Ludwig-Wilhelm Tepper de Ferguson (Lewis-William Ferguson-Tepper, Tepper von Ferguson, Louis-Guillaume Tepper de Ferguson; 18 December 1768, Warsaw – 12 September 1838, Paris) was a Polish–Russian musician and composer, a music teacher mainly associated with the Imperial Lycée in Tsarskoye Selo (near St Petersburg, Russia).

Biography

Origin of the family
Ludwig-Wilhelm Tepper de Ferguson was born in Warsaw as the sixth child and third son of the extremely wealthy Polish banker Piotr Fergusson Tepper and his wife Maria-Philipina, née Valentin d'Hauterive. The surname 'Ferguson' indicates the Scottish origin of the family. Indeed, in 1703, his grandfather William Ferguson of Inverurie had emigrated from Scotland to Poland. In 1714, William Ferguson married Katherina-Concordia Tepper, a sister of the wealthy and influential merchant and banker, furrier and fur trader Pjotr Tepper of Poznan. Pjotr Tepper managed the large-scale international trade using family connections, and imported goods to Poland from many countries, including Britain.

William Ferguson and Katherina-Concordia had three sons. One of them, Peter (1732–1794), who would become Ludwig-Wilhelm's father, entered into partnership with his maternal uncle Pjotr Tepper. In 1767 he was officially adopted by Pjotr Tepper on the condition he would add the name Tepper to his name Ferguson.

In 1779, the Scottish origin of Peter Ferguson Tepper was recognised and confirmed in England, in consequence of which the Scottish and Polish branches of the family re-established relations. According to a column of James Boswell in a later issue of The Scots Magazine (1786): "In June 1779, he [Peter Ferguson-Tepper] had his arms matriculated in the Herald Office, London, and obtained permission to use the surname and arms of Tepper jointly with the surname and arms of Ferguson. The father's writings being destroyed during the civil war in Poland, the son did not know from what part of Scotland his father came; and his Scots relations, not having heard from Poland for near fifty years, believed their friend in that country had died without issue; but the above paragraph in our Magazine caused them to make inquiry, when with equal joy they discovered other; and in a few months thereafter, Mr Ferguson Tepper came to Edinburgh to see them./.../Mr Peter Ferguson Tepper, of Warsaw is supposed to be the second banker in Europe. Mister Walter Ferguson, writer in Edinburgh, and he are brothers' children."

Early years

In 1763, Piotr Fergusson Tepper married Maria-Philippina Valentin d'Hauterive (c. 1736–1792), daughter of a French emigrant who left France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. The 1770s–1780s were the time of their prosperity. The Tepper bank had partners in Holland, Italy, and Russia and undertook large-scale international financial operations. Among their clients were Russian aristocrats and the Polish King Stanisław August Poniatowski, whose army they financed.  The splendid Tepper Palace in Warsaw was depicted in 1770 by Bernardo Bellotto.

In 1777, Piotr Fergusson-Tepper became Treasurer and Agent of the Maltese Order. In 1787, the Teppers entertained King Stanislaw-August Poniatowski in their county estate Falenty. Recent research has revealed the participation of the Teppers in Scottish politics of the time: after the death of Princess Charlotte (1753–1789), the illegitimate daughter of Charles Edward Stuart (1720–1788), the last Scottish Pretender for the English throne), the Teppers acted as guardians for her children. In the 1790s, the Teppers were granted the rank of Polish Nobility.

Along with his brothers and sisters, Ludwig-Wilhelm spent his early years in the splendour of his parents' palaces. He was an infant prodigy, and started to play the clavecin at the age of six; at ten he composed music and gave public concerts.
His father, however, intended him for law and diplomacy, and in 1781 sent him (together with two of his brothers) to study at the Military Academy of Duke Carl-Eugen in Stuttgart, where he resented the poor quality of music instruction.

From 1783 to 1789, he studied law, history and many other subjects at the University of Strasbourg where in May 1789 he presented his dissertation "Poloniam imperio Romano Germanico nunquam subjectam".

Diplomatic career
Soon after his return to Warsaw, Tepper was appointed Secretary of Legation to the first Polish diplomatic mission to Spain and was in Madrid between March–July 1791. In 1791–1792, he participated in the Polish diplomatic mission to Dresden in regard to the Constitution of 3 May 1791. During his stay in Dresden (December 1791 – March 1792) his portrait was painted by Anton Graff (present location unknown).

In Europe
After the beginning of the Russian-Polish war and the crash of his father's bank in 1793, Tepper left Warsaw for Strasbourg. In November 1793 he moved to Vienna, where he spent more than two years. He participated in Viennese musical and cultural life, met Haydn and made the acquaintance of Beethoven. There he started his career as a composer. In 1796 he moved to Hamburg where he set to music Friedrich Schiller's "Ode an die Freude".

In Russia

In autumn 1797 he came to St. Petersburg, Russia, where Tepper's bank used to have business partners and was well known to the Russian aristocracy.  There he started his career as a music teacher and composer. Many of his musical compositions which have been preserved in the libraries of St. Petersburg, Vienna, Hamburg, and Weimar, bear dedications to famous members of the St. Petersburg society, such as Princess Golitsyna, Princess Kourakine, and Countess Mniszek.

From 1800, Tepper held the post of the court Kapellmeister, after Giuseppe Sarti. He taught music to Grand Duchesses Helena, Maria, Ekaterina, and Anna, the younger sisters of the Emperor Alexander I. In 1811–1812, Tepper de Ferguson gave music lessons to Elizabeth Alexeievna, the consort of Alexander I.

He participated in earlier St. Petersburg performances of Haydn's oratorio The Creation (1801 and later). From 1802, he was a member of the newly founded St. Petersburg Philharmonic Society and regularly took part in its concerts.  In 1812, his own oratorio Te Deum was performed in St. Petersburg.

In 1802 he married Jeanne-Henriette Severin (1780–1823), a daughter of a wealthy St. Petersburg banker. Her sister was the wife of the Portuguese diplomat and merchant José Pedro Celestino Velho (1755–1802). Tepper and Jeanne-Henriette brought up Jeanne-Henriette's niece, Josephine Velho (1802–1820) who was born just after her father's death. From the 1810s, the Teppers lived in Tsarskoe Selo. Their house has survived and is still known as "Tepper's House".

From 1816, Tepper taught choir singing and music at the Imperial Lycée, where his pupils included Alexander Pushkin. Tepper composed music for the amateur theatrical performances which took place in the Lycée, and organised a choir of the Lycée students which gave informal performances in Tsarskoe Selo. In 1817, he composed music to the "Six Years, the Farewell Song of the First Students of the Imperial Lycée in Tsarskoe Selo", the words of which were written by Anton Delvig. The Farewell Song is one of the best-known Tepper compositions. In 1818, he composed choral music for the consecration of the new Evangelical church in Tsarskoe Selo. In the words of Wilhelm Küchelbecker, "Music, full of feeling and expression, is worth our honourable friend, good Tepper."

Last years
In 1819, Tepper de Ferguson, his wife and step-daughter undertook a long European travel. However, when in Paris, Josephine Velho died in a tragic accident (July 1820), and in 1823 his wife died in Dresden. Tepper de Ferguson returned to Russia for a short time, but left in May 1824 for Paris, where in July 1824 he married Marie Catherine Adelaide Canel (1790–1834). His last years were spent in Paris where he was known as Louis-Guillaume, baron Tepper de Ferguson. He died in Paris in 1838.

A nephew of Ludwig-Wilhelm, Pierre Charles Guillaume Fergusson-Tepper (the son of Peter Charles and Marie-Henriette Boué) established a successful and profitable business producing printed fabric in Bavilliers (Franche-Comté). Among his children were Marie Philippine, Tepper's god-daughter, and Louis Guillaume Edouard Fergusson-Tepper (1837–1890) who might have been named after Tepper. Louis Guillaume Edouard became a sculptor and exhibited his works in the Salons of Paris in the 1870s.

Siblings and relatives
Ludwig-Wilhelm had nine brothers and sisters:
Henrika-Katarina (born 24 May 1763) married in 1780 August-Wilhelm Arndt, an employee at the Tepper bank.
Charlotte Rosa (born 4 July 1764) was in her first marriage the wife of Baron d'Axt, Minister of Prussia in Warsaw. Her second husband was Colonel Milashevich of the Russian military service. She died in 1784 in Kiev.
Elżbieta Dorota (born 8 August 1765) married in 1783 Karol Szulc (Schulz, Schultz), a young banker in Warsaw.
Peter-Charles (Peter-Karol) (1766–1817) married Marie Henriette Boué (b. 1769), daughter of Pierre Boué (1738–1802),  an influential banker in Hamburg.
Philipp-Bernard (1 August 1767 – 1829). In 1786 he was sent by his father to Edinburgh where on 5 July 1786 he was granted the citizenship of the city of Edinburgh. In the 1820s, he held a post at the Grand Duke Constantin's administration in Warsaw and died with the title Collegiate councillor (a rank in the Russian administration. He was buried in the Warsaw Evangelical-Reformed (Calvinist) Cemetery in the Powązki district, which had been established in 1792 on the property of his brother-in-law Karol Szulc.
Daniel-Frederick (born in 1772).
 Ann-Margaret (born 11 August 1775)
Anna-Isabel (born 12 August 1778) married in 1792 Count Jan Henryk Wołodkowicz (1765–1825) and divorced him in 1804. She remarried and became Anna Worcell.
Otto-Walter (1779–1797). There is a portrait of him dated 1785 at the National Museum, Warsaw.

Legacy and selected compositions
In Russia, Tepper is immediately recognised as Alexander Pushkin's music teacher. But in the wider context of Russian and European cultural life of that time, his participation in the introduction of Haydn's Creation to Russian audiences seems even more important. Tepper's chamber music is well known in Russia and Europe and it is constantly performed. His "Farewell Song" is traditionally performed annually at the Museum of the Pushkin Lycée in Tsarskoe Selo on 19 October (the anniversary of the inauguration of the Lycée in 1811). Music scores of Tepper's compositions have been preserved in the music libraries of St. Petersburg, Hamburg, Vienna, Weimar, etc.

 An die Freude. Hamburg. 1796.
 Zwölf deutsche Lieder von den besten Dichtern. Hamburg. 1798.
 Neuf variations sur l'air de la Pastorale de Nina pour le Clavecin ou Forte Piano. 1798.
 Opera 'Eulenspiegel', 1800. Libretto by August von Kotzebue (1761–1819).
 Opera 'Herminie', 1798–1800. Libretto by Marie Joseph Hyacinthe de Gaston (1767—1808).
 Variations sur l'air "Loin de toi ma Felicie" / composées et dediées à Madame la Princesse Galizin née Princesse Wiazemski. c. 1800.
 Variations sur une romance de la composition de Madame la Princesse Kourakin née Comtesse Golowin. c. 1800.
 Variations sur un air de danse de Monsieur l'abbé Vogler / composées et dediées à Madame A. E. De Pestel, née de Kroock. c. 1800.
 Variations sur une romance de la composition de Mademoiselle S. de K. (cinq ans y a que connais ma Delphine). c. 1800.
 Romance de l'opera 'Une folie' de Mehul, variée très humblement.
 Danse cosaque mise en variations.
 Oratorio "Te Deum". 1812.
 Oratorio on the Deliverance of Moscow. 1812.
 Six Years. The Farewell Song of the First Students of the Imperial Lycée in Tsarskoe Selo. 1817.
 Sonata in D. Piano 4 hands.1818.
 La Pauvre Laure. Romance. Paroles de M*** Paris. c. 1825.

Literature
 Грот, Я. Пушкин, его лицейские товарищи и наставники. СПб.1887. (Yakov Grot. Pushkin, ego litseyskie tovarishchi i nastavniki—Pushkin, his Lycée friends and Tutors. SPb, 1887).
 Ступель, А. Лицейский учитель пения. In: Пушкин: Исследования и материалы. М-Л.1960. Т.3. (Stupel', A. Litseyskii uchitel' peniya—A Lycée music teacher. In: Pushkin. Researches and Materials. Moscow-Leningrad, 1960. Vol.3).
 Руденские М.П. и С.Д. Наставникам ... за благо воздадим. Л.1986. (Rudensky, M.P. and S.D. Nastavnikam ... za blago vozdadim. – Let us thank our tutors ... Leningrad, 1986).
 Яценко О.А. Учитель пения: Штрихи к биографии Л-В Теппера де Фергюсона. Дома у Пушкина. СПб, 1994. (Yatsenko, O.A. Uchitel' peniya: shtrikhi k biografii L-W Teppera de Fergusona. – The music teacher: some additions to the biography of L-W Tepper de Ferguson. In: At Pushkin's home. SPb, 1994).
 Людвиг Вильгельм Теппер де Фергюсон. Моя история./Пер. и сост. О.А.Байрд (Яценко)/. СПб., "Дмитрий Буланин", 2013. (Ludwig Wilhelm Tepper de Ferguson. My Story. /Translated and edited by Olga Baird (Yatsenko)/. SPb., "Dmitry Bulanin", 2013.

Records
 Oleg Timofeyev. Talisman, Music of Russian Princesses: From the Court of Catherine the Great (Dorian Records, 2001)

References

External links

1768 births
1838 deaths
Polish people of Scottish descent
Polish emigrants to Russia
Polish composers
Pupils of Johann Georg Albrechtsberger
Musicians from Saint Petersburg
Polish music educators
Russian male composers
Musicians from Warsaw

Ludwig-Wilhelm Tepper de Ferguson


The Fifth Term Sejm (parliament) of the Second Polish Republic was formed after the general election, which took place on November 6, 1938, with previous, Fourth Term Sejm, having been dissolved on September 13, 1938. It was the last assembly of interwar Poland, ending its activity in September 1939, due to German Invasion of Poland. On November 2, 1939, President Władysław Raczkiewicz formally dissolved the Fifth Term Sejm, replacing it on December 9, 1939 with National Council of the Polish Republic (Rada Narodowa Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej).

The Marshal of the Sejm was Wacław Makowski, while his deputies were Vasyl Mudry (Ukrainian minority), Zygmunt Wenda, Wacław Długosz, Jan Henryk Jedynak and Leon Surzyński.

1938 establishments in Poland
1939 disestablishments in Poland
Sejm
Second Polish Republic

Fifth Term Sejm (Second Polish Republic)


Dilukai (or dilukái or dilugai) are wooden figures of young women carved over the doorways of chiefs' houses (bai) in the Palauan archipelago.  They are typically shown with legs splayed, revealing a large, black, triangular pubic area with the hands resting on the thighs.  These female figures protect the villagers' health and crops and ward off evil spirits.  They were traditionally carved by ritual specialists according to strict rules, which, if broken, would result in the deaths of the carver and the chief. Female figures presenting their vulva can be found in many cultures: they symbolize fertility, (spiritual) rebirth, and they protect from evil (see above).

Mythology
Another explanation of Dilukai is that a woman named Dilukái was the sister of a troublesome man named Atmatuyuk.  He eventually departed and these images of his sister were erected to  prevent his return, as it was forbidden for a brother to see his sister's genitalia.

Christian missionaries were not fond of Dilukai, and changed the context, claiming that their purpose was to shame an immoral woman.

See also
Anasyrma
Baubo
Lajja Gauri
Nin-imma
Sheela na gig
Yoni

Footnotes

References
 D'Alleva, Anne, Arts of the Pacific Islands, New York, Harry N. Abrams, 1998.
 Jones, Lindsay (ed), Encyclopedia of Religion, Detroit, Macmillan, 2005, article on Yoni.

External links
 Dilukai from the Caroline Islands, Belau (Palau) at the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Palauan culture
Fertility goddesses

Dilukai


Susenphaa was the king of Ahom kingdom from 1439 CE to 1488 CE. Contemporary Ahom chronicles described him as a good king and the people under him were happy and prosperous. He ruled for a long period of 49 years. The only trouble which was recorded during his reign was the raids of Tangsu Nagas, which was dealt with the use of force, but not without losses.

Ancestry and accession
Susenphaa was the eldest son of Ahom king Suphakphaa by a Tipam princess. His parents named him Tyaophasuphuk. After the death of his father, he ascended the throne in 1439 CE and was named as Susenphaa.

Reign

Expedition against Tangsu Nagas
The Tangsu Nagas were conducting frequent raids on the people of Ahom kingdom, causing much harm to the lives and properties of the people. They also attacked neighbouring Naga tribes and inflicted heavy casualties. One of the Naga tribe, the Akhampa Nagas (also known as Akhampani Nagas) came to Susenphaa with a present of swords as a token of their submission. They complained Susenphaa about the atrocities committed by Tangsu Nagas and sought his help to defend them from these frequent raids of the Tangsu Nagas. Susenphaa immediately rallied his men and personally led an expedition against the strongholds of the Tangsu Nagas. The battle was fierce and bloody and the Ahoms lost one hundred and forty men, but, finally they managed to rout the Tangsu Nagas at the end. According to one account, the Ahoms almost lost the battle and was forced to retreat. Susenphaa himself was forced to flee from the battlefield in a litter, being so overcome with panic that he was purged as he sat there. In that moment of chaos, an Ahom officer, Banrukia Gohain, rallied the troops, attacked and defeated the Tangsu Nagas with heavy loss. The Ahoms destroyed the villages of Tangsu Nagas and forced them to submit. A victorious Susenphaa returned to the capital.

Birth of Sankardev
It was during the reign of Susenphaa, Sankardev, the most revered and renowned Vaishanava reformer was born in Borduwa or Batadroba in Nagaon, in 1449 CE. He was the son of Kusumbar Bhuyan, who was a Bhuyan chieftain of the region.

Death and legacy
Susenphaa died in 1488 CE after a long reign of forty-nine years. The scanty references to his long reign in the Ahom Buranjis may perhaps be taken as proof that he was a good king and that under his rule the people were contended and prosperous.

See also
 Ahom Dynasty
 Ahom Kingdom
 Assam
 Baro-Bhuyan
 Madhavdeva
 Nagaland
 Sankardev
 Sibsagar district
 Singarigharutha ceremony
 Sukaphaa

Notes

References

Ahom kings
Ahom kingdom
15th-century births
1480s deaths
Year of birth unknown
Year of death uncertain

Susenphaa


The South African Railways Class NG G11 2-6-0+0-6-2 of 1919 is a class of narrow gauge steam locomotives.

Between 1919 and 1925, the South African Railways (SAR) placed five Class NG G11 Garratt locomotives with a  Double Mogul type wheel arrangement in service on the Avontuur narrow gauge line through the Langkloof, and also in Natal. They were the first Garratt locomotives to enter service in South Africa.

Background

The challenges of Africa resulted in the regular need for double-heading of steam locomotives on heavy trains. While West Africa found its solution in larger 4-6-2 Pacific and 2-8-2 Mikado locomotives at the beginning of the twentieth century, the steeper gradients and tighter curves in South Africa made a different solution necessary.

On the South African Railways (SAR) narrow gauge lines, that solution was found in 1914 when orders were placed with Beyer, Peacock & Company for a narrow-gauge Garratt locomotive. It was to become the first Garratt to enter SAR service.

Garratt characteristics
A powerful steam locomotive is problematic on a track gauge of only  with a tight minimum radius of about  which, in practice, restricts powerful rigid-frame locomotives to four-coupled wheels, often with at least one flangeless coupled wheelset.

The same problem also existed on Cape gauge light-rail single-line track where train lengths would be limited because conventional locomotives had been enlarged to the limit of their possible power due to restrictions on axle loading. Alternative solutions would either be double-heading longer trains or re-building and re-aligning large parts of the lines to accommodate heavier locomotives. Either method was expensive and, in such conditions, the Garratt design had distinct advantages.

On a Garratt locomotive, the shared boiler and cab are carried on a cradle frame which is suspended on pivot centres attached to the frames of the two engine units, which are both free to align itself to the track curvature. To accommodate the pivoting, the steam and exhaust pipes have flexible connections between the engine units and the central cradle.

Garratt advantages
A Garratt is actually two separate locomotives combined in a double articulated format, thereby providing multiple powered axles over which the total locomotive weight is spread. This, in turn, results in a more powerful locomotive, since a much larger percentage of the locomotive's total mass contributes to traction compared to a tender locomotive of similar total mass. The use of a Garratt locomotive enables the capacity of a line to be approximately doubled without having to strengthen the track, bridges and culverts, or re-align the curvature.

Unlike tender locomotives, Garratts are bi-directional, which eliminates the need for turntables or triangles, also known as wyes. The fact that they did not need to be run through to terminals to be turned around also made increased operational flexibility possible.

Probably the greatest advantage of the Garratt was that, with its boiler and grate area suspended between two engine units without the need to leave room for coupled wheels and cylinders, wide and deep fireboxes with large grate areas and large diameter boilers were possible. On a Garratt, the boiler could literally be dimensioned up to the full cross section of the loading gauge. With each set of cylinders and coupled wheels constituting a separate engine, the end result was two locomotives in one, with one huge shared boiler which needed only one crew. A Garratt is therefore a single locomotive with double the tractive effort and, with its weight distributed over a long and flexible multi-axle wheelbase, a lower axle loading.

Garratt drawbacks
The Garratt design has some inherent drawbacks, however, the first being a diminishing factor of adhesion over long distances. As water and coal is consumed, the weight over the coupled wheels is reduced, thereby reducing their factor of adhesion, the ratio of weight on coupled wheels to tractive effort. Therefore, as the weight on the coupled wheels decreases, the locomotive has less adhesion and becomes increasingly prone to slipping.

Another drawback is the risk of tilting. These narrow gauge Garratts had boilers of  inside diameter on a frame width of about . This created the risk of the locomotive tilting over on tight curves.

Manufacturer
Although they had already been ordered in 1914, production was disrupted by World War I. Beyer, Peacock & Company was only able to deliver the first three locomotives in 1919 after cessation of hostilities. All three, numbered in the range from NG51 to NG53, were erected at the Uitenhage workshops and no. NG51 was put on trials on the Avontuur line in May 1920. It initially remained there after the trials, while the other two went to the Stuartstown line in Natal, to be joined there by no. NG51 later. These three locomotives were not superheated. They had outside plate frames, Walschaerts valve gear, Belpaire fireboxes and used saturated steam and slide valves.

Having been proved successful during trials, another two locomotives were ordered from Beyer, Peacock. Numbers NG54 and NG55 were delivered in 1925 and erected at the Durban workshops in April of that year. Both entered service in Natal. These two were superheated and, as a result, had longer smokeboxes and were  longer in overall length. Superheating also required alteration of the valve gear and piston valves were therefore used instead of slide valves. The cabs of the second order locomotives were also improved to offer better protection to the crew.

Classification
The system of grouping narrow-gauge locomotives into classes was only adopted by the SAR somewhere between 1928 and 1930. At that point, in spite of the difference between the two batches of 1919 and 1925, these five locomotives were all classified as Class NG G11, with the letters "NG" indicating narrow gauge and the "G" prefix to the classification number identifying it as a Garratt locomotive.

Service
The first three locomotives were all working in Natal soon after entering service. All but one remained there for the rest of their service lives until withdrawal by 1962. No. NG51 was later returned to the Avontuur line to replace the retiring Class NG3 no. NG5 as yard shunter at Humewood Road.

After completion of the Otavi Railway's gauge widening by April 1961, a flood of Class NG15 locomotives from South West Africa swamped the Humewood Road depot in Port Elizabeth. From a total of 23 engines in March 1961, of which four were sub-shedded at Loerie, the number almost doubled to 43 by July. As a result, no NG51 was officially retired by July 1962.

The two locomotives of the second order also served in Natal, ending up working on the branch from Estcourt to Weenen. In 1964 they were both transferred to the Avontuur line in exchange for two newer Class NG G13 locomotives. In Port Elizabeth, they were employed on shed and yard duty and on transfer trips to and from the docks until, after the arrival of the Class 91-000 diesel-electric locomotives in 1973, they were withdrawn from service in October 1974.

Preservation
Of the first three locomotives, only no. NG52 still exists. It was sold to Rustenburg Platinum Mines in 1956 and became their no. 7. After retirement at the mine, it was preserved at the Museum of Man and Science in Johannesburg in 1974, then moved to the Klein Jukskei Motor Museum by 1981 and finally donated to the South African National Railway & Steam Museum. In 2010 it was acquired by Sandstone Estates. By 2011 it was being restored and rebuilt in Bloemfontein. In January 2017, fully rebuilt, it was transferred to the Sandstone Estates Railroad where it made its operational debut in March 2017 during the annual Stars of Sandstone event.

The other two were scrapped after being retired from SAR service.

Both superheated locomotives still exist. No. NG54 was restored in Bloemfontein in 1989, After a period working the Apple Express out of Port Elizabeth, it ended up staged out of service at Humewood Road until it was removed by Sandstone Estates in 2011 for safe-keeping. It was still at Sandstone in July 2017, stored indoors in reasonable condition awaiting a THF decision on whether to leave it at Sandstone or return it to Humewood Road. NG55 was restored to full working order also at Bloemfontein for the Patons Country Narrow Gauge Railway (PCNGR) at Ixopo in Natal by 2005. At the time, the PCNGR was operating tourist excursion trains between Ixopo and Ncalu. By July 2017 no. NG55 was stored in the open at Ixopo awaiting extensive boiler repairs.

References

External links

Steam locomotives of South Africa
Beyer, Peacock locomotives
2-6-0+0-6-2 locomotives
1C+C1 locomotives
Garratt locomotives
2 ft gauge locomotives
Railway locomotives introduced in 1919

South African Class NG G11 2-6-0+0-6-2


A drum and bugle corps is similar to a marching band but it only has brass instruments, percussion instruments, and color guards. Armies used signal drums and bugles as signals for centuries. The modern drum and bugle corps came from military drum and bugle units coming back from World War I and the wars after it. Early drum and bugle corps was a year-round activity, where musicians performed at shows all the time. Now, most drum and bugle corps schedule tours during the summer, where they travel around the country, performing a new show every year, with different music and movements.

Drum Corps International

Formation
Before 1971, most North American Drum and Bugle Corps, or "Corps," performed in shows run by the American Legion and VFW (Veterans of Foreign Wars). In 1971, 5 Leading Corps founded a new group, called the "Midwest Combine." Other Eastern and Western Corps did the similar things with their respective regions. These Corps formed their organizations because they did not like the rules put forth by the American Legion and VFW, which many believed prevented creativity. The Corps also believed that show producers did not give enough of the money from ticket sales to the Corps who performed. The different Corps decided that they would all perform together in shows, one after another, and never separately in different shows. This strategy went very well for the Corps, and in 1972, all the groups, plus a few other Corps, formed a new group called "Drum Corps International," or DCI. This gave the Corps more money from shows, and artistic freedom, controlling their own destiny. DCI's leadership is comprised of the Corps that perform in DCI, allowing the competing groups to change rules whenever they need to, rather than having someone not familiar with the activity make those changes.

DCI Classes
DCI now has two Classes Corps can compete within. The first is "World Class". In World Class, the Corps may have no more than 154 members, although how those members are divided is up to the leaders of the Corps. The Corps in World Class also get a larger percentage of the money from DCI, and are allowed to vote on big decisions in DCI, like show times, rules, and money. The Corps in World Class also spend more time touring the country, and go to more places. The second Class is "Open Class." in Open Class, the Corps can have any number of members between 1 and 154. These Corps do not get as much money as World Class Corps, and do not have as much say in decision making of DCI. They also usually spend less time on tour, and stay closer to where their headquarters is. Sometimes, Corps can move from Open Class to World Class if they performed very well the previous year. If a group wants to start a Corps, they will always start out in Open class.

The organizing structure in DCI did not always work this way. There once were 3 Classes called Divisions, I, II, & III. There used to be a structure of Open Class, "A" Class, and "A60" Class (where Corps could only have a maximum of 60 marching members). There also used to be an All-Girls Class, for Corps that were all Female, with the other Rules the same as "A" Class, or Division II for them.

Instruments

Brass Instruments
Before 2000, most drum corps played brass instruments with two buttons, or "valves". These play a "G" note when no valves are pressed. These "bugles" give drum and bugle corps its name. Bugles are very similar to other brass instruments, but bugles are not usually made well, and they can be very difficult to play well when you want them to. Now, most drum corps play instruments that sound a bit higher; they play a B-flat when no buttons are pressed. These are called marching instruments, and sound and play very similar to the instruments played in concert halls.

Remember, drum corps perform on football fields outside. In a concert hall, the sound from the instruments bounces everywhere, but the walls are carefully shaped to direct the sound to the audience. Outside the sound still bounces everywhere, but the sound that is not pointing directly forward flies away and is wasted. Because of that, marching instruments are shaped differently; the big "bell" points towards the audience, so it is as loud as possible for them.  The four most common brass instruments in corps are the trumpet, mellophone (like a French horn), baritone, and contrabass (like a tuba). For a long time, DCI rules have banned all other brass instruments besides the ones listed above. Now, DCI have changed the rules and have allowed more brass instruments, like the trombone and euphonium. These other instruments are used in a manner that only one or a couple people play them in the corps. As a result, the instruments need microphones and speakers, or else the audience would not hear them over the dozens of marching instruments on the field.

Drums
All drum corps use three different types of drums. These are the snare, tenors, and basses. together, with the cymbals, make up the "drumline."
The snare drum is the smallest of the three. It has a short, loud, crunchy sound when hit. Corps can have between 6-10 people playing these.

Tenor drums, or "tenors" are actually a set of 4 or 5 drums attached together, designed to be played all by one person. The different drums have different pitches that can be played in sequences to produce crude melodies. This instrument has a sound like "oh" and a noticeable pitch, and the sound quality can change depending on the type of stick used to hit the instrument. Corps can have between 3-5 musicians playing these.

The bass drum is a very large drum held sideways against player's body, so that the musician uses two hands and sticks to hit either drum head. It is the deepest pitched of the drums, and they have a low, round, closed sound when hit, with a less defined pitch. Corps have about 5 basses of different sizes played by 5 people, so, like the tenors, they can also play crude melodies.

Modern drum corps not only have marching drummers, but also have 'front ensembles," who play instruments that cannot be marched with. These include timpani sets, or kettle drums, vibraphones, marimbas, tubular bells, xylophones, and various "auxiliary" percussion that would be inconvenient to march with. Front ensembles can also have suspended cymbals, especially if the corps has no marching cymbals.

Drumlines can also have cymbals, who hold two identical crafted metal solid cymbals in both hands in front of their bodies, and slam them together to get a sustained crash sound. Many modern drum corps have opted to eliminate cymbals from their drumlines, as they can be expensive to maintain. Cymbal lines need at least one additional staff member to teach, as they are very different from the other drums. In addition, a corps may have limited members, and deem that a musician is more valuable in the front ensemble, where they can play other instruments simultaneously.

References

Music genres
Military

Drum and bugle corps


Georg Ots (21 March 1920 – 5 September 1975) was an Estonian baritone who besides opera was known as a performer of popular songs. He was on the roster of the Estonian National Opera from 1951 to his death in 1975. He gained wider recognition with the lead role in the 1958, Soviet musical film Mister X, based on Imre Kalman's operetta Die Zirkusprinzessin.

Biography
Before studying singing with the Estonian baritone Aleksander Rahnel in Yaroslavl in the rear of the Eastern Front, where a cultural centre for evacuated Estonians had been established, Ots was a young Navy Officer who had escaped a sinking ship and was taken prisoner in Russia. He was released a year later, and on his return home, he auditioned for a place at the conservatory in Tallinn. At the same time, he became a member of the chorus at the Estonian National Opera in Tallinn. His solo opera debut was a small part in Eugene Onegin (1944). He soon became one of the most revered singers in Estonia and Finland and was also admired and beloved across Russia.

Ots often performed in many major opera houses of the former Soviet Union, being especially cherished at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow. His repertoire included the roles of Eugene Onegin, Yeletzky, Escamillo, Renato, Don Giovanni, Papageno, Rigoletto, Iago, Porgy, Figaro, and the title role in Kabalevsky's Colas Breugnon. Ots sang in Estonian, Russian, Finnish, German, Italian and French, and was fluent in all six languages. Ots's most famous role, which he is often identified with, was the leading character in Anton Rubinstein's opera The Demon. The libretto of The Demon is based on Mikhail Lermontov's famous epic poem, once banned because of its plotline which involves a misalliance between a dark angel and a Georgian princess. Georg Ots' interpretation of the angel mesmerized audiences and received rapturous reviews, making Lermontov's controversial poem even more famous.

The popularity of Ots culminated in 1958 with the release of the Lenfilm Studios musical Soviet film Mister X, based on Imre Kalman's operetta Die Zirkusprinzessin. Ots also played a leading role in Between Three Plagues, a film based on a historical novel by Jaan Kross which illuminates the life of Balthasar Russow, a distinguished Estonian writer and chronicler. Ots loved to perform songs by Mussorgsky and Tchaikovsky, and several other Russian composers, and was also a devoted interpreter of Estonian folk songs. His voice could be heard on radio and TV all over the Soviet Union, and all his records sold out almost immediately.

He also performed successfully in various European countries. After his death in 1975 caused by a brain tumor, the Tallinn Music School was named after him (now Georg Otsa nimeline Tallinna Muusikakool). In 1997, Russian scientists gave his name to a newly discovered minor planet, 3738 Ots (1977 QA1). He was married three times (to Margot Ots (née Laane, since 1950 Heinsoo), Asta Ots (Saar), and Ilona Ots (Noor) respectively) and had two daughters, a son (daughter Ülle Malken (Ots) and son Ülo Ots with Asta Ots, and daughter Mariann Randmaa (Ots) with Ilona Ots), and two adopted sons (Hendrik Ots and Jüri Ots).

Cultural references
In November 2005, a musical Georg based on the life of Georg Ots was premiered in Tallinn, and on 5 October 2007, Georg, a film based on his life was released.

Legacy
The asteroid "1977 QA1" was named 3738 Ots in his honour in 1996.
The Georg Ots street next to the Estonian National Opera.
Georg Ots Tallinn School of Music, a secondary music school in Tallinn.

References

External links

 Георг Отс на сайте Peoples.ru

1920 births
1975 deaths
Male actors from Saint Petersburg
Singers from Saint Petersburg
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Ninth convocation members of the Soviet of Nationalities
Soviet male opera singers
Estonian male film actors
Estonian male musical theatre actors
Soviet male film actors
Soviet male stage actors
20th-century Estonian male opera singers
Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre alumni
Tallinn French School alumni
Soviet Army officers
Soviet military personnel of World War II
People's Artists of the USSR
People's Artists of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic
Honoured Artists of the Estonian SSR
Recipients of the Stalin Prize
Recipients of the USSR State Prize
Recipients of the Estonian SSR State Prize
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Recipients of the Order of the Badge of Honour
Burials at Metsakalmistu

Georg Ots


8VSB nyaétamétodeuvestigial sideband modulation 8 hambalan nu dipaké keur siaran terestrial standar televisi digital ATSC di Amerika Sarikat, Kanada, katut nagara séjénna.

Throughput
Dina saluran 6 MHz (megahertz) nu dipaké keur siaran ATSC, 8VSB mawa 19.39 Mbit/det data nu kapake, sok sanajan bit rate nu aktual dikirimna kacida leuwih gedéna ogé alatan ditambahkeunnana kode forward error correction. Dalapan hambalan sinyal dipilih maké enkoder trellis. Aya ogé modulasi 2VSB, 4VSB, jeung 16VSB nu sawanda. 16VSB dipaké keur kabel digital ATSC, tapi quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) geus jadi standar industri sacara de facto.

Kauntungan nyimpen daya
Kauntungan utama 8VSB keur nu siaran nyaéta alatan tehnik ieu ngabutuhkeun leuwih saeutik daya pikeun nedunan hiji wewengkon nu sabanding jeung sistim NTSC nu aya saméméhna, tur dilaporkeun yén leuwih hadé tinimbang sisim alternatif pangilaharna, COFDM. Sababaraha stasion bisa cover the same aréa while transmitting at an effective radiated power of approximately 10% of analog broadcast power.   While NTSC and most other analog television systems also use a vestigial sideband technique, the unwanted sideband is filtered much more effectively in ATSC 8VSB transmissions.  8VSB uses a Nyquist filter to achieve this, though the filter also causes the transmission to be very "noisy".  Receivers must sample the incoming signal at very precise intervals to properly interpret the 8-level signal. Improper timing results in receiving useless information, so this makes reception in moving vehicles néarly impossible due to the Doppler effect.  Reed-Solomon error correction is the primary system used to retain data integrity.

Dina usum panas 2005, ATSC nerbitkeun standar keur Enhanced VSB, atawa E-VSB  . Ku ayana ieu, bisa narima DTV dina panarima handheld nu dayana saeutik kalayan anteneu nu leuwih leutik kawas DVB-H di Eropa.

Disputes over ATSC's use
For some period of time, there had been a continuing lobby for changing the modulation for ATSC to COFDM, the way DVB-T is transmitted in Europe, and ISDB-T in Japan.  However, the FCC has always held that 8VSB is the better modulation for use in U.S. digital television broadcasting.  In a 1999 report, the Commission found that 8VSB has better threshold or carrier-to-noise (C/N) performance, has a higher data rate capability, requires less transmitter power for equivalent coverage, and is more robust to impulse and phase noise.  As a result, it denied in 2000 a petition for rulemaking from Sinclair Broadcast Group requesting the change. (Since then, further improvements to VSB reception technologies have also quelled this challenge.)  Because of continued adoption of the 8VSB-based ATSC standard in the U.S., and a large growing ATSC receiver population, a switch to COFDM is now essentially impossible. Congress passed a law mandating that all analog terrestrial transmissions in the US will be turned off in February 2009, and 8VSB tuners are incréasingly widespréad in new TVs due to FCC tuner mandates, effectively ending this debate.

8VSB vs COFDM
The previously cited FCC Report also found that COFDM has better performance in dynamic and high level static multipath situations, and offers advantages for single frequency networks and mobile reception.  Nonetheless, in  2001, a technical report compiled by the COFDM Technical Group concluded that COFDM did not offer any significant advantages over 8VSB.  The report recommended in conclusion that receivers be linked to outdoor antennas raised to roughly 30 feet (9 m) in height.  Neither 8VSB nor COFDM performed acceptably in most indoor test installations.

However, there were questions whether the COFDM receiver selected for these tests − a transmitter monitor   lacking normal front end filtering − colored these results.  Retests that were performed using the same COFDM receivers with the addition of a front end band pass filter gave much improved results for the DVB-T receiver, but further testing was not pursued.

The debate over 8VSB versus COFDM modulation is still ongoing. Proponents of COFDM argue that it resists multipath far better than 8VSB. éarly 8VSB DTV (digital television) receivers often had difficulty receiving a signal in urban environments. However, newer 8VSB receivers are far better at déaling with multipath. Moréover, 8VSB modulation requires less power to transmit a signal the same distance. In less populated aréas, 8VSB may outperform COFDM because of this.  However, in some urban aréas, as well as for mobile use, COFDM may offer better reception than 8VSB. In order to broaden the application of VSB, several "enhanced" VSB systems are now in development, most notably E-VSB, A-VSB, and MPH.

Bifurcation of digital transmission systems
The United States is also notable for créating a separate transmission system for digital radio.  An in-band on-channel (IBOC) system developed by iBiquity will be used instéad of the Eureka 147 Digital Audio Broadcast system that has been selected in Europe.  This is partially because the L band normally used for that technology is unavailable in the U.S.  However, the American IBOC system uses COFDM, as does Eureka 147 and another standard known as Digital Radio Mondiale.

Rujukan

Tempo oge
Tuner ATSC

Tumbu luar
 What exactly is 8-VSB anyway?

Mode modulasi radio
Televisi digital

8VSB


Bintang Beer (, literally "Star Beer") is a brand of beer from Indonesia and is produced by PT Multi Bintang Indonesia Tbk, part of Heineken.

The beer is styled as a pale lager, gold in colour with an ideal serving temperature of 7 °C. The 4.7% ABV Pilsner has a malt and hop flavour. Because it is a localized version of Heineken, its taste is similar and comparable to Heineken, and the Bintang bottle is reminiscent of a Heineken bottle; the red star on the bottle is the same as Heineken. Bintang makes a malt based beverage called Bintang Zero 0.0%, a low alcohol Radler called Bintang Radler (in both lemon and grapefruit flavours) 2.0%, a soft drink product called Green Sands.

Construction of the brewery began in Surabaya in 1929 during Dutch colonial rule of Indonesia. In 1949, following Indonesian independence, the brewery was renamed 'Heineken's Indonesian Brewery Company'. In 1957 the Indonesian Government appropriated the brewery, and retained control for the next ten years. In 1967 Heineken resumed operations of the brewery, which was later renamed "Multi Bintang Indonesia".

In 2011, Bintang Beer won a gold medal for Lager (Class 2) and Champion Beer for the lager category at the Brewing Industry International Awards (BIIA 2011) in London.

Bir Bintang brand was awarded as Top 50 Most Valuable Indonesian Brand 2013 by Brand Finance.

See also

 Alcohol in Indonesia
 List of Indonesian beverages

References

External links

Indonesian brands
Heineken brands
Beer in Indonesia
Indonesian alcoholic drinks
Beer brands

Bintang Beer


Tomás Sánchez (born May 22, 1948, in Aguada de Pasajeros, Cienfuegos, Cuba) is a Cuban painter and engraver, known for his landscapes. Sánchez is the most expensive living Cuban painter.

Biography

Early life and education

Sánchez is the eldest of two sons of a middle-class family; his father was a sugar worker and businessman and his mother shared with him the sensibility for painting.

At 16, in 1964, he moved to Havana and began to study painting at the National Academy of Fine Arts San Alejandro. In 1966 he interrupted his studies and later, in 1967, moved to the newly founded National Art School (ENA), where he graduated in 1971. Also in 1971 he was awarded the First Prize of Drawing for Young Artists at the National Exhibition of Arts.

Career

From his graduation until 1976, Sánchez remained in the National Art School as engraving professor; in 1975 won the First Prize in Painting and the First Prize in Lithography at the National Salon of Professors and Instructors of Art in Havana. From 1976 to 1978, Sánchez worked as stage designer at the  Teatro de Muñecos (Children's Theater) of the Ministry of Culture (Cuba).

In 1980 he won the First Prize at the XIX Edition of the International Prize of Drawing Joan Miró, for his work Desde las aguas blancas, which launched his international career. The following year, he had an exhibition  at the Joan Miró Foundation, Centre of Contemporary Art in Barcelona, Spain.

Other awards include  the National Prize for Painting. Havana Biennial (1984); Medal of V American Biennial of Graphic Art, Cali, Colombia (1986); and Honorable Mention. International Painting Biennial, Cuenca, Ecuador (1987).

His work has been exhibited in over 30 countries. Among his most significant personal exhibitions include: Tomás Sánchez. Retrospective at the National Museum of Fine Arts, Havana, Cuba (1985); Tomás Sánchez. Different Worlds at the Museum of Art, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA, (1996). In May 2008, Sánchez celebrated his 60th birthday with a big show at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Monterrey Mexico.

In May 2019 three of his paintings headed to Christie's Latin American Art sales.

References

External links
 Tomás Sánchez at Marlborough Gallery
 Tomás Sánchez y la reinvención del paisaje, por Joaquín Badajoz

 Tomás Sánchez Retrospectiva, MARCO
 An art review from the New York Observer, December 18, 2005

1948 births
Living people
People from Aguada de Pasajeros
Cuban male painters
National Art Schools (Cuba) alumni
Academia Nacional de Bellas Artes San Alejandro alumni

Tomás Sánchez


A cuilin touer is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat tae the atmosphere through the cuilin of a watter stream tae a lower temperature. Cuilin touers may either use the evaporation o watter tae remove process heat an cool the workin fluid tae near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in the case o closed circuit dry cuilin touers, rely solely on air tae cuil the workin fluid tae near the  dry-bulb air temperature.

Common applications include cuilin the circulating watter used in ile refineries, petrochemical an other  chemical plants, thermal pouer stations an HVAC systems for cuilin biggins. The classification is based on the teep o air induction in tae the touer. The main teeps o cuilin touers are natural draft an induced draft cuilin touers.

Cuilin touers vary in size from small roof-top units tae very muckle hyperboloid structures (as in the adjacent image) that can be up tae  tall an  in diameter, or rectangular structures that can be over  tall an  long. The hyperboloid cuilin touers are often associated with nuclear pouer stations, although they are also used in some coal-fired plants an in some muckle chemical an other industrial plants. Although these muckle touers are very prominent, the vast majority o cuilin touers are much smaller, including many units installed on or near biggins tae discharge heat from air condeetionin.

References

Biggin ingineerin

Cuilin touer


Thomas Anthony Kyne (4 February 1905 – 8 August 1981) was an Irish Labour Party politician and trade union official. He first stood for election at the Waterford by-election in 1947 but was unsuccessful. He was elected to Dáil Éireann as a Labour Party Teachta Dála (TD) for the Waterford constituency at the 1948 general election and was re-elected at each general election until he lost his seat at the 1969 general election.

He was re-elected at the 1973 general election and retired from politics at the 1977 general election.

References

1905 births
1981 deaths
Labour Party (Ireland) TDs
Members of the 13th Dáil
Members of the 14th Dáil
Members of the 15th Dáil
Members of the 16th Dáil
Members of the 17th Dáil
Members of the 18th Dáil
Members of the 20th Dáil
Politicians from County Waterford
Trade unionists from County Waterford

Thomas Kyne


Stefan Karadzha (, ; born Stefan Todorov Dimov []; 11 May 1840 – 31 July 1868), was a Bulgarian national hero, a revolutionary from the national liberation movement and a prominent leader of rebellion against the Ottoman Empire.

He was born in the village of Ichme (now Stefan Karadzhovo), near Yambol in Rumelia, and was reputedly a descendant of Momchil Voyvoda. Karadzha studied in Tulcea, Dobruja, but quit school due to lack of funding. During a wedding celebration, he defeated the famous Turkish wrestler Gaazi Plisa. Going in hiding for some time, as Ottoman authorities were searching for him, he then emigrated to Principality of Romania and later joined the First Bulgarian Legion in Belgrade, Principality of Serbia.

Karadzha crossed the Danube from Wallachia a couple of times, carrying out revolutionary tasks. In 1867, he joined the Second Bulgarian Legion, which he quit the following year before returning to Romania, where he had a meeting with Hadzhi Dimitar. On 6 June, both of them were leaders of a detachment of 129 people, and crossed the Danube at Vardim, near Svishtov. Their cheta was supposed to get to Stara planina and establish there a revolutionary government which would then command a general uprising of all Bulgarians. This was not to happen, though, as the group was discovered by Turkish forces shortly after crossing the river. Stefan Karadzha was badly wounded during the fight at Kanladere near Vishovgrad, and was captured by the army and police sent by the chairman of the State Council, Midhat Pasha. Afterwards, on 12 July, he was convoyed to Tarnovo, and later to Rousse.

Karadzha was standing half-dead before the emergency Turkish court, assembled by Midhat Pasha, the so-called criminal council, and sentenced to death by hanging, but died from his wounds before the execution. He was buried by Tonka Obretenova, who preserved his skull.

Honours
Stefan Karadzha Peak on Graham Land, Antarctica is named after Stefan Karadzha.

References

External links

1840 births
1868 deaths
People from Yambol Province
Bulgarian revolutionaries
Executed Bulgarian people
Executed revolutionaries
People executed by the Ottoman Empire by hanging
19th-century Bulgarian people
19th-century executions by the Ottoman Empire

Stefan Karadzha


Brasschaat is a municipality in the Belgian province of Antwerp.

In 2007, 37133 people lived there.

It is at 51° 17 North, 04° 29 East.

There has always a big military force in Brasschaat. After World War II there were more military-related things. Including the defence buildings made to stop the Nazi's from reaching The port of Antwerp. Now most of them are closed or are used to train the soldiers.

Brasschaat is called green because of the many parks and woods, such as the Peerdsbos, the parc of Brasschaat, De uitlegger, and De instlag.

References

Municipalities of Antwerp

Brasschaat


Jakarta Web Services Metadata (JWS; formerly Web Services Metadata for Java platform and Java Web Services), as a part of Jakarta XML Web Services (JAX-WS), is a Java programming language specification (JSR-181) primarily used to standardize the development of web service interfaces for the Jakarta EE platform.

Using annotations from the JSR 181, you can annotate a Web service implementation class or a Web service interface. It enables developers to create portable Java Web Services from a simple plain old Java object (POJO) class by adding annotations, and also helps in generating a Web service with a wizard or by publishing the service on to a server.

Some of the annotations specified by this JSR are:
 @WebService
 @WebMethod
 @Oneway
 @WebParam
 @WebResult
 @HandlerChain
 @SOAPBinding

Put simply, JSR 181 is a specification to define standard and portable web services. It offers the following benefits:
 Provide a simplified model for developing web services
 Abstract the implementation details
 Achieve robustness, easy maintenance, and high interoperability

Version is 2.1 was released on December 15, 2009.

References

References

Java enterprise platform
Web service specifications
Java specification requests

Jakarta Web Services Metadata


An incomplete list of events in 1179 in Italy:

 Third Council of the Lateran
The Third Council of the Lateran met in March 1179 as the eleventh ecumenical council. Pope Alexander III presided and 302 bishops attended.

By agreement reached at the Peace of Venice in 1177 the bitter conflict between Alexander III and Emperor Frederick I was brought to an end. When Pope Hadrian IV died in 1159, the divided cardinals elected two popes: Roland of Siena, who took the name of Alexander III, and Octavian of Rome who, though nominated by fewer cardinals, was supported by Frederick and assumed the name of Pope Victor IV. Frederick, wishing to remove all that stood in the way of his authority in Italy, declared war upon the Italian states and especially the Church which was enjoying great authority. A serious schism arose out of this conflict, and after Victor IV's death in 1164, two further antipopes were nominated in opposition to Alexander III: Paschal III (1164–1168) and Callistus III (1168–1178). Eventually, at the Peace of Venice, when Alexander gained victory, he promised Frederick that he would summon an ecumenical council.

 The Dialogus de Scaccario printed

Births

Deaths
 Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179)

Italy
Italy
Years of the 12th century in Italy

1179 in Italy


The Seth Wetmore House is a residence built in the Center-Hall Colonial style in 1746 at 1066 Washington Street, Middletown, Connecticut.
It was built of Clapboard siding, Brownstone foundation with asphalt shingle roof using a structural system of wood frame, post and beam with gable roof.  It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 10, 1970.

Relationship to Surroundings

This center-hall Colonial house faces east from the northwest corner of Washington Street Extension and Camp Street. From this site on the east slope of a ridge it commands a long view east. Although Washington Street Extension passes close by on the southwest, the house is obscured from view by thickly planted trees.

Significance

Judge Seth Wetmore (1700–1788) built this house in 1746. Judge Wetmore served as deputy to the General Assembly for forty-eight terms, and was Judge of the County Court at Hartford. No doubt one of the great local mansions of its day, it remains Middletown's best example of high style Georgian architecture. the interior is of exceptional sophistication in its appointments; the northeast parlor alone is justly famous for the high quality of its decoration. It displays in original condition a corner shell cupboard with sun-burst decoration; marbleized fluted pilasters at either side of the fireplace opening, and fine overmantel painting. The woodwork in this room is in its original condition and excellently preserved.

Although the builder of this house is unknown, it is evident that he was a master joiner. A house recorded in a Colonial Dames monograph (William Cooper House, destroyed 1930d) bears such marked similarities to this house that it is likely they were built by the same man.

This house remained in the Wetmore family for over two hundred years, and there are many traditions concerning the house including visits by Jonathan Edwards, Timothy Dwight IV, Aaron Burr and General Lafayette. A large hemlock on the property is said to have been planted by Judge Wetmore's daughter Lucy.

The Judge Seth Wetmore House is significant for its long association with the Wetmore family and as Middletown's finest example of Georgian Colonial architecture.

See also

National Register of Historic Places listings in Middletown, Connecticut

References

Middletown, Connecticut Historical and Architectural Resources. Volume IV, Card Number 296. Barbara Ann Cleary. October, 1978.
http://home.earthlink.net/~mheintz/wetmore1.htm

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut
Houses completed in 1742
Houses in Middletown, Connecticut
National Register of Historic Places in Middlesex County, Connecticut
1742 establishments in Connecticut

Seth Wetmore House


ThunderHawk is a discontinued web browser from Bitstream available for a full range of operating systems in high end (Windows mobile and Symbian browsers) and mass-market (Java browser) mobile phones and personal digital assistants. It is basically meant for mobile operators and original equipment manufacturers and not meant to download for  normal users.

Unlike most browsers, ThunderHawk does not re-purpose or reformat the content, and provides a similar desktop view of the web page. Data is transmitted to the mobile phone in a compressed transport format, for example, the visible web page regions (text) are received first, while the rest of the images and other data are automatically transferred in the background.

Version history
Bitstream announced the ThunderHawk technology first on June 6, 2001 in Cambridge. The official beta release went off on October 9, 2001 and included enhancements as improved readability, speed, and usability. Sonera, wireless carrier in Finland included the beta release of Bitstream's web browser technology in Sonera Pilot Program to offer hands-on testing of new UI conventions for future mobile applications.

Later, in the same year, December 17, 2001 Bitstream announced the Wireless Web browsing solution with HP for its HP Jornada PDA customers. The first full-featured Wireless Web Browser for Pocket PCs was released on May 20, 2002.

Standards Supported
AJAX, DHTML Level 1, DOM Level 1, DOM Level 2, CSS Level 1, CSS Level 2, Frames, HTML 4.01, HTTP 1.0, HTTP 1.1, HTTPS 128-bit encryption, Feeds (RSS, ATOM, RDF), Image formats (BMP, GIF, JPEG, PNG, PJPEG), XHTML Basic, XML 1.0, ECMA Script, WML, WAP 2.0.

Functionality
When a subscriber uses ThunderHawk to access the Web, the ThunderHawk client residing on the handset communicates with the server. The server receives a connection from the client and requests an HTML Web page from the Internet. Upon receiving the requested page, the server renders the content on-the-fly and compresses the graphics. The server sends the requested HTML page in a compact transport format to the subscriber's handset.

ThunderHawk can run on any handset that offers MIDP 2.0, CLDC 1.0 and/or CLDC 1.1 software. The browser uses Bitstream's patented technologies for mobile browsing. To display digital content on a small screen device, ThunderHawk accesses the Web site, lays out the content at a virtual pixel resolution and then displays a part of the layout at a smaller display resolution. The displayed content is at a scaled-down resolution size and includes text composed from font bitmaps having character shapes, sizes, and pixel alignments selected to improve readability.

Split-Screen Mode
ThunderHawk allows browsing in the combined overview and magnified view of a web page. The split screen magnifier makes it easier to browse the Web pages in their original format on the small screen of a mobile device. The floating magnifier over the overview area, available with both Zoom-In and Zoom-Out mode aids in finding information and navigating the Web sites. Bitstream holds the patent rights for this split-screen technology.

Rendering Modes
ThunderHawk can show the Web page content in various user enable modes including, overview only, magnified only, and a re-flown single column text view.

Features
 Supports viewing of AJAX pages that are written using ECMA-262/JavaScript 1.5 standard.
 Supports full HTML browsing on the Java ME, Symbian, or Windows Mobile phone.
 Includes HTTPS 128-bit encryption, providing a secure transmission of confidential data.
 Customizable options: A "split screen/full screen" feature that eliminates the need of excessive scrolling. The "History" and "favorites" lists provide fast access to your favorite sites.
 Offers a choice of viewing the mobile version or the desktop version of a Web page.
 Provides image quality control options (low, medium, or high) that reduce the data transferred. The better the quality, higher the color depth and information each image will contain, and more the amount of data transfer. As the quality decreases, the image rendered will have less color depth and information, and hence lesser the download bytes.
 Persistent cookie support, with cookies stored on the server, which decreases the data transfer time.
 Validates certificates for https sites; if there are certificate problems, informs the user and gives the choice to continue browsing the site.
 Incremental rendering that sends visible Web page region first, while the rest of the images and other data are automatically transferred in the background.
 Support to submit web forms and view drop down menus on a mobile device.
 Native character support, ability to view web sites in multiple languages (Western and Eastern European).
 Allows choosing the content size with 5 different levels of magnification.
 Support to bypass or view popup windows.
 Supports playing videos for player-enabled handsets.
 Based on platform capability, ability to use smoothened or monochrome fonts.
 Supports both landscape and portrait viewing

See also
 Amazon Silk
 History of web browsers
 List of web browsers
 MarioNet split web browser
 Opera Mini

References

External links
 Stephen Brewster, Mark Dunlop (Eds.). Mobile Human-Computer Interaction - MobileHCL 2004, Pg 230
 MobileTechReview.com: ThunderHawk web browser for Pocket PC and Windows Mobile Smartphone review
 Bitstream Previews ThunderHawk Java/J2ME Mobile Browser

 ThunderHawk Web Browser for Pocket PC

Mobile web browsers
Pocket PC software
Discontinued web browsers

ThunderHawk


A curriculum (plural: curricula) is a program of study. It is used to plan teaching or training. It spells out the details so others can know what is going to happen:
what topics will be taught
in which order they will be taught
often, how much time will be spent on each topic
it is often linked to a timetable, and other details of an organisation where it will take place
it is often authorised by a public or private examination board, and used as the basis for setting exams

Today it usually means the courses, their content, and the  coursework offered at a school or university. Often, curricula are backed by some kind of theory, or by intending to change what was done before. Curricula may be backed by textbooks and by courses to train teachers. The study of curricula is part of most qualifications for teachers.

A similar word is syllabus, which means a summary of topics which will be covered during an academic course, or book or lecture. Another term is discipline, which in this sense means an academic subject-matter.

Historical development
Historically, curricula have done more than act as a background for syllabi and examinations. They have discussed the basis of teaching by taking account of:
the psychology of children, especially younger children.
the needs of society, including the needs of employers.
the growth in knowledge, for example in science
the balance between education and training
the legal status of the education, for example whether the education is voluntary or mandatory

The four questions asked by Tylor in his introductory text are generally regarded as fundamental:
What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
How can learning experiences be selected which are useful in attaining these objectives?
How can learning experiences be organized for effective instruction?
How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated?

There are no hard-and-fast rules for answering those questions. There have always been different theories of education which are based on different attitudes to education and to life itself. Roughly speaking, these theories have two opposite ends. At one end is child-centered education. This is concerned to adapt the teaching to the needs and development of individual children, and is most used in kindergarten and primary education. The other end is society-oriented. It aims to make sure society gets a steady supply of young adults able to fill the jobs and roles which society needs to be filled. In some countries the approach would be more religion-oriented. This would aim to produce young adults whose main aim is to live according to the precepts (beliefs, practices) of a particular religion.

Hidden curriculum
A term sometimes used to describe what a critic thinks is really going on in an educational system. It means the unspoken beliefs and values of an institution, the implicit demands of behavour and respect. In a school subject-matter is taught, but much else is going on.

Related pages
Trivium
Quadrivium
Subject (school)

References

Education

Curriculum


Franz Seraphicus Grillparzer (15 January 1791 – 21 January 1872) was an Austrian writer who was considered to be the leading Austrian dramatist of the 19th century. His plays were and are frequently performed at the famous Burgtheater in Vienna. He also wrote the oration for Ludwig van Beethoven's funeral, as well as the epitaph for his friend Franz Schubert.

While writing during the period of Romanticism, Grillparzer's poetic language owes far more to the period of Classicism which reigned during his formative years. Committed to the classical ideals of aesthetic beauty and morality, his plots shy away from the realism which developed during his time, preferring instead to use the theater to address spiritual values, which in the words of the dying queen of his Libussa, would only come after the period of Materialism had passed. Due to the identity-creating use of his works, especially after World War II, he was named as the national poet of Austria.

Biography

Franz Grillparzer was born in Vienna, Austria. His father, the advocate E. J. Grillparzer, was a severe pedant and a staunch upholder of the liberal traditions of the reign of Joseph II. E. J. Grillparzer was an unsuccessful lawyer whose fortunes were ruined by Napoleon's invasion. His mother, Anna Franziska, was a nervous, highly-strung woman, daughter of Christoph Sonnleithner, sister to Joseph and Ignaz, aunt to Leopold.

Franz's father wished him to become a lawyer, and he entered the University of Vienna in 1807 as a student of jurisprudence. Two years later his father died, leaving the family in difficult circumstances. After obtaining his degree from the university in 1811, Franz became a private tutor for a noble family; then in 1813, he entered the civil service as a clerk at the Imperial Hofkammer (Exchequer) in Austria. In 1821, he unsuccessfully applied to the position of scribe at the Imperial Library, and later that same year, he was relocated to the Ministry of Finance. In 1832, he became director of the archives at the Imperial Hofkammer, a position he held until his retirement in 1856. Grillparzer had little capacity for an official career and regarded his position merely as a means of independence.

From early youth, Grillparzer displayed a strong literary impulse. He devoted especial attention to the Spanish drama, and many of his works show the influence of Pedro Calderón de la Barca. In 1853, he wrote an autobiography of his life and times from birth to 1836. Among his posthumous writings are many fragments of literary, philosophic, and political criticism, all of them indicating a strong and independent spirit, not invariably just, but distinct, penetrating, and suggestive.

It is characteristic of him that he expresses extreme dislike of Hegel's philosophy on the ground that its terms are unintelligible. On the other hand, he gives evidence of careful and sympathetic study of Immanuel Kant. Of modern literary critics, Gervinus was most repugnant to him, mainly because of the tendency of this writer to attribute moral aims to authors who created solely for art's sake. He rather maliciously says that Gervinus had one advantage and one disadvantage in writing his history of German literature – the advantage of common sense, the disadvantage of knowing nothing of his subject.

Of a quiet contemplative nature, Grillparzer shunned general society. He never married. He could seem cold and distant to strangers, but in conversation with people he liked, his real disposition revealed itself; his manner became animated, his eyes brightened, and a sarcastic but not ill-natured smile would play upon his lips. He often said that the art of writing poetry can neither be taught nor learned, but he also held that inspiration will not visit a poet who neglects to make himself master of his subject. Hence before writing a play he worked hard, striving to comprehend the spirit of the age he wished to represent. He was exceedingly fond of travel, and at different times visited all the leading European countries.

After 1840, when his only comedy was rejected by the public, he almost passed from the memory of his contemporaries. Fortunately for him, his admirer Heinrich Laube became artistic director of Vienna's court theater in 1849. Laube staged productions of Grillparzer's forgotten works, and their success was immediate and profound. To his own surprise, Grillparzer became the most popular author of the day; he was ranked with Goethe and Schiller, and lauded as the national poet of Austria. On his eightieth birthday, all classes from the court downwards united to do him honour; never, probably, did Vienna exert herself so much to prove her respect for a private citizen.

He was buried with an amount of ceremony that surpassed even the pomp displayed at Klopstock's funeral. He was originally buried in the Währinger Cemetery in Vienna, now known as Schubertpark. He now lies at Hietzing Cemetery.

Early works up to Das goldene Vlies

From 1807 to 1809, Grillparzer wrote a long tragedy in iambics, Blanca von Castilien, modeled on Schiller's Don Carlos. He also produced the dramatic fragments Spartacus and Alfred der Grosse (1809).

When Grillparzer began to write, the German stage was dominated by the wild plays of Zacharias Werner, Adolf Müllner, and other authors of so-called "fate-tragedies." Grillparzer's play The Ancestress (), published in 1816, reflected this trend. It is a gruesome fate-tragedy in the trochaic measure of the Spanish drama, already made popular by Müllner's Schuld. The ghost of a lady who was killed by her husband for infidelity is doomed to walk the earth until her family line dies out, and this happens in the play amid scenes of violence and horror. Its general character is similar to that of Werner's dramas; it only differs from them in containing individual passages of much force and beauty. It reveals an instinct for dramatic as opposed to merely theatrical effect, which distinguishes it from other fate-dramas of the day. Its success led to the poet being classed for the best part of his life with playwrights like Müllner and Christoph Ernst von Houwald. In 1817, the first performances of The Ancestress made Grillparzer famous.

Grillparzer followed this gothic drama with Sappho (1818), a drama of a very different type. Similar to Goethe's Torquato Tasso, Grillparzer dramatized the tragedy of poetic genius, showing how a poet must renounce earthly happiness to fulfill a higher mission. After reading an Italian translation of this play, Lord Byron expressed his conviction that Grillparzer would be held in reverence by posterity. Grillparzer's conceptions are not so clearly defined as Goethe's, nor is his diction so varied and harmonious; but the play has the stamp of genius, and ranks as one of the best works that attempt to combine the passion and sentiment of modern life with the simplicity and grace of ancient masterpieces.

In 1821, Grillparzer completed his  trilogy, a project that had been interrupted in 1819 when his depressed mother committed suicide, and by Grillparzer's subsequent visit to Italy. The trilogy opens with a one-act prelude, Der Gastfreund, then depicts, in The Argonauts (Die Argonauten) Jason's adventures in his quest for the Fleece. Medea, a tragedy of classic proportions, contains the culminating events of the story of Medea, which had been so often dramatized before. Similarly to Sappho but on a larger scale, this trilogy is a tragedy of the heart's desire, the conflict of the simple happy life with that sinister power, be it genius or ambition, which upsets the equilibrium of life. There is delicate art in the delineation of the mingled fascination and repulsion which Medea and Jason feel for each other, and when at last repulsion becomes the dominant force, Grillparzer gives splendid utterance to Medea's rage. At the end, Medea bears the fatal Fleece back to Delphi, while Jason is left to realize the futility of human striving and earthly happiness. The end is bitter disillusionment; the only consolation renunciation. Some critics consider Medea Grillparzer's highest achievement.

Historical tragedies
For his historical tragedy King Ottokar's Fortune and End (, written 1823, but owing to difficulties with the censor, not performed until February 19, 1825), Grillparzer dramatized the conflict of Ottokar II of Bohemia with Rudolph I of Germany. It appealed strongly to the patriotic sympathies of the Viennese, because it depicted one of the proudest periods of Austrian history, the founding of the House of Habsburg. With an almost modern realism Grillparzer reproduced the medieval era, at the same time not losing sight of the needs of the theatre. It cannot be said that the materials of the play are welded into a compact whole, but the characters are vigorously conceived, and there is a fine dramatic contrast between the brilliant, restless, and unscrupulous Ottokar and the calm, upright, and ultimately triumphant Rudolph. Because Ottokar is defeated, critics argue that this play represents another work in which Grillparzer preaches the futility of endeavour and the vanity of worldly greatness.

A second historical tragedy, A faithful Servant of his Lord (), 1826, performed 1828), attempted to illustrate a more heroic theme; but the subject of the superhuman self-effacement of Bancbanus before his lord Duke Otto of Meran proved too uncompromising an illustration of Kant's categorical imperative of duty to be palatable in the theatre. Liberal critics accused Grillparzer of promoting servility. At the same time, the play displeased the court, and its presentation was stopped. It hardly deserved to be made the subject of so much contention, for it is one of the least powerful of Grillparzer's later dramas.

With these historical tragedies began the darkest decade of Grillparzer's life. They brought him into conflict with the Austrian censor – a conflict that grated on Grillparzer's sensitive soul, and was aggravated by his own position as a servant of the state. In 1826, he paid a visit to Goethe in Saxe-Weimar, and was able to compare the enlightened conditions of Weimar with the censorship of Vienna.

To these troubles were added personal worries. In the winter of 1820/1821, Grillparzer had met and fallen in love with Katharina Fröhlich (1801–1879), but whether owing to a presentiment of mutual incompatibility, or merely owing to Grillparzer's conviction that life had no happiness in store for him, he shrank from marriage. Nevertheless, he was plunged into an abyss of misery and despair to which his diary bears heart-rending witness; his sufferings found poetic expression in the cycle of poems called Tristia ex Ponto (1835).

More masterpieces and a setback
Still, during this time, Grillparzer completed two of his greatest dramas, Waves of the Sea and of Love (, 1831) and The Dream, a Life (, 1834). Waves of the Sea and of Love dramatizes the story of Hero and Leander, as a poetic love-tragedy with an insight into character motivation that predates the psychological dramas of Ibsen. The work again is formed on classic models, but in this instance his feeling is so distinctly modern that it does not find adequate expression in Grillparzer's carefully measured verse. The subject has never been more happily treated than in some passages, which, however, are marked rather by lyrical than dramatic qualities. The poetic influence of Lope de Vega and Pedro Calderón de la Barca is also evident.

The Dream, a Life, Grillparzer's technical masterpiece, is in form perhaps even more influenced by Spanish drama; it is also more of what Goethe called a confession. The aspirations of Rustan, an ambitious young peasant, are reflected in the hero's dream, which takes up nearly three acts of the play. Ultimately Rustan awakens from his nightmare to realize the truth of Grillparzer's own pessimistic belief that all earthly ambitions and aspirations are vanity; the only true happiness is contentment with one's lot and inner peace. It was the first of Grillparzer's dramas that did not end tragically. Grillparzer provided the text for Schubert's 'Mirjams Siegesgesang' (Miriam's Song of Triumph), Op. 136/D. 942.

In 1838 Grillparzer produced his only comedy, Woe to him who lies (). But Woe to him who lies, in spite of its humour of situation, its sparkling dialogue and its original premise — a hero who wins by invariably telling the truth, where his enemies invariably expect him to lie – was too strange to meet with approval in its day. Its premiere on 6 March 1838 was a failure. This was a severe blow to the poet, who turned his back forever on the German theatre.

Later life and final masterpieces

In 1836, Grillparzer paid a visit to Paris and London, in 1843 to Athens and Constantinople. Then came the Revolution which struck off the intellectual fetters under which Grillparzer and his contemporaries had groaned in Austria, but the liberation came too late for him. Honours were heaped upon him; he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences; Heinrich Laube, as director of the Burgtheater, reinstated his plays into the repertory; in 1861, he was elected to the Austrian Herrenhaus; his eightieth birthday was a national festival, and when he died in Vienna, on 21 January 1872, the mourning of the Austrian people was universal.

With the exception of a beautiful fragment, Esther (1861), Grillparzer published no more dramatic poetry after the fiasco of Weh dem, der lügt, but at his death three completed tragedies were found among his papers. Of these, The Jewess of Toledo (Die Jüdin von Toledo, written in 1851), an admirable adaptation from the Spanish, has won a permanent place in the German classical repertory; Ein Bruderzwist in Habsburg is a powerful historical tragedy and Libussa is perhaps the most mature, as it is certainly the deepest, of all Grillparzer's dramas; the latter two plays prove how much was lost by the poet's divorce from the theatre.

Assessment

Grillparzer was an important figure in the Viennese theater of the 1840s when his greatest dramatic works were produced. Together with Hebbel, he rates as the most influential dramatist of the mid-nineteenth century. While most of his best plays originate in the age of Romanticism, his works could not be classified as Romantic. His language and characters reflect the earlier sensibilities of neo-classicism, exhibited in plays like Sappho and Das goldene Vlies which treats the subject matter of Jason bringing Medea back to Greece. In these plays he deals with classical themes as well as subject matter. One important characteristic of the age is that aesthetic beauty and virtue are seen as inter-related. In his historical plays like König Ottokars Glück und Ende, he expresses the Enlightenment optimism that humankind can put its affairs in order and realize an age of peace an harmony. This is a common theme in Austrian thought from this period. Some have suggested that this is a reflection of their multi-ethnic Austrian state. Ottkar, the thirteenth century Bohemian king, wants to subjugate his neighbors, a thinly veiled reference to the recently defeated Napoleon. However, the play ends on an upbeat note.

Although Grillparzer was essentially a dramatist, his lyric poetry is in the intensity of its personal note hardly inferior to Lenau's; and the bitterness of his later years found vent in biting and stinging epigrams that spared few of his greater contemporaries. As a prose writer, he has left one powerful short story, Der arme Spielmann (1848), and a volume of critical studies on the Spanish drama, which shows how completely he had succeeded in identifying himself with the Spanish point of view.

Grillparzer's brooding, unbalanced temperament, his lack of will-power, his pessimistic renunciation and the bitterness which his self-imposed martyrdom produced in him, made him peculiarly adapted to express the mood of Austria in the epoch of intellectual thraldom that lay between the Napoleonic wars and the Revolution of 1848.

Legacy and cultural references

He is honoured in Austria with a pastry, the Grillparzer Torte.
Outside Austria, the modern American reader is perhaps most familiar with Grillparzer via disparaging references to him in the popular John Irving novel The World According to Garp. The book features a story within a story entitled The Pension Grillparzer. Grillparzer is also referenced in Irving's novel A Son of the Circus, in which the protagonist had studied in Vienna.
He is mentioned in the W. G. Sebald novel Vertigo.
In the tenth of the German language film series, Die Zweite Heimat by Edgar Reitz, Reinhard and Esther read from a Grillparzer poem comparing the half moon to an incomplete, ambiguous life.

In Vienna's Inner City,  was named after him in 1873. There is also a Grillparzerstraße in several other cities, including Graz, Linz, Salzburg, Innsbruck, Berlin, Dresden, Freiburg / Br., Hamburg, Mannheim and Munich. Double designations in Vienna resulting from incorporations were withdrawn.

After his death, a monument was erected in the Volksgarten in Vienna; also by Leopold Schrödl in Baden.

His portrait adorned the 100 Schilling banknote from 1954. The Mint Austria minted a 25 Schilling commemorative coin (bust picture) in 1964 and a 20 Schilling course coin (bust picture and Burgtheater ) in 1991 .

The Austrian Post issued four occasions (1931, 1947, 1972 and 1991) special stamps with portraits of the writer.

The Grillparzer Prize and the Grillparzer Ring were named after him.

The asteroid 30933 was named Grillparzer in his honor.

In Linz and in St. Pölten, elementary schools are named after him.

Works

Dramas

Blanka von Kastilien (Blanche of Castile, 1807–09)
Spartakus (Spartacus, 1809)
Alfred der Große (Alfred the Great, 1809)
Die Ahnfrau (1817)
Sappho (1818)
 (1821), trilogy consisting of
Der Gastfreund
Die Argonauten
Medea
Melusina (1822–23)
König Ottokars Glück und Ende (The Fortune and Fall of King Ottokar, 1823)
 (1826)
Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen (1831)
 (1834)
Tristia ex Ponto (1835)
Weh dem, der lügt (1838)
Libussa (1848)
Ein Bruderzwist im Hause Habsburg (1848)
Die Jüdin von Toledo (The Jewess of Toledo, 1851)
Esther (a fragment, 1861)

Novellas
Das Kloster bei Sendomir (1827)
Der arme Spielmann (1848)

See also

List of Austrian writers
List of Austrians
Jenny Weleminsky, who translated Sappho and several of Grillparzer's poems into Esperanto

Notes

External links

Works by Grillparzer from the eLibrary Austria Project (elib Austria full txts)
Literary Encyclopedia: Grillparzer, Franz

Grillparzer-Lebenslauf

1791 births
1872 deaths
Writers from Vienna
People of Hungarian German descent
Members of the House of Lords (Austria)
19th-century Austrian dramatists and playwrights
Austrian male dramatists and playwrights
Austrian people of Hungarian descent
19th-century Austrian poets
Austrian male poets
Austrian monarchists
German-language poets

Franz Grillparzer


Bhaavageete or Bhavageeth (literally 'emotion poetry') is a form of poetry and pop music in India. Most of the poetry sung in this genre pertain to subjects like love, nature and philosophy, and the genre itself is not much different from Ghazals, though ghazals are bound to a peculiar metre. This genre is quite popular in Karnataka and Maharashtra. This genre may be called by different names in other languages.

Kannada Bhavageete
Kannada Bhavageete () draws from modern Kannada poetry.

Notable modern Kannada poets whose works have been set to music include Kuvempu, D. R. Bendre, Gopalakrishna Adiga, K.S. Narasimhaswamy, G.S. Shivarudrappa, K. S. Nissar Ahmed, Raju Ananthaswami.

Popular Bhavageetes in Kannada

 Tanuvu ninnadu, manavu ninnadu - Kuvempu
 Anandamaya ee jagahrudaya - Kuvempu
 Oh nanna chetana - Kuvempu
 Ealladaru Iru - Kuvempu
 Baa Chakori - Kuvempu
 Yaava Mohana Murali Kareyitu - Gopalakrishna Adiga
 Ede tumbi haadidenu andu naanu baavartha - G.S. Shivarudrappa
 Ondu munjaavinali - Chennaveera Kanavi
 Ee dinantha samayadali - K. S. Nissar Ahmed
 Jogada siri belakinalli - K. S. Nissar Ahmed
 Kaanada kadalige - G. S. Shivarudrappa
 Rayaru bandaru mavana manege - K. S. Narasimhaswamy
 Deepavu ninnade gaaliyu ninnade - K. S. Narasimhaswamy
 Amma naanu devaraane - H. S. Venkateshamurthy
 Baa illi sambhavisu - Kuvempu
 Ello hudukide illada devara - G. S. Shivarudrappa
 Naakutanti - aavu eevina - D. R. Bendre
 Ilidu baa taayi - D. R. Bendre
 Nee hinge nodabeda - D.R. Bendre
 Mugila Maarige Raaga Ratiya - D.R. Bendre
 Ee Banu Ee Chukki - H. S. Venkateshamurthy

Marathi Bhavageet
Marathi Bhavageet (Marathi:भावगीत) draws from Marathi language poetry.

Notable composers/performers/singers include Hridaynath Mangeshkar, Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, Sudhir Phadke, Arun Date, and Suman Kalyanpur.

Poets include Suresh Bhat (who made Marathi ghazals popular) and Shanta Shelke.

Popular Marathi Bhavageet
 Shukratara - Arun Date
 Ya Janmavar - Arun Date
 Swargangechya Kathavarti  - Arun Date
 Bhatukalichya Khelamadhali - Arun Date
 Hee Waat Door Jate - Asha Bhosle
 Chandane Shimpit Jaashi - Asha Bhosle
 Toch Chandrama Nabhaat - Sudhir Phadke
 Mawalatya Dinakara - Lata Mangeshkar
 Asa Bebhan Ha Wara - Lata Mangeshkar
 Tinhi Sanja SakheF Milalaya - Lata Mangeshkar
 Pratima Uri Dharuni - Lata Mangeshkar
 Airanichya Deva Tula - Lata Mangeshkar
 Rimjhim Jharati Shravan Dhara - Suman Kalyanpur
 Shabda Shabda Japuni Thewa - Suman Kalyanpur
 Omkar Pradhan Roop Ganeshache - Suman Kalyanpur
 Keshava Madhava - Suman Kalyanpur
 Ketakichya Bani Tithe - Suman Kalyanpur
 Jithe Sagara Dharani Milate - Suman Kalyanpur
 Naavika Re Wara Wahe Re - Suman Kalyanpur
 Nakalat Saare Ghadale - Suman Kalyanpur
 Waat ithe Swapnatil - Suman Kalyanpur

See also
Natya Sangeet

Indian styles of music
Kannada poetry
Marathi-language literature
Marathi music

Bhavageete


A bolt is a form of threaded fastener with an external male thread requiring a matching pre-formed female thread such as a nut. Bolts are very closely related to screws.

Bolts vs. screws

The distinction between a bolt and a screw is poorly-defined. The academic distinction, per Machinery's Handbook, is in their intended purpose: bolts are designed to pass through an unthreaded hole in a component and be fastened with the aid of a nut. Screws in contrast are used in components which contain their own thread, or to cut its own internal thread into them. This definition allows ambiguity in the description of a fastener depending on the application it is actually used for, and the terms screw and bolt are widely used by different people or in different countries to apply to the same or varying fastener.

Bolts are often used to make a bolted joint. This is a combination of the nut applying an axial clamping force and also the shank of the bolt acting as a dowel, pinning the joint against sideways shear forces. For this reason, many bolts have a plain unthreaded shank (called the ) as this makes for a better, stronger dowel. The presence of the unthreaded shank has often been given as characteristic of bolts vs. screws, but this is incidental to its use, rather than defining.

Where a fastener forms its own thread in the component being fastened, it is called a screw. This is most obviously so when the thread is tapered (i.e. traditional wood screws), precluding the use of a nut, or when a sheet metal screw or other thread-forming screw is used. A screw must always be turned to assemble the joint. Many bolts are held fixed in place during assembly, either by a tool or by a design of non-rotating bolt, such as a carriage bolt, and only the corresponding nut is turned.

Bolt heads

Bolts use a wide variety of head designs, as do screws. These are designed to engage with the tool used to tighten them. Some bolt heads instead lock the bolt in place, so that it does not move and a tool is only needed for the nut end.

Common bolt heads include hex, slotted hex washer, and socket cap.

The first bolts had square heads, formed by forging. These are still found, although much more common today is the hexagonal head. These are held and turned by a spanner or socket, of which there are many forms. Most are held from the side, some from in-line with the bolt. Other bolts have T-heads and slotted heads.

Many bolts use a screwdriver head fitting, rather than an external wrench. Screwdrivers are applied in-line with the fastener, rather than from the side. These are smaller than most wrench heads and cannot usually apply the same amount of torque. It is sometimes assumed that screwdriver heads imply a screw and wrenches imply a bolt, although this is incorrect. Coach screws are large square-headed screws with a tapered wood screw thread, used for attaching ironwork to timber. Head designs that overlap both bolts and screws are the Allen or Torx heads; hexagonal or splined sockets. These modern designs span a large range of sizes and can carry a considerable torque. Threaded fasteners with screwdriver-style heads are often referred to as machine screws whether they are being used with a nut or not.

Bolt types

 Anchor bolt - Bolt designed to allow objects to be attached to concrete. The bolt head is usually placed in concrete before it has cured or placed before the concrete is poured, leaving the threaded end exposed.
 Arbor bolt - Bolt with a washer permanently attached and reversed threading. Designed for use in miter saw and other tools to auto tighten during use to prevent blade fall out.
 Carriage bolt - Bolt with a smooth rounded head and a square section to prevent turning followed with a threaded section for a nut.
 Elevator bolt - Bolt with a large flat head used in conveyor system setups.
 Hanger bolt - Bolt that has no head, machine threaded body followed by a wood threaded screw tip. Allow nuts to be attached to what is really a screw.
 Hex bolt - Bolt with a hexagonal head and threaded body. Section immediately under head may or may not be threaded.
 J bolt - Bolt shaped like the letter J. Used for tie downs. Only the non curved section is threaded for a nut to be attached.
 Lag bolt - Also known as a lag screw or coach screw. Not a true bolt. Hex bolt head with thread screw tip for use in wood.
 Rock bolt - Used in tunnel construction to stabilize walls.
 Sex bolt or Chicago bolt - Bolt that has a male and female part with interior threads and bolt heads on either end. Commonly used in paper binding.
 Shoulder bolt or stripper bolt - Bolt with a broad smooth shoulder and small threaded end used to create a pivot or attachment point.
 U-bolt - Bolt shaped like the letter U where the two straight sections are threaded. A straight metal plate with two bolt holes is used with nuts to hold pipes or other round objects to the U-bolt.
 Cane bolt - Also called a drop rod, a cane bolt is not a threaded fastener. It is a type of gate latch that consists of a long metal rod with a curved handle and attaches to a gate by one or more fasteners. This type of bolt was named after the shape of a cane, similar to the shape of a candy cane or walking cane.

Bolt materials

Depending on required strength and circumstances, there are several material types can be used for fasteners.
 Steel fasteners (grade 2,5,8) - the level of strength
 Stainless steel fasteners (martensitic stainless steel, austenitic stainless steel),
 Bronze and brass fasteners - water proof usage
 Nylon fasteners - used for the light material and water proof usage.

In general, steel is the most commonly used material of all fasteners: 90% or more.

Bolted joints

The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) 13th Edition Steel Design Manual section 16.1 chapter J-3 specifies the requirements for bolted structural connections. Structural bolts replaced rivets due to the decreasing cost and increasing strength of structural bolts in the 20th century. Connections are formed with two types of joints: slip-critical connections and bearing connections. In slip-critical connections, movement of the connected parts is a serviceability condition and bolts are tightened to a minimum required pre-tension. Slip is prevented through friction of the "faying" surface, that is the plane of shear for the bolt and where two members make contact. Because friction is proportional to the normal force, connections must be sized with bolts numerous and large enough to provide the required load capacity. However, this greatly decreases the shear capacity of each bolt in the connection. The second (and more common type) of connection is a bearing connection. In this type of connection, the bolts carry the load through shear and are only tightened to a "snug-fit". These connections require fewer bolts than slip-critical connections and therefore are a less expensive alternative. Slip-critical connections are more common on flange plates for beam and column splices and moment critical connections. Bearing type connections are used in lightweight structures and in member connections where slip is not important and prevention of structural failure is the design constraint. Common bearing type connections include: shear tabs, beam supports, gusset plates in trusses.

See also

 ASTM A325, standard for bolts  to  inches () in diameter
 ISO 898, standard for metric bolts
 Mechanical joint
 Screw thread
 Socket wrench
 Thread angle
 Thread-locking compound
 Thread pitch gauge
 Torque wrench

References

Fasteners
Screws
Threaded fasteners

Bolt (fastener)