Rudolf Arnheim (July 15, 1904 – June 9, 2007) was a German-born writer, art and film theorist, and perceptual psychologist. He learned Gestalt psychology from studying under Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler at the University of Berlin and applied it to art.

His magnum opus was his book Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye (1954). Other major books by Arnheim have included Visual Thinking (1969), and The Power of the Center: A Study of Composition in the Visual Arts (1982). Art and Visual Perception was revised, enlarged and published as a new version in 1974, and it has been translated into fourteen languages. He lived in Germany, Italy, England, and the U.S., where he taught at Sarah Lawrence College, Harvard University, and the University of Michigan.

In Art and Visual Perception, he tried to use science to better understand art. In his later book Visual Thinking (1969), Arnheim critiqued the assumption that language goes before perception. For Arnheim, the only access to reality we have is through our senses. Arnheim argued that perception is strongly identified with thinking, and that artistic expression is another way of reasoning. In The Power of the Center, Arnheim addressed the interaction of art and architecture on concentric and grid spatial patterns. He argued that form and content are indivisible, and that the patterns created by artists reveal the nature of human experience.

Early years
Rudolf Arnheim was born into a Jewish family in 1904 on Alexanderplatz, in Berlin.  Not long after he was born, his family moved to Kaiserdamm in Charlottenburg, where they stayed until the early 1930s.  He was interested in art from a young age, as he began drawing as a child.  His father, Georg Arnheim, owned a small piano factory, and Georg Arnheim's plan for his son was for him to take over the factory.  However, Rudolf wanted to continue his education, so his father agreed that he could spend half his week at the university and the other half at the factory.  Rudolf ended up spending more time at the university, and when he was at the factory he was distracting the employees with his inquisitions about the mechanics of the piano, so his father agreed to let him focus entirely on his education.  Rudolf was interested in psychology as long as he could remember, with his specific memory of buying some of the first editions of Sigmund Freud's books when he was fifteen or sixteen. These fueled his interest in psychoanalysis.

Career
Arnheim attended the University of Berlin, where he wished to focus his studies on psychology. At that time, psychology was a branch of philosophy, so Arnheim ended up majoring in experimental psychology and philosophy, and minoring in art history and music. There were many prominent faculty members at the university at this time, among them were Albert Einstein, Max Planck, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler.  Because Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Köhler were in the psychology department, most of the psychology concerned Gestalt psychology.  The Psychological Institute of Berlin University was located on two floors of the Imperial Palace, so Arnheim worked in makeshift laboratories decorated with paintings of angels and other artwork. This institute was more of a workshop because everyone was doing experiments and using each other rather than sitting in lectures. For Arnheim's dissertation, Max Wertheimer asked him to study human facial expressions and handwriting and how they corresponded. He looked at the extent to which people perceive an expression when they look at a face and what they perceive from a person's handwriting, as well as how the two corresponded. This was the beginning of Arnheim's study of expression, which he moved to looking at with visual arts. In 1928, he received his doctorate.

In the mid-1920s, Arnheim started to write film criticism for the Stachelschwein.  Meanwhile, he sent his works to Siegfried Jacobsohn, the chief editor at Die Weltbühne, who accepted them. When Jacobsohn died in 1928, Ossietzky took over and then Arnheim worked on the cultural section until 1933. In the fall of 1932, Arnheim had an essay published in the Berliner Tageblatt, about three months before the Nazis came to power. The essay was about the nature of Charlie Chaplin's and Adolf Hitler's moustaches and what the moustache did to the nose in terms of human character. Considering the timing of this essay, and the fact that in 1933 the sale of his book Film as Art was no longer permitted due to the Nazis, some of Arnheim's friends advised him that he should leave the country and so, in August 1933, he moved to Rome. Arnheim lived and wrote about film and radio in Rome for the next six years. When World War II broke out, he moved to London, and he worked as a wartime translator for the British Broadcasting Corporation. He moved to the United States in 1940 and was shocked by all the lights of New York City. For him it was "the end of exile" since he had been used to living with constant black outs in London.

In 1943, he became a psychology professor at Sarah Lawrence College and a visiting lecturer at the New School for Social Research. Around this time he received two major awards. First, he received a Fellowship from the Rockefeller Foundation. With this he worked at Columbia University with their Office of Radio Research to analyze soap-operas and how they affected American audiences. He also received the Guggenheim Fellowship in 1942 in order to study perception in art. He ideally wanted to write about applying Gestalt theory to visual arts, but felt he did not have enough research. He postponed the book in order to do more studies on space, expression, and movement. In 1951, Arnheim was awarded another Rockefeller Foundation Fellowship so that he could take a leave from teaching and he wrote Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye.

Arnheim was invited to join Harvard University as Professor of the Psychology of Art in 1968, and he stayed there for six years. The Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts at Harvard was an important building to him, as it was the only building designed in America by Le Corbusier and it was based on the modular theory. He retired in 1974 to Ann Arbor, Michigan with his wife Mary. He became a Visiting Professor at the University of Michigan and taught there for ten years. Arnheim was a part of the American Society for Aesthetics and was their president for two terms, and was also the president for the Division on Psychology and the Arts of the American Psychological Association for three terms. In 1976, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He died in Ann Arbor in 2007.

Works
Although Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye took fifteen months to complete, he felt that he essentially wrote it in one long sitting.  Revised in 1974, it has been translated into fourteen languages, and is one of the most influential art books of the century.  In Art and Visual Perception, he attempts to use science to better understand art, still keeping in mind the important aspects of personal bias, intuition, and expression.  Visual Thinking (1969) challenges the differences between thinking versus perceiving and intellect versus intuition. In it Arnheim critiques the assumption that language goes before perception and that words are the stepping stones of thinking. Sensory knowledge allows for the possibility of language, since the only access to reality we have is through our senses. Visual perception is what allows us to have a true understanding of experience. Arnheim also argues that perception is strongly identified with thinking, and that artistic expression is another way of reasoning. In The Power of the Center: A Study of Composition in the Visual Arts (1982), Arnheim addresses the interaction of art and architecture on concentric and grid spatial patterns. He argues that form and content are indivisible, and that the patterns created by artists reveal the nature of human experience.

Theories
Arnheim believed that most people have their most productive ideas in their early twenties. They get hooked on an idea and spend the rest of their lives expanding on it. Arnheim's productive or generative idea was that the meaning of life and the world could be perceived in the patterns, shapes, and colors of the world. Therefore, he believed that we have to study those patterns and discover what they mean. He believed that artwork is visual thinking and a means of expression, not just putting shapes and colors together that look appealing. Art is a way to help people understand the world, and a way to see how the world changes through your mind. Its function is to show the essence of something, like our existence. Overall, he wrote fifteen books about perceptual psychology and art, architecture, and film.

Publications

1928: Experimentell-psychologische Untersuchungen zum Ausdrucksproblem. Psychologische Forschung, 11, 2-132.
1932: Film als Kunst. Berlin: Ernst Rowohlt. Neuausgaben: 1974, 1979, 2002. .
1933/1936: Rundfunk als hörkunst/Radio as Sound
1943: Gestalt and art. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 2, 71-5.
1949/1966: Toward a Psychology of Art. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. .
1954/1974: Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. .
1957: Film as Art, Berkeley: University of California Press.  [A revised and reduced version of Film als Kunst, 1932.]
1962/1974: Picasso's Guernica. Berkeley: University of California Press. .
1969: Visual Thinking. Berkeley: University of California Press. .
1971: Entropy and Art. Berkeley: University of California Press. .
1972/1996: Anschauliches Denken. Zur Einheit von Bild und Begriff. Erstausgabe 1972, nun Köln: DuMont Taschenbuch 1996.
1977: The Dynamics of Architectural Form. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. .
1977: Kritiken und Aufsätze zum Film. (Hrsg.: Helmut H. Diederichs) München: Hanser.
1979: Radio als Hörkunst. München: Hanser. Neuausgabe: 2001 (Suhrkamp).
1982/88: The Power of the Center: A Study of Composition in the Visual Arts. Berkeley: University of California Press. .
1986: New Essays on the Psychology of Art. Berkeley: University of California Press. .
1989: Parables of Sun Light: Observations on Psychology, the Arts, and the Rest. Berkeley: University of California Press. .
1990: Thoughts on Art Education. Los Angeles: Getty Center for Education. .
1992: To the Rescue of Art. Berkeley: University of California Press. .
1996: The Split and the Structure. Berkeley: University of California Press. .
1997: Film Essays and Criticism. University of Wisconsin Press. .
2004: Die Seele in der Silberschicht. (Hrsg.: Helmut H. Diederichs) Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.
2009: I baffi di Charlot. Scritti italiani sul cinema 1932-1938. (Ed.: Adriano D'Aloia) Turin: Kaplan. .
2012: Cinema como Arte. As técnicas da linguagem audiovisual. (Transl.: Marco Bonetti) Niterói: Muiraquitan.

See also
 Spatial visualization ability

References

Further reading
 Verstegen, Ian: Arnheim, Gestalt and Art: A Psychological Theory. Springer, 2005.

External links

Rudolf Arnheim: A Web Site on His Life and Work
The Intelligence of Vision: An Interview with Rudolf Arnheim
Biography: Rudolf Arnheim, archived pages from the Internet Archive (--> PDF printout here)
Rudolf-Arnheim-Forum
Ian Verstegen, "Rudolf Arnheim"
Rudolf Arnheim papers from the Smithsonian Archives of American Art
RudolfArnheim.net | Resources on Arnheim and cinema in Italy

1904 births
2007 deaths
Film theorists
American people of German-Jewish descent
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States
German psychologists
Gestalt psychologists
Jewish American scientists
Writers from Berlin
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Sarah Lawrence College faculty
Harvard University Department of Psychology faculty
University of Michigan people
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
German centenarians
Men centenarians
American male writers
University of Michigan faculty
20th-century psychologists

Rudolf Arnheim


CIOI-FM is a Canadian radio station, broadcasting at 101.5 FM in Hamilton, Ontario. The license for this campus radio station is held by the Mohawk College Radio Corporation at Mohawk College in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

CIOI-FM was originally launched in 1975 as CHMR, broadcasting on carrier current and cable FM. On June 6, 1997, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission approved the Mohawk College Radio Corporation's application to operate a new campus instructional FM station. The station launched on FM on March 23, 1998 as C101.5 FM. The station rebranded as INDI 101 in October 2009, corresponding to the huge majority of independent music that the station plays. On January 8, 2014, the station rebranded as "101.5 The Hawk."

The station operates partly within the curriculum of Mohawk College's Music and Communications Media Programs which include radio broadcasting, broadcast journalism, advertising, television and music.  Although any student at the college may volunteer to work at the station, priority is generally given to students who are currently studying in the Broadcasting and Journalism courses.  Additionally a number of community members volunteer their time by hosting genre-specific radio programs on The Hawk.  This combination of student-themed programming coupled with community-based and local-music supported programming allows The Hawk to provide a diversity in broadcasting for the Hamilton Ontario market.

The Hawk studios are currently located in F wing at Mohawk College within the Department of Music and Communications Media.

CIOI-FM's condition of license is to be an alternative to mainstream radio.  The station's basic playlist consists of "non-mainstream" music such as local bands and new music, but also has specialty programming. The station vigorously supports the local Hamilton music environment and produces an annual music festival aimed at promoting local Hamilton music exclusively.  This project called the C+C Music Festival is co-produced by fellow campus-community radio station CFMU-FM, located on the campus of McMaster University in Hamilton. Programming at The Hawk consists of independent-style music and a mix of cultural and ethnic broadcasts, and a segment of spoken word and educational programming.

References

External links
 Indi 101.5

Ioi
Ioi
Radio stations established in 1998
1998 establishments in Ontario

CIOI-FM


Kenneth D. Peach, Sr. (March 6, 1903 – February 27, 1988) was an American cinematographer.

Biography
Kenneth D. Peach Sr. was born in El Reno, Indian Territory (in what is now Oklahoma). Peach entered the film industry in 1923 and became a director of photography in 1926. He worked with composite processes, miniatures, montages and matte shots for Tiffany Pictures for two years, then joined Fred Jackman's technical effects department at Warner Bros.- First National for three years. In 1931 he joined RKO Pictures' special effects department. In 1933 he began a long association with producer Hal Roach of Hal Roach Studios, where he shot several  Laurel and Hardy films (Dirty Work, Sons of the Desert). In his later career, he worked in both film and television, in TV series such as Lassie (73 episodes, 1958–1960), The Outer Limits (25 episodes, 1964–1965), H.R. Pufnstuf (17 episodes, 1969–1970), Taxi (59 episodes, 1980–1983), before retiring in 1984.

He was married to actress Pauline Curley from 1922 until his death. They had two sons, cinematographer Kenneth Peach, Jr., and Martin Peach, who worked  as a key grip on the Disney television series, Wizards of Waverly Place and a daughter Pauline A. Reynolds.

Peach died on February 27, 1988, eight days before his 85th birthday. He and his wife Pauline (who died on December 16, 2000) are buried together in the Lincoln Terrace section of Forest Lawn-Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles, California.

References

External links

1903 births
1988 deaths
People from El Reno, Oklahoma
American cinematographers
Hal Roach Studios filmmakers
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
Film producers from Oklahoma

Kenneth Peach


Koreapas (고파스) is an online homepage for Korea University students in South Korea. It provides information which is useful in school life. It is called  (). It was started in 2007 by person who named Park Jong Chan. There is news about school and lecture information. Students talk freely and share information. So, it is useful to register before the semester starts. You can find information about restaurants and flea markets too.

Park Jong Chan who made this online community was elected the student president in 2011. His well-known name because of making Ko-pas helped him to be elected. Many students are so familiar in this homepage and it makes students remember his name easily.

Ko-pas has been criticized because of its exclusivity. There is a anonymous board in Ko-pas page and some students use swear words and say unproper words as a student. The other problem is exclusive culture in Ko-pas. They only along with those members in that site and show disrespect to other groups especially less famous university in Korea. But, it could be a one of side effects and internet cultures as well

Other websites
 The Ko-pas homepage

Schools in South Korea
Websites established in 2007

Koreapas


Barebacking is when people have sexual intercourse without using a condom. The term originated in the gay community, and was used to refer to unprotected anal sex. The word is related to bareback, which means riding a horse without a saddle. Barebacking refers to a deliberate decision to not use a condom, forgetting to use a condom is not barebacking.

Barebacking is dangerous, because there is a high risk of infection with sexually transmitted diseases, such as Syphilis, or HIV. Even if both partners are HIV positive, there is a risk of infection with other strains of HIV. This may mean that the disease becomes more difficult to treat, or that certain drugs stop working.

Sexual acts

Barebacking


Alf Torp (September 27, 1853 – September 26, 1916) was a Norwegian philologist and author. He is most known for his work with Indo-European and Nordic language history and meaning of ancient languages.

Biography
Alf Torp was born in  Stryn, Sogn og Fjordane, Norway. He became cand. philol. in 1877 at the Bergen Cathedral School.  He was a student of Sophus Bugge, and during a stay in Leipzig in 1878-80 a student of Georg Curtius and Ernst Windisch. In 1881 he got his doctorate at the University of Leipzig with the dissertation Die Flexion des Pali in ihrem Verhältnis zum Sanskrit.

He taught at the University of Oslo from 1883 and in 1894 he became professor in Sanskrit and comparative linguistics. He published numerous papers about the inscriptions in various languages including  Etruscan, Phrygian, Venetic, Lycian and Hittite. In 1905, he was appointed Knight of 1 Class of Order of St. Olav 1905

Among many other works, in 1903-06 he published Etymologisk ordbog over det norske og det danske sprog (Etymological dictionary of the Norwegian and Danish languages) together with Norwegian linguist, Hjalmar Falk (1859-1928). It was the only Norwegian etymological dictionary for nearly a hundred years, until it was replaced  in 2000 Våre arveord - etymologisk ordbok by Harald Bjorvand and Fredrik Otto Lindeman.

Selected works
 Die Flexion des Pali in ihrem Verhältnis zum Sanskrit, 1881
 Vokal- og Konsonantstammer, 1889
 Zu den phrygischen Inschriften aus römischer Zeit, 1894
 Zum Phrygischen, 1896
 Indogermanische Forschungen, 1897
 Etruskische Monatsdaten, 1902
 Bemerkungen zu der etruskischen Inschrift von S. Maria di Capua, 1905
 Gamalnorsk ordavleiding, 1909
 Nynorsk etymologisk ordbok, 1919

References

1853 births
1916 deaths
People from Stryn
Linguists from Norway
Norwegian lexicographers
People educated at the Bergen Cathedral School
Norwegian expatriates in Germany
Leipzig University alumni
Members of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala

Alf Torp


The Platt Amendment was an amendment made in 1901 to a resolution of the United States Congress. It said that all treaties with Cuba had to be approved by the U.S. Senate and the U.S. had the right to interfere in Cuba's affairs if order broke down within Cuba. It also declared Guantánamo Bay to be U.S. territory. The Cuban–American Treaty of Relations of 1903 said the same things.

In the years following its enactment, until its abolition in 1934, the Platt Amendment was used on several occasions by the United States to intervene in Cuban internal affairs and protect US economic interests on the island.

20th century in Cuba
1901 in the United States

Platt Amendment


John Hugh Edrich,  (21 June 1937 – 23 December 2020) was an English first-class cricketer who, during a career that ran from 1956 to 1978, was considered one of the best batsmen of his generation. Born in Blofield, Norfolk, Edrich came from a cricketing family, his four cousins, Eric Edrich, Bill Edrich, Geoff Edrich and Brian Edrich, all having played first-class cricket. He was educated at the private Bracondale School between the ages of eight and seventeen, during which time he played cricket at weekends and was coached by former cricketer C. S. R. Boswell.

Edrich played for Surrey and England. He was renowned for playing the cut, the cover drive and scoring off his legs, earning over the years a reputation for dogged fearlessness. His statistical achievements show that he was amongst the best players of his generation, playing a total of seventy-seven Test matches for England between 1963 and 1976, and scoring a triple-century in 1965 that is the fifth highest Test score for England. It contained 57 boundaries, which is still a record for any Test innings.

A player during the time when One Day International cricket was in its infancy, he played, and top scored, in the first ever ODI match. The cricket writer Colin Bateman described him as "unflinching, unselfish, and often unsmiling while going about his business in the middle, he was a fiercely formidable opener who knew his limitations and worked wonderfully within them".

Life and career
Having played four first-class matches for Combined Services in 1956 and 1957, whilst doing his national service in the British Army, Edrich made his first-class debut for Surrey in their final fixture of the 1958 season. The following year, he came to the fore, scoring 1,799 runs at an average of 52.91. Over the next four years he and Micky Stewart became a very effective opening partnership for the county, to the extent that both were called up for England for the Test series against the West Indies, who were dominating the sport at this time. Despite Edrich's strong performances for his county, he managed a total of only 108 Test runs in six innings facing bowlers including Hall, Sobers and Griffith.

However, an opportunity to break back into the international side arose when Geoffrey Boycott was injured during Australia's tour of England in 1964. Edrich was called up to the side for the Second Test, at Lord's, and did not disappoint, scoring 120. The match ended in a draw due to rain. However, he was not selected for the 1964–65 tour of South Africa.

Injuries to other players resulted in another recall to the England side for the Third Test against New Zealand at Headingley in July 1965, where he scored 310 not out. This innings spanned over eight hours, and included 52 fours and five sixes – 238 runs or 77% of his innings. Commentators at the time said that he might have broken the existing Test record of 365 within another 90 minutes or so if his captain, Mike Smith, had not felt it necessary to declare the innings closed. However, a week later during the First Test against South Africa, he suffered a blow to the head from a short-pitched delivery by Peter Pollock. This was before helmets came into use, and he was forced to retire hurt on 7 not out.
Wisden named Edrich as Cricketer of the Year in 1966 for his achievements in 1965, alongside Colin Bland, Dick Motz, Graeme Pollock and brother Peter Pollock. As well as his Test triple century, he had scored a total of 2,319 runs at an average of 62.67 during the season, including eight hundreds. At one stage, in nine successive innings he scored 139, 121*, 205*, 55, 96, 188, 92, 105 and 310*. Not previously known as a big hitter, he struck forty-nine sixes during the course of the season.

He had by now become an established member of the England batting line-up, rarely omitted unless injured. Beginning with the 1965–66 Ashes series, he sometimes batted at number three rather than, as hitherto, opening the innings. In the 1970–71 Ashes series his 687 runs (52.85) kept him at the crease for 33 hours and 26 minutes, a record for a Test series until broken by Glenn Turner against West Indies the next season. His form at this time helped England play 27 consecutive Tests without defeat in 1968–71, and lose only one Test out of 40 in 1966–71.

Edrich played in the first-ever One Day International (ODI), on 5 January 1971 against Australia. After the Third Test had been called off due to rain, the umpires called for an unscheduled match, consisting of 40 eight-ball overs per side. Edrich top-scored with 82 runs, thus scoring the first half-century in an ODI, and won the first Man of the Match award in ODI history.

The following summer, Surrey won the County Championship for the first time since 1958, with Edrich's batting being an important factor in the county's success. By now, Stewart had dropped down the order to number three, and Edrich had formed another successful opening partnership with Mike Edwards. Stewart retired after the 1972 season, and from 1973 to 1977 Edrich succeeded him as Surrey's captain.

On the tour of Australia in 1974–75, his fortune regarding injuries did not improve. In the first Test a ball from aggressive pace bowler Dennis Lillee struck his hand and broke it, although he was able to continue batting. In the Fourth Test, the then captain Mike Denness dropped himself and Edrich was subsequently named as captain. He had little luck in that game when Lillee broke his ribs with the first ball of his second innings, although he did recover to bat later on, scoring 33 runs. England lost the test, and it was to be his only appearance as captain.

During the 1977 county cricket season, Edrich scored his 100th first-class century, playing for Surrey against Derbyshire. In the same year he was appointed an MBE for services to cricket. Edrich finished his first-class career in 1978, having scored 39,790 runs. He became a Test selector in 1981.

In 1995 he was named as England's batting coach. In the summer of 2000, it was announced that he had been diagnosed with a rare form of incurable leukaemia known as Waldenstrom's, and he was told that he had seven years to live. In an interview with The Independent, following his diagnosis, Edrich said:

In 2006–07 he served as President of Surrey County Cricket Club. In 2012 he said he had been cured of cancer by a course of injections of mistletoe extract, and was fit and active again. He lived in Aberdeenshire.

Edrich died on 23 December 2020 at his home in north Scotland, aged 83.

References

External links

John
1937 births
2020 deaths
Military personnel from Norfolk
20th-century British Army personnel
British Army soldiers
Combined Services cricketers
D. H. Robins' XI cricketers
England One Day International cricketers
England Test cricket captains
England Test cricketers
England cricket team selectors
English cricketers of 1946 to 1968
English cricketers
International Cavaliers cricketers
Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Norfolk cricketers
People from Blofield
Players cricketers
Presidents of Surrey County Cricket Club
Surrey cricket captains
Surrey cricketers
T. N. Pearce's XI cricketers
Wisden Cricketers of the Year
Cricketers from Norfolk

John Edrich


Events from the year 1610 in Quebec.

Events
Samuel de Champlain commissions Étienne Brûlé to live for a year among the Wendat (called Hurons by the French colonists), France's First Nation allies in North America. The idea is for Brûlé to learn the language and culture of the Wendat to strengthen the alliance. In exchange, a Wendat named Savignon comes to live with the French in Quebec. Taking to the lifestyle of the Wendat, Brûlé becomes the first coureur des bois.
de Champlain returns to Quebec after a visit to France during which he fails to renew the fur trade monopoly on furs from North America. He manages, however, to secure the support of merchants in Rouen for the colony of New France.
The Battle of Sorel occurred on June 19, 1610, with Samuel de Champlain supported by the Kingdom of France and his allies, the Wyandot people, Algonquin people and Innu people against the Mohawk people in New France at present day Sorel-Tracy, Quebec. The forces of Champlain armed with the arquebus engaged and killed or captured nearly all of the Mohawks. The battle ended major hostilities with the Mohawks for twenty years.

Births

Deaths

1610s in Canada
1610 in New France
Years in Quebec

1610 in Quebec


Local boards or local boards of health were local authorities in urban areas of England and Wales from 1848 to 1894. They were formed in response to cholera epidemics and were given powers to control sewers, clean the streets, regulate environmental health risks including slaughterhouses and ensure the proper supply of water to their districts. Local boards were eventually merged with the corporations of municipal boroughs in 1873, or became urban districts in 1894.

Pre-Public Health Act 1848

Public Health Act 1848

The first local boards were created under the Public Health Act 1848 (11 & 12 Vict. c. 63). The aim of the act was to improve the sanitary condition of towns and populous places in England and Wales by placing: the supply of water; sewerage; drainage; cleansing; paving, and environmental health regulation under a single local body. The act could be applied to any place in England and Wales except the City of London and some other areas in the Metropolis already under the control of sewer commissioners.

The Act was passed by the Whig government of Lord John Russell, in response to the urging of Edwin Chadwick. This was supported by reports, from the Royal Commission on the Health of Towns (formed in 1843) and local branches of the Health of Towns Association (formed in 1844), of poor and insanitary conditions in many UK cities.

General Board of Health
The act created a General Board of Health as a central authority to administer the act. There were three commissioners: the president of the board being the First Commissioner of Her Majesty's Woods and Forests, Land Revenues, Works and Buildings, the other two members being appointed by warrant. The board was originally to be dissolved after five years, but acts of parliament were passed annually allowing for its continuation.

Chadwick was appointed a commissioner, and the board was strongly associated with him.

In 1852, Edward Gotto was employed to carry out the national General Board of Health Survey.

The board finally ceased to exist on 1 September 1858.

Forming a local board of health
Local boards could be formed in two ways:
 By a petition of one-tenth of the inhabitants rated to relief of the poor in any city, town, borough (municipal or parliamentary), parish or place with a defined boundary not having less than 30 such qualified ratepayers.
 By the General Board if the death rate exceeded twenty-three in a thousand in any place.

In the latter case a superintending inspector appointed by the General Board would hold an inquiry into the sewerage, drainage, supply of water, state of burial grounds and other matters relating to the sanitary condition of the town, and where necessary define boundaries for the district of the local board.

Where the boundaries of a proposed local board's district were the same as an existing local unit, the act was applied by Order in Council.  Where a new district was created this was done by provisional order of the General Board, confirmed by Parliament.

Membership of a local board
Members of local boards were either:
 Selected by the corporations of municipal boroughs
 Elected by owners of property and by rate payers

Where a local board district coincided with a borough, or was entirely within a borough's limits, all the members were selected by the corporation.  Where a district was entirely outside a municipality, all the members were elected.  In districts which were partly in and partly outside a borough the board had a mixture of selected and elected members.  Selected members did not have to be members of the corporation. Borough mayors were ex officio board members.

Those entitled to elect board members could have multiple votes depending on how much property they owned.  This ranged from one vote for owners of property worth less than £50, to six votes for those holding more than £250 of property. It followed that board members were generally wealthy property owners or members of the professions.

Powers of a local board
The powers and duties of a local board of health were enumerated in the act:
 Employees: A local board of health was allowed to appoint a number of employees, including a surveyor, a clerk, a treasurer, and an officer of health (who had to be a qualified doctor). It was compulsory for the board to appoint an inspector of nuisances (sanitary inspector) to investigate complaints and take action against 'nuisances' (nuisances was a very broad concept encompassing a wide range of environmental public health problems: such as unsanitary dwellings, accumulations of refuse and sewage, smoke dust and smells and industrial emissions, polluted water, noise, adulterated food, slaughterhouse issues etc.).
 Sewers: The local board took over ownership of all public sewers in its district. Where private sewers operated for profit, the local board could purchase them.
 Street cleansing: The local board was required to clean the streets in its district, removing dust, ashes, rubbish, filth, dung and soil.
 Public lavatories: The local board could provide "public necessities" (as the act called them).
 Slaughterhouses: The local board was to regulate slaughterhouses, and was allowed to provide such facilities itself.
 Street paving: The local board took over the public streets in the district, and could also require that private streets be paved.
 Pleasure grounds: The local boards were allowed to provide and lay out pleasure grounds.
 Water supply: The local board was allowed to supply water, but only if a private company could not provide the service.
 Burials: The local board was allowed to provide houses for the reception of the dead prior to burial. They could also apply to the General Board to have an existing graveyard closed.
 Land:	The local board could purchase land.

Local Government Act 1858

The 1848 Act was replaced by the Local Government Act 1858 (21 & 22 Vict. c. 98). The act came into force in all existing local board of health districts on 1 September 1858. The act made some changes to the procedure for constituting a local board and gave them some additional powers. There was also a change in nomenclature: the authorities created by the 1858 act were simply entitled "local boards" and their areas as "local government districts".

The Local Government Act Office and the Local Government Board
When the General Board of Health was abolished in 1858 its responsibilities in respect of local government passed to the Secretary of State of the Home Department, in whose department a Local Government Act Office was formed to administer the local boards.  In 1871 a separate agency was again formed entitled the Local Government Board, with a President who was frequently a Cabinet member.  The Local Government Board also took over the duties of the Poor Law Board.

Constituting local boards
The procedure for adopting the act and constituting a local board was laid out in sections 12 – 17 of the act, and was similar to that in the 1848 act.

Changes made included:
 Improvement commissioners could adopt the act for their district, the board of commissioners becoming in addition the local board.
 Petitions from ten per cent of the ratepayers of places other than those with a "known or defined boundary" to adopt the act were now made to the Secretary of State. If one in twenty ratepayers objected to the formation of a local board they now had the right to petition against it.
 The power to create a local board where there was excess mortality was abolished.

The method of electing members of the board remained the same, although existing or new boards could now be divided into wards.

Additional powers
The Town Police Clauses Act 1847 had included model clauses for the government of towns which could be adopted in all or in part by existing borough corporations, local boards of health or improvement commissioners. The application of these was very uneven, so they were incorporated into the 1858 act, all local boards gaining these powers.

Areas covered by the clauses were:
 Removal of obstructions and nuisances in the street
 Fires and fire prevention
 Provision and control of places of public resort
 Regulation of hackney carriages
 Provision of public bathing houses
 Naming streets and numbering houses
 Improving the line of streets
 Removal of ruinous or dangerous buildings
 Provision of public clocks

The local board also took over any lamps, lamp posts and gas posts provided by the Lighting and Watching Act 1833, and was given a new power to provide a market place where one was required or inadequate.

Number of local boards
The number of local boards peaked at 721 in 1873.  In that year the Public Health Act 1872 merged local boards into municipal boroughs and improvement commissioners where they shared the same district.  419 of the local boards had been formed under the Public Health Act 1848, the remaining 302 under the Local Government Act 1858.

The number of local boards was inflated in 1862–63, as communities adopted the act in order to avoid being grouped into highway districts under the Highways Act 1862.  Many of these local government districts had a population of fewer than 500, and several fewer than 100. Further legislation was passed in 1863 to limit the population of a new local government district to 3,000 or more. Some of these small authorities survived as urban districts until the county review orders of the 1930s.

Sanitary districts and urban districts
The Public Health Act 1875 designated local government districts as urban sanitary districts, with the local board becoming the urban sanitary authority. The titles of the district and board did not change however, the local board assuming extra duties as a sanitary authority.

Local boards and local government districts were finally abolished by the Local Government Act 1894, when all urban sanitary districts became urban districts. A new urban district council was to govern the district. The new council was to be directly elected by all those entitled to voted in parliamentary elections, replacing the weighted property voting system used for local boards.

See also
 Local boards formed in England and Wales 1848–94

Sources
 Public Health Act 1848
 Local Government Act 1858
 Local Government Act 1894

Notes

1848 establishments in the United Kingdom
Organizations established in 1848
1894 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Organizations disestablished in 1894
Local government in the United Kingdom
Public health in the United Kingdom
Urban society in the United Kingdom
Defunct types of subdivision in the United Kingdom
John Russell, 1st Earl Russell

Local board of health


Uzu Keobukseon (우주거북선) (Space Turtle Ship) is a vertical scrolling shooter video game developed by Samsung in 1992 for the Sega Mega Drive, released only in Korea (the entire menu and dialogue was written in Korean). Players controlled the title ship, a purple and gold space-age battle cruiser designed as a turtle ship, complete with sails and oars, in eight various stages.

Gameplay
While the game has a similar look and stage presentation to Toaplan shooters on the same console, the gameplay is similar to that of a shooter from Compile.

With each weapon the player collects, the ship earns an extra hit. Once the ship is hit by an attack, the ship degrades to the next selected weapon until the ship is down to its default weapon. The player can collect various power-ups for the Turtleship including Speed and Weapon power-ups. The ship has three weapons to select from including its default Normal Shot which spread out to seven shots when upgraded, a Ring shot which fired behind and in front of the ship and a Wave shot which fires the strongest. The player ship is also equipped with bombs and during every boss fight an energy meter shows up to display how much health the boss has left, although a Checkpoint system is active.

References

1992 video games
Scrolling shooters
Sega Genesis games
Sega Genesis-only games
Video games developed in South Korea
South Korea-exclusive video games

Uzu Keobukseon


Juan Domingo Méndez de Haro y Fernández de Córdoba (Madrid, 25 November 1640 – Madrid, 2 February 1716) was a Spanish military and political figure. He was the son of Don Luis Méndez de Haro, 6th Marquis of Carpio, Prime Minister to King Philip IV of Spain, and of Doña Catalina Fernández de Córdoba.

Biography
He married Doña Inés Francisca de Zúñiga y Fonseca, 6th Countess of Monterrey, and eldest daughter of Don Fernando de Ayala, third Count of Ayala. Juan Domingo also used the family names and titles of his wife for himself.

In 1667 Méndez de Haro went to the Spanish Netherlands, where he became Captain General of the Cavalry in 1669. In 1670 he was appointed Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands and Captain General in the absence of Don John of Austria the Younger.

In 1671, when war threatened between France and the Netherlands, Spain allied itself to the Netherlands and Méndez de Haro became Spanish supreme commander in the North. He organised defences, fortifying the Spanish fortresses along the French border. This could not prevent Spain and its defences from playing a minor part in the following Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678).

He was recalled to Spain on 8 February 1675. On 25 May 1677 he was named Viceroy of Catalonia, where he was also confronted with a French invasion.
In 1678 he returned to Madrid where he became President of Flanders. He was admitted to the State Council in 1693. In 1705 under the French king Philip V of Spain he left the State Council together with the Marquis of Mancera.

In 1710 his wife died without issue and Méndez de Haro decided to dedicate the rest of his life to God and became a Catholic priest.

Sources
 Biography (in Spanish)

External links

1640 births
1716 deaths
Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands
Spanish untitled nobility
Viceroys of Catalonia
Spanish Roman Catholic priests
Juan Domingo Mendez

Juan Domingo de Zuñiga y Fonseca


A pyramid is a structure, usually made of stone, built in the shape of a pyramid. From ancient to modern times people in many different parts of the world have built such structures.

The word "pyramid" comes from the Greek word pyramis which meant "wheat cake." The ancient Egyptian word for them was something like "Mer". The Great Pyramid of Giza was one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world.

The first pyramids were built in 2630 B.C. The oldest known pyramid was made for king Djoser of the third Dynasty.

Egyptian pyramids
In Egypt, kings and queens, called Pharaohs, were buried in the tombs of huge square-bottomed pyramids built of stone. They were usually built to be used as tombs for Pharaohs. The ancient Egyptian pyramids are very well built. Some of the pyramids still stand today.

The oldest man-made pyramid found is called the Step pyramid. It is in the Giza Necropolis in Saqqara, near Cairo, Egypt. It was built for King Djoser thousands of years ago. Later pyramids were built much larger. The largest one was the Great Pyramid of Giza. It is near Cairo. It was the tallest building in the world until the Eiffel Tower was built in Paris, in 1889. The Great Pyramid was built by the pharaoh Khufu (= Cheops) from the Ancient Egyptian Old Kingdom. Herodotus was told by his Egyptian guides that it took twenty years for a force of 100,000 slaves to build the pyramid (with another ten years to build a stone causeway that connected to a temple in the valley below).

People once thought pyramids were built by slaves. More recent evidence suggests that the workers who built the pyramids were paid and well-cared for. They were loyal to the Pharaoh. Inside the Great Pyramid, famous man-made objects have been found from ancient times. Many valuable items were buried with the dead Pharaohs, in the hope that they would take them to the afterlife. Pyramids usually had traps to stop thieves from escaping easily. Tomb thieves were punished by death if they were caught. However, by 1000 BC, many of the pyramids had been robbed of their precious treasures.

A large statue of a Sphinx stands near the pyramids at Giza. It has the body of a Lion and the head of a Pharaoh.

The ancient Greeks called the Great Pyramid one of the seven wonders of the world. There are over 100 pyramids in Egypt. Most of them are on the western side of the River Nile. Some Egyptologists have different opinions on why the ancient Egyptian Kings built pyramids as their tombs. Pyramids have been excavated for about the last 200 years.

The ancient Egyptians believed that the Egyptian pharaohs went to the stars to join their gods in the afterlife.

Pyramids in the Americas

The Aztecs and Mayans also built many massive pyramids. None are as old or big as the oldest or biggest Egyptian pyramids. Most of them are step pyramids.

Unlike Egyptian pyramids, which were used as tombs for rulers and wealthy people, Aztec and Mayan pyramids are believed to have been used for public displays of human sacrifice.

Modern pyramids

 The Louvre Pyramid in Paris, France, in the court of the Louvre Museum. It is a 20.6 meter (about 70 foot) glass structure which acts as an entrance to the museum. It was designed by the American architect I. M. Pei and completed in 1989.
 The Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas, United States, is a 30-story true pyramid. It has light beaming from the top.
 The 32-story Pyramid Arena in Memphis, Tennessee (a city named after the ancient Egyptian capital whose name itself was derived from the name of one of its pyramids). Built in 1991, it was the home court for the University of Memphis men's basketball program and the National Basketball Association's Memphis Grizzlies until 2004.
 The Walter Pyramid is home to the basketball and volleyball teams of the California State University, Long Beach, campus in California, United States. It is an 18-story-tall blue true pyramid.
 The 48-story Transamerica Pyramid is in San Francisco, California It was designed by William Pereira. The pyramid is one of the city's symbols.
 The 105-story Ryugyong Hotel is in Pyongyang, Northern Korea.
 "Pyramid of Tirana" is a former museum and monument in Tirana, Albania.
 The Slovak Radio Building is in Bratislava, Slovakia. This building is shaped like an inverted pyramid.
 The Summum Pyramid is a three-story pyramid in Salt Lake City, Utah. It used for instruction in the Summum philosophy. it also conducts rites associated with Modern Mummification.
 The Palace of Peace and Reconciliation is in Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan.
 The Pyramids at Osho Commune are in Pune, India. They are used for meditation purposes.
 The three pyramids of Moody Gardens in Galveston, Texas.
 The Co-Op Bank Pyramid or Stockport Pyramid is in Stockport, England. is a large pyramid shaped office building in Stockport in England.
 The Ames Monument is in southeastern Wyoming. It honors the brothers who financed the Union Pacific Railroad.
 The Trylonis a triangular pyramid erected for the 1939 World's Fair in Flushing, Queens. It was demolished after the Fair closed.
 The Ballandean Pyramid is in Ballandean in rural Queensland, Australia. It is a 15-meter folly pyramid made from blocks of local granite.
 The Karlsruhe Pyramid is in the centre of the market square of Karlsruhe, Germany. It is made of red sandstone. It is in the centre of the market square of Karlsruhe, Germany. It was erected in the years 1823–1825.
 The GoJa Music Hall is in Prague.
 The Muttart Conservatory greenhouses are in Edmonton, Alberta.
 Small pyramids similar to those of the Louvre can be found outside the lobby of the Citicorp Building in Long Island City, Queens NY.
 The Pyramids of the City Stars Complex is in Cairo, Egypt.
 Pyramid building belonging to The Digital Group (TDG), at Hinjwadi, Pune, India.
 The Steelcase Corporate Development Center near Grand Rapids, Michigan.
 Sunway Pyramid shopping mall in Selangor, Malaysia.
 Hanoi Museum with an overall design of a reversed Pyramid.
 The Pyramide des Ha! Ha! by artist Jean-Jules Soucy :fr:Jean-Jules Soucy in La Baie, Quebec is made out of 3 000 give way signs.
 The "Pyramid" culture-entertainment complex and Monument of Kazan siege (Church of Image of Edessa) are in Kazan, Russia.
 The "Phorum" of Expocentre business-exhibition complex is in Moscow, Russia.
 Few pyramids of the Marco-city shopping-entertainment complex are in Vitebsk, Belarus.
 The Time pyramid is in Wemding, Germany. The pyramid begun in 1993. It is scheduled for completion in the year 3183.
 Triangle is a proposed skyscraper in Paris.
 The Shimizu Mega-City Pyramid, a proposed project for construction of a massive pyramid over Tokyo Bay in Japan.
 The tomb of Quintino Sella, outside the monumental cemetery of Oropa.
 The unbuilt Museum of Modern Art of Caracas was designed as an upside down pyramid. Playing on a variation of the famous configuration Oscar Niemeyer inverted the geometry of the pyramid.

Other pyramids
There are also ancient pyramids in other parts of Africa, Central America, Europe, North America, and Asia. There is a famous modern glass pyramid in front of the Louvre Museum in Paris. The Luxor Hotel, in Las Vegas, Nevada is also a glass pyramid.

Related pages
 Pyramid scheme

References

Other websites

 EGYPT - CAIRO AND THE PYRAMIDS
 Mayan Ruins
Famous landmarks of Egypt

Pyramid


In mathematics, a linear equation is a type of equation. A linear equation is the equation of a straight line. This type of equation is written in the form:

or  also known as rise over run.

The m is the rate of change or slope.

The slope is how fast the line moves up or down. Numbers farther from 0, or a larger absolute value will make the slope steeper.

If m is a negative number, then the line will appear to fall or go down the page when read from left to right.

If m is a positive number, then the line will appear to climb the page when read from left to right.

While b is the y-intercept of the function.

This is where the function crosses the y-axis of the coordinate plane. The first equation is called slope-intercept form because, in it, the slope (m) and y-intercept (b) are easily found. The second equation is called point-slope form because, in it, a point on the graph (x1, y1) and the slope (m) are easily found.

You can find the slope of a graph by seeing how much the y-value increases by for every one x-value. You can find the y-intercept of a graph by looking at where the x coordinate equals 0, and see what the y-value equals.

Equations

Linear equation


Ettadhamen-Mnihla, cried At-Tadaman an aa, is the fift-lairgest ceety in Tunisie, an the lairgest in the Ariana Governorate in which it is locatit. As o 2004 it haed a total population o 118,487.

It consists o twa ceeties proper Ettadhamen (meanin "solidarity") an Mnihla, which are creatit in the 1970s wi  the arrival o fowk frae domestic migration.  Aulder neighborhuids constructit illegally, they are then integratit intae the master plan for Greater Tunis an it currently forms the fowert municipality in Tunisie in terms o population wi 118,487 inhabitants in 2004.

See an aa
Leet o ceeties in Tunisie

References

Populatit places in Tunisie
Communes o Tunisie

Ettadhamen-Mnihla


Charles Adam Heckman was a brigadier general in the Union Army during the American Civil War.  He fought in many of the early battles in North Carolina and later served in the Army of the James during the siege of Petersburg.

Biography
Heckman was born in Pennsylvania and graduated from Minerva Seminary in 1837.  He served in the volunteer army during the Mexican War becoming a sergeant by the time he was mustered out of service in 1848.  Apart from the Civil War, Heckman spent most of his career as a conductor for the New Jersey Central Railroad.

Immediately after the Civil War began, Heckman enlisted in the 1st Pennsylvania Volunteer Regiment and was elected captain.  Before seeing any action in that regiment he was appointed major of the 9th New Jersey Volunteer Regiment.  On October 8, 1861 he became the regimental lieutenant colonel and joined Ambrose Burnside's expedition to North Carolina.  He fought at Roanoke Island and was promoted colonel just two days after the battle.  He was wounded at the battles of New Berne and Young's Crossroads.  On November 29, 1862 he was promoted to brigadier general of U.S. volunteers.

When General Burnside left for Virginia, he left Union forces in North Carolina under the command of John G. Foster.  In the winter of 1862, Foster led an expedition against the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad at Goldsboro, NC.  General Heckman led a brigade in Foster's expedition at the battles of Kinston, White Hall and Goldsboro.

Throughout most of 1863 Heckman was in command of the District of Beaufort, briefly commanding the Union defenses at New Bern.  By the end of 1863 he was sent to Virginia to command the Union garrison at Newport News, Virginia.  He temporarily commanded George W. Getty's division at the beginning of 1864.

On April 28, 1864 Heckman was assigned to command the 1st Brigade, 2nd Division, XVIII Corps in the Army of the James.  He was wounded at the battle of Port Walthall Junction and taken prisoner at the battle of Proctor's Creek.  In September 1864 he was exchanged and, when he returned to duty, was assigned to command the 2nd Division in the XVIII Corps.  Heckman led his division at the battle of Chaffin's Farm in support of General George J. Stannard's main attack against Fort Harrison.  When Heckman moved forward his troops veered off far to the north.  Instead of coming directly to the aid of Stannard's division, Heckman's men launched a costly attack against Confederate trenches near Forts Gilmer and Johnson.  During the fighting in Fort Harrison, XVIII Corps commander Edward O. C. Ord was severely wounded and carried from the field.  Heckman then assumed command of the corps.  With this change in command at a crucial point the fighting ground to a halt and the Union forces constructed a defensive line.  After an undistinguished show of leadership during the fighting on September 29, army commander Benjamin F. Butler decided to replace Heckman in command of the corps with his chief of staff, Godfrey Weitzel.  Returning to command his division, Heckman helped repulse the Confederate attack the following day.

In December Heckman was transferred to command the 3rd Division in the newly created XXV Corps.  Briefly from January to February in 1865 he was in command of the XXV Corps, but resigned from the army on May 25, 1865.  Heckman returned to work for the New Jersey Central Railroad as a conductor and railroad dispatcher following the war.

See also

List of American Civil War generals (Union)

References
 Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, .
 Kennedy, Frances H., ed., The Civil War Battlefield Guide, 2nd ed., Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998, .

Union Army generals
People of New Jersey in the American Civil War
1822 births
1896 deaths
Conductor (rail)

Charles Adam Heckman


An air hammer, also known as an air chisel, is a pneumatic hand tool used to carve in stone, and to break or cut metal objects apart. It is designed to accept different tools depending on the required function.

Tools
The following are various tools that can be used in an air hammer:

Universal joint and tie-rod tool Used to separate universal joints and tie-rod ends.
Ball joint separator Used to separate ball joints.
Shock absorber chisel Used to break loose shock absorber nuts.
Exhaust pipe cutter Used to cut through exhaust pipe for disassembly.
Tapered punch A general tool that can be used to free frozen nuts, insert pins, and align holes.
Rubber bushing splitter Used to remove rubber bushings.

Free-standing style
Free-standing air hammers are an adaptation of the hand-held version. An air hammer can stretch or shrink (shape) a variety of metals, from thin aircraft aluminums, all the way down to 10-gauge steel. They are also used for smoothing metal that has already been roughed, shaped or formed.

History

In the 1920s, two pneumatic devices were invented that would permanently change the way metal and stone were hammered. The pneumatic rivet gun was originally developed to set hot rivets on girder bridges and high steel buildings. This tool was later scaled down for sheet metal, as the 1930s saw the advent of monocoque aluminum aircraft. The other new device, hitting at twice or three times the speed of the rivet gun, was the stone carver's hammer – a great blessing for smooth and rapid dressing of granite and marble.

In 1930 F.J. Hauschild adapted the original stone carver's hammer into a portable hand-held steel tube frame for the purpose of straightening auto bodies. For the next 25 years his "Ram's Head Body and Fender Machine" improved and increased production for auto body work men all over the U.S. Copying Hauschild's patented design, a pneumatic tool company in Chicago marketed a number of "destined-to-be-classic" pneumatic planishing hammers, both hand-held for auto body work, and also free-standing ones, with a variety of throat depths for industry and manufacturing.

By World War II, rivet guns were used widely in U.S. aircraft factories both for riveting aluminum sheets, and for flow forming, the process of working aluminum sheet into and over wooden forms by the application of the pneumatic rivet gun.

Post-war industry brought many new applications for the "air hammer" technology. Among these were:
 sand rammers and tampers for sand casting metal
 plating rack scalers
 weld chippers
 destruction guns for cleaning up concrete
 needle scalers
 pavement breakers
 metal chisels.

Each of these tools has a different purpose despite nearly identical appearance in many cases.

References

External links

 Air Power Hammer shrinking 14-gauge steel demonstrated

Hand tools
Pneumatic tools

Air hammer (fabrication)


Gospel originally meant the Christian message ("the gospel"), but in the 2nd century it came to be used also for the books in which the message was set out.

The word gospel came from the Old English word "gōdspel", which literally means "good news", since it narrates Jesus Christ's life and teaching to invite anyone to believe that he was born to save the world from sin and make humans truly know God as a Father. It includes the Death and Resurrection of Jesus.

The Gospel was originally spoken, not written. Eventually gospel came to mean an ancient book about Jesus, especially one of the four books collected by the Church in the Bible.

These books are the first part of the New Testament of the Bible, and are put in a group of this order: the Gospel of Matthew, the Gospel of Mark, the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of John.

"Injil" (Arabic: إنجيل) is the Arabic name for the Gospel of Jesus (Isa). In Islam, Jesus is believed to be the second-to-last prophet and messenger of God (Allah) and the Messiah. Muslims believe that God revealed the Injil to Jesus, while also declaring the truth of the previous revelations: the Tawrat (the Torah) and the Zabur (the Psalms).

Related pages
Gospel music

References

Other websites

Christian theology

Gospel


Alan Arthur Oakes (born 7 September 1942) is an English former footballer who holds Manchester City's all-time record for appearances. Oakes is a midfielder, who in total, played 776 in the Football League matches – the tenth most in history. He is a cousin of former teammate Glyn Pardoe, an uncle of defender Chris Blackburn, and the father of former goalkeeper Michael Oakes.

He joined Manchester City as an amateur in 1958, turning professional and making his debut a year later. He picked up numerous honours at the club, including a European Cup Winners' Cup winners medal in 1970, a First Division and Second Division championship medal in 1967–68 and 1965–66 respectively, an FA Cup winners medal in 1969, two League Cup winners medals in 1970 and 1976, and FA Charity Shield winners medals in 1968 and 1972. He was appointed player-manager at Chester in 1976, and led the club to victory in the Debenhams Cup in 1977. He left the club in March 1982, and then played one FA cup game for Northwich Victoria and one league game for Port Vale. He left the game after coaching spells at Port Vale and then Chester.

Midfielder at Manchester City
Oakes signed for Manchester City on amateur terms in 1958 at the age of fifteen, signing as a professional a year later; he cleaned the boots of legendary goalkeeper Bert Trautmann. His first-team debut came under the stewardship of Les McDowall on 14 November 1959, in a 1–1 draw with Chelsea. He went on to play 18 First Division matches in 1959–60. During the early 1960s, Oakes proved to be one of the few consistent performers in a struggling City side. He played 22 games in 1960–61 and 25 games in 1961–62 (scoring his first senior goal), as City were a comfortable mid-table side. However, despite Oakes reaching the 40 game mark, they plummeted to second-from-bottom of the division in 1962–63, finishing two points short of 33-point safety benchmark set by 20th place Birmingham City. New manager George Poyser failed to bring promotion in 1963–64 and 1964–65, though by then Oakes was a consistent first team performer, making 41 league appearances in each campaign.

He made 51 appearances in 1965–66, as new manager Joe Mercer (and assistant Malcolm Allison) led City to the Second Division title. He played alongside other club legends such as Colin Bell, Mike Summerbee, and Neil Young. Oakes then played 47 games in 1966–67, as City retained their top-flight status with a 15th-place finish. He went on to play in all but one of the matches in City's title winning season in 1967–68, with only defender Tony Book managing play to all 50 games. In addition, they went on to win the 1968 FA Charity Shield, thrashing West Bromwich Albion 6–1. He played 49 games in 1968–69, including the FA Cup final, helping the "Sky Blues" to their fourth FA Cup title with a 1–0 win over Leicester City. Though he never won a full international cap, he represented the Football League against the Scottish League in 1969.

They could only manage a tenth-place finish in 1969–70, but found success in the cup competitions; Oakes featured 49 times in English domestic competitions. He played in the League Cup final at Wembley, which ended in a 2–1 victory over West Bromwich Albion. He also played in the final of the European Cup Winners' Cup, which ended in 2–1 victory over Górnik Zabrze at the Ernst-Happel-Stadion in Vienna.

He played 34 games in 1970–71 as City dropped to 11th, before making 34 appearances in 1971–72, helping the club to a fourth-place finish, a single point behind champions Derby County. As other teams pulled out, Manchester City agreed to take part in the 1972 FA Charity Shield, and they took the shield back to Maine Road with a 1–0 win over Aston Villa at Villa Park. However, he was restricted to just 15 appearances in 1972–73, as City ended the campaign in 11th place under the management of Johnny Hart. Oakes returned to post 33 appearances in 1973–74, the season in which Denis Law famously sent Manchester United out of the top-flight. New boss Tony Book failed to bring back the glory years for Manchester City though, despite Oakes making 43 appearances in 1974–75. Playing 50 games in 1975–76, his final honour with the club was the League Cup medal he picked up in 1976, with a 2–1 victory over Newcastle United.

His last appearance for Manchester City came on 4 May 1976, coming on as substitute for Mike Doyle against rivals Manchester United at Old Trafford. In his time at Maine Road, Oakes had become part of more trophy winning sides than any other Manchester City player in history. He was voted the club's Player of the Year in 1975. Amongst footballing figures of his era, Oakes was renowned for his professionalism; the great Liverpool manager Bill Shankly described him as "exactly the kind of player youngsters should use as a model". He made 680 league and cup appearances for Manchester City, scoring 33 goals. The only City player to come close to his record was Joe Corrigan, a goalkeeper who played alongside Oakes for nine years. Oakes was inducted into the Manchester City Hall of Fame in 2005.

Player-manager at Chester
Oakes moved to Third Division side Chester in the summer of 1976, who had to pay Manchester City a £15,000 fee for his services. Although he initially signed just as a player, he was soon in charge of team affairs at Sealand Road after manager Ken Roberts moved upstairs. Oakes was to be player-manager throughout the remainder of his six years with the club, where he continued to break playing appearance records.

In his first season at the club, Oakes led Chester to the last-16 of the FA Cup for the first time since 1891. He would repeat the feat three years later and lead the club to the Debenhams Cup title in 1977. In 1977–78, he came within a whisker of taking the "Seals" into the top two divisions for the first time, as they finished just two points and places outside the three promotion places. Oakes was also the man to give the legendary Ian Rush his big break in the professional game, handing him his Chester debut in April 1979. Oakes was widely regarded as having done a good job at Chester, but the 1981–82 season saw the "Blues" relegated. Oakes left the club in March 1982 and never managed in the Football League again.

Coaching career
Oakes made an FA Cup appearance for Northwich Victoria against Scunthorpe United in December 1982. He then became part of the coaching staff with Port Vale, serving as reserve team manager from January 1983. While at Vale Park, Oakes was forced to make one final Football League appearance during an injury crisis – his 776th match in the league. At 41 years and 60 days old, Oakes was unable to prevent the injury ravaged team from losing to Plymouth Argyle 1–0, the club's sixth straight loss. Sacked in order to save money in December 1983, he was brought back to the club as a coach in August 1984. After being demoted to the position of youth coach in December 1987, he resigned in protest.

In 1992, Oakes return to Chester on the coaching staff and in 1993–94 he assisted Graham Barrow and Joe Hinnigan as Chester were promoted to the Second Division.

Family
Alan Oakes is the best known member of a prominent football family. His cousin Glyn Pardoe was also a member of the Manchester City side in the 1960s and 70s, and his son Michael is a professional footballer who has played for Aston Villa, Wolverhampton Wanderers and Cardiff City as a goalkeeper. His nephew, Chris Blackburn, played for Chester, Morecambe, and Wrexham.

Career statistics
Source:

Playing statistics

 Includes FA Cup, League Cup, European Cup, UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, UEFA Cup, Charity Shield, Texaco Cup, Anglo-Italian Cup and Anglo-Scottish Cup.

Managerial statistics

Honours

As a player
Individual
Manchester City F.C. Player of the Year: 1975

Manchester City
European Cup Winners' Cup: 1970
Football League First Division: 1967–68
Football League Second Division: 1965–66
FA Cup: 1969
League Cup: 1970, 1976
FA Charity Shield: 1968, 1972

As a player-manager
Chester
Debenhams Cup: 1977

References

1942 births
Living people
People from Winsford
Footballers from Cheshire
English men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Manchester City F.C. players
Chester City F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
Northwich Victoria F.C. players
English Football League players
English Football League representative players
Men's association football player-managers
English football managers
Chester City F.C. managers
English Football League managers
Association football coaches
Port Vale F.C. non-playing staff

Alan Oakes


Horace Newcomb held the Lambdin Kay Chair for the Peabody Award in the Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Georgia from 2001 through June 2013. Prior to this, he was a member of the Board of Jurors from 1989 to 1995.

Career
Newcomb is the author of TV: The Most Popular Art (Doubleday/Anchor, 1974), co-author of The Producer's Medium (Oxford University Press, 1983), and editor of seven editions of Television: The Critical View (Oxford University Press, 1976–2006). In 1973-74, while teaching full-time, he was also the daily television columnist for the Baltimore Morning Sun. From 1994-96 he served as Curator for the Museum of Broadcast Communications (Chicago) with primary duties as editor of The Museum of Broadcast Communications Encyclopedia of Television (Taylor & Francis, 2nd edition, 2004), a four-volume, 2,600 page reference work containing more than 1,200 entries on major people, programs, and topics related to television in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia. The MBC Encyclopedia of Television is the definitive library reference work of first record for the study of television. Newcomb is also author of numerous articles in scholarly journals, magazines and newspapers.

His research and teaching interests are in media, society and culture and he has written widely in the fields of television criticism and history. Recent lectures in Italy, Taiwan, Norway, Spain, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Korea, Switzerland and China have focused on cultural exchange and international media industries.

Newcomb received the B.A. from Mississippi College, Clinton, Mississippi in 1964. He studied as a Woodrow Wilson Fellow and University Fellow at the University of Chicago, receiving the M.A. in 1965 (General Studies in the Humanities) and the Ph.D. in English (American Literature), 1969. He taught at colleges and universities in Iowa, Michigan, Maryland, and Texas before joining the Peabody Award at the University of Georgia in 2001.

References

External links

American television critics
University of Georgia faculty
American non-fiction writers
Mississippi College alumni
American mass media scholars
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Horace Newcomb


A bump is a reassignment of jobs on the basis of seniority in unionised organisations in the private or public sector.

For example, if a job becomes vacant, more than one person may be reassigned to different tasks or ranks on the basis of who has worked for the organisation longer. As the next person assumes the duties of the person who has vacated, now the job of the replacement person likewise becomes vacant and must thus be filled by the next person with the appropriate seniority level. An exception to this may be unionised organisations that occasionally employ summer students, whereby the students do not officially accumulate any seniority and cannot thus "bump" another person.

See also
 Closed shop

External links
 Example of "Bumping" in a New York School District

Criticism of trade unions

Bump (union)


Coin collecting is the hobby of keeping different coins.  Some people do it just for pleasure, while others collect coins for the history of the coins. People can collect coins that are old, rare, beautiful, investing or just interesting.

Coin collecting is a very old hobby.  Even Julius Caesar collected coins. Some coins are very expensive, because more people want them than there are copies of the coin. Some coin collectors like to collect one coin of each date, or one coin of each King or Queen of a country.

The condition of a coin is very important in finding the value of the coin for collectors.  Some coins which are worth almost nothing in poor condition can be worth thousands of times as much in new condition. The term "mint condition" means the coin has never been used ("in circulation"), just like it came out of the mint where it was made.

The largest group of American coin collectors is the American Numismatic Association,  while the Royal Numismatic Society, which was started in 1826, is one of the largest societies outside the US.

Many catalogs are produced around the world, generally for the coins of the country where the catalog is produced.  In the U.S., one guide, the "Red Book" has been produced annually since 1946.   In the U.K., the coin dealer Seaby produced catalogs on U.K. coins as well as ancient coins.  The catalogs were purchased by Spink's in 1996 and are continuing under the Spink's name. Spink's was founded in 1666.

References

Other pages
Stamp collector

Collecting
Coins

Coin collecting


Living with Michael Jackson is a two-hour-long television movie about the pop star Michael Jackson. In it a British journalist called Martin Bashir asked Jackson questions. The movie was made between May 2002 and January 2003. It was shown first in the United Kingdom on 3 February 2003 on ITV. More than 15 million people watched it. It was shown in the United States on 6 February 2003 on ABC. 38 million people watched it.

Living with Michael Jackson starts at Jackson's Neverland Ranch. They go to the Giving Tree. This is a tree where Jackson got inspiration for his songs.
There was a confidentiality agreement. This meant that Jackson did not talk about the 1993 child molestation allegations against him in the movie.
In the programme Jackson told Bashir that he had "slept in a bed with many children". He said that this was a "beautiful thing" and was not sexual. He held hands with a 12-year-old boy. Martin Bashir said that Neverland Ranch was a "dangerous place for children". After the programme was shown Thomas W. Sneddon started a criminal investigation about Jackson. Gavin Arvizo, the boy who Jackson held hands with in the movie, said that Jackson hebephilically molested him when he was 13 years old, after the documentary was on television. In 2005 the People v. Jackson trial began. After four months Jackson was found not guilty of all 10 charges.

On 23 February 2003 The Michael Jackson Interview: The Footage You Were Never Meant to See was shown on Fox. In it there were interviews with people who were not in Living with Michael Jackson. These included Jackson's ex-wife Debbie Rowe. In the video Bashir also said that he thinks it is wonderful that Jackson allows children to come to Neverland.

Jackson's lawyers wrote to the Independent Television Commission and the Broadcasting Standards Commission saying that he was "unfairly treated".

References

Other websites
YouTube link to the documentary

Michael Jackson

Living with Michael Jackson


Mark Trueblood is an American engineer and astronomer. He pioneered the development of robotic telescopes, as the author of several articles and two books, including Microcomputer Control of Telescopes and Telescope Control, co-authored with Russell M. Genet. Trueblood worked on the Gemini Observatory. He is the owner and operator of Winer Observatory in Sonoita, Arizona, which is the site of several professional research projects. The asteroid 15522 Trueblood is named in his honor.

Biography
Trueblood was born in 1948 in Cincinnati, Ohio, and spent most of his childhood there, where his parents encouraged his interest in astronomy. At the age of 12, he read Jean Texereau's book "How to Make a Telescope" and ordered a mirror-grinding kit from what was then the Edmund Scientific Company. He completed a 6-inch f/8 mirror and the telescope when he was 14, the same year his father's company transferred the family to Geneva, Switzerland for two years. Mark attended the International School of Geneva during the years 1962–1964, returning to Cincinnati the summer of 1964. He graduated from Finneytown High School in June, 1966 as the Salutatorian of his class. He went on to Brown University that autumn, where he graduated in May 1971 with the degrees AB-ScB (Honors) in Physics. He attended the Ph.D. program at Wesleyan University for one year, then moved to the Washington, D.C., area in the autumn of 1972. There he worked for the Smithsonian Institution for two years, then a succession of "Beltway Bandit" software government contractors, primarily on contracts with NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. During his 18 years in the Washington, D.C., area, he spent his final nine years with the Ford Aerospace Corporation, rising to the position of Program Manager. Among his assignments at Ford, he headed the development of the Hubble Space Telescope control center at GSFC. While in the DC area, Trueblood attended the University of Maryland and earned his master's degree in Astronomy in 1983. Michael F. A'Hearn, the Deep Impact Principal Investigator, supervised his thesis on "Small Telescope Automation."

In 1990, Trueblood moved to Tucson, Arizona, to assume a position with the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO, which serves as the US national observatory) at the National Solar Observatory. There he worked for almost four years on the Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) program as a software engineer. He began work in December 1994 in what is now the NOAO Gemini Science Center, assisting the NGSC Director in overseeing the development of instruments in the US for the Gemini 8-meter telescopes. In 2012, Trueblood left NOAO to join the OSIRIS-ReX project at the University of Arizona. He retired in 2013, but still tracks Near Earth Objects (asteroids and comets with the potential of striking Earth) using regional 2-meter class telescopes.

References

External links
Biography at the Winer Observatory

1948 births
Living people
Wesleyan University alumni
American astronomers
21st-century American engineers
International School of Geneva alumni

Mark Trueblood


This page lists the official World Champions – Professional Latin of the World Dance Council (WDC). The championships are authorized and organized under the auspices of the WDC, and held annually in the last quarter of each year. The competition comprises five dances: rumba, samba, paso doble, cha-cha-cha and jive, as defined in ballroom dancing terms.

Official World Championships have been held in the Latin section of ballroom dancing since they were organised by the ICBD in 1959. The ICBD was renamed WD&DSC and has been renamed again to its present title. The WDC represents all the major professional DanceSport countries. Unofficial world championships were held, usually in Paris, by several organisers pre-World War II. Some of these events included one or two Latin dances in the same competition as ballroom dances. As these events had no official standing, they are not noticed here. There is one earlier international Latin dance championship; it started in 1953 at the Elsa Wells International Dance Championships in London (see International Latin American Dance Champions). Both series have continued annually.

World Champions

See also
International Latin American Dance Champions
Rhythm World Champions
Smooth World Champions
U.S. National Dancesport Champions (Professional Latin)
U.S. National Dancesport Champions (Professional 10-Dance)
World 10 Dance Champions
World Ballroom Dance Champions

References

Ballroom dance competitions
Ballroom dance
Latin dances
Latin

World Latin Dance Champions


Johann Jakob Walther (1650 – 2 November 1717) was a German violinist and composer.

Life
All the known facts of his life and activity are from the Musikalischen Lexikon by Johann Gottfried Walther (Johann Sebastian Bach's cousin), a dictionary which first appeared in 1732. J.J. Walther was born in Witterda bei Erfurt. Between 1670 and 1674 he is said to have remained a violinist in the orchestra of Cosimo III of the Medicis in Florence. From 1674 he was concertmaster at the court of Dresden. After the death of his patron in 1680 he became the Italian secretary at the elector's court in Mainz and was ordained a canon.  He died in Mainz.

Alongside Biber and Westhoff, J.J. Walther is one of the most significant German violinists of the 17th century. Besides a virtuoso technique including doublestops and arpeggios, his works display a wealth of formal devices, especially in the treatment of ostinato variations.

Works
40 compositions are known, contained in two volumes:

Scherzi da Violino solo con il basso continuo, published in 1676. This cycle anticipates Paganini's technique in that it contains pizzicato harp imitations while the bow imitates nightingale song.
Hortulus chelicus published in 1688 (in the second printing of 1694 with the new title Wohlgepflanzter Violinischer Lustgarten). In the foreword, Walther expresses his confidence that this self-published volume will enjoy the same success as its predecessor. It contains 28 pieces and is more varied than the other collection.

External links

References
 Walther, Johann Gottfried: Musicalisches Lexicon oder Musicalische Bibliothec (1732).

1650 births
1717 deaths
German Baroque composers
German male classical composers
German violinists
German classical violinists
German male violinists
Male classical violinists

Johann Jakob Walther (composer)


The prostate is a gland of the male body that adds part of the fluid to semen and acts as the valve between semen and urine. A healthy human prostate is slightly larger than a walnut. It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder.

Prostate cancer is one of the most common cancers affecting elderly men in developed (also known as first world) countries and a major cause of death. Regular rectal exams are recommended for older men to detect prostate cancer early. Prostate cyst is very common in men. With age, the risk of developing this disease increases significantly. A cyst is a kind of cavity formed from the tissue of the prostate itself, inside which fluid accumulates.

The prostate is often referred to as the male G-spot, which is a spot inside the female vagina that causes intense pleasure when it is stimulated. The prostate can be massaged by using a finger or during anal sex. Some males are able to orgasm with prostate stimulation alone.

Other websites
 University of California, Santa Barbara's SexInfo  This article includes general information on the prostate, related medical conditions, and information on stimulating the prostate for sexual pleasure.

References

Anatomy of the male reproductive system
Glands

Prostate


Wang Meng (王蒙, Wáng Méng; Zi: Shūmíng 叔明, Hao: Xiāngguāng Jūshì 香光居士) (c. 1308 – 1385) was a Chinese painter during the Yuan Dynasty.

Biography
Wang Meng was born in Wuxing (吴兴), now known as Huzhou (湖州), Zhejiang.  He was a maternal grandson of Zhao Mengfu, thus making him a descendant of the Song Dynasty's royal bloodline on his mother's side.

Wang Meng was erroneously accused of conspiring against the Ming Emperor Taizu and spent the last five years of his life in jail.

Painting style
Wang Meng is considered to be one of the Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty, along with Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, and Ni Zan. They famously refused to serve the Mongolian rulers of their country. In contrast to many renowned painters in previous history, these artists mostly worked on paper instead of silk, an indication of the importance they gave to the calligraphic touch of the brush on paper. They exclusively painted landscapes, which they believed to be the visible key to the invisible reality. They restricted their acquaintanceship to each other, and like-minded "wen ren" (gentleman-scholars).

Wang Meng was the youngest of the group, and the least famous in his own time. Nevertheless, his style greatly influenced later Chinese painting. In contrast to the relatively spare style of his compatriots, his ropy brushstrokes piled one on the other to produce masses of texture combined in dense and involved patterns. Many artists were influenced by the works of Wang Meng centuries after his death, most notably Dong Qichang.

His most famous works are the Ge Zhichuan Relocating, Forest Grotto at Juqu, Writing Books under the Pine Trees, The Simple Retreat, and Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains.  Most of his masterpieces are now located in notable museums around the world, such as the Palace Museum, National Palace Museum, Shanghai Museum, Cleveland Museum of Art and the Metropolitan Museum of Art.  In 2011, a lesser known work of his from a private collection, titled Zhichuan Resettlement, was sold for 402.5 million yuan (US$62.1 million) at art auction.

Footnotes

References

External links

Wang Meng and his painting gallery at China Online Museum
Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632-1717), an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Wang Meng (see index)
Sung and Yuan paintings, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Wang Meng (see list of paintings)

Yuan dynasty landscape painters
Ming dynasty landscape painters
1308 births
1385 deaths
Date of birth unknown
Date of death unknown
Place of birth missing
Place of death missing
Politicians from Huzhou
Painters from Zhejiang
Ming dynasty government officials

Wang Meng (painter)


Altitude can be determined based on the measurement of atmospheric pressure. The greater the altitude, the lower the pressure. When a barometer is supplied with a nonlinear calibration so as to indicate altitude, the instrument is a type of altimeter called a pressure altimeter or barometric altimeter. A pressure altimeter is the altimeter found in most aircraft, and skydivers use wrist-mounted versions for similar purposes. Hikers and mountain climbers use wrist-mounted or hand-held altimeters, in addition to other navigational tools such as a map, magnetic compass, or GPS receiver.

Calibration
The calibration of an altimeter follows the equation

where c is a constant, T is the absolute temperature, P is the pressure at altitude z, and Po is the pressure at sea level. The constant c depends on the acceleration of gravity and the molar mass of the air.
However, one must be aware that this type of altimeter relies on "density altitude" and its readings can vary by hundreds of feet owing to a sudden change in air pressure, such as from a cold front, without any actual change in altitude.

The most common unit of measurement used for altimeter calibration worldwide is hectopascals (hPa), except for North America (other than Canada
) and Japan where inches of mercury (inHg) are used. To obtain an accurate altitude reading in either feet or meters, the local barometric pressure must be calibrated correctly using the barometric formula.

History
The scientific principles behind the pressure altimeter were first written by Rev. Alexander Bryce a Scottish minister and astronomer in 1772 who realised that the principles of a barometer could be adjusted to measure height.

Applications

Use in hiking, climbing and skiing
A barometric altimeter, used along with a topographic map, can help to verify one's location. It is more reliable, and often more accurate, than a GPS receiver for measuring altitude; the GPS signal may be unavailable, for example, when one is deep in a canyon, or it may give wildly inaccurate altitudes when all available satellites are near the horizon. Because barometric pressure changes with the weather, hikers must periodically re-calibrate their altimeters when they reach a known altitude, such as a trail junction or peak marked on a topographical map.

Skydiving

An altimeter is the most important piece of skydiving equipment, after the parachute itself. Altitude awareness is crucial at all times during the jump, and determines the appropriate response to maintain safety.

Since altitude awareness is so important in skydiving, there is a wide variety of altimeter designs made specifically for use in the sport, and a non-student skydiver will typically use two or more altimeters in a single jump:

 Hand, wrist or chest-mounted mechanical analogue visual altimeters. This is the most basic and common type, and is used by (and commonly mandated for) virtually all student skydivers. The common design has a face marked from 0 to 4000 m (or 0 to 12000 ft, mimicking the clock face), on which an arrow points to the current altitude. The face plate sports sections prominently marked with yellow and red respectively, signifying the recommended deployment altitude, as well as emergency procedure decision altitude (commonly known as "hard deck"). A mechanical altimeter has a knob that needs to be manually adjusted to make it point to 0 on the ground before jump, and if the landing spot is not at the same altitude as the takeoff spot, the user needs to adjust it appropriately. Some advanced electronic altimeters are also available which make use of the familiar analogue display, despite internally operating digitally.
 Digital visual altimeters, mounted on the wrist or hand. This type always operates electronically, and conveys the altitude as a number, rather than a pointer on a dial. Since these altimeters already contain all the electronic circuitry necessary for altitude calculation, they are commonly equipped with auxiliary functions such as electronic logbook, real-time jump profile replay, speed indication, simulator mode for use in ground training, etc. An electronic altimeter is activated on the ground before the jump, and calibrates automatically to point to 0. It is thus essential that the user not turn it on earlier than necessary to avoid, for example, the drive to a dropzone located at a different altitude than one's home which could cause a potentially fatal false reading. If the intended landing zone is at a different elevation than the takeoff point, the user needs to input the appropriate offset by using a designated function.
 Audible altimeters (also known as "dytters", a genericised trademark of the first such product on the market). These are inserted into one's helmet, and emit a warning tone at a predefined altitude. Contemporary audibles have evolved significantly from their crude beginnings, and sport a vast array of functions, such as multiple tones at different altitudes, multiple saved profiles that can be switched quickly, electronic logbook with data transfer to a PC for later analysis, distinct free fall and canopy modes with different warning altitudes, swoop approach guiding tones, etc. Audibles are strictly auxiliary devices, and do not replace, but complement a visual altimeter which remains the primary tool for maintaining altitude awareness. The advent of modern skydiving disciplines such as freeflying, in which the ground might not be in one's field of view for long periods of time, has made the use of audibles nearly universal, and virtually all skydiving helmets come with one or more built-in ports in which an audible might be placed. Audibles are not recommended and often banned from use by student skydivers, who need to build up a proper altitude awareness regime for themselves.
 Auxiliary visual altimeters. These do not show the precise altitude, but rather help maintain a general indicator in one's peripheral vision. They might either operate in tandem with an audible equipped with an appropriate port, in which case they emit warning flashes complementing the audible tones, or be standalone and use another display mode, such as showing either green or red light depending on the altitude.

 Speaking altimeters (also known as voice altimeters). Another type of altimeter that combines both audible and visual altimeter functions. Unit has all necessary altitudes used in Skydiving and announces it as a number in Skydiver's native language. These are also inserted into helmet (the same pocket size as for audibles), but emit voice with automatic volume adjustment depend on the speed to clear hearing. Speaking altimeters usually has software configuration via mobile application. Main goal of this type of altimeter is strong security feature for experienced skydivers, so they always know own current position that very useful for FS load organizers or AFF instructors as well.

The exact choice of altimeters depends heavily on the individual skydiver's preferences, experience level, primary disciplines, as well as the type of the jump. On one end of the spectrum, a low-altitude demonstration jump with water landing and no free fall might waive the mandated use of altimeters and use none at all. In contrast, a jumper doing freeflying jumps and flying a high performance canopy might use a mechanical analogue altimeter for easy reference in free fall, an in-helmet audible for breakaway altitude warning, additionally programmed with swoop guide tones for canopy flying, as well as a digital altimeter on an armband for quickly glancing the precise altitude on approach. Another skydiver doing similar types of jumps might wear a digital altimeter for their primary visual one, preferring the direct altitude readout of a numeric display.

Use in aircraft

In aircraft, an aneroid altimeter or aneroid barometer measures the atmospheric pressure from a static port outside the aircraft. Air pressure decreases with an increase of altitude—approximately 100 hectopascals per 800 meters or one inch of mercury per 1000 feet or 1 hectopascals per 30 feet near sea level.

The aneroid altimeter is calibrated to show the pressure directly as an altitude above mean sea level, in accordance with a mathematical model atmosphere defined by the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Older aircraft used a simple aneroid barometer where the needle made less than one revolution around the face from zero to full scale. This design evolved to three-pointer altimeters with a primary needle and one or more secondary needles that show the number of revolutions, similar to a clock face. In other words, each needle points to a different digit of the current altitude measurement. However, this design has fallen out of favor due to the risk of misreading in stressful situations. The design evolved further to drum-type altimeters, the final step in analogue instrumentation, where each revolution of a single needle accounted for , with thousand foot increments recorded on a numerical odometer-type drum. To determine altitude, a pilot had first to read the drum to determine the thousands of feet, then look at the needle for the hundreds of feet. Modern analogue altimeters in transport aircraft are typically drum-type. The latest development in clarity is an Electronic flight instrument system with integrated digital altimeter displays. This technology has trickled down from airliners and military planes until it is now standard in many general aviation aircraft.

Modern aircraft use a "sensitive altimeter". On a sensitive altimeter, the sea-level reference pressure can be adjusted with a setting knob. The reference pressure, in inches of mercury in Canada and the United States, and hectopascals (previously millibars) elsewhere, is displayed in the small Kollsman window, on the face of the aircraft altimeter. This is necessary, since sea level reference atmospheric pressure at a given location varies over time with temperature and the movement of pressure systems in the atmosphere.

In aviation terminology, the regional or local air pressure at mean sea level (MSL) is called the QNH or "altimeter setting", and the pressure that will calibrate the altimeter to show the height above ground at a given airfield is called the QFE of the field. An altimeter cannot, however, be adjusted for variations in air temperature. Differences in temperature from the ISA model will accordingly cause errors in indicated altitude.

In aerospace, the mechanical stand-alone altimeters which are based on diaphragm bellows were replaced by integrated measurement systems which are called air data computers (ADC). This module measures altitude, speed of flight and outside temperature to provide more precise output data allowing automatic flight control and flight level division. Multiple altimeters can be used to design a pressure reference system to provide information about the airplane's position angles to further support inertial navigation system calculations.

Pilots can perform preflight altimeter checks by setting the barometric scale to the current reported altimeter setting. The altimeter pointers should indicate the surveyed field elevation of the airport. Federal Aviation Administration requires that if the indication is off by more than  from the surveyed field elevation, the instrument should be recalibrated.

Other modes of transport
The altimeter is an instrument optional in off-road vehicles to aid in navigation. Some high-performance luxury cars that were never intended to leave paved roads, such as the Duesenberg in the 1930s, have also been equipped with altimeters.

References

Altimeters
Atmospheric pressure

Pressure altimeter


Naboo is a planet in the fictional Star Wars universe. It is the home planet of two societies: the Gungans who live in underwater cities and the humans who live in regular cities. Humans of Naboo have a king or queen that they choose, and have a peaceful culture that loves education, the arts, environmental protection and science. The main capital of Naboo is Theed.

Star Wars planets

Naboo