An occultation is an event that occurs when one object is hidden by another object that passes between it and the observer.  A planet, for example, can pass in front of a star.  Some occultations are eclipses. The word is often used in astronomy. It can also be used in a non-astronomical sense to describe when an object in the foreground occults (covers up) objects in the background.

Astronomical phenomena

Occultation


Estonia's Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, passed on 11 June 1997, is a law designed to fulfill  that country's treaty obligations under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. The Act establishes four Schedules of drugs. Schedule I comprises "narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances the handling of which is prohibited in Estonia except in the cases prescribed by law." Schedules II, III, IV comprise prescription drugs.

The Act divides precursors into two categories: Schedule I (bases) and Schedule II (reagents).

The Act provides for drug addiction prevention and treatment, including involuntary hospitalization.

References

Sources
 Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act

Drug control law
1997 in law
1997 in Estonia
Law of Estonia

Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (Estonia)


The Fondation Dosne-Thiers is a history library located in the 9th arrondissement of Paris at 27, place St-Georges, Paris, France. It is open to researchers who obtain recommendations from a member of the Institut de France.

Description
The foundation is housed within the Hôtel Dosne-Thiers, a former home of historian Louis-Adolphe Thiers (1797–1877) built in 1873 by architect Alfred-Philibert Aldrophe (1834–1895) to replace Thiers' earlier mansion on the site, which was destroyed in the Paris Commune. It was bequeathed to the Institut de France in 1905.

The Fondation contains a large collection of books and objets d'art assembled by Thiers, and is notable for its superb library of French history and a substantial body of Napoleonic memorabilia which may be viewed by prior request. The library also displays temporary exhibits.

The library, the Bibliothèque Thiers, specializes in the history of France from 1789–1900, including its general, political, military, social, and administrative history. It holds one of the world's largest collections on the First French Empire bequeathed by the historian and academician Frédéric Masson. All told, the library contains about 150,000 volumes, plus about 30,000 prints and cartoons, 1,000 drawings, and more than 3,000 manuscripts.

See also
 List of museums in Paris

References
 Bibliothèque Thiers
 Paris.org description
 Paris Avec Vous description (French)
 Chateaux France description

External links

 Fondation Dosne-Thiers

Libraries in Paris
Houses completed in 1873
Buildings and structures in the 9th arrondissement of Paris

Fondation Dosne-Thiers


In mechanics, compressive strength (or compression strength) is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size (as opposed to tensile strength which withstands loads tending to elongate). In other words, compressive strength resists compression (being pushed together), whereas tensile strength resists tension (being pulled apart). In the study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, and shear strength can be analyzed independently.

Some materials fracture at their compressive strength limit; others deform irreversibly, so a given amount of deformation may be considered as the limit for compressive load. Compressive strength is a key value for design of structures.

Compressive strength is often measured on a universal testing machine. Measurements of compressive strength are affected by the specific test method and conditions of measurement. Compressive strengths are usually reported in relationship to a specific technical standard.

Introduction

When a specimen of material is loaded in such a way that it extends it is said to be in tension. On the other hand, if the material compresses and shortens it is said to be in compression.

On an atomic level, the molecules or atoms are forced apart when in tension whereas in compression they are forced together. Since atoms in solids always try to find an equilibrium position, and distance between other atoms, forces arise throughout the entire material which oppose both tension or compression. The phenomena prevailing on an atomic level are therefore similar.

The "strain" is the relative change in length under applied stress; positive strain characterizes an object under tension load which tends to lengthen it, and a compressive stress that shortens an object gives negative strain. Tension tends to pull small sideways deflections back into alignment, while compression tends to amplify such deflection into buckling.

Compressive strength is measured on materials, components, and structures.

By definition, the ultimate compressive strength of a material is that value of uniaxial compressive stress reached when the material fails completely. The compressive strength is usually obtained experimentally by means of a compressive test. The apparatus used for this experiment is the same as that used in a tensile test. However, rather than applying a uniaxial tensile load, a uniaxial compressive load is applied. As can be imagined, the specimen (usually cylindrical) is shortened as well as spread laterally. A stress–strain curve is plotted by the instrument and would look similar to the following:

The compressive strength of the material corresponds to the stress at the red point shown on the curve.  In a compression test, there is a linear region where the material follows Hooke's law.  Hence, for this region,  where, this time,  refers to the Young's modulus for compression. In this region, the material deforms elastically and returns to its original length when the stress is removed.

This linear region terminates at what is known as the yield point. Above this point the material behaves plastically and will not return to its original length once the load is removed.

There is a difference between the engineering stress and the true stress. By its basic definition the uniaxial stress is given by:

where  is load applied [N] and  is area [m2].

As stated, the area of the specimen varies on compression. In reality therefore the area is some function of the applied load i.e. . Indeed, stress is defined as the force divided by the area at the start of the experiment. This is known as the engineering stress and is defined by

where  is the original specimen area [m2].

Correspondingly, the engineering strain is defined by

where  is the current specimen length [m] and  is the original specimen length [m].

The compressive strength therefore corresponds to the point on the engineering stress–strain curve  defined by

where  is the load applied just before crushing and  is the specimen length just before crushing.

Deviation of engineering stress from true stress

In engineering design practice, professionals mostly rely on the engineering stress. In reality, the true stress is different from the engineering stress. Hence calculating the compressive strength of a material from the given equations will not yield an accurate result. This is because the cross sectional area  changes and is some function of load .

The difference in values may therefore be summarized as follows:  On compression, the specimen will shorten. The material will tend to spread in the lateral direction and hence increase the cross sectional area.

Comparison of compressive and tensile strengths
Concrete and ceramics typically have much higher compressive strengths than tensile strengths. Composite materials, such as glass fiber epoxy matrix composite, tend to have higher tensile strengths than compressive strengths. Metals are difficult to test to failure in tension vs compression.  In compression metals fail from buckling/crumbling/45° shear which is much different (though higher stresses) than tension which fails from defects or necking down.

Compressive failure modes

If the ratio of the length to the effective radius of the material loaded in compression (Slenderness ratio) is too high, it is likely that the material will fail under buckling. Otherwise, if the material is ductile yielding usually occurs which displaying the barreling effect discussed above. A brittle material in compression typically will fail by axial splitting, shear fracture, or ductile failure depending on the level of constraint in the direction perpendicular to the direction of loading.  If there is no constraint (also called confining pressure), the brittle material is likely to fail by axial splitting. Moderate confining pressure often results in shear fracture, while high confining pressure often leads to ductile failure, even in brittle materials.

Axial Splitting relieves elastic energy in brittle material by releasing strain energy in the directions perpendicular to the applied compressive stress. As defined by a materials Poisson ratio a material compressed elastically in one direction will strain in the other two directions. During axial splitting a crack may release that tensile strain by forming a new surface parallel to the applied load. The material then proceeds to separate in two or more pieces. Hence the axial splitting occurs most often when there is no confining pressure, i.e. a lesser compressive load on axis perpendicular to the main applied load. The material now split into micro columns will feel different frictional forces either due to inhomogeneity of interfaces on the free end or stress shielding. In the case of stress shielding, inhomogeneity in the materials can lead to different Young's modulus. This will in turn cause the stress to be disproportionately distributed, leading to a difference in frictional forces. In either case this will cause the material sections to begin bending and lead to ultimate failure.

Microcracking

Microcracks are a leading cause of failure under compression for brittle and quasi-brittle materials. Sliding along crack tips leads to tensile forces along the tip of the crack. Microcracks tend to form around any pre-existing crack tips. In all cases it is the overall global compressive stress interacting with local microstructural anomalies to create local areas of tension.  Microcracks can stem from a few factors.

 Porosity is the controlling factor for compressive strength in many materials. Microcracks can form around pores, until about they reach approximately the same size as their parent pores. (a)
 Stiff inclusions within a material such as a precipitate can cause localized areas of tension. (b) When inclusions are grouped up or larger, this effect can be amplified.
 Even without pores or stiff inclusions, a material can develop microcracks between weak inclined (relative to applied stress) interfaces. These interfaces can slip and create a secondary crack. These secondary cracks can continue opening, as the slip of the original interfaces keeps opening the secondary crack (c). The slipping of interfaces alone is not solely responsible for secondary crack growth as inhomogeneities in the material's Young's modulus can lead to an increase in effective misfit strain. Cracks that grow this way are known as wingtip microcracks.

It is important to emphasize that the growth of microcracks is not the growth of the original crack/imperfection. The cracks that nucleate do so perpendicular to the original crack and are known as secondary cracks. The figure below emphasizes this point for wingtip cracks.
These secondary cracks can grow to as long as 10-15 times the length of the original cracks in simple (uniaxial) compression. However, if a transverse compressive load is applied. The growth is limited to a few integer multiples of the original crack's length.

Shear bands
If the sample size is large enough such that the worse defect's secondary cracks cannot grow large enough to break the sample, other defects within the sample will begin to grow secondary cracks as well. This will occur homogeneously over the entire sample. These micro-cracks form an echelon that can form an "intrinsic" fracture behavior, the nucleus of a shear fault instability. Shown right:

Eventually this leads the material deforming non-homogeneously. That is the strain caused by the material will no longer vary linearly with the load. Creating localized shear bands on which the material will fail according to deformation theory. "The onset of localized banding does not necessarily constitute final failure of a material element, but it presumably is at least the beginning of the primary failure process under compressive loading."

Typical values

Compressive strength of concrete

For designers, compressive strength is one of the most important engineering properties of concrete. It is standard industrial practice that the compressive strength of a given concrete mix is classified by grade. Cubic or cylindrical samples of concrete are tested under a compression testing machine to measure this value. Test requirements vary by country based on their differing design codes.  Use of a Compressometer is common.  As per Indian codes, compressive strength of concrete is defined as:

The compressive strength of concrete is given in terms of the characteristic compressive strength of 150 mm size cubes tested after 28 days (fck). In field, compressive strength tests are also conducted at interim duration i.e. after 7 days to verify the anticipated compressive strength expected after 28 days. The same is done to be forewarned of an event of failure and take necessary precautions. The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of the concrete below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall.

For design purposes, this compressive strength value is restricted by dividing with a factor of safety, whose value depends on the design philosophy used.

The construction industry is often involved in a wide array of testing. In addition to simple compression testing, testing standards such as ASTM C39, ASTM C109, ASTM C469, ASTM C1609 are among the test methods that can be followed to measure the mechanical properties of concrete. When measuring the compressive strength and other material properties of concrete, testing equipment that can be manually controlled or servo-controlled may be selected depending on the procedure followed. Certain test methods specify or limit the loading rate to a certain value or a range, whereas other methods request data based on test procedures run at very low rates.

Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) is defined as having a compressive strength over 150 MPa.

See also
 Buff strength
 Container compression test
 Crashworthiness
 Deformation (engineering)
 Schmidt hammer, for measuring compressive strength of materials
 Plane strain compression test

References

 Mikell P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, John Wiley & Sons, 2002 U.S.A,
 Callister W.D. Jr., Materials Science & Engineering an Introduction, John Wiley & Sons, 2003 U.S.A,

Materials science
Product testing

Compressive strength


The Fugitive Slave Acts were two federal laws that concerned runaway slaves in the United States. The two acts were passed in 1793 and in 1850. They required federal involvement in catching runaway slaves in Northern States. The laws were designed to protect Southern slave owners. They required those states and jurisdictions to help in the capture and delivery of fugitive slaves. The laws were very unpopular in the North. They caused a great deal of resentment in the years leading up to the American Civil War.

Background
Slavery in America began in the English colony of Jamestown in 1619. It started with the purchase of 20 Africans from an English warship named the White Lyon. The Colonists in the Virginia Colony bought the contracts of the Africans as indentured servants. Not long after this it became a custom to hold slaves for life in the colonies. During the 17th and 18th centuries, slaves were used to raise crops of tobacco and food crops. After the invention of the cotton gin in 1793, cotton became the most important crop. At this point slavery became a critical part of the South's economy.

The issue of slavery caused difficulties for the United States almost from its beginning as a country. The framers of the Constitution used ambiguous language regarding the holding of slaves. Neither the word "slave" or "slavery" were used in the Constitution. The problem was in creating a democracy that ensured its citizens freedom while keeping a considerable part of the population in slavery without any freedoms.

In the United States, up to the 1860s, slaves and indentured servants were treated as personal property. They were subject to the property laws of the individual states. At first, most of the laws concerned indentured servants. But the laws began to differentiate between indentured servants and slaves around the middle of the 17th century. They also began to differentiate between races. People of African descent began to be held as slaves for life.

Men and women slaves were generally treated the same under most state laws. However, some states had laws that applied only to women slaves. For example, Virginia passed laws punishing women who had children by their masters. They also confirmed the slave status of any children born of a "Negro or mulatto women". Great Britain had a structured system whereby children claimed their lineage through their father. This also applied to illegitimate children (parents were not married). Virginia was the first colony to change this. Slave children were considered the same race and status as the mother, even if the child was fathered by a white man. Laws concerning rape did not apply to black and Indian women. A slave woman could not defend herself against the attack by a white person. If she did, she was subject to beatings. While it was illegal to have relations with a slave woman, the laws were not usually enforced. This system increased the wealth of slave owners. They did not have to buy slaves if they could breed their own.

Slaves, whether born into slavery or purchased as a slave, had no legal rights. The United States Supreme Court decision Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) confirmed that slaves were not citizens of the United States nor of any state they reside in. In 1868 the Fourteenth Amendment overturned the Dred Scott decision.

Early pro-slavery legislation

Northwest Ordinance 1787
The Northwest Ordinance (1787) was an act of the Congress of the Confederation of the United States (before the United States Constitution). It created the Northwest Territory, the first organized territory of the United States. The Ordinance provided that the territory would be formed into "not less than three nor more than five States".

The territory was made up of lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains. It was south of British North America and the Great Lakes. It was north of the Ohio River. Article VI of the Northwest Ordinance prohibited slavery in the new territory. However, it contained a provision that any fugitive slaves caught in the territory would be returned to their owners. It also did not place any restrictions on slavery within any new states formed from the Northwest Territory. Southerners had no problems with the ban on slavery. They thought that most of the new settlers would come from Southern states. Once a state was formed, the former Southerners would vote to allow slavery. However, none of the states formed from the Northwest Territory ended up allowing slavery.

U.S. Constitution 1789
When the United States Constitution replaced the Articles of Confederation in 1789, Article Four of the United States Constitution contained the Fugitive Slave Clause. It states:

Fugitive slave acts

Fugitive Slave Act 1793
While Article IV, Section 2 of the United States Constitution did guarantee the right of slave owners to reclaim fugitive slaves. However, it did not set up the legal mechanism. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 passed by the second Congress added that mechanism. It authorized the arrest of runaway slaves and gave any magistrate of a town, city or county to rule on the arrest. The slave hunter only had to state the person captured was a runaway slave. No proof was required and there was no trial. It added a fine of $500 to any person who helped a runaway slave. It was passed in response to the rise of abolitionism in the North and also to the Underground Railroad that was set up to help slaves escape the South.

Fugitive Slave Act 1850
The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was a controversial part of the Compromise of 1850. The 1850 slave law added penalties for officials who did not arrest alleged runaway slaves. It fined them $1,000. Any law enforcement official was required to arrest anyone suspected of being a runaway slave. All that was required was a persons sworn testimony of ownership. As before there was no trial and the suspect could not testify on their own behalf. Anyone who provided food or shelter to any suspected runaway slave was subject to six months in prison and a fine of $1,000. An officer who captured a runaway slave would get a bonus or a promotion. The 1850 law provided for special commissioners to decide if the alleged fugitive was to be returned to slavery. He received $10 if the fugitive was returned, but only $5 if the fugitive was freed. This amounted to a legal form of bribery. This caused a large number of free blacks to be sent into slavery.

Results of the slave law

The 1850 Fugitive Slave Law caused outrage in the Northern States. It caused thousands of Northerners to be convinced slavery should not be allowed in the western territories. Eight states in the North passed "personal liberty" laws. These prevented any official from helping to return a runaway slave. Southerners regarded these laws as being illegal attempts to prevent the return of their slaves. In the North, free black communities provided runaway slaves with sanctuary and hid them from the hired kidnappers searching for them. About 15,000 free blacks emigrated to Canada, the Caribbean and Africa after the 1850 law was passed. Thousands of others including free blacks were not so lucky and were sent South.

In 1851, a gun battle broke out between abolitionists and slave catchers in Christiana, Pennsylvania. In Wisconsin a fugitive named Joshua Glover was forcibly freed from a jail. In Boston, a mob tried to free a fugitive named Anthony Burns. It took 22 companies of state troopers to stop them. The Southern states were completely convinced the North would not follow the slave laws.

References

Other websites
 Slavery Fugitive Slave Law; YouTube
 Fugitive Slave Act and Uncle Tom's Cabin; YouTube

Origins of the American Civil War
Slavery in the United States
African-American history

Fugitive slave laws


The  is one of Japan's traditional regions. The Japanese conventions of geography and history divide the nation into eight regions, including the Tōhoku region.  These have been used since 1905 as basic units for description and comparison and as cultural markers.

The regions of Japan are a fusion of historical divisions and modern administrative needs.    The significance of the region in Japan is geographical, cultural and administrative.

History
In the late 7th century, the Tōsandō region were identified as one of the eight largest administrative areas of the Imperial system (ritsuryo seido).

Gokishichidō is an ancient system of names for parts of the country, including Tōsandō.  Tōhoku covers the northern area of the island of Honshū in roughly the same area as the traditional Tōsandō.

In the Meiji period, the modern regional system was made by Imperial decree.  Japan was divided into regions (chihō ), including the Tōhoku region. A regional council  (chihō gyōsei kyōgisai) was headed by the governor of the most powerful prefecture in the regional grouping.  The council also included regional chiefs of central government ministries.

Over time, Tōhoku has developed its own regional dialects, customs and unique traditional culture. Tōhoku is famous for farming. Now a lot of kinds of vegetable are grown.

The Tōhoku University was built in 1907.

In 2011, Tōhoku was struck with a very strong earthquake and tsunami. It caused a lot of damage. Now, people in Japan do their best for the complete revival of Tōhoku.

Geography

The region occupies the northeastern part of Honshu, which is the largest Japanese island.

Tōhoku Prefectures
The region has six prefectures. From north to south, they are:
 Aomori Prefecture
 Iwate Prefecture
 Akita Prefecture
 Miyagi Prefecture
 Yamagata Prefecture
 Fukushima Prefecture

Related pages

 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan
 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
 Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles

References

Other websites

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Tōhoku region


A protease is a digestive  enzyme. It breaks down long chains of  proteins into shorter amino acids. Proteases have evolved a number of times. We know this because different kinds of protease can do the same reaction in completely different ways. Proteases are found in animals, plants, bacteria, archaea and viruses.

Now more than 50 types of protease are known. Each is a separate evolutionary origin of proteolysis.

Protease can be divided into 6 types :
serine proteases
threonine proteases
cysteine proteases
aspartate proteases
metallo proteases
glutamic acid proteases

References

Enzymes

Protease


Geneva, a Fancied Page of History in Three Acts (1938) is a topical play by George Bernard Shaw. It describes a summit meeting designed to contain the increasingly dangerous behaviour of three dictators, Herr Battler, Signor Bombardone, and General Flanco (parodies of Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini and Francisco Franco).

Because of its topicality in the run up to World War II, the play was constantly rewritten by Shaw to take account of rapidly changing events. Though initially a success, the play's flippant portrayal of Hitler and fascism have limited revivals in later years.

Plot
At the offices of the "Committee of Intellectual Cooperation" in Geneva, the only person present is a hopelessly overwhelmed secretary called Miss Begonia Brown. Various people turn up demanding redress of grievances: a Jew who complains of oppression in Germany; a colonial politician who had been denied the right to take his seat and a South American woman who objects to the politics of assassinations and vendettas. A British vicar and a Russian Bolshevik also complain about the respective influence of their competing ideologies. The vicar promptly dies of shock after realising he has been friendly with a Communist. The Jew says that the major culprits are the fascist dictators Battler, Bombardone and Flanco. He suggests that they should contact the International Court in The Hague, which the secretary does. A Dutch judge accepts the case, summoning Battler, Bombardone and Flanco to the court.

To everyone's amazement the dictators all obey the summons. They are put on trial, which is broadcast internationally on television. Battler, Bombardone, and Flanco all defend themselves with grandiose speeches. The judge comments, "It turns out that we do not and cannot love one another—that the problem before us is how to establish peace among people who heartily dislike one another, and have very good reasons for doing so: in short, that the human race does not at present consist exclusively or even largely of likeable persons". Sir Orpheus Midlander, the British Foreign Secretary, threatens Battler that if Germany invades another country, Britain will take military action.

As the situation seems to be escalating, news arrives that the earth has jumped out of its orbit and all humanity is threatened with freezing to death. Political differences no longer seem significant. But now all the leaders have a different plan to deal with the problem—or to ignore it. It is soon discovered that the report was false. Will this moment of shared, albeit illusory, danger help to bring the nations together? It's doubtful. But the play ends on a note of hope: "They came, these fellows. They blustered: they defied us. But they came. They came."

Creation
Shaw's friend and biographer Archibald Henderson says that he had suggested to Shaw that he could write a play about Mussolini, saying "It may be that Shaw was thereby influenced to consider all the totalitarian leaders and dictators brought together into a single play." The play's British ambassador is a composite figure based on British politicians of the day, including the aristocratic Eric Drummond, 16th Earl of Perth and the brothers Austen Chamberlain and Neville Chamberlain. According to Henderson,

Shaw spent two years working on and revising the play after first drafting it in 1936. An early version was sent to Lawrence Langner of the Theatre Guild in New York. Langner was not impressed, and refused to put on the play. He was especially dismayed by Shaw's apparently sympathetic attitude to the dictators. He wrote, "Your influence has been exactly the opposite of that of the dictators...Yet you seem to justify Fascism with its intolerance, racial hatred, economic slavery, fanning of the war spirit...mainly on the ground that...Dictators are 'supermen', and the supermen 'get things done'." Shaw said he had already rewritten it to adopt as more critical stance: "Musso let me down completely by going anti-Semite on me...you may now put the copy I sent you in the fire as useless." As political events unfolded, Shaw had to constantly rewrite the play. According to Michael Holroyd, in the end "Geneva was played and printed in eight different versions".

Productions
It was first performed at the Teatr Polski in Warsaw on 25 July 1938, in a Polish language translation. Its first British production was at the Malvern festival on 1 August 1938. Shaw wrote a pamphlet to accompany the Malvern production. A London production opened on 22 November 1938, with more added scenes. The topicality of the themes, with war looming, attracted audiences and the play ran for 237 performances, closing in mid-June 1939.

Shaw revised the play again for a performance in New York in January 1940, but the atmosphere had changed with war now a reality. According to Stanley Weintraub the jokey and flippant manner did not work for audiences, "the caricatures were no longer clever – if they ever had been so....it was an immediate flop."

Responses
Beatrice Webb disliked what she heard when Shaw read passages from a draft of Geneva in 1936, writing "every character depraved in morals and manners and futile in intellect, with here and there a dull dissertation on public affairs". When she saw it on stage, she changed her mind, noting, "the play has come at the best possible occasion: it relieves the terrible tension that we all feel about foreign affairs by laughing at every one concerned." Homer Woodbridge says that "As a dramatized pamphlet or tract, the piece points in too many directions to be effective", but the caricature of Mussolini is witty and convincing.  Both parliamentarian and fascist politics are caricatured, with only the Dutch judge representing reason. However, in line with Shaw's pro-Stalinist views, the Russian Commissar is portrayed without satire.

G. A. Pileki notes that early reviewers took the view that Shaw was far too soft on the dictators, being "overly critical of the British and generally sympathetic toward the dictators", but that after the war stated a production in New York was interpreted as "a British propaganda mission." Examining Shaw's revisions to his drafts of the play Pileki concludes that Shaw intentionally made the dictators' cases more rational in order to create a more balanced version of his typical "Shavian dialectic". In the early version the Jew and Battler have an argument in which the Jew claims to represent an intellectually superior, educated people, while Battler maintains that he wants to eliminate sub-humans, poisonous vermin and Jews. In the final version Battler says he was only trying to remove foreigners from his country, comparing his plans to the White Australia policy that was accepted in the British empire.

Preface
Shaw wrote his preface to the play ten years later in 1946, after World War II was over. He looked back on his portrayal of the failings of both dictators and of parliamentary democracy, reaffirming his often-repeated view that "Civilization's will to live [is] always defeated by democracy", arguing for a form of technocratic and meritocratic government. He said that Hitler had proved to be "a pseudo-Messiah and madman".

References

External links

1938 plays
Plays by George Bernard Shaw
Cultural depictions of Adolf Hitler
Works about Adolf Hitler
Plays about Nazi Germany
Cultural depictions of Benito Mussolini
Works about Italian fascism
Works about Francisco Franco
Plays set in Switzerland
Geneva in fiction

Geneva (play)


Byron Reed (March 12, 1829 – June 6, 1891) was an American pioneer real estate businessman and local politician in Omaha, Nebraska. He founded the first real estate office in the Nebraska Territory and became the foremost agent after Nebraska achieved statehood.

Biography
Reed was born in Darien, Genesee County, New York. While he was attending the Alexander Classical School, Reed's family moved to Darien, Wisconsin. At the age of 20 he took a job as a telegraph operator, working in Warren, Ohio until 1855. He also served at the Register of Deeds for Trumbull County during this time.

Reed came to Omaha in late 1855, the year the city was founded. By the early 1860s he had accumulated a variety of land holdings across the city. As Omaha became an important gateway to the West and its economy boomed, Reed became very rich and assumed a prominent position in the business and political affairs of both the city and the state. In a time when correspondents were frequently targeted as targets, Reed was working as a correspondent of the New York Tribune and traveling throughout southern Nebraska, Kansas and Missouri to cover the Border Ruffians battles.

In March 1856 he opened an office in the old State House building in Downtown Omaha and established a real estate business. Within three years the business was incorporated, and Reed's business was regarded as successful. That year he acquired the land surrounding the Prospect Hill Cemetery, and ten years later he donated it to the City of Omaha. Reed was instrumental in the formation of the Forest Lawn Cemetery Association and brokered the turn over of Prospect Hill to it in 1885.

Throughout the rest of his life Reed was a surveyor, abstractor and land developer, creating many of the subdivisions that grew around downtown Omaha.

The company he founded in 1856 is still active in Omaha today.

Political involvement
In 1860 he was elected City Clerk in Omaha, serving until 1867. From 1861 to 1863 he served as deputy County Clerk of Douglas County, and in 1863 he was elected to a two-year term as County Clerk. Starting in 1871 he served on the Omaha City Council, acting as president in 1872.

Byron Reed Collection

Byron Reed found time to collect rare books, manuscripts, autographs and American coins, in which last field he was preeminent; according to numismatists, "Byron Reed was one of the greatest collectors of the 19th century," with a reputation as a coin collector that is "largely unrecognized." His collection of colonial and United States coinage, paper money and sutlers' tokens is thought to be one of the most complete in the United States, and his numismatic library is one of the largest in the Midwestern United States; according to experts, the library is probably the last private numismatic library formed in the 19th century to remain intact. Donated to the City of Omaha upon Reed's death, today the collection is housed at the Durham Western Heritage Museum.

See also
History of Omaha
Founding figures of Omaha, Nebraska

References

1829 births
1891 deaths
American real estate businesspeople
American numismatists
Politicians from Warren, Ohio
People from Darien, New York
Businesspeople from Omaha, Nebraska
Pioneer history of Omaha, Nebraska
Burials at Prospect Hill Cemetery (North Omaha, Nebraska)
People from Darien, Wisconsin
19th-century American businesspeople

Byron Reed


Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina (27996/06 and 34836/06) was a case (merged from two) decided by the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights in December 2009, in the first judgment finding a violation of Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights taken in conjunction with Article 3 of Protocol No. 1 thereof, with regard to the arrangements of the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina in respect of the House of Peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and a violation of Article 1 of Protocol No. 12 with regard to the constitutional arrangements on the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The plaintiffs were two citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dervo Sejdić and Jakob Finci, who are of Roma and Jewish ethnicity, respectively.

Facts

The 1995 Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, created as part of the Dayton Agreement which ended the 1992–1995 Bosnian War, included power-sharing provisions which provided that posts in the tripartite Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the House of Peoples (upper house of the national parliament) were reserved for ethnic Bosniaks, Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Croats only.

The applicants, being a Roma and a Jew, contested these provisions. Finci was represented by Clive Baldwin, formerly of Minority Rights Group International now with Human Rights Watch, and by Sheri Rosenberg of Cardozo Law School, with advice and assistance from Minority Rights Group International throughout. Dervo Sejdić was represented by Francisco Javier Leon Diaz, a Barrister and established human rights lawyer.

Proceedings

Applications were submitted in 2006 and communicated to the government in 2008. In 2009, the jurisdiction was relinquished to the Grand Chamber.

In June 2009, a public hearing was held, and in December 2009 the judgment was published.

Trial
The Court found that applicants' ineligibility to stand for election to the House of Peoples violates Article 14 of ECHR (ban of discrimination in the field of Convention rights) taken in conjunction with Article 3 of Protocol No. 1 (free elections), by 14 votes to 3, and that their ineligibility to stand for election to the Presidency violates Article 1 of Protocol No. 12 (general ban of discrimination), by 16 votes to 1.

Judge Mijović (Bosnia and Herzegovina), joined by Judge Hajiyev (Azerbaijan), expressed a partly concurring and partly dissenting opinion, finding no violation in applicants' ineligibility to the House of Peoples.

Judge Bonello (Malta) expressed a dissent concerning both access to the presidency and to the House of Peoples.

Aftermath

In October 2011, the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina set in motion a constitutional reform, including changing the election provisions.

In November 2014, the UK and German foreign ministers, Philip Hammond and Frank-Walter Steinmeier, sent an "open letter" to the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which pledged substantive progress towards Bosnia's EU membership if Bosnia's politicians gave a written commitment to implement a package of reforms, including compliance with the Sejdic and Finci ruling of the European Court of Human Rights. However, as of 2019, 10 years after the ECHR judgment, no reforms have been implemented.

References

Bibliography

External links
 Judgment
 Webcast of the hearing
 Minority Rights Group's briefing paper on the consequences of the ruling
 Milanovic, Marko Sejdic and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina (September 6, 2010). American Journal of International Law, Vol. 104, 2010.
 Bardutzky, Samo The Strasbourg Court on the Dayton Constitution: Judgment in the case of Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, 22 December 2009 (October 19, 2010). European Constitutional Law Review, Vol. 6, Issue 2.
 Hodzic, Edin and Nenad Stojanovic New/Old Constitutional Engineering? Challenges and Implications of the European Court of Human Rights Decision in the Case of Sejdic and Finci v. BiH. Sarajevo: Analitika - Center for Social Research, 2011.

Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights
Article 3 of Protocol No. 1 of the European Convention on Human Rights
Jewish Bosnian history
Romani in Bosnia and Herzegovina
European Court of Human Rights cases decided by the Grand Chamber
European Court of Human Rights cases involving Bosnia and Herzegovina
Elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Electoral restrictions
2009 in case law
2009 in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina–European Union relations


The Wild Men of Borneo was a sideshow attraction. The Wild Men were midget brothers Hiram and Barney Davis. Hiram (1825–1905) was born in England. His brother Barney (1827–1912) was born on Long Island, New York State.

The two were mentally deficient, but physically strong. They each stood about 42 inches tall and weighed about 40 pounds. In 1852, showman Lyman Warner discovered them, and bought the two from their widowed mother.

Warner named them Waino and Plutano. The two capably acted their parts as The Wild Men of Borneo. They talked gibberish, lifted male audience members, or wrestled to show their muscles. They recited poems they had been taught. When Lyman Warner died in 1871, his son Hanford managed the brothers.

In 1880, Waino and Plutano were managed by P. T. Barnum. Under his direction, The Wild Men of Borneo became one of the most famous sideshow attractions in the world. The two earned $200,000 over their lifetimes.

In 1893, the promotional booklet What We Know About Waino and Plutano, Wild Men of Borneo described their 1848 "capture" and the Wild Men as hardly above the social level of "orang-outangs of a like size".

The brothers' sideshow days ended in 1903 when Hiram fell ill. They moved to Massachusetts. Hiram died in 1905 and Barney in 1912. The two are buried in Mount Vernon, Ohio.

References

Other websites
 Wild Men of Borneo at The Human Marvels

1825 births
1827 births
1905 deaths
1912 deaths
19th-century American sideshow performers

The Wild Men of Borneo


(750? – November 8, 785) was the fifth son of Prince Shirakabe (later Emperor Kōnin), by Takano no Niigasa.

Biography
In 781 he was named heir-presumptive after his elder brother succeeded the abdicated Emperor Kōnin as the Emperor Kanmu. In 785, the administrator in charge of the new capital of Nagaoka-kyō, Fujiwara no Tanetsugu, was assassinated. Prince Sawara was implicated because of his opposition to the move of the capital, exiled to Awaji Province, but starved himself (although a mystery remains) and died on the way there.

He was made a Crown Prince by the Emperor Kanmu after his wife died and his son fell ill (the son allegedly possessed by the spirit of Sawara). Later that year, he was elevated posthumously to become . This is the then only recorded instance of posthumously raising someone to the rank and title of emperor. He was reburied in Yamato.

Additional concerns led to the decision to move the capital again, to Heiankyō (Kyōto).

He was also made part of pantheon of onryō, "disgraced" figures enshrined at the Shinsenen in Kyōto, in 863, to appease (rather than banish) troubled, even vengeful, souls. The others were Mononobe no Moriya (killed 587), Prince Iyo (executed 807), Fujiwara no Nakanari (executed 810), Tachibana no Hayanari (died 842) and Bunya no Miyatamaro (died 843).

The kami of Prince Sawara is venerated at Sudō jinja in Shūgaku-in, Yamashiro province. The prince (Sawara-shinnō) was posthumously elevated as Emperor Sudō (Sudō-tennō).

Notes

References
 Plutschow, Herbert.   "Tragic Victims in Japanese Religion, Politics, and the Arts," Anthropoetics Vol. 6, No. 2 (Fall 2000/Winter 2001)
 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959).  The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887

750s births
785 deaths
8th-century Japanese people
Japanese princes
Suicides by starvation
Suicides in Japan
Year of birth uncertain
Emperor Kanmu
Deified Japanese people
Sons of emperors

Prince Sawara


Ambrose Powell Hill, Jr. (1825–1865) was a career United States Army officer from Virginia who resigned and served as a Confederate States Army general and died near the end of the American Civil War. He had started his military career in 1847, graduating from the United States Military Academy at West Point, 15th out of a class of 38. While at the academy, he and his roommate George B. McClellan became close friends. He served during the last part of the Mexican-American War in Texas. He served during the Seminole War of 1849–50 in Florida. Hill is best known for commanding the "Light Division" under General Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson.

Family history
The Hill family had come to Virginia two centuries before the Civil War. The earliest family members (then spelled "Hull") traced back to 12th century England. Henry and William Hill of Shropshire came to Virginia in 1630. They settled in Middlesex County, Virginia. Both brothers were tobacco farmers and both had large families. In 1740, Russel Hill, William's great-grandson, moved to Culpepper County, Virginia. His son, Henry Hill served in the American Revolutionary War under Colonel Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee. His son, Thomas Hill, was a farmer, merchant, and politician. He married Fannie Russel Baptist. Together they had four sons followed by three daughters. Their fourth son was Ambrose Powell Hill, Jr.

Early life
On November 9, 1825, Ambrose Powell Hill, Jr., was born at Greenland, his father's plantation near Culpepper, Virginia. But all throughout his childhood, he was called Powell. He went to the local schools. Hill wanted to go into the military, and in 1842 he was admitted to West Point. But he did not graduate in 1846 with the rest of his class because he missed a year due to illness. Graduating in 1847, he was posted to the U.S. 1st Artillery. After serving in the Mexican-American War, he was sent to Texas, then Florida. Hill came down with Yellow fever, typhoid fever, and malaria. During the 1850s he was sick much of the time and was confined to his bed. When he recovered, he was assigned to the Coast Surveying Department (now the U.S. National Geodetic Survey).

Civil war

Army of Northern Virginia
When President Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated in March 1861, Hill was among the U.S. Army officers who resigned their commissions and joined the Confederacy. He was given command of the 13th Virginia Infantry with the rank of colonel. At the First Battle of Bull Run, his regiment was held in reserve. In February 1862 he was promoted to brigadier general. In the Peninsula Campaign, he fought against his former West Point roommate, Union General George McClellan. Proving himself as an aggressive leader, he was promoted again on May 26, 1862. This made him the Confederate Army's youngest major general. Hill called his division "the Light Division" even though it was one of the Confederate Army's larger divisions. This was probably because of how fast Hill could move his troops. He was known as a fearless general and was often seen in battle at the front lines.

Hill-Longstreet feud
Without any encouragement from Hill, he was being regularly written about by a former aide, John M. Daniel. Wounded, Daniel had left the army and was now the editor of the Richmond Examiner, a three-cent newspaper popular with Confederate soldiers. Soon, Daniel was making Hill out to be Lee's top general to the exclusion of other generals. This did not sit well with Lieutenant General James Longstreet, as Hill's commanding officer. The final straw came in the July 2 edition of The Examiner. Daniel wrote that Hill had taken command of all of Longstreet's forces when Longstreet was absent from the battle for a period of time. Longstreet was angered at this and saw it as a lie. Longstreet decided to write his own article refuting Daniel's claims about Hill at the battle. In a rival newspaper, the Richmond Whig, Longstreet directed Major Moxley Sorrel to submit a public response under Sorrel's own name. This started a very public feud between the two generals. Lee became aware of the feud but decided not to do anything about it.

When Hill refused to read any dispatches sent by Sorrel, Longstreet's aide, Longstreet became furious. He ordered Hills arrest. While under arrest, Hill's Light Division was commanded by generals J.R. Anderson, then Lawrence O'Bryan Branch. At this point Hill regarded this as questioning his honor. The two kept up hostile communications and a time and place was selected for a duel. At this point, Lee stepped in and made the two generals come to an agreement. Hill was restored to his command and was assigned to General Stonewall Jackson. As time passed, Hill and Longstreet became friendly again. Sorrel was later promoted to major general and found himself under the command of Hill.

Army of the Shenandoah
At the Battle of Cedar Mountain in August 1862, Hill proved himself valuable to his new Corps commander. His Light Division played a key role in helping Jackson win a victory over the Union army. At the Second Battle of Bull Run, Hill's division nearly ran out of ammunition but stood their ground against every Federal attack.

At the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863, Jackson ordered Hill's division to the front in preparation for a night attack. Meanwhile, Jackson was personally doing reconnaissance. As he returned he was fired on by his own men, mortally wounding the general. J.E.B. Stuart took over command and called off the night attack. Chancellorsville was a Confederate victory.

Corps commander
Hill was promoted to lieutenant general after Jackson's death and was now in command of Lee's Third Corps in the Army of the Potomac. Hill's corps was at the Battle of Gettysburg from July 1–3, 1863. He was criticised for making questionable decisions. On the first day, he engaged the Union before all of the Confederate army had arrived.

At the Battle of Bristoe Station on October 14, 1863, Hill's Corps attacked two Union corps who were slowly retreating north. Hill's mistake was in not ordering any reconnaissance before the attack to see what they were up against. One of Hill's divisions was badly beaten, and one artillery battery was lost. After reinforcing his line, Hill was not able to make any progress against the Union corps who were dug in behind the Orange and Alexandria Railroad embankment. After beating Hill, the Union army continued on to Centerville, Virginia. Lee was angry with Hill over his mistakes at Bristoe Station. He told Hill, "bury your dead and say no more about it!"

On May 5, 1864, at the place known as the Wilderness in Spotsylvania County, Virginia, Confederate and Union forces battled for two days. Hill's Corps battled two Union corps both days and were on the verge of falling back when Longstreet's Texas Brigade reinforced Hill and pushed the Federals back.

Hill was killed on April 2, 1865 at the Third Battle of Petersburg. He was just returning from sick leave and riding to the front to join his men when he was killed by a shot from an enemy soldier.

Notes

References

1825 births
1865 deaths
American Civil War generals
Military people from Virginia
Military people killed in action

A. P. Hill


Grumpy Cat's Worst Christmas Ever is a television Christmas movie that stars the famous internet celebrity animal, Grumpy Cat. The movie was first shown on the Lifetime network on November 29, 2014.

It stars Megan Charpentier as a young girl who adopts Grumpy Cat. Then she finds out that she and the cat can really talk with one another.

The voice of Grumpy Cat is spoken by the actress Aubrey Plaza. She did not know about Grumpy Cat before working in the movie. To prepare, she learned all about Grumpy's behavior. The movie had already been made when Aubrey did the cat's voice part. Instead of using her script, she made up most of Grumpy's lines that ended up in the movie.

Plot
Grumpy Cat is a lonely cat living in a pet shop in a shopping mall. The pet shop is going to go out of business and be shut down. Grumpy is sad and upset because she is not getting picked to get a new home, while other animals are being adopted.

Chrystal is a lonely 12-year-old girl who comes into the pet store right before Christmas and falls in love with Grumpy Cat. Grumpy finds out that she can communicate by talking with this girl. Chrystal is also amazed to find out that Grumpy Cat can talk. At first, the two do not get along with one another. While visiting in the pet shop during the Christmas holidays, they slowly become friends.

Chrystal really likes Grumpy after they have an exciting adventure. A dog that costs a lot of money is about to be dognapped from the pet shop. Even though Grumpy does not like the dog, she stops the theft of the dog from happening.

Cast
Aubrey Plaza does the Grumpy Cat voice
Daniel Roebuck plays George
Megan Charpentier plays Chrystal
Grumpy Cat plays Herself
Russell Peters plays Santa
Chris Williams does the voice for Lance the hamster

Reception
Reviews for Grumpy Cat's Worst Christmas Ever have been both negative and postive. The AV Club and Entertainment Weekly both did not like the movie. AV Club said it was "the largest turd in Lifetime's crap crown of original programming." The Guardian and St. Louis Post Dispatch were a bit more positive in their reviews. The St. Louis Post Dispatch said that although the film was "terrible" they still enjoyed it overall.

References

Other websites

 Grumpy Cat's Worst Christmas Ever Rotten Tomatoes
 Grumpy Cat's Worst Christmas Ever Metacritic

Television movies
Movies about cats
Christmas movies

Grumpy Cat's Worst Christmas Ever


A tampon is a mass made of absorbent material, usually cotton, that are put into a body cavity to absorb body fluid. The most common type is put in a woman's vagina to absorb menstrual fluid.

Tampons were first used as medical devices in the 18th century. They date back thousands of years.

References

Hygiene
Female reproductive system

Tampon


Instant noodles are a product used in cooking - a type of pre-cooked noodle. These noodles are cooked at the factory and packaged as dried noodles, often with a special powder that adds flavor to the noodles. The dish is prepared very quickly (usually 5 minutes or less), simply by putting the noodles together in hot water and then adding the powder. A kind of noodle soup is then ready to eat.

Instant noodles are very popular in Asia, and among many students and poorer people, because they are very cheap to produce and to buy. In the United States, a package of instant noodles sometimes costs only ten cents.

There are many companies who manufacture Instant Noodles, some of them being:

 Maggi (Nestle)
 Top Ramen
 Chings
 Tasty Treat
 Nongshim

Noodles
Asian foods

Instant noodles


The 2013 Southern California shootings were an incident that happened in Southern California. The victims were law enforcement officers and related families.

The incident began on February 3, 2013, around which point 28-year-old Monica Quan and her fiancé Keith Lawrence, in Irvine, were found dead. They were shot in Lawrence's car. The suspected perpetrator of the crime, Christopher Dorner, put out a manifesto one day after the crime. Dorner is a former officer of the Los Angeles Police Department. On February 7, the driver of a pickup truck fired a rifle onto two officers, grazing the head of one and killing another. The one that was killed was Michael Crain, who died shortly after the shooting. Dorner was later found by police on February 12 and hid in a wooden cabin. The cabin later caught on fire. Human remains was found with a wallet reading "Christopher Dorner".

Christopher Dorner's early life
Christopher Dorner had many different identities in his lifetime. He was regarded as been an upstanding citizen, an athlete, a law enforcement officer and a decorated military veteran. Some people who knew him indicated that he was very intelligent and sensitive. In a photo released by the police, he was standing up straight with the police uniform, smiling warmly, and the background for this photo is the American flag. In 2008, he was dismissed from the LAPD (Los Angeles Police Department) on a charge of making false statements. His colleagues said this was the turning point for his life. He typed 6000 words and posted it on the Internet. He released his anger and bitterness because of a decision that was made five years ago. He believed and firmly believe the racism, twenty years after the beating of black suspect Rodney King by white officers unleashed waves of rioting in Los Angeles.

Overview of the case
Dorner started his killing with a plan. First he had a package with some complaints, and sent it to Anderson Cooper, who is a television personality, and arrive at CNN on February 1, 2013. Then Dorner tailed after a couple and killed them into their car on February 3, 2013. In this murder case, the dead include the daughter for the LAPD (Los Angeles Police Department) captain who became his defence lawyer in the LAPD review board hearings of his allegations against his training officer. In the end, he posted many statements which had next target's name and threaten them lives. It cause the police to mount a widespread manhunt for Dorner, the area was from California to include Nevada and Mexico. The police said the need protected more than 40 potential targets of Dorner's. Thousands of police were patrol in Southern California's highways.

Details of the case
On February 1, Anderson Cooper of CNN got a package. It contained a DVD and a challenge coin carve a notes "1MOA". It meaned that the coin was shot at 100 meters.

On February 3, 28-year-old Monica Quan, and her fiancé, 27-year-old Keith Lawrence, were killed into a white car. Quan, an assistant women's basketball coach at Cal State Fullerton, was the daughter of Randal Quan. The crime scene was outside their condominium, in the city of Irvine.

On February 5, This information was for military sources that Dorner checked into Naval Base Point Loma in San Diego. However, he didn't checkout when he left.

On February 7, Two LAPD officers found Dorner at a gas station in Corona, they got a drastic shooting, and one officer, Michael Crain, died after the shooting.

On February 10, The government offered a $1 million reward for information about Dorner. Some people said he was hidden somewhere in the San Bernardino Mountains. In February 13, It was reported that they found Dorner's body in the mountain cabin.

References

 Hanna, Jason. "Police: Man kills 3, himself in Southern California shooting spree". CNN. Cable News Network. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. Retrieved 5 February 2015.

2013 in California
2013 murders in the United States
2010s crimes in California
February 2013 events
Murder-suicides in California
Murders by firearm in California
Suicide in the 2010s

Christopher Dorner shootings and manhunt


The Turdetani were an ancient pre-Roman people of the Iberian Peninsula, living in the valley of the Guadalquivir (the river that the Turdetani called by two names: Kertis and Rérkēs (Ῥέρκης); Romans would call the river by the name Baetis), in what was to become the Roman Province of Hispania Baetica (modern south of Spain). Strabo considers them to have been the successors to the people of Tartessos and to have spoken a language closely related to the Tartessian language.

History
The Turdetani were in constant contact with their Greek and Carthaginian neighbors. Herodotus describes them as enjoying a civilized rule under a king, Arganthonios, who welcomed Phocaean colonists in the fifth century BC. The Turdetani are said to have possessed a written legal code and to have employed Iberian mercenaries to carry on their wars against Rome. Strabo notes that the Turdetani were the most civilized people in Iberia, with the implication that their ordered, urbanized culture was most in accord with Greco-Roman models. After the end of the Second Punic War, the Turdetani rose against their Roman governor in 197 BC. When Cato the Elder became consul in 195 BC, he was given the command of the whole of Hispania. Cato first put down the rebellion in the northeast, then marched south and put down the revolt by the Turdetani, "the least warlike of all the Hispanic tribes". Cato was able to return to Rome in 194, leaving two praetors in charge of the two provinces.

In Plautus' comedy The Captives, a reference to the Turdetani (Act i, Scene ii) amusingly purports to show that their district in Hispania Baetica had become proverbially famous for the thrushes and small birds supplied for Roman tables. Turdus is the genus of the thrushes.

See also
Carpia
Carissa
Southwest Paleohispanic script
Turduli

Notes

References
 Ángel Montenegro et alii, Historia de España 2 - colonizaciones y formación de los pueblos prerromanos (1200-218 a.C), Editorial Gredos, Madrid (1989)

External links

Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)
Livy, History of Rome book 34, especially 34.17 and following sections

Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
Tartessos
Ancient peoples of Spain

Turdetani


Istia d'Ombrone () is a small town in southern Tuscany, Italy, a frazione of the comune of Grosseto.

History
In the area surrounding the centre of Istia there have been found some ruins of ancient habitations dating back to the Etruscan era in the area of Poggio Cavallo.
It was inhabited also during the Roman era, as testified by some construction materials reused in later periods to build the walls of Istia. In that period there was also a series of roads which crossed the area allowing communication with the Prile Lake and with the hinterland. However the centre of Istia arose as a settlement fortified along the Valley of Ombrone and from 862 was owned by the bishops of Roselle, which had feudal rights with the title of counts and so here they established a residence. Later it passed to the family of the Aldobrandeschi, becoming in 1226 a free Comune with the acceptance of the relative statute. In 1274 it was assigned to the County of Santa Fiora at the moment of the division of the goods and the territories controlled by the Aldobrandeschi family. In the Medieval period the centre became also home to a residence of bishops, after the passage of the diocese from Roselle to Grosseto.

In the course of the 14th century it passed under the control of Siena, enduring a very serious demographic decline between 1331 and 1353, also because of the diffusion of the Yersinia pestis which occurred right at the end of that period. In the 15th century Istia had become a feud of the Piccolomini family, even though it continued to maintain the status of free Comune and having a high degree of autonomy within the Republic of Siena. After the final political fall of Siena, Istia become part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Consequently, there was another demographic fall which stopped only during the course of the 18th century, after the beginning of some restorations done by will of the Lorena.

During the Second World War, the 22 March 1944 the massacre of Maiano Lavacchio perpetrated into the nearby countryside; the abridgement process was held at the school of Istia purposely emptied.

Main sights
The town walls, nearly completely destroyed in 1137 by Henry X, Duke of Bavaria, were rebuilt only under the Sieneses. Some ruins of the Portaccia and the Porta Grossetana, which backs to the Palzzo della Giustizia dating to the 1400, are conserved. The residence of the bishop-counts, the Palazzo di San Salvatore, was afterwards transformed into a fortification by the Sieneses. In the town there are also two churches, one within the walls and the other on the outside of the walls in front of the Porta Grossetana.

Military architecture
Walls of Istia d'Ombrone, fortified walls of the town.
Porta Grossetana, one of the two original doors along the ancient walls, made in medieval times, almost certainly around the 12th century .
Cassero Senese, also known as Episcopal Palace, was built in the first half of the 13th century, as a place of temporary residence for bishops of the Diocese of Grosseto. With the passage of Istia d'Ombrone under the control of Siena, the building was transformed into a cassero.
Porta Senese, the door in the north-east side of the walls, it was built during the 12th century with the tower in which it is incorporated.

Palazzi
Palazzo di Giustizia, a courthouse built in the 15th century.
Spedale dei Battenti, a sort of hospital, built in 1321 to provide assistance. It is now used for residential purposes.

Churches
Church of San Salvatore, dating to the 13th century, was many times restored in the centuries to come. It conserves a wooden sculpture dating to the 1400 of the Sienese School, a contemporary painting of the Madonna con bambino by Giovanni di Paolo and another painting by Vincenzo Tamagni of 1528.
Church of San Sebastiano, once dedicated to Saint Stephan, placed in the little square outside the walls.

Missing architecture
Oratorio di San Gherardo
Chiesa della Santissima Annunziata
Chiesa di San Donato

Bibliography
Aldo Mazzolai. Guida della Maremma. Percorsi tra arte e natura. Florence, Le Lettere, 1997.
Giuseppe Guerrini. Torri e Castelli della provincia di Grosseto (Amministrazione Provinciale di Grosseto). Siena, Nuova Immagine Editrice, 1999.
Carlo Citter. Guida agli edifici sacri della Maremma. Siena, Nuova Immagine Editrice, 2002.

See also

Grosseto
Maremma
Alberese
Batignano
Braccagni
Marina di Grosseto
Montepescali
Principina a Mare
Principina Terra
Rispescia
Roselle, Italy

External links

Frazioni of Grosseto
Castles in Tuscany

Istia d'Ombrone


S/2004 S 17 is an unnamed moon of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on May 4, 2005, from observations taken between December 13, 2004, and March 5, 2005.

S/2004 S 17 is about 4 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 19,099,000 km in 985.453 days, at an inclination of 167° to the ecliptic (162° to Saturn's equator), with an eccentricity of 0.226.

References
 Institute for Astronomy Saturn Satellite Data
 Jewitt's New Satellites of Saturn page
 IAUC 8523: New Satellites of Saturn 2005 May 4 (discovery)
 MPEC 2005-J13: Twelve New Satellites of Saturn 2005 May 3 (discovery and ephemeris)

Saturn's moons

S/2004 S 17


The Doors wis a rock baund, foondit in Julie 1965 in Los Angeles. It disappearit in 1973, twa years efter the daith o the sangster Jim Morrison.
Thay war apart bat relatit tae the Psychedelic rock muisic.

Compasition

 Jim Morrison : sangin
 Ray Manzarek : electric organ an law piano
 Robbie Krieger : guitar
 John Densmore : drums

The origin o the Doors-the Onfaw

The Doors are sae ca'd acause o a sentence o the greit painter an makar William Blake : « If the doors o perception were cleansit, every thing would appear tae Man as it is: infinite ».
In Juin 1966, the baund signs a contract wi the Disk editor Elektra (representit bi Jack Holzman) : the baund will colaborate far at least sax albums. In Julie, in a performance o The Doors in the Whiskey A Go Go, Jim Morrison, wha haes swallawit LSD, an inspired bi Freud's writins on Œdipe complexus, improvises lyrics on the muisical central section o the sang The End : « Father. Yes son ? I want to kill you. Mother, I want to fuck you all night long » (« Faether? -Yes son? -I want tae kill ye. Mither, I want tae tail-toddle wi ye aw' necht lang»). The boss o the Whiskey A Go Go put The Doors oot.

Straunge Days

In October 1967, the album The Doors an the single sang Licht My Fire acome baith Golden disks. The relees, at same time, o the seicond album, Straunge Days, contribute tae maintain the group on the hilichts. Straunge Days says, thru som titles, a sense o badness, o loss o identity, o loneliness (Straunge Days ; Ye're Lost, Little Lass; Fowk Are Straunge). Apparently sangs mair romantic (Luve Me Twa Times ; Moonlight Drive ; My Een Have Seen You) let see a sense o emergency, o imminencie. Horse Latitudes, a poem written bi Jim Morrison in his Highschool latter years, he describes the fear o horse that are pushit in the seas, acause o the heaviness o the vessel. The disk ends, firstonelike, on a lang composition awmaist apocalyptic.

Complex identity o The Doors please thousands o young Americans wha recognise thaimselves in the revolt said bi muisic an the lyrics o the baund, the muivment o the "Protest songs".

Jim Morrison is reputed tae be a drugged man, an alcoholic an a maledict makar. Jim Morrison daes some fremd, some unco performance : the fift December 1967, in a concert in New Haven, Morrison stops singin in hawf a sang, sits in the scene, barns a cigarette, an while public is silent, the sangster begins tae say that, juist affore the stairt o the concert, he wis in the loge wi a rash, a policeman teuk him far a bad intentioned guy an placit on him irritatin gaz. Morrison says tae fowk lisnin : « Thair motto is Tae protect an tae serve ». Sae, a policeman comes tae arrest Morrison far trouble. The public indignates hamself, bat disperse in the calm. The 10t Mey 1968, in Chicago, Morrison gangs farther an transforms the concert in a riot.

Desinterestit becomes Morrison

Jim Morrison became tae disinterest hamself tae rock'n'roll muisic in the end o the years 60. In The Saft Parade, he juist writes fower sangs, the ither written bi Krieger.
He becomes nervous wi the lyrics o the sang "tell the peepole (take yer gun)". He says he doesn't mean tae invite the fowks takin thair guns, an wants fowk tae ken he didnae write this sang.

Daith o Jim Morrison

He exiles in Paris in Mairch 1971, wi his mate Pamela Courson, (she died in 1974), Jim Morrison wants tae forget the Unitit States o Americae, his ain image o rock starn, far tae juist poeeticly creaut. He wants tae forget Los Angeles an Miami law-plea whilk scunnert him. Efter the daiths o Brian Jones, Jimi Hendrix, he thinks bein the naist ane o the leet. Bat far him, Paris is an enlichted ceety, the paitrie o numerous greit writers an makars. Jim Morrison is seekin a new depairt. Haes he laved the Doors afore goin tae Fraunce? We dinnae ken, but shure he projected tae write a new disk when he'll come again, puisqu'il envisage, dès son retour, l'écriture d'un nouveau disque. When John Densmore phones him tae say thair last album L.A. Woman hae juist been Golden disk, he is relly merry.
He died in the necht frae the 2t tae the 3 o 1971.
Som fowks wad say he died in an overdose o heroin, but everyone agree wi the drog-overdose (as a cause o his daith). He is nou buried in the Père Lachaise (Faither Lachaise) cemetery in Paris.

The Doors efter Morrison

Efter Morrison, the Doors hae difficulty tae continue. Krieger an Manzarek tried aloot o times tae begin again the story o the Doors, but athoot the support o the public.

Coontercultur o the 1960s
Elektra Records airtists
Grammy Lifetime Achievement Awaird winners
Muisical groups frae Los Angeles
Muisical quartets
Muisical trios
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees

References

The Doors


Guildwood, also known as Guildwood Village,  is a residential neighbourhood in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is located in the eastern area of the city, in the district of Scarborough. It is bounded by the Scarborough Bluffs, south of Kingston Road, from Grey Abbey Trail in the east.

History
Its oldest building is the 18th century Osterhout Log Cabin situated along the bluffs. The log cabin is one of Toronto's oldest buildings still standing, although its exact date of construction is unknown.

In 1914, the Guild Inn was opened. Initially a private residence, it later became an art colony, and a hotel. From 1941 to 1947, the inn was leased by the Government of Canada as a base for the Women's Royal Naval Service, HMCS Bytown II, and later a military hospital.

After Metropolitan Toronto was formed in 1954, taxes on the Guild Inn property increased to the point that the owners Rosa and Spencer Clark decided to sell  of their property, which became the basis for the Guildwood Village subdivision. The Clarks remained involved with the development of the subdivision, in its design and layout to preserve as many trees in the area as possible. Development started in 1957 with the famous "Avenue of Homes" display of upscale homes. The community introduced a number of new ideas in subdivision design, including winding roads and cul-de-sacs to reduce through traffic, and underground power and phone lines. "Rear-lot parks were modelled after English footpaths as walkways within the community."

The Clarks helped design the entrance gates to the subdivision. After most of Toronto's Stanley Barracks (New Fort York) was demolished in 1953, its gates were salvaged and re-erected at the entrance to Guildwood Village. These gates, now called the "Guildwood Gates" still provide a unique and grand entrance to the community at the corner of Kingston Road and Guildwood Parkway.

Guild Park is famous for its historical architectural fragments from the façades of demolished buildings in Downtown Toronto. Just west of the Guild Inn is Sir Wilfrid Laurier Collegiate Institute.

Guildwood Village Flag

The Guildwood Village Flag was designed by Marsha Leverock Westergaard and was adopted by the Guildwood Village Community Association (GVCA) on June 12, 2018. The Guildwood Village flag can be seen flying in Guildwood Village from cars, store windows and residential flag poles.

The flag has deep meaning in its symbols and colours. The four quadrants read Guild – Wood – Village – on the Bluffs and represent Guildwood Village's rich history of arts and culture, the abundant woods and green spaces, unique mid-century architecture, the Scarborough bluffs and a strong, vibrant Guildwood Village community.

Education

The Toronto District School Board (TDSB) is a secular public school board that operates several schools in the neighbourhood, including one secondary school, Sir Wilfrid Laurier Collegiate Institute. In addition to Sir Wilfrid Laurier, TDSB also operates several elementary schools in Guildwood. They include:

 Guildwood Junior Public School
 Elizabeth Simcoe Junior Public School
 Jack Miner Senior Public School
 Poplar Road Junior Public School

Other public school boards that provides schooling for students in Guildwood include the Conseil scolaire Viamonde (CSV), Conseil scolaire catholique MonAvenir (CSCM), and the Toronto Catholic District School Board (TCDSB). CSV is a French-based secular public school board, whereas CSCM and TCDSB are separate public school boards, the former being French-based.

Recreation

Guildwood is home to several municipal parks, all of which are managed by Toronto Parks, Forestry and Recreation Division. Many of these parks are situated near the Scarborough Bluffs and the Toronto waterfront.

Parks in Guildwood include Elizabeth Simcoe Park, Grey Abbey Park, Guild Park and Gardens, South Marine Park, and Sylvan Park. Guild Park and Gardens is notable for its collection of relics, collected from the remains of demolished buildings primarily from Downtown Toronto.

Transportation
Public transportation in Guildwood is provided by the Toronto Transit Commission (TTC). The TTC operates several bus routes through the neighbourhood.

In addition to TTC routes, GO Transit's commuter rail service may be accessed from Guildwood GO Station. In addition to being a station for the GO Transit Lakeshore East line, the station is also used by Via Rail, an intercity train service.

Street

Guildwood Parkway is the main roadway in Guildwood. The eastern end of the roadway splits north, and east, with the northern portion forming Morningside Avenue. Many of the streets in the Guildwood development were named by Rosa and Spencer Clark.

 Bethune - after Dr. Norman Bethune
 Bledlow - after the England home of Spencer Clark's grandmother
 Bournville - after the Cadbury's Chocolate model town in England
 Cadbury Court - after the Cadbury family
 Catalina - after the island off the coast of California
 Earswick - after the Rowntree Chocolate model town in Yorkshire, England
 Livingston Road - after the owner of the property who was treasurer of the T. Eaton Company
 Nuffield - after Lord Nuffield (William Morris), founder of Morris Automobiles in Britain
 Rowatson - after Robert Watson McClain, owner of the farm the street is sited upon
 Sir Raymond - who planned a model town in Manchester, England
 Somerdale Square - after the Fry family
 Sonneck Circle, Sonneck Square - an old castle in Germany
 Toynbee Trail - after Arnold Toynbee, British Historian, Professor and Author
 Westlake Road - after the brothers who were developers of the property.

Source: Lidgold

References

Notes

External links

Neighbourhoods in Toronto
Scarborough, Toronto

Guildwood


The vanguard (sometimes abbreviated to van  and also called the advance guard) is the leading part of an advancing military formation. It has a number of functions, including seeking out the enemy and securing ground in advance of the main force.

In naval warfare the van is the advance ship, or fleet, that will make the initial engagement with an enemy fleet.

History
The vanguard derives from the traditional division of a medieval army into three battles or wards; the Van, the Main (or Middle), and the Rear. The term originated from the medieval French avant-garde, i.e. "the advance guard". The vanguard would lead the line of march and would deploy first on the field of battle, either in front of the other wards or to the right if they deployed in line.

The makeup of the vanguard of a 15th century Burgundian army is a typical example. This consisted of:
A contingent of foreriders, from whom a forward detachment of scouts was drawn;
The main body of the vanguard, accompanied by civil officials and trumpeters to carry messages and summon enemy towns and castles to surrender; and
A body of workmen under the direction of the Master of Artillery whose job it was to clear obstacles which would obstruct the baggage and artillery travelling with the main army.
In an English force of the period, the foreriders of the vanguard would be accompanied by the harbingers, whose job was to locate lodgings for the army for the following night.

Forward detachments
During World War II, the Red Army began forming ad hoc vanguard formations called "forward detachments" (peredovye otriady), from army, corps and divisional units. Forward detachments brought together the mobile (motorized or mechanized) elements of the parent formation to play an exploitation role once a breakthrough of the German lines occurred. A rifle division, for example, might mount one or two battalions of infantry on trucks, with motorized antitank guns and motorized artillery in support.

See also
 Vanguardism, Lenin's political theory
 Forlorn hope
 Rearguard

References

Military tactics
Military terminology

Vanguard


Io is a pure object-oriented programming language inspired by Smalltalk, Self, Lua, Lisp, Act1, and NewtonScript. Io has a prototype-based object model similar to the ones in Self and NewtonScript, eliminating the distinction between instance and class. Like Smalltalk, everything is an object and it uses dynamic typing. Like Lisp, programs are just data trees. Io uses actors for concurrency.

Remarkable features of Io are its minimal size and openness to using external code resources.  Io is executed by a small, portable virtual machine.

History
The language was created by Steve Dekorte in 2002, after trying to help a friend, Dru Nelson, with his language, Cel. He found out that he really didn't know much about how languages worked, and set out to write a tiny language to understand the problems better.

Philosophy
Io's goal is to explore conceptual unification and dynamic languages, so the tradeoffs tend to favor simplicity and flexibility over performance.

Features
 Pure object-oriented based on prototypes
 Code-as-data / homoiconic
 Lazy evaluation of function parameters
 Higher-order functions
 Introspection, reflection and metaprogramming
 Actor-based concurrency
 Coroutines
 Exception handling
 Incremental garbage collecting supporting weak links
 Highly portable
 DLL/shared library dynamic loading on most platforms
 Small virtual machine

Syntax

In its simplest form, it is composed of a single identifier:

 doStuff

Assuming the above doStuff is a method, it is being called with zero arguments and as a result, explicit parentheses are not required.

If doStuff had arguments, it would look like this:

 doStuff(42)

Io is a message passing language, and since everything in Io is a message (excluding comments), each message is sent to a receiver. The above example demonstrates this well, but not fully. To describe this point better, let's look at the next example:

 System version

The above example demonstrates message passing in Io; the "version" message is sent to the "System" object.

Operators are a special case where the syntax is not as cut-and-dried as the above examples. The Io parser intercepts a set of operators defined by the interpreter, and translates them to method calls. For example, the following:

 1 + 5 * 8 + 1

translates to:

 1 +(5 *(8)) +(1)

All operators in Io are methods; the fact that they do not require explicit parentheses is a convenience. As you can see, there is also a little bit of operator precedence happening here, and the precedence levels are the same as with the C precedence levels.

Methods and blocks
In Io there are two ways of creating anonymous functions: methods and blocks. Between them, they are almost identical except for scope. While blocks have lexical scope, methods have dynamic scope.

Both method and block are higher-order functions.

Examples
The ubiquitous Hello world program:

 "Hello, world!" println

New objects are created by cloning objects. In Io specifically, a new, empty object is created and only the differences between it and its parent are stored within the new object; this behavior is known as differential inheritance. An example of this behavior is shown:

 A := Object clone         // creates a new, empty object named "A"

A simple non-recursive factorial function, in Io:

factorial := method(n,
    if(n == 0, return 1)
    res := 1
    Range 1 to(n) foreach(i, res = res * i)
)

Because assignment of res * i to res is the last action taken, the function implicitly returns the result and so an explicit return expression is not needed. The above demonstrates the usage of ranges, and doesn't use a for() loop, which would be faster.

References

External links
 Io home page
 Io at Synrc Research Center

 Jasmine.Io BDD Testing Framework for Io

Programming languages
Dynamic programming languages
Dynamically typed programming languages
Prototype-based programming languages
Object-oriented programming languages
Programming languages created in 2002
Scripting languages
2002 software
Homoiconic programming languages

Io (programming language)


"Summer Wine" is a seductive ballad. It was originally sung by Suzi Jane Hokom and Lee Hazlewood in 1966. It was made famous when released by Nancy Sinatra and Lee Hazlewood in 1967.

The song is about a man who meets a woman who notices his silver spurs. She invites him to have wine with her.

The song was recorded by other musicians since it was first played.

1967 songs
1960s ballads
Pop ballads
Songs about sexuality
Nancy Sinatra songs
Demis Roussos songs

Summer Wine


Northanger Abbey was the first completed novel written by Jane Austen. It is a coming-of-age novel and a satire of Gothic novels. Even though Northanger Abbey the first of Austen's novels completed in full, it was published after Austen's death in 1817 with Persuasion.

Plot
A seventeen-year-old girl, Catherine Morland, travels with her rich relatives, Mr. and Mrs. Allen, to Bath in England. Innocent and inexperienced, Catherine Morland is a plump country girl with no friends in the city.  At first, she is disappointed, because she does not have anyone to dance with at the ball. Then she meets an exciting gentleman, Mr. Tilney. She falls in love with him, but the next day, he has disappeared. She is upset and sad. Then she meets a flirtatious girl named Isabella. This makes her happier.  She does not yet know all the evil intentions of her new friend.

Isabella introduces Catherine to the fun of reading gothic novels.  But Catherine believes they are true. She does not understand the difference between reality and fiction. Then she is introduced to Isabella's brother John Thorpe, who finds himself falling in love with her. He thinks Catherine likes him too. Catherine then meets Henry Tilney again, and is introduced to Miss Eleanor Tilney, his sister. She is a sensible, intelligent lady, who is much different from Isabella. Catherine also meets Miss Tilney's father, General Tilney.

Isabella joyfully tells Catherine of her engagement to Catherine's brother, James Morland.  Later, John Thorpe proposes to Catherine, but she does not realise he is asking her to marry him. Later, when Isabella tells her that John is in love with her, she is really surprised and says no immediately. Then Eleanor Tilney invites Catherine to Northanger Abbey. Catherine there learns that the gothic novels are wrong, and that Northanger Abbey is a perfectly normal place, and is not haunted.

Catherine listens to General Tilney's conversations, and suspiciously thinks that perhaps he has murdered his wife, because he avoids talking about her. She persuades Eleanor Tilney to take her to Mrs. Tilney's room, but when General Tilney comes, she rushes away in fear. Catherine later goes again, but this time is found by Henry Tilney. She accidentally reveals her suspicions to Henry, who does not get angry at her. Then, running to her room crying, she is worried that Mr. Tilney does not like her any more. Later, Eleanor Tilney takes her to an open stage coach to immediately go home. Catherine is frightened and surprised, and thinks it is all because of her mistaken thoughts of General Tilney and his wife. When she goes home, she is sullen and quiet.

Henry Tilney then visits her house and asks her to marry him, even though General Tilney said no. He explains that at first, John Thorpe, who had thought Catherine would marry him soon, had lied to General Tilney that she was rich. General Tilney then tries to make her marry Henry, but later met John Thorpe again, after Catherine had said she would not marry him. He angrily tells General Tilney another lie, that Catherine is penniless. General Tilney, horrified, rudely made Catherine go home. Catherine's parents say they have to wait until General Tilney says yes.

Finally, Eleanor marries a charming man who is very rich, and this makes the General so happy he says that Henry can marry Catherine.  Later, he finds out Catherine is not as poor as he had thought, so he is even happier. At last, Catherine and Henry are married.

Other
 Catherine Morland
 Jane Austen
 Emma
 Mansfield Park
 Pride and Prejudice

1810s books
Books by Jane Austen
English novels

Northanger Abbey


Jacques-René Hermant (7 May 1855 in Paris, France – 5 June 1930 in France) was a French architect, one of the most renowned architects of fin-de-siècle Paris.

Born in Paris, the son of the architect Achille Hermant (1823-1903), Hermant was educated at the École des Beaux-Arts under Joseph Auguste Émile Vaudremer.  He was a rationalist architect, but was a strong advocate for the neoromanticism style of the time, preferably the style of Louis XIII. Hermant became an advocate for concrete construction and erected two of the first reinforced concrete buildings in Paris, collaborating with the French engineer Edmond Coignet (1856–1915), who patented his system in 1892.

Hermant was a professor at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris and served as chief architect for the city.  He employed the Danish architect Hack Kampmann during Kampmann's stay in Paris in 1883.

Significant buildings

 the French pavilion for the World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893
 the French pavilion for the Exposition Internationale, Brussels, 1897
 La Caserne des Célestins, Paris, 1895–1901. Home of the cavalry of the French Republican Guard.
 Le Magasin des Classes Laborieuses, department store, reinforced concrete (with Coignet), Paris, 1899
 La Salle Gaveau, concert hall for the piano firm, reinforced concrete (with Coignet), Paris, 1905
 Société Générale, office building, Blvd. Haussmann, Paris, 1907

Honours

 Second Grand Prix de Rome, 1880
 Commander Légion d'honneur, 1929

References

 Balteau, J. (editor), Dictionnaire de biographie française, 1933.
 'Livraisons d'histoire de l'architecture, 2003, Vol. 6, Number 1, p. 47–67.

External links
 La Salle Gaveau website

19th-century French architects
20th-century French architects
Architects from Paris
1855 births
1930 deaths
Concrete pioneers
Commanders of the Legion of Honour
Prix de Rome for architecture
École des Beaux-Arts alumni

Jacques Hermant


The Molesey Reservoirs were a group of reservoirs in England near Molesey, Surrey, in the western suburbs of London. There was an adjacent water treatment works.

The reservoirs were adjacent to  the River Thames on the south side on the reach above Molesey Lock. They are between the river and the A3050 (Hurst Road). On the other side of this road are the neighbouring Bessborough Reservoir and Knight Reservoir, and beyond these the Queen Elizabeth II Reservoir.

The reservoirs were established in , by the Lambeth Waterworks Company and three years later by the Chelsea Waterworks Company. Both companies had previously built their reservoirs nearby at Seething Wells in Surbiton, but they sucked up too much mud with the water because of turbulence caused by the River Mole, River Ember and The Rythe. They had pumping stations at Molesey to lift the water from the Thames into the reservoirs and there were concrete wharves on the river bank at which to unload coal to power the steam engines. Only the wharves remain by the riverside, being used for overnight mooring of pleasure cruisers.

The reservoirs were taken out of use in . The land was then used for the extraction of aggregates, and after the work is complete, it will be converted into a wetland reserve.

See also
London water supply infrastructure

References

Reservoirs in Surrey
Thames Water reservoirs

Molesey Reservoirs


Tomarsa (or Tamuza) was bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon and primate of the Church of the East from 363 to 371.  He took office at the end of the great persecution of Shapur II.  Like several other early bishops of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, he is included in the traditional list of patriarchs of the Church of the East.

Sources
Brief accounts of Tomarsa's episcopate are given in the Ecclesiastical Chronicle of the Jacobite writer Bar Hebraeus (floruit 1280) and in the ecclesiastical histories of the Nestorian writers Mari (twelfth-century), ʿAmr (fourteenth-century) and Sliba (fourteenth-century).  His life is also covered in the Chronicle of Seert.  In all these accounts he is anachronistically called 'catholicus', a term that was only applied to the primates of the Church of the East in the fifth century.

Modern assessments of his reign can be found in Wigram's Introduction to the History of the Assyrian Church and David Wilmshurst's The Martyred Church.

Tomarsa's episcopate
The following account of Tomarsa's episcopate and martyrdom is given by Bar Hebraeus:

After Barbʿashmin, Tamuza.  This is a Chaldean name for one of the wandering stars, and is equivalent to the Greek Ares [Mars].  When the impious Julian descended into Persia to do battle with Shapur and died there, struck in the side by a missile, Shapur was convinced that this had happened by God's will, because he had impiously persecuted the people of Christ.  He therefore reversed his wicked policy, made peace with Jovian, Julian's chief commander, and ordered the churches to be restored.  Then the bishops assembled and chose Tamuza, and consecrated him catholicus.  He was a man of conspicuous virtue and sanctity, and devoted all his efforts to the restoration of the churches.  He also repaired the rents in discipline made by the persecution, compelling the faithful to enter into legitimate marriages, and for a while allowed only decrepit old men to assume the monastic habit, not young men, because the number of the faithful had declined greatly because of the persecution, and many had fallen away from the faith.  After fulfilling his office for eight years, he died and was buried at Seleucia.

See also
 List of patriarchs of the Church of the East

Notes

References
 Abbeloos, J. B., and Lamy, T. J., Bar Hebraeus, Chronicon Ecclesiasticum (3 vols, Paris, 1877)
 Assemani, J. A., De Catholicis seu Patriarchis Chaldaeorum et Nestorianorum (Rome, 1775)
 Brooks, E. W., Eliae Metropolitae Nisibeni Opus Chronologicum (Rome, 1910)
 Gismondi, H., Maris, Amri, et Salibae: De Patriarchis Nestorianorum Commentaria I: Amri et Salibae Textus (Rome, 1896)
 Gismondi, H., Maris, Amri, et Salibae: De Patriarchis Nestorianorum Commentaria II: Maris textus arabicus et versio Latina (Rome, 1899)
Wigram, William Ainger, An Introduction to the History of the Assyrian Church (London, 1910).
Wilmshurst, David, The Martyred Church: A History of the Church of the East (London, 2011).

External links

Patriarchs of the Church of the East
4th-century bishops
Christians in the Sasanian Empire
4th-century archbishops
Bishops of Seleucia-Ctesiphon

Tomarsa


John Faithfull Fleet C.I.E (1847 – 21 February 1917) was an English civil servant with the Indian Civil Service and became known as a historian, epigraphist and linguist.  His research in Indian epigraphy and history, conducted in India over a thirty-year period, is published in books including  Pali, Sanskrit and Old Canarese Inscriptions, The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of The Bombay Presidency from the earliest historical times to the Musalman Conquest, and The Inscriptions of The Early Gupta Kings and their Successors. He was a regular contributor to works journals covering Indian history.  His published well-regarded works on inscriptions in the Sanskrit, Pali and Kannada languages and on the history of dynasties such as the Guptas, Kadambas, Aulikaras, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas and Seunas.

Early life
Fleet was born to John George Fleet, a London wholesale sugar dealer and Esther Faithfull of Headley, Surrey, England, in 1847.  He was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School in London. His five brothers included Vice-Admiral Henry Louis Fleet (born 1851-1923), Rutland Barrington (1853–1922) a star in Gilbert and Sullivan operas, and actor Duncan Fleet (born 1860, date of death unknown).  He also had two sisters.  His aunt Emily Faithfull was an activist and dramatic reader.

Early career and interests
Fleet was appointed to the Indian Civil Service (ICS) in the year 1865, and to prepare himself for this he studied Sanskrit at University College London.  In 1867, he moved to the Bombay Presidency (then a British province in western India) and soon held the posts of Assistant Collector and then Magistrate, Educational Inspector, in the Southern Division (1872), Assistant Political Agent in Kolhapur and the Southern Maratha Country (1875), and Collector and Magistrate (1882).

Meanwhile, he continued with his interest in Sanskrit and the inscriptions that were abundant on stone and copper plate in the Bombay Presidency.  He began publishing articles about the inscriptions in the mid-1860s.  His studies soon led him to study another language, Kannada, both in its ancient and modern forms.

Eminence
Fleet was soon establishing a reputation through his papers on the epigraphy and history of Southern India in fora such as the Bombay Asiatic Society and The Indian Antiquary, founded in 1872 (he later edited it from the 14th to 20th editions (1885–92)).  He also published his works on the Pali, Sanskrit and old Canarese Inscriptions for the India Office in 1878.  Fleet became the first epigraphist of the Government of India when such a post was created in 1883.  After three years as the epigraphist, he was appointed as the Collector and Magistrate of Sholapur in 1886.

One of his greatest works was on the hitherto uncharted Gupta period. The Inscriptions of The Early Gupta Kings and their Successors (1889), forming third volume of the Corpus Inscriptionarum Indicum, was a well-regarded example of his scholarship.  Meanwhile, his civil service career progressed.  He was appointed the Senior Collector in 1889, Commissioner of the Southern divisions in 1891, and also Central Divisions in 1892.  He was made the Commissioner of Customs in 1893.

In 1895, the best of his works, The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of The Bombay Presidency from the earliest historical times to the Musalman Conquest, was published in the Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency.  It was a synthesis of all the data that he had collected over years through epigraphic and historical sources in his areas of interest.  The work deals with a number of dynasties, from the Kadambas, Gangas of Orissa and Karnataka, and Latas, to the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, and Seunas.  The work formed a basis for further studies of the periods covered by these dynasties.

Retirement and death
Fleet retired from the ICS in 1897 and returned to England to settle in Ealing. He was now able to devote his full-time to his epigraphical studies and continued with his valuable contributions to the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland and Epigraphia Indica.  In 1906, he became the Honorary Secretary of the Society and was awarded its "gold medal" in 1912.

Before his death in 1917 at age 69, he published the Ballads of the Peasantry with its music in the Indian Antiquary.

Fellowships
 Hon' Secretary, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
 Member, Bombay Branch of The Royal Asiatic Society.
 Member of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
 Corresponding Member of The Royal Society of Science, Göttingen.
 Fellow of The University of Bombay.

See also
 Tosham rock inscription
 Sondani inscription

Notes

References
Fleet, J. F. "'The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of the Bombay Presidency" (1894), Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency (Vol-1, Part-II, Book-III)

External links
Biographical sketch of Fleet in Eminent orientalists, Indian, European, American (1922, reprinted 1991)
Fleet, J. F. "Sanskrit and Old Canarese Inscriptions" in Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1876)
Fleet, J. F. The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of The Bombay Presidency from the earliest historical times to the Musalman Conquest (1882)
Fleet, J. F. Indian Epigraphy (1907)

Indian Civil Service (British India) officers
1847 births
1917 deaths
Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire
Alumni of University College London

John Faithfull Fleet