Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. (March 8, 1841 – March 6, 1935) was an American jurist who served as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1902 to 1932. Holmes is one of the most widely cited Supreme Court justices and among the most influential American judges in history, noted for his long service, pithy opinions—particularly those on civil liberties and American constitutional democracy—and deference to the decisions of elected legislatures. Holmes retired from the court at the age of 90, an unbeaten record for oldest justice on the Supreme Court. He previously served as a Brevet Colonel in the American Civil War, in which he was wounded three times, as an associate justice and chief justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, and as Weld Professor of Law at his alma mater, Harvard Law School. His positions, distinctive personality, and writing style made him a popular figure, especially with American progressives.

During his tenure on the U.S. Supreme Court, to which he was appointed by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1902, he supported the constitutionality of state economic regulation and came to advocate broad freedom of speech under the First Amendment, after, in Schenck v. United States (1919), having upheld for a unanimous court criminal sanctions against draft protestors with the memorable maxim that "free speech would not protect a man in falsely shouting fire in a theatre and causing a panic" and formulating the groundbreaking "clear and present danger" test. Later that same year, in his famous dissent in Abrams v. United States (1919), he wrote that "the best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market.... That, at any rate, is the theory of our Constitution. It is an experiment, as all life is an experiment." He added that "we should be eternally vigilant against attempts to check the expression of opinions that we loathe and believe to be fraught with death...."

He was one of only a handful of justices known as a scholar; The Journal of Legal Studies has identified Holmes as the third-most-cited American legal scholar of the 20th century. Holmes was a legal realist, as summed up in his maxim, "The life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience", and a moral skeptic opposed to the doctrine of natural law. His jurisprudence and academic writing influenced much subsequent American legal thinking, including the judicial consensus upholding New Deal regulatory law and the influential American schools of pragmatism, critical legal studies, and law and economics.

Early life
Holmes was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to the prominent writer and physician Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. and Amelia Lee Jackson Holmes. Both his parents were of English descent, and all his ancestors had come to North America from England during the early colonial period as part of the Puritan migration to New England. His mother opposed slavery and fulfilled her domestic role as traditionally understood. Dr. Holmes was a leading figure in Boston intellectual and literary circles. Mrs. Holmes was connected to the leading families; Henry James Sr., Ralph Waldo Emerson, and other transcendentalists were family friends.

Known as "Wendell" in his youth, Holmes became lifelong friends with the brothers William James and Henry James Jr. Holmes accordingly grew up in an atmosphere of intellectual achievement and early on formed the ambition to be a man of letters like Emerson. He retained an interest in writing poetry throughout his life. While still in Harvard College he wrote essays on philosophic themes and asked Emerson to read his attack on Plato's idealist philosophy. Emerson famously replied, "If you strike at a king, you must kill him." He supported the abolitionist movement that thrived in Boston society during the 1850s. At Harvard, he was a member of Alpha Delta Phi fraternity, the Hasty Pudding and the Porcellian Club; his father had also been a member of both clubs. In the Pudding, he served as Secretary and Poet, as had his father. Holmes graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Harvard in 1861, and, in the spring of that year, after President Abraham Lincoln called for volunteers following the firing on Fort Sumter, he enlisted in the Massachusetts militia but returned briefly to Harvard College to participate in commencement exercises.

Civil War

During his senior year of college, at the outset of the American Civil War, Holmes enlisted in the Fourth Battalion of Infantry in the Massachusetts militia, then in July 1861, with his father's help, received a commission as second lieutenant in the Twentieth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry. He saw considerable combat during his service, taking part in the Peninsula Campaign, and the Wilderness, suffering wounds at the Battle of Ball's Bluff, Antietam, and Chancellorsville, and suffered from a near-fatal case of dysentery. He particularly admired and was close to Henry Livermore Abbott, a fellow officer in the 20th Massachusetts. Holmes rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel, but eschewed command of his regiment upon his promotion. Abbott took command of the regiment in his place and was later killed.

In September 1863, while recovering at the Holmes family home on Charles Street in Boston from his third major combat injury, Holmes was promoted to colonel, but never returned to the 20th Massachusetts because the unit had been decimated. Upon his recovery, in January 1864 Holmes was appointed aide-de-camp of General Horatio Wright, then Division Commander of VI Corps, and later in command of the Corps. Holmes served with Wright during General Grant's campaign down to Petersburg, returning to Washington with the Sixth Corps when the Capital was threatened in July 1864. On July 17, 1864, Holmes was mustered out at the end of his enlistment term, returning to Boston and enrolling at Harvard Law School later that year.

Holmes is said to have shouted to Abraham Lincoln to take cover during the Battle of Fort Stevens, although this is commonly regarded as apocryphal. Holmes himself expressed uncertainty about who had warned Lincoln ("Some say it was an enlisted man who shouted at Lincoln; others suggest it was General Wright who brusquely ordered Lincoln to safety. But for a certainty, the 6 foot 4 inch Lincoln, in frock coat and top hat, stood peering through field glasses from behind a parapet at the onrushing rebels.") and other sources state he likely was not present on the day Lincoln visited Fort Stevens.

Legal career

Lawyer

In the summer of 1864, Holmes returned to the family home in Boston, wrote poetry, and debated philosophy with his friend William James, pursuing his debate with philosophic idealism, and considered re-enlisting. By the fall, when it became clear that the war would soon end, Holmes enrolled in Harvard Law School, "kicked into the law" by his father, as he later recalled. He attended lectures there for a single year, reading extensively in theoretical works, and then clerked for a year in his cousin Robert Morse's office. In 1866, he received a Bachelor of Laws degree from Harvard, was admitted to the Massachusetts bar, and after a long visit to London to complete his education went into law practice in Boston. He joined a small firm, and in 1872 married a childhood friend, Fanny Bowditch Dixwell, buying a farm in Mattapoisett, Massachusetts, the following year. Their marriage lasted until her death on April 30, 1929. They never had children together. They did adopt and raise an orphaned cousin, Dorothy Upham. Fanny disliked Beacon Hill society, and devoted herself to embroidery. She was described as devoted, witty, wise, tactful, and perceptive.

Whenever he could, Holmes visited London during the social season of spring and summer, and during the years of his work as a lawyer and judge in Boston he formed romantic friendships with English women of the nobility, with whom he corresponded while at home in the United States. The most important of these was his friendship with the Anglo-Irish Clare Castletown, the Lady Castletown, whose family estate in Ireland, Doneraile Court, he visited several times, and with whom he may have had a brief affair. He formed his closest intellectual friendships with British men, and became one of the founders of what was soon called the "sociological" school of jurisprudence in Great Britain, followed a generation later by the "legal realist" school in America.

Holmes practiced admiralty law and commercial law in Boston for fifteen years. It was during this time that he did his principal scholarly work, serving as an editor of the new American Law Review, reporting decisions of state supreme courts, and preparing a new edition of Kent's Commentaries, which served practitioners as a compendium of case law, at a time when official reports were scarce and difficult to obtain. He summarized his hard-won understanding in a series of lectures, collected and published as The Common Law in 1881.

The Common Law
The Common Law has been continuously in print since 1881 and remains an important contribution to jurisprudence. The book also remains controversial, for Holmes begins by rejecting various kinds of formalism in law. In his earlier writings he had expressly denied the utilitarian view that law was a set of commands of the sovereign, rules of conduct that became legal duties. He rejected as well the views of the German idealist philosophers, whose views were then widely held, and the philosophy taught at Harvard, that the opinions of judges could be harmonized in a purely logical system. In the opening paragraphs of the book, he famously summarized his own view of the history of the common law:

The life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience. The felt necessities of the time, the prevalent moral and political theories, intuitions of public policy, avowed or unconscious, even the prejudices which judges share with their fellow-men, have had a good deal more to do than the syllogism in determining the rules by which men should be governed. The law embodies the story of a nation's development through many centuries, and it cannot be dealt with as if it contained only the axioms and corollaries of a book of mathematics.

In The Common Law, Holmes wrote that, even though the law "uses the language of morality, it necessarily ends in external standards not dependent on the consciousness of the individual" or on his moral culpability. Foreseeability of harm was the key: "the general basis of criminal liability was knowledge, at the time of action, of facts from which common experience showed that certain harmful results were likely to follow." Tort liability, similarly, was imposed when circumstances were "such as would have led a prudent man to perceive danger, although not necessarily to foresee the specific harm". Likewise, with respect to contracts, "The law has nothing to do with the actual state of the parties' minds. In contract, as elsewhere, it must go by externals, and judge parties by their conduct."

In the book, Holmes set forth his view that the only source of law, properly speaking, was a judicial decision enforced by the state. Judges decided cases on the facts, and then wrote opinions afterward presenting a rationale for their decision. The true basis of the decision was often an "inarticulate major premise", however. A judge was obliged to choose between contending legal arguments, each posed in absolute terms, and the true basis of his decision was sometimes drawn from outside the law, when precedents were lacking or were evenly divided.

The common law evolves because civilized society evolves, and judges share the common preconceptions of the governing class. These views endeared Holmes to the later advocates of legal realism, and made him one of the early founders of law and economics jurisprudence. Holmes famously contrasted his own scholarship with the abstract doctrines of Christopher Columbus Langdell, dean of Harvard Law School, who viewed the common law as a self-enclosed set of doctrines. Holmes viewed Langdell's work as akin to the German philosophic idealism he had for so long resisted, opposing it with his own scientific materialism.

State court judge

Holmes was considered for a federal court judgeship in 1878 by President Rutherford B. Hayes, but Massachusetts Senator George Frisbie Hoar persuaded Hayes to nominate another candidate. In the fall of 1882, Holmes became a professor at Harvard Law School, accepting an endowed professorship that had been created for him, largely through the efforts of Louis D. Brandeis. On Friday, December 8, 1882, Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts associate justice Otis Lord decided to resign, giving outgoing Republican governor John Davis Long a chance to appoint his successor, if he could do so before the Massachusetts Governor's Council adjourned at 3 pm. Holmes's partner George Shattuck proposed him for the vacancy, Holmes quickly agreed, and there being no objection by the council, he took the oath of office on December 15, 1882. His resignation from his professorship, after only a few weeks and without notice, was resented by the law school faculty, with James Bradley Thayer finding Holmes's conduct "selfish" and "thoughtless". On August 2, 1899, Holmes became Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court following the death of Walbridge A. Field.

During his service on the Massachusetts court, Holmes continued to develop and apply his views of the common law, usually following precedent faithfully. He issued few constitutional opinions in these years, but carefully developed the principles of free expression as a common-law doctrine. He departed from precedent to recognize workers' right to organize trade unions and to strike, as long as no violence was involved, and coercion was not exerted through impermissible means such as secondary boycotts, stating in his opinions that fundamental fairness required that workers be allowed to combine to compete on an equal footing with employers. He continued to give speeches and to write articles that added to or extended his work on the common law, most notably "Privilege, Malice and Intent", in which he presented his view of the pragmatic basis of the common-law privileges extended to speech and the press, which could be defeated by a showing of malice, or of specific intent to harm. This argument would later be incorporated into his famous opinions concerning the First Amendment.

Famously, he observed in McAuliffe v. Mayor of New Bedford (1892) that a policemanHe also published an address, "The Path of the Law", which is best known for its prediction theory of law, that "[t]he prophecies of what the courts will do in fact, and nothing more pretentious, are what I mean by law", and for its "bad man" perspective on the law that "[i]f you really want to know the law and nothing else, you must look at it as a bad man, who cares only for the material consequences which such knowledge enables him to predict".

Supreme Court Justice

Overview

Soon after the death of Associate Justice Horace Gray in July 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt made known his intention to appoint Holmes as Gray's successor; it was the president's stated desire to fill the vacancy with someone from Massachusetts. The nomination was supported by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, the junior senator from Massachusetts, but was opposed by its senior senator, George Frisbie Hoar, who was also chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee. Hoar was a strenuous opponent of imperialism, and the legality of the annexation of Puerto Rico and the Philippines was expected to come before the Court. Lodge, like Roosevelt, was a strong supporter of imperialism, which Holmes was expected to support as well.

Despite Hoar's opposition, the president moved ahead on the matter. On December 2, 1902, he formally submitted the nomination and Holmes was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 4. He was sworn into office on December 8.

On the bench, Holmes did vote to support the administration's position favoring the annexation of former Spanish colonies in the "Insular Cases". However, he later disappointed Roosevelt by dissenting in Northern Securities Co. v. United States, a major antitrust prosecution; the majority of the court opposed Holmes and sided with Theodore Roosevelt's belief that Northern Securities violated the Sherman Antitrust Act. The dissent by Holmes permanently damaged his formerly close relationship with Theodore Roosevelt.

Holmes was known for his pithy, frequently quoted opinions. In more than twenty-nine years on the Supreme Court bench, he ruled on cases spanning the whole range of federal law. He is remembered for prescient opinions on topics as  varied as copyright law, the law of contempt, the antitrust status of professional baseball, and the oath required for citizenship. Holmes, like most of his contemporaries, viewed the Bill of Rights as codifying privileges obtained over the centuries in English and American common law, and he established that view in numerous opinions for the Court. He is considered one of the greatest judges in American history and embodies for many the traditions of the common law. A eugenicist, he authored the majority opinion upholding forced sterilization. Tens of thousands of the procedures followed.

From the departure of William Howard Taft on February 3, 1930, until Charles Evans Hughes took office on February 24, 1930, Holmes briefly acted as the Chief Justice and presided over court sessions.

Noteworthy Supreme Court opinions

Otis v. Parker
Beginning with his first opinion for the Court in Otis v. Parker (1903), Holmes exhibited his tendency to defer to legislatures, which two years later he did most famously in his dissenting opinion in Lochner v. New York (1905). In Otis v. Parker, the Court, in an opinion by Holmes, upheld the constitutionality of a California statute that provided that "all contracts for the sales of shares of the capital stock of any corporation or association on margin, or to be delivered at a future day, shall be void...." Holmes he wrote that, as a general proposition, "neither a state legislature nor a state constitution can interfere arbitrarily with private business or transactions.... But general propositions do not carry us far. While the courts must exercise a judgment of their own, it by no means is true that every law is void which may seem to the judges who pass upon it excessive, unsuited to its ostensible end, or based upon conceptions of morality with which they disagree. Considerable latitude must be allowed for differences of view.... If the state thinks that an admitted evil cannot be prevented except by prohibiting a calling or transaction not in itself necessarily objectionable, the courts cannot interfere, unless ... they can see that it 'is a clear, unmistakable infringement of rights secured by the fundamental law.'"

Lochner v. New York
In his dissenting opinion in Lochner v. New York (1905), Holmes supported labor, not out of sympathy for workers, but because of his tendency to defer to legislatures. In Lochner, the Court struck down a New York statute that prohibited employees (spelled "employes" at the time) from being required or permitted to work in a bakery more than sixty hours a week. The majority found that the statute "interferes with the right of contract between the employer and employes", and that the right of contract, though not explicit in the Constitution, "is part of the liberty of the individual protected by the Fourteenth Amendment", under which no state may "deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law." In his brief dissent, Holmes said that the majority had reached its decision on the basis of the economic theory of laissez faire, but that the Constitution does not prevent the states from interfering with the liberty to contract. "The Fourteenth Amendment", Holmes wrote, "does not enact Mr. Herbert Spencer's Social Statics", which advocates laissez faire.

Schenck v. United States
In a series of opinions surrounding the World War I Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918, Holmes held that the freedom of expression guaranteed by federal and state constitutions simply declared a common-law privilege for speech and the press, even when those expressions caused injury, but that the privilege could be defeated by a showing of malice or intent to do harm. Holmes came to write three unanimous opinions for the Supreme Court that arose from prosecutions under the 1917 Espionage Act because in an earlier case, Baltzer v. United States, he had circulated a powerfully expressed dissent, when the majority had voted to uphold a conviction of immigrant socialists who had circulated a petition criticizing the draft. Apparently learning that he was likely to publish this dissent, the government (perhaps alerted by Justice Louis D. Brandeis, newly appointed by President Woodrow Wilson) abandoned the case, and it was dismissed by the Court. The Chief Justice then asked Holmes to write opinions that could be unanimous, upholding convictions in three similar cases, where there were jury findings that speeches or leaflets were published with an intent to obstruct the draft, a crime under the 1917 law. Although there was no evidence that the attempts had succeeded, Holmes, in Schenck v. United States (1919), held for a unanimous Court that an attempt, purely by language, could be prosecuted if the expression, in the circumstances in which it was uttered, posed a "clear and present danger" that the legislature had properly forbidden. In his opinion for the Court, Holmes famously declared that the First Amendment would not protect a person "falsely shouting fire in a theatre and causing a panic".

Abrams v. United States
Later in 1919, however, in Abrams v. United States, Holmes dissented. The Wilson Administration was vigorously prosecuting those suspected of sympathies with the recent Russian Revolution, as well as opponents of the war against Germany. The defendants in this case were socialists and anarchists, recent immigrants from Russia who opposed the apparent efforts of the United States to intervene in the Russian Civil War. They were charged with violating the Sedition Act of 1918, which was an amendment to the Espionage Act of 1917 that made criticisms of the government or the war effort a crime. Abrams and his co-defendants were charged with distributing leaflets (one in English and one in Yiddish) that called for a "general strike" to protest the U.S. intervention in Russia. A majority of the Court voted to uphold the convictions and sentences of ten and twenty years, to be followed by deportation, while Holmes dissented. The majority claimed to be following the precedents already set in Schenck and the other cases in which Holmes had written for the Court, but Holmes insisted that the defendants' leaflets neither threatened to cause any harm nor showed a specific intent to hinder the war effort. Holmes condemned the Wilson Administration's prosecution and its insistence on draconian sentences for the defendants in passionate language: "Even if I am technically wrong [regarding the defendants' intent] and enough can be squeezed from these poor and puny anonymities to turn the color of legal litmus paper ... the most nominal punishment seems to me all that possibly could be inflicted, unless the defendants are to be made to suffer, not for what the indictment alleges, but for the creed that they avow ... ." Holmes then went on to explain the importance of freedom of thought in a democracy:

[W]hen men have realized that time has upset many fighting faiths, they may come to believe ... that the best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market, and that truth is the only ground upon which their wishes safely can be carried out. That, at any rate, is the theory of our Constitution. It is an experiment, as all life is an experiment.

In writing this dissent, Holmes may have been influenced by Zechariah Chafee's article "Freedom of Speech in War Time". Chafee had criticized Holmes's opinion in Schenck for failing to express in more detail and more clearly the common-law doctrines upon which he relied. In his Abrams dissent, Holmes did elaborate somewhat on the decision in Schenck, roughly along the lines that Chafee had suggested. Although Holmes evidently believed that he was adhering to his own precedent, some later commentators accused Holmes of inconsistency, even of seeking to curry favor with his young admirers. In Abrams, the majority opinion relied on the clear-and-present-danger formulation of Schenck, claiming that the leaflets showed the necessary intent, and ignoring that they were unlikely to have any effect. By contrast, the Supreme Court's current formulation of the clear and present danger test, stated in 1969 in Brandenburg v. Ohio, holds that "advocacy of the use of force or of law violation" is protected by the First Amendment "unless such advocacy is directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action".

Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States
In Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States (1920), Holmes ruled that any evidence obtained, even indirectly, from an illegal search was inadmissible in court. He reasoned that otherwise, police would have an incentive to circumvent the Fourth Amendment to obtain derivatives of the illegally obtained evidence, so any evidence resulting indirectly from an illegal search must be similarly suppressed. This later became known as the "fruit of the poisonous tree" doctrine.

Buck v. Bell
In 1927, Holmes wrote the 8–1 majority opinion in Buck v. Bell, a case that upheld the Virginia Sterilization Act of 1924 and the forced sterilization of Carrie Buck, who was claimed to be mentally defective. Later scholarship has shown that the suit was collusive, in that "two eugenics enthusiasts ... had chosen Buck as a bit player in a test case that they had devised" and "had asked Buck's guardian to challenge [the Virginia sterilization law]". In addition, Carrie Buck was probably of normal intelligence. The argument made on her behalf was principally that the statute requiring sterilization of institutionalized persons was unconstitutional, violating what today is called "substantive due process". Holmes repeated familiar arguments that statutes would not be struck down if they appeared on their face to have a reasonable basis. In support of his argument that the interest of "public welfare" outweighs the interest of individuals in their bodily integrity, he argued:

Sterilization rates under eugenics laws in the United States climbed from 1927 until Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535 (1942), in which the U.S. Supreme Court declared unconstitutional an Oklahoma statute that provided for the sterilization of "habitual criminals".

Buck v. Bell continues to be cited occasionally in support of due process requirements for state interventions in medical procedures. For instance, in 2001, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit cited Buck v. Bell to protect the constitutional rights of a woman coerced into sterilization without procedural due process. The court stated that error and abuse will result if the state does not follow the procedural requirements, established by Buck v. Bell, for performing an involuntary sterilization. Buck v. Bell was also cited briefly, though not discussed, in Roe v. Wade, in support of the proposition that the Court does not recognize an "unlimited right to do with one's body as one pleases". However, although Buck v. Bell has not been overturned, "the Supreme Court has distinguished the case out of existence".

Jurisprudential contributions

Critique of formalism
From his earliest writings, Holmes demonstrated a lifelong belief that the decisions of judges were consciously or unconsciously result-oriented and reflected the mores of the class and society from which judges were drawn. In his 1881 book The Common Law, Holmes argued that legal rules are not deduced through formal logic but rather emerge from an active process of human self-government. He expressed this idea most famously in The Common Law with the statement, "The life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience". His philosophy represented a departure from the prevailing jurisprudence of the time: legal formalism, which held that law was an orderly system of rules from which decisions in particular cases could be deduced. Holmes sought to consciously reinvent the common law – to modernize it as a tool for adjusting to the changing nature of modern life, as judges of the past had done more or less unconsciously. He has been classed with the philosophic pragmatists, although pragmatism is what he attributed to the law, rather than his personal philosophy.

Central to his thought was the notion that the law, as it had evolved in modern societies, was concerned with the material results of a defendant's actions. A judge's task was to decide which of two parties before him would bear the cost of an injury. Holmes argued that the evolving common law standard was that liability would fall upon a person whose conduct failed to reflect the prudence of a "reasonable man". If a construction worker throws a beam onto a crowded street:

This "objective standard" adopted by common-law judges, Holmes thought, reflected a shift in community standards, away from condemnation of a person's act toward an impersonal assessment of its value to the community. In the modern world, the advances made in biology and the social sciences should allow a better conscious determination of the results of individual acts and the proper measure of liability for them. This belief in the pronouncements of science concerning social welfare, although he later doubted its applicability to law in many cases, accounts for his enthusiastic endorsement of eugenics in his writings, and his opinion in the case of Buck v. Bell.

Legal positivism
In 1881, in The Common Law, Holmes brought together into a coherent whole his earlier articles and lectures concerning the history of the common law (judicial decisions in England and the United States), which he interpreted from the perspective of a practicing lawyer. What counted as law, to a lawyer, was what judges did in particular cases. Law was what the state would enforce, through violence if necessary; echoes of his experience in the Civil War were always present in his writings. Judges decided where and when the force of the state would be brought to bear, and judges in the modern world tended to consult facts and consequences when deciding what conduct to punish. The decisions of judges, viewed over time, determined the rules of conduct and the legal duties by which all are bound. Judges did not and should not consult any external system of morality, certainly not a system imposed by a deity.

Holmes brought himself into constant conflict with scholars who believed that legal duties rested upon natural law, a moral order of the kind invoked by Christian theologians and other philosophic idealists. He believed instead "that men make their own laws; that these laws do not flow from some mysterious omnipresence in the sky, and that judges are not independent mouthpieces of the infinite." "The common law is not a brooding omnipresence in the sky." Rather than a set of abstract, rational, mathematical, or in any way unworldly set of principles, Holmes said: "[T]he prophecies of what the courts will do in fact, and nothing more pretentious, are what I mean by the law."

His belief that law, properly speaking, was a set of generalizations from what judges had done in similar cases, determined his view of the Constitution of the United States. As a justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, Holmes rejected the argument that the text of the Constitution should be applied directly to cases that came before the court, as if it were a statute. He shared with most of his fellow judges the belief that the Constitution carried forward principles derived from the common law, principles that continued to evolve in American courts. The text of the Constitution itself, as originally understood, was not a set of rules, but only a directive to courts to consider the body of the common law when deciding cases that arose under the Constitution. It followed that constitutional principles adopted from the common law were evolving, as the law itself evolved: "A word [in the Constitution] is not a crystal, transparent and unchanged, it is the skin of a living thought".

The provisions of the Constitution are not mathematical formulas that have their essence in form, they are organic, living institutions transplanted from English soil. Their significance is vital, not formal; it is to be gathered not simply by taking the words and a dictionary but by considering their origin and the line of their growth.

Holmes also insisted on the separation of "ought" and "is", confusion of which he saw as an obstacle in understanding the realities of the law. "The law is full of phraseology drawn from morals, and talks about rights and duties, malice, intent, and negligence – and nothing is easier in legal reasoning than to take these words in their moral sense". "Therefore nothing but confusion can result from assuming that the rights of man in a moral sense are equally rights in the sense of the Constitution and the law".  Holmes said, "I think our morally tinted words have caused a great deal of confused thinking".

Nevertheless, in rejecting morality as a form of natural law outside of and superior to human enactments, Holmes was not rejecting moral principles that were the result of enforceable law: "The law is the witness and external deposit of our moral life. Its history is the history of the moral development of the race. The practice of it, in spite of popular jests, tends to make good citizens and good men. When I emphasize the difference between law and morals I do so with reference to a single end, that of learning and understanding the law." Holmes's insistence on the material basis of law, on the facts of a case, has led some to characterize him as unfeeling, however. George Washington University law professor Jeffrey Rosen summarized Holmes's views this way: "Holmes was a cold and brutally cynical man who had contempt for the masses and for the progressive laws he voted to uphold ... an aristocratic nihilist who once told his sister that he loathed 'the thick-fingered clowns we call the people'."

Reputation as a dissenter
Although Holmes did not dissent frequently—during his 29 years on the U.S. Supreme Court, he wrote only 72 separate opinions, whereas he penned 852 majority opinions—his dissents were often prescient and acquired so much authority that he became known as "The Great Dissenter". Chief Justice Taft complained that "his opinions are short, and not very helpful". Two of his most famous dissents were in Abrams v. United States and Lochner v. New York.

Speeches and letters

Speeches
Only Holmes's legal writings were readily available during his life and in the first years after his death, but he confided his thoughts more freely in talks, often to limited audiences, and more than two thousand letters that have survived. Holmes's executor, John Gorham Palfrey, diligently collected Holmes's published and unpublished papers and donated them (and their copyrights) to Harvard Law School. Harvard Law Professor Mark De Wolfe Howe undertook to edit the papers and was authorized by the school to publish them and to prepare a biography of Holmes. Howe published several volumes of correspondence, beginning with Holmes's correspondence with Frederick Pollock, and a volume of Holmes's speeches, before his untimely death. Howe's work formed the basis of much subsequent Holmes scholarship.

Holmes's speeches were divided into two groups: public addresses, which he gathered into a slim volume, regularly updated, that he gave to friends and used as a visiting card, and less formal addresses to men's clubs, dinners, law schools, and Twentieth Regiment reunions. All of the speeches are reproduced in the third volume of The Collected Works of Justice Holmes. The public addresses are Holmes's effort to express his personal philosophy in Emersonian, poetic terms. They frequently advert to the Civil War and to death, and express a hope that personal sacrifice, however pointless it may seem, serves to advance the human race toward some as-yet unforeseen goal. This mysterious purpose explained the commitment to duty and honor that Holmes felt deeply himself and that he thought was the birthright of a certain class of men. As Holmes stated at a talk upon receiving an honorary degree from Yale:

In the 1890s, at a time when "scientific" anthropology that spoke of racial differences was in vogue, his observations took on a bleakly Darwinist cast:

This talk was widely reprinted and admired at the time, and may have contributed to the popular name given by the press to the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry (the "Rough Riders") during the Spanish–American War.

On May 30, 1895, Holmes gave the address at a Memorial Day function held by the Graduating Class of Harvard University in Boston, Massachusetts. The speech, which came to be known as "The Soldier's Faith", expressed Holmes's view of the conflict between the high ideals that motivated his generation to fight in the Civil War and the reality of a soldier's experience and personal pledge to follow orders into battle. Holmes stated:

In the conclusion of the speech, Holmes said:

Theodore Roosevelt reportedly admired Holmes's "Soldier's Faith" speech, and it is believed to have contributed to his decision to nominate Holmes to the Supreme Court.

Letters

Many of Holmes's closest male friends were in England and he corresponded with them regularly and at length, speaking usually of his work. Letters to friends in England such as Harold Laski and Frederick Pollock contain frank discussion of his decisions and his fellow justices. In the United States, letters to male friends Morris R. Cohen, Lewis Einstein, Felix Frankfurter, and Franklin Ford are similar, although the letters to Frankfurter are especially personal. Holmes's correspondence with women in Great Britain and the U.S. was at least as extensive, and in many ways more revealing, but these series of letters have not been published. An extensive selection of letters to Claire Castletown, in Ireland, is included in Honorable Justice: The Life of Oliver Wendell Holmes, by Sheldon Novick. These letters are closer to Holmes's conversation and cast light upon the style he adopted in judicial opinions, which were often designed to be read aloud.

In a letter to a contemporary, Holmes made this comment on international comparisons: "Judge not a people by the ferocity of its men, but by the steadfastness of its women."

Retirement, death, honors and legacy

Holmes was widely admired during his last years, and on his ninetieth birthday he was honored on one of the first coast-to-coast radio broadcasts, during which Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes, Dean of Yale Law School Charles Edward Clark, and the president of the American Bar Association read encomia; the Bar Association presented him with a gold medal. Holmes served on the Court until January 12, 1932, when his brethren on the Court, citing his advanced age, suggested that the time had come for him to step down. By that time, at 90 years and 10 months of age, he was the oldest justice to serve in the Court's history. (His record has been challenged only by John Paul Stevens, who in 2010 retired at 8 months younger than Holmes had been at his own retirement.) On Holmes's ninety-second birthday, newly inaugurated President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his wife, Eleanor, called on Holmes at his home in Washington, D.C. Holmes died of pneumonia in Washington on March 6, 1935, two days short of his 94th birthday. He was the last living justice of the Fuller Court; he had been between 1925 and 1932 the last justice of that Court to remain on the bench.

In his will, Holmes left his residuary estate to the United States government (he had earlier said that "taxes are what we pay for civilized society" in Compañia General de Tabacos de Filipinas vs. Collector of Internal Revenue, 275 U.S. 87, 100 (1927).) After his death, his personal effects included his Civil War officer's uniform still stained with his blood and "torn with shot" as well as the Minié balls that had wounded him three times in separate battles. Holmes was buried beside his wife in Arlington National Cemetery.

The United States Postal Service honored Holmes with a Prominent Americans series (1965–1978) 15¢ postage stamp. A bust of Justice Holmes, sculpted by Joseph Kiselewski, was installed in the Hall of Fame for Great Americans at New York University in New York City in 1970.

Holmes's papers, donated to Harvard Law School, were kept closed for many years after his death, a circumstance that gave rise to somewhat fanciful accounts of his life. Catherine Drinker Bowen's fictionalized biography Yankee from Olympus was a long-time bestseller, and the 1946 Broadway play and 1950 Hollywood motion picture The Magnificent Yankee were based on a biography of Holmes by Francis Biddle, who had been one of his secretaries. Much of the scholarly literature addressing Holmes's opinions was written before much was known about his life, and before a coherent account of his views was available. The Harvard Law Library eventually relented and made available to scholars the extensive Holmes papers, collected and annotated by Mark DeWolfe Howe, who died before he was able to complete his own biography of the justice. In 1989, the first full biography based on Holmes's papers was published, and several other biographies followed. A bust of Justice Holmes, sculpted by Joseph Kiselewski, was installed at the Hall of Fame for Great Americans in 1970.
Congress established the U.S. Permanent Committee for the Oliver Wendell Holmes Devise within the Library of Congress with the funds he left to the United States in his will, which were used to create a memorial garden at the Supreme Court building and to publish an ongoing series on the history of the Supreme Court.

Holmes's summer house in Beverly, Massachusetts, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1972, recognition for his contributions to American jurisprudence.

Justice Holmes was an honorary member of the Connecticut Society of the Cincinnati.

Clerks

"Many secretaries formed close friendships with one another", wrote Tony Hiss, son of Alger Hiss, about the special club of clerks of Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. They included:
 Robert M. Benjamin (later, lawyer for an appeal by Alger Hiss)
 Laurence Curtis, U.S. Representative
 Alger Hiss, president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and convicted perjurer
 Donald Hiss, partner, Covington & Burling law firm
 Irving Sands Olds, chairman of U.S. Steel
 H. Chapman Rose, Undersecretary of the United States Treasury
 Chauncey Belknap, partner at Patterson, Belknap, Webb & Tyler, one of largest law firms in New York during his time, and an attorney for the Rockefeller Foundation

In popular culture
 American actor Louis Calhern portrayed Holmes in the 1946 play The Magnificent Yankee, with Dorothy Gish as Holmes's wife Fanny. In 1950, Calhern repeated his performance in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's film version  The Magnificent Yankee, for which he received his only Academy Award nomination. Ann Harding co-starred in the film. A 1965 television adaptation of the play starred Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne in one of their few appearances on the small screen.
 In the movie Judgment at Nuremberg (1961), defense advocate Hans Rolfe (Maximilian Schell) quotes Holmes twice. First, with one of his earlier opinions:

Second, on the sterilization laws enacted in Virginia and upheld by the Supreme Court in Buck v. Bell:

 This was in relation to Holmes's support for eugenics laws in the United States, which Rolfe argued were not different in principle from the Nazi laws. In the earlier Playhouse 90 television version from 1959, which also quotes Holmes in this context, the tribunal judge Ives, who ultimately presents a dissenting verdict, is played by the actor Wendell Holmes (1914–1962), born Oliver Wendell Holmes.
 Holmes appears as a minor character in Bernard Cornwell's novels Copperhead and The Bloody Ground, the second and fourth volumes of his Starbuck Chronicles; the novels portray the battles of Ball's Bluff and Antietam, in both of which the young Lieutenant Holmes was wounded in action.
 The 1960s television sitcom Green Acres starred Eddie Albert as a character named Oliver Wendell Douglas, a Manhattan white-shoe lawyer who gives up the law to become a farmer.  His name is a combination of two Supreme Court Justices, Holmes and William O. Douglas.
 The 1980 comic strip Bloom County features a character named Oliver Wendell Jones, a young computer hacker and gifted scientist.
 Holmes. "This 75-minute staged reading stars Kevin Reese showcasing the wit and wisdom of Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr." Written by Todd C. Peppers, Directed by Mary Hall Surface. World premier at the Arena Stage in Washington, D.C., October 30, 2023.

See also

 Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States
 Freedom for the Thought That We Hate
 List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
 List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 2)
 List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office
 Prediction theory of law
 List of people on the cover of Time Magazine: 1920s (March 15, 1926)
 Skepticism in law
 List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Fuller Court
 List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Hughes Court
 List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court
 List of United States Supreme Court cases by the White Court

References

Explanatory notes

Citations

Primary sources
 Collins, Ronald K. L., ed. (2010). The Fundamental Holmes: A Free Speech Chronicle and Reader (Cambridge University Press)
 Hoeflich, Michael H. and Davies, Ross E., eds. (2021). The Black Book of Justice Holmes: Text Transcript and Commentary. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. .  Publisher's description  Interview with editors
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell (1881). The Common Law. Little, Brown, and Company.
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell (1920). Collected Legal Papers. Harcourt, Brace and Company.
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell (1962). The Occasional Speeches of Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes (Mark DeWolfe Howe, ed.) Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

 Shriver, Harry C., ed. (1936). Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes: His Book Notices and Uncollected Letters and Papers. Central Book Co.

Bibliography
 Abraham, Henry J., Justices, Presidents, and Senators: A History of the U.S. Supreme Court Appointments from Washington to Bush II (5th ed., 2007). New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. .
 Aichele, Gary, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.: Soldier, Scholar, Judge. Twayne Publishers, 1989.

  1991.
 Biddle, Francis, Mr. Justice Holmes. Scribner, 1942.
 Biddle, Francis, Justice Holmes, Natural Law, and the Supreme Court. MacMillan, 1961. Reviewed
 Brown, Richard Maxwell, No Duty to Retreat: Violence and Values in American History and Society. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman Publishing Division of the University, by arrangement with Oxford University Press, Inc., 1991.
 Budiansky, Stephen, Oliver Wendell Holmes: A Life in War, Law, and Ideas. W.W. Norton & Company, 2019.
 Burton, Steven J., ed., The Path of the Law And Its Influence: The Legacy of Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. Cambridge University Press, 2000.

 Cushman, Clare, The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies,1789-1995 (2nd ed.)  (Supreme Court Historical Society), (Congressional Quarterly Books, 2001) .
 Davies, Ross E. and Hoeflich, M. H., eds. (2020). Holmes Reads Holmes: Reflections on the Real-Life Links Between the Jurist & the Detective in the Library, in the Courtroom, and on the Battlefield: Featuring Arthur Conan Doyle's The Adventure of the Blue Carbuncle. Clark, New Jersey: Talbot Publishing, an imprint of the Lawbook Exchange, Ltd.

 Frankfurter, Felix, Mr. Justice Holmes and the Constitution: A Review of His Twenty-Five Years on the Supreme Court. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Dunster House Bookshop, 1927.
 Frankfurter, Felix, "Mr. Justice Holmes and the Constitution: A Review of His Twenty-Five Years on the Supreme Court". Harvard Law Review, Vol. 41, No. 2 (December 1927), pp. 121–173.
 Frankfurter, Felix, ed., Mr. Justice Holmes. Coward-McCann, Inc., 1931.
 Frankfurter, Felix, Mr. Justice Holmes and the Supreme Court. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1938.
 Friedman, Leon and Israel, Fred L. (4 vols.), The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2013.

 Gordon, Robert W., ed., The Legacy of Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. Stanford University Press, 1992.
 Grant, Susan-Mary, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.: Civil War Soldier, Supreme Court Justice. Routledge, 2016.
 Hall, Kermit L., ed., The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. .
  Review
 Hurst, James Willard, Justice Holmes on Legal History. The Macmillan Company, 1964.
 Kang, John M., Oliver Wendell Holmes and Fixations of Manliness. Routledge, 2018. Review
 Kellogg, Frederic R., Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., Legal Theory, and Judicial Restraint. Cambridge University Press, 2007.
 Kellogg, Frederic R., Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. and Legal Logic. University of Chicago Press, 2018.
 Kornstein, Daniel, The Second Greatest American. AuthorHouse, 2017.
 Lerner, Max, ed., The Mind and Faith of Justice Holmes: His Speeches, Essays, Letters, and Judicial Opinions. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1943.
 Lewis, Anthony, Freedom for the Thought That We Hate: A Biography of the First Amendment (Basic ideas. New York: Basic Books, 2007). .
 Lian, Alexander, Stereoscopic Law: Oliver Wendell Holmes and Legal Education. Cambridge University Press, 2020.
 Martin, Fenton S. and Goehlert, Robert U., The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography. Congressional Quarterly Books, 1990. .
 Matteson, John, A Worse Place Than Hell: How the Civil War Battle of Fredericksburg Changed a Nation. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2021. .
 Menand, Louis, The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001. .
 Mendenhall, Allen, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., Pragmatism, and the Jurisprudence of Agon: Aesthetic Dissent and the Common Law. Bucknell University Press, 2016.
 Monagan, John S., The Grand Panjandrum: Mellow Years of Justice Holmes. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1988. .

 Pohlman, H.L., Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes & Utilitarian Jurisprudence. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1984.
 Pohlman, H.L., Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes: Free Speech and the Living Constitution. New York University Press, 1991.
 Rabban, David M., Law's History: American Legal Thought and the Transatlantic Turn to History. Cambridge University Press, 2012. .
 Rosenberg, David, The Hidden Holmes: His Theory of Torts in History. Harvard University Press, 1995. .
 Snyder, Brad, The House of Truth: A Washington Political Salon and the Foundations of American Liberalism. Oxford University Press, 2017.
 Urofsky, Melvin I., The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Garland Publishing, 1994. .
 Vannatta, Seth, ed.,  The Pragmatism and Prejudice of Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. Lexington Books, 2019.
 Wells, Catharine Pierce, Oliver Wendell Holmes: A Willing Servant to an Unknown God. Cambridge University Press, 2020. Review
 White, G. Edward, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes: Law and the Inner Self. Oxford University Press, 1993.
 White, G. Edward, Oliver Wendell Holmes: Sage of the Supreme Court. Oxford University Press, 2000; also published as Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.. Oxford University Press, 2006.
 Wilson, Edmund, "Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes," ch. XVI of Patriotic Gore: Studies of the Literature of the American Civil War. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1962. Reviewed by David W. Blight ("[T]he chapters of Stowe, Grant, and Holmes ... alone make the book worth reading. Holmes ... is Wilson's ultimate hero.")
 Wilson, Edmund, "The Holmes-Laski Correspondence", in Eight Essays. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1954, pp. 217–238.

External links

 Fanny Holmes, Wife Of Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
 Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., American Jurist

 Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., Recalls Famed Abraham Lincoln Fort Stevens Visit, Original Letter at Shapell Manuscript Foundation

 Holmes' Dissenting Opinion, Abrams vs. United States, 10 November 1919

 Booknotes interview with Liva Baker on The Justice from Beacon Hill: The Life and Times of Oliver Wendell Holmes, September 8, 1991.
 Arlington National Cemetery

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1841 births
1935 deaths
19th-century American judges
20th-century American judges
American eugenicists
American legal writers
American people of English descent
American Unitarians
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Chief Justices of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
Deaths from pneumonia in Washington, D.C.
Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees
Harvard College alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Harvard Law School faculty
Hasty Pudding alumni
Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
Lawyers from Boston
Massachusetts Republicans
People from Beacon Hill, Boston
People from Mattapoisett, Massachusetts
People of Massachusetts in the American Civil War
Philosophers of law
Union Army officers
United States federal judges appointed by Theodore Roosevelt

Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.


The Fryingpan–Arkansas Project, or "Fry-Ark," is a water diversion, storage and delivery project serving southeastern Colorado. The multi-purpose project was authorized in 1962 by President Kennedy to serve municipal, industrial, and hydroelectric power generation, and to enhance recreation, fish and wildlife interests. Construction began in 1964 and was completed in 1981. The project includes five dams and reservoirs, one federal hydroelectric power plant (two private, FERC regulated plants), and 22 tunnels and conduits totaling  in length. The Bureau of Reclamation, under the Department of the Interior built and manages the project.

Like its sister–project, the Colorado–Big Thompson Project, the Fry-Ark brings available water from Colorado's West Slope to the more arid, and more heavily populated, East Slope, providing supplemental water to over 720,000 people and  of irrigable land in Colorado Springs, Pueblo, La Junta, Lamar, and other southeastern Colorado municipalities each year.

Operation
The project diverts and delivers an average of  of water a year. However, the water right on the Fry-Ark allows for a diversion of  over the course of 34 consecutive years, but not to exceed a diversion of  in any one single year. In 2011, when Colorado had an abundance of snow, the Fry-Ark imported about  from the West Slope, the second highest diversion amount in the project's 50-year operating history. The following year, 2012, snowpack was scarce and drought returned to the state. As a result, the project was only able to import roughly  of water.

Before the Fry-Ark Project could be built in its entirety, a compromise had to be struck between East and West Slope water politics. The result was the construction of Ruedi Reservoir,  upstream on the Fryingpan River from Basalt, Colorado. Ruedi provides water to Colorado's West Slope, in part to compensate for what is diverted further upstream.

Water is diverted from the West Slope's Fryingpan River basin. A series of interconnected tunnels carrying water from 16 small diversion dams, all at an elevation of above , collect snowmelt and run it, via gravity, to the Charles H. Boustead Tunnel. The Boustead conveys water underneath the Continental Divide  before discharging it into Turquoise Lake just west of Leadville. Water then leaves Turquoise Lake reservoir via the Mt. Elbert Conduit, which runs nearly  to the Mt. Elbert Forebay. Water is stored in the forebay to build up head (energy) before being dropped down over  in elevation to the hydroelectric Mt. Elbert Powerplant.

The power plant takes its name from Mt. Elbert, Colorado's tallest peak, and sits at its base. The two-unit facility is the largest hydroelectric power plant in Colorado. It has a nameplate capacity of 200 megawatts and a maximum generating head of . During night time hours, when power rates are less expensive, the reversible pump-back units return water from Twin Lakes—water that was already used at least once by the units to generate electricity—back to the forebay so it can flow down again for more power generation. The Western Area Power Administration markets the power generated at the plant.

Water exiting the Mt. Elbert Power Plant helps fill Twin Lakes Reservoir, a natural lake bed that was enlarged and impounded by the Twin Lakes Dam during 1978–1980. The reservoir sits on Lake Creek which runs down from Independence Pass. Water from the reservoir continues down Lake Creek to the Arkansas River, which is the main delivery vehicle for the Fry-Ark project.

Pueblo Reservoir, the center piece of Lake Pueblo State Park, is the last reservoir in the project and sits on the Arkansas just west of Pueblo. The majority of municipal and agricultural deliveries for the project are made out of Pueblo Reservoir before the water continues on east to Kansas via the Arkansas.

References

External links

  Fryingpan-Arkansas Project 50th Anniversary Film, Bureau of Reclamation
 The Great Plains Region
 The Eastern Colorado Area Office
Lake Pueblo Water Levels
Twin Lakes Water Levels
Turquoise Reservoir Water Levels
Ruedi Reservoir Water Levels

Energy infrastructure completed in 1981
Energy infrastructure in Colorado
Buildings and structures in Colorado
United States Bureau of Reclamation
Interbasin transfer
Hydroelectric power plants in Colorado

Fryingpan–Arkansas Project


Engine Yard is a San Francisco, California based, privately held platform as a service company focused on Ruby on Rails, PHP and Node.js deployment and management.

History
Engine Yard, founded in 2006, offers a cloud application management platform. Engine Yard co-founders include Tom Mornini, Lance Walley and Ezra Zygmuntowicz.

John Dillon joined Engine Yard as CEO in 2009, and previously held the position of CEO at Salesforce.com from 1999 through 2001.

Engine Yard has sponsored a number of open-source projects since 2009.

In August 2011, Engine Yard acquired Orchestra.io to add PHP expertise to the Engine Yard team and platform. In September 2011, the company launched a partner program that includes over 40 cloud technology companies. These partners provide add-on services such as application performance management, email deliverability, load testing and more, within the Engine Yard Platform.

In November 2011, the company added the Node.js server-side framework into its PaaS.

In early 2012, Engine Yard reported that its revenue doubled year over year to $28 million in 2011, and the number of paying customers rose 50 percent to 2,000 in that time. Engine Yard claims that with its $28 million in revenue for 2011 it is the leading open platform as a service.

In June 2013, Engine Yard formed a strategic alliance with Microsoft  and went live on Windows Azure marketplace on July 31, 2013. Developers can use this open source Platform-as-a-Service running on Microsoft cloud infrastructure to deploy web and mobile apps.

In April 2015, Engine Yard announced the acquisition of OpDemand and their container PaaS Deis.

In April 2017, Microsoft acquired container platform Deis from Engine Yard  and Engine Yard announced it was being acquired by Crossover, a provider of cloud-based Ruby teams.

Funding
In January 2008, Engine Yard received an investment of $3.5 million from Benchmark Capital.  Some industry commentators interpreted this as an investment in Ruby on Rails.

In July 2008, Engine Yard secured an additional $15 million from a combination of Benchmark Capital, New Enterprise Associates, and Amazon.

In October 2009, Engine Yard received an additional $19 million in funding from a combination of Benchmark Capital, New Enterprise Associates, Amazon, Bay Partners, Presidio Ventures and DAG Ventures, for a total of $37.5 million in funding.

In November 2012, Oracle Corporation announced that it made a strategic minority investment in Engine Yard. Financial details of the investment were not disclosed. Engine Yard continues to operate as an independent company.

See also
FogBugz
Vertebra (software)

References

External links

Cloud platforms
Software companies established in 2006
Privately held companies based in California
Companies based in San Francisco
American companies established in 2006
2006 establishments in California

Engine Yard


Palingenesis (; also palingenesia) is a concept of rebirth or re-creation, used in various contexts in philosophy, theology, politics, and biology. Its meaning stems from Greek , meaning 'again', and , meaning 'birth'.

In biology, it is another word for recapitulationthe largely discredited hypothesis which talks of the phase in the development of an organism in which its form and structure pass through the changes undergone in the evolution of the species. In political theory, it is a central component of Roger Griffin's analysis of fascism as a fundamentally modernist ideology. In theology, the word may refer to reincarnation or to Christian spiritual rebirth.

Philosophy and theology

The word palingenesis or rather palingenesia () may be traced back to the Stoics, who used the term for the continual re-creation of the universe. Similarly Philo spoke of Noah and his sons as leaders of a renovation or rebirth of the earth, Plutarch of the transmigration of souls, and Cicero of his own return from exile.

In the Gospel of Matthew Jesus Christ is quoted in Greek (although his historical words most probably would have been Aramaic) using the word "παλιγγενεσία" (palingenesia) to describe the Last Judgment foreshadowing the event of the regeneration of a new world.

In philosophy it denotes in its broadest sense the theory (e.g. of the Pythagoreans) that the human soul does not die with the body but is born again in new incarnations. It is thus the equivalent of metempsychosis. The term has a narrower and more specific use in the system of Arthur Schopenhauer, who applied it to his doctrine that the will does not die but manifests itself afresh in new individuals. He thus modified the original metempsychosis doctrine which maintains the reincarnation of the particular soul.

Robert Burton, in The Anatomy of Melancholy (1628), writes, "The Pythagoreans defend metempsychosis and palingenesia, that souls go from one body to another."

Politics and history
In Antiquities of the Jews (11.3.9) Josephus used the term palingenesis for the national restoration of the Jews in their homeland after the Babylonian exile. The term is commonly used in Modern Greek to refer to the rebirth of the Greek nation after the Greek Revolution. Thomas Carlyle used it in Sartor Resartus (1833–34), referring to the "Newbirth of Society", a stage in Carlyle's cyclical view of history as the "burning of a World-Phoenix".

British political theorist Roger Griffin has coined the term palingenetic ultranationalism as a core tenet of fascism, stressing the notion of fascism as an ideology of rebirth of a state or empire in the image of that which came before it – its ancestral political underpinnings. Examples of this are Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Under Benito Mussolini, Italy purported to establish an empire as the second incarnation of the Roman Empire, while Adolf Hitler's regime purported itself to be the third palingenetic incarnation of the German "Reich" – beginning first with the Holy Roman Empire ("First Reich"), followed by Bismarck's German Empire ("Second Reich") and then Nazi Germany ("Third Reich").

Moreover, Griffin's work on palingenesis in fascism analysed the pre-war fin de siècle Western society. In doing so he built on Frank Kermode's work The Sense of an Ending which sought to understand the belief in the death of society at the end of the century.

Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet expressed his post-coup project in government as a national rebirth inspired in Diego Portales, a figure of the early republic:

Science
In modern biology (e.g., Ernst Haeckel and Fritz Müller), palingenesis has been used for the exact reproduction of ancestral features by inheritance, as opposed to kenogenesis, in which the inherited characteristics are modified by environment.

It was also applied to the quite different process supposed by Karl Beurlen to be the mechanism for his orthogenetic theory of evolution.

See also
 Palingenetic ultranationalism
 Translatio imperii

Notes

References

Reincarnation
Religious philosophical concepts
Stoicism
Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics

Palingenesis


Erasmus can refer to:

 ERASMUS programme, the higher education part of the European Union's Socrates programme for student exchange

People:
 Erasmus of Arcadia, Greek Orthodox Bishop
 Erasmus, the humanist scholar, also known as Erasmus of Rotterdam or Disiderius Erasmus
 Saint Erasmus of Formiae alias Saint Elmo
 Erasmus Grasser, leading sculptor in Munich during the early 16th century.
 Erasmus Darwin

In Rotterdam:
 Erasmus University
 Gymnasium Erasmianum (Erasmus Gymnasium school)
 Erasmus Bridge

Other:
 Erasmushogeschool in Brussels
 Erasmus the wizard, one of the major characters in the Quest for Glory adventure games
 Erasmus (Dune), a fictional intelligent robot in the Legends of Dune series by Kevin J. Anderson and Brian Herbert
 Erasmus (shōgun), Protagonist Blackthorne's ship (Dutch)

Erasmus (disambiguation)


Foot is also the name of a unit of measurement. See foot (unit).

A foot (one foot, two or more feet) is a body part on the end of a leg. It is used when walking. It is also important for balance: it helps people stand straight. People also use it to kick, in both fighting and sports, football being an example.

People's hands and feet have the same shape: they both have five digits (the fingers and toes). Many other animals with backbones also have five digits. The part of the foot which joins it to the leg is called the heel. The bottom of the foot is called the sole.

Most land vertebrates have feet, and there are many different sorts of foot. The feet of monkeys are much like the hands. The hard foot of an ungulate is a hoof. When an animal has soft feet, or feet with soft parts on the underside, it is called a paw. Many invertebrates also have feet.

Many use footwear to protect themselves from weather and dirt. There are multiple kinds of footwear, for example sandals, shoes, and boots.  When people do not remove footwear, especially in hot places or when they are very active, their feet can smell badly (foot odour).  Wearing footwear that is too big or small can be bad for the feet, causing blisters. People who have foot, leg, and back problems can also get help from special shoes.

People have different traditions in different parts of the world for when to wear footwear.  For example, in many countries, usually do not wear their shoes or boots in a home.  In the United States people often wear shoes inside a home.  In Japan, people do not wear shoes in homes, and floors are often made of very soft materials. In Japan it is also important to keep the floors clean. In cultures where people always wear shoes, people sometimes think it is bad not to wear them.  Not wearing shoes can be good for the feet, especially if they are damaged.

Conditions like Athlete's foot affect the feet, causing the feet to feel dry and cracked.  Doctors who work with people's feet are podiatrists or chiropodists''.

Bones
Half the bones in a human body are in the foot.  There are 26 bones there.  They are 14 phalanges (toes), 5 metatarsals (arch of the foot), and 7 tarsals (ankle bones).

Basic English 850 words

Foot (human)


Excessive daytime sleepiness  (or EDS) is a medical condition where people often feel sleepy during the day, even though they had enough sleep at night. EDS occurs with many sleep disorders. It is a defining feature of some sleep disorders such as narcolepsy, sleep apnea or Circadian rhythm sleep disorder. EDS is difficult to treat without knowing its cause. There are certain drugs that can help with EDS. In general, many treatments of the underlying disease (which causes the sleepiness) will also take into account EDS. The drugs which can treat EDS are usually stimulants.

Sleep disorders

Excessive Daytime Sleepiness


Two corps of the Union Army were called VII Corps during the American Civil War.

VII Corps (Department of Virginia)
This corps was established 22 July 1862 from various Union troops stationed in southeastern Virginia. The corps' main combat action occurred in the spring of 1863, when it faced Confederate troops of James Longstreet's Corps in Suffolk, Virginia.  Commanders were:

John Adams Dix 22 July 1862 – 16 July 1863
Henry Morris Naglee 16–20 July 1863
George W. Getty 20 July – 1 August 1863

The corps was discontinued on August 1, 1863, and its troops were transferred to the Eighteenth Corps.

VII Corps (Department of Arkansas)
After the original VII Corps was deactivated in the summer of 1863, a second VII Corps was formed from troops in the Department of Arkansas.  Most of its active service occurred during Steele's Arkansas Expedition.  Commanders were:

Frederick Steele 6 January 1864 – 22 December 1864
Joseph J. Reynolds 22 December 1864 – 1 August 1865

References
Citations

Bibliography
Boatner, Mark M. III, The Civil War Dictionary: Revised Edition, David McKay Company, Inc., 1984.

External links
VII Corps (Department of Virginia) history
VII Corps (Department of Arkansas) history

07
Military units and formations established in 1862
1862 establishments in the United States
Military units and formations disestablished in 1865

VII Corps (Union Army)


Agent 47 is a fictional character and the protagonist of Hitman (video game series) franchise. The character was created by the Danish company IO Interactive.

Video games
There are eight main titles featuring Agent 47. They are Hitman: Codename 47 (2000), Hitman 2: Silent Assassin (2002), Hitman: Contracts (2004), Hitman: Blood Money (2006), Hitman: Absolution (2012), Hitman (2016), Hitman 2 (2018) and Hitman 3 (2021).

Appearance
Agent 47 wears a pure black suit, black leather gloves, a white dress shirt and a red tie. The Hitman video game series allows the player to engage in stealth (sneaking) mode strategy to not direct attention to himself. Agent 47 has the ability to change what he looks like by exchanging different costumes which can be stolen from enemies or from places to make the progression easier. The outfits can come from many different NPCs.

Agent 47 has no hair with very white skin and blue eyes. His ICA file from Hitman: Absolution states his height as 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m). In Hitman: Enemy Within, his weight is given as . Agent 47 has a bar code tattooed on the back of his head which was very prominent in all games except for Hitman: Absolution where the bar code was most of the time covered in order for the character to disguise himself after it was known that Agent 47 has this bar code that could get him more notoriety.

His bar code is considered as a security key to access areas of the facility where he was created and trained. Although, in Hitman: Blood Money game failed to mention the bar code as a notable characteristic.

Agent 47's facial features are quite imposing, with a long face, large cheekbones, prominent brow, recessed forehead and ice blue eyes. Early in Hitman: Absolution, 47 tries to remove his iconic bar code with a razor, but it remains visible at the end of the game.

Character history
Agent 47 was born on September 5, 1964 in a Romanian asylum with the number 5-901234-123457 tattooed on the back of his head in the form of a bar code. "64-05-09" refer to his date of birth, "04" indicates Series IV, "01" documents his class and "47" is the order in which he was cloned. According to the Hitman game series and the Hitman novel, Agent 47 is a genetically-enhanced clone and the culmination of decades of secret research into gene augmentation whom is of English descent. His creation was funded by five criminal masterminds who donated their own DNA to the project. In Hitman 2: Silent Assassin, Agent 47 decided to quit killing people for money and lived in a shelter provided by Vittorio, but had to change his mind after Vittorio got kidnapped. Eventually after many missions handled successfully by 47, Diana brought the Agency to its knees. She flushed all accounts, cut off all communication lines, exposed the Agency and used the confusion to vanish and 47 puts an end to Diana handling a hit on her.

Personality
Even though 47 is meant to be an emotionless assassin, he shows signs of morality, seen in Hitman 2: Silent Assassin confessing his sins (killing people for money) to Father Vittorio. Subsequently, he is so depressed at the apparent loss of his spiritual guide that he agrees to take on the "suicide mission" of killing Deewana Ji. He is very quiet to the point of being socially awkward which is perhaps the biggest of his very weaknesses. He prefers to stay alone and he has admiration for few people he befriends, especially Diana and Vittorio.

Agent 47 approaches his assassinations with professionalism but will, however show no remorse or regression when it comes to killing or silencing witnesses. Agent 47 speaks in a very formal tone, a tone that shows no threat, rarely swearing or even raising his voice. Given his fees, 47 would have to be a multi-millionaire from his contract earnings but never stops going for new contracts. He only spends his money on simple things like food, suits, gear, and shelter, although he is also known to donate some of it to Father Vittorio.

Skills and abilities
Agent 47 can take on hard tasks and perform physical tasks more efficiently than any average human. 47 has mastered the art of stealth. He knows how to efficiently and successfully sneak up to a victim and use his assassin fiber wire to eliminate the victim or an injection to poison the victim or knock him/her out. 47 being able to terminate multiple enemies in the same area one at a time and sneak up on almost anybody and quietly neutralize them. Agent 47 also has a lot of knowledge about disguising techniques and ways of accessing unauthorized areas of a location. He is physically strong even when compared to average adult males of his size and build; being able to climb pipes, move and dispose of bodies, snap necks, knock opponents unconscious and jump from a balcony to another balcony, spending a minimum effort. 47 also happen to be a skilled driver and seen piloting helicopters and planes.

Agent 47 has a special level of skill when it comes to using improvised weapons such as explosives, sniper rifles, automatic weapons and bladed weapons. Being able to hold dual pistols firing both of them at the same time whilst hitting the targets. He is a perfect marksman, so well that the newspaper in Hitman: Blood Money called him "Legendary Agent 47".

References

Fictional characters introduced in 2000
Video game protagonists

Agent 47


An ice sheet is a large mass of glacier ice that covers an area of more than . It may also be called a continental glacier. There are two ice sheets in the world at the moment: in Antarctica and Greenland.

Ice sheets are larger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers. Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are called ice caps. The ice in an ice cap usually comes from a series of glaciers that drain into it.

The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest single mass of ice on Earth. It covers an area of almost 14 million km2 and contains 30 million km3 of ice. Around 90% of the fresh water on the Earth's surface is held in this ice sheet. If all of it were to melt, it would cause sea levels to rise by 58 metres. The ice sheet first formed in the early Oligocene. It retreated and advanced many times until the Pliocene, when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica.

The Greenland ice sheet covers about 82% of the surface of Greenland. Satellite images from NASA show that it is melting at a rate of about 239 cubic kilometres (57.3 cubic miles) each year. If all of it melted, it would cause sea levels to rise by 7.2 metres. The ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene, but apparently developed very quickly. This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet.

References

Landforms

Ice sheet


William Edward Lamar "Will" Rothhaar (born January 12, 1987) is an American actor.

Early life
Rothlaar was born in New York City, the son of Michael Rothhaar and Nancy Linehan Charles, both of whom are playwrights, actors and directors.

He briefly lived in the little resort town of Boiling Springs, Pennsylvania, where he started doing theatre, but grew up on the west side of Los Angeles and attended Alexander Hamilton High School.

Career
Rothhaar began acting in the mid-1990s, and appeared in several made-for-television films and series, including Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Mad About You. He had supporting roles in several feature films, including Jack Frost and Hearts in Atlantis. In 1999, he received The Hollywood Reporter "Young Star Award" for his portrayal of John in David Mamet's The Cryptogram at the Geffen Playhouse. Rothhaar's biggest role to date was the leading role in Kart Racer (2003). In 2004, he had a starring role on Listen Up. He appeared in Must Love Dogs (2005) and as Cpl. Lee Imlay in the alien-invasion film Battle: Los Angeles (2011). He appeared on two episodes of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (in 2004 and 2010, respectively), CSI: Miami (2011), and CSI: New York (2012), playing different characters each time. In 2013, he starred as Lee Harvey Oswald in the television film Killing Kennedy.

Filmography

Film

Television

Web

References

External links

1987 births
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male child actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
Living people
Male actors from New York City

Will Rothhaar


"En karusell" was originally released in 1972 as a 7" single in Sweden which was sung in Swedish and also in Japan where the song was titled "En Carousel" and sung in English. The song was included as the A-side song and was credited to Björn & Benny. Future members of ABBA Agnetha Fältskog and Anni-Frid Lyngstad did backing vocals on the song but were not credited for their contribution.The B-side song on the Swedish release was titled "Att finnas till" and the B-side song on the Japanese release was titled "Lycka".

"En karusell" failed to enter Svensktoppen (a popular top ten chart for songs in Swedish)  but the B-side of the single "Att finnas till" lay on that chart for three weeks.

The song was covered by Anita Lindblom in 1972 and by Birgitta Wollgård & Salut in 1975.

In English "Att finnas till" translates to "to exist".

Track listing

 A. "En karusell" - 3:06
 B. "Att finnas till" - 3:32

Chart positions

Merry-Go-Round

On 29 March 1972, "En Karusell" was recorded in English at Metronome Studio in Stockholm, Sweden and was credited to Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid.
This English version was titled "Merry-Go-Round (En Karusell)" for the Swedish market and titled  "Merry-Go-Round" for other releases.
"Merry-Go-Round" was included as the b-side song to the single "People Need Love" which was also released in 1972.

The single "People Need Love" was included on the album "Ring Ring" which was released in 1973 under Artist name Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid.

"Merry-Go-Round" made its CD debut on the 1994 "ABBA" compilation "Thank You For The Music (box set)" as track 5 on disc 4.
The song also appeared as a bonus track on the 2001 re-issued and re-mastered album  "Ring, Ring" under the artist name "ABBA".

The song was sampled in the Royce da 5'9" song Merry Go Round.

Track listing
 A. "People Need Love" - 2:45
 B. "Merry-Go-Round (En karusell)" - 3:18

Reception
The basic aim of the "People Need Love" single was not to promote the quartet but to promote the "Björn & Benny" duo, which was the singing and songwriting partnership of the two men. All four individuals had other commitments and therefore were not considering forming a permanent group. An example of this is the crediting; the single in most of the territories is credited to "Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid".  The women were simply guesting as backing vocalists on the new "Björn & Benny" single. However, the positive audience reaction was unexpected.

The single made the Top 20 of the combined Swedish singles and albums chart, and "People Need Love" reached No. 3 on the Swedish radio chart show Tio i Topp (The Top Ten). It was the foursome's first charting record in the United States where it peaked at No. 114 on the Cashbox singles chart and No. 117 on Record World singles chart - impressive for unknown Swedish artists in America at the time. The Playboy Records U.S. release was credited to "Bjorn & Benny (with Svenska Flicka)" and according to ABBA's manager Stig Anderson, the single could have been a much bigger American hit if not for the limited distribution resources of the label that was unable to meet the demand from retailers and radio programmers.

At the time of the single's release, the Ring Ring album had not been planned since there was no intention to form a permanent group.

Chart positions

References

External links

Songs written by Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus
1972 songs
Anita Lindblom songs

En karusell


Francisco Pereira Passos (29 August 1836 – 12 March 1913) was a Brazilian civil engineer and politician. He was mayor of the Federal District of Brazil from 1902 to 1906, nominated by President Rodrigues Alves. During his tenure, Pereira Passos promoted a large-scale urban renewal plan for Rio, inspired by Georges-Eugène Haussmann's renewal of Paris.

Biography
Passos was son  of Antônio Pereira Passos, Barão de Mangaratiba, and Clara Oliveira. Until the age of fourteen he was raised at the Bálsamo Farm, in São João Marcos, currently Rio Claro district, in the state of Rio de Janeiro. In March 1852 he joined the then Military School, now the Polytechnic School of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro - former University of Brazil where he graduated in 1856 as a Bachelor in Physical and Mathematical Sciences, which gave him the Diploma of Civil Engineer. He was a classmate of Benjamin Constant.

He studied in France from 1857 to the end of 1860, where he attended the urban reform of Paris promoted by Georges-Eugène Haussmann. His stay in Paris had a profound influence on Passos, who was to devote himself to railway engineering and urban planning.

On his return to Brazil in 1860, Pereira Passos dedicates himself to the construction and expansion of the Brazilian railway network, under the demand of the coffee economy. He participated in the construction of the Santos-Jundiaí Railroad (1867), the extension of the D. Pedro II Railroad to the São Francisco River (1868), and technical consultant to the Ministry of Agriculture and Public Works (1870).

He returned to Europe in 1871, in the company of the Viscount of Mauá, as inspector of the Imperial Government. In Europe, he studied European rail systems and was inspired by the Swiss railroad which climbed Mount Righi with slopes of up to 20%, to run the railway extension to Petrópolis. System that would still be used later in the first tourist railrway of Brazil, Corcovado Railrway. He directed at the same time the Arsenal of Ponta da Areia, at the invitation of the Baron of Mauá, producing rails and wagons.

He was appointed engineer of the Ministry of the Empire in 1874, and it is up to Pereira Passos to accompany all the works of the imperial government. He was part of the commission that was to present the city's overall urban reform plan, including widening streets, building major avenues, channeling rivers among other urban and sanitary measures. The survey carried out from 1875 to 1876 would be the basis of the future master plan of the city, put into practice in the administration of Passos as mayor.

He returned to Europe in 1880 and remained in Paris until 1881. In the meantime he attended courses at the Sorbonne and the Collége de France, visiting factories, steel mills, transport companies and public works in Europe. Still in 1881 he became a consultant for Compagnie Générale de Chemins de Fer Brésiliens, to accompany the construction of a railway line in Paraná, linking the Port of Paranaguá to Curitiba.

On his return to Brazil, he moved to Paraná and only after the railroad was inaugurated in 1882, he returned to the capital. On his return, he assumed the chairmanship of Companhia Ferro-Carril de São Cristóvão, replacing the Viscount of Taunay. After restructuring the company, in 1884, Pereira Passos proposes to the shareholders the acquisition of the Italian project Giuseppe Fogliani, for the construction of a great avenue. Despite the shareholders' approval and the construction license obtained, the project did not go out of print. However, this would be more an anticipation of what would come to occur in his management as mayor 20 years later: the opening of Avenida Central.

Mayor
Appointed mayor by President Rodrigues Alves, Pereira Passos promoted a great urban reform in the city, with the goal of transforming it into a modern French-style capital, a "Tropical Paris".

Inspired by the Haussmann reforms, in four years Pereira Passos transformed the city's appearance: the cortiços (high-density housing for low income people) and the narrow, dark streets, were demolished, with large boulevards and buildings took their place. Some of the works made in his tenure are the opening of Avenida Central (currently Avenida Rio Branco), Avenida Beira-Mar and Avenida Atlântica, the modernizing of the Port of Rio de Janeiro and the beginning of the construction of the Municipal Theater. Passos' reforms and demolitions became known as the "Bota Abaixo" (Knock-it-down).

Social aspects
Despite improvements in sanitation and urban development, Pereira Passos's plan entailed a high social cost, with the beginning of formation of favelas in the city.

The reform promoted a great valorization of the soil in the central area, still partially occupied by the low income population. About 1,600 old residential buildings were demolished. As a result of these demolitions, the poor population of the city center was forced to live with other families, to pay high rents or to move to the suburbs, since the popular housing constructed to replace the demolished ones was insufficient. A large part of the immense population affected by the remodeling remained in the region and the hills located in the center of the city - Providência, Santo António, among others - once little inhabited, suffer a rapid occupation of the proletarian housing. The favelas appear, that would mark the configuration of the city until the present day.

Death
Pereira Passos died on March 12, 1913, boarding the  ocean liner Araguaia, on a trip to France.

References

1836 births
1913 deaths
Brazilian engineers
Mayors of Rio de Janeiro (city)

Pereira Passos


A party realignment in the United States is when the country transitions from being mostly run by one political party to mostly run by another political party.  During party realignments, some groups of people who used to vote for one party vote for the other one.  Sometimes, political parties end and new ones begin.  Party realignments can happen because of important events in history or because of changes in the kinds of people in the country.

1820s
In the early 1800s, America had the "First Party System" with the Federalist Party and Democratic-Republican Party. When James Monroe was elected President of the United States, the Federalists died out. There was an "Era of Good Feelings" of one-party rule by the Democratic-Republicans. In the United States presidential election, 1824, four different men ran for President, all as Democratic-Republicans. John Quincy Adams was elected.

After the election, Andrew Jackson formed a new party called the Democrats. Jackson's party was strongest in the South and West, and in some cities (at this time, only a few Americans lived in cities). Soon after Jackson's election, another party formed around supporters of Adams and Henry Clay. It was first called the National Republican Party, and later the Whig Party. The Whigs were strong in the North, and among the middle class and businessmen. The system of Democrats and Whigs is called the "Second Party System."

1850s-60s
After the Kansas-Nebraska Act, the "Second Party System" ended:

 Whigs and Democrats who did not want to pass the Kansas-Nebraska Act (which would use popular sovereignty), and Free-Soilers (who, as a rule, opposed the expansion of slavery) formed a new party called the Republicans. The Republicans' main goal was stopping slavery, but they also liked many of the things the Whigs liked.
 The Whig Party broke up.  Some Whigs joined the Know-Nothing Party or other small parties for the 1856 election. More joined the Republicans or Democrats.
 In the 1860 election, Know-Nothings and Southern Democrats who supported the Union formed the Constitutional Union Party.  During and after the American Civil War, the Know-Nothings and Unionists were part of the Republican Party.
 In 1860, what was left of the Democratic Party broke into Northern and Southern wings, one on each side of the Civil War.
 By 1868, the Democratic Party came back together and there was the "Third Party System" of Democrats and Republicans.

1930s
America went from being mostly Republican in the 1920s to mostly Democratic in the 1930s.  This was due to America becoming much more urban, and the Great Depression.  Franklin D. Roosevelt formed a coalition that would mostly last until 1964 called the "New Deal coalition."

Urban areas became very Democratic.  They voted very heavily for people like Al Smith and Roosevelt.  They had been growing rapidly, due in part to immigrants who were part of Democratic political machines.
African American citizens had been moving from the South into large Northern cities, in large part due to racial segregation.  Before the 1930s, they had either not voted or voted Republican.  Under Roosevelt, they mostly voted Democratic
Roosevelt also made gains in every part of the country, due to his mass appeal and the desire to end the depression

1960s-80s
In the 1960s and 70s, the New Deal coalition fell apart.  This was due to the  Civil Rights Movement, Roe v. Wade, Vietnam War and the suburbanization of America.  What changed:

After the 1964 Civil Rights Act, many white, conservative Southern Democrats became Republicans.  The South had been mostly Democratic before 1964; it was mostly Republican after (Although on the local level continued to be heavily democratic for decades).

Many "values voters" became Republicans.  These were people who voted based on their own form of morality. To them, abortion and gay rights were immoral. In the 1960s, sex was closely tied to morality.  In this way, people who opposed abortion and gay rights, for example Jerry Falwell, and the changes to society happening in the 1960s and 70s, became Republicans. (No source cited, dubious credibility.)

Republicans also made some gains among working-class Catholics, who are mostly conservative on social issues. (No source cited, dubious credibility.)

The Democrats were able to make gains among more liberal Republicans and with Latino voters. (No source cited, dubious credibility.)

Working-class Democrats voted for Republicans in the 1980 election. They were called Reagan Democrats because they voted for Ronald Reagan. (No source cited, dubious credibility.)

History of the United States
Politics of the United States

Party realignment in the United States


A zombie walk is a trek made by people costumed as zombies. These people may also act as starving zombies. They pretend to be looking for human brains to eat. Some people create characters for themselves such as zombie brides, clowns, or mad scientists.

These walks are community events. They are sometimes held near Halloween. There are day walks and night walks. People of all ages join the walk. Sometimes professional make up artists help walkers prepare their faces. Variants on the walk format include zombie pub crawls and zombie runs.

A walk might be held to raise money for a community concern such as local hunger. Sometimes walkers bring packaged and canned foods for the local food bank.  Zombie Walks are held around the world. They may attract thousands of zombie walkers.

In October 2013, the annual New Jersey Zombie Walk had the largest crowd of zombies ever at 9,592. This crowd walked along the Asbury Park boardwalk. This Zombie Walk is in the Guiness World Record.

References

Monsters
Festivals

Zombie walk


The Quinault River ( or ) is a  long river located on the Olympic Peninsula in the U.S. state of Washington. It originates deep in the Olympic Mountains in the Olympic National Park. It flows southwest through the "Enchanted Valley" to opposite Quinault Canyon. Several miles above Lake Quinault the river is joined by its main tributary, the North Fork Quinault River. The main stem Quinault River above this confluence is sometimes called the East Fork Quinault River. Below the confluence the river marks the boundary of Olympic National Park for several miles before emptying into Lake Quinault. After the lake, the Quinault River flows southwest, reaching the Pacific at Taholah. From Lake Quinault to the ocean, the river is contained within the Quinault Indian Reservation.

The Quinault River's drainage basin is  in area. Its main tributaries include the North Fork Quinault River, Graves Creek, Fox Creek, and Cook Creek.

A well maintained trail follows the East Fork of the Quinault from Graves Creek to the Enchanted Valley Ranger Station through old growth rain forest. In early summer snow melt creates many waterfalls in the valley, giving it the name "Valley of a Thousand Waterfalls".

The Quinault River has been reaching new recorded lows in recent years, as it was fed by the Anderson Glacier which had melted away by 2011.

See also
List of rivers of Washington

References

External links

, USGS GNIS entry
Quinault Indian Nation

Rivers of Washington (state)
Rivers of Grays Harbor County, Washington
Quinault places

Quinault River


Ethanol fermentation is a fermentation process that converts sugar into cellular energy, producing ethanol, and carbon dioxide. Because ethanol is an alcohol, it is also known as alcoholic fermentation. Yeast will do this without using oxygen, the process is anaerobic. It also happens in some kind of fish, where it produces energy, when there is little oxygen.

Ethanol fermentation has many uses, including the production of alcoholic drinks (such as beer or wine), the production of ethanol fuel, and the cooking of bread.

Fermentation

Ethanol fermentation


Ambalappuzha Sree Krishna Swamy Temple is an Indian Hindu temple dedicated to Krishna at Ambalappuzha in Alappuzha district of Kerala. The temple is believed to have been built during 15th century AD by the local ruler Chembakasserry Pooradam Thirunal-Devanarayanan Thampuran. It is one of the seven greatest temples in Travancore. It is considered one among the 108 Abhimana Kshethram of Vaishnavate tradition.

The idol at Ambalappuzha is likened to Parthasarthi form of Vishnu, holding a whip in his right hand and a conch in his left. During the raids of Tipu Sultan in 1789, the idol of Sri Krishna from the Guruvayoor Temple was brought to the Ambalappuzha Temple for safe keeping for three years.

Payasam, a sweet pudding made of rice and milk is served in the temple and is believed that the Lord Guruvayoorappan visits the temple daily to accept the offering.

Legend

According to the legend, the god Krishna once appeared in the form of a sage in the court of the king who ruled the region and challenged him for a game of chess (or chaturanga). The king being a chess enthusiast himself gladly accepted the invitation. The prize had to be decided before the game and the king asked the sage to choose his prize in case he won. The sage told the king that he had a very modest claim and being a man of few material needs, all he wished was a few grains of rice. The amount of rice itself shall be determined using the chess-board in the following manner. One grain of rice shall be placed in the first square, two grains in the second square, four in the third square, eight in the fourth square, sixteen in fifth square and so on. Every square will have double of its predecessor.

The king lost the game and sage demanded the agreed-upon prize. As he started adding grains of rice to the chess board, the king soon realised the true nature of the sage's demands. The royal granary soon ran out of grains of rice. The king realised that he will never be able to fulfill the promised reward as the number of grains was increasing as a geometric progression and the total amount of rice required for a 64-squared chess board is 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 grains, translating to trillions of tons of rice.

Upon seeing the dilemma, the sage appeared to the king in his true-form and told the king that he did not have to pay the debt immediately but could pay him over time. The king would serve paal-payasam (pudding made of rice) in the temple freely to the pilgrims every day until the debt was paid off.

Festival
The Amabalapuzha Temple Festival was established during the fifteenth century AD. At this time, central parts of Alappuzha district were ruled by the Chembakassery Devanarayana Dynasty. The rulers of this dynasty were highly religious and decided that an idol of Lord Krishna was to be brought to the Amabalapuzha Sree Krishna Swamy Temple from the Karinkulam temple. The celebration in commemoration of the bringing of this idol of Lord Krishna is the origin of the Amabalapuzha Temple Festival, also referred to as the Chambakulam Moolam water festival. This festival is conducted every year on the Moolam day of the Mithunam month of the Malayalam era. The Aaraattu festival takes place on the Thiruvonam day in March–April.

Gallery

See also

 Ambalappuzha Vijayakrishnan
 Temples of Kerala
 Temple festivals of Kerala

References

External links
Facts about Ambalapuzha Temple
Ambalapuzha Temple from the book: Temples and Legends of Kerala
Ambalappuzha temple in Google Maps

Krishna temples
Hindu temples in Alappuzha district
Abhimana temples of Vishnu
Vishnu temples

Ambalappuzha Sree Krishna Swamy Temple