leaving three victims in the office and others in the work area and the driveway in front of the shop. In the end, six of the eleven employees present were dead and two more dying, while three who were injured managed to escape and jump into the car of a passing motorist, who took them to a gas station a mile away and called for help. Out of ammunition, Carl Brown left the store, got back on his bicycle and started cycling away, apparently towards Hialeah Junior High School. According to a witness, Brown "looked very passive and very nonchalant" and "wasn't trying to escape, just casually leaving the crime scene." Another witness put it this way: "He got on his bike and pedaled off as if he was going for a stroll on North River Drive."

When Mark Kram, an employee at a nearby metal shop, was told of the massacre, he grabbed a .38 revolver and set out to pursue the shooter in his car. Down the street he picked up Ernest Hammett, who was trying to flag down cars, and together they tried to find the perpetrator. Six blocks away from the crime scene, near Miami International Airport, they caught up with Brown, and Kram, according to himself, fired a warning shot "over his (Brown's) head", though the bullet hit Brown in the back and later proved to be the cause of his death. When Brown turned in his saddle, aiming at his pursuers with his shotgun, they ran him over, crashing him into a concrete light pole. Brown, who still had 20 shells in his pockets, died shortly afterward.

Victims

Killed

Wounded
Eduardo Lima, 30
Carlos Vazquez Sr., 42
Carlos Vazquez Jr., 17

Aftermath
Following the shooting Robert Steelman, whose wife Martha was among the dead, filed lawsuits against the Garcia Gun Center, where Brown had purchased his weapons, and the Ithaca Gun Company, the manufacturer of the shotgun used by Brown in his rampage.

Police found a cassette tape in Brown's house, where he called himself "Logos", a mythical figure he considered to be the controlling principle of the universe - "This is the Logos speaking. God through me is responsible for the good and bad sounds in your head." "Now I shall say a few good words in your head before I return you to the bad sounds in your head ... The Logos is the spark of God, the most logical. I am indestructible on Earth."

No charges were filed against Kram.

See also
 List of rampage killers in the United States

Bibliography
 Bustos, Sergio & Yanez, Luisa: Miami's Criminal Past Uncovered; Charleston, SC, United States: History Press (2007)  (pp 65–76)

References

External links
 "Murderer's Row", Time (August 30, 1982)
 "Gunman in Miami kills 8 in rampage", The New York Times (August 21, 1982)
 "No charges planned against Miami man who shot gunman", The New York Times (August 24, 1982)
 "Florida City Rescinds Law on Buying Guns", The New York Times (October 14, 1982)

1930 births
1982 deaths
1982 mass shootings in the United States
1982 murders in the United States
20th-century American educators
American mass murderers
Deaths by firearm in Florida
East Carolina University alumni
Mass shootings in the United States
Massacres in 1982
Massacres in the United States
Murder in Florida
Criminals from Chicago
People from Miami
Schoolteachers from Florida
United States Navy sailors
University of Miami alumni

Carl Robert Brown


In statistics, a Studentized residual, named in honor of William Sealey Gosset, who wrote under the pseudonym Student, is a residual adjusted by dividing it by an estimate of its standard deviation.  Studentization of residuals is an important technique in the detection of outliers.

Errors versus residuals

It is very important to understand the difference between errors and residuals in statistics.  Consider simple linear regression modél

where the errors εi, i = 1, ..., n, are independent and all have the same variance σ2.  The residuals are not the true, and unobservable, errors, but rather are estimates, based on the observable data, of the errors.  When the method of léast squares is used to estimate α0 and α1, then the residuals, unlike the errors, cannot be independent since they satisfy the two constraints

and

(Here  is the ith error, and  is the ith residual.)  Moréover, the residuals, unlike the errors, do not all have the same variance: the variance incréases as the corresponding x-value gets farther from the average x-value.  The fact that the variances of the residuals differ, even though the variances of the true errors are all equal to éach other, is the principal réason for the need for Studentization.

How to Studentize

For this simple modél, the "design matrix" is

and the "hat matrix" H is the matrix of the orthogonal projection onto the column space of the design matrix:

The "leverage" hii is the ith diagonal entry in the hat matrix.  The variance of the ith residual is

The corresponding Studentized residual is then

where  is an appropriate estimate of σ.

Internal and external Studentization

The estimate of σ2 may be

But it is desirable to exclude the ith observation from the process of estimating the variance when one is considering whether to consider the ith case to be an outlier.  Consequently one may use the estimate

based on all but the ith case.  If the latter estimate is used, excluding the ith case, then the residual is said to be externally Studentized, if the former is used, including the ith case, then it is internally Studentized.

If the errors are independent and  normally distributed with nilai ekspektasi 0 and varian σ2, then the probability distribution of the ith externally Studentized residual is a sebaran-t student nu mana n − 3 tingkat kabebasan.

Statistika

Studentized residual