The Symphony No. 4 in E minor, Op. 98 by Johannes Brahms is the last of his symphonies. Brahms began working on the piece in Mürzzuschlag, then in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in 1884, just a year after completing his Symphony No. 3. Brahms conducted the Court Orchestra in Meiningen, Germany, for the work's premiere on 25 October 1885.

Instrumentation

The symphony is scored for two flutes (one doubling on piccolo in the third movement only), two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, contrabassoon (third and fourth movements), four horns, two trumpets, three trombones (fourth movement only), timpani (two in first and second movements, three in third and fourth movements), triangle (third movement only), and strings.

Movements

The symphony is divided into four movements with the following tempo markings:

This is the only one of Brahms' four symphonies to end in a minor key. A typical performance lasts about 40 minutes.

Analysis

I. Allegro non troppo

This movement is in sonata form, although it features some unique approaches to development. For instance, there is no repeat of the exposition; according to Malcolm MacDonald, the music is so "powerfully organic and continuously unfolding" that such a repeat would hinder forward progress.

The opening theme is initially serene in character, although its composition in a chain of descending thirds adds a fateful air. Its left-versus-right fragmented melodic form (duh-DUM, da-DEE, duh-DUM, da-DEE) also introduces a feeling of conflict which Brahms uses as a fundamental motivation throughout the movement.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Bar
! Section
! Key
! Description
|-
| 1
| Primary theme
| E minor
| Starts with pick-up note. This relatively fragmented melody forms a descending sequence in the upper instruments in dialogue with the lower instruments. The notes (taken out of register) outline a row of descending thirds – B, G, E, C, A, F, D, B – a unifying motif for this work.
|-
| 19
| Transition modulation to second theme
| Goes from E minor to the dominant B minor
| Starts by fragmenting the primary theme
|-
| 53
| Transition motif
|
| Transition motif: a rhythmic pattern in the woodwinds
|-
| 57
| Secondary theme period 1
| B minor
| Initially in the cellos, then passed up into the violins with intermittent play with transition motif.
|-
| 95
| Secondary theme period 2
| B major – parallel major of B minor
| In the woodwinds.
|-
| 107
| Closing section
| B major
| Using transition motif  to .
|-
| 137
| Transition modulation to development
| Lead from B major into E minor
| Using primary theme material
|-
| 145
| Development
| Various
| Starts with a statement of the primary theme before leading away into a development
|-
| 247
| Recapitulation
| E minor -> E major
| Slow version of primary theme in the upper instruments (initially in C major harmony) with intermittent use of transition motif followed by lengthy recapitulation of secondary theme block now transposed to the tonic key.
|-
| 394
| Coda
| E minor
| Final climactic statement of the primary theme in .
|}

II. Andante moderato

Featuring a theme in E Phrygian, heard at the beginning unaccompanied and at the end with a lush orchestral accompaniment in the dominant scale, this movement has a modified sonata form with no development section.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Bar
! Section
! Key
! Description
|-
| 1
| Introduction
| E Phrygian
| Introduction to the principal theme by horns
|-
| 5
| Principal theme
| E major
| Several statements of the principal theme
|-
| 36
| Transition theme
| B major
| Dominated by the wind sections
|-
| 41
| Secondary theme
| B major
| Initially in the cellos, then passed up into the violins
|-
| 50
| Secondary theme cadence and transition theme
| B major
| Using transition motif  to .
|-
| 64
| Recapitulation
| E major
| Recapitulation quite similar in structure to the exposition
|-
| 106
| Coda
| E Phrygian dominant
| Free play of themes with frequent use of arpeggios
|}

III. Allegro giocoso

This movement is the only one with the character of a scherzo to be found in Brahms' symphonies. It is not in typical scherzo form, however, being in 2/4 time and in sonata form, without a trio. The sonata form itself is modified further, with a foreshortened recapitulation and with the secondary theme nearly absent in the development and coda.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Bar
! Section
! Key
! Description
|-
| 1
| Primary theme
| C major and E major
| Primary theme consisting of three different periods (ordered 1–2–3–1)
|-
| 46
| Transition to secondary theme
| Transition to G major
| Based on the first period of the primary theme
|-
| 52
| Secondary theme
| G major
| Secondary theme followed by elements of a transition to the development
|-
| 89
| Development
| Various keys
| Based on the primary theme block with a slow trio-like section based on the second period of the first theme.
|-
| 181
| Transition to recapitulation
| Modulation from D major to C major
|
|-
| 199
| Recapitulation
| C and G key areas
| Restatement of primary theme starting with the second period (2–3–1) followed by restatement the secondary theme and then transition theme leading to coda
|-
| 282
| Coda
| C and G key areas
| Final statement of the period 1 and 2 of the primary theme block (in the order 1–2–1)
|}

IV. Allegro energico e passionato

This last movement is notable as a rare example of a symphonic passacaglia, which is similar to a chaconne with the slight difference that the subject can appear in more voices than the bass. For the repeating theme, Brahms adapted the chaconne theme in the closing movement of Johann Sebastian Bach's cantata, Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich, BWV 150.

An analysis of this last movement by Walter Frisch provides yet further interpretation to Brahms' structure of this work, by giving sections sonata form dimensions.

Arnold Schoenberg, in his essay Brahms the Progressive (Brahms is often characterized as a conservative composer), pointed out several thematic relationships in the score, as does Malcolm MacDonald in his biography of the composer. The first half of the chaconne theme is anticipated in the violins during the coda at an important point of the preceding movement; and the first movement's descending thirds, transposed by a fifth, appear in counterpoint during one of the final variations of the chaconne, immediately before the coda.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Bar
! Section
! Key
! Description
|-
| 1
| Theme
| E minor
| Statement of theme and main chordal structure
|-
| 9
| Variations 1–11
| Mostly in E minor and C major key areas as well as in other keys
| Variations match the bar count and chordal structure (though in some variations transposed to different key).  time
|-
| 97
| Variations 12–15
| E major and A major key area
| Variations match the bar count (though with bars lasting twice as long) and chordal structure ((though transposed to different key areas)).  time
|-
| 129
| Variations 16–23
| E major and A major key area
| Variations match the bar count and chordal structure (though transposed to different key areas).  time
|-
| 193
| Variations 24–26
| Mostly in E minor and C major key area
| Structurally variation 24 is similar to variation 1, variation 25 is similar to variation 2 and variation 26 is similar to variation 3.  time
|-
| 217
| Variations 27–30
| Mostly in E minor and C major key area
| Variations match the bar count and chordal structure (though transposed to different key areas).  time
|-
| 249
| Transition to coda
| E major and C major key area
| Extension of the last variation (variation 30).
|-
| 253
| Coda
| Many different key areas
| Playing on material from the variations with intermittent quasi-variations
|-
| 297
| Final statement of theme
| E minor
| Compressed statement of theme and final cadence
|}

Notable recordings
There are many recordings with Wilhelm Furtwängler (several times), Eugen Jochum, Otto Klemperer, Bruno Walter, Hermann Abendroth, Yevgeny Mravinsky, Nikolaus Harnoncourt, Leopold Stokowski, Richard Tognetti, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, John Barbirolli, Daniel Barenboim, Sergiu Celibidache, William Steinberg, Willem Mengelberg, Hans Knappertsbusch, Igor Markevitch, Serge Koussevitzky, Leonard Bernstein, John Eliot Gardiner, Carlo Maria Giulini, Carlos Kleiber, and others, with the Vienna Philharmonic, Berlin Philharmonic, Australian Chamber Orchestra, Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, Leningrad Philharmonic, Chamber Orchestra of Europe, Boston Symphony, London Philharmonic, Philharmonia Orchestra, Pittsburgh Symphony, Staatskapelle Berlin, and others. Progressive rock group Yes's keyboardist Rick Wakeman abridged and arranged the third movement for various keyboards as the instrumental "Cans and Brahms" from the 1971 album Fragile.

Reception

The work was given its premiere in Meiningen on 25 October 1885, with Brahms himself conducting. The piece had earlier been given to a small private audience in a version for two pianos, played by Brahms and Ignaz Brüll. Brahms' friend and biographer Max Kalbeck, reported that the critic Eduard Hanslick, acting as one of the page-turners, exclaimed on hearing the first movement at this performance: "For this whole movement I had the feeling that I was being given a beating by two incredibly intelligent people." Hanslick, however, wrote also that "[for] the musician, there is not another modern piece so productive as a subject for study. It is like a dark well; the longer we look into it, the more brightly the stars shine back."

The musicologist Donald Tovey praises the work as "one of the greatest orchestral works since Beethoven", and singles out the end of the first movement, which "bears comparison with the greatest climaxes in classical music, not excluding Beethoven".

The symphony is rich in allusions, most notably to various Beethoven compositions. The symphony may well have been inspired by the tragedies of Sophocles, which Brahms had been researching at the time.

Notes

Sources

External links

Downloadable score of the piece in .pdf format
Allusive Irony in Brahms's Fourth Symphony. (Analysis of Allusions in the Symphony) by Kenneth Hull
Detailed Listening Guide using the recording by Claudio Abbado
Andrew Clements (17 March 2000). "Brahms: Symphony No. 4" (from "Building a Classical Library" series). The Guardian.
, Berlin Philharmonic, Simon Rattle conducting
, Vera Hsu and Chiming Shui

Symphonies by Johannes Brahms
1884 compositions
Compositions in E minor

Symphony No. 4 (Brahms)


Muizat Ajoke Odumosu Alademerin (born 27 October 1987 in Lagos) is a Nigerian track and field athlete who specialises in the 400 metres and the 400 metres hurdles. She represented Nigeria at the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics and competed at the World Championships in Athletics in 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. She was the bronze medallist at the 2007 All-Africa Games and went on to become the continental champion with a win at the 2008 and 2012 African Championships.

In 2010, she won the gold medal in the 400 metres hurdles at the Commonwealth Games, and was runner-up at the African Championships and also took a silver medal for Africa at the Continental Cup. She still holds the Nigerian record in the 400 m hurdles, after improving on her personal best to 54.40 seconds during the 2012 London Olympics semi-finals.

Early life
Born in Lagos, Odumosu attended Toybat High school before moving to the United States to study at the University of South Alabama.

Athletics career

College athletics
At the University of South Alabama, Odumosu represented the college's South Alabama Jaguars team, she was the 400 m Sun Belt Conference champion in 2004 but missed most of the 2004–05 season due to injury. In 2006, she became the indoor 400 m Sun Belt champion and took a sprint and hurdles double at the outdoor meeting. She reached the NCAA Championships final that year, but was disqualified due to knocking over a hurdle. She improved her personal record to 55.37 seconds to win at the Drake Relays in 2007 – a world-leading mark at that point of the season.

Global competition
Odumosu represented Nigeria internationally for the first time in August 2006, taking part in the World Junior Championships. She finished fifth in the 400 m hurdles final but managed to help the Nigerian women's 4×400 metres relay team (including Folashade Abugan, Joy Eze and Sekinat Adesanyato) the silver medal, setting a new African junior record of 3:30.84 for the event.

She began competing professionally in 2007 and won the hurdles bronze medal at the 2007 All-Africa Games in Algiers in July. At the 2007 World Championships (her first senior global championships) she ran in the 400 m hurdles, but was eliminated in the heats stage.

She reached the top of the continental rankings with a gold medal at the 2008 African Championships, taking the hurdles win in 55.92 seconds. She made her first Olympic appearance in August 2008, running the 400 metres sprint in Beijing. She set a personal best 51.39 seconds to progress through the heats, but she was eliminated in the semi-finals. She ran in the 4×400 metres relay and reached the final where the Nigerians finished in seventh placed.

At the 2009 World Championships she reached the 400 m hurdles semi-finals and was sixth overall with the women's relay team. She also set a meeting record at the Ponce Grand Prix, where she won in 55.02 seconds. Odumosu set a Nigerian record at the Herculis meeting in July 2010, running 54.68 seconds for fifth in the hurdles. She returned to defend her hurdles title at the 2010 African Championships, but she had to content herself with the silver medal behind Hayat Lambarki. She still reached the top of the podium at the competition, however, as she helped the 4×400 m relay team to a championship record of 3:29.26. Along with Lambarki, Odumosu was selected to represent the African team in the 400 m hurdles at the 2010 IAAF Continental Cup. She improved her national record to 54.59 seconds at the competition and secured the silver medal behind Jamaican Nickiesha Wilson, running for the Americas.

On 10 October 2010 Odomosu won the gold medal in the 400m hurdles at the Commonwealth Games in Delhi.

References

External links

1987 births
Living people
Athletes from Lagos
Yoruba sportswomen
Nigerian female sprinters
Nigerian female hurdlers
Olympic athletes for Nigeria
Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Nigeria
Commonwealth Games medallists in athletics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2010 Commonwealth Games
South Alabama Jaguars athletes
African Games gold medalists for Nigeria
African Games medalists in athletics (track and field)
African Games silver medalists for Nigeria
African Games bronze medalists for Nigeria
Athletes (track and field) at the 2007 All-Africa Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 2011 All-Africa Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 2015 African Games
21st-century Nigerian women
Medallists at the 2010 Commonwealth Games

Muizat Ajoke Odumosu


Enchytraeus buchholzi, Grindal worms,  (described by František Vejdovsky in 1879) are enchytraeid oligochaete worms. They are found in temperate meadows and disturbed roadside verges. The scientific name probably covers a group of morphologically indistinguishable species, which would complicate their use as test species in substitution for E. albidus, a species commonly cultivated in the laboratory for toxicity tests, according to OECD.

For aquarists "Grindal worms" are treated as smaller relatives of whiteworms, but usually only grow to about 10 mm and thus are an ideal size for most small freshwater fish,  both adults and larger fry. Mrs. Morten Grindal, of Sweden, who was prominent in the development of culturing techniques for whiteworms, was apparently the first aquarist to isolate this smaller species. Grindal worms can be cultured exactly as whiteworms but are a much more adaptable species and have a greater tolerance for warmer temperatures. Maturity has been reported to occur around 16 days at 20 °C, the clitellum forming when the worms are about 3~4 mm. The generation period (cocoon to cocoon) is about a month at 20 °C.

Uses
Enchytraeus buchholzi/Grindal worms are cultured by aquarists as a fish food, often on a bed of ground coconut shells, or coir, with oatmeal. They are used for conditioning tropical fish before spawning, or for young fast-growing fish.

In laboratory testing, Enchytraeus buchholzi were kept in an incubator at 15 ± 2 °C. Water loss and food were replenished if necessary during the test period. After 21 days the offspring and the surviving adults were counted. For two moisture levels (5% and 20% water content) the segment number of the surviving adults was counted. From 20% up to 40% water content Enchytraeus buchholzi showed no significant difference in reproduction. Below 20% and above 40%, the number of offspring was reduced. No juveniles were found at 5% water content, although adult survival was equal to higher moisture levels. Reproduction was decreased at 30% water content compared to 25% and 35% water content. Low soil moisture inhibited not only reproduction, but had also a negative effect on the growth of the parent generation.

References

Enchytraeidae
Animals described in 1879

Enchytraeus buchholzi


Ransomware is a type of cryptovirological malware that threatens to publish the victim's personal data or permanently block access to it unless a ransom is paid. While some simple ransomware may lock the system without damaging any files, more advanced malware uses a technique called cryptoviral extortion. It encrypts the victim's files, making them inaccessible, and demands a ransom payment to decrypt them. In a properly implemented cryptoviral extortion attack, recovering the files without the decryption key is an intractable problem, and difficult to trace digital currencies such as paysafecard or Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies are used for the ransoms, making tracing and prosecuting the perpetrators difficult.

Ransomware attacks are typically carried out using a Trojan disguised as a legitimate file that the user is tricked into downloading or opening when it arrives as an email attachment. However, one high-profile example, the WannaCry worm, traveled automatically between computers without user interaction.

Starting as early as 1989 with the first documented ransomware known as the AIDS trojan, the use of ransomware scams has grown internationally. There were 181.5 million ransomware attacks in the first six months of 2018. This record marks a 229% increase over this same time frame in 2017. In June 2014, vendor McAfee released data showing that it had collected more than double the number of ransomware samples that quarter than it had in the same quarter of the previous year. CryptoLocker was particularly successful, procuring an estimated US$3 million before it was taken down by authorities, and CryptoWall was estimated by the US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to have accrued over US$18 million by June 2015. In 2020, the IC3 received 2,474 complaints identified as ransomware with adjusted losses of over $29.1 million. The losses could be more than that, according to the FBI. Globally, according to Statistica, there were about 623 million ransomware attacks in 2021, and 493 million in 2022.

Operation
The concept of file-encrypting ransomware was invented and implemented by Young and Yung at Columbia University and was presented at the 1996 IEEE Security & Privacy conference. It is called cryptoviral extortion and it was inspired by the fictional facehugger in the movie Alien. Cryptoviral extortion is the following three-round protocol carried out between the attacker and the victim.

 [attacker→victim] The attacker generates a key pair and places the corresponding public key in the malware. The malware is released.
 [victim→attacker] To carry out the cryptoviral extortion attack, the malware generates a random symmetric key and encrypts the victim's data with it. It uses the public key in the malware to encrypt the symmetric key. This is known as hybrid encryption and it results in a small asymmetric ciphertext as well as the symmetric ciphertext of the victim's data. It zeroizes the symmetric key and the original plaintext data to prevent recovery. It puts up a message to the user that includes the asymmetric ciphertext and how to pay the ransom. The victim sends the asymmetric ciphertext and e-money to the attacker.
 [attacker→victim] The attacker receives the payment, deciphers the asymmetric ciphertext with the attacker's private key, and sends the symmetric key to the victim. The victim deciphers the encrypted data with the needed symmetric key thereby completing the cryptovirology attack.

The symmetric key is randomly generated and will not assist other victims. At no point is the attacker's private key exposed to victims and the victim need only send a very small ciphertext (the encrypted symmetric-cipher key) to the attacker.

Ransomware attacks are typically carried out using a Trojan, entering a system through, for example, a malicious attachment, embedded link in a Phishing email, or a vulnerability in a network service. The program then runs a payload, which locks the system in some fashion, or claims to lock the system but does not (e.g., a scareware program). Payloads may display a fake warning purportedly by an entity such as a law enforcement agency, falsely claiming that the system has been used for illegal activities, contains content such as pornography and "pirated" media.

Some payloads consist simply of an application designed to lock or restrict the system until payment is made, typically by setting the Windows Shell to itself, or even modifying the master boot record and/or partition table to prevent the operating system from booting until it is repaired. The most sophisticated payloads encrypt files, with many using strong encryption to encrypt the victim's files in such a way that only the malware author has the needed decryption key.

Payment is virtually always the goal, and the victim is coerced into paying for the ransomware to be removed either by supplying a program that can decrypt the files, or by sending an unlock code that undoes the payload's changes. While the attacker may simply take the money without returning the victim's files, it is in the attacker's best interest to perform the decryption as agreed, since victims will stop sending payments if it becomes known that they serve no purpose. A key element in making ransomware work for the attacker is a convenient payment system that is hard to trace. A range of such payment methods have been used, including wire transfers, premium-rate text messages, pre-paid voucher services such as paysafecard, and the Bitcoin cryptocurrency.

In May 2020, vendor Sophos reported that the global average cost to remediate a ransomware attack (considering downtime, people time, device cost, network cost, lost opportunity and ransom paid) was $761,106. Ninety-five percent of organizations that paid the ransom had their data restored.

History

Encrypting ransomware
The first known malware extortion attack, the "AIDS Trojan" written by Joseph Popp in 1989, had a design failure so severe it was not necessary to pay the extortionist at all. Its payload hid the files on the hard drive and encrypted only their names, and displayed a message claiming that the user's license to use a certain piece of software had expired. The user was asked to pay US$189 to "PC Cyborg Corporation" in order to obtain a repair tool even though the decryption key could be extracted from the code of the Trojan. The Trojan was also known as "PC Cyborg". Popp was declared mentally unfit to stand trial for his actions, but he promised to donate the profits from the malware to fund AIDS research.

The idea of abusing anonymous cash systems to safely collect ransom from human kidnapping was introduced in 1992 by Sebastiaan von Solms and David Naccache. This electronic money collection method was also proposed for cryptoviral extortion attacks. In the von Solms-Naccache scenario a newspaper publication was used (since bitcoin ledgers did not exist at the time the paper was written).

The notion of using public key cryptography for data kidnapping attacks was introduced in 1996 by Adam L. Young and Moti Yung. Young and Yung critiqued the failed AIDS Information Trojan that relied on symmetric cryptography alone, the fatal flaw being that the decryption key could be extracted from the Trojan, and implemented an experimental proof-of-concept cryptovirus on a Macintosh SE/30 that used RSA and the Tiny Encryption Algorithm (TEA) to hybrid encrypt the victim's data. Since public key cryptography is used, the virus only contains the encryption key. The attacker keeps the corresponding private decryption key private. Young and Yung's original experimental cryptovirus had the victim send the asymmetric ciphertext to the attacker who deciphers it and returns the symmetric decryption key it contains to the victim for a fee. Long before electronic money existed Young and Yung proposed that electronic money could be extorted through encryption as well, stating that "the virus writer can effectively hold all of the money ransom until half of it is given to him. Even if the e-money was previously encrypted by the user, it is of no use to the user if it gets encrypted by a cryptovirus". They referred to these attacks as being "cryptoviral extortion", an overt attack that is part of a larger class of attacks in a field called cryptovirology, which encompasses both overt and covert attacks. The cryptoviral extortion protocol was inspired by the parasitic relationship between H. R. Giger's facehugger and its host in the movie Alien.

Examples of extortionate ransomware became prominent in May 2005. By mid-2006, Trojans such as Gpcode, TROJ.RANSOM.A, Archiveus, Krotten, Cryzip, and MayArchive began utilizing more sophisticated RSA encryption schemes, with ever-increasing key-sizes. Gpcode.AG, which was detected in June 2006, was encrypted with a 660-bit RSA public key. In June 2008, a variant known as Gpcode.AK was detected. Using a 1024-bit RSA key, it was believed large enough to be computationally infeasible to break without a concerted distributed effort.

Encrypting ransomware returned to prominence in late 2013 with the propagation of CryptoLocker—using the Bitcoin digital currency platform to collect ransom money. In December 2013, ZDNet estimated based on Bitcoin transaction information that between 15 October and 18 December, the operators of CryptoLocker had procured about US$27 million from infected users. The CryptoLocker technique was widely copied in the months following, including CryptoLocker 2.0 (thought not to be related to CryptoLocker), CryptoDefense (which initially contained a major design flaw that stored the private key on the infected system in a user-retrievable location, due to its use of Windows' built-in encryption APIs), and the August 2014 discovery of a Trojan specifically targeting network-attached storage devices produced by Synology. In January 2015, it was reported that ransomware-styled attacks have occurred against individual websites via hacking, and through ransomware designed to target Linux-based web servers.

In some infections, there is a two-stage payload, common in many malware systems. The user is tricked into running a script, which downloads the main virus and executes it. In early versions of the dual-payload system, the script was contained in a Microsoft Office document with an attached VBScript macro, or in a windows scripting facility (WSF) file. As detection systems started blocking these first stage payloads, the Microsoft Malware Protection Center identified a trend away toward LNK files with self-contained Microsoft Windows PowerShell scripts. In 2016, PowerShell was found to be involved in nearly 40% of endpoint security incidents,

Some ransomware strains have used proxies tied to Tor hidden services to connect to their command and control servers, increasing the difficulty of tracing the exact location of the criminals. Furthermore, dark web vendors have increasingly started to offer the technology as a service, wherein ransomware is sold, ready for deployment on victims' machines, on a subscription basis, similarly to Adobe Creative Cloud or Office 365.

Symantec has classified ransomware to be the most dangerous cyber threat.

Non-encrypting ransomware
In August 2010, Russian authorities arrested nine individuals connected to a ransomware Trojan known as WinLock. Unlike the previous Gpcode Trojan, WinLock did not use encryption. Instead, WinLock trivially restricted access to the system by displaying pornographic images and asked users to send a premium-rate SMS (costing around US$10) to receive a code that could be used to unlock their machines. The scam hit numerous users across Russia and neighbouring countries—reportedly earning the group over US$16 million.

In 2011, a ransomware Trojan surfaced that imitated the Windows Product Activation notice,  and informed users that a system's Windows installation had to be re-activated due to "[being a] victim of fraud". An online activation option was offered (like the actual Windows activation process), but was unavailable, requiring the user to call one of six international numbers to input a 6-digit code. While the malware claimed that this call would be free, it was routed through a rogue operator in a country with high international phone rates, who placed the call on hold, causing the user to incur large international long-distance charges.

In February 2013, a ransomware Trojan based on the Stamp.EK exploit kit surfaced; the malware was distributed via sites hosted on the project hosting services SourceForge and GitHub that claimed to offer "fake nude pics" of celebrities. In July 2013, an OS X-specific ransomware Trojan surfaced, which displays a web page that accuses the user of downloading pornography. Unlike its Windows-based counterparts, it does not block the entire computer, but simply exploits the behaviour of the web browser itself to frustrate attempts to close the page through normal means.

In July 2013, a 21-year-old man from Virginia, whose computer coincidentally did contain pornographic photographs of underage girls with whom he had conducted sexualized communications, turned himself in to police after receiving and being deceived by FBI MoneyPak Ransomware accusing him of possessing child pornography. An investigation discovered the incriminating files, and the man was charged with child sexual abuse and possession of child pornography.

Exfiltration (Leakware / Doxware)
The converse of ransomware is a cryptovirology attack invented by Adam L. Young that threatens to publish stolen information from the victim's computer system rather than deny the victim access to it. In a leakware attack, malware exfiltrates sensitive host data either to the attacker or alternatively, to remote instances of the malware, and the attacker threatens to publish the victim's data unless a ransom is paid. The attack was presented at West Point in 2003 and was summarized in the book Malicious Cryptography as follows, "The attack differs from the extortion attack in the following way. In the extortion attack, the victim is denied access to its own valuable information and has to pay to get it back, where in the attack that is presented here the victim retains access to the information but its disclosure is at the discretion of the computer virus". The attack is rooted in game theory and was originally dubbed "non-zero sum games and survivable malware". The attack can yield monetary gain in cases where the malware acquires access to information that may damage the victim user or organization, e.g., the reputational damage that could result from publishing proof that the attack itself was a success.

Common targets for exfiltration include:
 third party information stored by the primary victim (such as customer account information or health records);
 information proprietary to the victim (such as trade secrets and product information)
 embarrassing information (such as the victim's health information or information about the victim's personal past)

Exfiltration attacks are usually targeted, with a curated victim list, and often preliminary surveillance of the victim's systems to find potential data targets and weaknesses.

Mobile ransomware
With the increased popularity of ransomware on PC platforms, ransomware targeting mobile operating systems has also proliferated. Typically, mobile ransomware payloads are blockers, as there is little incentive to encrypt data since it can be easily restored via online synchronization. Mobile ransomware typically targets the Android platform, as it allows applications to be installed from third-party sources. The payload is typically distributed as an APK file installed by an unsuspecting user; it may attempt to display a blocking message over top of all other applications, while another used a form of clickjacking to cause the user to give it "device administrator" privileges to achieve deeper access to the system.

Different tactics have been used on iOS devices, such as exploiting iCloud accounts and using the Find My iPhone system to lock access to the device. On iOS 10.3, Apple patched a bug in the handling of JavaScript pop-up windows in Safari that had been exploited by ransomware websites.
It recently has been shown that ransomware may also target ARM architectures like those that can be found in various Internet-of-Things (IoT) devices, such as Industrial IoT edge devices.

In August 2019 researchers demonstrated it's possible to infect DSLR cameras with ransomware. Digital cameras often use Picture Transfer Protocol (PTP - standard protocol used to transfer files.) Researchers found that it was possible to exploit vulnerabilities in the protocol to infect target camera(s) with ransomware (or execute any arbitrary code). This attack was presented at the Defcon security conference in Las Vegas as a proof of concept attack (not as actual armed malware).

Progression of attacks

Summarising the progression of ransomware: the first attacks were on random users, typically infected through email attachments sent by small groups of criminals, demanding a few hundred dollars in cryptocurrency to unlock files (typically a private individual's photographs and documents) that the ransomware had encrypted. As ransomware matured as a business, organised gangs entered the field, advertising on the dark Web for experts, and outsourcing functions. This led to improvement in the quality of ransomware and its success. Rather than random emails, the gangs stole credentials, found vulnerabilities in target networks, and improved the malware to avoid detection by anti-malware scanners. Ransoms demanded escalated into the much larger sums (millions) that an enterprise would pay to recover its data, rather than what an individual would pay for their documents (hundreds). In late 2019 ransomware group Maze downloaded companies' sensitive files before locking them, and threatened to leak the data publicly if the ransom was not paid; in at least one case they did this. Many other gangs followed; "leak sites" were created on the dark web where stolen data could be accessed. Later attacks focussed on the threat to leak data, without necessarily locking it—this negated the protection afforded victims by robust backup procedures.  there is a risk of hostile governments using ransomware to conceal what is actually intelligence gathering.

Notable attack targets

Notable software packages

Reveton

In 2012, a major ransomware Trojan known as Reveton began to spread. Based on the Citadel Trojan (which, itself, is based on the Zeus Trojan), its payload displays a warning purportedly from a law enforcement agency claiming that the computer has been used for illegal activities, such as downloading unlicensed software or child pornography. Due to this behaviour, it is commonly referred to as the "Police Trojan". The warning informs the user that to unlock their system, they would have to pay a fine using a voucher from an anonymous prepaid cash service such as Ukash or paysafecard. To increase the illusion that the computer is being tracked by law enforcement, the screen also displays the computer's IP address, while some versions display footage from a victim's webcam to give the illusion that the user is being recorded.

Reveton initially began spreading in various European countries in early 2012. Variants were localized with templates branded with the logos of different law enforcement organizations based on the user's country; for example, variants used in the United Kingdom contained the branding of organizations such as the Metropolitan Police Service and the Police National E-Crime Unit. Another version contained the logo of the royalty collection society PRS for Music, which specifically accused the user of illegally downloading music. In a statement warning the public about the malware, the Metropolitan Police clarified that they would never lock a computer in such a way as part of an investigation.

In May 2012, Trend Micro threat researchers discovered templates for variations for the United States and Canada, suggesting that its authors may have been planning to target users in North America. By August 2012, a new variant of Reveton began to spread in the United States, claiming to require the payment of a $200 fine to the FBI using a MoneyPak card. In February 2013, a Russian citizen was arrested in Dubai by Spanish authorities for his connection to a crime ring that had been using Reveton; ten other individuals were arrested on money laundering charges. In August 2014, Avast Software reported that it had found new variants of Reveton that also distribute password-stealing malware as part of its payload.

CryptoLocker

Encrypting ransomware reappeared in September 2013 with a Trojan known as CryptoLocker, which generated a 2048-bit RSA key pair and uploaded in turn to a command-and-control server, and used to encrypt files using a whitelist of specific file extensions. The malware threatened to delete the private key if a payment of Bitcoin or a pre-paid cash voucher was not made within 3 days of the infection. Due to the extremely large key size it uses, analysts and those affected by the Trojan considered CryptoLocker extremely difficult to repair. Even after the deadline passed, the private key could still be obtained using an online tool, but the price would increase to 10 BTC—which cost approximately US$2300 as of November 2013.

CryptoLocker was isolated by the seizure of the Gameover ZeuS botnet as part of Operation Tovar, as officially announced by the U.S. Department of Justice on 2 June 2014. The Department of Justice also publicly issued an indictment against the Russian hacker Evgeniy Bogachev for his alleged involvement in the botnet. It was estimated that at least US$3 million was extorted with the malware before the shutdown.

CryptoLocker.F and TorrentLocker
In September 2014, a wave of ransomware Trojans surfaced that first targeted users in Australia, under the names CryptoWall and CryptoLocker (which is, as with CryptoLocker 2.0, unrelated to the original CryptoLocker). The Trojans spread via fraudulent e-mails claiming to be failed parcel delivery notices from Australia Post; to evade detection by automatic e-mail scanners that follow all links on a page to scan for malware, this variant was designed to require users to visit a web page and enter a CAPTCHA code before the payload is actually downloaded, preventing such automated processes from being able to scan the payload. Symantec determined that these new variants, which it identified as CryptoLocker.F, were again, unrelated to the original CryptoLocker due to differences in their operation. A notable victim of the Trojans was the Australian Broadcasting Corporation; live programming on its television news channel ABC News 24 was disrupted for half an hour and shifted to Melbourne studios due to a CryptoWall infection on computers at its Sydney studio.

Another Trojan in this wave, TorrentLocker, initially contained a design flaw comparable to CryptoDefense; it used the same keystream for every infected computer, making the encryption trivial to overcome. However, this flaw was later fixed. By late-November 2014, it was estimated that over 9,000 users had been infected by TorrentLocker in Australia alone, trailing only Turkey with 11,700 infections.

CryptoWall
Another major ransomware Trojan targeting Windows, CryptoWall, first appeared in 2014. One strain of CryptoWall was distributed as part of a malvertising campaign on the Zedo ad network in late-September 2014 that targeted several major websites; the ads redirected to rogue websites that used browser plugin exploits to download the payload. A Barracuda Networks researcher also noted that the payload was signed with a digital signature in an effort to appear trustworthy to security software.
CryptoWall 3.0 used a payload written in JavaScript as part of an email attachment, which downloads executables disguised as JPG images. To further evade detection, the malware creates new instances of explorer.exe and svchost.exe to communicate with its servers. When encrypting files, the malware also deletes volume shadow copies and installs spyware that steals passwords and Bitcoin wallets.

The FBI reported in June 2015 that nearly 1,000 victims had contacted the bureau's Internet Crime Complaint Center to report CryptoWall infections, and estimated losses of at least $18 million.

The most recent version, CryptoWall 4.0, enhanced its code to avoid antivirus detection, and encrypts not only the data in files but also the file names.

Fusob
Fusob is a major family of mobile ransomware. Between April 2015 and March 2016, about 56 percent of accounted mobile ransomware was Fusob.

Like most other pieces of ransomware, it employs scare tactics to extort a hefty sum from the user. The app acts as if it were a notice from the authorities, demanding the victim to pay a fine from $100 to $200 USD or otherwise face a fictitious criminal charge. Fusob requests iTunes gift cards for payment, unlike most cryptocurrency-centric ransomware.

In order to infect devices, Fusob masquerades as a pornographic video player. When it is installed, it first checks the device's system language. If the language is Russian or Eastern-European, Fusob remains dormant. Otherwise, it locks the device and demands ransom. About 40% of victims are in Germany, while the United Kingdom encompasses 14.5% of victims and the US encompasses 11.4%. Fusob and Small (another family of ransomware) represented over 93% of mobile ransomware between 2015 and 2016.

WannaCry

In May 2017, the WannaCry ransomware attack spread through the Internet, using an exploit vector named EternalBlue, which was allegedly leaked from the U.S. National Security Agency. The ransomware attack, unprecedented in scale, infected more than 230,000 computers in over 150 countries, using 20 different languages to demand money from users using Bitcoin cryptocurrency. WannaCry demanded US$300 per computer. The attack affected Telefónica and several other large companies in Spain, as well as parts of the British National Health Service (NHS), where at least 16 hospitals had to turn away patients or cancel scheduled operations, FedEx, Deutsche Bahn, Honda, Renault, as well as the Russian Interior Ministry and Russian telecom MegaFon. The attackers gave their victims a 7-day deadline from the day their computers got infected, after which the encrypted files would be deleted.

Petya

Petya was first discovered in March 2016; unlike other forms of encrypting ransomware, the malware aimed to infect the master boot record, installing a payload which encrypts the file tables of the NTFS file system the next time that the infected system boots, blocking the system from booting into Windows at all until the ransom is paid. Check Point reported that despite what it believed to be an innovative evolution in ransomware design, it had resulted in relatively-fewer infections than other ransomware active around the same time frame.

On 27 June 2017, a heavily modified version of Petya was used for a global cyberattack primarily targeting Ukraine (but affecting many countries). This version had been modified to propagate using the same EternalBlue exploit that was used by WannaCry. Due to another design change, it is also unable to actually unlock a system after the ransom is paid; this led to security analysts speculating that the attack was not meant to generate illicit profit, but to simply cause disruption.

Bad Rabbit

On 24 October 2017, some users in Russia and Ukraine reported a new ransomware attack, named "Bad Rabbit", which follows a similar pattern to WannaCry and Petya by encrypting the user's file tables and then demands a Bitcoin payment to decrypt them. ESET believed the ransomware to have been distributed by a bogus update to Adobe Flash software. Among agencies that were affected by the ransomware were: Interfax, Odesa International Airport, Kyiv Metro, and the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine. As it used corporate network structures to spread, the ransomware was also discovered in other countries, including Turkey, Germany, Poland, Japan, South Korea, and the United States. Experts believed the ransomware attack was tied to the Petya attack in Ukraine (especially because Bad Rabbit's code has many overlapping and analogical elements to the code of Petya/NotPetya, appending to CrowdStrike Bad Rabbit and NotPetya's DLL (dynamic link library) share 67 percent of the same code) though the only identity to the culprits are the names of characters from the Game of Thrones series embedded within the code.

Security experts found that the ransomware did not use the EternalBlue exploit to spread, and a simple method to inoculate an unaffected machine running older Windows versions was found by 24 October 2017. Further, the sites that had been used to spread the bogus Flash updating have gone offline or removed the problematic files within a few days of its discovery, effectively killing off the spread of Bad Rabbit.

SamSam
In 2016, a new strain of ransomware emerged that was targeting JBoss servers. This strain, named "SamSam", was found to bypass the process of phishing or illicit downloads in favor of exploiting vulnerabilities on weak servers. The malware uses a Remote Desktop Protocol brute-force attack to guess weak passwords until one is broken. The virus has been behind attacks on government and healthcare targets, with notable hacks occurring against the town of Farmington, New Mexico, the Colorado Department of Transportation, Davidson County, North Carolina, and most recently, a ransomware attack on the infrastructure of Atlanta.

Mohammad Mehdi Shah Mansouri (born in Qom, Iran in 1991) and Faramarz Shahi Savandi (born in Shiraz, Iran, in 1984) are wanted by the FBI for allegedly launching SamSam ransomware. The two have allegedly made $6 million from extortion and caused over $30 million in damages using the malware.

DarkSide
On May 7, 2021, a cyberattack was executed on the US Colonial Pipeline. The Federal Bureau of Investigation identified DarkSide as the perpetrator of the Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack, perpetrated by malicious code, that led to a voluntary shutdown of the main pipeline supplying 45% of fuel to the East Coast of the United States. The attack was described as the worst cyberattack to date on the U.S. critical infrastructure. DarkSide successfully extorted about 75 Bitcoin (almost US$5 million) from Colonial Pipeline. U.S. officials are investigating whether the attack was purely criminal or took place with the involvement of the Russian government or another state sponsor. Following the attack, DarkSide posted a statement claiming that "We are apolitical, we do not participate in geopolitics...Our goal is to make money and not creating problems for society."

In May 2021, the FBI and Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) issued a joint alert urging the owners and operators of critical infrastructure to take certain steps to reduce their vulnerability to DarkSide ransomware and ransomware in general.

Syskey
Syskey is a utility that was included with Windows NT-based operating systems to encrypt the user account database, optionally with a password. The tool has sometimes been effectively used as ransomware during technical support scams—where a caller with remote access to the computer may use the tool to lock the user out of their computer with a password known only to them. Syskey was removed from later versions of Windows 10 and Windows Server in 2017, due to being obsolete and "known to be used by hackers as part of ransomware scams".

Ransomware-as-a-service
Ransomware-as-a-service (RaaS) became a notable method after the Russia-based or Russian-speaking group REvil staged operations against several targets, including the Brazil-based  JBS S.A. in May 2021, and the US-based Kaseya Limited in July 2021. After a July 9, 2021 phone call between United States president Joe Biden and Russian president Vladimir Putin, Biden told the press, "I made it very clear to him that the United States expects when a ransomware operation is coming from his soil even though it's not sponsored by the state, we expect them to act if we give them enough information to act on who that is." Biden later added that the United States would take the group's servers down if Putin did not. Four days later, REvil websites and other infrastructure vanished from the internet.

Mitigation
If an attack is suspected or detected in its early stages, it takes some time for encryption to take place; immediate removal of the malware (a relatively simple process) before it has completed would stop further damage to data, without salvaging any already lost.

Security experts have suggested precautionary measures for dealing with ransomware. Using software or other security policies to block known payloads from launching will help to prevent infection, but will not protect against all attacks As such, having a proper backup solution is a critical component to defending against ransomware. Note that, because many ransomware attackers will not only encrypt the victim's live machine but it will also attempt to delete any hot backups stored locally or on accessible over the network on a NAS, it's also critical to maintain "offline" backups of data stored in locations inaccessible from any potentially infected computer, such as external storage drives or devices that do not have any access to any network (including the Internet), prevents them from being accessed by the ransomware. Moreover, if using a NAS or Cloud storage, then the computer should have append-only permission to the destination storage, such that it cannot delete or overwrite previous backups. According to comodo, applying two Attack Surface Reduction on OS/Kernel provides a materially-reduced attack surface which results in a heightened security posture.

Installing security updates issued by software vendors can mitigate the vulnerabilities leveraged by certain strains to propagate. Other measures include cyber hygiene − exercising caution when opening e-mail attachments and links, network segmentation, and keeping critical computers isolated from networks. Furthermore, to mitigate the spread of ransomware measures of infection control can be applied. Such may include disconnecting infected machines from all networks, educational programs, effective communication channels, malware surveillance and ways of collective participation

In August 2021, the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) released a report that provided guidance for how to mitigate ransomware attacks. This was due to a significant jump in recent attacks related to ransomware. These attacks included aggression against a US pipeline company and a software company, which impacted the downstream customers of MSPs.

File system defenses against ransomware
A number of file systems keep snapshots of the data they hold, which can be used to recover the contents of files from a time prior to the ransomware attack in the event the ransomware does not disable it.

 On Windows, the Volume shadow copy (VSS) is often used to store backups of data; ransomware often targets these snapshots to prevent recovery and therefore it is often advisable to disable user access to the user tool VSSadmin.exe to reduce the risk that ransomware can disable or delete past copies.
On Windows 10, users can add specific directories or files to Controlled Folder Access in Windows Defender to protect them from ransomware. It is advised to add backup and other important directories to Controlled Folder Access.
 Unless malware gains root on the ZFS host system in deploying an attack coded to issue ZFS administrative commands, file servers running ZFS are broadly immune to ransomware, because ZFS is capable of snapshotting even a large file system many times an hour, and these snapshots are immutable (read only) and easily rolled back or files recovered in the event of data corruption. In general, only an administrator can delete (but cannot modify) snapshots.

File decryption and recovery
There are a number of tools intended specifically to decrypt files locked by ransomware, although successful recovery may not be possible. If the same encryption key is used for all files, decryption tools use files for which there are both uncorrupted backups and encrypted copies (a known-plaintext attack in the jargon of cryptanalysis. But it only works when the cipher the attacker used was weak to begin with, being vulnerable to known-plaintext attack); recovery of the key, if it is possible, may take several days. Free ransomware decryption tools can help decrypt files encrypted by the following forms of ransomware: AES_NI, Alcatraz Locker, Apocalypse, BadBlock, Bart, BTCWare, Crypt888, CryptoMix, CrySiS, EncrypTile, FindZip, Globe, Hidden Tear, Jigsaw, LambdaLocker, Legion, NoobCrypt, Stampado, SZFLocker, TeslaCrypt, XData. The No More Ransom Project is an initiative by the Netherlands' police's National High Tech Crime Unit, Europol's European Cybercrime Centre, Kaspersky Lab and McAfee to help ransomware victims recover their data without paying a ransom. They offer a free CryptoSheriff tool to analyze encrypted files and search for decryption tools.

In addition, old copies of files may exist on the disk, which has been previously deleted. In some cases, these deleted versions may still be recoverable using software designed for that purpose.

Growth

Ransomware malicious software was first confined to one or two countries in Eastern Europe and subsequently spread across the Atlantic to the United States and Canada. The number of cyberattacks during 2020 was double that of 2019. The first versions of this type of malware used various techniques to disable the computers by locking the victims system machine (Locker Ransomware) [133]. Ransomware uses different tactics to extort victims. One of the most common methods is locking the device's screen by displaying a message from a branch of local law enforcement alleging that the victim must pay a fine for illegal activity. The ransomware may request a payment by sending an SMS message to a premium rate number. Some similar variants of the malware display pornographic image content and demanded payment for the removal of it.

In 2016, a significant uptick in ransomware attacks on hospitals was noted. According to the 2017 Internet Security Threat Report from Symantec Corp, ransomware affected not only IT systems but also patient care, clinical operations, and billing. Online criminals may be motivated by the money available and sense of urgency within the healthcare system.

Ransomware is growing rapidly across the internet users but also for the IoT environment. The big problem is that millions of dollars are lost by some organizations and industries that have decided to pay, such as the Hollywood Presbyterian Medical Center and the MedStar Health.

According to Symantec 2019 ISTR report, for the first time since 2013, in 2018 there was an observed decrease in ransomware activity with a drop of 20 percent. Before 2017, consumers were the preferred victims, but in 2017 this changed dramatically, it moved to the enterprises. In 2018 this path accelerated with 81 percent infections which represented a 12 percent increase. The common distribution method today is based on email campaigns.

The first reported death following a ransomware attack was at a German hospital in October 2020.

Criminal arrests and convictions

Zain Qaiser
A British student, Zain Qaiser, from Barking, London was jailed for more than six years at Kingston upon Thames Crown Court for his ransomware attacks in 2019. He is said to have been "the most prolific cyber criminal to be sentenced in the UK". He became active when he was only 17. He contacted the Russian controller of one of the most powerful attacks, believed to be the Lurk malware gang, and arranged for a split of his profits. He also contacted online criminals from China and the US to move the money. For about one and a half years, he posed as a legitimate supplier of online promotions of book advertising on some of the world's most visited legal pornography websites. Each of the adverts that were promoted on the websites contained the Reveton Ransomware strain of the malicious Angler Exploit Kit (AEK) that seized control of the machine. Investigators discovered about £700,000 of earnings, although his network may have earned more than £4m. He may have hidden some money using cryptocurrencies. The ransomware would instruct victims to buy GreenDot MoneyPak vouchers and enter the code in the Reveton panel displayed on the screen. This money entered a MoneyPak account managed by Qaiser, who would then deposit the voucher payments into the debit card account of his American co-conspirator,  Raymond Odigie Uadiale. Uadiale was a student at Florida International University during 2012 and 2013 and later worked for Microsoft. Uadiale would convert the money into Liberty Reserve digital currency and deposit it into Qaiser's Liberty Reserve account.

A breakthrough, in this case, occurred in May 2013 when authorities from several countries seized the Liberty Reserve servers, obtaining access to all its transactions and account history. Qaiser was running encrypted virtual machines on his Macbook Pro with both Mac and Windows operating systems. He could not be tried earlier because he was sectioned (involuntarily committed) under the UK Mental Health Act of 1983 at Goodmayes Hospital where he was found to be using the hospital Wi-Fi to access his advertising sites. His lawyer claimed that Qaiser had suffered from mental illness. Russian police arrested 50 members of the Lurk malware gang in June 2016. Uadiale, a naturalized US citizen of Nigerian descent, was jailed for 18 months.

Freedom of speech challenges and criminal punishment
The publication of proof-of-concept attack code is common among academic researchers and vulnerability researchers.
It teaches the nature of the threat, conveys the gravity of the issues, and enables countermeasures to be devised and put into place. However, lawmakers with the support of law-enforcement bodies are contemplating making the creation of ransomware illegal. In the state of Maryland, the original draft of HB 340 made it a felony to create ransomware, punishable by up to 10 years in prison. However, this provision was removed from the final version of the bill.
A minor in Japan was arrested for creating and distributing ransomware code.
Young and Yung have had the ANSI C source code to a ransomware cryptotrojan on-line, at cryptovirology.com, since 2005 as part of a cryptovirology book being written. The source code to the cryptotrojan is still live on the Internet and is
associated with a draft of Chapter 2.

See also

References

Further reading

External links

 Incidents of Ransomware on the Rise – Federal Bureau of Investigation

Types of malware
Security breaches

Ransomware


Saleem H. Ali (born 1973) is a Pakistani American Australian academic who is the Blue and Gold Distinguished Professor of Energy and the Environment at the University of Delaware and also directs the university's Minerals, Materials and Society program.  He has also held the chair in Sustainable Resources Development at the University of Queensland in Brisbane Australia where he retains affiliation as an Honorary Professor. He is also a senior fellow at Columbia University's Center on Sustainable Investment. Previously he was Professor of Environmental Studies at the University of Vermont's Rubenstein School of Natural Resources, and the founding director of the Institute for Environmental Diplomacy and Security as well as a Fellow at the Gund Institute. Previously, he served as an advisor on environmental and social impact assessment to the deep sea mining company DeepGreen, which is sponsored by the governments of three small-island developing states: Nauru, Kiribati and Tonga, under the auspices of the International Seabed Authority

Having visited more than 150 countries, he is known for his work on environmental conflict resolution, particularly in the extractive industries and was profiled in Forbes magazine in September, 2009 as "The Alchemist." His book "Treasures of the Earth: Need Greed and a Sustainable Future" (Yale University Press, October, 2009) received a cover endorsement by Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus for providing a " welcome linkage between environmental behavior and poverty alleviation."  In May 2010, he was also chosen by National Geographic as an "emerging explorer" with a profile appearing in the June 2010 issue of National Geographic Magazine. In March 2011, he was also selected by the World Economic Forum as a "Young Global Leader." He serves on the board of Adventure Scientists, Mediators Beyond Borders International  and RESOLVE.

Research Work
Dr. Ali's research focuses on integrative approaches to achieving planetary sustainability through technical and social mechanisms. In particular, he has studied the causes and consequences of multiscale environmental conflicts between industry, communities and government and how ecological factors can promote peace. He has previously served on the faculty of Brown University's  Watson Institute for International Studies and on the visiting faculty for the United Nations University for Peace (Costa Rica).  Much of his empirical research has focused on environmental conflicts in the mineral sector. In September 2007, he was chosen as one of eight "revolutionary minds" by Seed magazine.

Professor Ali was elected to the United Nations International Resource Panel in 2017 and to the Science Panel of the Global Environment Facility in 2018, and is also a member of the World Commission on Protected areas and the IUCN Taskforce on Transboundary Conservation. He has also been involved in promoting environmental education in madrasahs and using techniques from environmental planning to study the rise of these institutions in his ethnic homeland of Pakistan, under a grant from the United States Institute of Peace. In much of his research efforts, Dr. Ali involves a multi-media component, often involving his students in making video documentaries of their empirical work. From 2005 to 2008, he received two grants from the Tiffany & Co. Foundation to investigate the environmental and social impact of gemstone and gold mining. He also completed a report on oil and gas pipelines as a source of cooperation that was researched while based at the Brookings Institution research center in Doha, Qatar in 2009. His report on "Ecological Cooperation in South Asia" was launched in Washington at an event hosted by Peter Bergen in January 2013. Subsequently, he has also contributed to science diplomacy anthologies pertaining to South Asia for the Stimson Center and The Middle East Institute.

Professor Ali's research appointments include, a Baker Foundation Research Fellowship at Harvard Business School, a Bellagio Residency with the Rockefeller Foundation and a parliamentary internship at the British House of Commons. He has taught courses on environmental planning, conflict resolution, industrial ecology, research methods and technical writing and has been is actively involved in online learning platforms such as EdX.

Prior to embarking on an academic career, Dr. Ali worked as an environmental health and safety professional at General Electric. He also served as a consultant for the Environmental Protection Agency, Fish and Wildlife Service, and Health Canada.  Yet other of his projects included a mining impact prospectus for the Crow Nation and research assistance to Cultural Survival.

He has also served as an editor for the University of Chicago Press book series on environmental science, law and policy. and is a Senior Fellow of the Foreign Policy Research Institute. During the COVID pandemic, he collaborated with film-maker Alex Tyson to produce and screen-write a short film on the hidden materials behind the infrastructure needed to work from home titled "Material Zoom" which was profiled by the United Nations Environment Programme.

Education
Professor Ali earned a doctorate in environmental planning from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where his doctoral committee was chaired by Lawrence Susskind. He received a master's degree (M.E.S.) in environmental law and policy from Yale University, (thesis advisor Daniel C. Esty), and a bachelor's degree in chemistry from Tufts University. He did his secondary schooling at Aitchison College Lahore, Pakistan with primary schooling at the Friends Academy and the Job. S. Gidley School in North Dartmouth, Massachusetts.

Personal life

Saleem Ali was born to Pakistani immigrant parents, who came to America from Lahore, Pakistan in 1971. His father Dr. Shaukat Ali (1923-2003) was a Professor of Political Science at the University of Massachusetts (Dartmouth Campus) and his mother, Dr. Parveen Shaukat Ali (born 1933), served as Vice Principal of Forman Christian College in Lahore, Pakistan. He has two sisters, Irfana Qadir (married to Basharat Qadir, the son of the former foreign minister of Pakistan, Manzur Qadir), and the Canadian writer and activist Farzana Hassan. In public interviews he has noted that his parents had very different backgrounds and personalities. His mother came from an upper-middle-income family with Afghan heritage (Syeds from Herat) while his father was a first-generation school-goer from an impoverished Punjabi family in Lahore. Thanks to a scholarship from the Ford Foundation his father was able to get higher studies at The University of Southern California while his mother attended Stanford University.  In the dedication of his first book he notes: "to my mother who taught me the virtue of principled confrontation and to my father from whom I learned the value of pragmatic conciliation.". Saleem Ali's wife Maria (Kashmiri) a psychologist by training and the daughter of the former headmaster of Aitchison College Saleem Kashmiri and the sister of Pakistani-American artist Amr Kashmiri. The couple have two sons Dr. Shahmir Ali, a public health professional, and Shahroze Ali, a hydrologist for the State of Delaware.

Bibliography
Mining, the environment, and indigenous development conflicts, Saleem H. Ali, University of Arizona Press, 2003,
Peace Parks: Conservation and Conflict Resolution, Saleem H. Ali ed. MIT Press, 2007,
Earth Matters: Indigenous People, The Extractive Industries and Corporate Social Responsibility, Ciaran O'Faircheallaigh and Saleem Ali eds. Greenleaf Publications, 2008,
Islam and Education: Conflict and Conformity in Pakistan's Madrassahs, Saleem H. Ali, Oxford University Press, 2009,
Treasures of the Earth: Need, Greed and a Sustainable Future, Saleem H. Ali, Yale University Press, 2009,
Environmental Diplomacy: Negotiating More Effective Global Agreements, Lawrence Susskind and Saleem H. Ali, Oxford University Press, 2014,
Diplomacy on Ice: Energy and the Environment in the Arctic and Antarctic Rebecca Pincus and Saleem H. Ali eds., Yale University Press, 2015,
Africa's Mineral Fortune Saleem H. Ali, Kathryn Sturman and Nina Collins eds., Routledge, 2018
Earthly Order: How Natural Laws Define Human Life Saleem H. Ali, Oxford University Press, 2022
Soil to Foil: Aluminum and the Quest for Industrial Sustainability Saleem H. Ali, Columbia University Press, 2023
Google Scholar Citations of Peer-reviewed articles by Saleem H. Ali

References

External links
University of Delaware Profile of Saleem H. Ali
Saleem H. Ali, Profile at Columbia University
National Geographic Profile of Saleem H. Ali
World Economic Forum profile of Saleem H. Ali
Forbes Profile of Saleem H. Ali
Saleem Ali's web site at UVM with links to online articles
University of Queensland Profile
Sustainable Pearls Project Web Site
Tropical Gold: Reversal of Fortune in Fiji -- research site and documentary
Gems and the Environment
Madrassa Research in Pakistan
Environmental Conflict Resolution Research Library

Living people
Harvard Business School people
1973 births
Environmental scientists
Academic staff of the University of Queensland
Aitchison College alumni
American academics of Pakistani descent
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Yale University alumni

Saleem Ali (academic)


Sir Thomas Douglas Forsyth  (7 October 1827 – 17 December 1886) was an Anglo-Indian administrator and diplomat.

Early life
Forsyth was born in Birkenhead on 7 October 1827. He was the tenth child of Thomas Forsyth, a Liverpool merchant. His brother was the barrister William Forsyth. He was educated at Sherborne, Rugby and under private tuition, until he entered the East India Company's College at Haileybury, where he remained until December 1847.

In the subcontinent
He embarked for India in January 1848 and arrived at Calcutta in the following March. Here he gained honours in Persian, Hindustani, and Hindi at the company's college, and in September of the same year was appointed to a post under Edward Thornton at Saharanpur. On the annexation of the Punjab after the Second Anglo-Sikh War in March 1849, he was appointed to take part in the administration of the new province, and was sent by Sir Henry Lawrence, together with Colonel Marsden, as deputy-commissioner over him, to Pakpattan. He was shortly afterwards appointed by Lord Dalhousie to the post of assistant-commissioner at Simla. While holding this post he married in 1850 Alice Mary, daughter of Thomas Plumer of Canons Park, Edgware.

He was next stationed at Kangra, where he remained until 1854 when an attack of brain fever obliged him to return for a time to England. On going back to India he spent a short time as deputy-commissioner, first at Gurdaspur and subsequently at Rawalpindi, whence he was transferred in 1855 to Umballa. He was here at the outbreak of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, detected the first signs of disaffection, and reported them. After the capture of Delhi he was one of the special commissioners appointed to hunt up the rebels, and in this capacity was principally engaged in examining the papers of the Nana of Cawnpore. He arrived at Lucknow in time to see the city evacuated by the rebels, and after this event acted as secretary successively to Sir James Outram, Sir Robert Montgomery, and Charles John Wingfield, until, in 1860, he was appointed commissioner to the Punjab. For his services during the rebellion, he received the Order of Companion of the Bath.

In 1867 he visited Leh, the capital of Ladakh, with the object of obtaining from the Kashmir officials a removal of restrictions on trade between Xinjiang and the Punjab. On his return, he instituted an annual fair at Palampur, in the Kangra valley, to which he invited traders from Xinjiang. The experiences which he gained in this way encouraged him in the idea of improving relations between the Indian government, Central Asia and the Russians. Lord Mayo approved and authorised him to proceed to England, and if possible to St. Petersburg, with the object of arranging with the Russian government a definition of the territories of the Amir of Kabul. In this mission, he succeeded in proving that the disputed districts belonged to the Amir, and obtained from the Russian government an acknowledgement to that effect.

Forsyth returned to India in 1869. At this time Yakub Beg, as the separatist anti-Chinese leader of Yarkand and Kashgar, in order to establish relations between the territories occupied by his army and India, had sent an envoy to the viceroy with the request that a British officer might be deputed to visit him. Forsyth was instructed to return with the envoy, without political capacity, for the purpose of acquiring information about the people and country. The journey from Lahore to Yarkand and back, a distance of two thousand miles, was accomplished in six months; but the expedition failed to produce all the results expected from it, because of the absence of the amir from his capital on its arrival. Of the part of the journey over the high table land ( above sea level) connecting the Karakoram and Kuen Luen ranges, Forsyth wrote that the influence on him was so great:
 "a good breath, even when the body was in a state of rest, was a luxury seldom enjoyed ... and a feeling of exhaustion and severe nausea were continuous."

In 1872 resistance by the Namdhari (Kuka) sect of Ram Singh occurred at Malerkotla. Troops were at once ordered to the disaffected districts, and Forsyth was entrusted with the duty of suppressing the insurrection. His powers on this occasion seem not to have been sufficiently defined, and Lambert Cowan, the then commissioner of Ludhiana, had anticipated his arrival by executing many of the rebels, a course of action which, though contrary to instructions, Forsyth felt bound to support. When the insurrection was put down, an inquiry instituted into the conduct of Forsyth and Cowan resulted in the removal of both from their appointments. Forsyth appealed against this decision to Lord Northbrook who had recently come out as viceroy; he was compensated by being appointed in 1873 envoy on a mission to Kashgar. The object of this mission was to conclude a commercial treaty with the Amir, and it resulted in the removal of hindrances to trade between the two countries. Among the Indian Army officers who accompanied Forsyth were Thomas E. Gordon, John Biddulph, Henry Bellew, Ferdinand Stoliczka, Henry Trotter and R. A. Champman. On his return, Forsyth received the order of Knight Commander of the Star of India.

In 1875 Forsyth was sent as envoy to the King of Burma to obtain a settlement of the question which had arisen between the British and Burmese governments as to the relation of the Karenni States, a question which was settled by an agreement, proposed by the king of Burma, that these states should be acknowledged as independent.

Later life
Forsyth left India on furlough in 1876. In the following year, he resigned and occupied himself during the remaining years of his life in the direction of Indian railway companies. In 1879 he formed a company for the purpose of connecting Marmagao, in Portuguese India, with the Southern Mahratta and Deccan countries; and in 1883 he was deputed by the board of directors to visit India and report upon the progress of the works.

He died on 17 December 1886 at Eastbourne.

Legacy
Forsyth is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of Chinese lizard, Phrynocephalus forsythii.

Works
Yarkand (Forsyth's mission) (1871)

Report of a Mission to Yarkund in 1873, Under Command of Sir T. D. Forsyth ... (1875)
Report of a Mission to Yarkund in 1873 : vol.1
Autobiography and Reminiscences of Sir Douglas Forsyth, C.B., K.C.S.I., F.R.G.S. Edited by his daughter. Publisher: R. Bentley and Son, London, 1887

References

Sources

1827 births
1886 deaths
Administrators in British India
Anglo-Indian people
19th-century English people
People from Birkenhead
People educated at Sherborne School
People educated at Rugby School
Explorers of Central Asia
Knights Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society
British people of the Indian Rebellion of 1857

Thomas Douglas Forsyth


Give a Man a Job is a short film produced in 1933 in conjunction with the National Recovery Administration in which audience members were encouraged to offer jobs to the unemployed in the midst of the Great Depression. The film featured Jimmy Durante explaining to an audience through a comic song how they could generate employment. Upon learning that a banker drives his own car, Durante suggests that he "hire a chauffeur / And keep a good man from becoming a loafer." He also has an exchange with Moe Howard playing an exterminator, suggesting that NRA stands for "No Rats Allowed." The film closes with an image of President Franklin Roosevelt and the words "If the old name of Roosevelt / Makes your old heart throb / Then take this message, straight from the President / And give a man a job!"

External links

Download Give a Man a Job from the Prelinger Archives

1933 films
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer short films
American black-and-white films
Great Depression films
American musical films
1933 musical films
1930s English-language films
1930s American films

Give a Man a Job


Balloonfest '86 was a 1986 event in Cleveland, Ohio. Almost one and a half million balloons were released into the sky. It was meant to raise money for United Way. The balloons flew over Lake Erie and areas near there. They caused problems for traffic, an airport, and the United States Coast Guard. Two boaters were found dead from drowning. The city faced lawsuits of millions of dollars in damage.

Events in the United States
1986 in the United States
20th century in Cleveland
1980s in Ohio

Balloonfest '86


Nikolaus I, Prince Esterházy (, ; slovensky Mikuláš I. Esterházy; 18 December 171428 September 1790) was a Hungarian prince, a member of the famous Esterházy family. His building of palaces, extravagant clothing, and taste for opera and other grand musical productions led to his being given the title "the Magnificent". He is remembered as the principal employer of the composer Joseph Haydn.

Life

Nikolaus Esterházy was the son of Prince Joseph (József Simon Antal, 1688–1721), and the younger brother of Prince Paul Anton (Pál Antal, 1711–1762). He took the title of Prince on his brother's death.

His name is given in various languages:  German (the language of the Habsburg Court) "Nikolaus Josef", Hungarian (probably his native language) "Miklós József," and (in English contexts) the English form of his name, "Nicholas".

In early life he was educated by Jesuits.  He became a military officer, serving the Austrian Empire.  Of his military career, Robbins Landon notes that he achieved, "considerable distinction, particularly as Colonel at the Battle of Kolin (1757) in the Seven Years' War where, with great personal courage, he led the wavering cavalry troops to victory.  He was later made a Lieutenant Field-Marshal." Subsequently he became one of the original members of the Order of Maria Theresa. In 1762 he was appointed captain of Maria Theresa's Hungarian bodyguard, in 1764 Feldzeugmeister, and in 1768 field marshal. His other honours included the Golden Fleece and the grade of commander in the Order of Maria Theresa.

Robbins Landon narrates Nikolaus's marriage thus:  "On 4 March 1737, he married Freiin Marie Elisabeth, daughter of Reichsgraf (Count of the Holy Roman Empire) Ferdinand von Weissenwolf". His son Anton I, Prince Esterházy became the father of Nikolaus II, Prince Esterházy, patron of well known musicians and composers.

During the period before his brother Paul Anton's death, Nikolaus held the title of Count.  He generally lived apart from his brother, favoring a hunting lodge near the Neusiedlersee in Hungary. The brothers got along well, however, at least as can be determined from their correspondence.

Upon his brother's death in 1762, Paul Anton having had no children, Nikolaus inherited the title of Prince. Joseph II conferred the title of Prince, which had previously been limited to the eldest-born of the house, on all his descendants, male and female.

In 1766, Nikolaus began the construction of a magnificent new palace constructed at Eszterháza (now Fertőd), in rural Hungary on the site of his old hunting lodge. This is the most admired of the various Esterházy homes, is often called the "Hungarian Versailles," and is a tourist attraction today.  The Prince at first spent only summers there, but gradually came to spend ten months of the year—much to the distress of his musicians; see the tale of the "Farewell" Symphony.  Nikolaus evidently did not enjoy Vienna (where most of the Empire's landed aristocrats spent much of their time) and the time he spent away from Eszterháza was mostly at the old family seat in Eisenstadt.

Nikolaus had a very high income; according to some sources, he was richer than the Austrian Emperor.  However, his expenses were also high, and on his death his son and successor Anton (Antal, 1738–1794) was forced to retrench financially.

Personal characteristics

Nikolaus carried over habits he had acquired in the military to the administration of his household and lands.  His chief administrator, Peter Ludwig von Rahier, was likewise a military man, and the highest ranking servants (including Joseph Haydn) were designated as "house officers" and ate at a special table provided for them.

The Prince insisted on honesty and exact adherence to procedure in his officials.  At one point he issued "a detailed printed document to his subordinates, containing all manner of ... instructions and advice ('locks on granaries must be subject to checks'; 'officials must be polite'; 'intoxication is the greatest vice'; 'the bee-hives are to be counted'; 'officials must lead God-fearing lives')."  In fact, his management style was successful, insofar as "by the time of his death in 1790, he had greatly increased the wealth of the family estates."

Nikolaus was extravagant in his clothing budget, and wore a famous jacket studded with diamonds.  He was also "intensely musical" (Robbins Landon and Jones, 35), and he played the cello, the viola da gamba, and his favourite instrument, the difficult and now-obscure baryton.

Goethe, who beheld Nikolaus in Frankfurt on a diplomatic mission during the coronation of Joseph II in 1764, described him as 'not tall, though well-formed, lively, and at the same time eminently decorous, without pride or coldness.'

Benevolence

Nikolaus did not spend all of his income on himself; Karl Geiringer, in his biography of Haydn, documents a program of social welfare maintained by the Prince for his employees: "Prince Nicolaus often showed himself to be generous and kindhearted and by and large displayed a degree of social-mindedness uncommon at that time.  He paid pensions to aged employees, and bestowed small sums on their widows.  He supported a modest hospital in Eisenstadt and another in Eszterháza, which were available to the court employees.  The medicines dispensed by the monastery of the Brothers of the Order of Mercy were, in most cases, paid for by the Prince.  Any employee was entitled to consult one of the three physicians attached to the court, and, if the doctor so advised, an ailing servant was sent at the sovereign's expense to a spa to receive treatment."

Nikolaus and Joseph Haydn

Nikolaus did not hire Haydn, but rather "inherited" him from his brother, who had hired him as Vice Kapellmeister in 1761.  He was responsible for the promotion of Haydn to full Kapellmeister on the death of the old Kapellmeister, Gregor Werner, in 1766.

It is evident that, following a brief initial rough period (Haydn was reprimanded for negligence in 1765), the prince ultimately came to treasure Haydn.  For instance, he frequently presented Haydn with gold ducats in praise of individual compositions, twice rebuilt Haydn's house when it burnt down (1768, 1776), and reversed a decision (1780) to dismiss the mediocre soprano Luigia Polzelli from the payroll when it became evident that Polzelli had become Haydn's mistress.  Haydn was also allowed (1766) to retain another mediocre singer on the payroll, his younger brother Johann.

The official reprimand of 1765 included wording insisting that Haydn compose more works for the Prince's favorite instrument, the baryton.  Haydn responded immediately, and in the period starting at this time and continuing into the mid-1770s wrote 126 baryton trios, as well as other works for the instrument.  The baryton being quite obscure today, this music is not often played at present.

In his later life Nikolaus played much less, listening to ceaseless performances of operas produced by Haydn and his troupe both for the main theatre and for the marionette theatre at Esterhaza.  Haydn wrote several of these operas himself (see List of operas by Joseph Haydn).  These are likewise among his least remembered works.

There is no sign that Nikolaus had any real interest in Haydn's string quartets, now considered among his greatest works. However, there is one area of Haydn's œuvre where Nikolaus can be uncontroversially considered a great patron of musical arts, as he was the primary sponsor of Haydn's series of symphonies.  Of the 106 symphonies, those following the series written for Count Morzin (Haydn's first employer) and for Paul Anton, and before the Paris symphonies of the late 1780s, were written specifically at Nikolaus's instigation.  They were premiered by a small orchestra that Nikolaus provided to Haydn, giving the composer ample rehearsal time, salary levels to attract top personnel, and full artistic control.  Few composers can ever have claimed to have possessed such an incubator for their creations, and the symphonies that Haydn wrote for this ensemble can fairly be regarded as Nikolaus's gift to posterity.

The orchestra maintained by the Prince was much smaller than modern symphony orchestras; in the 1760s it numbered only about 13-15.  Later, particularly with the introduction of opera performances, the orchestra was expanded, reaching a peak of about 22–24.

A letter of Haydn's tells us that Nikolaus was disconsolate at the death (25 February 1790) of his wife, Princess Maria Elisabeth.  The composer struggled to keep his employer's spirits up with music during the few months that he survived her.

Notes

References

Larsen, Jens Peter (1980) "Joseph Haydn," article in the 1980 edition of the New Grove.  Republished 1982 as a separate volume, The New Grove:  Haydn, by W. W. Norton.  Page numbers refer to the separate volume version.
Webster, James and Georg Feder (2001) "Joseph Haydn".  Article in the New Grove.  Published separately as The New Grove Haydn.

Nicholas I Esterhazy
Haydn's patrons
18th-century Hungarian people
1714 births
1790 deaths
Nicholas I Esterhazy
18th-century composers
18th-century male musicians
18th-century musicians
Commanders Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa
18th-century philanthropists

Nikolaus I, Prince Esterházy


The Bekhterev–Jacobsohn reflex, or Jacobsohn's finger flexion sign, is a clinical sign found in patients with pyramidal tract lesions of the upper limb. In this condition, stroking the dorsum of the forearm, in the area of the distal radius, with the arm supine causes abduction of the hand and flexion of the fingers.

It is analogous to the Bekhterev–Mendel reflex in the lower limb.

The reflex is named after Vladimir Bekhterev and Louis Jacobsohn-Lask.

References

Medical signs
Reflexes

Bekhterev–Jacobsohn reflex


Warm Springs Historic District is a historic district in Warm Springs, Georgia, United States. It includes Franklin Delano Roosevelt's Little White House and the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation, where Roosevelt indulged in its warm springs. Other buildings in the district tend to range from the 1920s and 1930s. Much of the district looks the same as it did when Roosevelt frequented the area.

Evidence indicates that the springs were used by prehistoric people, and, as when Roosevelt used the springs, the temperature was .

History

Residents of Savannah, Georgia, began spending vacations at Bullochville in the late 18th century as a way to escape yellow fever, finding the number of warm springs in the vicinity of Bullochville very attractive. In the 1880s and 1890s, traveling to the warm springs was a way to get away from Atlanta, and many prosperous Southerners vacationed there. Traveling by railroad to Durand, they would then go to Bullochville. One of the places benefiting from this was the Meriwether Inn. Once the automobile became popular in the early 20th century, tourists began going elsewhere, starting the decline of the inn.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt first visited Warm Springs in October 1924. He went to a resort in the town whose attraction was a permanent 88-degree natural spring, but whose main house, the Meriwether Inn, was described as "ramshackle". Roosevelt bought the resort and the  farm surrounding it in 1927. It was around this time that Bullochville was renamed Warm Springs. Roosevelt traveled to the area frequently, including 16 times while he was President of the United States, and he died in the district on April12, 1945, at his Little White House, which he had built in 1932.

He founded the Institute after hearing about a boy who had regained the use of his legs, through a treatment known as hydrotherapy, which involves the use of water for soothing pains and treating diseases.  The operations of the Institute were paid for by the Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, which later became the March of Dimes.

It is now the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation, a comprehensive rehabilitation facility operated by the state of Georgia. A center for post-polio treatment, it provides vocational rehabilitation, long-term acute care, and inpatient rehabilitation for amputees and people recovering from spinal cord injuries, brain damage and stroke.

While the original historic pools are not generally open to the public, the Little White House / DNR opens the waters once a year to the public on Labor Day Weekend. They allow four groups of people in a day for a one and a half hour swim.

The main building of the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute is Georgia Hall, built in 1933 to replace the old Meriwether Inn, which was torn down as it was too dilapidated to successfully renovate to then-modern conditions. Roosevelt often hosted Thanksgiving dinners in its dining hall for those who were using the springs. For much of its existence, the institute was the only such facility "exclusively devoted" to polio patients.

It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1980.

Cultural references

In 2005, the Warm Springs Institute was featured in the television movie Warm Springs, which details FDR's struggle with his paralytic illness, his discovery of the Georgia spa resort, his work to turn it into a center for the aid of polio victims, and the subsequent resumption of his political career.

See also
Eleanor Roosevelt School, a nearby historic Black community school dedicated to President Roosevelt in 1936, after his many stays in Warm Springs
 Polio Hall of Fame

References

Further reading

External links

Franklin D. Roosevelt
Buildings and structures in Meriwether County, Georgia
National Historic Landmarks in Georgia (U.S. state)
Historic American Buildings Survey in Georgia (U.S. state)
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Georgia (U.S. state)
1927 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
National Register of Historic Places in Meriwether County, Georgia

Warm Springs Historic District


Agnes Robertson Moorehead () merupakan seorang aktris berkebangsaan Amerika Serikat yang memenangkan Emmy dan Golden Globe. Dia dilahirkan di Clinton, Massachusetts. Dia berkarier di dunia film sejak tahun 1937.

Filmografi

 The Shadow (1937-1939) as Margot Lane (radio series)
 Citizen Kane (1941) as Mary Kane
 The Magnificent Ambersons (1942) as Fanny; New York Film Critics Circle Award, Academy Award nomination
 Sorry, Wrong Number (1943) as Mrs. Elbert Smythe Stevenson (radio drama)
 Mrs Parkington (1944) as Aspasia Conti; Golden Globe, Academy Award nomination
 Jane Eyre (1944) as Mrs. Reed
 Dark Passage (1947) as Madge Rapf
 Johnny Belinda (1948) as Aggie McDonald; Academy Award nomination
 Magnificent Obsession(1954) as Nancy Ashford
 All That Heaven Allows(1955) as Sara Warren
 The Left Hand of God (1955) as Berly Sigman
 The Bat (1959) as Cornelia Van Gorder in a rare starring role with Vincent Price
 Pollyanna (1960) as Mrs. Snow
 The Twilight Zone a non-dialogue performance on the episode "The Invaders" (1961) as "The Woman"
 Who's Minding the Store? (1963) as Mrs. Tuttle
 Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964) as Velma Cruther; Golden Globe, Academy Award nomination
 Bewitched (1964–1972) as Endora; six Emmy nominations
 Charlotte's Web (1973) voice of the Goose
 Gigi (1973) as Aunt Alicia
 ''The Old Ones Are Hard To Kill (1974) as the lead performer (CBS Radio Mystery Theater Radio Drama) This was her final role.

Pranala luar

Pemeran Amerika Serikat

Agnes Moorehead


Bradycardia (also called bradyarrhythmia) is a slow heart rate.  In adults, bradycardia is defined as a heart rate that is under 60 beats per minute (bpm) while the person is resting.  Bradycardia is a type of cardiac arrhythmia.

There are many types of bradycardia.  Some are caused by problems with the heart.  Bradycardia can also be caused by medicines, drugs, and many other things.

Symptoms
The symptoms of bradycardia depend on how slow the heart rate is and what kind of problem the heart is having.  For most people, bradycardia is not a serious problem.  But it can become a serious problem if it signals a major problem with the heart.  Also, if bradycardia gets very bad, the heart will be unable to pump enough blood and oxygen to the body.  Every part of the body needs blood and oxygen to survive.  If bradycardia is bad enough, it can cause organ damage, brain damage, and death.

Causes
 Problems with the heart's electrical system.  There are two atria (upper chambers) in the heart: the right atrium and the left atrium.  For the heart to beat normally, special parts of the right atrium have to send electricity through the heart to make it squeeze out blood.  The electricity has to start in a certain place and pass through a certain route in the heart.  If this does not happen correctly, the heart will not beat correctly.
 Medications, like beta blockers
 Depressant medications or drugs

References

Heart disease

Bradycardia


The Vigilante, marketed as The Vigilante: Fighting Hero of the West, is a 1947 American Western film serial directed by Wallace Fox. The 33rd serial released by Columbia Pictures, it was based on the comic book cowboy Vigilante, who first appeared in Action Comics, published by DC Comics. It stars Ralph Byrd, well known for his central role in the Dick Tracy serials. It was his last serial appearance.

Plot
The Vigilante, a masked government agent, is assigned to investigate the case of the "100 Tears of Blood", a cursed string of rare blood-red pearls sought by a gang led by the unknown X-1 that may have been smuggled into the country.

Greg Sanders (Sanders at that time, later changed to Saunders in the comics), in his civilian guise as an actor, is filming a western on George Pierce's ranch. Pierce is a wealthy rancher and nightclub owner. When Prince Hamil arrives at the ranch, he gives a horse each to Sanders, Pierce, Captain Reilly, Tex Collier, and Betty Winslow. But an outlaw gang soon attacks, attempting to steal all five horses. It turns out that each horse has twenty of the pearls hidden in their shoes (five in each) in secret compartments. Edging closer, Sanders learns that Prince Hamil's servant stole the diamonds from his master and smuggled them in on the horses with the intention of passing them on to X-1.

Cast
 Ralph Byrd as Greg Sanders / The Vigilante
 Ramsay Ames as Betty Winslow, rodeo star
 Lyle Talbot as George Pierce
 George Offerman Jr. as Stuff, The Vigilante's sidekick
 Robert Barron as Prince Hamil, dignitary of Aravania. Barron was wrongly listed on-screen as Prince Hassan but referred to as Hamil.
 Hugh Prosser as Captain Reilly, highway patrol officer
 Jack Ingram as Silver Henchman X-2
 Eddie Parker as Doc Henchman X-3
 Tiny Brauer as Thorne Henchman X-9

Production
The Vigilante was originally a comic book character whose first appearance was in Action Comics (issue #42, November 1941). He was a singing-cowboy radio performer who doubled as a motorcycle-riding crime-fighter along with a pre-teen Chinese boy, Stuff the Chinatown Kid.

In the serial version, Stuff became a white, draft-age sidekick played by George Offerman Jr. Ralph Byrd was cast as the Vigilante. Director Wallace Fox makes a cameo appearance as the director filming Greg Sanders' film at George Pierce's ranch.

Chapter titles
 The Vigilante Rides Again
 Mystery of the White Horses
 Double Peril
 Desperate Flight
 In the Gorilla's Cage
 Battling the Unknown
 Midnight Rendezvous
 Blasted to Eternity
 The Fatal Flood
 Danger Ahead
 X-1 Closes In
 Death Rides the Rails
 The Trap that Failed
 Closing In
 The Secret of the Skyroom
Source:

References

External links

 The Vigilante article at Todd Gault's Movie Serial Experience
 Comic Book Profiles: The Vigilante - the 1947 Movie Serial

1947 films
1940s vigilante films
American black-and-white films
Columbia Pictures film serials
1940s English-language films
Live-action films based on DC Comics
Films directed by Wallace Fox
1947 Western (genre) films
American vigilante films
American Western (genre) films
Films with screenplays by George H. Plympton
1940s American films
Films based on DC Comics

The Vigilante