The Bible has been translated into many languages from the biblical languages of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek.  all of the Bible has been translated into 736 languages, the New Testament has been translated into an additional 1,658 languages, and smaller portions of the Bible have been translated into 1,264 other languages according to Wycliffe Global Alliance. Thus, at least some portions of the Bible have been translated into 3,658 languages.

Early translators rendered biblical texts into Syriac, Latin, Ge'ez, Gothic and Slavonic languages, among others. Jerome's 4th-century Latin Vulgate version was dominant in Western Christianity during the Middle Ages. Since then, the Bible has been translated into many more languages.

English Bible translations have a rich and varied history of more than a millennium. (See List of English Bible translations.)

Textual variants in the New Testament include errors, omissions, additions, changes, and alternate translations. In some cases, different translations have been used as evidence for or have been motivated by doctrinal differences.

Original text

Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (notably in Daniel and Ezra) in Biblical Aramaic. From the 6th century to the 10th century AD, Jewish scholars, today known as Masoretes, compared the text of various biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified, standardized text. A series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added vowel points (called niqqud) to the text, since the original text contained only consonants. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation; since some words differ only in their vowels their meaning can vary in accordance with the vowels chosen. In antiquity, variant Hebrew readings existed, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages.

New Testament
The New Testament was written in Koine Greek reporting speech originally in Aramaic, Greek and Latin (see Language of the New Testament.)

The autographs, the Greek manuscripts written by the original authors or collators, have not survived. Scholars surmise the original Greek text from the manuscripts that do survive. The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type, the Byzantine text-type, and the Western text-type.

Most variants among the manuscripts are minor, such as alternative spelling, alternative word order, the presence or absence of an optional definite article ("the"), and so on. Occasionally, a major variant happens when a portion of a text was missing or for other reasons. Examples of major variants are the endings of Mark, the Pericope Adulteræ, the Comma Johanneum, and the Western version of Acts.

The discovery of older manuscripts which belong to the Alexandrian text-type, including the 4th-century Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, led scholars to revise their view about the original Greek text. Karl Lachmann based his critical edition of 1831 on manuscripts dating from the 4th century and earlier, to argue that the Textus Receptus must be corrected according to these earlier texts.

Early manuscripts of the Pauline epistles and other New Testament writings show no punctuation whatsoever. The punctuation was added later by other editors, according to their own understanding of the text.

History

Ancient translations

Aramaic Targums

Some of the first translations of the Torah began during the Babylonian exile, when Aramaic became the lingua franca of the Jews. With most people speaking only Aramaic and not understanding Hebrew, the Targums were created to allow the common person to understand the Torah as it was read in ancient synagogues.

Greek Septuagint

By the 3rd century BC, Alexandria had become the center of Hellenistic Judaism, and during the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC translators compiled in Egypt a Koine Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures in several stages (completing the task by 132 BC). The Talmud ascribes the translation effort to Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 285–246 BC), who allegedly hired 72 Jewish scholars for the purpose, for which reason the translation is commonly known as the Septuagint (from the Latin septuaginta, "seventy"), a name which it gained in "the time of Augustine of Hippo" (354–430 AD). The Septuagint (LXX), the very first translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, later became the accepted text of the Old Testament in the Christian church and the basis of its canon. Jerome based his Latin Vulgate translation on the Hebrew for those books of the Bible preserved in the Jewish canon (as reflected in the Masoretic text), and on the Greek text for the deuterocanonical books.

The translation now known as the Septuagint was widely used by Greek-speaking Jews, and later by Christians. It differs somewhat from the later standardized Hebrew (Masoretic Text). This translation was promoted by way of a legend (primarily recorded as the Letter of Aristeas) that seventy (or in some sources, seventy-two) separate translators all produced identical texts; supposedly proving its accuracy.

Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books not included in the Masoretic texts of the Tanakh. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or of Hebrew variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than previously thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition ("Vorlage") from the one that became the basis for the Masoretic texts.

Late Antiquity
Christian translations of the Old Testament also tend to be based upon the Hebrew, though some denominations prefer the Septuagint (or may cite variant readings from both). Bible translations incorporating modern textual criticism usually begin with the Masoretic text, but also take into account possible variants from all available ancient versions.

The Christian New Testament was written in Koine Greek, and nearly all modern translations are to some extent based upon the Greek text.

2nd century
Origen's Hexapla () placed side by side six versions of the Old Testament: the Hebrew consonantal text, the Hebrew text transliterated into Greek letters (the Secunda), the Greek translations of Aquila of Sinope and Symmachus the Ebionite, one recension of the Septuagint, and the Greek translation of Theodotion. In addition, he included three anonymous translations of the Psalms (the Quinta, Sexta and Septima). His eclectic recension of the Septuagint had a significant influence on the Old Testament text in several important manuscripts.

In the 2nd century, the Old Testament was translated into Syriac translation, and the Gospels in the Diatessaron gospel harmony. The New Testament was translated in the 5th century, now known as the Peshitta.

In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, the New Testament was translated into various Coptic (Egyptian) dialects. The Old Testament was already translated by that stage.

3rd century
In 331, the Emperor Constantine commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.

4th century
The Bible was translated into Gothic (an early East Germanic language) in the 4th century by a group of scholars, possibly under the supervision of Ulfilas (Wulfila).

The canonical Christian Bible was formally established by Bishop Cyril of Jerusalem in 350 (although it had been generally accepted by the church previously), confirmed by the Council of Laodicea in 363 (both lacked the Book of Revelation), and later established by Athanasius of Alexandria in 367 (with Revelation added.)

Jerome's Vulgate Latin translation dates to between AD 382 and 405. Latin translations predating Jerome are collectively known as Vetus Latina texts. Jerome began by revising these earlier Latin translations, but ended by going back to the original Greek, bypassing all translations, and going back to the original Hebrew wherever he could instead of the Septuagint.

There are also several ancient translations, most important of which are in the Syriac dialect of Aramaic (including the Peshitta).

4th to 6th century
The Codex Vaticanus dates to –350, and is missing 21 sentences or paragraphs in various New Testament books: it is one of the four great uncial codices. The earliest surviving complete single-volume manuscript of the entire Bible in Latin is the Codex Amiatinus, a Latin Vulgate edition produced in 8th-century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow.

Between the 4th to 6th centuries, the Bible was translated into Ge'ez (Ethiopic.)

In the 5th century, Saint Mesrob translated the Bible using the Armenian alphabet invented by him. Also dating from the same period is the  Georgian translation.

In the 6th century, the Bible was translated into Old Nubian.

Middle Ages

When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text—especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line—and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text. See textual criticism. Over time, different regions evolved different versions, each with its own assemblage of omissions, additions, and variants (mostly in orthography).

During the Late Middle Ages, translation, particularly of the Old Testament was discouraged in some regions. Nevertheless, there are some fragmentary Old English Bible translations, notably a lost translation of the Gospel of John into Old English by the Venerable Bede, which is said to have been prepared shortly before his death around the year 735. An Old High German version of the gospel of Matthew dates to 748. Charlemagne in c. 800 charged Alcuin with a revision of the Latin Vulgate. The translation into Old Church Slavonic was started in 863 by Cyril and Methodius.

Alfred the Great, a ruler in England, had a number of passages of the Bible circulated in the vernacular in around 900. These included passages from the Ten Commandments and the Pentateuch, which he prefixed to a code of laws he promulgated around this time. In approximately 990, a full and freestanding version of the four Gospels in idiomatic Old English appeared, in the West Saxon dialect; these are called the Wessex Gospels. Around the same time, a compilation now called the Old English Hexateuch appeared with the first six (or, in one version, seven) books of the Old Testament.

The provincial synods of Toulouse (1229) and Tarragona (1234) outlawed possession of some vernacular renderings, in reaction to the Cathar and Waldensian heresies, in South France and East Spain. There is evidence of some vernacular translations being permitted while others were being scrutinized.

The complete Bible was translated into Old French in the late 13th century. Parts of this translation were included in editions of the popular Bible historiale, and there is no evidence of this translation being suppressed by the Church. The entire Bible was translated into Czech around 1360.

The most notable Middle English Bible translations, the Wycliffite Bibles (1383, 1393), based on the Vulgate. These were later banned in England by the provincial Oxford Synod in 1408, in response to Lollard uprisings.

The Hungarian Hussite Bible appeared in 1416. In 1478, a Catalan translation was made in the dialect of Valencia.

Many parts of the Bible were printed by William Caxton in his translation of the Golden Legend (1483), and in the loose paraphrase Speculum Vitae Christi (The Mirror of the Blessed Life of Jesus Christ), which had been authorized into English around 1410.

Reformation and Early Modern period

The earliest printed edition of the Greek New Testament appeared in 1516 from the Froben press, by Desiderius Erasmus, who reconstructed its Greek text from several recent manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. He occasionally added a Greek translation of the Latin Vulgate for parts that did not exist in the Greek manuscripts. He produced four later editions of this text. Erasmus was Roman Catholic, but his preference for the Byzantine Greek manuscripts rather than the Latin Vulgate led some church authorities to view him with suspicion.

During 1517 and 1519 Francysk Skaryna printed a translation of the Bible in Old Belarusian language in twenty-two books.

In 1521, Martin Luther was placed under the Ban of the Empire, and he retired to the Wartburg Castle. During his time there, he translated the New Testament into German, using the 2nd edition of Erasmus' New Testament, which provide a new Latin translation, detailed annotations on Greek words, and a Greek text for reference. It was printed in September 1522.

The first complete Dutch Bible, partly based on the existing portions of Luther's translation, was printed in Antwerp in 1526 by Jacob van Liesvelt.

The first printed edition with critical apparatus (noting variant readings among the manuscripts) was produced by the printer Robert Estienne of Paris in 1550. The Greek text of this edition and of those of Erasmus became known as the Textus Receptus (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the Elzevier edition of 1633, which termed it as the text nunc ab omnibus receptum ("now received by all").

The use of numbered chapters and verses was not introduced until the Middle Ages and later. The system used in English was developed by Stephanus (Robert Estienne of Paris) (see Chapters and verses of the Bible)

Later critical editions incorporate ongoing scholarly research, including discoveries of Greek papyrus fragments from near Alexandria, Egypt, that date in some cases within a few decades of the original New Testament writings. Today, most critical editions of the Greek New Testament, such as UBS4 and NA27, consider the Alexandrian text-type corrected by papyri, to be the Greek text that is closest to the original autographs. Their apparatus includes the result of votes among scholars, ranging from certain {A} to doubtful {E}, on which variants best preserve the original Greek text of the New Testament.

Critical editions that rely primarily on the Alexandrian text-type inform nearly all modern translations (and revisions of older translations). For reasons of tradition, however, some translators prefer to use the Textus Receptus for the Greek text, or use the Majority Text which is similar to it but is a critical edition that relies on earlier manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type. Among these, some argue that the Byzantine tradition contains scribal additions, but these later interpolations preserve the orthodox interpretations of the biblical text—as part of the ongoing Christian experience—and in this sense are authoritative. Distrust of the textual basis of modern translations has contributed to the King-James-Only Movement.

The churches of the Protestant Reformation translated the Greek of the Textus Receptus to produce vernacular Bibles, such as the German Luther Bible (1522), the Polish Brest Bible (1563), the Spanish "Biblia del Oso" (in English: Bible of the Bear, 1569) which later became the Reina-Valera Bible upon its first revision in 1602, the Czech Melantrich Bible (1549) and Bible of Kralice (1579-1593) and numerous English translations of the Bible. Tyndale's New Testament translation (1526, revised in 1534, 1535 and 1536) and his translation of the Pentateuch (1530, 1534) and the Book of Jonah were met with heavy sanctions given the widespread belief that Tyndale changed the Bible as he attempted to translate it. Tyndale's unfinished work, cut short by his execution, was supplemented by Myles Coverdale and published under a pseudonym to create the Matthew Bible, the first complete English translation of the Bible. Attempts at an "authoritative" English Bible for the Church of England would include the Great Bible of 1538 (also relying on Coverdale's work), the Bishops' Bible of 1568, and the Authorized Version (the King James Version) of 1611, the last of which would become a standard for English speaking Christians for several centuries.

The first complete French Bible was a translation by Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, published in 1530 in Antwerp. The Froschauer Bible of 1531 and the Luther Bible of 1534 (both appearing in portions throughout the 1520s) were an important part of the Reformation.

The first English translations of Psalms (1530), Isaiah (1531), Proverbs (1533), Ecclesiastes (1533), Jeremiah (1534) and Lamentations (1534), were executed by the Protestant Bible translator George Joye in Antwerp. In 1535 Myles Coverdale published the first complete English Bible also in Antwerp.

By 1578 both Old and New Testaments were translated to Slovene by the Protestant writer and theologian Jurij Dalmatin. The work was not printed until 1583. The Slovenes thus became the 12th nation in the world with a complete Bible in their language. The translation of the New Testament was based on the work by Dalmatin's mentor, the Protestant Primož Trubar, who published the translation of the Gospel of Matthew already in 1555 and the entire testament by parts until 1577.

Following the distribution of a Welsh New Testament and Prayer Book to every parish Church in Wales in 1567, translated by William Salesbury, Welsh became the 13th language into which the whole Bible had been translated in 1588, through a translation by William Morgan, the bishop of Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant.

Samuel Bogusław Chyliński (1631–1668) translated and published the first Bible translation into Lithuanian.

In 1660, John Eliot published the Eliot Indian Bible in the language of the Massachusett people, an indigenous American group who lived in the area around what is today Boston, Massachusetts. This was the first translation of the Bible into an indigenous American language. This translation was produced by Eliot in an effort to convert the dwindling population of Massachusett to Christianity in praying towns such as Natick, Massachusetts.

Nova Vulgata
The Nova Vulgata is the most recent translation to Latin. On 29 November 1965, Pope Paul VI instituted the Pontifical Commission for the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, in order to prepare a new translation from Hebrew, Aramaic, and Koine Greek, to Latin. The result was the Nova Vulgata, promulgated by Pope John Paul II in 1979.

The purpose was to achieve more precision and clarity in the texts, and to remove the errors and obscure passages that were present in the version of Jerome of Stridon, known as the Vulgate.

Modern translation efforts

The Bible is the most translated book in the world. The United Bible Societies announced that as of 31 December 2007 the complete Bible was available in 438 languages, 123 of which included the deuterocanonical material as well as the Tanakh and New Testament. Either the Tanakh or the New Testament was available in an additional 1,168 languages, in some kind of translations, like the interlinear morpheme-by-morpheme translation (e.g. some Parallel Bible, with interlinear morphemic glossing).

In 1999, Wycliffe Bible Translators announced Vision 2025—a project that intends to commence Bible translation in every remaining language community by 2025. It was realised that, at the rates of Bible translation at that point, it would take until at least 2150 until Bible translation began in every language that was needing a translation. Since the launch of Vision 2025, Bible translation efforts have increased dramatically, in large part due to the technology that is now available. Due to the increase, at current rates, Bible translation will begin in every language by 2038, thus being 112 years faster.

As of September 2023, they estimated that around 99.8 million people spoke those 1,268 languages where translation work still needs to begin. This represents 17.1% of all languages (based off an estimate of 7,394 total languages) and 1.3% of the human population (based of a global population of 7.42 billion).

In total, there are 3,736 languages without any Bible translation at all, but an estimated 1,148 of these (with a population of 9.6 million people) are likely to never need a Bible because they are very similar to other languages, or spoken by very few speakers where the language will die out very soon.

Bible translation is currently happening in 3,283 languages in 167 countries. This work impacts 1.15 billion people, or about 15.5 percent of all language users, who have (or will soon have) new access to at least some portions of Scripture in their first language.

Differences in Bible translations

Dynamic or formal translation policy
A variety of linguistic, philological and ideological approaches to translation have been used. Inside the Bible-translation community, these are commonly categorized as:
 Dynamic equivalence translation
 Formal equivalence translation (similar to literal translation)
 Idiomatic, or paraphrastic translation, as used by the late Kenneth N. Taylor

though modern linguists, such as Bible scholar Dr. Joel Hoffman, disagree with this classification.

Other translation approaches include:

 Literary translation, where the reader's experience of the piece as literature is prized, as used used in the Knox Bible
 Metrical translation, where prose is rendered in a rhythmic form, as represented by Old English and Middle English texts
 Prose translation, where no attempt is made to render the lyrical aspect of some poem or song, as King Alfred's prose translation of the first fifty Psalms.

As Hebrew and Greek, the original languages of the Bible, like all languages, have some idioms and concepts not easily translated, there is in some cases an ongoing critical tension about whether it is better to give a word-for-word translation, to give a translation that gives a parallel idiom in the target language, or to invent a neologism.

For instance, in the Douay Rheims Bible, Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition, New American Bible Revised Edition, which are the English language Catholic translations, as well as Protestant translations like the King James Bible, the Darby Bible, the Recovery Version, the Literal Standard Version, the New Revised Standard Version, the Modern Literal Version, and the New American Standard Bible are seen as more literal translations (or "word-for-word").

Translations like the New International Version and New Living Translation sometimes attempt to give relevant parallel idioms. The Living Bible and The Message are two paraphrases of the Bible that try to convey the original meaning in contemporary language.

The further away one gets from word-for-word translation, the easier the text becomes to read while relying more on the theological, linguistic or cultural understanding of the translator, which one would not normally expect a lay reader to require. On the other hand, as one gets closer to a word-for-word translation, the text becomes more literal but still relies on similar problems of meaningful translation at the word level and makes it difficult for lay readers to interpret due to their unfamiliarity with ancient idioms and other historical and cultural contexts.

Doctrinal differences and translation policy

In addition to linguistic concerns, theological issues also drive Bible translations. Some translations of the Bible, produced by single churches or groups of churches, may be seen as subject to a point of view by the translation committee.

For example, the New World Translation, produced by Jehovah's Witnesses, provides different renderings where verses in other Bible translations support the deity of Christ. The NWT also translates kurios as "Jehovah" rather than "Lord" when quoting Hebrew passages that used YHWH. The authors believe that Jesus would have used God's name and not the customary kurios. On this basis, the anonymous New World Bible Translation Committee inserted Jehovah into the New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures (New Testament) a total of 237 times while the New World Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) uses Jehovah a total of 6,979 times to a grand total of 7,216 in the entire 2013 Revision New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures while previous revisions such as the 1984 revision were a total of 7,210 times while the 1961 revision were a total of 7,199 times.

A number of Sacred Name Bibles (e.g., the Sacred Scriptures Bethel Edition) have been published that are even more rigorous in transliterating the tetragrammaton using Semitic forms to translate it in the Old Testament and also using the same Semitic forms to translate the Greek word Theos (God) in the New Testament—usually Yahweh, Elohim or some other variation.

Other translations are distinguished by smaller but distinctive doctrinal differences. For example, the Purified Translation of the Bible, by translation and explanatory footnotes, promoting the position that Christians should not drink alcohol, that New Testament references to "wine" are translated as "grape juice".

See also

Notes

References

Further reading
 Wills, Garry, "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of David Bentley Hart, The New Testament:  A Translation, Yale University Press, 577 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34–35.  Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the New Testament.

External links

 Repackaging the Bible by Eric Marrapodi, CNN, December 24, 2008
 Bible Versions and Translations on BibleStudyTools.com
 Huge selection of Bibles in Foreign Languages –  bibleinmylanguage.com
 BibleGateway.com (has many translations to select)

Translations
Translations
Translation history

Bible translations


Juan de Prado Malleza Portocarrero y Luna (1716 – c. 1770) was  a Spanish colonial governor of Cuba between 1761 and 1762, when he lost Havana in the Siege of Havana.

Biography
Born at León, Spain, he was the second son of the 2nd Marquess of Prado and Acapulco and 5th Count of Óbedos, and had a career in the Army, where he became mariscal de campo.

In mid-1760, Juan de Prado was named Governor and Captain General of the Island of Cuba by  King Charles III of Spain but did not take possession of his office until February, 1761. He was ordered to strengthen the island's fortresses against an expected offensive by the British, as Spain had entered the Seven Years' War that year on the side of France.

On February 7, 1761, the first works to fortify the heights of La Cabaña, overlooking the bay, and the main fortress el Morro, were begun. That same year, the city was hit by an epidemic of yellow fever that caused numerous victims among the urban population. The work force was so decimated that work on the fortifications was practically paralyzed.

On June 6, 1762, a powerful British expeditionary force under George Keppel began the siege of Havana. Juan de Prado took command of the defense, but the city was eventually captured on the 13th of August.

Juan de Prado and the surviving Spanish soldiers were transported back to Spain. Upon his arrival, the Spanish government tried him via a court-martial. He was convicted of incompetence and a lack of energy in the defence of Havana, and was sentenced to death, but the sentence was commuted to ten years' imprisonment. He died in prison at Vitigudino.

1716 births
1770s deaths
Governors of Cuba
Spanish generals
People who were court-martialed
Spanish people who died in prison custody
Spanish prisoners sentenced to death
Prisoners sentenced to death by Spain
Prisoners who died in Spanish detention
People from León, Spain
Spanish colonial period of Cuba
Spanish West Indies
18th-century Cuban people

Juan de Prado Mayera Portocarrero y Luna


is a Japanese developer and retailer of pachinko and pachislot machines, headquartered in Shinagawa, Tokyo. Its South Korean office, Sammy Amusement Service, is headquartered in Seoul, South Korea. Sammy is a subsidiary of the entertainment conglomerate Sega Sammy Holdings.

Sammy was founded as  on November 1, 1975 as a spin-off of the arcade division of Satomi Corporation. The company primarily dealt with slot machines and arcade cabinets in Japan. Sammy expanded into video game development in the 1990s with games such as Viewpoint,  Survival Arts, and The Rumble Fish. Sammy largely abandoned the video game industry by the late 1990s to focus on its pachinko and arcade management operations. In 2004, Sammy merged with video game developer and publisher Sega to form Sega Sammy Holdings.

History

Company origins as Sammy Industry
Sammy Corporation started in 1975 as Sammy Industry Co., Ltd. from the split of Satomi Corporation's manufacturing and marketing divisions for amusement arcade machines. In 1978, Sammy Industry built a factory in Itabashi-ku, Tokyo in order to take advantage of the growing popularity of video games, specifically Invader games. During this year, it began game machine development.

In 1981, Sammy joined a subsidiary called "Nippon Dendousiki Yuugiki Kougyou Kyoudou Kumiai" and established a subsidiary called Sammy Sales and Marketing Co., Ltd. located in Osaka City.

In 1982, Sammy Industry started to market and sell pachislot machines. During this time, it launched the Empire pachislot machine. In 1988, an American subsidiary of Sammy Industry was established in California, USA. They would sell video games from other companies in the US, and eventually, release redemption games (some of which were originally released by Banpresto in Japan). In this year, Sammy Industry expanded its market by venturing into sales and marketing of video game software.

In 1989, Sammy Industry relocated to Sayama City, Saitama Prefecture. At this time, it began selling its Aladdin single-bonus pachislot machine.

In 1990, Sammy Industry created a video game software and marketing division called Japan Soft Technology Co., Ltd. located in Nagoya City. Within this year, Sammy Industry created another gaming subsidiary called Nippon eicom Co., Ltd., established in Itabashi-ku, Tokyo. In 1991, Sammy absorbed its Sammy Marketing Co., Ltd. subsidiary and moved head office to Toshima-ku, Tokyo. In 1992, Sammy absorbed its Japan Soft Technology Co., Ltd. subsidiary. During this year, the American subsidiary was relocated to Illinois, USA. In 1995, Sammy created a subsidiary called Techno Sammy Co., Ltd. for rationalization through expansion. This subsidiary was designed for sales and marketing for Pachinko machines. In this year, it launched the CR Gold pachinko machine. In 1996, Sammy created an American subsidiary called Sammy USA Corporation. It was established in Illinois, USA. In 1997, Techno Sammy Co., Ltd. was absorbed into Sammy Industry. Sammy Industry formed a subsidiary called MAXBET Co., Ltd., established in Meguro-ku, Tokyo. Sammy opens an amusement arcade in Sagamihara city, Kanagawa.

Corporal changes as Sammy Corporation
During 1997, The corporate name of the company changed from Sammy Industry Co., Ltd. to Sammy Corporation. Within this year, Sammy Corporation launched Ultra Seven, the first pachinko machine to utilize characters. In 1998, Sammy Corporation created a Corporate-owned building which was used as a logistics centre in Sapporo city, Hokkaido in order to increase their market and distribution share. Sammy Corporation created a subsidiary called Sammy Amusement Service Co., Ltd., which was established in Toshima-ku, Tokyo, Japan & Hanwha Dongil Building, Myeongdong, Seoul, South Korea to increase sales for arcade game machines. Sammy Corporation also opened another amusement arcade called "Sammy's Street 118," in Oji Kita-ku, Tokyo. During this time, it also launched the Ultra Man Club 3, a pachislot machine with CT functions.

In 1999, Sammy Corporation went into a capital participation with Spike Co., Ltd. Vaill Co., Ltd. was created as a joint venture subsidiary with Spike Co., Ltd. Within this year, a subsidiary called Underground Liberation Force Inc., was established in Shibuya-ku, Tokyo as a means for Sammy Corporation to enter into the music industry. During this time, Sammy Corporation registered stock on the OTC market. Within this year, it also launched GeGeGe No Kitaro, the first pachislot machine that used an LCD screen.

In 2000, Sammy Corporation opened nine sales offices around Japan in order to increase the market share of pachinko and pachislot machines. In order to increase pachislot machine distribution, Sammy Corporation made a business alliance with K. K. Aristocrat Technologies for pachislot manufacturing distribution. Within this year, Sammy Corporation invested in further subsidiaries by making RODEO Co., Ltd. (formerly Barcrest Co., Ltd.), a subsidiary and placed a stake in video game developer Dimps Corp. In 2001, Sammy began OEM supply to K. K. Aristocrat Technologies. In this year, it was listed in the first section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange. Later that year, Sammy hired former Tradewest executive John Rowe to start out Sammy Entertainment to publish games for the niche American market, which later became Sammy Studios and now High Moon Studios.

Sammy Corporation aided in the establishment of Joyco Systems Corporation, a company dedicated in the development of equipment for pachinko and pachislot machines. During this time, Sammy Corporation also established subsidiaries outside Japan, Sammy Europe Limited was established in London, UK and Sammy Entertainment Inc., was established in Los Angeles, USA. Within this year, Sammy Design Co., Ltd., was established as a subsidiary for Shuko Electronics Co., Ltd. During this time, it also began their operations in the official i-mode site, "Sammy 777 Town,". In this year, Sammy launched a pachislot machine called Juoh: the first with AT functions.

In 2002, Sammy developed 3D graphics display system for their pachinko and pachislot machines. Sammy's American subsidiary changed its name from Sammy Holding Co., Inc., to Sammy Studio, Inc., and relocated to San Diego, California, USA.

During 2003, Sammy was in talks with gaming conglomerate Sega to be part of the Sammy company. Despite Sega publicly declining the offer because the two companies lacked synergies, a takeover occurred in which Sammy purchased a 22.4 per cent stake in Sega from the company's one-time parent company, CSK. Sammy CEO, Hajime Satomi stated in a public statement that "In the future, we may take an additional stake in Sega," and that Sammy would not "Rule out the possibility of making Sega a subsidiary".

During mid-2004, Sammy bought a controlling share in Sega Corporation at a cost of $1.1 billion, creating the new company Sega Sammy Holdings, an entertainment conglomerate. Since then, Sega and Sammy became subsidiaries of the aforementioned holding company, with both operating independently, while the executive departments merged. Sammy handed its video game business to Sega to focus on pachinkos and pachislots only. The copyright to the back catalogue of Sammy's video games is owned by Sega.

Notes

References

External links

Japanese companies established in 1975
Manufacturing companies established in 1975
Companies formerly listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange
Gambling companies of Japan
Manufacturing companies based in Tokyo
Sega Sammy Holdings
Software companies based in Tokyo
Video game companies of Japan
Video game companies established in 1975
Japanese brands
2004 mergers and acquisitions

Sammy Corporation


Rákóczi's War of Independence (1703–1711) was the first significant attempt to topple the rule of the Habsburgs over Hungary. The war was conducted by a group of noblemen, wealthy and high-ranking progressives and was led by Francis II Rákóczi and resigned soldiers and peasants fought alongside the noblemen. The insurrection was unsuccessful, ending with the Treaty of Szatmár; however, the Hungarian nobility managed to partially satisfy Hungarian interests.

Prelude

With the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, the Ottoman Empire renounced almost all of its claims to some of its territories, which were conquered from the medieval Kingdom of Hungary after 1526. The nobility was against Habsburg rule because the lands formerly taken away from them by the Ottomans were returned only to those who could prove their right to own the property and could pay 10% of its worth to the Habsburgs. If they failed to do so, the property went to creditors of the Empire. The peasant class turned against the Empire because of the hardships the long wars brought upon them. In 1697 an anti-Habsburg uprising in Tokaj was suppressed. However, relations between the court and the nobility were deteriorating, and the new Habsburg rulers treated the peasants so poorly that eventually some people wished for a return to Turkish rule.

Uprising
International relations provided Hungarians with an opportunity to liberate themselves from the Habsburgs. With the help of King Louis XIV of France, anti-Habsburg rebels, led by  young nobleman Imre Thököly, rose against the Empire in 1678. Thököly occupied most of Northern Hungary. In 1681, the Ottomans joined to help him, and he was recognised as King of Upper Hungary by Sultan Mehmed IV. However, when the Ottomans lost the battle of Vienna in 1683, Thököly lost Ottoman support and was eventually defeated in 1685. His alliance with the Ottomans changed the positive perception Western Europe had about Hungary, and instead of being thought of as the bastion of Christianity, the country was now being thought of as an enemy, Partly as a consequence, Hungary was occupied and organised as "newly acquired territory" instead of "territory liberated from the Ottomans".

Leadership

Francis II Rákóczi () was the son of an old noble family and one of the richest landlords in the Kingdom of Hungary. He was the count (comes perpetuus) of the Comitatus Sarossiensis (in Hungarian Sáros) from 1694 on. He was born to Francis I Rákóczi, elected ruling prince of Transylvania, and Ilona Zrínyi, in 1676. His father died when Rákóczi was a mere baby, and his mother married Imre Thököly in 1682. After Thököly was defeated, Zrínyi held the castle of Munkács (today Mukacheve in Ukraine) for three years but was eventually forced to surrender. After the Treaty of Karlowitz, when his stepfather and mother were sent into exile, Rákóczi had stay in Vienna under Habsburg supervision.

Remnants of Thököly's peasant army started a new uprising in the Hegyalja region of northeastern present-day Hungary, which was part of the property of the Rákóczi family. They captured the castles of Tokaj, Sárospatak and Sátoraljaújhely, and asked Rákóczi to become their leader, but he was not eager to head what appeared to be a minor peasant rebellion. He quickly returned to Vienna, where he tried his best to clear his name. Rákóczi then befriended Count Miklós Bercsényi, whose property at Ungvár (today Ужгород (Uzhhorod), in Ukraine), lay next to his own. Bercsényi was a highly educated man, the third richest man in the kingdom (after Rákóczi and Simon Forgách), and was related to most of the Hungarian aristocracy.

Fight for independence
As the House of Habsburg was on the verge of dying out, France was looking for allies in its fight against Austrian hegemony. Consequently, they established contact with Rákóczi and promised support if he took up the cause of Hungarian independence. An Austrian spy seized this correspondence and brought it to the attention of the Emperor. As a direct result of this, Rákóczi was arrested on 18 April 1700 and imprisoned in the fortress of Wiener Neustadt (south of Vienna). It became obvious during the preliminary hearings that, just as in the case of his grandfather Péter Zrínyi, the only possible sentence for Francis was death. With the aid of his pregnant wife Amelia and the prison commander, Rákóczi managed to escape and flee to Poland. Here he met with Bercsényi again, and together they resumed contact with the French court.

Three years later, the War of the Spanish Succession caused a large part of the Austrian forces in the Kingdom of Hungary to temporarily leave the country. Taking advantage of the situation, kuruc forces began a new uprising in Munkács, and Rákóczi was asked to head it. He decided to invest his energies in a war of national liberation, and accepted the request. On 15 June 1703, another group of about 3000 armed men headed by Tamás Esze joined him near the Polish city of Lawoczne (today Lavochne, a village in Ukraine). Bercsényi also arrived, with French funds and 600 Polish mercenaries.

Most of the Hungarian nobility did not support Rákóczi's uprising, because they considered it to be no more than a jacquerie, a peasant rebellion. Rákóczi's famous call to the nobility of Szabolcs County seemed to be in vain. He did manage to convince the Hajdús (emancipated peasant warriors) to join his forces, so his forces controlled most of Kingdom of Hungary to the east and north of the Danube by late September 1703. He continued by conquering Transdanubia soon after.

Since the Austrians had to fight Rákóczi on several fronts, they felt obliged to enter negotiations with him. However, the victory of Austrian and English forces against a combined French-Bavarian army in the Battle of Blenheim on 13 August 1704, provided an advantage not only in the War of the Spanish Succession, but also prevented the union of Rákóczi's forces with their French-Bavarian allies.

This placed Rákóczi into a difficult military and financial situation. French support gradually diminished, and a larger army was needed to occupy the already-won land. Meanwhile, supplying the current army with arms and food was beyond his means. He tried to solve this problem by creating a new copper-based coinage, which was not easily accepted in Hungary as people were used to silver coins. Nevertheless, Rákóczi managed to maintain his military advantage for a while – but after 1706, his army was forced into retreat.

A meeting of the Hungarian Diet (consisting of 6 bishops, 36 aristocrats and about 1000 representatives of the lower nobility of 25 counties), held near Szécsény (Nógrád County) in September 1705, elected Rákóczi to be the "fejedelem"- (ruling) prince – of the Confederated Estates of the Kingdom of Hungary, to be assisted by a 24-member Senate. Rákóczi and the Senate were assigned joint responsibility for the conduct of foreign affairs, including peace talks.

Encouraged by England and the Netherlands, peace talks started again on 27 October 1705 between the kuruc leaders and the Emperor. However, military operations continued and both sides varied their strategy according to the military situation. On 13 December Kuruc forces led by János Bottyán defeated the Austrians at Szentgotthárd. One stumbling block was sovereignty over Transylvania – neither side was prepared to give it up. Rákóczi's proposed treaty with the French was stalled, so he became convinced that only a declaration of independence would make it acceptable for various powers to negotiate with him. In 1706, his wife (whom he had not seen in 5 years, along with their sons József and György) and his sister were both sent as peace ambassadors, but Rákóczi rejected their efforts on behalf of the Emperor.

On Rákóczi's recommendation, and with Bercsényi's support, another meeting of the Diet held at Ónod (Borsod County) declared the deposition of the House of Habsburg from the Hungarian throne on 13 June 1707. But neither this act, nor the copper currency issued to avoid monetary inflation, were successful. Louis XIV refused to enter into treaties with Prince Rákóczi, leaving the Hungarians without allies. There remained the possibility of an alliance with the Russian Tsardom, but this did not materialize either.

At the Battle of Trenčín (Hungarian Trencsén, German Trentschin, Latin Trentsinium, Comitatus Trentsiniensis, today in Slovakia), on 3 August 1708 Rákóczi's horse stumbled, and he fell to the ground, which knocked him unconscious. The kuruc forces thought him dead and fled. This defeat was fatal for the uprising. Numerous Kuruc leaders transferred their allegiance to the Emperor, hoping for clemency. Rákóczi's forces became restricted to the area around Munkács and Szabolcs County. Not trusting the word of János Pálffy, who was the Emperor's envoy charged with negotiations with the rebels, the Prince left the Kingdom of Hungary for Poland on 21 February 1711.

Foreign soldiers and participants

Denmark
The Kingdom of Denmark annually provided cavalry and infantry regiments to the Habsburg army, which stationed these Danish regiments in Hungary; this resulted in Danish soldiers fighting alongside the Habsburg army against the Hungarians (Kurucs) and their allies. The Danish forces fought in Eastern Hungary and Transylvania (Battle of Zsibó).

Serbs, Croats and Saxons
The Serbs (who settled in the southern borders of Hungary during the Great Serb Migrations and protected by the Austrians) fought on the Emperor's side since the beginning of the war. They were used as light cavalry in the Austrian army and as tax collectors. During the eight years of war, Hungarian villages and towns of the Great Hungarian Plain and Transdanubia were burnt and robbed by the Serbs, while in Bácska, Serb villages were burnt. However, there were some Serbs who fought on Rakóczi's side against the Habsburgs – the Frontiersmen of Semlak (Mezősomlyó). The leader of the Kuruc Serb troops was Frontier Captain Obrad Lalić from Zenta.

Croatia also supported the Habsburg Monarchy, thus the Croatian Army and the Habsburg contingents precluded the Kuruc occupation of Croatia. Croatian and Serbian forces fought in Transdanubia and Upper Hungary. The Transylvanian Saxons also distanced themselves from Rákóczi in 1703. Although Austrian General Rabutin lost in Transylvania, he retreated into the Saxonland, where Saxon towns and peasants gave shelter to the Habsburg Army. Clashes between the Kuruc and Habsburg-Saxon army took place throughout Croatia.

Romanians and Slovaks

During the conflict, the Slovaks fought for Rákóczi. In the Kuruc army there were Slovak commanders and a few Kuruc forces were completely Slovak. After the enfranchisement of Transylvania, the Romanian minority stood en masse with the Kurucs, and supported the Romanian Kuruc forces. Finally, a few hundred mercenaries from Wallachia and Moldavia fought in Rákóczi's army.

Others
Scores of Polish volunteers and mercenaries came from Poland, also many soldiers were Ukrainians and Lipka Tatars, they supported the Kurucs. Several times Rákóczi asked for help from Poland and endeavored to recruit more Polish soldiers. In the Hungarian lands, the Germans Spiš Saxons and some German groups (including renegades from the Habsburg Army) joined Rákóczi's war. They were supplemented by German mercenaries. The Kuruc Army also used commands and oaths in both the Slovak and German languages, since there were so many Germans and Slovaks who served in the Kuruc army.

The Rusyn minority in 1703 immediately joined the uprising, but before that between 1690 and 1702 the Rusyns supported the Hungarians against the Austrian soldiers. The Hungarian Slovenes from the regions of Muraszombat, Lendva and Szentgotthárd joined the fight against the Habsburg soldiers, since the Styrian forces several times foraged in the Slovene villages.

A few hundred Swedish soldiers broke away from the Battle of Poltava, Benderi and Poland in Hungary. In 1710 Rákóczi admitted the Swedes into the demoralized Kuruc army. The Hungarian-Polish-Swedish-French army was close to victory against the Austrians in the Battle of Romhány, but the last of Rákóczi's forces was crushed in the course of the Austrian counterattack.

Rákóczi's army also included Bulgarians, Lithuanians, Crimean Tatars and Ottomans.

See also

 Simontornya Castle, used as a stronghold by Kuruc rebels

References

Conflicts in 1703
Conflicts in 1704
Conflicts in 1705
Conflicts in 1706
Conflicts in 1707
Conflicts in 1708
Conflicts in 1709
Conflicts in 1710
Conflicts in 1711
18th-century rebellions
Wars involving Hungary
Wars of independence
Wars involving Denmark
Wars involving France
Hungary under Habsburg rule
Revolutions in Hungary
1700s in the Habsburg monarchy
18th century in Hungary
1710s in the Habsburg monarchy
1703 in the Habsburg monarchy
1711 in the Habsburg monarchy
Wars involving the Habsburg monarchy
Rebellions against the Habsburg monarchy
18th-century military history of Croatia
1703-06-15

Rákóczi's War of Independence


Midco (known as Midcontinent Communications until 2016) is a regional cable provider, providing a triple play service of cable television, Internet and telephone service for both North Dakota and South Dakota, along with much of Minnesota, and several communities in Kansas and Wisconsin. The company's business-class service also provides direct fiber-optic communications services via leased data circuits for larger companies.

Headquartered in Sioux Falls, South Dakota and operated as a joint venture between Midcontinent Media and Comcast, Midco provides service to 200 communities both urban and rural, serving an area that covers over 1.2 million people.

History
Midcontinent Media was founded in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1931 as the Welworth Theater Company, an operator of movie theaters. The company remained in that business until the 1990s, when it sold its theaters to various chains, including Carmike.  In 1952, it bought the Midcontinent Broadcasting Company, owner of KELO-AM-FM in Sioux Falls; the company name changed to Midcontinent Media.  The company also bought the construction permit for South Dakota's first television station, KELO-TV, which took to the air in 1953.  Midcontinent purchased several other radio and television stations, but began exiting broadcasting in the 1990s (with KELO-TV and its satellites sold off to Young Broadcasting, currently owned by Nexstar), selling off the last of their radio holdings in 2004.

Midco diversified and extended its reach into other areas of the Upper Midwest, providing telephone and cable TV in rural parts of its service area, starting in the 1960s. In 1999, Midcontinent Media and AT&T Broadband (formerly known as TCI) merged their cable operations in the Dakotas, Minnesota and Nebraska into Midcontinent Communications, a joint venture between both companies. The partnership continued after Comcast's purchase of AT&T Broadband.

In the fall of 2008, Charter Communications announced their filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection and the sale of some assets in non-critical areas. On October 14, 2008, an article appeared in the Fairmont, Minnesota Sentinel, reporting that Charter was selling parts of their system to Midcontinent Communications, including its Bemidji and International Falls headends. Starting February 1, 2009 Midcontinent Communications took over some Charter's cable systems in Minnesota including Balaton, Bemidji, Canby, Ely, Fairmont, International Falls, Littlefork, Sherburn, and surrounding communities. Other areas in Minnesota were sold off to Comcast.

In June 2011, Midcontinent Communications acquired 33,000 Minnesota and Wisconsin subscribers from US Cable.

Midco previously provided paging service, starting in 1985, but sold its paging services to another South Dakota company, Vantek Communications, in 2004. The former paging service was renamed Midco Connections.

On January 12, 2016, the company officially adopted the shortened Midco name across all of their operations, rendering it in all-caps as "MIDCO", with the new tagline of "Let's Go".

In October 2016, Midco acquired the assets of the cable system serving Lawrence, Kansas from Wide Open West.

Midco Sports Network
Midco offers a regional sports network called MidcoSN (formerly MC23 until August 2010) which carries coverage of NCAA Division I athletics in the Summit League, Missouri Valley Football Conference, and National Collegiate Hockey Conference with a specific focus on member schools South Dakota, South Dakota State University, North Dakota, and North Dakota State University. Additionally, MidcoSN is the primary broadcast partner for the NCAA Division II Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference providing coverage of football, basketball, and volleyball events. Each school in the 15-team conference is guaranteed a minimum number of appearances on the network each season.

MidcoSN's signature coverage comes each February and March with full coverage of the NSIC Men's and Women's Basketball Tournaments from the Sanford Pentagon in Sioux Falls. The network broadcasts each game from the quarterfinals on to the championships in its entirety. That's followed by coverage of the Summit League Men's and Women's tournament quarterfinals and semifinals from the Denny Sanford Premier Center. The network does not carry the championship games for those tournaments, as those rights are held by ESPN.

All MidcoSN Summit League and Missouri Valley Football Conference coverage is syndicated to ESPN3 as well.

In addition to coverage of college events, MidcoSN also carries select high school sporting events in both North and South Dakota, including the prestigious Howard Wood Dakota Relays held each year in Sioux Falls.

MidcoSN and its overflow channels, MidcoSN2 and MidcoSN3, are available on to all MIDCO cable customers along with other cable systems in the region through distribution deals.

MidcoSN employs over 30 full-time on-air talent and behind-the-scenes staffers.

The success of MidcoSN in the Dakotas has led to the development of a similar network in Kansas, Midco Sports Kansas, in Lawrence. The network broadcasts high school sports and college games in the northeastern Kansas area.

On Friday, April 21, 2023, a Minnesota Twins game aired on the network due to a conflict on Bally Sports North.

References

External links

 Midco Connections website
 Midco Sports Network website

American companies established in 1931
1931 establishments in Minnesota
Cable television companies of the United States
Communications in South Dakota
Companies based in Sioux Falls, South Dakota
Economy of the Midwestern United States
Joint ventures
Internet service providers of the United States
Streaming television
Comcast subsidiaries

Midco


Flash Thompson is a fictional character from Marvel Comics. He first appeared in Marvel's Amazing Fantasy #15.

Flash Thompson, whose real name is Eugene, is a high school football player and a bully. Flash both insults and beats up Peter Parker making sure to humiliate him daily. Peter then gets bitten by a radioactive spider and gets its powers. Peter secretly uses his powers to fight criminals by becoming the superhero Spider-Man. Flash Thompson then becomes obsessed with Spider-Man and thinks he's great.

In the Amazing Spider-Man #4 Peter Parker fights Flash Thompson and beats him. After that Flash only insults Peter.  Flash goes back to beating Peter up when he and Peter both like the same girl. Flash makes sure that his friends are with him to stop Peter from fighting back.  After leaving high school Flash and Peter Parker still hate each other but both get along with Harry Osborne who becomes Peter's best friend.  Flash later leaves the country to fight in the Vietnam War. When Flash comes back from Vietnam, he is disturbed by everything that happened there. Flash starts to drink alcohol to forget what happened and all of Flash's friends leave him, because he fought in Vietnam, except for Peter Parker. Flash and Peter become good friends after that.

Flash Thompson in media

Flash Thompson is played by Joe Manganiello in the 2002 movie Spider-Man. In it, he bullies Peter Parker and dates Mary-Jane Watson, who is the only student at their high school aside from Harry Osborne who is actually nice to Peter.  Peter gets bitten by a genetically engineered super-spider and gets its powers. Flash attacks Peter in front of a locker and Peter fights back and beats Flash. Uncle Ben tells Peter "that Flash kid probably deserved what was coming to him. But just because you could beat him up doesn't mean you should have. What I'm trying to say is " with great power, comes great responsibility."

Chris Zylka plays Flash Thompson in the 2012 movie The Amazing Spider-Man. In it Flash plays basketball instead of football.  He starts off as a bully and is mean to Peter Parker. Flash is embarrassed when Peter beats him at basketball. Flash is sad when he hears from Peter that Uncle Ben died and is nice to Peter. At the end of the movie Flash wears a Spider-Man t-shirt.

In the 2017 movie Spider-Man: Homecoming, Flash Thompson is played by Tony Revolori. Unlike the other two Flash Thompsons, he never beats Peter Parker up. He verbally bullies Peter but never actually fights him. In the 2019 sequel Spider-Man: Far From Home, Flash thinks Spider-Man is great but is mean to Peter Parker. In 2021's Spider-Man: No Way Home, everyone finds out Spider-Man's secret identity so Flash writes a book saying he and Peter are best friends.

Marvel Comics superheroes

Flash Thompson


Carmen Provenzano (February 3, 1942 – July 27, 2005) was a  Canadian politician. He represented the Sault Ste. Marie electoral district in the House of Commons of Canada from 1997 to 2004. He was a member of the Liberal Party of Canada.

Carmen Provenzano was a graduate of St. Mary's College in the Sault. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Windsor, and a law degree (LLB) from Queen's University in Kingston.

On graduation, he started his legal career in the city of Sault Ste. Marie's legal department, and for 25 years was self-employed in legal private practice in the Sault, specializing in municipal and planning law.

He served as a charter member of the Algoma District Health Council, and for 13 consecutive years as a trustee on the Sault Ste. Marie Board of Education, where he served on all committees, including finance (chair) and salary negotiation.

Provenzano was the past chair of the Northern Ontario Liberal caucus. After his election to Parliament in 1997 and re-election in 2000, he served as parliamentary secretary to the Minister of Veterans Affairs, and was on several standing committees of the House of Commons, including fisheries and oceans (vice-chair), government operations and natural resources (vice-chair), and national defence and veterans affairs.

He was also a member of the parliamentary steel caucus. As the Sault's MP, he considered his involvement in the successful restructuring of Algoma Steel a significant personal achievement.

He was married to his wife Ada for nearly forty years, and together they had four children.

Provenzano died from a sudden heart attack on July 27, 2005. His nephew Christian Provenzano ran unsuccessfully for the Liberals in his former riding during the 2006 federal election and the 2011 federal election, and was elected mayor of Sault Ste. Marie in the 2014 municipal election.

Legacy

On September 15, 2006, "Carmen's Way", a bypass for truck traffic between the Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge and Highway 17, was formally dedicated in Sault Ste. Marie in Provenzano's memory. A dedication plaque reads in part: He will be fondly remembered as a man who loved and lived for his family, friends, community, and Canada--a man who did things "Carmen's Way."

References

External links

1942 births
2005 deaths
Canadian people of Italian descent
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
People from Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario
Ontario Liberal Party candidates in Ontario provincial elections
21st-century Canadian politicians

Carmen Provenzano


Gandharva Mahavidyalaya New Delhi is an institution established in 1939 to popularize Indian classical music and dance. The Mahavidyalaya (school) came into being to perpetuate the memory of Pandit Vishnu Digambar Paluskar, the great reviver of Hindustani classical music, and to keep up the ideals set down by him. The first Gandharva Mahavidyalaya was established by him on 5 May 1901 at Lahore. The New Delhi school follows the syllabi set by the Akhil Bharatiya Gandharva Mahavidyalaya Mandal.

History
Gandharva Mahavidyalaya, New Delhi was established in 1939 by Pandit Vinay Chandra Maudgalya, disciple of Pandit Vinayakrao Patwardhan, an exponent from Gwalior Gharana. Today it is the oldest music school in Delhi and is headed by his son and a noted Hindustani classical singer, Pandit Madhup Mudgal.

Courses
The institution imparts theoretical and practical training in the following branches of music and dance:
 Hindustani Music: Vocal
 Hindustani Music Instrumental: Sitar, Bansuri (Lateral bamboo flute), Tabla, Harmonium and Violin
 Indian Classical Dance: Kathak, Bharatanatyam and Odissi

The courses of study followed by the Mahavidyalaya are those approved by the Akhil Bharatiya Gandharva Mahavidyalaya Mandal. It has nearly 1200 affiliated institutions and 800 Exam Centers across India. In 2007, the number of students enrolled exceeded 100,000.

Branches
Gandharva Mahavidyalaya, New Delhi was established in 1939 by Padma Shri Pt. Vinay Chandra Maudgalya from the Gwalior gharana and his younger brother Pt. Vipinchandra Maudgalya. They were assisted by their younger brother Sh. Pramod Mudgal who is member of the Akhil Bhartiya Gandharva Mahavidyalaya advisory board. It was Initially established in Prem House, Connaught Place, New Delhi and also branched out in old Delhi at Kamla Nagar near Delhi University. This was headed by Pt. Vipin Chandra Maudgalya, and was functioning as Delhi branch of Gandharva Mahavidyalaya till 2003. In 1972 The new building in Deen dayal Upadhyaya Marg was established and it now headed by Pt. Vinay Chandra Maudgalaya's son Pt. Madhup Mudgal since 1995. It has over 1,200 students and a faculty of 60 teachers. The Kamla Nagar branch now runs as an independent Institution called 'Chaturang Sangeet Sansthan' Affiliated to Akhil Bharatiya Gandharva Mahavidyalaya Mandal and it's been run forward by Sh. Anupam Mudgal and smt. Indu Mudgal. Gandharva Mahavidyalaya has also been organizing the annual "Vishnu Digamber Festival" in Delhi, for many years now. There is no branch of Gandharva Mahavidyalaya, New Delhi elsewhere in Delhi. It is affiliated to Akhil Bhartiya Gandharva Mahavidyalaya, Miraj.

The Mahavidyalaya is guided by a Music Advisory Board composed of top ranking learned and veteran musicians of India.

Admission

The following Certificates / Diplomas of ABGMM are awarded to the successful students:
 Sangeet Praveshika (2 years course) i.e., equivalent to matriculation
i.e., equivalent to senior secondary
 Sangeet Madhyama (2 years course) i.e., equivalent to Diploma
 Sangeet Visharad (3 years course) i.e., equivalent to Degree (Bachelor of Music)
 Sangeet Alankar (2 years course) i.e., equivalent to M.A. (Masters of Music)

Admission to Gandharva Mahavidyalaya is open to persons of all ages, castes, creeds and religions. Male and female students are trained separately.

There is one session in a year - in July.  Applicants are required to undergo a Music Syllabus preliminary test. Only those who clear this test are granted admission.

Syllabus
Official Music Syllabus is available at Gandharva Mandal Website Information Page

1. Prarambhik (elementary): Pre-matric. Knowledge of Shudha Swaras, Vadi, Samvadi, Audav-Shadav and one Chhota Khayal in each raga of the first year course.

2. Praveshika (first year): Knowledge of Shudha and Vikrit Swaras, Alankar, Nad, Saptak, Mela, Raga, Jati, Alap, Tan and Pakar.

Ragas: asavari (shuddha rishabh), Bibhas, Vridavani Sarang, Bhimpalas, Durga, Des

3. Praveshika (second year): Matric Music Knowledge of Alankars of more than four swaras including Vikrit Swara.

Additional Ragas: Alhaiya Bilawal, Kedar, Bihag, Bhairav, Malkauns, Bageshri, Khamaj

Tala: Ektal Vilambit, Chautal, Dhamar, Rupak, Dugun of all Tals. Knowledge of systems of Hindustani and Carnatic music; specialities of Nad, Varna, Swaralipi of Vishnu Digambar and Bhatkhande paddhati.

Definitions: Khayal, Dhrupad, Dhamar, Tappa, Thumri, Bhajan, Ghazal, Shruti, Janak and Janya Raga, Grah Ansha, Nyas, Meend, Kana Swara, Poorvang, Uttarang, Sankeerna Ragas, Gat, Tora, Sparsh, Krintan, Mizrab.
Biography of Pt. Vishnu Digambar Paluskar.

4. Madhyama (Third year): Tuning of Tanpura, Division of 22 Shrutis in seven Swaras.

Madhya Laya Khayals with improvisations in Jaunpuri, Malkauns, Hamir, Patdeep, Tilang, Deshkar, and Kalingda, Vilambit and Drut Khayals with improvisations in Bhupali, Yaman (Kalyan) Bageshri and Bihag.

Tala: Jhumra, Sul, Tilwada and Deepchandi; detailed knowledge of Laya; practical knowledge of Meend, Sut, Ghasit, Murki. Tanas: Saral, Kut, Mishra, Sapat, Zamzama, Gamak, Uthav, Chalan, Nad and Shruti; writing Dugun and Chaugun of Dhrupad and Dhamar; detailed knowledge of Swaralipi of Vishnu Digambar and Bhatkhande paddhati.

5. Madhyama (Fourth year): Madhyam Laya Khayals with improvisations in Chhayanat, Kamod, Gaud Sarang, Jaijaoiwanti, Pooriya dhanashree, Shankara; Vilambit and Drut Khayals with improvisations in Alhaiya Bilawal, Bhairav, Bhimpalasi, Brindavani Sarang and Kedar, appropriate knowledge of Dhvani, Kampan, Andolan; comparison between Hindustani and Karnatak systems of music; Guna (merits) and Dosha (demerits) in a musician. Definition of Alpatva, Bahutva, Avirbhav, Tirobhav, Prabandh, Chaturang and Trivat; Anulom, Vilom, Veend, Zamzama, Chikari, Jhala, Dillibaaj, Poorabbaaj and knowledge of Vyankatamakhis 80 melakartas.

6. Visharad (Fifth year):

Madhya Laya Khayals with improvisations

Vilambit and Drut Khayals with improvisations in ragas Todi, shudha sarang, multani, yaman, bihag, puriadhanashri, rageshri, jog, shankara knowledge of singing from written Swaralipi; knowledge of Ada
Chautal, Adha, Punjabi Dhumali, Chacher and Sul.

Dhrupad-Dhamar in Dugun, Tigun, Chaugun and Chhagun.

Chhagun and Athgun Tana with Jod, Alap Jhala, Maseetkhani knowGat.

Styles of Alap; detailed description of varieties of Tanas; Vidari, Ragalakashan, Jatigayan, Vinyas, Apanyas, Gayaki, Nayaki, Ladant. Writing in Swaralipi (notation); Classification of Ragas; Biographies of ancient musicians.

7. Visharad (Sixth year)

Madhya Laya Khayals with improvisations in and Vilambit and Drut Khayals with improvisations in Bhairav, Komalrishabha Asawari, Deshkar, Madhamad Sarang, Puria kalyan, Hamir, Bhupali, Kalavati, Gorakh Kalyan, Bahar. Detailed knowledge of these Ragas and also of Dhrupad, Dhamar, Maseetkhani and Razakhani Gat, Trivat, Chaturang; Vilambit and Drut Khayal, Thumri, Pad Kavita; knowledge of different kinds of Layakaris of the talas: Matta, Sawari, Brahma, Laxmi, Rudra; appropriate knowledge of the divisions of Shruti-Swar as in ancient, medieval and modern times; comparison of Hindustani and Karnatak tala systems. Knowledge of Gram, Moorchhana, Kalawant, Pandit, Vaggeyakar, Khandarbani Nauharbani, etc. Varieties of Gamak, Rag-ragini paddhati, That paddhati and Raga paddhati. Biographies of Jaidev, Gopal Nayak, Khusro, Tansen, Swami Haridas, Baiju, Sadarang, Bhaskarbua, Vazhebua, Alladiya Khan, Balkrishnabua, Maseet Khan, Faiyaz Khan and Inayat Khan. Knowledge of Staff Notation; history of the instrument, importance of Jhankar in instrument;
necessity of Tarab; application of Chikari.

8. Visharad Tritiya (as per syllabus changes in April/May 2013)- ragas are Lalit, Bilaskhani Todi, Jaunpuri, Marubihag, Nand, Miyanmalhar, Hansdhwahni, Darabari, Basant, Tilakkamod.

9. Sangeet Alankar (Seventh & Eighth year): M. Music

Any one of the following three to be taken:

(a) Performance and Music Composition

(b) Practical Music

(c) Science and History of Music

Details are at Pathyakram-Nayamavali of the Akhil Bharatiya Gandharva Mahavidyalaya Mandal (Mumbai), Gandharva Niketan Brahman Puri, Miraj 416410 (Maharashtra).

For details of courses of study and examinations in instrumental Music and Dance you may refer to the prospectus and syllabus of All India Gandharva Mahavidyalaya Mandal, Mumbai
Gandharva Mahavidyalaya has some Bharatnatyam exams.

See also
 Eastern fare music foundation
 Delhi University

References

External links
 Akhil Bharatiya Gandharva Mahavidyalaya Mandal, Mumbai, website]
 Gandharva Mahavidyalaya, New Delhi, website
 http://gandharvapune.com/

Music schools in India
Education in Maharashtra
Hindustani music organisations
Dance schools in India
Educational institutions established in 1939
Education in Delhi
1939 establishments in India

Gandharva Mahavidyalaya, New Delhi


Kuhl's lorikeet (Vini kuhlii), also called the Rimitara lorikeet, Kuhl's lory, Manu 'Ura (local appellation) or Kura (Cook Islands), is a species of lorikeet in the family Psittaculidae. It is one of several species of Vini lorikeets found in islands ranging across the South Pacific.
The Kuhl for whom Nicholas Aylward Vigors named the bird in 1824 was Heinrich Kuhl, a German ornithologist whose survey of the parrots, Conspectus psittacorum, had appeared in 1819.

Description
It is a fast flying lorikeet with vibrant plumage; a green back, wings and crown, a blue nape and legs and bright red undersides and cheeks. The average length is  and the average weight is .

Habitat
The Kuhl's lorikeet's habitat is natural tropical moist lowland forests and plantations. Like all Vini lorikeets it is a nectarivore, and has a brushy tongue to acquire the nectar. In islands denuded of native forests and covered with extensive coconut plantations it is found exclusively in those areas. It was once present in the Cook Islands but is now restricted to islands of French Polynesia (Only found on the island of Rimatara) and has been introduced in Kiribati. It was reintroduced to Atiu, in the Cook Islands in 2007.

Threats
On the Cook Islands, the Kuhl's lorikeet has been exploited for its red feathers.  They are also trapped for the international bird trade.  Black rats were introduced to their native range by Europeans and are now predators of the lorikeet.  The bird also faces competition and the disturbances of nests from the common myna.

Status and conservation
Studies of fossils have shown that it once had a widespread distribution from the Cook Islands to French Polynesia. Its range contracted greatly after the arrival of humans, until the only surviving natural population was on Rimatara in the Austral Islands of Southern French Polynesia. Like many island species, Kuhl's lorikeet is threatened by introduced black rats. Its colourful feathers have also meant that the species was regularly hunted. The species was also introduced to several islands in Kiribati. The last native population was protected by a tapu or taboo by Queen Tamaeva V of Rimatara around 1900. In 2007 a population was reintroduced to the black-rat-free island of Atiu in the Cook Islands by the Cook Islands Natural Heritage Trust and numerous conservation bodies, including the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research.  In 2008, the introduced population was found to be reproducing. In 2019, successful reproduction resulted in an estimated population of over 400 individuals on the island of Atiu.

References

 Chong F, Kape J. (2010). "'Ia ora te 'Ura! Vive le 'Ura! 'Ura, un tres bel oiseau endemique de Rimatara menace", Bulletin de la Société des Études océaniennes, (319): 10–33. Mentioned here http://www.seo.pf/bseo-319.html Volume 311 here http://bibnum.upf.pf/items/show/881#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=0 (in French)

External links
 BirdLife Species Factsheet.
 Photograph of a Rimatara Lorikeet

Kuhl's lorikeet
Birds of the Austral Islands
Fauna of Kiribati
Kuhl's lorikeet
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Kuhl's lorikeet


Thiruvananthapuram () is the capital city of the Indian state of Kerala. The city used to be known by the name of Trivandrum. It is on the west coast of India near the far south of the mainland.
With 889,191 people as of 2001, it is the biggest city in Kerala in terms of size and number of people.

The city is the state capital and houses many national and state government offices, organizations and companies. It is also a major center of learning and is home to several schools and colleges including Kerala University, and to many scientific institutions, the most prominent being the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology (SCTIMST), Technopark, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB) and Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST).

Origin of name
Thiruvananthapuram literally means "City of Lord Anantha" in Malayalam. The name derives from the god of the Hindu temple at the centre of the city. Anantha is the serpent Shesha on whom Padmanabhan or Vishnu lies. The temple of Vishnu lying on Ananta, the Sri Padmanabhaswamy Temple is the most recognizable landmark of the city. The city was officially known as Trivandrum in English until 1991, when the government decided to change the city's name back to the original name, Thiruvananthapuram, in all languages. However, the city is still widely referred to as "Trivandrum" (now Thiruvananthapuram).

Infrastructure
The city is fully electrified by the Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB). The district is divided in to three circles: Transmission circle, Thiruvananthapuram city and Kattakkada. Domestic users account for 43% of the total power usage, or 90 million units per month. Thiruvananthapuram district has one 220 kV, nine 110 kV and six 66 kV electrical substations. A 400 kV substation has just been commissioned by the Power Grid Corporation and will ensure high-quality power supply to the city.

The water supply schemes cover 100% within the city limits. It is 84% of the urban and 69% of the rural population, when the district is considered. Peppara and Aruvikkara dams are the main sources of water for distribution in the capital city. The new project plan for improving the water supply with Japan aid covers Thiruvananthapuram city and six suburban panchayats having urban characteristics.

The sewerage system in the city was implemented at the time of the Travancore Kingdom, and modernised in 1938. This scheme for the disposal of sullage and sewage is an underground system. The whole system is controlled by Kerala Water Authority now. The city area is divided in to seven blocks for the execution of the sewerage system, two commissioned in the 1990s and two after 2000. The sewerage is pumped to a stilling chamber at the Sewerage Treatment Plant (STP) at Valiyathura, and is disposed through sewage farming. Diary Development Department maintains this sewage farm and fodder cultivation is done here. There is no revenue generation from this scheme, and the sewerage system in the city is a service provided to the residents.

Strategic Importance
Apart from being the capital of India's most literate and socially developed state, Thiruvananthapuram is a strategically important city in Southern India. Being the largest city in India's deep south, it is important for both military logistics and civil aviation in the southern part of the country. It is the headquarters of the Southern Air Command(SAC) of the Indian Air Force. The city is very close to the international shipping route and east–west shipping axis. Also, it falls under the international air route.
Due to the strategic importance of the city, the Indian Air Force authorities have planned to make an aerospace command in SAC.
The plan for setting up a new "Tri-Service Command", which will integrate all the three forces under a single command, is also in the pipeline.

Being the Indian city with the closest air link to the small island-country of Maldives and also Sri Lanka, the city's medical and health infrastructure caters to patients from both countries, especially Maldives. Exports of perishables and medicines from Trivandrum International Airport run to full capacity on everyday flights to Maldives and Sri Lanka because of this nearness. Thiruvananthapuram also provides a key link in movement of goods and passengers to and from southern Tamil Nadu into Kerala, the state border being just 30 km away. The city is also important for people from around the world seeking help through Ayurveda medicine and therapy. Ayurveda resorts are coming up at a rapid pace along the International Beach of Kovalam and Varkala coast.

Notes

Other websites
 Official District website
 Public Relations Department Page on Trivandrum
 Government of Kerala Website on Thiruvananthapuram District

Capital cities in India
Cities in Kerala

Thiruvananthapuram


The Academy of Management Journal is a bimonthly peer-reviewed academic journal covering all aspects of management. It is published by the Academy of Management and was established in 1958 as the Journal of the Academy of Management, obtaining its current name in 1963.

According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 10.5. In 2012 the journal was listed as one of the top 10 offenders in a practice called "coercive citation", wherein publishers manipulate their impact factors to artificially boost their academic reputation.

It is also on the Financial Times list of 45 journals used to rank business schools and is one of the four general management journals that the University of Texas Dallas uses to rank the research productivity of universities.

References

External links

Business and management journals
Bimonthly journals
Academic journals established in 1958
English-language journals

Academy of Management Journal


Value noise is a type of noise commonly used as a procedural texture primitive in computer graphics. It is conceptually different from, and often confused with gradient noise, examples of which are Perlin noise and Simplex noise. This method consists of the creation of a lattice of points which are assigned random values. The noise function then returns the interpolated number based on the values of the surrounding lattice points.

For many applications, multiple octaves of this noise can be generated and then summed together, just as can be done with Perlin noise and Simplex noise, in order to create a form of fractal noise.

External links
  - an explanation and implementation of Value Noise, mislabeled as Perlin noise.
 Lesson explaining in a very simple way how Value Noise works (with examples in C++)

References

Noise (graphics)
Computer graphic techniques

Value noise


Invented traditions are those traditions of recent origin which may claim to be old but are usually recently invented (made up). For example:

There are rules to see which traditions are real or fake.
REAL: It's in the books, academic papers, newspapers, or other media.
FAKE: People or opinions

Traditions

Invented tradition


The pelican eel (Eurypharynx pelecanoides) is a deep sea fish. They are rarely seen by humans, although these creatures are sometimes hooked on the nets of fishermen. It is a fish with the shape of an eel.

It is the only known species of the genus Eurypharynx and the family Eurypharyngidae. It belongs to the order Saccopharyngiformes, which are closely related to the true eels.

The pelican eel's most notable feature is its huge mouth, much larger than its body. They can be opened wide enough to swallow a fish much larger than itself. The pouch-like lower jaw is similar to that of a pelican, hence its name. It is also sometimes referred to as the umbrella mouth gulper. The stomach can stretch and expand to make room for large meals. The eel uses a long, whip-like tail for movement, and the end of the tail is bright enough to attract prey.

The pelican eel feeds primarily on fish, shrimp and plankton. It grows to about 0.61 to 1 metre in length and is found in all tropical and subtropical seas at depths ranging from 900 to 8,000 metres (3,000 to 27,000 feet).

Other websites

Eels

Pelican eel


The Laurentides-Lanaudière Junior AA Hockey League is a Canadian junior ice hockey league in the Laurentides and Lanaudière Regions of Quebec.  The league is sanctioned by Hockey Quebec and Hockey Canada and its champions competes annually for the Coupe Dodge.

History

2008 Coupe Dodge Ram
The Repentigny Mustangs were the 2008 Laurentides-Lanaudriere Champions.  The playoff victory gained them entry into the Coupe Dodge Ram.  Unlike years before and after, Hockey Quebec elected to have two Junior AA championships and two champions in 2008.  The Mustangs qualified for the "Ram" tournament and began by defeating Sept-Iles 6–1.  In the next game they beat the Normandin Eperviers 5-4.  Entering the quarter-final round, they ran into Sept-Iles again, this time crushing them 9–0.  In the semi-finals, the Mustangs drew Baie-Comeau and beat them 7–1.  The finals, saw a rematch between the Mustangs and the Eperviers where the Mustangs won 5–2 to become champions of Eastern Quebec.

2009 Coupe Dodge
In 2009, the Moulins Garaga were the LLJAAHL playoff champions.  The Garaga went to the Coupe Dodge tournament.  In their first game, they defeated the Montreal-Est Federation 8–7.  In their second game, they defeated the West Island Royals 5–4 and then beat the Trois-Pistoles Rebels 5–2.  This got them to the quarter-final, where they beat the BCC Harfangs 5–1.  In the semi-final, Garaga defeated Montreal-Est once again (3–1) to gain entry into the Provincial final.  In the final, the Garaga faced the St-Cyrille Cyclones, who they beat 3–2 to win the Coupe Dodge as Quebec Junior AA champions.

2012 Coupe Dodge
The 2012 LLJAAHL champions were the Lorraine-Rosemere Nationals.  The Nationals travelled to Lachute, Quebec to compete for the Coupe Dodge provincial championship.  Their first game was a tough 7–2 loss to the Montreal Nordiques.  The Nationals next game was only marginally better, losing to the Jonquiere Marquis 7–5.  The Nationals rebounded in their third preliminary game, defeating the Verdun/Lasalle Cobras 3–1.  In the tournament quarter-final, the Nationals defeated the Quebec-Ouest Ambassadors 2–1.  In the semi-final, Lorraine-Rosemere crushed La Vallee Draveurs 8–3 to get into the finals.  The championship game saw the Nationals in a rematch against Jonquiere.  This time, the Nationals dominated the Marquis, beating them 5–0 to win the Coupe Dodge as Quebec Junior AA champions.

Teams

Champions
Bolded are the winners of the Coupe Dodge Quebec Junior AA Championship.

2006 St-Eustache Patriots
2007 Laval Ducs
2008 Repentigny Mustangs
2009 Moulins Garaga
2010 Lorraine-Rosemère Nationals
2011 St-Jerome Alouettes
2012 Lorraine-Rosemère Nationals
2013 St-Eustache Patriots
2014 Mirabel-Blainville Monarchs
2015 Moulins Gladiators
2016 Boisbriand/Ste-Therese Royals
2017 Joliette-Crabtree Cyclones
2018 Trois-Rivières Draveurs

References

External links
LJAALL Website

B
Laurentides
Lanaudière
B
Organizations based in Quebec
Mirabel, Quebec
Hockey Quebec


A shoe is a type of footwear. It is an item of clothing. You can wear them outside. Shoes come in pairs, with one shoe for each foot. People usually wear shoes in public. They are worn for hygiene, style, and comfort. While there are some shoes that don't need socks to wear, shoes are usually worn with socks.

Shoes are a type of foot protection.  For example, many shoes can protect a person's foot from sand; others do not.

Types of shoes
There are many different types of shoes. Athletic shoes, for example, are lightweight to make running, walking or jogging easier. The sole of the shoe is also softer.  Slippers are a kind of indoor shoe.  They often serve to keep feet warm.  Tall shoes are boots.  Rubber boots are used in wet places.

Shoes are also worn for fashion.  Shoes with a high heel are called high heels.  Shoes for formal wear are made of leather.  They are worn for business and ceremonial functions.

Other websites

External links
Shoe on English Wikipedia
Basic English 850 words
Footwear

Shoe


This is about taking a bow (rhymes with 'now').
For using a bow (rhymes with 'no') in music, see bow (music).

Bowing means: taking a bow.  A bow is when a person bends their body forward from the waist in order to greet someone or show respect for them.  A bow is sometimes not much more than a quick nod of the head, but it can be a very deep bow from the waist. The exact way to bow and the situations in which people bow vary enormously between different cultures.

Bowing was originally a gesture (a movement of the body) which showed deep respect for someone.  In European cultures bowing to someone is now only done in very formal situations, e.g. when meeting the Queen or someone very high and important.

In European history bowing was common at royal courts.  Men were expected to "bow and scrape".  This meant bowing and at the same time drawing back the right leg so that it scraped the floor. The man would hold his left hand over his waist while doing this. This is why we still talk about  "bowing and scraping" meaning that someone is trying very hard and hypocritically to be unnecessarily polite.  This kind of deep bow, which is never used nowadays, is sometimes called a "reverence" (a word meaning: "deep respect").

Bowing was only done by men.  Women would always curtsey to show respect.

Nowadays bowing in European cultures is mostly seen at performances.  When people applaud (clap their hands) after a performance such as a concert on in the theatre the performer will take a bow.  This is like saying "thank you" to the audience for saying "thank you" by clapping. Both men and women performers bow (although female ballet dancers will curtsey).

In Christian worship people in churches will bow to the altar to show respect to Jesus.

There are other special occasions in which people bow.  In judo and some other martial arts the two contestants (people who are going to fight) will bow to one another to show that they respect one another and will obey the rules of the game.

In some Asian cultures bowing is far more common than in the West.  It is especially important in Japan.  Japanese people – both men and women - spend a lot of their time bowing.  They bow to greet one another, to say goodbye, to say they are sorry, to say 'thank you', or to show that they are not as important as the person they are bowing to.  There are different degrees of bowing, and it is very important in Japanese culture to know the right way to bow on different occasions.  A bow of 15 degrees is very informal, a bow of 45 degrees is very formal.  They keep their back (from the head to the hips) straight while doing this.  The men have their hands by their sides, women have one hand over the other in front of their body.  Typically a bow should last a count of eight: three to go down, one for a pause and four for returning to an upright position. If someone bows a little longer than the other person, that other person may bow again, and the other person then also bows again, and this can go on several times.   Japanese mothers carry their babies on their backs, so that children learn to bow even before they can speak.  Pupils and teachers at school bow to one another.  The more important someone is, the deeper the other person has to bow.

Related pages
Curtsey

Non-verbal communication
Customs

Bowing


Syunik may refer to:

 Siunia dynasty, ancient Armenian noble family.
 Syunik (historic province), the 9th province of the historic Kingdom of Armenia.
 Kingdom of Syunik, medieval Armenian kingdom dependent to Bagratid Armenia, Kingdom of Georgia and Mongol Empire.
 Syunik (village), a village in Syunik Province.
 Syunik Province, an administrative entity in Armenia.

Syunik


The Liverpool Protestant Party (LPP) was a minor political party operating in the city of Liverpool in northwest England.

Origins and context
The origins of the Liverpool Protestant Party lie in the increasing dissatisfaction with the Conservative and Unionist Party felt by many Orange Lodge members and other militant Protestants in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries.

This unease was caused by a number of issues:

 The use of the Conservative whip in Parliament to oppose the extension of factory inspection to convent laundries
 The Education Act 1902 making public money available to Catholic schools ("Rome on the Rates")
 The failure to enact a new Church Discipline Act, or amend the old one, to provide for a more effective counter to extreme ritualism in the Church of England.

Large scale Irish migration, especially by Irish Catholics, to Liverpool had seen the city's Roman Catholic population greatly increase. The Liverpool Protestant Party fiercely opposed the construction of a cathedral for the Catholic community of Liverpool. The first attempt to secure independent Protestant representation was made by John Kensit, leader of the Protestant Truth Society, who stood for election to the House of Commons in Brighton in 1898. In Ireland, this unease manifested itself in the creation of the Independent Orange Order in Belfast in Ulster in 1902.

Formation
There was disquiet due to the reluctance of the Conservative-controlled Liverpool Corporation to set aside areas of public open space specifically for outdoor meetings. George Wise, a prominent local Protestant leader, had been imprisoned for refusing to be bound over to keep the peace following disturbances at meetings held in public squares and gardens. On his release from Walton Gaol on 6 June he decided to pursue independent Protestant representation on the city council.

Support was centred among Wise's adherents, including large numbers of members of the Orange Order and the congregation of the Protestant Reformers Church of which he was the Pastor. Traditionally the "Orange vote" would go to the Conservatives but in 1903, the LPP was formed as a distinct party by George Wise.

1903 to 1919
Four seats were contested and three won, including Kirkdale. Representation was also secured on the West Derby Board of Guardians, which supervised health care and poor relief in the North and East of the city. Some rapprochement with the Conservatives took place before World War I through co-operation to fight the Irish Home Rule Bill, although the Conservative leader in the city, Alderman Archibald Salvidge, was opposed to independent Protestant representation.

1920–1930
The support of the Conservative Party for the establishment of the Irish Free State renewed dissatisfaction with them amongst militant Protestants. In Liverpool this was manifested in a loss of membership in the Conservative Workingmen's Association. The Liverpool Protestant Party believed the establishment of the Irish Free State was a mere stepping stone to an Irish republic.
The National Protestant Electoral Federation (NPEF) was formed at this time with four aims:-

 The promotion of the study of Protestantism
 The maintenance of the Protestant succession to the throne (as established by the Act of Settlement 1701)
 To assist the return of robust Protestants, irrespective of party, as representatives on public bodies
 To protect the interests of Protestant workers in Trade unions

In Liverpool the policies of the NPEF were put into effect for the 1922 elections to the Boards of Guardians. The NPEF endorsed Protestant Party candidates and any other candidates who were willing to add the word Protestant to their party name. This resulted in two Protestant Party and two Protestant & Unionist candidates being elected with 25,787 votes between them.

1930 to 1945
The Local Government Act 1929 abolished the Boards of Guardians and handed their responsibilities to local authorities. Liverpool Corporation took over three Boards – West Derby for the North and East of the city, Liverpool for the City Centre and Toxteth Park for the South. Some rationalisation of the various hospital and other facilities took place which meant that the Liverpool Board of Guardians  facility at Brownlow Hill became redundant. The city council decided to sell the site to the Archdiocese of Liverpool in order for the archdiocese to build a Catholic cathedral. Sales of redundant land and property to Catholic interests had been blocked by Protestant representatives on the Boards, but under the council the sale went ahead with Conservative approval.

This led to the Protestant Party contesting the City Council elections of November 1930. Only the party leader Harry Dixon Longbottom was successful, in St Domingo, but in several wards the Protestant Party took enough votes from the Conservatives to cause them to lose them to Labour.

It opposed the emergent socialist politics of the Labour movement and called for curbs on immigration into Great Britain from Roman Catholic areas of Ireland. It also blamed Irish immigrants for unemployment, poor housing and high rates.

It primarily fought local government seats, but did stand the Reverend H. D. Longbottom in the Liverpool Kirkdale seat for Westminster elections from 1931 until 1945.  In 1931, he took a quarter of the votes cast.

1945–1974
For all but one year – 1963 – between 1945 and 1970, the Protestant Party was the third largest party on the council, in terms of seat share. The party tended to stand in the northern St. Domingo and Netherfield wards, unopposed by the Conservatives, and in return voted with them on most issues in the council chamber. The party also held one Aldermanic seat on the council from 1945 to 1957. It won its last seat in 1973, but activity was waning and, as the "Orange vote" subsided in influence, the LPP found it harder to continue.

Following the Local Government Act 1972, Liverpool City Council faced ward redistribution. In 1974, the Protestant Party was disbanded, with most of their members joining the Conservatives.

Legacy

The "Orange vote" has not totally died in Liverpool. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) has looked into the possibility of establishing a branch in Liverpool, possibly considering standing local government candidates there as well. Former members of the LPP have been involved with this attempt.

Leaders
1903: George Wise
1916: T. B. Wilmot
1919: Harry Longbottom
1962: Ronald F. Henderson
c.1970: Roy Hughes

References

Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom
Christian political parties in the United Kingdom
Defunct political parties in England
Anti-Catholic organizations
Orange Order
Political parties established in 1903
Political parties disestablished in 1974
Protestant political parties
Politics of Liverpool
Critics of the Catholic Church
Organisations based in Liverpool
1903 establishments in England
1974 disestablishments in England
Protestantism in England

Liverpool Protestant Party


Waste (or wastes) are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance that is discarded after primary use or is worthless, defective, and of no use.

It may be no longer useful as it has served its purpose, and at the end of the process have no further use, and is generally discarded.  It is unwanted material that people have thrown away.  It is often also called trash, garbage, rubbish, or junk. It can be solid, liquid, or gas, or it can be waste heat. There are many different kinds of waste. Garbage is the waste we produce daily in our homes, including old or unwanted food, chemical substances, paper, broken furniture, used containers, and other things.

When waste is a liquid or gas, it can be called an emission. This is usually pollution. Sanitation is the proper handling of human waste.

Waste can also be something abstract (something that you cannot touch), for example, "a waste of time" or "wasted opportunities". When people use the words waste or wasted in this way, they are saying (directly or indirectly) that something has been used badly (using too much of it or using it incorrectly).

Waste management
Waste management or waste disposal is the process and actions that we take to manage waste from it start point to when we finally throw or dispose them away. This process includes collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste, together with monitoring of the waste management process and waste related laws, technologies and economic mechanisms.

Waste management deals with all types of waste, which include industrial, biological, household, municipal, organic, biomedical, radioactive wastes. Waste poses threats to human health. Health issues are linked with the entire process of waste management. Health issues can also arise indirectly or directly: directly through the handling of solid and liquid wastes, and indirectly through the consumption of water, soil, breathing, and food.

The purpose of waste management is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on the environment and human health. A big part of waste management deals with municipal solid wasted, which is created by industrial, commercial, and household activity. Waste management are not the same across every country (developed and developing nations); regions (urban and rural areas) and residential and industrial sectors can all take different methods.

People have thrown away waste in heaps for thousands of years. In modern homes and businesses, garbage is normally placed in waste containers of some sort.  It is then moved to the streets, where it can be collected and taken to a place designed to hold, destroy, or recycle garbage. Some waste materials, such as paper, wood, glass, metals, and plastic containers, can be recycled (reused).  Materials that cannot be recycled are either burned (incinerated) or heaped into landfills.

Plant matter, such as fruit and vegetable scraps, is biodegradable. It can usually be heaped into a compost, where it will decompose relatively quickly. This kind of waste is often called "wet" or "green" waste.

Very often, waste is not collected in containers. It may instead be thrown onto the ground or dumped somewhere. This is called littering.

Effective 'Waste Management' involves the practice of '7R' - 'R'efuse, 'R'educe', 'R'euse, 'R'epair, 'R'epurpose, 'R'ecycle and 'R'ecover. Amongst these '7R's, the first two ('Refuse' and 'Reduce') relates to the non-creation of waste - by refusing to buy non-essential products and by reducing consumption. The next two ('Reuse' and 'Repair') refers to increasing the usage of the existing product, with or without the substitution of certain parts of the product. 'Repurpose' and 'Recycle' involves maximum usage of the materials used in the product. And 'Recover' is the least preferred and least efficient waste management practice involving the recovery of embedded energy in the waste material. For example, burning the waste to produce heat (and electricity from heat). Certain non-bio-degradable products are also dumped away as 'Disposal', and this is not a "waste-'management'" practice.

Related pages
 Toxic waste

References

Other websites

A description about the different sources of waste including classification of waste.

Basic English 850 words

Waste