Perang Granada () merupakan satu siri kempen ketenteraan yang berlaku antara tahun 1482 sehingga 1492, semasa pemerintahan Monarki Katolik (los Reyes Católicos) Isabella I dari Castile dan Ferdinand II dari Aragon, menentang dinasti Nasrid dari Amiriah Granada. Ia tamat dengan kekalahan Granada kemasukkannya ke dalam Castile, menamatkan pemerintahan Muslim di Semenanjung Iberia (al-Andalus).

Perang 10 tahun ini bukannya usaha yang berterusan, tetapi satu siri kempen bermusim yang dilancarkan pada musim bunga dan berakhir pada musim sejuk. Kekuatan Granada tempang disebabkan oleh konflik dalaman dan perang saudara, sementara puak-puak Kristian pula bersatu. Perang ini juga melihat akan penggunaan artileri oleh Kristian untuk menakluk kota-kota dengan pantas, sekiranya tidak memerlukan masa untuk mengepung yang lebih lama. Pada 2 Januari, 1492 Muhammad XII dari Granada (Raja Boabdil) menyerahkan Amiriah Granada, kota Granada, dan istana Alhambra kepada tentera Castile.

Perang ini merupakan satu projek bersama antara Isabella Takhta Castile dan Ferdinand Takhta Aragon. Sebahagian besar tentera dan dana datangnya daripada Castile, dan Granada diilhak ke dalam jajahan Castile. Takhta Aragon kurang penting: selain kehadiran Raja Ferdinand sendiri, Aragon menyediakan pasukan laut, meriam dan beberapa pinjaman kewangan. Para bangsawan ditawarkan dengan tanah-tanah baru, sementara Ferdinand dan Isabella memusatkan dan menggabungkan kuasa. Selepas perang, ia menyaksikan tamatnya polisi convivencia ("hidup dan biarkan hidup") di antara agama-agama di semenanjung Iberia: Yahudi telah dipaksa untuk memeluk Kristian atau dibuang negeri pada tahun 1492, dan pada tahun 1501, kesemua Muslim Granada dimestikan memeluk Kristian, menjadi hamba atau dibuang negeri; menjelang tahun 1526, pengharaman ini diperluaskan ke seluruh Sepanyol. "Orang Kristian Baru" (conversos) telah dituduh kripto-Islam dan kripto-Yahudi. Sepanyol menjadi model aspirasi kebangsaannya sebagai penjaga Kristian dan Katoliks. Kejatuhan Alhambra masih lagi dirayakan pada setiap tahun oleh Majlis Perbandaran Granada, dan Perang Granada dianggap dalam tradisi sejarah Sepanyol sebagai perang terakhir dalam Reconquista.

Iberia dan Al-Andalus pada akhir kurun ke-15

Amiriah Granada menjadi satu-satunya negeri Muslim di al-Andalus—nama Arab untuk Iberia—untuk lebih seabad pada masa Perang Granada. Negeri-negeri (taifa) yang lain yang mana dahulunya adalah Khilafah Córdoba yang berkuasa telah ditakluk oleh Kristian. Pessimism for Granada's future existed long before its ultimate fall; in 1400, Ibn Hudayl wrote "Is Granada not enclosed between a violent sea and an enemy terrible in arms, both of which press on its people day and night?" Still, Granada was wealthy and powerful, and the Christian kingdoms were divided and fought amongst themselves. Granada's problems began to worsen after Emir Yusuf III's death in 1417. Succession struggles ensured that Granada was in an almost constant low-level civil war. Clan loyalties were stronger than allegiance to the Emir, making consolidation of power difficult. Often, the only territory the Emir really controlled was the city of Granada itself. At times, the emir did not even control all the city, but rather one rival emir would control the Alhambra, and another the Albayzín, the most important district of Granada.

This internal fighting greatly weakened the state. The economy declined, with Granada's once world-famous porcelain manufacture now disrupted and challenged by the Christian town of Manises near Valencia, in Aragon. Despite the weakening economy, taxes were still imposed at their earlier high rates to support Granada's extensive defenses and large army. Ordinary Granadans paid triple the taxes of (non-tax-exempt) Castilians. The heavy taxes that Emir Abu-l-Hasan Ali (1464–85) imposed contributed greatly to his unpopularity. These taxes did at least support a respected army; Hasan was successful in putting down Christian revolts in his lands, and some observers estimated he could muster as many as 7,000 horsemen.

The frontier between Granada and the Castilian lands of Andalusia was in a constant state of flux, "neither in peace nor in war." Raids across the border were common, as were intermixing alliances between local nobles on both sides of the frontier. Relations were governed by occasional truces and demands for tribute should one side have been seen to overstep their bounds. Neither country's central government intervened or controlled the warfare much.

Raja Henry IV dari Castile meninggal dunia pada bulan Disember 1474, menyebabkan Perang Pewarisan Castile di antara anak perempuan Henry, Joanna la Beltraneja dengan kakak tiri Henry Isabella. Perang berlangsung daripada tahun 1475–1479, antara para penyokong Isabella dan Takhta Aragon menentang penyokong Joanna, Portugal, dan Perancis. Semasa waktu ini, perbatasan dengan Granada telah diabaikan; Castile tidak peduli untuk bertanya atau mendapatkan pampasan akan serangan yang dilakukan pada tahun 1477. Perjanjian damai sementara ditandatangani pada tahun 1475, 1476, dan 1478. Pada tahun 1479, Perang Pewarisan tamat dengan kemenangan Isabella. Setelah Isabella berkahwin dengan Ferdinand dari Aragon pada tahun 1469, ini bermakna dua buah kerajaan iaitu Castile dan Aragon sekarang telah bersatu, bebas daripada perang antara Kristian yang mana telah menolong Granada untuk terus hidup.

Kronologi

Provokasi dan tindak balas

The truce of 1478 was still theoretically in effect when Granada launched a surprise attack against Zahara in December 1481, as part of a reprisal for a Christian raid.  The town fell, and the population was enslaved. This attack proved to be a great provocation, and factions in favor of war in Andalusia used it to rally support for a counterstrike, quickly moving to take credit for it, and backed a wider war.  The seizure of Alhama and its subsequent royal endorsement is usually said to be the formal beginning of the Granada War. Abu Hasan attempted to retake Alhama by siege in March, but was unsuccessful. Reinforcements from the rest of Castile and Aragon averted the possibility of retaking Alhama in April 1482; King Ferdinand himself formally took command at Alhama on May 14, 1482.

The Christians next tried to besiege Loja, but failed to take the town. This setback was balanced by a twist that would prove to aid them greatly: on the same day as Loja was relieved, Abu Hasan's son, Abu Abdallah or Boabdil, rebelled and styled himself Emir Muhammad XII. The war continued into 1483. Abu Hasan's brother, al-Zagal, defeated a large Christian raiding force in the hills of the Axarquia east of Málaga. However, at Lucena the Christians were able to defeat and capture King Boabdil. Ferdinand II and Isabella I had previously not been intent on conquering all of Granada. With the capture of King Boabdil, however, Ferdinand decided to use him to conquer Granada entirely. In a letter of August 1483, Ferdinand wrote "To put Granada in division and destroy it We have decided to free him.... He [Boabdil] has to make war on his father." With Boabdil's release, now as a pseudo-Christian ally, the Granadan civil war would continue. A Granadan chronicler commented that Boabdil's capture was "the cause of the fatherland's destruction."

In 1485, the fortunes of the Granadan internal conflict shifted yet again. Boabdil was expelled from the Albayzín, his base of power, by Hasan's brother al-Zagal. Al-Zagal also took command of the nation itself, dethroning his aging brother, who died shortly thereafter. Boabdil was obliged to flee to Ferdinand and Isabella's protection. The continuing division within the Muslim ranks and the cunning of the Marquis of Cádiz allowed the western reaches of Granada to be seized with unusual speed in 1485. Ronda fell to him after a mere fifteen days, thanks to his negotiations with the city's leaders. Ronda's fall allowed Marbella, a base of the Granadan fleet, to come into Christian hands next.

Tidak lama kemudian Boabdil dibebaskan daripada perlindungan Kristian untuk menyambung tugas beliau memerintah Granada. Untuk tiga tahun seterusnya, beliau bertindak sebagai de facto vassal di bawahh Ferdinand dan Isabella. Beliau dijanjikan kemerdekaan terhad untuk Granada dan perdamaian dengan penduduk Kristian; daripada Monarki Katolik, beliau memegang gelaran Duke untuk mana-mana kota yang beliau boleh mengawal.

Pengepungan Málaga

Málaga, merupakan pelabuhan utama bagi Granada, dan merupakan objektif utama bagi tentera Castile pada tahun 1487. Tindakan perlahan Emir al-Zagal dalam mengerakkan cubaan untuk melepaskan kepungan dan tidak mampu untuk menyerang tentera Kristian kerana perang saudara yang masih berlangsung; meskipun selepas beliau meninggalkan kota bagi membantu Málaga, beliau dipaksa meninggalkan tentera beliau di Alhambra untuk menentang Boabdil dan pengikut beliau.

Kota utama yang pertama diserang, Vélez-Málaga, ditawan pada 27 April 1487, dengan sokongan pasukan Boabdil yang secara terus membantu tentera pengepung Kristian. Málaga bertahan semasa pengepungan yang berlangsung daripada 7 Mei 1487 sehingga 18 Ogos 1487; komandernya lebih mati daripada menyerad diri, tentera Afrika dan tentera upahan Kristian (yang telah memeluk agama Islam) memberi tentangan hebat, gusar akan akibat sekiranya kalah. Menjelang penghujungnya, para bangsawan di Málaga akhirnya menawarkan penyerahan diri, tetapi tidak diterima oleh Ferdindad, di sebabkan terma-terma yang baik telah ditawarkan sebanyak dua kali. Apabila kota ini ditawan, Ferdinand menghukum hampir kesemua penduduknya di sebabkan kedegilan mereka dengan menjadikan mereka sebagai hamba, sementara askar-askar upahan dibakar hidup-hidup atau ditikam. Walaubagaimanapun, Yahudi MAlaga terselamat kerana Yahudi Castile telah membayar tebusan bagi menyelamatkan mereka daripada perhambaan.

Sejarawan William Prescott menganggap kejatuhan Málaga merupakan peristiwa terpenting dalam perang ini; sebagai pelabuhan utama Granada, Granada tidak mampu terus berdiri sebagai sebuah negeri berdaulat tanpanya.

Pengepungan Baza
Al-Zagal kehilangan prestijnya ekoran kejatuhan Málaga, dan Boabdil mengambil alih keseluruhan kota Granada pada tahun 1487; beliau juga mengawal kawasan timur laut negara iaitu Vélez-Rubio, Vélez-Blanco, dan Vera. Al-Zagal masih lagi menguasai Baza, Guadix, dan Almería. Boabdil tidak mengambil tindakan meskipun tentera Kristian merampas beberapa tanah jajahan beliau, mungkin menganggap ia akan dipulangkan semula kepada beliau tidak lama kemudian.

Pada tahun 1489, tentera Kristian mula membuat kepungan panjang yang menyakitkan ke atas Baza, kubu paling penting yang masih dikuasai oleh al-Zagal. Baza memiliki pertahanan yang kukuh yang mana menyebabkan tentera Kristian memecahkan pasukan tentera mereka, dan artileri tidak banyak digunakan ke atasnya. Penyediaan bekalan kepada tentera ini menyebabkan kekurangan dana yang besar kepada Castile. Ancaman sekali sekala perlu bagi memastikan kehadiran tentera di medan tempur, dan Isabella datang sendiri ke kawasan pengepungan bagi mengekalkan moral kepada bangsawan dan tentera. Selepas enam bulan, al-Zagal menyerah diri, meskipun perbatasan beliau masih kukuh dan tidak diancam; beliau percaya bahawa tentera Kristian serius untuk mengekalkan kepungan selama yang mungkin, dan tentangan lanjut adalah sia-sia tanpa bantuan, yang mana tiada tanda-tanda akan tiba. Baza telah diberi terma-terma penyerahan yang sangat baik, tidak seperti Málaga.

Tentengan terakhir di Granada

With the fall of Baza and the capture of al-Zagal in 1490, it seemed as if the war was over. Ferdinand and Isabella certainly thought this was the case.  However, Boabdil was unhappy with the rewards for his alliance with Ferdinand and Isabella, possibly because lands that had been promised to him were being administered by Castile. He broke off his vassalage and rebelled against the Catholic Monarchs, despite holding only the city of Granada and the Alpujarras Mountains. It was clear that such a position was untenable in the long term, so Boabdil sent out desperate requests for external aid. The Sultan of Egypt mildly rebuked Ferdinand for the Granada War, but the Mamluks that ruled Egypt were in a near constant war with the Ottoman Turks. As Castile and Aragon were fellow enemies of the Turks, the Sultan had no desire to break their alliance against the Turks.  Boabdil also requested aid from the Kingdom of Fez (modern Morocco), but no reply is recorded by history.  North Africa continued to sell Castile wheat throughout the war and valued maintaining good trade relations. In any case, the Granadans no longer controlled any coastline from where to receive overseas aid. No help would be forthcoming for Granada.

An eight-month siege of Granada began in April 1491. The situation for the defenders grew progressively dire, as their forces for interfering with the siege dwindled and advisers schemed against each other. Bribery of important officials was rampant, and at least one of the chief advisers to Boabdil seems to have been working for Castile the entire time. After the Battle of Granada a provisional surrender, the Treaty of Granada, was signed on November 25, 1491, which granted two months to the city. The reason for the long delay was not so much intransigence on either side, but rather the inability of the Granadan government to coordinate amongst itself in the midst of the disorder and tumult that gripped the city. After the terms, which proved rather generous to the Muslims,  were negotiated, the city capitulated on January 2, 1492. The besieging Christians sneaked troops into the Alhambra that day in case resistance materialized, which it did not.  Granada's resistance had come to its end.

Taktik dan teknologi

The most notable facet of the Granada War was the power of bombards and cannons to greatly shorten the many sieges of the war.  The Castilians and Aragonese started the war with only a few artillery pieces, but Ferdinand had access to French and Burgundian experts from his recent wars, and the Christians aggressively increased their artillery forces.  The Muslims, however, lagged far behind in their use of artillery, generally only using the occasional captured Christian piece.  The historian Weston F. Cook Jr. wrote "Gunpowder firepower and artillery siege operations won the Granadan war, and other factors in the Spanish victory were actually secondary and derivative."  By 1495, Castile and Aragon controlled 179 pieces of artillery total, a vast increase from the paltry numbers seen in the War of the Castilian Succession.

Primitive arquebuses also saw use in the war, though only to a small degree. Heavy cavalry knights were a much smaller factor in the Granada War than seen in earlier warfare.  Light cavalry jinetes took on a more prominent role instead.  The open-field battles in which cavalry were the most important were rare; the Granadans, badly outnumbered, generally avoided such battles.  The Castilians also employed a large number of supporting men; a huge force of workers were mustered in 1483 to destroy crops and pillage the countryside rather than engage directly in battle.  Coordination and logistics was difficult given the mountainous terrain, but the Christians diligently built a series of roads through the mountains to supply their troops with food and supplies.

Politically, many nobles insisted on controlling their own forces, but Ferdinand and Isabella were still able to exercise a large degree of control in directing the army as a whole. The Granadans, meanwhile, were beset with civil war, preventing the establishment of a unified command. The Christian army was almost completely Castilian; Aragonese and foreign mercenary participation was minimal. Of the Castilian army, Andalusia contributed far more troops than the other territories, with much of its population conscripted into the war. The nobility provided the majority of the expensive cavalry.

Kekuatan tentera yang terlibat

Concerning the real strength of the armies involved, according to original sources the Castilian armies reached between 50 and 70,000 soldiers the years of the greatest military effort (1482, 83, 86, 87, 89 and 91), or 10,000 to 29,000 the more quieter ones (1484, 85, 88 and 90), strength which is accepted by modern scholars as Ladero Quesada.  Nevertheless, according to García de Gabiola to keep, pay and feed armies of such strength were beyond the resources of the recently birth modern states. For the campaigns in Italy (1494-1503) the Spanish armies were of 5,000, 9,000 or 15,000 men maximum, so it is rather surprising the numbers recorded 5–10 years before for Granada. If we take into account the revenues of Castile during the period (130 to some 200 millions of maravedies per year) it is hardly difficult that Castile could have organized more than 8,000 to 20,000 soldiers. In fact, Ladero Quesada register the number of grain loads contracted by Castile in several years and García de Gabiola has calculated the number of soldiers that could have been fed through these grain loads, and his conclusions are 12,000 men for 1482 (siege of Loja); 8,000 men for 1483 and 1484 (Granada fields sacking); 10,000 men in 1485 (Ronda siege); 10-12,000 soldiers in 1486 (2nd Loja siege); 12,000 for 1487 (Malaga siege); 10-12,000 in 1488 (1st Baza siege); 20,000 soldiers in 1489 (2nd Baza siege, the greatest grain loads contracted, that also coincides with the largest revenue of Castile during the campaign, some 200 millions); and 10-12,000 men for 1490-91 (final siege of Granada). A 20% of them should be cavalry.

Related to the Muslim armies, according to García de Gabiola, the strengths mentioned by the sources (15,000 to 50,000 infantry, or 4,500-7,000 cavalry) should be also discarded. Some strengths also mentioned that are more trustful are 3,000 horses (1482), 1,000 to 1,500 (1483, 85 and 1487) or even 3-400 riders (1489 and 1491). Concerning the infantry, De Miguel Mora states that a Muslim soldier captured by the Castilians during the siege of Baza confessed that the real infantry strength of the garrison  was 4,000 men and not 15,000.  So, the Muslim armies would not pass of some 4,000 infantry. At the end they were 2 or 3-to-1 against the odds in comparison to Castilian armies.

The Granada War would prove to be valuable training for Castile's participation in the Italian Wars, where the Castilian armies and tactics such as the tercio would acquit themselves well.

Akibat
The surrender of Granada was seen as a great blow to the Arabs and a triumph to the Europeans. Other European states offered their sincere congratulations to Ferdinand and Isabella, while Arab writers reacted with despair. In Castile and Aragon, celebrations and bullfights were held. People rejoiced in the streets.

The treaty's terms for Granada's surrender were quite generous to the Muslims, considering how little they had left to bargain with. They were similar to the terms offered to towns which surrendered earlier, when the outcome of the war was in doubt. For three years, Muslims could emigrate and return freely. They were allowed to keep weapons, though not firearms, a provision that however was to be annulled a month later. No one would be forced to change religion, not even former Christians who had converted to Islam. Boabdil was offered money and the rulership of a small principality in the mountainous Alpujarras, an area that would have been difficult to control in any case. At first, most of conquered Granada was treated respectfully and was therefore predominantly stable for seven years, though the Alhambra Decree of 1492 expelled the Jews that were not converso Marranos.

King Boabdil soon found his position intolerable. He left for Morocco in Oct 1493, where he would die some forty years later. Eventually, Castile started to revoke some of the more tolerant attributes of the treaty. This initiative was led by Archbishop Cisneros, who ordered mass conversions, the burning of valued Arabic manuscripts and other measures detrimental to the Muslims (and Jews).

This sparked a revolt that ended in many Muslims being forced to choose between baptism, exile, or execution. Tensions from then onward would remain high, and Castile was obliged to maintain a large military force in Granada to deter future revolts. Isabella also strengthened the Spanish Inquisition, and Ferdinand brought the Inquisition to Aragon where previously it had not held power.

Castile was the main beneficiary of the war, as it had also spent by far the majority of the money and manpower to prosecute it, and completely annexed Granada. The conquest of Granada meant little for Aragon's strategic position, but it did help secure Castilian support in Italy and France, where Aragon's interests lay.

Increasing oppression of the Moors—now known as Moriscos or "New Christians"—led to the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1568–71). After the defeat of the Moors, which was not easy, almost all the Moriscos of the former Kingdom of Granada were exiled to other parts of Spain.

Pengaruh budaya
An entire genre, romances fronterizos, developed around stories of the war and the battles on the Granadan frontier which reached their culmination in Granada's fall. Ginés Pérez de Hita wrote an early example of historical fiction, Guerras civiles de Granada, a romantic account of the war that emphasized chivalry and heroism on both sides. A number of stories and songs appear to have been sponsored by the royal government to help steel morale for the long struggle; Sobre Baza was a poem written in 1479 encouraging persistence in the long siege. The song "Setenil, ay Setenel", written in 1484, hoped that Ferdinand would conquer "as far as Jerusalem." The song "Una sañosa porfía" by Juan del Encina puts the depiction of the war in the lips of King Boabdil himself.  English playwright John Dryden wrote a heroic drama The Conquest of Granada, published in 1672, which focuses on a romantic love triangle and clashing loyalties in two feuding Granadan factions, leaving the besieging Castilians in the background.

The Día de la Toma de Granada is a civic and religious festival held each year in Granada on the anniversary of the city's reconquest, January 2.

Lihat juga
 Islam di Sepanyol
 Pemberontakkan Morisco di Granada
 Sempadan Granada

Rujukan
 This article incorporates text translated from the Spanish Wikipedia article Guerra de Granada, licensed under .

Bibliografi
 Benito Ruano, Eloy. "Un cruzado inglés en la Guerra de Granada", Anuario de estudios medievales, 9 (1974/1979), 585–593.
 Cristobal Torrez Delgado. El Reino Nazari de Granada, 1482–92 (1982).
 De Miguel Mora, Carlos. La Toma de Baza. www2.dlc.ua.pt/classicos/Baza.pdf
 García de Gabiola, Javier. La Guerra que puso fin al Medievo: Granada (1482–92). http://www.editorialgram.com/medieval/2015/11/revista-medieval-54-2/
 García de Gabiola, Javier. Todo empezó en Granada. Historia de Iberia Vieja. nº 116. https://www.facebook.com/historiadeiberiavieja/photos/a.140183162481.110989.140181572481/10153020982607482/?type=3&theater

  (Republished in 2002 by Simon Publications, ISBN 1-9315-4180-9)
 Ladero Quesada, Miguel Ángel. La Guerra de Granada. Granada Dip. 2001.
 Ladero Quesada, Miguel Ángel. La Hermandad de Castilla. Real Academia de la Historia. 2005.
  (An extract from Prescott's 1838 book History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella the Catholic, updated with modern scholarship and commentary.

Reconquista
Pengepungan melibatkan Amiriah Granada
Abad ke-15 di Al-Andalus
Konflik abad ke-15
1480-an di Sepanyol
1490-an di Sepanyol
Pengepungan melibatkan Castile
Pengepungan melibatkan Aragon

Perang Granada


A province in Vietnam () is the region of authority. If the province is in the city (), then it will have districts (). If the city has some country districts attached, then they are separated as counties ().

Inside the city, the districts break down into smaller divisions called city wards (). If the county is outside the city, or in a country province, then that county will be broken down into smaller divisional areas ().

There are more divisions in every province:

 Hems are blind alleys that house families away from city streets. Hems are little hamlets inside the city.
 In the country, a commune () may make up an area or more. Communes are for cheaper land and cooperative work. Some communes make factories and employ the people living there.
 Cultural housing () is another small division. Cultural homes can have a center or living quarters attached.
 Other divisional areas are held by different departments of the national government. Some people live in the department zones.

Administration units

Five city provinces are directly under the government of Vietnam. Administratively, each city is divided into districts and counties.

Each city has smaller level administrative units, including the districts, wards, communes, and areas. Administration includes the total area in kilometers square, an official census of the city's population (per million people), and the density of people (per kilometers square). Concentration is usually in the inner city, including more people, with closer living. The country districts have less people.

Administration of each city is done through the City People's Council, with representatives elected directly every five years. Elected representatives decide the plans for economic development, culture, education, and all other responsibilities. The Head of the People's Council consists of a chairman, a vice chairman, and permanent members. Councils are under the supervision and guidance from the National Assembly Standing Committee.

The City People's Council elects the People's Committee, it is the agency directly responsible for the management of the political, security, economic, and cultural interests of the city. The departments of the People's Committee will manage specific areas, such as health, education, investment, justice, finance . In addition, the People's Committee also manages a number of corporations in the city.

The government of Vietnam names at least one level of every location a commune. There is a slight difference between an active commune (Xa), and an administrative commune (Xa Huyen). Some communes are very active as cooperatives. In other areas (and in other divisions) the residents have more to do than just commune activities. It's a difference created by the market-economy. Not everyone elects to work for the commune - in commune jobs.

Investment and ownership
Foreigners don't normally invest in the cultural homes directly. And, little or no re-gentrification has been occurring after progress. Hems are different. Hems are transformed into beautiful villas/towns. Some hems have a full circuit of interior roadways that allow for better communities.

Many cities are beautified in arrangement between departments, province, district, ward, local committees, and residents. However, this is the source of numerous disputes/arguments. The management of the activity doesn't satisfy all the people involved. But, some people are happy with the result - some people choose to get paid to demolish their own house for the progress of a city plan.

Conservation
Older residencies can be left intact for various reasons.

Committees
Every division is described so that a committee can manage it. In some provinces committees have established industrial parks. Foreign investment is directed at larger divisions (provinces) who can grant tax and regulation help and incentives.

Other websites
 local government list at the national governments website, shows every province name
Geography of Vietnam

Provincial city (Vietnam)


James Philip Shellenback (born November 18, 1943) is an American former professional baseball pitcher and coach. He appeared in 165 Major League games for the Pittsburgh Pirates (1966–1967; 1969), Washington Senators/Texas Rangers (1969–1974) and Minnesota Twins (1977). The ,  Shellenback threw and batted left-handed. He is the nephew of Frank Shellenback, also a former MLB pitcher and coach.

In his nine-year MLB career, he had a 16–30 record, 48 games started, eight complete games, two shutouts, 36 games finished, two saves, 454 innings pitched, 443 hits allowed, 228 runs allowed, 192 earned runs allowed, 40 home runs allowed, 200 bases on balls, 222 strikeouts, eight hit batsmen, six wild pitches, 1,960 batters faced, 14 intentional base on balls, two balks and a 3.81 earned run average.

Like his uncle, who won a record 295 games in the Pacific Coast League, Jim Shellenback had success in minor league baseball. In his second pro year, with the 1963 Gastonia Pirates, he won 17 of 20 decisions and posted a 2.03 earned run average. He won 103 minor league games over 12 seasons.

Shellenback was a longtime coach in the Twins' minor league system, and served on their Major League staff in 1983. He also managed the Triple-A Portland Beavers from June 22, 1988, through the end of the season after the resignation of Jim Mahoney. Late in his career, Shellenback was the pitching coach of the Rookie-level Elizabethton Twins of the Appalachian League for 18 consecutive seasons, from 1994 through his 2011 retirement.

References

External links
, or Retrosheet, or Pelota Binaria (Venezuelan Winter League)

1943 births
Living people
Asheville Tourists players
Baseball coaches from California
Baseball players from Riverside, California
Cardenales de Lara players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Columbus Jets players
Florida Instructional League Pirates players
Gastonia Pirates players
Harlan Smokies players
Hawaii Islanders players
Idaho Falls Yankees players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Minnesota Twins coaches
Minnesota Twins players
Minor league baseball coaches
Orlando Twins players
Pittsburgh Pirates players
Portland Beavers managers
Spokane Indians players
Sportspeople from Riverside, California
Texas Rangers players
Washington Senators (1961–1971) players

Jim Shellenback


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People
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Luiz Ribeiro Pinto Neto (born 1946), Brazilian fitbawer elk-namit "Lula"
Lula (sangster) (born 1973), German sangster
Lula Barbosa da Silva (born 1970), Brazilian beach volleybaw player
Lula Côrtes (d. 2011), Brazilian muisicker
Lula Ferreira (born 1951), Brazilian basketbaw coach
Lula Galvão (born 1962), Brazilian guitarist
Lula Greene Richards (1849-1944), American poet
Lula Mae Hardaway (1930-2006), American sangwriter, Grammy Awaird nominee, mither o Stevie Wonder
Lula Wardlow (1876-1970), American businesswumman, Methodist meenister an politeecian
Carson McCullers (1917–1967), American writer born as Lula Carson Smith
Luís Alonso Pérez (1922-1972), Brazilian fitbaa coach, twice Sooth American champions wi Santos FC

Characters
Lula, a figure in the Disney cartoon Dave the Barbarian

Places

Italy
 Lula, Sardinie, a smaw toun in the Province o Nuoro

Slovakie
 Lula, Levice District, a veelage

Unitit States
 Lula, Georgie, a smaw toun in Georgie
 Lula, Mississippi, a smaw toun in Mississippi

Ither
 Lula (avocado), an avocado cultivar frae Florida.
 Lula, a Breetish fashion magazine
 Lula, the Portuguese wird for squid
 Lula, the Cebuano, a dialect o Tagalog, wird for grandmither
 Lula gemmes, Windows gemmes placit in business warld o pornografie, an a chairacter therein
 LULA, a fireairm magazine speedloader
 Lula Cafe, a restaurant in the Logan Square neebourheid o Chicago

Lula (disambiguation)


Cubase is a digital audio workstation (DAW) developed by Steinberg for music and MIDI recording, arranging and editing. The first version, which was originally only a MIDI sequencer and ran on the Atari ST computer, was released in 1989. Cut-down versions of Cubase are included with almost all Yamaha audio and MIDI hardware, as well as hardware from other manufacturers. These versions can be upgraded to a more advanced version at a discount.

Operation
Cubase can be used to edit and sequence audio signals coming from an external sound source and MIDI, and can host VST instruments and effects. It has a number of features designed to aid in composition, such as:
Chord Tracks: Helps the user keep track of chord changes, and can optionally be used to harmonize audio and MIDI tracks automatically, as well as trigger arpeggios and chords with basic voicings or voicings for piano and guitar. Chords can be either entered manually or detected automatically.
Expression Maps: Adds a lane to the Key Editor (Cubase's piano roll) that allows the user to define changes to the instrument's articulations and dynamics. In other DAWs, this requires the use of complicated MIDI program changes and key switches.
Note Expression: Allows MIDI controllers such as pitch bend, volume, pan, and filters to be applied only to the selected notes. This overcomes one of the limitations of MIDI, where such controllers normally affect the entire channel (For example, all notes of a chord are equally affected by a pitch bend message).
Key Editor Inspector: Provides precise control over chord drawing, chord inversions, quantization, transpositions, scale correction, note lengths, and legato. Changes can be applied either to only the selected notes or the entire MIDI part being edited.
Audio Warp Quantize: Create warp markers straight from hitpoints, both single audio loops as well as the entire arrangement can be non-destructively quantized.

MIDI parts can be edited using a piano roll, a dedicated drum editor, a score editor, or as a filterable complete list of MIDI events.

The user can also mix the various tracks down into a stereo .wav file ready to be burned to a compact disc (CD) in Red Book format, or .mp3 burned to CD or DVD as files, or to be published on the Web.

VST instruments
Cubase VST 3.7 in 1999 introduced a virtual instrument interface for software synthesizers known as VSTi. This made it possible for third-party software programmers to create and sell virtual instruments for Cubase. This technology has become a de facto standard for other DAW software, when integrating software based instruments on the Macintosh and Windows platforms. A new version of VST, VST3, was introduced with Steinberg's Cubase 4 which introduced improved handling of automation and audio output, native sidechaining, and many other features. Cubase 6 included VSTs such as HALion Sonic SE, Groove Agent ONE, LoopMash 2 and VST Amp Rack.

Editions
When Cubase 6 was released in 2011, Steinberg introduced 5 different editions for different levels of use. From highest to lowest they are: Cubase (now known as Cubase Pro), Cubase Artist, Cubase Elements, Cubase AI and Cubase LE. They have all been updated as new versions come out. While they all run on the same audio engine, the lower tiers have limits on the number of certain types of tracks. The number of audio tracks allowed in Cubase Pro is unlimited, Artist: 64, Elements: 48, AI: 32, LE: 16.

History
Cubase has existed in three main incarnations. Initially Cubase, which featured only MIDI, and which was available on the Atari ST, Macintosh and Windows.

After a brief period with audio integration, the next version, Cubase VST, featured fully integrated audio recording and mixing along with effects. It added Virtual Studio Technology (VST) support, a standard for audio plug-ins, which led to a plethora of third-party effects, both freeware and commercial. Cubase VST was only for Macintosh and Windows; Atari support had been effectively dropped by this time, despite such hardware still being a mainstay in many studios. Cubase VST was offering a tremendous amount of power to the home user, but computer hardware took some time to catch up. By the time it did, VST's audio editing ability was found to be lacking, when compared with competitors such as Pro Tools DAE and Digital Performer MAS.

To address this, a new version of the program, Cubase SX (based on Steinberg's flagship post-production software Nuendo) was introduced, which dramatically altered the way the program ran. This version required much relearning for users of older Cubase versions. However, once the new methods of working were learned, the improvements in handling of audio and automation made for a more professional sequencer and audio editor.

A notable improvement with the introduction of Cubase SX was the advanced audio editing, especially the ability to 'undo' audio edits. Early versions of Cubase VST did not have this ability. Cubase SX also featured real-time time-stretching and adjustment of audio tempo, much like Sonic Foundry's ground-breaking ACID.

In January 2003, Steinberg was acquired by Pinnacle Systems, within which it operated as an independent company before being sold to Yamaha Corporation in December, 2004.

In September 2006 Steinberg announced Cubase 4 - the successor to Cubase SX3. Notable new features include 'control room', a feature designed to help create monitor mixes, and a new set of VST3 plug-ins and instruments.

There are also lighter economic alternatives by Steinberg, originally named Cubasis, later becoming Cubase SE and then Cubase Essential at version 4. For its sixth generation, the program was renamed Cubase Elements 6. The name change was done presumably, because its rival Cakewalk had taken the Essential branding for its own entry-level DAW software, Sonar X1 Essential.

While the full version of Cubase features unlimited audio and MIDI tracks, lesser versions have limits. For instance, Cubase Elements 6 has a maximum of 48 audio track and 64 MIDI tracks and Cubase Artist 6 offer 64 audio and 128 MIDI tracks.

In 2013, Steinberg introduced Cubasis for iPad, a Cubase for iOS. This version was a full rewrite and supports MIDI and audio tracks, audiobus and virtual MIDI to work with external music apps from the first versions. In 2016, Cubasis 2 was released as a free update with new features such as real-time time-stretching, pitch-shifting for changing the key, a "channel strip" effects suite, and new plug-ins and sounds. In 2017, Steinberg received the MIPA (Musikmesse International Press Award) for Cubasis 2 in the Mobile Music App category at the Musikmesse in Frankfurt. In late 2019, Cubasis 3 followed as a new app and included group tracks, a "Master Strip" effects suite, a revamped MediaBay, more effects and many more features in addition to iPhone support. In mid-2020, Cubasis 3 was released for Android tablets and smartphones.

Notable users

Some notable users include:

Versions

See also

 Audio Stream Input/Output (ASIO)

References

External links

Atari ST software
MacOS audio editors
Digital audio workstation software
Music production software
Music software
Electronic music software

Steinberg Cubase


Williamson College of the Trades (formerly Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades) is a private men's junior vocational college in Middletown Township, near Media, Pennsylvania. The school was founded on December 1, 1888, by Philadelphia merchant and philanthropist Isaiah Vansant Williamson.

History

Historic dates
 December 1, 1888–  "Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades" is founded by Isaiah Vansant Williamson
 March 7, 1889– Isaiah Vansant Williamson passes away, the day after he approves the site for the school's campus.
 October 31, 1891– The campus formally opens.
 1957– After most of the shop buildings are destroyed by fire, four new shop buildings are constructed and named "The John Wanamaker Free School of Artisans" and funded by the Rodman Wanamaker estate.
 1961– Williamson School becomes a post-secondary institution.
 March, 2008- Henry and Lee Rowan and H. FitzGerald (Gerry) and Marguerite Lenfest donate $45 million to the school's endowment.
 July 1, 2015–  "Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades" is officially renamed "Williamson College of the Trades"

Planning and founding
After contemplating the idea since the 1850s, Isaiah Williamson spent the final decade of his life formulating and developing the concept for a new trade school for underprivileged boys to be located in a suburb of Philadelphia. Williamson personally drafted the Foundation of Deed, which he presented to the board of trustees on December 1, 1888. The charter members of the board of trustees were all accomplished in their own right, consisting of mostly tradesmen, who were colleagues and friends of Williamson. The seven charter trustees included: John Baird, James C. Brooks, Lemuel Coffin, Edward Longstreth, William C. Ludwig, Henry C. Townsend, and Williamson's close friend and protege, John Wanamaker. Baird was chosen as president of the trustees (after Wanamaker declined the position), and Brooks and Helmbold were selected as treasurer and secretary, respectively. John M. Shrigley was also appointed secretary and President of the school. He took the lead in developing the campus and implementing the curriculum.

Campus
On March 6, 1889, the day before he died, Isaiah Williamson approved the purchase of 220 acres of land to be used for the school's campus in Middletown Township, near Elwyn, Pennsylvania. The site was selected from over 200 prospective locations, and the trustees acted quickly to secure the property and carry out Williamson's vision for the institution. The campus was later described by John Wanamaker as "... gently rolling country with its springs and water courses, its broad pastures, its woodland acres of old oaks and chestnuts, its distant views of fertile farms, thriving towns—natural beauties enhanced by wise and not overdone landscape gardening, winding macadamized drives, and an artistic as well as convenient grouping of the various school buildings".

Renowned Philadelphia architect, Frank Furness won the design competition for the original campus buildings. His design was selected from among the other invited submissions for its understated details and simplicity. Ground was broken for the administration building in 1890 and the campus opened for classes in September, 1891.

The original campus buildings consisted of: the Administration Building, the boiler house, a shop building, the Superintendent's residence and 3 cottages.

Most of the original buildings are still functioning as they were originally purposed. Over the decades, Williamson has maintained a rustic feel to its campus by keeping the majority of its land undeveloped.

The current facilities on the campus include:
Rowan Hall – administrative offices, student lounge, dining room, and the chapel (originally "Main Building", renamed on November 15, 2016).
The John Wanamaker Free School of Artisans – includes modern carpentry, machine, paint, and masonry shops.
Walter M. Strine, Sr. 2W9 Learning Center – library, placement office, faculty and administrative offices, and classrooms.
Lipp Educational Center – classrooms, faculty offices, a computer laboratory, a resource room with a technical library, and three separate laboratories.
Dorrance H. Hamilton Horticultural Center – complex of facilities supporting the horticulture program, named for the philanthropist Mrs. Dorrance Hill Hamilton.
William L. McLean, Jr. Technical Center – technical center named in honor of newspaper executive, William L. McLean, Jr.
The Restall Sports Center – completed in 1988, includes a basketball court, indoor running track, weight room, locker rooms, offices, lounge, and laundry facilities.
Student housing – twelve dormitories, including Byers Hall I & II, C Cottage, Derrickson, Eyre, George, Jenks, Longstreth, Smith, Stell, Townsend, and Watson (2017).
Faculty homes – on-campus housing for faculty members.
Athletic fields – baseball, football, lacrosse, and soccer fields, and tennis courts.
Williamson School station – train station located on campus, constructed shortly after the school was founded in 1889. The station ended service in 1986.
Alumni Hall – houses the Clarence W. Schrenk Program in Horticulture, Landscaping, and Turf Management, which maintains two greenhouses and many gardens, including the Sabia Garden adjacent to the McLean Technical Center.

Pennsylvania historical marker
In 2013, a historical marker from the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission was placed near the campus' main entrance in commemoration of the school's 125th anniversary and its noteworthy architecture. The historical marker (#HM1D5B) reads:

Founded in 1888 by philanthropist Isaiah V. Williamson to teach underprivileged young men "some trade, free of expense" via a character ~ based curriculum. With trade apprenticeships disappearing in the US in the late 19th century, it was a model in vocational education. It is the only trade school in the nation providing full scholarships to all students. The campus contains the largest existing collection of buildings designed by Frank Furness.

Student life
Although the vocational school subscribes to a "Judeo-Christian" belief system, and enforces a highly disciplined lifestyle, it is not affiliated with any religious organization.

Williamson is the only trade college in the country that gives all students full scholarships, covering tuition, textbooks, and room and board. The college uses its endowment to cover two-thirds of student costs each year, with the balance coming from private donations and fundraising. Williamson College of the Trades is accredited by the Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology.

All students are required to live on-campus throughout their three years of study. Students live in supervised dormitories, attend a daily chapel service, and follow a dress code. Students must also participate in at least one official student activity each year. Choices include: team sports, the student newspaper, and student government.

Courses are offered in the following trades:
 Carpentry
 Machine Tool technology
 Power Plant technology
 Horticulture
 Masonry
 Landscaping
 Painting
Graduates receive an Associate's degree in their chosen field, but may opt for a diploma in Carpentry or Masonry.

References

External links

Official website
Williamson Mechanics Athletics Website

Garden State Athletic Conference
Men's universities and colleges in the United States
Universities and colleges established in 1888
Frank Furness buildings
Universities and colleges in Delaware County, Pennsylvania
USCAA member institutions
Junior colleges
1888 establishments in Pennsylvania
Middletown Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania

Williamson College of the Trades


Ronald Johnson (born August 3, 1988) is an American former professional football player who was a wide receiver. He played college football for the USC Trojans. Johnson was selected by the San Francisco 49ers in the sixth round of the 2011 NFL Draft.

High school
Johnson attended Muskegon High School in Muskegon, Michigan. He was rated as the best recruit in Michigan in the class of 2007 by Rivals.com. He had 1,600 all-purpose yards as a wide receiver on offense in 2006, including 700 receiving yards on 26 catches (26.9 avg.) with 7 touchdowns and 347 rushing yards on 30 carries (11.6 avg.) with 4 touchdowns, 180 yards on 7 kickoff returns (25.7 avg.), 218 yards on 11 punt returns (19.8 avg.), and 3 touchdowns as a cornerback. Muskegon went 14-0 and won the 2004 and 2006 State Championship. Johnson chose to attend USC after being recruited by many other top schools including Texas, Florida, Michigan, Ohio State, Michigan State, and Notre Dame.

College career
Following the departures of Dwayne Jarrett and Steve Smith, Johnson made an immediate impact after arriving at USC. He joined junior Patrick Turner who was the most experienced returner at the position. Johnson has been clocked at 4.4 seconds in the 40 yard dash.

2007-2008
Johnson began his freshman season making several contributions. In the season opener against Idaho, he ran 4 yards on a reverse. He caught his first pass against Nebraska for 4 yards. Against Washington State, he had 5 receptions for 94 yards and 2 touchdowns and a tackle. Johnson returned 3 kickoffs for 65 yards against Washington. Against Stanford, he had a 47-yard touchdown catch, a 23-yard run off a reverse, and 3 kickoff returns for 61 yards. Johnson returned 3 kickoffs for 73 yards and a 6-yard run against Arizona. Against Notre Dame, Johnson had a 37-yard kickoff return. He returned 4 kickoffs for 96 yards and had a tackle against Oregon. Against Oregon State, he returned a kickoff for 41 yards. In one of his biggest games of the season, he returned 4 kickoffs for 102 yards against California. In another big game, Johnson had a 33-yard catch and returned 3 kickoffs for 94 yards. Against rival UCLA, he returned a kickoff for 17 yards. In the 2008 Rose Bowl, Johnson caught 2 passes for 15 yards and returned 2 kickoffs for 34 yards against Illinois.

2008-2009
During his sophomore season, Johnson continued to return kickoffs and remained a deep threat against opposing defenses. He ranks 13th on USC's career kickoff return chart (620 yards). In the 2009 Rose Bowl, Johnson had 4 receptions for 82 yards and 2 touchdowns.

2009-2010
At the end of August 2009 Johnson broke his thumb in USC's mock-game scrimmage at the Coliseum.

Professional career

San Francisco 49ers
Johnson was selected by the San Francisco 49ers with the 172nd pick in the 2011 NFL Draft. He was released by the 49ers on September 3, 2011.

Philadelphia Eagles
Johnson was signed to the Philadelphia Eagles' practice squad on September 5, 2011. He was promoted to the active roster on December 31. He was not active for the final game of the season, however.

During training camp in 2012, Johnson suffered a broken and dislocated ankle in a practice. He was waived/injured on July 31, 2012, and subsequently reverted to the team's injured reserve list on August 2. He was released from his contract on April 11, 2013.

Seattle Seahawks
On July 31, 2014, Johnson was signed by the Seattle Seahawks.

Toronto Argonauts
Johnson was signed by the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League on April 9, 2015. He was released by the Argonauts on June 14, 2015.

West Michigan Ironmen
In 2016, Johnson joined the West Michigan Ironmen of American Indoor Football.

References

External links

Philadelphia Eagles bio
USC Trojans bio

1988 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Muskegon, Michigan
Players of American football from Michigan
American football wide receivers
USC Trojans football players
San Francisco 49ers players
Philadelphia Eagles players
Seattle Seahawks players
West Michigan Ironmen players

Ronald Johnson (wide receiver, born 1988)


Panamarenko (pseudonym of Henri Van Herwegen; 5 February 1940 – 14 December 2019) was a famous assemblagist in Belgian sculpture. He is famous for his work with airplanes as theme.  None of the airplanes are able to actually leave the ground.

Panamarenko studied at the academy of Antwerp. Before 1968, his art was inspired by Pop art.  Early on he became interested in planes and human powered flight.  This interest is also shown in his name.  It is supposed to be an acronym for "Pan American Airlines and Company".

Starting in 1970, he developed his first models of imaginary vehicles, planes, balloons or helicopters. Many of his sculptures are modern versions of the myth of Icarus.

In 2003 Panamarenko married the 34 year younger Eveline Hoorens. At the opening of a large-scale overview exhibition of his work in Brussels in 2005, Panamarenko said he was retiring as an artist.  He has since had his own coffee brand PanamaJumbo.

On 24 April 2009, VLM Airlines named one of its Fokker 50 aircraft in his honour.

References

1940 births
2019 deaths
Belgian artists
People from Antwerp

Panamarenko


The Teatro Filarmonico is the main opera theater in Verona, Italy, and is one of the leading opera houses in Europe. The Teatro Filarmonico is property of the Accademia Filarmonica di Verona. Having been built in 1716, and later rebuilt after a fire of January 21, 1749, and again after the allied bombing of February 23, 1945.

History
Verona needed an opera house, so the Accademia Filarmonica di Verona decided in the early 18th century to build a theatre worthy and large. Work began in 1716 and lasted 13 years. Finally, inauguration was on the evening of January 6, 1732, with the pastoral drama La fida ninfa by Antonio Vivaldi, a libretto by Scipio Maffei.
The opera season became famous, and the performances led society events. But on January 21, 1749, fire eventually spread in the theatre. Rebuilt, the theater was re-dedicated in 1754 with the opera Lucio Vero by Neapolitan composer Davide Perez. The opera had a limited success. Corsican in the 18th century, during the French invasion, a long series of celebrations were held in the theater, such as the Cantata per la Santa Alleanza ("Cantata for the Holy Alliance") of Gioachino Rossini. The theater hosted international singers, and among its repertoire appear the most famous works of Italian and foreign melodrama.

On the tragic night of February 23, 1945, the theater collapsed under the Anglo-American bombing. The Academy Philharmonic announced that it would try to rebuild the theatre exactly as it had been before. The proceedings lasted a long time: the theatre was inaugurated again in 1975, with the opera Falstaff by Antonio Salieri.

The theatre still hosts opera, ballets and concerts seasons. The operatic repertoire is one of the most famous for Italian operas and international (La sonnambula, The Barber of Seville, Tosca ...) and the works of non-repertoire (A day of the kingdom, Manon Lescaut of Auber, Loreley of Catalani ...).

See also
Accademia Filarmonica di Verona

Opera houses in Italy
Buildings and structures in Verona
Music venues completed in 1716
Music venues completed in 1754
Music venues completed in 1975
Tourist attractions in Verona
Theatres in Veneto
Theatres completed in 1716
Theatres completed in 1754
Theatres completed in 1975
1754 establishments in the Republic of Venice
1716 establishments in Italy
18th-century architecture in Italy

Teatro Filarmonico


Empress Liu (劉皇后, personal name unknown) (318–349) was an empress of the Jie-led Later Zhao dynasty of China. She was Shi Hu (Emperor Wu)'s third and final empress.  She served as regent in 349.

Life
The future Empress Liu was the youngest daughter of the final Han-Zhao emperor Liu Yao.  After her father was captured by Later Zhao's founding emperor Shi Le in 329, she accompanied her brothers Liu Xi the Crown Prince and Liu Yin the Prince of Nanyang in fleeing from the Han-Zhao capital Chang'an to Shanggui (上邽, in modern Tianshui, Gansu).  Later that year, Liu Yin tried to recapture Chang'an and was defeated by Shi Hu, who marched on to Shanggui and captured it, killing Liu Xi and Liu Yin.  She was captured by his subordinate Zhang Chai and offered to him.  She, at 11, became his concubine.  In 339, she gave birth to his youngest son, Shi Shi.  He was created the Duke of Qi.

Empress
In 348, after executing his second crown prince Shi Xuan (石宣) for having assassinated his younger brother Shi Tao (石韜) and for plotting against himself, Shi Hu considered whom to make his new crown prince.  Zhang, believing that he could hold power jointly with Consort Liu if she were to become empress dowager, suggested to Shi Hu that the reasons why his prior crown princes rebelled was that their mothers were of low birth.  Shi Hu agreed, and he created Shi Shi crown prince and Consort Liu empress.

Regent
In early 349, Shi Hu grew ill, and he ordered that his sons Shi Zun the Prince of Pengcheng and Shi Bin (石斌) the Prince of Yan be made joint regents for Shi Shi.  This interfered with Empress Liu's and Zhang's plans to control the government, and they issued false edicts sending Shi Zun away and executing Shi Bin.  Shi Hu soon died, and Shi Shi succeeded him.  Empress Liu became empress dowager, and she served as regent, holding power jointly with Zhang.  She tried to placate Shi Zun and Shi Jian the Prince of Yiyang by giving them high posts.  However, Shi Zun did not accept and marched on the capital Yecheng.  Empress Dowager Liu tried to placate him by offering him the regent office and the nine bestowments, but that could not stop him from entering the capital and seizing power.  He executed Zhang, and then forged an edict by Empress Dowager Liu deposing Shi Shi and giving him the throne.  Shi Shi was created the Prince of Qiao, and Empress Dowager Liu was given the title of Princess Dowager of Qiao, but soon Shi Zun executed both of them.

References

 Zizhi Tongjian

318 births
349 deaths
Former Zhao people
Later Zhao empresses
Sixteen Kingdoms regents
4th-century women regents
Executed royalty
Xiongnu
Regents of China
4th-century empresses consort

Empress Liu (Shi Hu's wife)


Medical technology assessment (MTA) is the objective evaluation of a medical technology regarding its safety and performance, its (future) impact on clinical and non-clinical patient outcomes as well as its interactive effects on economical, organizational, social, juridical and ethical aspects of healthcare. Medical technologies are assessed both in absolute terms and in comparison to other (combinations of) medical technologies, procedures, treatments or 'doing-nothing'.

The aim of MTA is to provide objective, high-quality information that relevant stakeholders use for decision-making about for example development, pricing, market access and reimbursement of new medical technologies. As such, MTA is similar to health technology assessment (HTA), except that HTA has a wider scope and may include assessments of for example organizational or financial interventions.

The classical approach of MTA is to evaluate technologies after they enter the marketplace. Yet, a growing number of researchers and policy-makers argue that new technologies should be evaluated before they diffuse into routine clinical practice. MTA of biomedical innovations in a very early stage of development could improve health outcomes, minimise wrong investment and prevent social and ethical conflicts.

One particular method within the area of early MTA is constructive technology assessment (CTA). CTA is particularly appropriate for the early assessment of dynamic technologies that are implemented under uncertain circumstances. CTA is based on the idea that during the course of technology development, choices are constantly being made about the form, the function, and the use of that technology. Especially in early stages, technologies are not always stable, nor are its specifications and neither is its use, as both technology and environment will mutually influence each other. In recent years, CTA has developed from assessing the (clinical) impact of a new technology to a much broader approach, including the analysis of design, development, and implementation of that new technology.

In the Netherlands, the department Health Technology and Services Research (HTSR) of the University of Twente and the institute for Medical Technology Assessment (iMTA) of the Erasmus University Rotterdam perform early MTA and CTA in collaboration with technology users (patients, healthcare professionals), technology developers (academic and industrial), technology investors (venture capitalists, government, etc.) technology procurers (hospitals, patients, etc.) and decision-makers in healthcare (patients, policy-makers etc.) By performing excellent scientific research, that is valuable and relevant for society, HTSR and iMTA aim to support decisions about early development and implementation of health care technology in order to achieve high quality healthcare for individual patients. Examples of the research of HTSR include the early economic evaluation of neuromuscular electrical stimulation in the treatment of shoulder pain and early phase technology assessment of nanotechnology in oncology. Examples of the work if iMTA include the development of the widely used cost-effectiveness acceptability curves (CEACs), the introduction of the friction cost method, the valuation if informal care with the CarerQoL instrument and the estimation of indirect medical costs.

References

External links
 Health Technology and Services Research – University of Twente (NL)
 Eucomed
 NICE Evaluation Pathway Programme for Medical Technologies
 Multidisciplinary Assessment of Technology Centre for Healthcare
 Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health – Medical Devices and Health Systems projects
 Health Technology Assessment International
 International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research

Medical technology

Medical technology assessment


The 172nd (Rocky Mountain Rangers) Battalion, CEF was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War.  Based in Kamloops, British Columbia, the unit began recruiting during the winter of 1915/16 in Kamloops and district.  After sailing to England in October 1916, the battalion was absorbed into the 24th Reserve Battalion on January 1, 1917.  The 172nd (Rocky Mountain Rangers) Battalion, CEF had one Officer Commanding: Lieut-Col. J. R. Vicars.

Motto
The motto of the Rocky Mountain Rangers was in the Chinook Jargon, a trade language that was popular with settler populations in early British Columbia.  Meaning "stand guard", or "watch well", it was Kloshe Nanitch.

References
Meek, John F. Over the Top! The Canadian Infantry in the First World War. Orangeville, Ont.: The Author, 1971.

Battalions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force
Military units and formations of British Columbia
Kamloops
Rocky Mountain Rangers

172nd Battalion (Rocky Mountain Rangers), CEF


Call is an unincorporated community in central Newton County, Texas, United States.  It lies along State Highway 87 south of the city of Newton, the county seat of Newton County.  Its elevation is 95 feet (29 m), and it is located at  (30.6124261, -93.8743461).  Although Call is unincorporated, it has a post office, with the ZIP code of 75933.

Climate
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters.  According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Call has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.

References

Unincorporated communities in Newton County, Texas
Unincorporated communities in Texas

Call, Texas


Andrey Tasev Lyapchev (Tarpov) () (30 November 1866 – 6 November 1933) was a Bulgarian Prime Minister in three consecutive governments.

Early years
Lyapchev was born in the Macedonian city of Resen, which was at the time a part of the Ottoman Empire, and played a leading role in Bulgarian politics. Lyapchev's family is thought to have originated from a certain Dore, a Megleno-Romanian potter who fled the Islamization of his native Notia and settled in Resen in the 18th century.

Andrey Lyapchev started his education in Resen but after the April Uprising of 1876 the local school was shut down by Ottoman authorities, following the fate of many other Bulgarian schools in Macedonia. He spent the next three years helping his brother Georgi run his shop in Bitola. Georgi was left to take care of the family after the death of their father. In 1879 Lyapchev signed in the Bitola gymnasium and two years later he moved to the newly established Bulgarian Men's High School of Thessaloniki. One of his teacher's there was his fellow-townsman Trayko Kitanchev, who had a significant influence on the young student. After Kitanchev's dismissal in 1884 Lyapchev left the school and moved to Plovdiv together with his teacher. At the time Plovdiv was the main city of the Autonomous Province of Eastern Rumelia.

Together with other Macedonian students of the Plovdiv gymnasium, like Pere Toshev and Nikola Genadiev, Lyapchev got closer with Zahari Stoyanov and the Bulgarian Secret Central Revolutionary Committee which was preparing the future unification between Eastern Rumelia and the Principality of Bulgaria. He was sent to the Panagyurishte committee on 2 September 1885, but authorities arrested him on the way. He was let free only after the Unification had been proclaimed on 6 September. With the beginning of the Serbo-Bulgarian War on 2 September 1885, the whole group signed in the First Volunteers Corps. However, by order of Knyaz Aleksander I students were left at the rear of the advancing army. Nevertheless, Lyapchev and the rest managed to reach the captured town of Pirot. There they were eventually de-mobilised in December, returning to Plovdiv afterwards.

In the summer of 1886 Russia organised a coup d'état which resulted in the disposal of Knyaz Aleksandar I and in a drastic interference of Russian generals in the internal affairs of Bulgaria. These events made Lyapchev even more sympathetic to the cause of the extreme nationalists led by Zahari Stoyanov, Dimitar Petkov and Dimitar Rizov. The latter was a prominent figure among Macedonian emigrants at the time. Lyapchev even went on to lead a group of nationalists that beat up conservative politician Todor Burmov, a deed that Lyapchev himself later dismissed.

In the following months relations between Lyapchev, on one side, and the Stambolovist government and Zahari Stoyanov on the other, grew colder, and Lyapchev got closer with Dimitar Rizov. Tensions between authorities and the Macedonian emigration intensified even further after Kosta Panitsa was jailed and sentenced to death over allegations of organising a coup d'état. In the summer of 1888 Rizov published articles critical to the Prime Minister Stefan Stambolov and was also sentenced to two years in jail. A warrant was issued with Lyapchev's name on it, but he managed to leave the country.

Political career
He entered the Bulgarian parliament in 1908 and before long rose to ministerial rank. In this role he signed the 1908 treaty that established Bulgarian independence as well as the 1918 Armistice of Salonica. After the First World War he became the first civilian to hold the post of Minister of War. He fell out of favour under Aleksandar Stamboliyski and was imprisoned between 1922 and the military coup of 1923.

Lyapchev became prime minister on 4 January 1926 at the head of a coalition between the Democratic Alliance and the National Liberal Party. Lyapchev generally pursued a more moderate line than his predecessor Aleksandar Tsankov, declaring an amnesty for Communist prisoners (although the Communist Party officially remained banned). He also secured two loans from the League of Nations to help bolster the economy, although economic problems were exacerbated by an earthquake in Plovdiv. He was, however, criticized for his toleration of the activities of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization which strained relations with Yugoslavia and Greece.

Despite his more moderate stance Bulgaria struggled to cope with the Great Depression and so he lost the 1931 election. He died in Sofia two years later.

References

1866 births
1933 deaths
People from Resen, North Macedonia
Democratic Party (Bulgaria) politicians
Prime Ministers of Bulgaria
Finance ministers of Bulgaria
Members of the National Assembly (Bulgaria)
Bulgarian diplomats
Members of the Macedonian Scientific Institute
Macedonian Bulgarians
Bulgarian people of the Balkan Wars
Bulgarian Men's High School of Thessaloniki alumni
Burials at Central Sofia Cemetery
Deaths from cancer in Bulgaria
20th-century Bulgarian politicians
Defence ministers of Bulgaria
People from the Ottoman Empire

Andrey Lyapchev


The State of Buenos Aires () was a secessionist republic resulting from the overthrow of the Argentine Confederation government in the Province of Buenos Aires on September 11, 1852. The State of Buenos Aires was never recognized by the Confederation; it remained, however, independent under its own government and constitution. Buenos Aires rejoined the Argentine Confederation after the former's victory at the Battle of Pavón in 1861.

Historical overview

Background
Regionalism had long marked the relationship among the numerous provinces of what today is Argentina, and the wars of independence did not result in national unity. Following a series of disorders and a short-lived Constitutional Republic led by Buenos Aires centralist Bernardino Rivadavia in 1826 and 1827, the Province of Buenos Aires would function as a semi-independent state amid an internecine civil war.

An understanding was entered into by Buenos Aires Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas and other Federalist leaders out of need and a shared enmity toward the still vigorous Unitarian Party. The latter's 1830 establishment of the Unitarian League from nine western and northern provinces would force Buenos Aires, Corrientes and Entre Ríos Provinces into the Federal Pact of 1831, and enabled the overthrow of the Unitarian League.

The granting of the sum of public power to Rosas in 1835 established a dynamic whereby leaders (caudillos) from the hinterland provinces would delegate certain powers, such as foreign debt payment or the management of international relations to the Buenos Aires leader. The Argentine Confederation thus functioned, albeit amid ongoing conflicts, until the 1852 Battle of Caseros, when Rosas was deposed and exiled.

Establishment
The central figure in the overthrow of Rosas, Entre Ríos Governor Justo José de Urquiza, was granted the power of a head of state by the Palermo Protocols of April 6, 1852. This provoked resistance in Buenos Aires, however, which then refused to ratify the San Nicolás Agreement of May 31. The prospect of having the Argentine Congress headquartered in Santa Fe proved especially objectionable, and Urquiza's June 12 appointment of former President Vicente López y Planes failed to turn public opinion in Buenos Aires. Colonel Bartolomé Mitre rallied the Assembly against the San Nicolás Accords. The most contentious issue remained the Buenos Aires Customs, which remained under the control of the city government and was the chief source of public revenue. Nations with which the Confederation maintained foreign relations, moreover, kept all embassies in Buenos Aires (rather than in the capital, Paraná).

Governor López y Planes ultimately resigned on July 26, prompting Urquiza to seize the governor's post through a Federal intervention decree. His departure to Santa Fe on September 8 for the inaugural session of Congress prompted the September 11 coup d'état against the provisional administration of Governor José Miguel Galán. Led in its military aspect by General José María Pirán and ideologically by Dr. Valentín Alsina and Colonel Mitre, the September 11 revolt created the foremost threat to both the Confederation and Urquiza: Alsina ordered General Juan Madariaga to invade Santa Fe within days of the coup (though without success).

Naming the aging Manuel Guillermo Pinto as governor, Alsina secured the allegiance of the deposed Governor Galán, as well as of a number of key Federalist figures such as former top Rosas advisor Lorenzo Torres. Alsina, who was elected governor by the Legislature on October 31, alienated Colonel Hilario Lagos, however. Lagos persuaded War Minister José María Floresto to leave Buenos Aires and, on December 1, initiated the Siege of Buenos Aires. Alsina resigned and Pinto, who served as president of the Legislature, again took office as governor. The siege continued through June 1853, and Urquiza commissioned a naval flotilla to blockade Buenos Aires (whose chief source of revenue was duty collected at the port). The commander of the flotilla, U.S.-born Admiral Jonas Halstead Coe, was bribed with 5,000 troy ounces of gold, however, on June 20, and following his relinquishment of the flotilla to Buenos Aires, Urquiza called off the siege on July 12.

Constitutional government
Jurist Pastor Obligado was elected governor by the Legislature on June 28, 1853. He obtained passeage of the Constitution of Buenos Aires on April 12, 1854, and initiated an ambitious public works program, installing the first gas lamps and running water system in the city, and establishing what later became the Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires, as well as a network of public primary schools for the largely illiterate population at the time. The 1854 constitution, drafted by Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield, asserted the sovereignty of Buenos Aires, including its right to engage in its own diplomatic relations, as well as a bicameral legislature and freedom of worship.

Obligado reformed the practice of emphyteusis, whereupon land could then be sold at a regulated rate of 16,000 silver pesos (pesos fuerte, nearly at par with the U.S. dollar) per square league (4,428 acres). He established a national mint under the auspices of the Bank of the Province of Buenos Aires, and subsidies for industry and commerce; on August 30, 1857, the recently established Buenos Aires Western Railway inaugurated its first line, designed by British engineer William Bragge. A census conducted on October 17, 1855, found a population of 248,498 for the State of Buenos Aires, of which 71,438 lived in the capital.

In 1855 the Paraguayan government of Carlos Antonio López, annoyed that the Congress of the Argentine Confederation had refused to ratify the 1852 Treaty of Limits (by which the Argentine Confederation would have got the territory of Misiones, but Paraguay would have got the Chaco north of the Bermejo River), established relations with the State of Buenos Aires and appointed a Paraguayan consul.

Persistent budget deficits in the Confederation led the Paraná government to establish the Port of Rosario, and to enter into free trade agreements with the Port of Montevideo (to the detriment of Buenos Aires). Worsening relations led to the re-election of Valentín Alsina as governor at the end of 1858, and in February 1859, Alsina enacted retaliatory tariffs against Confederate goods.

Tensions culminated in the Battle of Cepeda of October 23, 1859. Buenos Aires forces, led by General Mitre, were defeated by those led by President Urquiza. Ordered by Congress in Santa Fe to subjugate Buenos Aires separatists by force, Urquiza instead invited the defeated to join negotiations, though he obtained Alsina's resignation. These talks resulted in the Pact of San José de Flores of November 11, 1859, which provided for a number of constitutional amendments and led to other concessions, including an extension on the province's customs house concession and measures benefiting the Bank of the Province of Buenos Aires, whose currency was authorized for use as legal tender at the port (thereby controlling much of the nation's foreign trade).

Mitre ultimately abrogated the Pact of San José, leading to renewed civil war. These hostilities culminated in the 1861 Battle of Pavón, and to victory on the part of Mitre and Buenos Aires over Urquiza's national forces. President Santiago Derqui, who had been backed by Urquiza, and all Federalist governors resigned, and the Argentine Confederation was replaced by the Argentine Republic on December 12, 1861. Mitre, who despite victory reaffirmed his commitment to the 1860 constitutional amendments, was elected the republic's first president on September 4, 1862, and remained Governor of Buenos Aires as caretaker until his October 12, 1862, inaugural.

References

Bibliography

Historical Dictionary of Argentina. London: Scarecrow Press, 1978.

Former political divisions related to Argentina
Former countries in South America
History of Argentina (1852–1880)
Argentine Civil War
State of Buenos Aires
States and territories established in 1852
States and territories disestablished in 1861
Former unrecognized countries
1852 establishments in South America
1861 disestablishments in South America
19th century in Buenos Aires

State of Buenos Aires


Golestan Park is a historical park in Tabriz, Iran. The park is located near to Qonqa Square in city center. The place, which was originally used as a public cemetery, was changed to a city park during the second Pahlavi era.

A marble clock tower, which has been devastated recently, had been founded at the front of main entrance of the park.

See also
Gajil

Parks in Tabriz

Golestan Park


An exoskeleton supports and protects an animal's body from outside and not like  the internal endoskeleton - of, for example human beings - from inside.

Many invertebrate animals (such as shelled mollusks) have exoskeletons in the sense of external hard parts. But if one speaks of an exoskeleton one mostly means that of arthropods (i.e. insects, spiders, myriapods and crustaceans).

Exoskeletons contain rigid and resistant components that fulfil a set of functional roles including protection, excretion, sensing, support, feeding and (for terrestrial organisms) acting as a barrier against desiccation. Exoskeletons first appeared in the fossil record about 550 million years ago, and their evolution has been seen as critical as a driving role in the Cambrian explosion of animals that took place after this time.

The exoskeleton ( exoskeleton suit) is a device intended to restore the lost motion functions of a person or other living being. The exoskeleton also serves to increase human muscle strength and range of motion by means of an external skeleton and drive elements.

Other websites

Biology
Geometry and Pattern in Nature 3: The holes in radiolarian and diatom tests

Modern technology
 Bionic Boots
 PowerSkip
 Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX)
 University of Washington Exo Arm Project

Animal anatomy

Exoskeleton


Chemical similarity or molecular similarity is a similarity between two different molecules. Two molecules with chemical similarity may do the same or a very similar thing in an organism. They might also have very similar chemical structures. It can be used to predict the properties of certain chemicals.

Chemistry

Chemical similarity


Don Rodrigo is an opera in three acts by Alberto Ginastera, the composer's first opera, to an original Spanish libretto by Alejandro Casona.  Ginastera composed the opera on commission from the Municipality of the City of Buenos Aires, Argentina.  The first performance was at the Teatro Colón, Buenos Aires, Argentina on 24 July 1964 with Carlo Cossutta in the title role. The production was directed by Jorge Petraglia and conducted by Bruno Bartoletti.

On February 22, 1966, Plácido Domingo had his international breakthrough by singing the title role of this opera at the US premiere of the work by the New York City Opera. Other cast members included Jeannine Crader as Florinda, Spiro Malas as Teudiselo, the king's tutor, and David Clatworthy as Don Julian, Florinda's father. Julius Rudel conducted, and the opera received 9 performances at New York City Opera. In November 1967 the production was also given, still with Plácido Domingo, on tour at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles.  Ginastera prepared from the opera a concert work for soprano and orchestra, which received its own first performance in October 1964.

Malena Kuss has published a detailed study of Ginastera's use of motives and of Argentine musical idioms in the opera.  Pola Suares Urtubey has published an analysis of the dramatic structure of the opera.

Roles
 Don Rodrigo, King of Spain (dramatic tenor)
 Don Julian, Governor of Ceuta	(baritone)
 Florinda, daughter of Don Julian (dramatic soprano)
 Teudiseld, Don Rodrigo's tutor (bass)
 Fortuna, maidservant to Florinda (mezzo-soprano)
 First maiden (soprano)
 Second maiden	(mezzo-soprano)
 Bishop (baritone)
 Blind hermit (baritone)
 First page (tenor)
 Second page (baritone)
 First blacksmith (tenor)
 Second blacksmith (baritone)
 First messenger (tenor)
 Second messenger (baritone)
 Young messenger (contralto)
 Voice in the dream (deep bass)
 Peasant boy (child)
 Peasant girl (child)

Synopsis
The setting is Toledo, Spain in the 8th century.  A note is that Don Rodrigo is also the Spanish name for Roderic, the last Visigothic king of Spain.  The three acts of the opera are divided into nine scenes linked by interludes, with labeling of the scenes as follows:

Act I
 Scene 1: Victory
 Scene 2: Coronation
 Scene 3: Secret

Act II
 Scene 4: Love
 Scene 5: Outrage
 Scene 6: Message

Act III
 Scene 7: Dream
 Scene 8: Battle
 Scene 9: Miracle

The scenes mirror each other in a format resembling a dramatic palindrome, with Scene 1 mirrored in Scene 9, Scene 2 mirrored in Scene 8, and so on, with Scene 5 forming the dramatic climax and fulcrum of the story.

At the start, Don Rodrigo has avenged an attack on his father.  He is then about to be crowned King of Spain.  Don Julian, Governor of Ceuta in Africa, introduces the King to his daughter Florinda.  Rodrigo promises Don Julian that he will look after her as a daughter if she is permitted to stay at the royal court.  At the coronation of Rodrigo, Florinda drops the crown.  Although some regard this accident as a baleful sign, Rodrigo then retrieves the crown and places it on his own head.  Historically, a chest in the Vault of Hercules has contained a locked mystery, which every King of Spain has respected since ancient times.  However, Rodrigo opens the locked chest, where he sees the secret in the form of an Arab flag and a curse.  The curse states that he who has opened the chest will be the last of his dynasty and that the Arabs will enslave Spain.

Later, Florinda bathes in a fountain, which Rodrigo sees.  He goes to Florinda's bedroom at night, and forces himself on her.  Rodrigo then abandons her.  Florinda writes to her father, angrily calling for revenge on Rodrigo.

Don Julian raises a rebellion against Don Rodrigo.  At the battle at Guadalete, Don Julian is victorious against Don Rodrigo, which allows the Moors to enter Spain, fulfilling that part of the curse.  Rodrigo becomes a penniless vagrant, and eventually finds shelter with a blind hermit.  Florinda eventually discovers Rodrigo there.  Rodrigo confesses his sins, and finally dies in Florinda's embrace.

References

Further reading
Anonymous. "Manifestations de la saison: Alberto Ginastera à Paris". The World of Music 8(1) (January–February 1966), 9.
Anonymous. "New York Opera Finds a Winner". The Times issue 56569 (March 2, 1966): 15.
Bernheimer, Martin. "New York Opera's Don Rodrigo an Emphatic Success". Los Angeles Times (November 19, 1967): J1.
Bernheimer, Martin. "Return of Don Rodrigo". Los Angeles Times (November 24, 1970): E11.
D. D. "L'opéra (anciennement?) nouveau". Esprit 11(11) (November 1977): 92–94.
Davis, Peter G. "Christopher Keene Conducts Rodrigo". The New York Times (October 21, 1970): 40.
Ericson, Raymond. "Don Rodrigo Suits Marianna Ciraulo". The New York Times (October 29, 1970): 57.
Ferro, E. V. "Don Rodrigo: conflicto sin solución". Buenos Aires Musical (August 1964).
Ginastera, Alberto. "A proposito de Don Rodrigo". Buenos Aires Musical (July 1964).
Goldman, Richard Franko. "Current Chronicle: New York". The Musical Quarterly 52(3) (July 1966): 373–76.
Hughes, Allen "City Opera Work Stressed Action: Don Rodrigo Makes Music Subordinate to Story". The New York Times (October 9, 1970): 39.
Hughes, Allen, "Fine Florinda Sung by Eileen Schauler". The New York Times (April 8, 1971): 32.
Kohs, Ellis B. "The Season That Was: Los Angeles". The World of Music 10(1) (1968) 4–7.
Rockwell, John. "Keene on Pavilion Podium for Rodrigo". Los Angeles Times (December 2, 1970): G24.
Schonberg, Harold C. "Music: City Opera Company Sparkles in Its Rich New Setting: Don Rodrigo Presented at State Theater ". The New York Times (February 23, 1966): 42.
Schonberg, Harold C. "Decibel Power vs. Expressive Power". The New York Times (February 27, 1966): X15.
Schonberg, Harold C. "Opera: Orchestra Is Star: Rudel Has Major Part in Don Rodrigo". The New York Times (February 10, 1967): 31.

External links
 Boosey & Hawkes page on Don Rodrigo
 Libretto of Don Rodrigo (Spanish only)

Operas by Alberto Ginastera
Spanish-language operas
Operas
1964 operas
Operas set in the 8th century
Operas set in Spain
Cultural depictions of Spanish kings

Don Rodrigo


Christopher Andrew Hammond (born January 21, 1966) is an American former left-handed pitcher in Major League Baseball.

Hammond was drafted by the Cincinnati Reds in the sixth round of the  amateur draft. Hammond had not sustained considerable success until his revival as a relief pitcher with the  Atlanta Braves. Hammond's career went through two distinct phases, one as a struggling starting pitcher/swingman and one as a reliever. Hammond used techniques common to "junkball" or finesse pitchers. His pitches included the changeup (Hammond's ranged from 58 - 71 mph), his mostly flat slider, and his low 80s four-seam fastball. Hammond was also a relatively good left-handed hitter as shown by his career .202 batting average, .285 on-base percentage, and four career home runs.

Professional baseball career

Cincinnati Reds
Hammond first appeared in the Major Leagues in  where he pitched three games for the Reds. The following season was his official rookie season and he started 18 games posting a 7-7 record with a respectable 4.06 ERA. His first stint with the Reds would come to a close in late March  as he was traded to the Florida Marlins for Héctor Carrasco and Gary Scott.

Florida Marlins
Hammond was a member of the inaugural Marlins team that began play in Major League Baseball in 1993. In his inaugural season as a Marlin, he hit two home runs (one a pinch-hit grand slam), and pitched his way to a 4.66 ERA in 191 innings. In , he experienced somewhat more success (a 3.07 ERA) in a season shortened by injuries. After a mediocre  season, Hammond's career seemed to hit a nosedive. His first stint with the Florida Marlins would end in , where he totaled a 6.56 ERA and would face a demotion to the bullpen.

Boston Red Sox
Hammond signed with the Boston Red Sox in , intending to return to his role as a starter. Instead, Hammond was utilized as a relief pitcher. In an interview in Yankees' magazine during 2002, Hammond revealed that the Red Sox offered this promise as a ruse to sign him. While Hammond's career was seemingly reaching its end, the Florida Marlins won the 1997 World Series.

Return and retirement
Hammond made a comeback attempt in . After being signed to a contract by the Kansas City Royals, he was granted his release towards the end of spring training. Just as they did in 1993, the Marlins signed him to be a starting pitcher. Hammond returned to the Major Leagues for three starts, compiling a 6.56 ERA in 13.2 innings. After this brief comeback attempt, Hammond had shoulder surgery and he retired for the first time. Hammond returned to a quiet family life in Randolph County, Alabama, where he purchased a 200+ acre horse-ranch with a  lake.

Comeback: Atlanta Braves
Hammond returned in 2001 as a minor league player for the Cleveland Indians. At mid-season, he was released by the Indians and then signed to a minor league contract with the Atlanta Braves. Hammond was on Atlanta's major league roster in 2002. In 2002, Hammond pitched 76.0 innings in 63 games while posting a 0.95 ERA. Hammond became the fourth pitcher at that point in time to ever post an ERA below 1.00 while pitching over a full season with over an inning an appearance. Hammond also had a streak of nearly thirty consecutive scoreless innings during the season that helped him achieve this historic mark. At the end of the season, the New York Yankees signed Hammond to a multi-year contract.  While with the Braves, he continued to live in Randolph County, Alabama and commuted back and forth to Atlanta.

New York Yankees
Hammond replaced the incumbent Mike Stanton as the left-handed setup man in the Yankees' bullpen. Joe Torre tried to use Hammond as a left-handed specialist because the bullpen lacked other left-handed pitchers. Hammond allowed the lowest percentage of inherited runners to score in the 2003 Yankees bullpen while posting a 2.86 ERA. He only had one appearance during the 2003 postseason, pitching two innings without allowing an earned run during the World Series while facing the Marlins.

Oakland Athletics
Hammond was traded to the Oakland Athletics during the 2003 off-season. Hammond missed some time during the season due to a recurrence of shoulder injuries, but was able to post a 2.68 ERA in 41 appearances.

San Diego Padres
In , Hammond signed with the San Diego Padres. Hammond had posted a WHIP under 1.00 until shoulder injuries nagged him once again. Hammond would finish the season with an ERA of 3.84 in 55 appearances.

Reds: 2006
Hammond returned to Cincinnati in 2006, where his career started; however, this was short-lived, as he was released on July 12. Hammond would end his 2006 season with a 6.91 ERA in 28.2 innings pitched.

Personal life
Chris resides in Oxford, Alabama with his wife, Lynne. They have two sons and one daughter, Andy, Jake, and Alex.  He has started the Chris Hammond Youth Foundation, a Christian-based charity, and is active in his church.

References

External links

Baseball players from Atlanta
Atlanta Braves players
Boston Red Sox players
Cincinnati Reds players
Florida Marlins players
New York Yankees players
Oakland Athletics players
San Diego Padres players
Major League Baseball pitchers
1966 births
Living people
People from Randolph County, Alabama
Chattanooga Lookouts players
Nashville Sounds players
Charlotte Knights players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
Richmond Braves players
Sacramento River Cats players
Tampa Tarpons (1957–1987) players
Portland Sea Dogs players
Brevard County Manatees players
Gulf Coast Reds players
Gulf Coast State Commodores baseball players
UAB Blazers baseball players
People from Oxford, Alabama
Charlotte 49ers baseball players

Chris Hammond


A stud in animal breeding is a male animal, such as a horse or dog, that is employed for breeding. The terms for the male of a given animal species (stallion, bull, rooster, etc.) usually mean that the animal is entire, that is, not castrated, and therefore capable of standing at stud. A specialized vocabulary exists for de-sexed animals.

A stud farm, in animal husbandry, is an establishment for selective breeding using stud animals.

Animal husbandry

Stud (animal)


Tablet was a bi-weekly alternative newspaper in Seattle, Washington published from 2000 to 2005. Tablet's focus was on the music, arts, politics and culture of the Pacific Northwest.

History

Founded by co-op of writers and publishers, its first issue came out on October 1, 2000. The paper began as a bi-weekly newspaper with a print run of 20,000. It was distributed for free at rock clubs, record stores, galleries and similar businesses, as well as to newsstands and newspaper boxes. Distribution included the Northwest cities of Seattle, Portland, Spokane, Bellingham, Tacoma, Bellevue, Vancouver and Olympia. Its main rivals were the Seattle Weekly and The Stranger. In the Utne Reader's 2001 Alternative Press Awards, Tablet won the Reader's Choice award for "Best New Title." Guest writers for Tablet included Margaret Cho and Public Enemy's Chuck D.

In March 2004, the paper's owners De Kwok, Eric Hildebrandt, Dan Halligan and Sarah Sherman, relaunched the paper as a monthly glossy covered magazine. The magazine was higher profile than the newspaper and included more fashion and music coverage. Tablet worked extensively with the Rat City Rollergirls, Bumbershoot, the Seattle Erotic Art Festival, Vain, Three Imaginary Girls, the Seattle Gay and Lesbian Film Festival, KEXP, Seattle Art Museum, Henry Art Museum, Seattle International Film Festival, Seattle Public Libraries, Roq La Rue, Richard Hugo House, Grand Illusion Cinema, I Heart Rummage, Home Alive, the Independent Media Center and most of Seattle's alternative music venues. Tablet folded in September 2005 after its 103rd issue.

Notes

External links
Tablet's website and issue archive
2001 APA Awards "People's Choice for Best New Title"
Tablet obituary from Seattle Weekly
Tablet obituary from Seattle Metroblog
The Stranger forum discussion on Tablet's demise

Biweekly newspapers published in the United States
Newspapers published in Seattle
Defunct newspapers published in Washington (state)
Newspapers established in 2000
Newspapers established in 2005

Tablet (newspaper)


"Araby" is a short story by James Joyce published in his 1914 collection Dubliners. The story traces a young boy's infatuation with his friend's sister.

Plot
Through first-person narration, the reader is immersed at the start of the story in the drab life that people live on North Richmond Street, which seems to be illuminated only by the verve and imagination of the children who, despite the growing darkness that comes during the winter months, insist on playing "until [their] bodies glowed." Even though the conditions of this neighbourhood leave much to be desired, the children's play is infused with their almost magical way of perceiving the world, which the narrator dutifully conveys to the reader:

But though these boys "career" around the neighbourhood in a very childlike way, they are also aware of and interested in the adult world, as represented by their spying on the narrator's uncle as he comes home from work and, more importantly, on Mangan's sister, whose dress "swung as she moved" and whose "soft rope of hair tossed from side to side." These boys are on the brink of sexual awareness and, awed by the mystery of another sex, are hungry for knowledge.

On one rainy evening, the boy secludes himself in a soundless, dark drawing-room and gives his feelings for her full release: "I pressed the palms of my hands together until they trembled, murmuring: O love! O love! many times." This scene is the culmination of the narrator's increasingly romantic idealization of Mangan's sister. By the time he actually speaks to her, he has built up such an unrealistic idea of her that he can barely put sentences together: "When she addressed the first words to me I was so confused that I did not know what to answer. She asked me if I was going to Araby. I forget whether I answered yes or no." But the narrator recovers splendidly: when Mangan's sister dolefully states that she will not be able to go to Araby, he gallantly offers to bring something back for her.

The narrator now cannot wait to go to the Araby bazaar and procure for his beloved some grand gift that will endear him to her. And though his aunt frets, hoping that it is not "some Freemason affair," and though his uncle, perhaps intoxicated, perhaps stingy, arrives so late from work and equivocates so much that he almost keeps the narrator from being able to go, the intrepid yet frustrated narrator heads out of the house, tightly clenching a florin, in spite of the late hour, toward the bazaar.

But the Araby market turns out not to be the most fantastic place he had hoped it would be. It is late; most of the stalls are closed. The only sound is "the fall of the coins" as men count their money. Worst of all, however, is the vision of sexuality—of his future—that he receives when he stops at one of the few remaining open stalls. The young woman minding the stall is engaged in a conversation with two young men. Though he is potentially a customer, she only grudgingly and briefly waits on him before returning to her frivolous conversation. His idealized vision of Araby is destroyed, along with his idealized vision of Mangan's sister—and of love. With shame and anger rising within him, he is alone in Araby.

Themes

"Araby" touches on a great number of themes:

 coming of age
 meeting of imagination with reality
 the life of the mind versus poverty  (both physical and intellectual)
 the consequences of idealization
 the Catholic Church's influence to make Dublin a place of asceticism where desire and sensuality are seen as immoral
 the pain that often comes when one encounters love in reality instead of its elevated form
 paralysis

These themes build on one another entirely through the thoughts of the young boy, who is portrayed by the first-person narrator, who writes from memory.

Romantic elements
"Araby" contains many themes and traits common to Joyce in general and Dubliners in particular. As with many of the stories in the collection, "Araby" involves a character going on a journey, the end result of which is fruitless, and ends with the character going back to where he came from. "Eveline" is just one other story in Dubliners to feature a circular journey in this manner. Also, the narrator lives with his aunt and uncle, although his uncle appears to be a portrait of Joyce's father, and may be seen as a prototype for Simon Dedalus of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Ulysses. The scorn the narrator has for his uncle is certainly consistent with the scorn Joyce showed for his father, and the lack of "good" parents is pertinent.

In "The Structure of Araby," Jerome Mandel notes the shared plot archetypes between "Araby" and traditional medieval romantic literature, positing that Joyce deliberately "structured with rigorous precision upon a paradigm of medieval romance."

Later influence
Among later writers influenced by "Araby" was John Updike, whose oft-anthologized short story, "A&P", is a 1960s American reimagining of Joyce's tale of a young man, lately the wiser for his frustrating infatuation with a beautiful but inaccessible girl.  Her allure has excited him into confusing his emergent sexual impulses for those of honor and chivalry, and brought about disillusionment and a loss of innocence.

Media adaptations
In 1985, the Austin, Texas-based alternative rock group The Reivers released their Translate Slowly album whose lead track "Araby" was a literary adaptation of the story.
In 1999 a short film adaptation of "Araby" was produced and directed by Dennis Courtney with screenplay by Joseph Bierman.

References

Conboy, Sheila C. "Exhibition and Inhibition: The Body Scene in Dubliners." Twentieth Century Literature. 37.4 (Winter 1991): 405-419.
French, Marilyn. "Missing Pieces in Joyce's Dubliners. Twentieth Century Literature. 1.24 (Winter 1978): 443-472.
Mandel, Jerome. "The Structure of 'Araby.'" Modern Language Studies. 15.4 (Autumn 1985): 48-54.
Zoe Marduel. "Araby"

External links

Annotated hypertext version of "Araby"
Project Gutenberg version of Dubliners, including "Araby"

1914 short stories
Short stories by James Joyce
Short stories adapted into films
First-person narrative fiction

Araby (short story)