Wei Chengqing (韋承慶; 640?–706?), courtesy name Yanxiu (延休), formally Viscount Wen of Fuyang (扶陽溫子), was an official of the Chinese Tang dynasty and Wu Zetian's Zhou dynasty, serving as a chancellor during Wu Zetian's reign.

Background
Wei Chengqing might have been born in 640, during the reign of Emperor Gaozong. His father Wei Siqian was a mid-level official at the time (and would eventually serve as chancellor from 685 to 687, during the first reign of Emperor Gaozong's son Emperor Ruizong). He had at least one younger half-brother, Wei Chengqing, born of Lady Wang, a later wife of Wei Siqian. It was said that Lady Wang was very strict in her discipline of Wei Chengqing because he was not born of her, and whenever she punished Wei Chengqing, Wei Sili would ask to be punished in Wei Chengqing's stead – and when she refused, he would have the household servants punish him in the same manner Lady Wang was punishing Wei Chengqing. Lady Wang saw this and realized that she needed to give Wei Chengqing better treatment. When others heard of this, they compared the Wei brothers to the Jin Dynasty (266–420) officials Wang Xiang and Wang Lan (王覽) – half-brothers in a situation similar to the Wei brothers.

After Wei Chengqing passed the imperial examination, he became the military advisor to Emperor Gaozong's son Li Xian the Prince of Yong, but was in charge of drafting important documents on Li Xian's staff, and it was said that he wrote in a beautiful style. After Li Xian became crown prince in 675, he continued to serve on Li Xian's staff. In 679, when Emperor Gaozong transferred some of the imperial authority to Li Xian, it was said that Li Xian began to favor luxuries and pleasures, and Wei submitted a petition urging him to curb behavior – a petition that Li Xian appreciated and thanked him for. Wei, also believing that people's anxieties largely came from their own creation, wrote an ode entitled the Ode of Ling Tower (靈臺賦), to both satirize the people's lack of inner peace and to show what his own intentions were. After Li Xian was removed as crown prince in 680 (after offending his mother, Emperor Gaozong's powerful empress Empress Wu (later known as Wu Zetian)), Wei was sent out of the capital to serve as the magistrate of Wucheng County (烏程, in modern Huzhou, Zhejiang), and it was said that he much improved the culture of the county.

During Wu Zetian's reign
During the Changshou era (692-694), by which time Empress Wu had established her own Zhou dynasty as its "emperor," interrupting Tang, Wei Chengqing served as Fengge Sheren (鳳閣舍人), a mid-level official at the legislative bureau of government (鳳閣, Fengge), and was further given the responsibility to select officials at the ministry of civil service affairs (天官部, Tianguan Bu). It was said that he wrote important documents quickly and proficiently, but at times offended powerful people, and therefore was sent out of the palace to serve as the prefect of Xin Prefecture (忻州, roughly modern Xinzhou, Shanxi), but was soon recalled to serve in the same capacities as before. Sometime before 699, he was removed on account of illness—and Wu Zetian had his brother Wei Sili succeed him. Wei Chengqing himself was made a member of the staff of Li Xian the Crown Prince (note different character than the first crown prince he served). He later successively served as the prefect of Yu Prefecture (豫州, roughly modern Zhumadian, Henan), and then Guo Prefecture (虢州, part of modern Sanmenxia, Henan). He was eventually recalled to serve as deputy minister of civil service affairs (天官侍郎, Tianguan Shilang), and was also responsible for editing the imperial history. It was said that people praised him for fairness during the three terms that he served in being responsible for selecting officials.

In 704, Wei Chengqing was made Fengge Shilang (鳳閣侍郎), the deputy head of the legislative bureau, and he was also given the designation Tong Fengge Luantai Pingzhangshi (同鳳閣鸞臺平章事), making him a chancellor de facto. As Wu Zetian did not wish to have two members of the same clan serving as chancellors simultaneously, Wei Sili, who was then chancellor as well, was made the principal of the imperial university. Meanwhile, there had been accusations against Wu Zetian's lover Zhang Changzong that he had permitted the fortuneteller Li Hongtai (李弘泰) to foretell that he had the appearance of an emperor, and Wu Zetian had Wei Chengqing, Cui Shenqing (崔神慶), and Song Jing investigate. Wei and Cui, after investigation, concluded that Li Hongtai should be prosecuted, but Zhang should not, as he had reported what Li Hongtai said to Wu Zetian. Song insisted on investigating, but to no avail, as Wu Zetian protected Zhang.

During Emperor Zhongzong's second reign
In spring 705, when a coup led by Zhang Jianzhi, Cui Xuanwei, Jing Hui, Huan Yanfan, and Yuan Shuji overthrew Wu Zetian and restored Li Xian, a former emperor, to the throne (as Emperor Zhongzong), her lovers Zhang Changzong and Zhang Yizhi (Zhang Changzong's brother) were killed. On the same day, Wei Chengqing, along with fellow chancellor Fang Rong and Cui Shenqing), were accused of being associates of Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong and arrested. However, at that time, an imperial edict announcing a general pardon had to be drafted, and despite the fact that Wei was under arrest, the other officials still believed that no one could write it as well as he could, and so he was put in charge of drafting it. His style was said to be so beautiful despite the dangers that surrounded him that all who read the edict praised it. After half a month, Wei was demoted to be the sheriff of Gaoyao County (高要, in modern Zhaoqing, Guangdong). After about a year, he was promoted to be the prefect of Chen Prefecture (辰州, roughly modern Huaihua, Hunan), but even before he reported to Chen Prefecture, was recalled to serve as honorary Mishu Shaojian (秘書少監, deputy head of the archival bureau, although in this case without actual authority) and again made an imperial historian. He was also created the Viscount of Fuyang. Emperor Zhongzong had him draft a memorial text for Wu Zetian, and once he completed it, praised him for its beauty, giving him the honorific title Yinqing Guanglu Daifu (銀青光祿大夫). He was soon commissioned to be Huangmen Shilang (黃門侍郎), the deputy head of the examination bureau (門下省, Menxia Sheng), but died of illness before he could take office. Emperor Zhongzong mourned him greatly and recalled Wei Sili, then serving as a prefectural prefect, to succeed him.

Notes and references

 Old Book of Tang, vol. 88.
 New Book of Tang, vol. 116.
 Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 202, 206, 207, 208.

Chancellors under Wu Zetian
Chancellors under Emperor Zhongzong of Tang
Tang dynasty historians
8th-century Chinese historians
640 births
706 deaths
Wei clan of Jingzhao

Wei Chengqing


Ieoþwel þæs binama wæs 'se Andfeaxa' wæs Snāwdūnes Cyning in þǣm ǣrrorum tēoðan gearhunde.

Ieoþwel wæs Anarades sunu and in þǣm Wyliscan gereorde is his nama Idwal ab Anarawd. He wæs of þǣm Aberffraw Hūs and his foregenga in swlycum cynedōme wæs his fæder Anarawd Rodri sunu. Willelm of Mealdelmesbyrig sæd þe man his hāt "Bretta Cyning" swa swa his fæder.

On his fæder dēað in 916 fang Ieoþwel to rīce.  In 918 gerad Ēadweard Cyning þa burg æt Tameworþige, and him cierde to eall se þeodscype on Myrcna lande þe Æþelflæde ær underþeoded wæs; and þa cyningas on Norþwealum, Howel, and Cledauc, and Ieoþwel, and eall Norþweallcyn hine sohton him to hlaforde.

Ðan fang Æþelstan to rīce in 924 swār Ieoþwel āþ to Æþelstan Engla Cyning, and æfterweard cwōm Ieoþwel to Æðelstanes hired in 927, 928, and 937. In 927 sealde Ieoþwel his hand to bōcum and he brōhtede his fyrd mid Huwel of Deheubarth and Morgan ab Owain of Went wiþ Uwen Dyfnwaling Stræcledwala Cyning in þǣm ilcan geare.

Snāwdūnes Cyningas

Ieoþwel se Andfeax


Al-Fatḥ ibn Khāqān () ( – 11 December 861) was an Abbasid official and one of the most prominent figures of the court of the Caliph al-Mutawakkil (). The son of a Turkic general of Caliph al-Mu'tasim, al-Fath was raised at the caliphal palace alongside the future al-Mutawakkil and adopted by al-Mu'tasim at age seven. With the accession of al-Mutawakkil, he occupied a series of official posts, including governor of Egypt and the Syrian provinces, but his power stemmed mainly from his close relationship to al-Mutawakkil, whose main adviser and confidant he was. A well-educated man and ardent bibliophile, al-Fath was himself a writer and a patron of writers, and assembled a large library at his palace at Samarra. He was assassinated by the Turkic guard alongside al-Mutawakkil.

Origin and early life
Al-Fath was the son of Khaqan ibn Urtuj, a Turkic leader related to the ruling family of Ferghana. Coming from his homeland in Central Asia to serve in the caliphal army, Urtuj had risen to become one of the main commanders—alongside Ashinas, Wasif al-Turki, and al-Afshin—of the Turkish guard established by Caliph al-Mu'tasim (). Al-Fath was born around 817/8, as he was likely of age with the future al-Mutawakkil, along with whom he was raised and educated since infancy, and whose closest companion and confidant he became. At the age of seven, al-Fath was adopted by al-Mu'tasim. Indeed, as the historian Matthew Gordon comments, "a range of anecdotal evidence suggests that al-Fath and al-Mutawakkil were inseparable". Of his brothers, the most notable was Muzahim, who became a military officer and ended up as governor of Egypt, where he was succeeded by his son Ahmad.

Role in government
Despite his prominence, few biographical details are known about al-Fath. Yaqut al-Hamawi reports that his career in government began under al-Mu'tasim and al-Wathiq (), but mentions no specific position. After the accession of al-Mutawakkil, al-Fath played a major role in the government, more by his status as the Caliph's chief adviser than by virtue of any official posts he held. Yaqut reports that he served as personal secretary to the Caliph, and was in charge of his official seal. Ibn Taghribirdi claims that he was in charge of the dīwān al-kharāj in 847/8, while both he and al-Kutubi report that he was also vizier. The latter is unlikely, since the position was occupied for most of al-Mutawakkil's reign by Ubayd Allah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan (no relation). In  al-Fath served as al-Mutawakkil's chief of intelligence in Samarra, while in 856/7 and again in 860/1 he was appointed temporarily as governor of Egypt; on the latter occasion he may have acted as an envoy rather than governor, since al-Kindi categorically states that the governors of Egypt at the time represented the prince al-Muntasir, who was the nominal governor of the province. In 858, following al-Mutawakkil's short-lived attempt to transfer his capital to Damascus, al-Fath was also appointed governor of Syria. Here too his activity in that capacity is obscure, but there is some evidence that points to him taking an active role in the affairs of the province.

Succession dispute and assassination
Al-Mutawakkil had appointed his oldest son, al-Muntasir, as his heir in 849/50, but slowly had shifted his favour to his second son, al-Mu'tazz. Al-Fath and the vizier Ubayd Allah encouraged the Caliph in his intention to replace al-Muntasir, and appear to have been backed by the traditional Abbasid elites as well. Conversely, al-Muntasir was backed by the Turkic and Maghariba guard troops.

In late autumn 861, matters came to a head: in October, al-Mutawakkil ordered the estates of the Turkic general Wasif to be confiscated and handed over to al-Fath. Feeling backed into a corner, the Turkic leadership began a plot to assassinate the Caliph. They were soon joined, or at least had the tacit approval, of al-Mustansir, who smarted from a  succession of humiliations: on 5 December, on the recommendation of al-Fath and Ubayd Allah, he was bypassed in favour of al-Mu'tazz for leading the Friday prayer at the end of Ramadan, while three days later, when al-Mutawakkil was feeling ill and chose al-Mustansir to represent him on the prayer, once again Ubayd Allah intervened and persuaded the Caliph to go in person. Even worse, according to al-Tabari, on the next day al-Mutawakkil alternately vilified and threatened to kill his eldest son, and even had al-Fath slap him on the face. With rumours circulating that Wasif and the other Turkish leaders would be rounded up and executed on 12 December, the conspirators decided to act.

According to al-Tabari, a story later circulated that al-Fath and Ubayd Allah were forewarned of the plot by a Turkic woman, but had disregarded it, confident that no-one would dare carry it out.  On the night of 10/11 December, about one hour after midnight, the Turks burst in the chamber where the Caliph and al-Fath were having supper. Al-Fath was killed trying to protect the Caliph, who was killed next. Al-Muntasir, who now assumed the caliphate, initially claimed that al-Fath had murdered his father, and that he had been killed after; within a short time, however, the official story changed to al-Mutawakkil choking on his wine. The murder of al-Mutawakkil began the tumultuous period known as "Anarchy at Samarra", which lasted until 870 and brought the Abbasid Caliphate to the brink of collapse.

Cultural activity
Thoroughly assimilated into the Arabic culture, with an "impressive command of Arabic", al-Fath was a prominent member of Samarra's literary circle, and notable as a patron of many writers and poets, such as the writer al-Buhturi, or the historian al-Tha'labi. Perhaps his most notable protégé was Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Jahiz, who dedicated his work Fi manaqib al-Turk ("On the Merits of the Turks") to his benefactor. Al-Fath was himself an author, but of his works only the titles of three books, and 13 verses have survived. He also assembled a large library, which contained many philosophical works, and which was frequented by many scholars of the time; the historian Hugh Kennedy calls him "the greatest bibliophile of his day". His palace in Samarra, built by his father, later became a caliphal residence, known as Jawsaq al-Khaqani.

References

Sources

Further reading

810s births
861 deaths
9th-century diplomats
9th-century Abbasid governors of Egypt
Assassinated people in the medieval Islamic world
Abbasid governors of Egypt
Courtiers from the Abbasid Caliphate
Bibliophiles
Patrons of literature
Poets from the Abbasid Caliphate
One Thousand and One Nights characters

Al-Fath ibn Khaqan


Richmond railway station was a railway station that served the town of Richmond in North Yorkshire, England. The station was the terminus of a branch line that connected with what would become the East Coast Main Line.

History

Richmond station was the terminus of the now closed Eryholme-Richmond branch line.
In 1845, the Great North of England Railway (GNER) was granted powers to construct a branch line from Coopers House near Dalton, six miles south of Darlington, to Richmond. While construction of the line was underway the GNER was reconstituted as the York & Newcastle Railway, and it was this company which opened the line on 1846. Although the line opened on 10 September 1846, the present station at Richmond was not opened until 9 April 1847, a temporary wooden platform being provided in the interim.

The line from Dalton Junction (renamed Eryholme Junction in 1911) had stations at Moulton, Scorton and Catterick Bridge, and was double track throughout. These stations are rare in that they were designed in a Tudor style by architect G. T. Andrews. The exuberant architectural style of the early railway stations reflects the desire of the railway companies to promote their new form of travel as a high status experience.

The line crossed the River Swale at Easby, and terminated in the Parish of St Martin's on the south bank of the Swale opposite the town of Richmond, as it was considered "geographically impossible" to build the railway into the town. The station layout consisted of two platforms for passenger trains, one which ended in a horse-loading dock, and the other was underneath the main trainshed. Generous facilities were provided for goods traffic, together with facilities for railway operations and staff accommodation. The principal features were:

 Large goods shed
 Engine shed
 Gasworks
 Signal box (demolished 1968)
 Station Master's house
 Goods Agent's house
 Six staff cottages
 Two goods staff cottages
 Water pumping station at Sand Beck.
  turntable
 Fifty coal 'drops', which were only accessible to trains travelling through the two-road engine shed

The station was listed in the Railway Clearing House Handbook for 1904 as being able to handle horse boxes, cattle, vans and general goods, and was equipped with a  crane.

The railway also constructed a road bridge over the River Swale and built a road up into the town to provide access to the station. This bridge with four Gothic arches of  span and a  rise, was designed by Robert Stephenson, Engineer-in-Chief of the York & Newcastle Railway and son of George Stephenson  (Although some sources credit G T Andrews). This bridge was almost unique in that it was a railway-owned bridge carrying a road over a river. It was taken over by the Town Council about 1920 but still retains its North Eastern Railway bridge plates – No 8. This bridge is now known as Mercury Bridge in honour of the close association between the town and the Royal Corps of Signals.

The main station building, the work of the architect George Townsend Andrews of York, was specifically designed for Richmond to blend in with the buildings and character of this historic market town. The  wide two-ridge train shed covered a platform line and two sidings. The original platform was both low and short, extending only a short distance outside the train shed. This was subsequently lengthened in 1860 and the front edge raised resulting in a downward slope towards the floor level of the offices, which survived until the recent renovations. The platform was further lengthened in 1915 to cope with the increased military traffic from the newly established Catterick Camp, and in its final form was  long.

The train shed was open at the south end and lit by gas: electricity was not provided until after the Second World War. The station building included:

 Booking office
 General waiting room (later the enlarged parcels office)
 Ladies waiting room
 Refreshment room (later the waiting room)
 Parcels office (later enlarged)
 Stationmaster's office
 Porter's room
 Toilets.

Later, a wooden ticket-collector's booth was provided next to the main entrance and in the 20th century there was a small wooden bookstall operated by W H Smith, which closed in 1940.

The York & Newcastle Railway survived for a further seven years after the opening of the line, becoming part of the North Eastern Railway in 1854. The NER era lasted for nearly seventy years until 1923 when it became part of the London & North Eastern Railway under the Grouping of railways following the First World War. The LNER itself lasted twenty-five years until the railways were nationalized in 1948 when Richmond became part of the North Eastern Region of British Railways.

Few substantial alterations were made to the station building over the years. As mentioned, the platform was lengthened in 1860, again in 1892, and for a second time in about 1915. The rearrangements of the offices and waiting rooms was carried out during the First World War, and at about the same time the large window at the buffer stop end of the platform was opened up to create a large door for handling parcels traffic.

The station bookstall was removed in 1940 and during the Second World War the Stationmaster's Office was requisitioned by the army as the Railway Transport Officer (RTO) Office. The RTO also had a temporary wooden office under the Port Cochere. Electric lighting was finally installed in the late 1940s, but apart from that little was spent on the building in British Railways days. In the 1950s the rotten wooden screen above the platform lone was patched with zinc sheeting, and by the time of closure there were gaps in the wooden screen, smoke louvres and roof lights.

BR proposed closure of the line in 1963 but this was vigorously opposed by the local community and the proposal was withdrawn. However, the line was gradually run down over the next few years. Goods traffic was withdrawn in 1967 and this enabled the railway to lift all the sidings, including the two in the train shed, and remove all the signals. The station was finally closed on 3 March 1969. The remaining track was lifted in 1970 and the building lay derelict until the whole site was acquired by the District Council.

Before the line was closed the station was included in the List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest: it is a Grade II* listed building.

After closure
The station complex consists of Station Bridge, renamed Mercury Bridge in 1975, the passenger terminus, the goods shed, engine shed, gas house, depot manager's house, Station Cottages and the station master's house. The houses were sold off and still survive.

The goods shed was demolished, and later the site was re-used for the swimming baths, but the rest of the railway infrastructure survives including the bridge which continues to form part of the main road between Richmond and Catterick Garrison, the A6136.

Eventually the passenger terminus became a Farm and Garden Centre, which closed in 2001.

In 2003 a community-based project to regenerate Richmond Station was given the go-ahead. The aims of the project, which was spearheaded by the Richmondshire Building Preservation Trust, were:

To provide activities and recreational spaces that will meet established local demands at affordable prices.
To include a limited number of commercial operations sufficient to generate an income to maintain the project and subsidise community activities on site.
To include at least one use that will attract substantial numbers of visitors to provide the building tenants, and (as a consequence) the building management, with income.

The building re-opened – named simply The Station – in November 2007, with two cinema screens, a restaurant and café-bar, an art gallery, a heritage centre, a number of rooms for public use, and a range of artisan food-producers.

See also
List of closed railway lines in Great Britain
List of closed railway stations in Britain

References

Sources

External links

 The Station
 Richmond station, SubBrit disused stations project
 Richmond station on navigable 1947 O. S. map
 Richmondshire Building Preservation Trust

Grade II* listed buildings in North Yorkshire
Disused railway stations in North Yorkshire
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1846
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1969
Richmond, North Yorkshire
1846 establishments in England
Former North Eastern Railway (UK) stations
Beeching closures in England
Grade II* listed railway stations

Richmond railway station (North Yorkshire)


Erin Prairie is a town in St. Croix County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 658 at the 2000 census. The unincorporated communities of Erin Corner and Jewitt are located in the town.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 35.6 square miles (92.3 km2), of which, 35.5 square miles (91.8 km2) of it is land and 0.2 square miles (0.4 km2) of it (0.45%) is water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 658 people, 227 households, and 189 families residing in the town. The population density was .  There were 234 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 98.02% White, 0.76% African American, 0.15% Native American, 0.91% from other races, and 0.15% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.91% of the population.

There were 227 households, out of which 41.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 74.9% were married couples living together, 4.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16.7% were non-families. 12.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.90 and the average family size was 3.18.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 28.7% under the age of 18, 7.9% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 23.9% from 45 to 64, and 7.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 111.3 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $65,938, and the median income for a family was $72,955. Males had a median income of $45,114 versus $25,156 for females. The per capita income for the town was $23,772. About 1.1% of families and 3.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.1% of those under age 18 and 8.2% of those age 65 or over.

References

Towns in St. Croix County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin

Erin Prairie, Wisconsin


A bishop () is a piece in the board game of chess. Each player starts the game with two bishops. At the start of a game, one bishop is placed in between the knight and the queen. This piece is the queen's bishop. The other bishop is placed between the knight and the king. This piece is the king's bishop. The bishops are also referred to as the light-square bishop and dark-square bishop, depending on the square color it starts on. In chess notation, the starting squares are c1 and f1 for White's bishops, and c8 and f8 for Black's bishops.

History
The bishop first appeared in medieval European chess. In Chaturanga, the bishop was represented as an armed attendant who sat on the back of an elephant. The Arabs called this figure "al-fil", which means "elephant". However, elephants were not known in Central Europe, so they could not recognize the figure. The bishops were interpreted differently by the different nations. That is why the bishop is a "Läufer" (runner) in Germany, a "fou" (fool) in France and a "alfiere" (standard-bearer) in Italy.

How the bishop moves
The bishop moves diagonally. It can move as far as a player wants it to, unless another piece blocks its path. A bishop can never leave the color of square that it starts on.

In the centre of an empty board, a bishop can move to 13 squares.

Chess pieces

Bishop (chess)


Madeline Gleason (January 26, 1903 – April 22, 1979) was a United States poet and dramatist. She was the founder of the San Francisco Poetry Guild. In 1947, she became the director of the first poetry festival in the United States, laying the groundwork (along with other figures such as Kenneth Rexroth, Robert Duncan, William Everson, Jack Spicer, James Broughton, et al.) for what became known as the San Francisco Renaissance. She was, with Helen Adam, Barbara Guest, and Denise Levertov, one of only four women whose work was included in Donald Allen's landmark anthology, The New American Poetry 1945-1960 (1960).

Early life and work
Gleason was born in Fargo, North Dakota and was the only child of Catholic parents. She attended the Catholic parish school, where she was viewed as something of a problem child. She and a cousin toured the Midwest, singing and tap-dancing in vaudeville shows.

When her mother died, she and her father moved to Portland, Oregon, where she started to work in a bookstore and write poetry which she circulated in manuscript form. She published a series of articles on poetry and poets in a local newspaper.

San Francisco
In 1934, Gleason moved to San Francisco, California to work on a history of California for the WPA Writer's Project. Two years later, a sequence of her poems was published in Poetry. For a number of years, she worked with the composer John Edmunds, translating songs by Schumann, Schubert and J. S. Bach. The pair also organised song festivals.

Her first book, Poems, was published in 1944. By this time, she had moved to Phoenix, Arizona because of the war, but she soon returned to San Francisco and took up a job with a brokerage firm.

San Francisco Renaissance
In April 1947, Gleason organized the First Festival of Modern Poetry at Marcelle Labaudt's Lucien Labaudt Gallery.1407 Gough Street, San Francisco. Gleason had roots in the Berkeley Renaissance,  and so could provide the framework for an initial (and sanctioned)  gathering of voices who inspired a generation.

In the space of two evenings, with twelve poets, including William Everson, Muriel Rukeyser, Kenneth Rexroth, Robert Duncan and Jack Spicer, Madeline Gleason read and performed for an audience of young poets and poetry lovers.  This was the beginning of another movement, at least in the public's eye, that would coalesce in San Francisco on October 7, 1955—at the Six Gallery on Fillmore Street—with Allen Ginsberg's Howl, a Reading that has gone down in history as the moment of conception of the Beat movement.

Later life and works
Gleason's second book, The Metaphysical Needle appeared in 1949 but her third, Concerto for Bell and Telephone, was not published until 1966. Although she had continued with writing and involvement in the San Francisco artistic scene, as well as writing a number of plays, Gleason had, to some extent, become a victim of the Renaissance's success. The Beat poets she had helped promote had become so successful that it was hard for less high-profile poets to find publishers.

However, she continued to give readings and taught creative writing classes, both at San Francisco State University and in her home. In 1973, her Selected Poems was published, followed in 1975 by Here Comes Everybody: New and Selected Poems. Gleason continued writing right up to her death. Her Collected Poems was published in 1999.

Selected works
 Poems, 1944
 The Metaphysical Needle, 1949
 Concerto for Bell and Telephone, 1966

References

Bibliography
Davidson, Michael.The San Francisco Renaissance: Poetics and Community at Mid-Century, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
Ellingham, Lewis & Killian, Kevin. Poet Be Like God: Jack Spicer and the San Francisco Renaissance, (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1998).
Gleason, Madeline, Collected Poems 1919–1979, ed. Christopher Wagstaff (Talisman House Publishers, 1999).
Including a Foreword (by Robert Duncan), this edition provides a very useful historical introduction.

External links
Ron Silliman on Madeline Gleason's post-Yeatsian poetics "if you reach back prior to the modernism of Pound you would find common ground" writes Ron Silliman on his weblog

1903 births
1979 deaths
Modernist women writers
American women poets
Vaudeville performers
Writers from Fargo, North Dakota
Writers from Portland, Oregon
Writers from the San Francisco Bay Area
20th-century American poets
20th-century American women writers

Madeline Gleason


A basket is a container. It is usually light in weight.

Basket makers use a wide variety of materials to create a basket, such as bark, willow rods, leaves, wire, plastic, paper, and rope.  There are three basic kinds of baskets—coiled, twined, or woven.  A woven basket is made of spokes and weavers:  the spokes run up and down and the weavers go over and under the spokes. A coiled basket is made by sewing rings of a fibrous material to the previous ring. Twined baskets have flexible weavers that are twined around the spokes in a variety of patterns.

Basketmaking is a very old practice; it features in myths from various cultures. Baskets were often used to carry fruits, berries, and other things to be gathered. Nowadays, baskets are less practical but still common. Ancient baskets can be found in many cultures. Basket weaving is one of these activities, either for practical use or fun. In Native American culture, basket weaving is a common activity.

In basketball, the basket is an open net fixed to a metal ring in which players try to throw the ball.

Basic English 850 words
Containers

Basket


The history of Idaho in the American Civil War is atypical, as the territory was far from the battlefields.

At the start of the Civil War, modern-day Idaho was part of the Washington Territory. On March 3, 1863, the Idaho Territory was formed, consisting of the entirety of modern-day Idaho, Montana, and all but southwest Wyoming. However, there were concerns about Confederate sympathizers in the eastern half of the territory, in what is present-day Montana. As a result, in 1863 Sidney Edgerton traveled quickly to see President Abraham Lincoln about the situation; this was one reason to split the Montana Territory from the Idaho Territory. The split also resulted in most of Idaho Territory's land consisting of modern-day Wyoming being reassigned to the Dakota Territory.

Volunteer soldiers who served in Idaho did not fight against the Confederacy, but instead monitored traffic along the Oregon Trail and protected communications routes between the western and eastern United States. Fort Boise, at the site of the city of Boise was founded on July 3, 1863. Old Fort Boise near the present day city of Parma was a French-Canadian fur trading post (thus where the name Boise comes from) and was built by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1834. it became one with the Snake River in 1854, and although the French began to rebuild, they later abandoned it. Many people are confused by the two forts of the same name.

Gold had been found at Orofino and Florence, Idaho that brought trouble with the friendly Nez Perce tribe. Camp Lapwai—later Fort Lapwai—was established to keep the peace between the Indians and the miners.

The Bear River massacre took place on January 29, 1863, on what was thought to be the boundary of Washington Territory and Utah Territory near the present-day city of Preston in Franklin County, Idaho. On that date, 300 soldiers of the 3rd California Volunteer Infantry Regiment led by Colonel Patrick Connor slaughtered an encampment of at least 250 members of the Shoshone tribe; only about twenty Shoshone men survived. This was in response to numerous attacks against white settlers in the previous year which were blamed on the Shoshone. The incident saw little coverage outside California and Utah, as most major newspapers were concerned with news of the main war fronts. The Bear River Massacre Site is currently a National Historic Landmark.

There were some Southerners in the territory at the time. Most had originally gone to California, and came to Idaho to pursue gold mining.

In the early part of the Civil War, Oregon and California Volunteer patrols had several clashes with the Paiute, Bannock and Shoshone bands in Oregon and the Territories of Washington (later Idaho), Utah, and Nevada collectively known as the Snake Indians.  However the invasion of their territory by miners in 1863, to places like Silver City, brought on the Snake War.  The Volunteers fought the Snakes until relieved by Federal troops in late 1865; the war continued until 1868.

After the Civil War, Idaho attracted many veterans of the Union Army to the state, including several governors. An Idaho Soldiers Home was constructed during the 1890s. In the 20th century, the deaths of veterans routinely made the news. The last Civil War veteran to die in Idaho was Israel Broadsword in 1952.

Civil War Posts Washington Territory, Idaho Territory (after March 3, 1863)
 Fort Franklin (1860–1863), Franklin, Idaho
 Old Fort Hall (1863), Fort Hall Indian Reservation, 11 miles west of the town of Fort Hall.
 Fort Hall (1864), on Spring Creek just north of Old Fort Hall.
 Camp Lander (1865–1866), located three miles southeast of Old Fort Hall.
 Camp Salmon Falls (1862), located on the Snake River north of Buhl,  on the Oregon Trail.
 Camp Conner (1863–1865), Soda Springs, Idaho
 Fort Boise (1863–1879), Boise
 Camp Lapwai (1862–1863), Lapwai (Nez Perce National Historic Park)
 Fort Lapwai (1863–1866, 1866–1884), Lapwai (Nez Perce National Historic Park)
 Samuel Smith's Camp (1864), near the mouth of the Raft River.
 Camp Reed (1865–1866), near Twin Falls on old Kelton Road near its crossing of Rock Creek.
 Camp Wallace or Cantonment Soldier (1865), located on the Big Camas Prairie near Fairfield, Idaho.
 Camp Lyon (1865–1869), Idaho, near Jordan Valley, Oregon on Jordan Creek within one mile of the state line.

See also
History of Idaho
Montana in the American Civil War
Grand Army of the Republic Hall (Boise, Idaho)

References

List of Civil War Veterans that lived in Idaho

Pacific Coast Theater of the American Civil War
American Civil War by state

Idaho Territory in the American Civil War


Philip Bernard Dusenberry (April 28, 1936 – December 29, 2007) was an American advertising executive for the BBDO advertising agency.

Dusenberry was born in Brooklyn, New York City in 1936, and attended Midwood High School in Brooklyn and then Emory & Henry College in Virginia. He gained his first experience in advertising when he was working as a radio announcer, and was asked to fill in for the station's usual ad copywriter. He joined the New York advertising agency BBDO in 1962 as a junior copywriter, and in 1980 he became the agency's executive creative director.  When he retired in 2002, he was Chairman of BBDO North America.

Dusenberry was well known for his work with one of his major clients, the soft drink giant Pepsi. He devised the advertising slogan "The Choice of a New Generation", and was instrumental in casting celebrities in Pepsi's high-profile advertisements, including Lionel Richie, Don Johnson, Madonna and Michael J. Fox. Dusenberry was overseeing the production of an infamous Pepsi commercial starring Michael Jackson in which Jackson's hair accidentally caught fire when a smoke effect misfired. Dusenberry referred to the incident in the title of his 2005 book, Then We Set His Hair on Fire: Insights and Accidents from a Hall of Fame Career in Advertising ().

Dusenberry also dabbled in the film business, co-writing with Roger Towne the script for the baseball movie The Natural which starred Robert Redford.

In 1984, Dusenberry wrote and directed documentaries for then President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan.  The films aired on national television and used the line 'It's Morning Again in America'.

In 2002, he retired as chairman of BBDO, and was inducted into the American Advertising Federation Hall of Fame.

He died of lung cancer at his Manhattan home on December 29, 2007.

References

External links

1936 births
2007 deaths
Advertising directors
American copywriters
Deaths from lung cancer in New York (state)
20th-century American businesspeople

Phil Dusenberry


The Hudson Motor Car Company made Hudson and other branded automobiles in Detroit, Michigan, U.S., from 1909 until 1954. In 1954, Hudson merged with Nash-Kelvinator to form American Motors Corporation (AMC). The Hudson name was continued through the 1957 model year, after which it was discontinued.

Company strategy

The name "Hudson" came from Joseph L. Hudson, a Detroit department store entrepreneur and founder of Hudson's department store, who provided the necessary capital and gave permission for the company to be named after him. A total of eight Detroit businessmen formed the company on February 20, 1909, to produce an automobile which would sell for less than US$1,000 (equivalent to approximately $ in  funds).

One of the lead "car men" and an organizer of the company was Roy D. Chapin Sr., a young executive who had worked with Ransom E. Olds. (Chapin's son, Roy Jr., would later be president of Hudson-Nash descendant American Motors Corporation in the 1960s). The company quickly started production, with the first car driven out of a small factory in Detroit on July 3, 1909, at Mack Avenue and Beaufait Street on the East Side of Detroit, occupying the old Aerocar factory.

The new Hudson "Twenty" was one of the first low-priced cars on the American market and became successful with 4,508 sold the first year. This was the best first year's production in the history of the automobile industry and put the newly formed company in 17th place industry-wide, "a remarkable achievement at a time" when there were hundreds of makes being marketed.

Successful sales volume required a larger factory. A new facility was built on a  parcel at Jefferson Avenue and Conner Avenue in Detroit's Fairview section that was diagonally across from the Chalmers Automobile plant. The land was the former farm of D.J. Campau. It was designed by the firm of renowned industrial architect Albert Kahn with 223,500 square feet and opened on October 29, 1910. Production in 1911 increased to 6,486. For 1914, Hudsons for the American market were now left hand drive.

Coachbuilder Fisher Body Co. built bodies for Hudson cars (as well as many other automotive marques) until they were bought out by General Motors in 1919. From 1923, Hudson bodies were built exclusively by Massachusetts company Biddle and Smart. The lucrative contract with Hudson would see Biddle and Smart buy up many smaller local coachbuilders to meet the Hudson demand. Peak shipments came in 1926, when the company delivered 41,000 bodies to Hudson. An inability to stamp steel meant that their products were made using aluminum.

On 1 July 1926, Hudson's new US$10 million ($ in  dollars ) body plant was completed where the automaker could now build the all-steel closed bodies for both the Hudson and Essex models. Biddle and Smart continued to build aluminum body versions of the Hudson line and were marketed by Hudson as "custom-built" although they were exactly the same as the steel-body vehicles. With Hudson now building in-house, Biddle and Smart saw their work for Hudson drop by 60%. From 1927 Hudson gradually began to utilize local coachbuilders Briggs Manufacturing Company and Murray Corporation of America to supplement Hudson's own production which was expanding domestically and internationally. With car prices falling due to the Great Depression and the costs to transport vehicles from Massachusetts to Detroit becoming too expensive, the contract with Biddle and Smart was terminated in 1930, and Biddle and Smart went out of business shortly thereafter.

At their peak in 1929, Hudson and Essex produced a combined 300,000 cars in one year, including contributions from Hudson's other factories in Belgium and England; a factory had been built in 1925 in Brentford in London. Hudson was the third largest U.S. car maker that year, after Ford Motor Company and Chevrolet.

Hudson had a number of firsts for the auto industry; these included dual brakes, the use of dashboard oil-pressure and generator warning lights, and the first balanced crankshaft, which allowed the Hudson straight-six engine, dubbed the "Super Six" (1916), to work at a higher rotational speed while remaining smooth, developing more power for its size than lower-speed engines. The Super Six was the first engine built by Hudson, previously Hudson had developed engine designs and then had them manufactured by Continental Motors Company. Most Hudsons until 1957 had straight-6 engines. The dual brake system used a secondary mechanical emergency brake system, which activated the rear brakes when the pedal traveled beyond the normal reach of the primary system; a mechanical parking brake was also used. Hudson transmissions also used an oil bath and cork clutch mechanism that proved to be as durable as it was smooth.

Essex and Terraplane

In 1919, Hudson introduced the Essex brand line of automobiles; the line was originally for budget-minded buyers, designed to compete with Ford and Chevrolet, as opposed to the more up-scale Hudson line competing with Oldsmobile and Studebaker. Local coachbuilder Briggs Manufacturing introduced their first-of-its-kind closed coach body in 1922 for Hudson's Essex. It was the first closed vehicle available at a price close to its open-bodied brethren. The 1922 Essex closed body was priced at only $300 more than the 1922 Essex touring. Within three years, its popularity enabled Hudson to reduce its price so that both the 1925 Essex touring and coach were priced the same. The Essex found great success by offering one of the first affordable sedans, and combined Hudson and Essex sales moved from seventh in the U.S. to third by 1925.

In 1932, Hudson began phasing out its Essex nameplate for the modern Terraplane brand name. The new line was launched on July 21, 1932, with a promotional christening by Amelia Earhart. For 1932 and 1933, the restyled cars were named Essex-Terraplane; from 1934 as Terraplane, until 1938 when the Terraplane was renamed the Hudson 112. Hudson also began assembling cars in Canada, contracting Canada Top and Body to build the cars in their Tilbury, Ontario, plant. In England, Terraplanes built at the Brentford factory were still being advertised in 1938.

An optional accessory on some 1935–1938 Hudson and Terraplane models was a steering column-mounted electric gear pre-selector and electro-mechanical automatic shifting system, known as the "Electric Hand", manufactured by the Bendix Corporation. This took the place of the floor-mounted shift lever, but required conventional clutch actions. Cars equipped with Electric Hand also carried a conventional shift lever in clips under the dash, which could be pulled out and put to use in case the Electric Hand should ever fail. Hudson was also noted for offering an optional vacuum-powered automatic clutch, starting in the early 1930s.

Hudson Eight
For the 1930 model year, Hudson debuted a new flathead inline eight cylinder engine with block and crankcase cast as a unit and fitted with two cylinder heads. A 2.75-inch bore and 4.5-inch stroke displaced  developing  at 3,600 rpm with the standard 5.78:1 compression ratio. The 5 main bearing crankshaft had 8 integral counterweights, an industry first, and also employed a Lanchester vibration damper. Four rubber blocks were used at engine mount points. A valveless oil pump improved the Hudson splash lubrication system.

The new eights were the only engine offering in the Hudson line, supplanting the Super Six, which continued in the Essex models.

At the 1931 Indianapolis 500, Buddy Marr's #27 Hudson Special (using a Winfield carburetor) finished the 200 laps in tenth place.

1936–1942

In 1936, Hudson revamped its cars, introducing a new "radial safety control" / "rhythmic ride" suspension which suspended the live front axle from two steel bars, as well as from leaf springs. Doing this allowed the use of longer, softer leaf springs ("rhythmic ride"), and prevented bumps and braking from moving the car off course. The 1936 Hudsons were also considerably larger inside than competitive cars — Hudson claimed a  interior, comparing it to the  in the "largest of other popular cars" of the time. With an optional bulging trunk lid, Hudson claimed the trunk could accommodate  of luggage. The 1936 engines were powerful for the time, from .

The 1939 models joined other American cars in the use of a column-mounted gearshift lever. This freed front-seat passenger space and remained the industry standard through the 1960s, when "bucket seats" came into vogue. Hudson became the first car manufacturer to use foam rubber in its seats. The Hudson Terraplane was dropped. For the 1940 models, Hudson introduced coil spring independent front suspension, aircraft-style shock absorbers mounted within the front springs, and true center-point steering on all its models, a major advance in performance among cars in this price range. The Super Six model was reintroduced as well. Despite all these changes, Hudson's sales for 1940 were lower than in 1939 and the company lost money again. The advent of military contracts the following year brought relief.

The 1941 Hudsons retained the front-end styling of the 1940 models but the bodies were new with 5.5 inches added to their length giving more legroom. A new manual 3-speed synchromesh transmission was quieter with all helical gears. Wheelbases increased by 3 inches, with offerings of 116, 121, and 128 inches, and height was decreased with flatter roofs. Convertibles now had a power-operated top. Big Boy trucks now used the 128-inch wheelbase. In 1942, as a response to General Motors' Hydramatic automatic transmission, Hudson introduced its "Drive-Master" system. Drive-Master was a more sophisticated combination of the concepts used in the Electric Hand and the automatic clutch. It contained a vacuum-powered module on the transmission to switch between second and third gear and a vacuum-powered module to pull the clutch in and out. At the touch of a button, Drive-Master offered the driver a choice of three modes of operation: ordinary, manual shifting and clutching; manual shifting with automatic clutching; and automatic shifting with automatic clutching. All this was accomplished by a large and complicated mechanism located under the hood. They worked well, and in fully automatic mode served as a good semi-automatic transmission. When coupled with an automatic overdrive, Drive-Master became known as Super-Matic. Re-engineering of the frame rear end to use lower springs reduced car height by . Sheet metal "spats" on the lower body now covered the running boards and new wider front and rear fenders accommodated this.

Female designer
As the role of women increased in car-purchase decisions, automakers began to hire female designers. Hudson, wanting a female perspective on automotive design, hired Elizabeth Ann Thatcher in 1939, one of America's first female automotive designers. Her contributions to the 1941 Hudson included exterior trim with side lighting, interior instrument panel, interiors and interior trim fabrics. She designed for Hudson from 1939 into 1941, leaving the company when she married Joe Oros, then a designer for Cadillac. He later became head of the design team at Ford that created the Mustang.

World War II

As ordered by the Federal government, Hudson ceased auto production from 1942 until 1945 in order to manufacture material during World War II, including aircraft parts and naval engines, and anti-aircraft guns. The Hudson "Invader" engine powered many of the landing craft used on the D-Day invasion of Normandy, June 6, 1944.

During World War II Hudson had also an aircraft division that produced ailerons for one large eastern airplane builder. The plant was capable of large scale production of wings and ailerons as well as other airplane parts. On May 22, 1941, Hudson was given a contract for the Oerlikon 20 mm cannon with the Jefferson Avenue Plant, on Jefferson Avenue and Connor Avenue, responsible to convert the original Swiss drawings to American production standards. The company produced 33,201 Oerlikons for the United States Navy with the original mechanism continued in use without major change and with complete interchangeability of parts until the end of the war. Hudson also manufactured millions of other weaponry and vehicle parts for the war effort. Hudson ranked 83rd among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts.

Fisher takeover attempt
The Fisher Body Company, later the Fisher Body Division of GM, manufactured bodies for many automobile marques throughout the early 20th Century. From 1926 the business had become part of General Motors. Just before World War II, the Fisher brothers contemplated a takeover of Hudson and commissioned engineer Roscoe C. (Rod) Hoffman, from Detroit, to design and build several rear-engine prototype vehicles for possible eventual production as Hudsons. One prototype was built in secret in 1935.

World War II forced the brothers to shelve their plans while the company turned their efforts to the war effort. When brothers Fred and Charles retired from GM in 1944 they revived the Hudson takeover idea with the view of establishing new, independent automobile manufacturing operations. The brothers contacted Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, Hudson's main stockholder, offering to buy. Using an intermediary, Queen Wilhelmina expressed her interest to sell, prompting the Fisher brothers to begin devoting time to Hudson and their own plant in anticipation of a sale. When news of these events reached Wall Street, the price of Hudson stock skyrocketed with the general consensus held by investors that a Fisher takeover would be the best thing for Hudson. However, the Fisher brothers tender offer fell short of Hudson's sudden increased market value and the deal did not go through.

1946–1954

Production resumed after the war and included a  wheelbase three-quarter-ton pickup truck.

In 1948, the company launched its "step-down" bodies, which lasted through the 1954 model year. The term step-down referred to Hudson's placement of the passenger compartment down inside the perimeter of the frame; riders stepped down into a floor that was surrounded by the perimeter of the car's frame. The result was not only a safer car, and greater passenger comfort as well, but, through a lower center of gravity, a good handling car. In time almost all U.S. automakers would embrace it as a means of building bodies. Automotive author Richard Langworth described the step-down models as the greatest autos of the era in articles for Consumer Guide and Collectible Automobile.

For the 1951 model year, the 6-cylinder engine received a new block with thicker walls and other improvements to boost horsepower by almost 18% and torque by 28.5% making Hudson a hot performer again. The GM-supplied 4-speed Hydramatic automatic transmission was now optional in Hornets and Commodore Custom 6s and 8s.

Hudson's strong, light-weight bodies, combined with its high-torque inline six-cylinder engine technology, made the company's 1951–54 Hornet an auto racing champion, dominating NASCAR in 1951, 1952, 1953, and 1954.

Herb Thomas won the 1951 and 1954 Southern 500s and Dick Rathmann won in 1952. Some NASCAR records set by Hudson in the 1950s (e.g. consecutive wins in one racing season) still stand even today. Hudson cars also did very well in races sanctioned by the AAA Contest Board from 1952 until 1954 with Marshall Teague winning the 1952 AAA Stock Car Championship and Frank Mundy in 1953. Often Hudsons finished in most of the top positions in races. Later, these cars met with some success in drag racing, where their high power-to-weight ratio worked to their advantage. Hudsons enjoyed success both in NHRA trials and local dirt track events.

As the post-war marketplace shifted from a seller's to a buyer's market the smaller U.S. automakers, such as Hudson and Nash, found it increasingly difficult to compete with the Big Three (Ford, GM and Chrysler) during the 1950s. A sales war between Ford and General Motors conducted during 1953 and 1954 had left little business for the much smaller "independent" automakers trying to compete against the standard models offered by the domestic Big Three. The Big Three could afford constant development and styling changes, so that their cars looked fresh every year, whereas the smaller manufacturers could only afford gradual changes. Hudson's once-innovative "step-down" unit-body construction, while sturdy and innovative, also made restyling difficult and expensive. Although Hudsons dominated racing during this period, their feats did little to affect showroom traffic despite incorporating their NASCAR success into a marketing campaign known as "Win on Sunday, Sell on Monday". Sales fell each year from 1951 until 1954 and only Korean War military contracts kept the company afloat. On March 20, 1954, the Hudson Motor Car Company reported a loss of $10,411,060 in 1953 as compared with a profit of $8,307,847 in 1952.

After the company's high-priced Jet compact car line failed to capture buyers in its second straight year, Hudson CEO A.E. Barit engaged with George W. Mason, CEO of Nash-Kelvinator (makers of Nash and Rambler) to discuss the possibility of a merger with Nash. Mason already had the vision of merging the four independent automakers (Nash, Hudson, Packard, and Studebaker) into one company to compete with the Big Three, having floated the idea as early as 1946 with Packard to no avail. Mason had previously discussed the idea with Barit in 1952. On 14 January 1954 an agreement was reached and Nash and Hudson executives took the first steps to bring the two companies together.

1954 – Merger with Nash-Kelvinator

On May 1, 1954, Hudson merged with Nash-Kelvinator to become American Motors Corporation. George W. Mason became CEO and president of AMC while Hudson's president, A.E. Barit retired to become an AMC board member.

The Hudson factory, located in Detroit, Michigan, was converted to military contract production at the end of the model year, and the remaining three years of Hudson production took place at the Nash plant in Kenosha, Wisconsin building rebadged Nash cars with the Hudson brand name. Nash would focus most of its marketing resources on its smaller Rambler models, and Hudson would focus its marketing efforts on its full-sized cars. The first Hudson model to terminate production was the Jet. The new company could then focus on the more successful Nash Rambler. Henceforth, Hudson dealers would have badge-engineered versions of the Nash Rambler and Metropolitan compacts to sell as Hudson products.

One of the first things Mason did as CEO of the new company was to initiate talks with James J. Nance, president of Packard, for parts-sharing arrangements between AMC and Packard. At this time AMC did not have its own V8 engine and an agreement was made for the new  Packard V8 engine and Packard's Ultramatic automatic transmission to be used in the 1955 Nash Ambassador and Hudson Hornet models.

In July 1954, Packard acquired Studebaker to form Studebaker-Packard Corporation. However further talks of a merger between AMC and Studebaker-Packard were cut short when Mason died on October 8, 1954. A week after his death, Mason's successor, George W. Romney, announced "there are no mergers under way either directly or indirectly". Nevertheless, Romney continued with Mason's commitment to buy components from Studebaker-Packard Corporation. Although Mason and Nance had previously agreed that Studebaker-Packard would purchase parts from AMC, it did not do so. Moreover, Packard's engines and transmissions were comparatively expensive, so AMC began development of its own V8 engine, and replaced the outsourced unit by mid-1956.

1955–1957

For 1955, both Hudson and Nash senior models were built on a common automobile platform using styling themes by Pinin Farina, Edmund E. Anderson, and Frank Spring. Common-body shell production for competing makes of automobiles was a manufacturing technique that had been used by the Big Three for decades.
Anderson set up separate design studios for Nash, Hudson, and Rambler.

Although the 1955 Hudson used the inner body shell of the Nash, the car incorporated a front cowl originally designed by Spring and the Hudson team to be put on the 1954 Step-Down platform. The 1955 models also used the Hudson dashboard, "triple safe brakes" and the Nash Weather Eye heater with Harrison Radiator Corporation-supplied lower cost Freon/compressor type air conditioning.

For the first time, Hudson offered a V8 engine starting for the 1955 model year. It was the Packard-designed and -built  engine rated at . All cars with the Packard V8 also came with Packard's Ultramatic automatic transmission as an option for $494 with the Nash 3-speed manual was also available at $295.

Hudson dealers also sold Rambler and Metropolitan models under the Hudson brand. A total of 4,357 Metropolitans were sold as "Hudson." When sold by Hudson dealers, both cars were identified as Hudson vehicles via hood/grille emblems and horn buttons. Hudson Ramblers also received "H" symbols on fuel filler caps (and, in 1956, also on hubcaps).

In 1956, ex-Hudson president A.E Barit resigned from the Board in protest over the likelihood that Hudson would be phased out of production.

For 1956, the design of the senior Hudsons was given over to designer Richard Arbib, which resulted in the "V-Line" styling motif, a combination of "V" motifs that carried Hudson's triangular corporate logo theme. Sales fell below 1955 figures.

With a wider front track than Nash used, Hudson was the better handling car and was powered by the famed  Hornet Six with the optional high-compression cylinder head and dual-carburetor manifold ("Twin-H Power"); the Twin H would disappear at the end of the 1956 model year.

The Wasp used the  L-head Jet Six engine (up to ) and this model (in sedan version) was Hudson's top seller. For 1957, Hudson dropped the shorter-wheelbase Wasp line, selling only the Hornet Custom and Super, which featured a lowered profile and slightly updated styling.

George W. Romney felt that Hudson and Nash were no longer relevant players in the automotive market and retired both names at the end of the 1957 model year production. Both Rambler and Metropolitan became makes in their own right, and no longer were identified as Hudson or Nash.

End of the line
The last Hudson rolled off the Kenosha assembly line on June 25, 1957, although at that time there were proposals of continuing the Hudson and Nash names into the 1958 model year on the Rambler chassis as deluxe, longer-wheelbase senior models. The combined Nash and Hudson production volume was insufficient to justify all-new design and tooling; therefore, the Rambler's platform was expected to be adopted to the longer cars. One major trade magazine said rumors of discontinuance were false and the 1958 Hudsons and Nashes "would be big and smart". Factory styling photographs show designs for a 1958 Hudson (and Nash) line based on a longer-wheelbase 1958 Rambler. Front-end prototype photos show separate Hudson and Nash styling themes.

American Motors' President, George W. Romney, came to the conclusion that the only way to compete with the "Big Three" was to stake the future of AMC on a new smaller-sized car line. Neither Hudson nor Nash brand names had as much positive market recognition as the successful Rambler and their sales were lagging. Together with AMC's chief engineer Meade Moore, Romney had completely phased out the Nash and Hudson brands at the end of 1957. The decision to retire the brands came so quickly that preproduction photographs of the eventual 1958 Rambler Ambassador show both Nash- and Hudson-badged versions. The Rambler brand was selected for further development and promotion while focusing exclusively on compact cars.

Eventually, however, something close to the Hudson design was chosen for the 1958 Rambler Ambassador. Hudson brand enthusiasts will note the triangular grille guard and 1957-like fender "gun sights" and the fast-selling 1958 Rambler Customs wore 1957 Hudson-styled front-fender trim.

International markets
Hudson, Essex, and Terraplane vehicles were either exported as complete cars or locally built from knock-down kits in many countries making the Hudson marque well-known internationally as well as domestically. In its 1929 report, the banking house Garden Detroit Company reported that in 1928 Hudson shipped 50,587 vehicles overseas, or 17.9% of total production. By March 1929 Hudson had topped all previous production figures having exported 44,295 cars in March alone, bringing the total of shipments for the first quarter of 1929 to an all-time high of 108,298.

Australia

Hudson vehicles were imported into Australia in 1913 by Brisbane company McGhie Motor Company.

In 1915 the Sydney branch of Dalgety & Co. Ltd became the distributor of Hudson and Essex vehicles for New South Wales. The company was also the agent for Wolseley, Daimler, and Buick passenger vehicles as well as Lacre and Halley commercial vehicles. Motor bodies were produced by Messrs Henderson, Boulton, and Kirkham in Regent Street, Sydney. The company also did trimming, fitting, painting, mechanical work, and repairs.

Established in 1922, Sydney company Smith & Waddington set up motor vehicle body building operations for NSW and Queensland at premises on Parramatta Road, Camperdown. The company built "custom" car bodies which, by the terminology of the day, meant "built to an individual order and to a special design." In addition to assembling Hudson and Essex for Dalgety, the company also built vehicle bodies for Rolls-Royce, Wolseley, Dort, Benz, Fiat, and Turkat Méry. After a slump in the economy which caused operations to cease in November 1927, Smith & Waddington resumed production in June 1928, again building Hudson and Essex vehicles for NSW and Queensland, and further adding Dodge, Chrysler, Erskine, and Studebaker for the whole of Australia. Additionally, Sydney coach builder G.H Olding & Sons are known to have built 6 Terraplane phaetons for Dalgety in 1934.

In 1926 a new company, Leader Motors Limited was formed to be the exclusive distributor of Hudson and Essex motor vehicles in Queensland. The bodies were made by South Australian company Holden's Motor Body Builders in Brisbane. In its main facility of Adelaide, Holden also made motor bodies for Austin, Buick, Chevrolet, Cleveland, Dodge, Fiat, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Overland, Reo, Studebaker, and Willys Knight.

Hudson and Essex assembly began in Victoria by Neal's Motors of Port Melbourne in 1927. The contract to build the bodies was initially given to TJ Richards & Sons of Keswick, Adelaide to supply for Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania as well as acting as a second source of supply for New South Wales and Queensland. Holden's Motor Body Builders also built bodies. Holden's records show that for 1927 the Adelaide plant built 1,641 Essex vehicles and 8 Hudsons, and for 1928 a total of 1,931 Essex vehicles and 59 Hudsons were assembled. Holden's final year for Hudson and Essex production was in 1928 and in 1931 the company was bought out by General Motors.

In February 1934 Ruskins Body Works of West Melbourne secured the contract to build Hudson and Terraplane bodies for the whole of Australia. In June 1937, Neal's Motors celebrated assembling its 30,000th automobile: a 1937 Hudson Terraplane.

In 1939 Dalgety sold their automotive business to agent for Packard motor vehicles, Ira L. & A.C Berk in Sydney, which thereafter became the distributors for Hudson in NSW and QLD. The company opened a manufacturing plant in Belmore, Sydney in February 1949.

After the end of World War II, Australia legislated to restrict the use of U.S. dollars which were in desperately short supply. The use of U.S. dollars to import cars thereafter required a government permit restricting the purchase of American cars only to those with access to U.S. funds held overseas such as consular staff and visiting entertainers. Despite this, Australian distributors of Hudson, Nash, Packard, and Studebaker were able to bring in limited numbers of US-built, factory right-hand-drive vehicles from 1946.

Dunlop reported about Australian car sales from 1932 until 1949 noting Hudson vehicles (including Essex and Terraplane) totaled 10,424 units during the 17-years, coming in at 13th place overall. It was noted in the report generally that all marques in Australia experienced the greatest number of sales before World War II.

In 1960, six years after the merger of Hudson and Nash-Kelvinator to form American Motors Corporation, Australian Motor Industries (AMI) of Port Melbourne would form an agreement with AMC to assemble Ramblers in Australia.

Canada
Canadian assembly of Hudson vehicles commenced in 1932 by Hudson Motors of Canada in Tilbury, Ontario. The factory building was owned by Canadian Top & Body Co. which built the motor bodies for the vehicles. The first models assembled were a series of Hudson Eights. World War II interrupted operations and production ceased in 1941. Post-war operations resumed in 1950, with Hudsons being assembled by Chatco Steel Products in Tilbury, Ontario. Operations ceased in 1954 following the Nash-Hudson merger that led to the formation of American Motors Corporation. Toronto-based Nash Motors of Canada Ltd. became American Motors (Canada) Ltd. and all subsequent AMC operations continued in Toronto until its closure in 1957. Local production of Ramblers resumed after AMC's Brampton, Ontario plant opened in December 1960.

Germany
Hudson and Essex vehicles were assembled in Berlin, Germany, during the 1920s by Hudson Essex Motors Company m.b.H Berlin-Spandau. The cars were built with the speedometer in kilometers, while the fuel, oil, and temperature gauges remained in their original non-metric units.

New Zealand

Hudson and Essex vehicles were imported into New Zealand by Dominion Motors of Wellington which began operations in 1912. Dominion Motors amalgamated with Universal Motor Company of Christchurch in 1919 forming an assembly operation for Hudson and Essex as well as Oldsmobile, Crossley, Chevrolet, Stutz, Rolls-Royce, and (pre-GM) Vauxhall. Vehicles were assembled and finished in-house from partial knock-down kits.

For South Island, Hudson and Essex vehicles were imported by W.G. Vining Limited of Nelson, beginning in 1912. Vining had built a  garage in 1908 which was the largest garage in New Zealand at the time. A car assembly plant was established at the premises and shortly thereafter Vinings obtained licenses to import and assemble Cadillac, Maxwell, Haynes, and Ford vehicles from the United States; Bean cars from the United Kingdom; and Darracq and Unic vehicles from France. Along with Hudson and Essex, the plant later assembled Chevrolet and Rover vehicles. The business ceased when it was sold on 30 September 1927 upon W.G. Vining's retirement. Vining's son formed a new business, P. Vining & Scott, and continued the Hudson and Essex franchise, adding Morris in 1932.

New Zealand car sales for the first nine months of 1927 saw Essex in third place with 898 vehicles sold, behind Chevrolet in second place with 1,100 vehicles sold, and Ford in first place with 1651 vehicles sold. Hudson made 12th place with 206 sales.

From 1935, Hudson vehicles (along with Nash, Studebaker, and Standard) were assembled by Christchurch company Motor Assemblies Limited. Production ended when the company was acquired by Standard-Triumph International in 1954. Hudson production then went to Motor Holdings Ltd which had been founded in 1936 as the Zealand franchise of Jowett Motors. After Jowett's closure in the United Kingdom in 1954, Motor Holdings won the Volkswagen franchise and its Auckland operation was renamed VW Motors for the production of VWs in New Zealand. VW Motors assembled Hudsons as a secondary line. Some were fully imported as special orders.

After the Hudson and Nash marques were discontinued by American Motors Corporation, VW Motors assembled AMC's new Rambler motor vehicles at its new Otahuhu Volkswagen plant from 1958 until 1962. AMC formed an agreement in 1963 with Campbell Motor Industries (CMI) of Thames to assemble Ramblers, production of which ran from 1964 until 1971.

South Africa

Beginning in the 1920s, Hudson and Willys motor vehicles were assembled in South Africa from right-hand-drive complete knock-down (CKD) kits sourced from Canada by Stanley Motors at their plant, National Motor Assemblers (NMA), in Natalspruit (Gauteng). After World War II, NMA built Austin, Standard, and Triumph vehicles at different times.

After the formation of American Motors Corporation in 1954, NMA continued to assemble AMC Ramblers until 1967.

United Kingdom

Hudsons were introduced to the United Kingdom in 1911. No shipments were possible during the First World War but as soon as the Armistice was signed exports resumed to the U.K. Hudsons and Essex vehicles were sold through ten concessionaires.

In 1922 Hudson-Essex Motors of Great Britain Limited was formed, with new premises on Dordrecht Road, in Acton Vale. Over 100 agents were appointed to sell the vehicles resulting in 2,000 sales in the next 12 months.

In 1926 a factory was built on a  property next to the recently opened Great West Road in Brentford. The plant opened in 1927 and a year later a three-story building was built as a service department for Hudson and Essex vehicles. The factory-assembled the vehicle chassis locally, but the bodies were imported as complete units from Detroit.

From 1932, the bodies came over from the United States in sections to be assembled at the Great West Road factory. After the Essex marque was retired in 1932 the British company was renamed Hudson Motors Ltd.

Hudson's new Terraplane model was equally as popular in the U.K. as it was in the United States. English-designed and built bodies were built on the Terraplane frames and the cars were entered in many automobile races including the Monte Carlo Rally. Some of the cars entered were driven by personnel from the Great West Road factory. A Hudson Pacemaker won first place in the 1931 Scottish Rally and another Pacemaker took 7th place in the 1932 Torquay Rally. The Team Award was won by two Terraplane tourers and a Terraplane saloon in the 1933 Scottish Rally.

A triangular site from the railway was developed in 1926 for Hudson-Essex factory. This was the first major industrial facility and became a major employer along the Great West Road. Other firms followed to establish what became known as the "Golden Mile."  The Chiswick Roundabout (the junction of Chiswick High Road, North Circular Road, South Circular Road, and the A4 Great West Road) also became known as "Hudson's Corner." After World War II, the property was used by the Kelvinator Refrigerator Company.

After the Hudson and Nash merger, the British company became a subsidiary of American Motors Corporation and was renamed Rambler Motors (A.M.C.) Limited in 1961, taking over from Nash Concessionaires Ltd. as the importer of AMC's new Rambler vehicles. The company imported AMC vehicles, many in factory right-hand-drive, well into the 1970s.

Legacy
For the 1970 model year, American Motors revived the "Hornet" model name for its new series of compact cars (the AMC Hornet). AMC was later purchased by Chrysler, which at one time considered reintroducing the Hornet name in the Dodge model line and ultimately did so for the 2023 model year with a car based on the Alfa Romeo Tonale.

The last Hudson dealership was Miller Motors in Ypsilanti, Michigan, which is now part of the Ypsilanti Automotive Heritage Museum.

The Hostetler Hudson Auto Museum in Shipshewana, Indiana, features a collection of restored Hudsons. Eldon Hostetler was an inventor who owned a Hudson as a teenager and later purchased Hudson cars and restored them.

A restored Hudson Dealership sign still occupies its original site on Highway 32 in Chico, California.

The 2006 film, Disney/Pixar's Cars, features a character named Doc Hudson, represented as a 1951 Hudson Hornet.

The 2011 racing video game Forza Motorsport 4 and 2018 racing video game Forza Horizon 4 features a 1952 Hudson Hornet.

The Hermes, a recurring car model featured in Rockstar Games' Grand Theft Auto video game series, is based on the 1951 Hudson Hornet and 1947 Hudson Super Six.

Models

References

 The Hudson Triangle (1911-1919) Hudson Motor Car, Volumes 1-13.

External links

 Hudsonclub.org: "Hudson Car Club"
 Hetclub.org: Hudson-Essex-Terraplane Club
 Hudsonmotorcar.org: Canadian Hudson Motorcar website
 Lost Marques.com: Hudson
 Allpar.com: 1936 Hudson webpage with details

 Legends of NASCAR "Hudson Racing"
Hudson, Hornet, Wasp, Pacemaker, Super 6, Super 8, 308, 262. 254, 232, Flathead 6 engine, Hollywood, Club Sedan, Twin H, Cater Carburetor, Smoky Yurnik, Bernie Siegfried, HET Club, Texas,
allcarsmanuals.com/ workshop, information bulletins, electrical schematics and all technical manuals for all models of Hudson cars.

1909 establishments in Michigan
1954 disestablishments in Michigan
American Motors
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Former components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1954
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1909
Car brands
American companies established in 1909
American companies disestablished in 1954
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Michigan
Brass Era vehicles
Vintage vehicles
1910s cars
1920s cars
1930s cars
1940s cars

Hudson Motor Car Company


Wallenstein Palace () is a Baroque palace in Malá Strana, Prague, that served as a residence for Imperial Generalissimo Albrecht von Wallenstein and now houses the Senate of the Czech Republic.

History

The original Palace was built in years 1623-1630 by Albrecht von Wallenstein, Duke of Mecklenburg (1583-1634), who made his name and fortune as the Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial forces in the Thirty Years War. Emperor Ferdinand II feared Albrecht von Wallenstein's calculating mind and had him assassinated in 1634 in the town of Eger (now Cheb). He lived in the palace for only a year before his death. His widow sold it to his nephew and it remained in the Wallenstein family until 1945. After the Second World War, the palace became Czechoslovak state property and was renovated to house government offices. Today, the Senate of the Czech Republic operates out of the main palace buildings. The Riding School is used as a branch of the National Gallery in Prague. The challenging restoration of the main building began in mid-1999. The most valuable parts of this building in historical and artistic terms are the Main Hall, the Knights' Hall, the Antechamber, the Audience Hall and the Mythological and Astronomical Corridors.

Albrecht of Wallenstein had traveled in Italy, and when the palace was built between 1623 and 1630, Italian architects and artisans were used including Andrea Spezza (likely the main architect), succeeded in 1628 by Niccolo Sebregondi. The interiors were decorated by the Florentine Baccio del Bianco (1604-1656), who completed the ceiling fresco in the Main Hall, figure paintings in St Wenceslas Chapel, and most important parts of the decoration of the Mythological Corridor during the first year of construction. The Florentine Giovanni de Galliano Pieroni (1586-1654), engineer and army colonel, played an important role in the construction. Pieroni's father Alessandro (1550-1607) had been an architect for the Medici. Pieroni studied the design of the new part to Wallenstein's Castle in Jičín and the church of St. Jacob there, and the garden, Sala Terrena, and Riding School are attributed to him. Pieroni also influences the astrological and astronomical decoration of the Mythological Corridor and other interiors. The total value of interior furnishings after his death was 70 000 gold pieces, while another 134 000 gold pieces was invested in jewels and tableware made from precious metals.

To make space for this palace, Wallenstein razed 26 houses, six gardens, and two brickworks at the site. Wallenstein Palace was built to rival Prague Castle. Four courtyards are created by the palace layout. Its complex includes period gardens, the Avenue of Sculptures, stables and the large Riding School. The monumental conception of the loggia with three arcades on doubled columns recalls the Baroque style. The Italian style garden includes an aviary, a grotto, and a fountain by Adrian de Vries (c.1545-1626). After years of neglect after the war, the gardens have been reconstructed. Wallenstein would have dined in the huge sala terrena (garden pavilion) that looks out over fountain and rows of bronze statues. The sala terrena and its rich stucco decoration were modeled after the portico of a Livornese church. Today, these are copies of the Netherlander sculptor Adriaen de Vries' works. The originals were looted by the Swedish army in 1648, and they can be seen today at Drottningholm Palace. Immortal Beloved (film), a 1994 film about the life of Beethoven was filmed in the gardens.

Description

Main wing

The main wing of Wallenstein palace was largely a reconstruction of the Trcka residence that runs 60 meters along Valdstejnske namesti. The façade has three rows of identical windows which stream light into the Main Hall. It incorporates both late renaissance and Nordic mannerism which is expressed in the portals and Netherlandish dormer-windows. Initially, in keeping with the architectural style, the Main Hall was decorated with tapestries and furniture ordered from Italy and the Netherlands. Much of the original furnishings were looted either in 1648 by the Swedes or 1742 by the French. The west wing of the complex hosts the Main Hall, that rises to the height of two stories. The Duke is depicted by Baccio del Bianco, in the middle ceiling fresco as the god of war, Mars, riding in a war chariot drawn by a team of horses. In the painting, the Duke is holding the reins of four horses while Mars is usually seen only holding three horses. This is another example of Albrecht von Wallenstein's vanity.  The stucco work depicting weapons, war trophies and musical instruments were probably made by Santino Galli and Domenico Canevalle. These are references to The Duke's career in the military. When it was built, it was the second largest hall after the Spanish hall of Prague Castle with an area of 288 meters squared and a height of 10.5 meters. This is original façade was altered in the mid nineteenth century to include marble portals from the Cerninsky palace and the entire hall was rebuilt as a barracks.

A key feature of the palace is the system of corridors that connects all parts of the palace. In many palaces of the period it was necessary to go from room to room to move around, but it was possible for the Duke of Wallenstein to walk from the main Audience hall to his private study and then around the gardens to the stables at the north end of the palace complex via the corridors. The Ovidius corridor is named after frescoes of Metamorphoses, the Astronomical corridor is depicted by allegories of four continents and zodiac emblems, all made by Baccio del Bianco.

Originally tile stoves placed in each room heated the palace. The tile in the Antechamber was used later to line the fireplace. Guests waited in the antechamber to be granted audience with the Duke. Due to an adaptation in the 19th century, it is a kind of Mirror Hall with two Venetian mirrors made in the 18th century on the Italian island of Murano. The only objects original to the room are a set of four chests used by the Duke to hold his wardrobe. They are Italian chests made around the turn of the 17th century.

Audience Chamber
The Audience Chamber is a small circular room adjoining the Antechamber and the Mythological Corridor. A door leading from the Audience Chamber to a staircase was preserved from the Trèkovský dùm, one of the original properties on the site. Several other salvaged architectural pieces were incorporated into the palace. Stuccowork and paintings depict Ovid's Four ages and portraits of the Four Periods of the Day. The Baroque stuccowork of the dome in the Audience Chamber is mirrored in the Mythological corridor. The mythological corridor also has murals depicting planet motifs and legends such as Mercury & Argus, Diana and Acteon, Perseus killing Medusa, Callisto metamorphosed into a bear, and the Rape of Europa. Ovid's Metamorphoses inspired Baccio del Bianco's frescoes in this corridor.

Chapel
The palace chapel is two stories high and richly decorated with scenes from the legend of St Wenceslas. Cabinet-maker and woodcarver Arnošt Jan Heidelberger constructed the chapel altar in 1630. Its construction marked the first Baroque monument of its kind in Prague and the beginning of the Baroque age in the Czech lands. Three oratories open on the western wall of the chapel. The Duke used the first floor for services while his wife sat on the second floor and servants were restricted to the third floor. Baccio del Bianco is responsible for the paintings in this chapel. St Eusebius's like a death is depicted in the first oratory. Following that, the Duchess's oratory was decorated with usual Marian iconography. Frescos of the Chapel were inspired by St Vitus cathedral in Prague Castle. Ernest Heidelberger is assumed to have created the sculpture work for the Chapel.

References

External links

 Wallenstein Palace - DiscoverCzech
  tiscali.pragensia
  The History of the Wallenstein Palace

Houses completed in 1630
Palaces in Prague
Baroque architecture in Prague
1630 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Official residences in the Czech Republic
Waldstein family
Albrecht von Wallenstein
Czech Baroque gardens
Baroque palaces
National Cultural Monuments of the Czech Republic

Wallenstein Palace


Dál Riata (also Dalriada or Dalriata) was a Gaelic kingdom on the western coast of Scotland.. Beginning in the early 5th century Dál Riata covered the area of what is now Argyll and Bute and Lochaber in Scotland. They came from the area of County Antrim in Northern Ireland where they were called 'Scots'. Other groups from Ireland followed. These groups also established themselves on the west coast as far south as Cornwall. The colony from Irish Dál Riata were known as the Scotti to the Romans. It was this group that later gave their name to Scotland.

History
At the time they began to colonize Dál Riata, the only other people living in the far north of Britain were the Picts. They occupied the eastern part of Scotland north of what is now Edinburgh. About A.D. 297 they were mentioned by Roman writers regarding an attack along Hadrian's Wall. Even at this early period the Romans encountered Irish Scotti assisting the Picts even though they had not yet moved there permanently. So the two groups were seen by the Romans to be allies. How Dál Riata in Scotland was seen as a colony still controlled from Ireland is not clear to modern historians.

Some view the Dál Riatans as having their own local kings with their overlord in Ireland. Others saw it as being ruled by one king. Dál Riata became the home of the Irish monk Saint Columba. He established a Christian community on the isle of Iona. He brought Christianity to the whole of Scotland, Gaels and Picts.

The kingdom rose to power under their king Aedan mac Gabrain. He became their king in 574. In 603 Aedan led his people against Athelfrith of Bernicia at a place called Degsastan. The Scots were completely defeated. Defeats in Ireland and Scotland during the reign of Domnall Brecc (d. 642) ended Dál Riata's dominance. The kingdom came under the control of Northumbria, then subject to the Picts. The kingdom's independence ended in the Viking Age, as it merged with the lands of the Picts to form the Kingdom of Alba.

Notes

References

Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

History of Scotland

Dál Riata


Adeyfield was the first planned neighbourhood to be built in the postwar new town expansion of Hemel Hempstead, in the English county of Hertfordshire.  The keys to the first houses to be occupied, in Homefield Road, were handed over to their tenants in February 1950.  The Queens Square shopping parade was visited by Queen Elizabeth II on 20 July 1952, to lay the first foundation slab of St. Barnabas Church.

The area

Adeyfield is mainly a mixture of New Town properties built to the south of Adeyfield Road and houses built privately in the 40s, 50s and 60s on the north side. There are also a few older terraced cottages near the junction of Adeyfield Road and Great Road. There is one large Victorian house and this is shown on the 1898 Ordnance Survey map as being the only house in the area at the time, apart from Adeyfield Farm.

The neighbourhood spans from the Hemel Hempstead Industrial Estate in the east, to Queensway in the north, to the A414 (St Albans Road) in the south, to the Town Centre in the west.  It borders the neighbourhoods of Highfield, Bennetts End, Leverstock Green and the town centre (known locally as Paradise).

The location was originally farmland occupied by Coxpond Farm and Adeyfield Farm. It was planned by the chief architect for the new town, Mr H Kellet Ablett who received the 'Urban Medal' for his work from the Eastern Housing Region.  As well as housing the area has new town built shops, schools, churches, a community centre and playing fields.  By 1956 the development corporation described the area as complete.

In order to provide some quick, easy and cheap accommodations after the Second World War, the easternmost part of Adeyfield was the chosen site for a set of temporary tin houses known as pre-fabs. The houses remain to this day, however the exterior tin has now been covered up by sheets of white wood and cladding on most of the houses.

Places of worship
There are four churches in the District, St Barnabas, in the Queen's Square, Jubilee Christian Fellowship which is also in Queens Square in the Community Centre, the Adeyfield Free Church, on the border of the district on Leverstock Green Road, and the Catholic Church on St Albans Road.

Schools
Adeyfield is home to The Adeyfield Academy, the major secondary school in the area and two primary schools (see Primary schools in Dacorum).

Public houses
Adeyfield boasts three pubs, one corporately owned and the other two private. The Crabtree, located on Leverstock Green Road, is part of the Ember Inns chain. The other two pubs are The Jubilee in the Queen's Square, and The Midland on Midland Road (across the road from the old location of the Nicky Line's "Midland Station", correctly known as Hemel Hempstead). Until 2013, The Jubilee was called The New Venture. The Midland was originally called The Midland Hotel, then The Mayflower, before partly reverting to the original name.

The Queen's Square
In common with the rest of the planned neighbourhoods in Hemel Hempstead, Adeyfield has a village centre, known as the Queen's Square.  There are many different convenience stores in the square, most notably the Co-operative Supermarket, and two branches of Lloyd's Pharmacy. The square was named after the visit paid by The Queen in 1952 when she laid the foundation stone for the Church of St Barnabas.

Evelyn Sharp House
During the 1970s the Commission for New Towns and Dacorum Borough Council invested in developing sheltered housing provision for the elderly in the town - a ground-breaking development at the time.  The first of these was Evelyn Sharp House, located in Field Road, Adeyfield.  A full-time, on-site Warden was available to support the needs of the residents.  The first Warden of ESH was Jean Roberts, who was there for 18 years from its opening until her retirement.  Arrangements for supporting residents and managing the property have changed since, and there is no longer an on-site Warden.

References

Villages in Hertfordshire
Areas of Hemel Hempstead

Adeyfield


The Bronze Star Medal is the fourth-highest individual military award. It is the ninth-highest award by order of precedence in the US Military. It may be awarded for acts of heroism, acts of merit, or meritorious service in a combat zone. When it is awarded for acts of heroism, the medal is awarded with the "V" device attached. The required acts are less heroic than those that qualify for the Silver Star.

Eligibility

The medal is sometimes called the Bronze Star. Foreign soldiers, as well as officers from the other federal uniformed services are also eligible to receive the decoration. They must be serving with a service branch of the United States Armed Forces.

History

The Bronze Star Medal was an idea by Colonel Russell P. "Red" Reeder in 1943. He believed it would aid morale if there was a medal which could be awarded by captains of companies or batteries to deserving people serving under them. Reeder felt another medal was needed for ground forces that was equivalent to the Air Medal. He proposed that the new award be called the "Ground Medal". The idea eventually gained support. General George C. Marshall wrote a memorandum (note) to President Franklin D. Roosevelt dated 3 February 1944. He wrote:

The Air Medal had been adopted two years earlier to raise airmen's morale. President Roosevelt authorized the Bronze Star Medal by Executive Order 9419 dated 4 February 1944. The order was made retroactive to 7 December 1941. The Executive Order was amended by President John F. Kennedy. The Executive Order 11046 dated 24 August 1962 expanded the authorization to include those serving with friendly forces. This allowed for awards where US service members might be involved in an armed conflict where the United States was not a belligerent. At the time of the Executive Order the US was not a belligerent in Vietnam. So any US advisers serving with the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces would not have been eligible for the award.

A study was conducted in 1947. The outcome was the policy was changed to make the retroactive award of the Bronze Star Medal (without the "V" device) to all soldiers who had received the Combat Infantryman Badge. It also included those who received the Combat Medical Badge during World War II. The reason for doing this was that the badges were awarded to soldiers who experienced the hardships described in General Marshall's memorandum. Both badges required a recommendation by the commander and a citation in orders.

Order of Precedence

The Bronze Star is worn on the uniform after the Soldier's Medal or the Airman's Medal. It is to be worn before the Purple Heart. When a second (or more) award is given for the Silver Star, an oak leaf cluster is added to the ribbon. The "V" device (for valor) is worn on the center of the ribbon. Any oak leaf clusters are worn to the right or left of the "V".

References

Other websites
 The Pyramid Of Honor; Order of Precedence of Military Awards

Orders, decorations, and medals of the United States
Military of the United States
1944 establishments in the United States

Bronze Star Medal


Sterling silver is an alloy of silver containing 92.5% by mass of silver and 7.5% by mass of other metals, usually copper. The sterling silver standard has a minimum of 925 in continental European terms.

Pure silver, for example 99.9% pure, is generally too soft for making objects for use. Therefore, the silver is usually alloyed with copper to give it strength while keeping the ductility and beauty of the precious metal. Other metals can replace the copper, to improve various properties of the basic sterling alloy such as increasing resistance to tarnish. These replacement metals include germanium, zinc and platinum, as well as a variety of other additives, including silicon and boron. Alloys such as argentium silver have appeared in recent decades. Argentium silver has some germanium added, and resists tarnishing well.

The first legal definition of sterling silver appeared in 1275. A statute of Edward I specified that 12 ounces of silver for coinage should contain 11 ounces  pennyweights of silver and  pennyweights of alloy, with 20 pennyweights to the Troy ounce.

Sterling silver standards are protected by hallmarks stamped on pieces by officials.

References

Alloys
Standards

Sterling silver


Agror is a valley in northern Pakistan. It is in Oghi Tehsil, Mansehra District, Hazara, in the province of Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. It consists of three mountain glens,  long and  wide. The lower parts of the Agror valley contains many farms, villages and hamlets.

The main tribes and ethnic groups are the Hindko and Pashto-speaking tribes. These include the Swatis, the Gurjars, Awans and Tanolis.

History
During the 17th century, the valley was ruled by a famous tribal leader of the Swatis. His title was the Khan of Agror. His real name was Akund Saad-ud-din. He was a mullah or petty Muslim religious scholar, who obtained power over the local people of the Agror valley. In time, he established himself as the local 'Khan' or chieftain and controlled the whole valley. His capital was at Oghi town.

In 1888, during the period of the British Empire, the Khan's descendant, Ali Gohar, was removed from power. The title and estate were formally abolished. However, the Akund's descendants still use this courtesy title.

References

Valleys of Pakistan
Mansehra District

Agror


John Gardner may refer to:

Arts and literature
John Gardner (American writer) (1933–1982), American novelist and educator, author of Grendel
John Gardner (British writer) (1926–2007), British author of spy and mystery novels, former official James Bond author
John Gardner (composer) (1917–2011), British composer
John Lowell Gardner II (1837–1898), patron of the arts
John Gardner (boat builder) (1905–1995), American nautical historian

Law, education and government
John Gardner (Rhode Island) (1697–1764), Deputy Governor, Colony of Rhode Island
John Gardner (Australian politician), Australian Liberal Party MP for the South Australian seat of Morialta since 2010
John Gardner (Continental Congress) (1747–1808), American farmer, Rhode Island delegate to Continental Congress
John Gardner (lawyer) (born 1964), professor of jurisprudence, University of Oxford
John Dunn Gardner (1811–1903), British Member of Parliament, 1841 to 1847
John Fentress Gardner (1912–1998), American author and educator
John J. Gardner (1845–1921), American politician representing New Jersey in the United States House of Representatives, 1885 to 1893
John W. Gardner (1912–2002), U.S. Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare during the Great Society, founder of Medicare and Public Broadcasting

Others
John D. Gardner (general), lieutenant general in the U.S. Army
John L. Gardner (1793–1869), brigadier general in the US Army
John Albert Gardner (born 1979), American double murderer
John Sterling Gardner, Jr., American criminal, see List of individuals executed in North Carolina
John Gardner (Texas Ranger) (1845–1926), Texas Ranger, cowboy, Indian fighter and trail boss
John Twiname Gardner (1854–1914), English doctor and composer
John L. Gardner (boxer), British boxer
John Gardner (tennis), Australian tennis player, see 1971 US Open – Men's Singles

John Gardner