In music, a single is a type of release, typically a song recording of fewer tracks than an LP record or an album. One can be released for sale to the public in a variety of formats. In most cases, a single is a song that is released separately from an album, although it usually also appears on an album. In other cases a recording released as a single may not appear on an album.

With the rise of digital distribution, distinctions have become more tenuous. The biggest digital music distributor, the iTunes Store, only accepts releases with three tracks or fewer that are less than ten minutes each as a singles (with longer releases being classified as EPs or albums). However, releases which do not fit these criteria have been promoted as singles by artists and labels elsewhere, such as on the Bandcamp storefront.

Historically, when mainstream music was purchased via vinyl records, singles would be released double-sided, i.e. there was an A-side and a B-side, on which two songs would appear, one on each side.

Early history
The origins of the single are in the late 19th century, when music was distributed on phonograph cylinders that held two to four minutes' worth of audio. They were superseded by disc phonograph records, which initially also had a short duration of playing time per side. In the first two to three decades of the 20th century, almost all commercial music releases were, in effect, singles (the exceptions were usually for classical music pieces, where multiple physical storage media items were bundled together and sold as an album). Phonograph records were manufactured with a range of playback speeds (from 16 to 78 rpm) and in several sizes (including ). By about 1910, however, the , 78-rpm shellac disc had become the most commonly used format.

The inherent technical limitations of the gramophone disc defined the standard format for commercial recordings in the early 20th century. The relatively crude disc-cutting techniques of the time and the thickness of the needles used on record players limited the number of grooves per inch that could be inscribed on the disc surface and a high rotation speed was necessary to achieve acceptable recording and playback fidelity. 78 rpm was chosen as the standard because of the introduction of the electrically powered synchronous turntable motor in 1925, which ran at 3,600 rpm with a 46:1 gear ratio, resulting in a rotation speed of 78.3 rpm.

With these factors applied to the 10-inch format, songwriters and performers increasingly tailored their output to fit the new medium. The three-minute single remained the standard into the 1960s, when the availability of microgroove recording and improved mastering techniques enabled recording artists to increase the duration of their recorded songs. The breakthrough came with Bob Dylan's "Like a Rolling Stone": although Columbia Records tried to make the record more "radio-friendly" by cutting the performance into halves and separating them between the two sides of the disc, both Dylan and his fans demanded that the full six-minute take be placed on one side and that radio stations play the song in its entirety.

Types of physical singles
Singles have been issued in various formats, including , 10-inch and 12-inch discs, usually playing at 45 rpm; 10-inch shellac discs, playing at 78 rpm; maxi singles; 7-inch plastic flexi discs; cassettes; and  CD singles. Other, less common, formats include singles on Digital Compact Cassette, DVD and Laserdisc, as well as many non-standard sizes of vinyl disc (, , etc.).

7-inch format

The most common form of the vinyl single is the "45" or "7-inch". The names are derived from its play speed, 45 rpm (revolutions per minute), and the standard diameter, .

The 7-inch 45 rpm record was released March 31, 1949, by RCA Victor as a smaller, more durable and higher-fidelity replacement for the 78 rpm shellac discs. The first 45 rpm records were monaural, with recordings on both sides of the disc. As stereo recordings became popular in the 1960s, almost all 45 rpm records were produced in stereo by the early 1970s. Columbia Records, which had released the  rpm 12-inch vinyl LP in June 1948, also released  rpm 7-inch vinyl singles in March 1949, but they were soon eclipsed by the RCA Victor 45. The first regular production 45 rpm record pressed was "PeeWee the Piccolo": RCA Victor 47-0146 pressed December 7, 1948 at the Sherman Avenue plant in Indianapolis; R.O. Price, plant manager.

The claim made that 48-0001 by Eddy Arnold was the first 45 is evidently incorrect (even though 48-0000 has not turned up, 50-0000-Crudup, 51-0000-Meisel, and 52-0000 Goodman are out there) since all 45s were released simultaneously with the 45 player in March 1949. There was plenty of information leaked to the public about the new 45 rpm system through front-page articles in Billboard magazine on December 4, 1948, and again on January 8, 1949. RCA was trying to blunt the lead Columbia had established upon releasing their   LP system in June 1948.

To compete with Columbia, RCA released albums as boxes of 45 rpm seven-inch singles that could be played continuously like an LP on their record changer. RCA was also releasing 7-inch singles pressed in different colors for different genres, making it easy for customers to find their preferred music. The novelty of multicolored singles wore off soon: by 1952, all RCA singles were pressed in black vinyl.

The lightweight and inexpensive 45 rpm discs introduced by RCA were quickly popular and in the early 1950s all major US labels had begun manufacturing seven-inch singles.
In some regions (e.g. US), the default hole size fitted the original RCA  hub which, due to a format war, was incompatible with the  spindle of a Columbia-system 33 1/3 RPM 12-inch LP player. In other regions (e.g. UK, Australia), the default was a small hole compatible with a multi-speed 0.25-inch spindle player, but with a "knock out" that was removed for usage on a larger hub player.

One could play a large-hole record on a player with a quarter-inch spindle by inserting a single "puck" or by using a spindle adapter.

12-inch format

Although 7 inches remained the standard size for vinyl singles, 12-inch singles were introduced for use by DJs in discos in the 1970s. The longer playing time of these singles allowed the inclusion of extended dance mixes of tracks. In addition, the larger surface area of the 12-inch discs allowed for wider grooves (larger amplitude) and greater separation between grooves, the latter of which results in less cross-talk. Consequently, they are less susceptible to wear and scratches. The 12-inch single is still considered a standard format for dance music, though its popularity has declined in recent years.

Digital era
As digital downloading and audio streaming have become more prevalent, it has become possible for every track on an album to also be available separately. Nevertheless, the concept of a single from an album has been retained as an identification of the more heavily promoted or more popular songs on an album. The demand for music downloads skyrocketed after the launch of Apple's iTunes Store (then called iTunes Music Store) in January 2001 and the creation of portable music and digital audio players such as the iPod.

In September 1997, with the release of Duran Duran's "Electric Barbarella" for paid downloads, Capitol Records became the first major label to sell a digital single from a well-known artist. Previously, Geffen Records also released Aerosmith's "Head First" digitally for free. In 2004, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) introduced digital single certification due to significant sales of digital formats, with Gwen Stefani's "Hollaback Girl" becoming RIAA's first platinum digital single. In 2013, RIAA incorporated on-demand streams into the digital single certification.

Single sales in the United Kingdom reached an all-time low in January 2005, as the popularity of the compact disc was overtaken by the then-unofficial medium of the music download. Recognizing this, on 17 April 2005, Official UK Singles Chart added the download format to the existing format of physical CD singles. Gnarls Barkley was the first act to reach No.1 on this chart through downloads alone in April 2006, for their debut single "Crazy", which was released physically the following week. On 1 January 2007, digital downloads (including unbundled album tracks) became eligible from the point of release, without the need for an accompanying physical. Sales gradually improved in the following years, reaching a record high in 2008 that still proceeded to be overtaken in 2009, 2010 and 2011.

In the late 2010s, artists began a trend of releasing multiple singles before eventually releasing a studio album. An unnamed A&R representative confirmed to Rolling Stone in 2018 that "an artist has to build a foundation to sustain" and added that "When artists have one big record and go run with that, it doesn't work because they never had a foundation to begin with." The same article cited examples such as Cardi B, Camila Cabello and Jason Derulo releasing four or more singles prior to their album releases. Kanye West released singles weekly in 2010 with his GOOD Fridays series. He did this to support his upcoming release at the time, My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, and ended up releasing 15 tracks in the program.

Culture

The sales of singles are recorded in record charts in most countries in a Top 40 format. The charts are often published in magazines and numerous television shows and radio programs count down the list. To be eligible for inclusion in charts, the single must meet the requirement set by the charting company that governs the playing time of the single.

In popular music, the commercial and artistic importance of the single (as compared to the EP or album) has varied over time, technological development, and according to the audience of particular artists and genres. Singles have generally been more important to artists who sell to the youngest purchasers of music (younger teenagers and pre-teens), who tend to have more limited financial resources.

Starting in the mid-1960s, albums became a greater focus and became more important as artists created albums of uniformly high-quality and coherent themes, a trend that reached its apex in the development of the concept album. Over the 1990s and the early 2000s, the single generally received less and less attention in the United States as albums, which on compact disc had virtually identical production and distribution costs but could be sold at a higher price, became most retailers' primary method of selling music. Singles continued to be produced in the UK and Australia and survived the transition from compact disc to digital download. The decline of the physical single in the US during this time has been cited as a major marketing mistake on the part of record companies, as it eliminated an inexpensive recording format for young fans to become accustomed to purchasing music. In its place was the predominance of the album, which alienated customers by the expense of purchasing a longer format for only one or two songs of interest. That in turn encouraged interest in file sharing software on the internet like Napster for single recordings, which began to undercut the music recording market.

Dance music, however, has followed a different commercial pattern and the single, especially the 12-inch vinyl single, remains a major method by which dance music is distributed.

Another development of the 2000s was the popularity of mobile phone ringtones based on pop singles. In September 2007, Sony BMG announced that it would introduce a new type of CD single, called "ringles", for the 2007 holiday season. The format included three songs by an artist, plus a ringtone accessible from the user's computer. Sony announced plans to release 50 singles in October and November, and Universal Music Group expected to release somewhere between 10 and 20 titles. In a reversal of this trend, a single has been released based on a ringtone itself: the Crazy Frog ringtone, which was a cult hit in Europe in 2004, was released as a mashup with "Axel F" in June 2005 amid a massive publicity campaign and subsequently hit No. 1 on the UK chart.

The term single is sometimes regarded as a misnomer since one record usually contains two songs: the A-side and B-side. In 1982, CBS marketed one-sided singles at a lower price than two-sided singles.

In South Korea

In South Korean music, the terminology for "albums" and "singles" is unique and includes an additional term, the single album (). In contemporary usage in English, the term "album" refers to an LP-length recording regardless of the medium, but in contrast, the Korean usage of "album" () denotes a musical recording of any length that is released specifically on physical media. A "single album" refers to a physical release (such as a CD, LP, or other media) that typically contains one to three unique tracks, while a "single" is only a song itself, typically a digital stream or download. Although the terms "single albums" and "singles" are similar and sometimes may overlap, they are generally considered two distinct release types in South Korea. In Western contexts, a "single album" would otherwise be called a "single" or "extended play", depending on the length.

As a distinct release type, the single album developed during the CD era in the 1990s. Single albums were marketed as a more affordable alternative to a full-length CD album. The Circle Album Chart tracks sales of all albums released as physical media (described as "offline" media), therefore, single albums compete alongside full-length studio albums (LPs) and mini-albums (EPs) on the chart, even if they only contain one song. The Circle Digital Chart, which tracks downloads and streams of sole tracks, is regarded as the official "singles" chart.

To give an example of the differences between full-length albums, single albums, and singles, the K-pop girl group Wonder Girls released the single album The Wonder Begins, which consists of the single "Irony" alongside two other unique tracks and a remix. "Irony" was later included on their debut studio album The Wonder Years.

A single album is distinct from a single even if it includes only one song. The single "Gotta Go" by Chungha was released on a single album titled XII, which was a one-track CD. Even though "Gotta Go" was the only song on XII, the two releases charted separately: XII reached No.4 on the Gaon Album Chart, and "Gotta Go" reached No.2 on the Circle Digital Chart. Even when a single album and single share the same name, they still chart separately, as was the case with the Wonder Girls single album and single "Why So Lonely": the single album peaked at No. 3 on the Gaon Album Chart, while the single peaked at No. 1 on the Gaon Digital Chart.

See also
 Gramophone record
 Lead single
 List of best-selling singles

References

Further reading

 Carson, B. H.; Burt, A. D.; Reiskind, H. I., "A Record Changer and Record of Complementary Design", RCA Review, June 1949

Audio storage

Single (music)


The Menard House, also known as The Oaks, is a historic detached-home located at 1605 Thirty-Third Street in Galveston, Texas. Built in 1838, it is the oldest surviving structure in Galveston as recently as 2014 and is on the National Register of Historic Places.

History

The Menard House is named for its first owner, Michel B. Menard, a Canadian-born trader, real estate investor, and a founder of Galveston. Menard built on outlot block 37, indicating a location outside of Galveston city limits.  The Menard House was fabricated, then shipped from Maine in parts. The combination of a dearth of carpenters in 1830s Texas and excess cargo space in Texas-bound ships made prefabricated buildings economically viable.  Menard probably started building the house in 1837 for his second wife, Catherine Maxwell.  She died in the summer of 1838, the same year construction was completed.  Houston co-founder and Galveston City Company investor John Kirby Allen purchased the property in 1838, but died that July.

By 1843, a cousin had deeded the property to Menard's third wife, Mary Jane (Clemens) Riddle Menard.  She lived in the house until her death in December 1843. Michel Menard married Rebecca Mary Bass and adopted her two children.  In 1850, they had a child, Doswell Menard.  Around this time, Menard added two wings to the house, which later became the venue for Galveston's first Mardi Gras ball in 1853.

Four years after Michel Menard died in 1856, Rebecca Menard married Colonel J.S. Thrasher, former United States Consul at Havana, Cuba. Edwin Ketchum purchased the house from the Menard family in 1880 and the Ketchum family kept the house well-maintained until 1977.

Restoration
The Galveston Historical Foundation and the National Trust for Historic Preservation bought the Menard House in June 1992.  In 1994, Pat and Fred Burns of Houston acquired the deteriorating building, then completed its restoration in 1995.  The Menard House opened for the 1995 Historic Homes Tour, hosting 6,500 visitors for the event.

The Menard House suffered no serious damage during Hurricane Ike.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Galveston County, Texas

References

External links

Greek Revival houses in Texas
Houses completed in 1838
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Texas
National Register of Historic Places in Galveston County, Texas
Houses in Galveston, Texas

Michel B. Menard House


Colin Murray Archer (born 7 December 1966), better known as Gem Archer, is a British guitarist and singer known for his work with 'Heavy Stereo, Oasis, Beady Eye, and most recently, Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds'.

Heavy Stereo were archers band from 1993 to 1999, the majority of there material can be found online at YouTube as it is not on streaming sites. CDs can be purchased online too.

In 1999, when Paul 'Bonehead' Arthurs (Oasis Rhythm Guitarist) and Paul 'Guigsy' McGuigan (Oasis Bass Player) departed the band, Gem archer, who was currently working with the creating record label under Alan McGee, came in as the replacement guitarist and Andy Bell of Hurricane #1 and Ride came in for bass guitar.
Archer played on with oasis right until the end on albums and tours including 'Be Here Now, Heathen Chemistry, Don't Believe The Truth' and finally 'Dig out your soul'. When the band split in 2009 after playing V-Fest Staffordshire, Liam Gallagher, Gem Archer, Andy Bell and Current Drummer Chris Sharrock, proceeded to start 'Beady Eye'. Archers time with oasis allowed his to bring his talent to the band where he wrote songs including 'A Bell Will Ring' from 'Don't Believe the truth' 2005.

Beady Eye recorded 2 studio albums with singles including 'The Roller' and Flick of the finger'
In 2013, Gem suffered a serious accident where he to fractured his skull by falling down the stairs at home. Beady Eye took a break and when Gem had recovered, the continued with there BE tour.
In 2014, Beady Eye was announced as 'no longer' on Liam's twitter. In that time, Gem appeared to take a break and was fairly inactive in the music scene. Whilst Andy Bell had reformed his old band 'Ride', Liam had started his solo career, Gem and Chris seemed to fade away for the time being.
In 2018, Noel Gallagher made changes to his High Flying Birds line up. Gem Archer was introduced as the bands new guitarist, replacing 'Tim Smith' and Chris Sharrock was brought in and the new drummer taking over from 'Jeremy Stacey'.
Archer has played on the latest High Flying birds tracks 'Black Star Dancing', 'Rattling Rose' and 'Sail on' on the new Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds EP.
Things look to stay the same for the time being with Noel's High Flying Birds going on tour with this current line up.

British musicians
Living people
1966 births

Gem Archer


Robert Sengstacke Abbott (December 24, 1870 – February 29, 1940) was an American lawyer, newspaper publisher and editor. Abbott founded The Chicago Defender in 1905, which grew to have the highest circulation of any black-owned newspaper in the country.

Abbott founded the Bud Billiken Parade and Picnic in August 1929. The parade, which has developed into a celebration for youth, education and African–American life in Chicago, Illinois, is the second largest parade in the United States.

Biography

Early life and education
Abbot was born on December 24, 1870, in St. Simons, Georgia (although some sources state Savannah, Georgia) to freedman parents, who had been enslaved before the American Civil War. The Sea Islands were a place of the Gullah people, an African-descended ethnic group who maintained African-inherited cultural traits more strongly than many African Americans in other areas of the South. His father, Thomas Abbott died when Robert was a baby, and his widowed mother Flora Abbott (née Butler) met and married John Sengstacke, a mixed-race man of unusual background who had recently come to the US from Germany.

Sengstacke's parents were Tama, a freed slave, and her husband Herman Sengstacke, a German sea captain who had a regular route from Hamburg to Savannah. Herman had met Tama at the Georgia port city in 1847, where, after becoming distressed at a slave sale, he bought and freed her. They married in Charleston, South Carolina, before returning to Georgia, where their interracial marriage was prohibited. Their son, John, was born the next year. Tama died soon after their second child, a daughter, was born, and Herman took the children back to Germany to be raised by family.

John Sengstacke cared for Robert as if he were his own, and with Flora Abbot had seven additional children. Robert was given the middle name Sengstacke to mark his belonging in the family. John Sengstacke had become a Congregationalist missionary as an adult, a teacher, determined to improve the education of African American children, and a publisher, founding the Woodville Times, based in Woodville, Georgia, a town later annexed by Savannah, Georgia; he wrote, "There is but one church, and all who are born of God are members of it. God made a church, man made denominations. God gave us a Holy Bible, disputing men made different kinds of disciples.".

Industrialization underway in the United States, Abbot studied the printing trade at Hampton Institute (now Hampton University), a historically black college in Virginia from 1892 to 1896. At Hampton, he sang with the Hampton Choir and Quartet, which toured nationally. He earned a law degree from Kent College of Law, Chicago, in 1898.

Career
Abbott tried to set up a law practice, working for a few years in Gary, Indiana; and Topeka, Kansas. He returned home to Georgia for a period, then went back to Chicago, where he could see changes arriving with thousands of new migrants from the rural South as a part of the Great Migration.

Chicago Defender
After settling in Chicago, in 1905 Abbott founded The Chicago Defender newspaper with an initial investment of 25¢ (). He started printing in a room at his boardinghouse; his landlady encouraged him, and he later bought her an 8-room house.

He wanted to push for job opportunities and social justice, and was eager to persuade Black people to leave the segregated, Jim Crow South for Chicago. A key part of his distribution network was made up of African-American railroad porters, who were highly respected among Black people, and by 1925 they organized a union as the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. They often sold or distributed the paper on trains. Defender circulation reached 50,000 by 1916; 125,000 by 1918; and more than 200,000 by the early 1920s. Credited with contributing to the Great Migration of rural southern Black people to Chicago, the Defender became the most widely circulated black newspaper in the country. It was known as "America's Black Newspaper." Its success resulted in Abbott becoming one of the first self-made millionaires of African-American descent; his business expanded as African Americans moved to the cities and became an urbanized, northern population. From the early 20th century through 1940, 1.5 million Black people moved to major cities in the Northeast and Mid-West.

They were eager to know about conditions, to find housing, and to learn more about their new lives in cities. Most were from rural areas of the South. From 1890 to 1908 all the southern states had passed constitutions or laws that raised barriers to voter registration and effectively disenfranchised most Black people and many poor whites. They were utterly closed out of the political systems. Schools and other public facilities reserved for Black people were typically underfunded and ill-maintained. Legislatures imposed Jim Crow conditions, producing facilities for Black people that were "separate" but never "equal" (referring to the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) case, in which the US Supreme Court ruled that segregated facilities, such as railroad cars providing "separate but equal" conditions, were constitutional). The northern and midwestern industrial centers, where Black people could vote and send children to school, were recruiting workers based on expansion of manufacturing and infrastructure to supply the US's expanding population as well as the war in Europe, which started in 1914. The Pennsylvania Railroad and others were expanding at a rapid rate across the North, needing workers for construction and later to serve the train passengers.

The Defender told stories of earlier migrants to the North, giving hope to disenfranchised and oppressed people in the South of other ways to live. Abbott, through his writings in the Chicago Defender, expressed those stories and encouraged people to leave the South for the North. He even set a date of May 15, 1917, for what he called 'The Great Northern Drive' to occur. In his weekly, he showed pictures of Chicago and had numerous classifieds for housing. In addition, Abbott wrote about how awful a place the South was to live in comparison to the idealistic North. Abbott's words described the North as a place of prosperity and justice. This persuasive writing, "thereby made this journal probably the greatest stimulus that the migration had."

Abbott was a fighter, a defender of rights. He listed nine goals as the Defender "Bible":
 American race prejudice must be destroyed
 Opening up all trade unions to Black people as well as whites
 Representation in the President's Cabinet
 Hiring black engineers, firemen, and conductors on all American railroads, and to all jobs in government
 Gaining representation in all departments of the police forces over the entire United States
 Government schools giving preference to American citizens before foreigners
 Hiring black motormen and conductors on surface, elevated, and motor bus lines throughout America
 Federal legislation to abolish lynching
 Full enfranchisement of all American citizens

The Chicago Defender not only encouraged people to migrate north for a better life, but to fight for their rights once they got there. The slogan of the paper and the first goal was "American race prejudice must be destroyed." Sengstacke openly discussed African-American history in his articles, including its difficult issues. He wrote, "Miscegenation began as soon as the African slaves were introduced into the colonial population and continues unabated to this day.... What's more, the opposition to intermarriage has heightened the interest and solidified the feelings of those who resent the injunction of racial distinction in their private and personal affairs." He believed that laws restricting personal choice in a mate violated the constitution and that the "decision of two intelligent people to mutual love and self-sacrifice should not be a matter of public concern." Abbott also published a short-lived periodical called Abbott's Monthly, whose contributor included Chester Himes and Richard Wright. The Defender actively promoted the northward migration of Black Southerners, particularly to Chicago; its columns not only reported on, but encouraged the Great Migration.

Bahá'í Faith
In 1912, Abbott met ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, head of the Bahá'í Faith, through covering a talk of his during his stay in Chicago during his journeys in the West. By 1924 Abbott and his wife were listed as attending Bahá'í events in Chicago. After inventing the fictional character "Bud Billiken" with David Kellum for articles in the Defender, Abbott established the Bud Billiken Club. In 1929 Abbott and Kellum founded the Bud Billiken Parade and Picnic. It became an occasion for African Americans to celebrate their pride and connections.

Abbott was seeking an atmosphere free of race prejudice. Even in religious communities, he sometimes found that mixed-race African Americans who were light-skinned sometimes also demonstrated prejudice against those who were darker. Abbott officially joined the Bahá'í Faith in 1934. He had found that its convention to elect its National Spiritual Assembly seemed free of prejudice.

Final years and death

In 1919, Illinois Governor Frank Lowden appointed Abbott to the Chicago Commission on Race Relations. The commission conducted studies about the changes resulting from the Great Migration; in one period, 5,000 African Americans were arriving in the city every week. The Commission collected data to assess the population and published the book, The Negro in Chicago. Though some of his stepfather Sengstacke's relatives in Germany became Nazis in the 1930s and later, Abbott continued correspondence and economic aid to those who had accepted him and his father's family. He also assisted descendants of Captain Charles Stevens, the former owner of his enslaved birth father before emancipation. With his wealth, Abbott aided the Stevens descendants in Georgia during the Depression, and paid for the education of their children. Abbott died of Bright's disease in 1940 in Chicago. He was buried in Lincoln Cemetery in Blue Island, Illinois. His will left the newspaper in the control of his nephew, John Henry Sengstacke.

Legacy

 The Robert S. Abbott House in Chicago, where he lived from 1926 to his death, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976.
 His childhood home in the Woodville neighborhood now in Savannah, Georgia, was designated as a city historic landmark. National Historic Landmark.
 An early biography of him was published in 1955 by Roi Ottley, The Lonely Warrior: The Life and Times of Robert S. Abbott (Chicago: H. Regnery Co., 1955).
 In a 1963 painting, Robert Abbott Founds the Chicago Defender, artist William McBride depicted a young Abbott founding the newspaper. The painting is now in the collection of the DuSable Museum of African American History in Chicago.
 Abbott is featured on the documentary series Profiles of African-American Success.
 In 2017, Abbott was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame.

References

Sources

Further reading

External links
 PBS: Robert Sengstacke Abbott
 PBS: The Chicago Defender
 Pablo J. Davis, "Robert S. Abbott," New Georgia Encyclopedia
 Robert Sengstacke Abbott Boyhood Home: Founder of the Chicago Defender historical marker

1870 births
1940 deaths
20th-century American newspaper publishers (people)
American newspaper founders
Illinois lawyers
People from St. Simons, Georgia
Hampton University alumni
African-American Bahá'ís
20th-century African-American lawyers
20th-century American lawyers
Deaths from nephritis
Converts to the Bahá'í Faith
20th-century Bahá'ís
Chicago-Kent College of Law alumni

Robert Sengstacke Abbott


When two straight lines come together, they make an angle. The two lines are called the sides of the angle, and they meet at a point. A flat surface (called a plane) also forms an angle when it meets another.

To represent an angle, Greek letters such as  (alpha),  (beta),  (gamma) and  (theta) are sometimes used. An angle indicates the space between its sides, or the amount of rotation needed to make one side coincide the other.

To measure the size of an angle, we use units called degrees. A degree is a standard unit and we use the symbol ° after a number to show that it is a number of degrees. We can use a decimal number or a fraction for part of a degree, but a degree can also be divided into 60 minutes (1° = 60'), and a minute can be divided into 60 seconds (1' = 60"). So 22.5°, 22° and 22° 30' are all the same angle.

In mathematics, angles can also be (and often are) measured in radians instead of degrees, by using the conversion factor  (for example, ). Yet another unit of angle is gradian, with  .

Angles are studied in geometry, where an angle where edges meet is often called a vertex. For example, the three sides of a triangle are its edges and two of the edges meet at each vertex. Similarly, two of the six sides (or faces) of a cube meet at each of its twelve edges, and three edges meet at each of its eight corners (or vertices, which is the plural version of vertex).

Types of angles

Individual angles
 In a zero angle the lines lie one upon the other thus creating a 0° angle aka the zero angle.

 An angle measuring greater (wider) than 0° but less (narrower) than 90° is called an acute angle.

 An angle 90° wide is called a right angle.

 An angle more than 90° but less than 180° is called an obtuse angle.

 An angle that measures 180° is called a straight angle.
 An angle wider than 180° and narrower than 360° is called a reflex angle.
 An angle that has a made or full circle/completed 360° is called a full or complete angle.

Special angle pairs
In geometry, there are pairs angles having a special relationship with each other, making them interesting and convenient.There is a pair of angles called complementary angles to which the sum of their measure (wideness) is equal to one right angle (which is equal to  turn, 90°, or  radians). Supplementary angles are also two angles, this time their combined measure is a straight angle ( turn, 180°, or  radians). Two angles that total to a full angle ( turn, 360°, or  radians) are referred to as explementary or conjugate angles.

Related pages

 Sun angle

References

Basic English 850 words

Angle


Webster is a town in Vernon County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 676 at the 2000 census. The unincorporated community of Avalanche is located in the town. The unincorporated community of Bloomingdale is also located partially within the town.

History
The town was founded on April 7, 1856, and named after American statesman Daniel Webster.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 35.4 square miles (91.7 km2), of which, 35.4 square miles (91.7 km2) of it is land and 0.03% is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 676 people, 217 households, and 177 families residing in the town. The population density was 19.1 people per square mile (7.4/km2).  There were 293 housing units at an average density of 8.3 per square mile (3.2/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 99.56% White, 0.30% African American, and 0.15% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.15% of the population.

There were 217 households, out of which 45.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.7% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.4% were non-families. 15.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.12 and the average family size was 3.42.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 35.8% under the age of 18, 6.7% from 18 to 24, 24.6% from 25 to 44, 22.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.7 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $32,344, and the median income for a family was $30,938. Males had a median income of $25,278 versus $20,625 for females. The per capita income for the town was $12,031. About 19.0% of families and 26.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37.6% of those under age 18 and 8.1% of those age 65 or over.

References

External links
 Official website

Towns in Vernon County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin

Webster, Vernon County, Wisconsin


Halls of Anger is a 1970 American drama film directed by Paul Bogart, and starring Calvin Lockhart, Janet MacLachlan, Jeff Bridges and James A. Watson Jr.

Plot
A predominantly black high school is integrated by white students and trouble follows.

Cast
 Calvin Lockhart as Quincy Davis
 Janet MacLachlan as Lorraine Nash
 Jeff Bridges as Doug
 James A. Watson Jr. as J.T. Watson
 DeWayne Jessie as Lerone Johnson
 Ed Asner as Ernie McKay
 John McLiam as Boyd Wilkerson
 Rob Reiner as "Leaky" Couloris
 Patricia Stich as Sherry Vaughn
 Gary Tigerman as Buchavitch
 Paris Earl as Carter (as Paris Earle)
 Ta-Tanisha as Claudine
 Helen Kleeb as Rita Monahan
 Barry Brown as Winger
 Ernie Robinson (Stunt coordinator) Stunts

Background
The film was mostly filmed at Virgil Middle School in Los Angeles.

The film draws some comparisons to a contemporary television program, Room 222:  A new, black teacher joins a southern California high school; an attractive, sympathetic black female member of staff shows romantic interest; a militant black student is frequently involved in situations; issues of racism and integration are featured.  The film and television show even share actors (Ta-Tanisha, Helen Kleeb, Rob Reiner).  However, while Room 222 is a comedy-drama, much milder in tone, Halls of Anger is purposefully aggressive, using deliberately controversial language and some forceful violence to highlight the very real and dangerous potential of unresolved racial conflict.

Reception

Critical response
Roger Greenspun, the film critic for The New York Times, gave the film a mixed review, and wrote, "The picture initially portends sensationalism, with the racial scales reversed and the well-behaved white youngsters harassed and tormented by the black students. What steadies the whole thing is the excellent performance of Calvin Lockhart, as a sane, realistic Negro teacher who more or less holds together the teeming school and the picture itself...But the picture's urgent plea for racial sanity in the classroom is almost methodically blunted by the use of standard-seeming types. The few faculty whites are oafs or hard-heads. There is the pretty Negro teacher, nicely played by Janet MacLachlan, who supports and comforts Lockhart. As the fieriest black student and the spunkiest white newcomer, James A. Watson Jr. and Jeff Bridges do well in characterizations that rate more exploration."

Film critic Monica Sullivan praised the acting of Jeff Bridges, if not the film, "The young Bridges stands out in the cast, because his focus on his role is like a laser beam. He pours 100% of his energy into making his character believable and it is. The making of Halls Of Anger might be a more riveting experience than the film itself."

See also
 List of American films of 1970
 List of hood films

References

External links

1970 films
1970 drama films
1970s teen films
American drama films
American high school films
1970s English-language films
Films scored by Dave Grusin
Films about educators
Films about race and ethnicity
Films directed by Paul Bogart
Films set in Los Angeles
United Artists films
1970s American films

Halls of Anger


Ernest van den Haag (September 15, 1914 – March 21, 2002) was a Dutch-born American sociologist, social critic, and author. He was John M. Olin Professor of Jurisprudence and Public Policy at Fordham University. He was best known for his contributions to National Review.

Life and career
Ernest van den Haag was born in 1914 in the Hague to Moses "Max" Melamerson and Flora Haag Melamerson. He changed his surname in the early 1940s. While van den Haag was still young, his family moved to Italy. Van den Haag grew up in Italy, and following his education began a life in politics. In the late 1930s, he was a left-wing activist and communist. During this time, Italy was ruled by Benito Mussolini's fascist regime. In 1937, van den Haag was nearly murdered by a political assassin who shot him five times. After being shot, he spent nearly three years in prison. Nearly eighteen months of those three years were spent in solitary confinement. After release, fearing re-imprisonment, van den Haag drifted between European countries in an attempt to evade Italy and Mussolini. In 1940, he made his way to Portugal and fled to the United States, arriving at Ellis Island, not knowing any English. Living in New York, van den Haag worked as a bus boy and sold vegetables; eventually he was able to secure admission to the University at Iowa, where a group of faculty members recognized his intellectual gifts and agreed to pay for his tuition. In 1942, van den Haag graduated with an M.A in economics. The same year, van den Haag met the political philosopher Sidney Hook. His friendship with Hook forever changed van den Haag, converting him from being a left-wing activist and communist, to the opposite end of the spectrum; van den Haag was now a conservative. Over the years, van den Haag took particular interest in the field of capital punishment and the death penalty. His book Punishing Criminals: Concerning a Very Old and Painful Question (1975) developed his reputation on being one of the foremost thinkers and proponents on the death penalty. Van den Haag was considered by his colleagues to be an expert on the issue of capital punishment.

Van den Haag died in Mendham, New Jersey.

On racial segregation in public schools
He was an early opponent of the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education which found segregation in schools unconstitutional, and testified in favor of segregation. He also argued that continued school segregation was desirable because of the "genetic intellectual inferiority" of black students. In a National Review cover-page article, van den Haag dismissed recent research undermining the notion of innate ethnic differences in intelligence, stating that he believed such differences existed and accounted for "much" of the poorer academic performance of black students, thus necessitating separate schooling. This article caused controversy among readers of the National Review, several of whom wrote angry letters against the decision to print such "bigotry." In 1966, he testified before the International Court of Justice in support of  apartheid in South Africa.

On race-neutrality in U.S. immigration policy
In another article, from 1965, he opposed the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which replaced an immigration system largely excluding Asians and discriminating against southern and eastern Europeans with a race-neutral program based on skills and family connections to U.S. citizens and permanent residents, which enabled an increase in immigration from Asia. Van den Haag instead advocated greater rather than less immigration restriction.  He also expressly defended the practice of fashioning immigration policies in favor of European ethnicity, arguing that "The wish to preserve... the identity of one's nation requires no justification." He likened such a practice to a harmless expression of sentiment, similar to preferring to associate with one's own family rather than strangers. "The wish not to see one's country overrun by groups one regards as alien need not be based on feelings of superiority or 'racism.'"

On the death penalty
Van den Haag's particular field of interest, the field he contributed the most to in terms of publications, was the death penalty. Van den Haag was a respected debater, and when he was not contributing to the National Review or other publications, he was active in debating the issue of the death penalty. His main argument in its defense stemmed from key themes such as deterrence, and punishment for severe criminals.

In his book Punishing Criminals, van den Haag defines the primary role of government as "securing rights and duties by specifying them through laws and enforcing the laws." Van den Haag believed the paramount duty of government is to "provide legal order in which citizens can be secure in their lives, their liberties, and their pursuit of happiness." The law exists to provide legal order. Van den Haag disputed claims that capital punishment is just a form of legal retribution by claiming that if laws are knowingly broken, legal order can only be maintained by enforcement. Justice, van den Haag claimed, is blindfolded, while retribution carries the weight of passion behind it; justice being delivered to someone who violates social order knowingly is equal, thus the term legal retribution is void.

Van den Haag also argued that people commit crimes because they believe, one way or another, they will benefit from committing the crime. Thus it is society's duty to make all crimes as disadvantageous as possible. Van den Haag uses economic examples to further prove his point. In economics, there is a concept named opportunity cost. Opportunity cost forces an individual to weigh the benefits versus the sacrifices of making a decision. Van den Haag believes people look at committing the crime the same way they would view an opportunity; they would weigh the profits versus the punishment. Temptation to commit a crime will be significantly decreased if the punishment for committing the crime is more severe.  The death penalty offers the greatest weighted punishment for committing an offense. Van den Haag also related Marxist theory behind his justification of the death penalty. Marxists, Van den Haag argued, believe that "Legal justice never can do less, though it can do more."  Legal justice should distribute punishment equally among violators and more frequently in order to deter crime.  Van den Haag also related to the Marxist belief in class warfare. Van den Haag states, "Obviously, the poor and powerless are more tempted to take what is not theirs, or to rebel, than the powerful and wealthy, who need not take what they already have."  The threat of severe punishment diminishes temptation, which van den Haag argued is to be the greatest use of the death penalty, deterrence.

Van den Haag also believed that law breakers have more of an inclination to repeat their bad actions. He said that breaking the law leads to a form of moral decay, in which offenders can no longer distinguish right from wrong, and thus repeat offending is common. To lower the crime rate, and the tendency of individuals toward committing more violent crimes over time, van den Haag said, "The only permanent, and irrevocable incapacitation is execution."  Van den Haag believed that any temporary or permanent incapacitation only reduces the crime rate if there are no more compensating increases in crime by other people. He argued that, without the strong deterrent effect of a  death penalty, an increase in crime and criminals remains a factor.  Van den Haag believed homicide to be the most deplorable crime a human being can commit. In his book The Death Penalty : A Debate, he argues that "the state must teach that killing anyone deliberately, for whatever reason, is needless and wrong."

Van den Haag believed that capital punishment has a direct correlation with a decrease in murders. Rehabilitation as a response to criminals who murder is not an option because, as van den Haag states, "no effective method to achieve it [rehabilitation] has been found."  He said that, even if a proper method of rehabilitation can be found, it would not reduce the crime rate, because rehabilitation only works after the crime has been committed. He argued that deterrence is the only thing that can have any effect on the actual crime rate. Overall, van den Haag directed his argument toward the fact that the death penalty ought only to exist to protect innocent lives. To sum up his entire argument against his opposition in one quote, van den Haag contends, "I'd rather execute a man convicted of having murdered others than put the lives of innocents at risk. I find it hard to understand the opposite choice."  Van den Haag recognized that innocent people would sometimes be executed.

Literary works
Throughout his life, Ernest van den Haag wrote many books and articles about society, and more specifically about capital punishment.  His works include:
 The Death Penalty: A Debate, 1983 (co-authored with John P. Conrad)
 The Jewish Mystique, 1968
 Political violence and civil disobedience, 1972
 Punishing Criminals: Concerning a Very Old and Painful Question, 1975

References

External links
 The war in Katanga; the United Nations in the Congo, report of a mission. by Ernest van den Haag
 Ernest van den Haag, The Ultimate Punishment: A Defense.

1914 births
2002 deaths
American sociologists
Dutch emigrants to the United States
Fordham University faculty
Race and intelligence controversy
Writers from New York City
Member of the Mont Pelerin Society
National Review people

Ernest van den Haag