A dry-sump system is a method to manage the lubricating motor oil in four-stroke and large two-stroke piston driven internal combustion engines. The dry-sump system uses two or more oil pumps and a separate oil reservoir, as opposed to a conventional wet-sump system, which uses only the main sump (U.S.: oil pan) below the engine and a single pump. A dry-sump engine requires a pressure relief valve to regulate negative pressure inside the engine, so internal seals are not inverted.

Dry-sumps are common on larger diesel engines such as those used in ships, as well as gasoline engines used in racing cars, aerobatic aircraft, high-performance personal watercraft and motorcycles. Dry sump lubrication may be chosen for these applications due to increased reliability, oil capacity, reduction of oil starvation under high g-loads and/or other technical or performance reasons. Dry sump systems may not be suitable for all applications due to increased cost, complexity, and/or bulk, among other factors.

Design
Engines are both lubricated and cooled by oil that circulates throughout the engine, feeding various bearings and other moving parts and then draining, via gravity, into the sump at the base of the engine. In the wet-sump system of nearly all production automobile engines, the oil that's not actively circulating is stored in the sump, which is large enough for this purpose. A pump collects oil from the sump and directly circulates it back through the engine. In a dry-sump system, the oil still falls to the base of the engine, but into a much shallower sump, where one or more scavenge pumps draw it away and transfer it to a (usually external) reservoir, where it is both cooled and de-aerated before being recirculated through the engine by a pressure pump. The sump in a dry-sump system is not actually dry; it is still wet from oil draining from the engine. The reservoir is usually tall and narrow and specially designed with internal baffles, and an oil outlet (supply) at the very bottom for uninhibited oil supply even during sloshing.

The dry pump operation consists of a pressure stage and a scavenging stage. Although the term "stages" is commonly used to describe the work of the multiple pumps, they typically run in parallel rather than in series as might be implied by the term. The pressure stage draws oil from the bottom of the reservoir and passes it through the filter and into the engine itself. An adjustable pressure regulator ensures that the oil pressure is kept stable at different engine speeds. The dry-sump system requires at least two pumps - one pressure and one scavenge - and sometimes as many as four or five scavenge pumps are used to minimize the amount of oil in the engine. The pressure pump and scavenge pumps are frequently mounted on a common crankshaft, so that a single pulley at the front of the system can run as many pumps as the engine design requires. It is common practice to have one scavenge pump per crankcase section; however, in the case of inverted engines (typically aircraft engines) it is necessary to employ separate scavenge pumps for each cylinder bank. Therefore, an inverted V engine would have a minimum of two scavenge pumps and a pressure pump in the pump stack.

Dry sump systems may optionally be designed to keep the engine's crankcase at lower than atmospheric pressure (vacuum), by sealing the crankcase and allowing the scavenge pumps to draw out both oil and gases. An equilibrium pressure will be reached when the rate of gases entering the crankcase (blow-by gases past the piston rings, but also air leaks and oil vapor) equals the rate of gas removal from the scavenge pump capacity beyond what's required to remove just the oil. Alternatively, the crankcase may be kept near atmospheric pressure by venting it to the oil reservoir, which in turn is vented into the engine's air intake, or to outside air.

Advantages
A dry-sump system offers many advantages over a wet-sump. The primary advantages include:
 Prevention of the engine experiencing oil starvation during high g-loads when oil sloshes, which improves engine reliability. Most engines can be damaged by even brief periods of oil starvation. This is the reason why dry-sumps were invented, and is particularly valuable in racing cars, high performance sports cars, and aerobatic aircraft that regularly experience high accelerations. Oil slosh occurs in dry-sump systems too, but it is much easier to design a remote reservoir to tolerate high amounts of slosh, by being tall and narrow, and having large baffles.
 Increased oil capacity by using a large external reservoir, which would be impractical in a wet-sump system.
 Improvements to vehicle handling and stability. The vehicle's center of gravity can be lowered by mounting the (typically very heavy) engine lower in the chassis due to a shallow sump profile. A vehicle's overall weight distribution can be modified by locating the external oil reservoir away from the engine.
 Improved oil temperature control. This is due to increased oil volume providing resistance to heat saturation, the positioning of the oil reservoir away from the hot engine, and the ability to include cooling capabilities between the scavenger pumps and oil reservoir and also within the reservoir itself.
 Improved oil quality. When oil sloshes against the crankshaft and other high-speed spinning parts, it causes a "hurricane that whips the oil in a wet-sump engine into an aerated froth like a milkshake in a blender". Aerated oil protects engine components far less effectively. A dry-sump system minimizes oil aeration, and also de-aerates oil far more effectively by pumping it first into a remote reservoir.
 Increased engine power. In a wet-sump engine, oil slosh against spinning parts causes substantial viscous drag which creates parasitic power loss. A dry-sump system removes oil from the crankcase, along with the possibility of such viscous drag. More complex dry-sump systems may scavenge oil from other areas where oil may pool, such as in the valvetrain. Power can be further increased if the dry-sump system is designed to create a vacuum inside the crankcase, which reduces air drag (or 'windage') on moving parts as well.
 Improved pump efficiency to maintain oil supply to the engine. Since scavenge pumps are typically mounted at the lowest point on the engine, the oil flows into the pump intake by gravity rather than having to be lifted up into the intake of the pump as in a wet-sump. Furthermore, scavenge pumps can be of a design that is more tolerant of entrapped gasses than the typical pressure pump, which can lose suction if too much air mixes into the oil. Since the pressure pump is typically lower than the external oil tank, it always has a positive pressure on its suction regardless of cornering forces.
 Having the pumps external to the engine makes them easier to maintain or replace.

Disadvantages
Dry-sump engines have several disadvantages compared to wet-sump engines, including;
 Dry-sump systems add cost, complexity, and weight.
 The extra pumps and lines in dry-sump engines require additional oil and maintenance.
 The performance-enhancing features of dry-sump lubrication can hurt a car's day-to-day driveability. A good example is the classic Mercedes-Benz 300SL, a car that was designed for racing but sold to the general public and used on-road. The car had high oil capacity and a dry-sump system to cope with continuous high-speed running while racing. Owners found in general use, however, that the oil never achieved the correct operating temperature because the system was so effective at cooling the oil. A makeshift solution was devised to deliberately block the oil cooler airflow to boost the oil temperature.
 The large external reservoir and pumps can be tricky to position around the engine and within the engine bay due to their size.
 As wrist pins and pistons rely on the oil being splashed around in the crankcase for lubrication and cooling respectively, these parts might have inadequate oiling if too much oil is pulled away by the pump. Installing piston oilers can circumvent this issue, but do so with additional cost and complexity for the engine.
 Inadequate upper valvetrain lubrication can also become an issue if too much oil vapor is being pulled out from the area, especially with multi-staged pumps.

Common engine applications
Dry-sumps are common on larger diesel engines such as those used for ship propulsion, largely due to increased reliability and serviceability. They are also commonly used in racing cars and aerobatic aircraft, due to problems with g-forces, reliable oil supply, power output and vehicle handling.  The Chevrolet Corvette Z06 has a dry sump engine which requires initial oil change after 500 miles.

Motorcycle engines
The dry-sump lubrication is particularly applicable to motorcycles, which tend to be operated more vigorously than other road vehicles. Although motorcycles such as the Honda CB750 (1969) feature a dry-sump engine, modern motorcycles tend to use a wet-sump design. This is understandable with across-the-frame inline four-cylinder engines, since these wide engines must be mounted fairly high in the frame (for ground clearance), so the space below may as well be used for a wet-sump. However, narrower engines can be mounted lower and ideally should use dry-sump lubrication.

Several motorcycle models that use dry-sumps include;
 The classic British parallel twin motorcycles, such as BSA, Triumph and Norton, all used dry-sump lubrication. Traditionally, the oil tank was a remote item, but some late-model BSAs, and the Meriden Triumphs, used "oil-in-the-frame" designs.
 The Triumph Rocket 3, an inline three-cylinder, water-cooled, DOHC engine.

 The Yamaha TRX850 270-degree parallel twin motorcycle has a dry-sump engine. Its oil reservoir is not remote, but integral to the engine, sitting atop the gearbox.  This design eliminates external oil lines, allowing simpler engine removal and providing faster oil warm up.
 The Yamaha XT660Z (and R/X models) use a dry-sump design where the bike's frame tubing is used as the oil reservoir and cooling system
 The Yamaha SR400/500 uses a dry-sump design where the bike's frame tubing doubles as the oil reservoir and cooling system.
 Harley-Davidson has used dry-sump type lubricating oil systems in their engines since the 1930s.
 The Rotax engined Aprilia RSV Mille, and the Aprilia RST1000 Futura both incorporate a dry-sump, along with sister bikes, the SL1000 Falco and ETV1000 Caponord.
 All BMW K-series motorcycles with inline-4 engines.
 The Honda NX650, XR500R, XR600R, XR650R and XR650L four-stroke dirt bikes utilize a dry-sump with the oil in the frame tubing.
 The Suzuki DR-Z400 has a 2L dry-sump with oil in the frame tubing.
 Chennai built Royal Enfield prior to 2007.  Royal Enfield dry sump designs were completely phased out by 2012.

See also
 Wet sump

References

External links

Engine lubrication systems
Engine technology

Dry sump


Nanong Gewog (Dzongkha: ན་ནོང་) is a gewog (village block) of Pemagatshel District, Bhutan.

Nanong Gewog (county) has 55 villages and 526 households with 2351 population. It has an area of 81.04 square kilometers. The gewog has moderate cold temperate climate. The dry land cultivation dominates agriculture land use and paddy cultivation is minimal. Maize is the main cereals and potato, orange, ginger and sugarcane are grown for cash income. Its potential exist for horticulture development in ginger, sugarcane, groundnut, orange and cereal crops like mustard, millet, buckwheat and maize. The establishment of piggery and poultry farms is also possible.

The gewog is popular for satshoen (soil paints) for traditional painting and Tshatshi-buram (Bhutanese Sweet made from sugarcane juice). These two products are unique to this place. The constraints faced are remoteness from road (roads are under construction from two points into the gewog from two point to make a ring road), lack of access to market, lack of water irrigation, crop damage by wild animals and farm labour shortage. The gewog has two BHU, RNR centre and three CPS. In the 10th FYP there is a proposal to establish one ECR and construct a new MSS at Lhungkhar in Yelchen.

Potentials
Nanong Gewog falls under Nanong-Shumar constituency and its member to the parliament (MP) is the Prime Minister of Bhutan. H.E. Lyenpo Jigme Thinley is the first democratically elected Prime Minister of Bhutan. He hails from Druk Phunsum Tshogpa (DPT) party.

Villages

Tshatshe

References

External links
 Pemagatshel website (non-functional; Wayback Machine archive here)
 https://web.archive.org/web/20100303092038/http://www.pemagatshel.gov.bt/gewogDetail.php?id=38

Gewogs of Bhutan
Pemagatshel District

Nanong Gewog


Environmentalism nyɛla yɛltɔɣ' muni zaŋti niya nima, teha ni biɛhigu tabbu zaŋ kpa ʒilɛli taɣibu palo nti pahi toontibo zaŋti ʒileli daa alaafee, di bahi bahindi alaafee bo n-ti ʒilɛli sochibisi ŋɔ, di borimi ni di laɣim anfaani nima din be ʒileli maa taɣibu ninsali nim puuni, binkɔbiri puuni, tihi ni mori puuni nti pahi binyɛra din bi vuhiri zaaha. Ka "environmentalism" mi kuli jɛndila ʒilɛli mini Naawuni nama tiɛri binyɛra palo, ni bin vakaha teha palo, siyaasa, waliginsim din be bunkɔbiri mini mori zaŋ laɣim taba teha zaŋ chaŋ nti pahi biɛhigu waliginsim ni ʒilɛli puuni gubu ni taɣibu.

Di Neesim

Taarihi

Ʒilɛli ni Jintɔriba ban daŋ na

Tuuli Ʒinɛli ni Laɣinsi

Tɔbu Maa Nyaaŋa Yaligibu

21st Century Kuli Mali Chana

Ecoactivism Zaɣ' Pala

Ʒilɛli ni Laɣingu

Free market environmentalism

Evangelical environmentalism

Mali zali

Laɣinsi mini Ʒinahigu

Environmental protests

Environmentalist nima
 Edward Abbey (Sabisabira)
 David Attenborough (Lahabali wuligibu karachi, naturalist)
 John James Audubon (naturalist)
 Judi Bari (ʒilɛli ni baŋda)
 Frances Beinecke (ʒilɛli ni baŋda ni zuɣulana kuro zaŋti Natural Resources Defense Council)
 David Bellamy (Tihi baŋda)
 Wendell Berry (Pukpara, philosopher)
 Murray Bookchin (anarchist, philosopher, social ecologist)
 Erin Brockovich (ʒilɛli ni looya and activist)
 David Brower (Sabisabira, activist)
 Lester Brown (environmental analyst,Sabisabira)
 Carol Browner (lawyer and activist)
 Kevin Buzzacott (Aboriginal activist)
 Berta Caceres (environmental and indigenous rights activist)
 Helen Caldicott (medical doctor)
 Rachel Carson (biologist, writer)
 Majora Carter (urban revitalization strategist)
 Prince Charles (British Royal Family member)
 Barry Commoner (biologist, politician)
 Jacques-Yves Cousteau (explorer, ecologist)
 Herman Daly (ecological economist and steady-state theorist)
 Peter Dauvergne (political scientist)
 Laurie David (activist and producer)
 Marina DeBris (environmental artist)
 Leonardo DiCaprio (actor and environmentalist)
 Sylvia Earle (marine biologist)
 Elizabeth Economy (China environment expert)
 Paul R. Ehrlich (population biologist)
 Hans-Josef Fell (German Green Party member)
 Jane Fonda (actor)
 Josh Fox (filmmaker, environmental activist)
 Mizuho Fukushima (politician, activist)
 Peter Garrett (musician, politician)
 Jane Goodall (primatologist, anthropologist, and UN Messenger of Peace)
 Lois Gibbs (Founder of the Center for Health, Environment and Justice)
 Al Gore (former Vice President of the United States)
 Daryl Hannah (activist)
 James Hansen (scientist)
 Garrett Hardin (ecologist, ecophilosopher)
 Denis Hayes (environmentalist and solar power advocate)
 Julia Butterfly Hill (activist)
 Robert Hunter (journalist, co-founder and first president of Greenpeace)
 Tetsunari Iida (sustainable energy advocate)
 Lisa P. Jackson (chemical engineer and former administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency)
 Naomi Klein (writer, activist)
 Winona LaDuke (environmentalist)
 Aldo Leopold (ecologist)
 A. Carl Leopold (plant physiologist)
 James Lovelock (scientist)
 Amory Lovins (energy policy analyst)
 Hunter Lovins (environmentalist)
 Caroline Lucas (politician)
 Wangari Maathai (activist and Nobel laureate)
 Jarid Manos (CEO of the Great Plains Restoration Council)
 Xiuhtezcatl Martinez (environmental activist, hip-hop artist)
 Bill McKibben (writer, activist)
 David McTaggart (activist)
 Chico Mendes (activist)
 Joni Mitchell (musician, environmental activist)
 George Monbiot (journalist)
 John Muir (naturalist, activist)
 Ralph Nader (activist)
 Gaylord Nelson (politician)
 Alan Pears (environmental consultant and energy efficiency pioneer)
 Gifford Pinchot (first chief of the USFS)
 Jonathon Porritt (politician)
 John Wesley Powell (second director of the USGS)
 Barbara Pyle (documentarian and executive producer of Captain Planet and the Planeteers)
 Phil Radford (environmental, clean energy and democracy advocate, Greenpeace Executive Director)
 Bonnie Raitt (musician)
 Theodore Roosevelt (former President of the United States)
 Habiba Sarobi (politician and activist)
 E. F. Schumacher (author of Small Is Beautiful)
 Simran Sethi (environmental journalist)
 Vandana Shiva (ecofeminist and activist)
 Marina Silva (politician and activist)
 Alicia Silverstone (activist and author of The Kind Diet)
 Lauren Singer (activist and entrepreneur)
 Swami Sundaranand (Yogi, photographer, and mountaineer)
 Cass Sunstein (environmental lawyer)
 David Suzuki (scientist, broadcaster)
 Henry David Thoreau (writer, philosopher)
 Greta Thunberg (environmentalist)
 Stewart Udall (former United States Secretary of the Interior)
 Jo Valentine (politician and activist)
 Dominique Voynet (politician and environmentalist)
 Christopher O. Ward (water infrastructure expert)
 Alice Waters (activist and restaurateur)
 Gabriel Willow (environmental educator, naturalist)
 Howard Zahniser (author of the 1964 Wilderness Act)

Puhiri ka bi kura

Kaya ni Taada din Yɔli

Lahi Nyama

Karim Pahi

Sambanni linki

Nyɛmi yaha

Environmentalism
 Global 500 Roll of Honour
 Grantham Prize for Excellence in Reporting on the Environment
 Heroes of the Environment
 Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement
Conservationist
Conservation movement
Conservation ethic
Ecology movement
Goldman Environmental Prize
Green libertarianism
 Ecofascism
Green conservatism
List of peace activists
List of people associated with renewable energy
List of pro-nuclear environmentalists
 Greenpeace
School strike for climate

Kundivihira

Sabta
E-Class

Environmentalism


Bikini Kill was an American punk rock band. The band was started in October 1990 in Olympia. The band's members were singer Kathleen Hanna, guitarist Billy Karren, bassist Kathi Wilcox, and drummer Tobi Vail.

History
The band was started in Olympia, Washington by Kathleen Hanna (vocals), Billy Karren (guitar), Kathi Wilcox (bass), and Tobi Vail (drums).  They released a demo cassette tape in 1991. They were then signed to Kill Rock Stars. Their first extended play Bikini Kill was released on the label. In September 1993 the band's first album Pussy Whipped was released. The band's last album, Reject All American was released in 1996. In 1997 the band broke up. In 2012 Bikini Kill was released again. In 2014 Yeah Yeah Yeah Yeah was released again.

References

1990s American music groups
1990 establishments in the United States
American punk bands
Musical groups established in 1990
Musical groups disestablished in 1997
Musical groups from Washington (state)
Olympia, Washington
1990s establishments in Washington (state)
1990s disestablishments in Washington (state)

Bikini Kill


Competition law is a law that stops companies from behaving in an anti-competitive way. Competition law is called antitrust law in the United States, and anti-monopoly law in  China and Russia. It used  to be called trade practices law in the United Kingdom and Australia. In the European Union, it is called both antitrust and competition law.

References

Business law

Competition law


K.O. Beast, known in Japan as , is an OVA, anime series.

History
In 1993–1994, Anime UK, a British-based magazine, brought the first three episodes to the UK market on its own label (this was Anime UKs only release).

It was released in America by Right Stuf Inc. The American version made references to Pokémon due to the voice cast having also worked for the dub of Pokémon.

Story
The series is set in the distant future in which the Earth is split in two. The Southern Hemisphere is placed in another dimension, while the inhabitants of the Northern Hemisphere are able to morph into beast-like humanoids. Eventually the humans of the Southern Hemisphere, led by Uranus, attack the Beasts.

The Three Beasts, Wan Derbard (Wan Dabadadatta) of the Tiger Tribe, Bud Mint (Baado Mint) of the Bird Tribe, and Mei Mer (Mei Mah) of the Mermaid Tribe, are taken prisoner along with Mei Mer's companion Tuttle Millen (Mekka Mannen, also of the Mermaid tribe), but manage to escape thanks to a little girl named Yuuni Charm Password. Together they seek Gaia, which they believe to be a fabulous treasure, but they are pursued by Uranus's minions: V-Darn the vicious mage-knight, V-Sion the warrior woman and Akumako, V-Darn's sadistic imp-like partner.

Characters
The series has three main characters:
Wan – the male leader who dresses in red
Bud Mint – the male loner
Mei Mer – the female

To these are added the child Yuni, who is female, and a bulky male Tuttle (so-written in the English subtitles) to complete a typical five-character adventure team. All but Yuni are "beasts" who usually appear in anthropomorphic form but who can easily shapeshift. For instance, when Wan becomes angry or sneezes, he turns into a tiger, though he still wears his trousers, as does Bud, who becomes a rooster when he is frightened or disgusted. Mei Mer's legs are replaced by a porpoise's tail; Tuttle becomes a sea turtle, his cumbersome body becoming an armored sphere. The first three are heroes of their tribes of beasts, each committed to protecting a magical statue of their tribe, which are called "Jinn". Each has a stereotypical childish desire: Wan is hungry, Bud Mint wants girls, Mei Mer wants wealth. In addition, Bud often begins his responses with English expletives or sayings. The joke is that the symbol of the US is the eagle, but he is a chicken.

Their enemies are the human beings V-Darn and V-Sion, whose names involve a pun on the Japanese word for "beautiful", namely bi for v, and the story begins with all heroes captured and taken to the enemy stronghold, and the three statues taken.

Voice cast

References

External links

1992 anime OVAs
1993 anime OVAs
Environmental television
Gainax
Mecha anime and manga
Post-apocalyptic anime and manga
Television series about shapeshifting
Imps
Mermaids in television

K.O. Beast


Gregory Jordan Harbaugh is an aeronautical/astronautical engineer and former NASA astronaut. He flew on four space shuttle missions as a mission specialist with responsibilities that included Remote Manipulator System (RMS) operation and Extravehicular Activity (EVAs). He performed three spacewalks during the shuttle missions including in support of repair/refurbishment of the Hubble Space Telescope.

Background & Education
Harbaugh was born April 15, 1956, in Cleveland, Ohio, and grew up in Willoughby, Ohio. Harbaugh graduated from Willoughby South High School in 1974 and went on to receive a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering from Purdue University in 1978 and a Master of Science in Physical Science from University of Houston–Clear Lake in 1986. He is married with three adult children. He currently resides with his wife Carol in southern Wisconsin.

Career

NASA Experience
Harbaugh came to NASA's Johnson Space Center after graduation from Purdue University in 1978. He held engineering and technical management positions in Space Shuttle flight operations, and supported Shuttle flight operations from Mission Control for most of the flights from STS-1 through STS-51-L. He served as Lead Data Processing Systems (DPS) Officer for STS-9 (Spacelab-1) and STS-41-D, Orbit DPS for STS-41-B and STS-41-C, and Ascent/Entry DPS for STS-41-G. He also served as a senior flight controller addressing issues requiring real-time resolution, for several flights from STS-51-A through STS-51-L.

Harbaugh has a commercial pilot's license with instrument rating, and over 1600 hours total flying time.

Selected by NASA in June 1987, Harbaugh became an astronaut in August 1988. His technical assignments included work in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL), the Shuttle Remote Manipulator System (RMS), telerobotics systems development for Space Station, the Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission development, spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) in Mission Control, and extravehicular activity (EVA) for the International Space Station (ISS). He was assigned as the backup EVA crew member and capsule communicator (Capcom) for STS-61, the first Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission.

A veteran of four space flights, Harbaugh has logged a total of 818 hours in space, including 18 hours, 29 minutes EVA. From 1997-2001 Harbaugh served as Manager of the Extravehicular Activity Project Office, with program management responsibility for all aspects of NASA's spacewalk industry, including spacesuits, tools, training, tasks and operations for the Space Shuttle, the International Space Station, and future planetary missions. Harbaugh left NASA in March 2001.

Space Flight Experience

STS-39
STS-39 Discovery (April 28 through May 6, 1991) was an eight-day unclassified Department of Defense mission involving research for the Strategic Defense Initiative. Harbaugh flew as a mission specialist and was responsible for operation of the RMS and the Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS) spacecraft, and he was one of two crewmen trained for EVA in the event of a contingency requiring a spacewalk. Mission duration was 199 hours, 22 minutes.

STS-54

STS-54 Endeavour (January 13–19, 1993) was a six-day mission which featured the deployment of TDRS-F, and a 4-hour 28-minute space walk by Harbaugh. Mission duration was 143 hours 38 minutes.

STS-71
STS-71 Atlantis (June 27 to July 7, 1995) was the first docking mission with the Russian Space Station Mir, and involved an exchange of crews. On this mission, Harbaugh served as the Flight Engineer (Mission Specialist) on a seven-member (up) eight-member (down) crew. Space Shuttle Atlantis was modified to carry a docking system compatible with the Russian Mir Space Station, and Harbaugh was responsible for the inflight operation of the docking system. He was also assigned to perform any contingency EVA. Mission duration was 235 hours, 23 minutes.

STS-82
STS-82 Discovery (February 11–21, 1997) the second Hubble Space Telescope (HST) servicing mission. It was a night launch and landing flight. During the 10-day mission, the crew retrieved and secured the HST in Discovery'''s payload bay. In five spacewalks, two teams installed two new spectrometers and eight replacement instruments, and placed insulation patches over several compartments containing key data processing, electronics and scientific instrument telemetry packages. Harbaugh participated in two spacewalks, totaling 14 hours and 01 minute. Following completion of upgrades and repairs, HST was redeployed and boosted to its highest orbit ever. Mission duration was 239 hours, 37 minutes.

 Special Honors
Recipient of the NASA Distinguished Service Medal, four NASA Space Flight Medals, the NASA Exceptional Service Medal, the NASA Exceptional Achievement Medal, the 1999 Rotary National Award for Space Achievement "Stellar" Award for Outstanding Leadership, the 1995 American Astronautical Society Flight Achievement Award, the Johns Hopkins University Presidential Medal, the Purdue University Outstanding Aerospace Engineer and Astronaut Alumnus Awards, Aviation Week & Space Technology'' Laurels for 1991 (STS 39) and 1995 (STS 71), and the Sigma Chi Fraternity Significant Sig award. Inducted into the Order of Constantine, the highest honor bestowed upon members of Sigma Chi for commitment, dedication and service to the fraternity (2017).

Post NASA Career

 Museum Director and COO of Sun 'n Fun Fly-in, Inc., Lakeland, FL 2001-2006
 CEO/President of the Sigma Chi Foundation, Evanston, IL 2006-2016
 Currently Founder/Chairman/CEO of InnerSpace Consultants

Organizations
 Member, Sigma Chi fraternity, Omicron Delta Kappa, Sigma Gamma Tau

References

External links
 Spacefacts biography of Gregory J. Harbaugh

1956 births
Living people
People from Cleveland
Purdue University School of Aeronautics and Astronautics alumni
University of Houston–Clear Lake alumni
NASA civilian astronauts
Space Shuttle program astronauts
American chief operating officers
American chief executives
Spacewalkers
Mir crew members

Gregory J. Harbaugh


The College of the Holy Cross is a private Jesuit liberal arts college in Worcester, Massachusetts. It was founded by educators Benedict Joseph Fenwick and Thomas F. Mulledy in 1843 under the auspices of the Society of Jesus. Holy Cross was the first Catholic college in New England and is among the oldest Catholic institutions of higher education in the United States.

Holy Cross is a four-year residential undergraduate institution with approximately 3,000 students. Students choose from 64 academic programs, including interdisciplinary and self-designed majors in liberal arts disciplines. The college is situated on a hill overlooking the Blackstone River and neighboring Auburn, Massachusetts; its 174-acre (70 ha) campus is located approximately 45 miles west from Boston.

Admissions to Holy Cross are selective, with 21% of applicants being admitted in the 2023 academic year for the class of 2027. The college has one of the largest endowments of any liberal arts college in the United States, and is one of the academically competitive Hidden Ivies. In 1986, Holy Cross joined the Patriot League, where its athletic teams compete as the Crusaders in NCAA Division I.

Notable graduates of Holy Cross include recipients of Emmy, Grammy, Academy, and Tony awards; 5 Rhodes Scholars, 5 Marshall Scholars, 6 Truman Scholars, Goldwater Scholars and Watson Fellows; Pulitzer Prize winners, a Nobel Prize laureate, U.S. Senators, and Olympic athletes. Other notable alumni include Anthony Fauci, Director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, and U.S. Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas. The college is a top producer of Fulbright scholars, having graduated 176 grantees.

History

Foundation
The College of the Holy Cross was founded by Benedict Joseph Fenwick, second Bishop of Boston, as the first Catholic college in New England. Its establishment followed Fenwick's efforts to create a Catholic college in Boston which had been thwarted by the city's Protestant civic leaders. From the beginning of his tenure as bishop, Fenwick intended to establish a Catholic college within the boundaries of his diocese; a new influx of immigrants after 1830, consisting mostly of Catholic Irish Americans, prompted the need for a Jesuit educational institution. He petitioned the Society of Jesus to seek their approval in establishing an institution in Worcester, and the Society sent Father Thomas F. Mulledy to prepare a report regarding Fenwick's proposal. Mulledy's favorable report secured the Society's approval in August 1843.

Relations with Boston's civic leaders worsened such that, when a Jesuit faculty was finally secured in 1843, Fenwick decided to leave the Boston school and instead opened the College of the Holy Cross  west of the city in central Massachusetts, where he felt the Jesuits could operate with greater autonomy.   The Bishop's letters record his enthusiasm for the project as well as for its location:

Next May I shall lay the foundation of a splendid College in Worcester ... It is calculated to contain 100 boys and I shall take them for $125 per an. & supply them with everything but clothes. Will not this be a bold undertaking? Nevertheless I will try it. It will stand on a beautiful eminence & will command the view of the whole town of Worcester.

The site of the college, Mount Saint James, was originally occupied by a Roman Catholic boarding school run by James Fitton, with his lay collaborator Joseph Brigden. On February 2, 1843, Fr. Fitton sold the land to Bishop Fenwick and the Diocese of Boston to be used to found the Roman Catholic college that the bishop had wanted in Boston. Fenwick gave the college the name of his cathedral church, the Cathedral of the Holy Cross.

Beginnings
The school opened in October 1843 with Jesuit Thomas F. Mulledy, former president of Georgetown University, as its first president, and on the second day of November, with six students aged 9 to 19, the first classes were held. Within three years, the enrollment had increased to 100 students. Initially the education was more at the elementary and high school level; later it became a higher level institution.

Since its founding, Holy Cross has produced the fifth most members of the Catholic clergy out of all American Catholic colleges. The first class graduated in 1849, led by the valedictorian James Augustine Healy, the mixed-race son of an Irish planter in Georgia and his common-law wife, a mulatto former slave. Healy is now recognized as the first African-American bishop in the United States, but at the time he identified as white Irish Catholic. His father sent all his sons north for their education at Holy Cross College; two other sons became priests, and three daughters also made careers in the Catholic Church.

Fenwick Hall, the school's main building, was completely destroyed by fire in 1852. Funds were raised to rebuild the college, and in 1853 it opened for the second time.

Petitions to secure a charter for the college from the state legislature were denied in 1847 for a variety of reasons, including anti-Catholicism on the part of some legislators. The increased rate of immigration from Ireland during the famine years roused resistance from some residents of Massachusetts. Initially, Holy Cross diplomas were signed by the president of Georgetown University. After repeated denials, a charter was finally granted on March 24, 1865, by Governor John Albion Andrew.

Modern history

During World War II, College of the Holy Cross was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.

In 1998, Holy Cross initiated an eight-year capital campaign, "Lift High the Cross", with a three-year quiet period. The campaign for Holy Cross ended in fiscal 2006 with $216.3 million raised, surpassing its original goal of $175 million. The funds allowed Holy Cross to establish an additional 12 new faculty positions, along with more than 75 newly endowed scholarships for students. During the campaign, the college's endowment grew to more than $544 million.

On July 1, 2000, Michael C. McFarland became the president of the college. In 2011, Philip L. Boroughs, the Vice President for Mission and Ministry at Georgetown University, was named McFarland's successor. In 2021, he was succeeded by Vincent D. Rougeau, Dean of the Boston College Law School. Rougeau is the first lay and first black president in the history of the college.

In early 2018, the college began publicly exploring the possibility of changing its "Crusader" mascot and associated imagery. The college's leadership ultimately decided to keep the mascot, distinguishing its use of the nickname from the historical associations with the Crusades.

In 2019, the college ended its need-blind admissions policy.

Campus

Holy Cross is located on one of seven hills in the city outskirts of Worcester, Massachusetts. Its  campus is a registered arboretum and is marked by an irregular layout situated on the northern slope of the Mount Saint James hill, where a panoramic view of the city of Worcester is visible. The Princeton Review ranked the campus as #5 most beautiful campus in the nation in 2010 and consistently ranks the campus in the top 15. The design and landscape is ingrained into many themes and nicknames for the school which is collectively known as "The Hill".

The 37 college buildings include residential housing and academic buildings in the middle sections of the campus and athletic and practice facilities on the outskirts on its northern and southern ends. Holy Cross also owns six non-campus properties.

Anchoring the traditional campus gateway of Linden Lane are Stein and O'Kane Halls, the latter of which is marked by a clock tower. The oldest part of campus lies in this area with O'Kane is connected to Fenwick Hall, the first building designed in 1843. It also houses the admissions offices and the Brooks Concert Hall. This area includes on the hillside three bronze statues by Enzo Plazzotta, Georg Klobe, and Welrick. The area around Fenwick and O'Kane Halls is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Notable buildings west of this area are Dinand Library; Smith Hall, the Hogan Campus Center; the Anthony S. Fauci Integrated Science Complex housing O'Neil, Swords, and Haberlin Halls; and Beaven Hall, a former dormitory which is home to an assortment of academic departments. The science complex was renamed for Dr. Anthony Fauci in 2022. Smith Hall, which opened in 2001, was financed in large part by Holy Cross alumnus Park B. Smith, notable for being built into a hillside of the campus. Smith Hall connects lower campus, where much of the academic life occurs, and the upper campus, where much of the social and residential life takes place on campus, due to its design which incorporates Fenwick Hall.  A plaza outside Smith Hall, named Memorial Plaza, commemorates seven Holy Cross alumni who perished in the September 11, 2001 attacks.

To the eastern end of campus lies Millard Art Center, St. Joseph Memorial Chapel, the Chaplains' Office (Campion House), and Loyola Hall, which served as the Jesuit residence in the past, but has since been converted into another hall for student housing. The most recent former Jesuit residence, Ciampi Hall, which has been converted to dormitories along with the new townhouse style senior housing buildings, lie on the southwest side of campus.  The Joanne Chouinard-Luth Recreation and Wellness Center is one of the college's athletic centers, having finished construction in 2020 to replace the former Field House.

The newest Jesuit housing is located on Kendig Street near the Luth Athletic Complex. The Prior Performing Arts Center is located near the Hogan Campus center, slightly north of the crest of Mount Saint James. The $110 million 84,000 square foot facility opened in 2022 to provide a center for the arts on campus. Its construction continued the general trend of expanding upper campus with new construction.In 2015, Holy Cross announced the construction of a $22 million facility in West Boylston, Massachusetts, comprising 52 acres and a complex to provide a retreat for students. It was opened in September 2016 as the Thomas P. Joyce '59 Contemplative Center.

Libraries
The Holy Cross Library System is composed of four libraries centrally located within the campus grounds. Including its affiliation with the Central Massachusetts Regional Library System, a collaborative formed in 2003 by more than 20 academic, public, and special libraries with research collections in the central Massachusetts area, Holy Cross students have access to a combined total of approximately 3.8 million volumes and more than 23,000 journal, magazine, and newspaper subscriptions held among the 20-plus regional institutions.

Dinand Library

Dinand Library serves as the college's main library. It holds an estimated 601,930 books, serials, and periodicals. Originally opened in 1927, it expanded in 1978 with two new wings dedicated to the memory of Joshua and Leah Hiatt and victims of the Nazi Holocaust. The reading room of Dinand is also the scene of college gatherings, among them the Presidential Awards Ceremony, first-year orientation presentations, and concerts.

Constructed in the 1920s, the room's ceiling is sectioned in a grid-like pattern and embellished with gold, painted trim, and carvings along the top of the interior walls. Large wooden candelabra are suspended from the ceiling, and Ionic columns – echoing those on the Library's exterior – anchor three sides of the room. The main reference collection of dictionaries, encyclopedias, and bibliographies are found within Dinand as well as the on-line catalog, and a staffed reference desk.

Fenwick, O'Callahan, Rehm, Visual Resources, and Worcester Art Museum libraries
The five smaller libraries are Fenwick Music Library, O'Callahan Science Library, the Rehm Library, the Visual Resources Library, and the Worcester Art Museum Library.

The Fenwick Music Library was founded in 1978. The Music Library houses collections of scores and recordings of 20th-century composers, world music recordings, and composer biographies. The Music Library owns many of the authoritative editions of significant composers' collected works, such as Bach, Beethoven, and Mozart.

The O'Callahan Science Library, named in honor of Joseph T. O'Callahan, houses over 95,000 volumes of works and periodicals serving the college's biology, chemistry, mathematics, and physics departments and the more neuroscientific side of psychology.

The Rehm Library, dedicated in September 2001, is housed within Smith Hall. It serves as the primary public space for the Center for Religion, Ethics, and Culture and other departments with offices within Smith Hall. Rehm Library houses a non-circulating collection of primary texts from an array of religious traditions. It was named in honor of alumnus Jack Rehm '54 and his family.

College Archives
Dinand Library also houses the College Archives which collects, preserves, and arranges records of permanent value from the college's foundation in 1843 to the present. The archives contain complete runs of all college publications including yearbooks, the college catalog, The Crusader, its predecessor The Tomahawk, the literary magazine The Purple, newsletters, pamphlets, and similar material. An extensive photograph collection documents administrators, staff, faculty, students, alumni, athletic teams, student activities, the built environment, and college life in general.

There is also an extensive collection of audiovisual material documenting theatrical plays, lectures, and sporting and other events. The College Archives also hold a Special Collections section which consists of a Rare Book Collection and the Jesuitana Collection (material by and about Jesuits). Noted collections include the papers of James Michael Curley, David I. Walsh, Louise Imogen Guiney, and Joseph J. Williams. There are also collections of material by and about Jesuits, college alumni, and friends of the college. The papers and medals of the first naval chaplain to receive the Medal of Honor, Joseph T. O'Callahan, are kept in the college archives. The archives also hold research material about Catholic New England, the education of deaf Catholics, the Holocaust, and New England history.

Environmental sustainability

In 2007, citing the college's commitment to Jesuit values, President Michael C. McFarland signed the American College and University Presidents Climate Commitment. The college's plan required the institution to reduce its carbon emissions by 20% before 2015. As an ultimate goal, Holy Cross aims to be carbon neutral by 2040. Holy Cross has taken numerous steps toward environmental sustainability, which has led to the reduction of the institution's carbon emissions by 46.8 percent between 2007 and 2017 according to the latest data.

The college entered a contract with Zipcar to operate four cars to reduce the need for individually owned cars on campus. Weather permitting, public safety officers operate battery powered cars and bicycles. Additionally, Kimball dining hall, the main dining hall of the college, went trayless in 2009.

Academics

Holy Cross is noted for its departments in political science, economics, chemistry, classics, and literature. Programs in sociology, psychology, and mathematics are also popular among students, as are concentrations in philosophy and religious studies which relate to Jesuit focuses.

Holy Cross has 328 faculty members who teach 3,142 undergraduate students. It offers 28 majors mainly focused on a liberal arts curriculum, each of which leads to the completion of the Bachelor of Arts degree; the college is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.

All B.A. candidates must successfully complete 32 semester courses in eight semesters of full-time study to graduate. Common requirements include one course each in arts, literature, religion, philosophy, history, and cross-cultural studies; and two courses each in language studies, social science, and natural and mathematical sciences. Its most popular majors, by 2021 graduates, were: Economics (131), Psychology (102), Political Science & Government (88), English Language and Literature (54), Biology/Biological Sciences (52), History (46).

Social justice and volunteerism

In 2010, Holy Cross obtained the highest rank of the 28 U.S. Jesuit colleges and universities in the percentage of its graduates who go on to serve in the Jesuit Volunteer Corps.

Holy Cross has embraced sometimes controversial schools of theological thought, including liberation theology and social justice. As a result, in 1974, Time magazine referred to Holy Cross as the "cradle of the Catholic Left" because it educated Philip Berrigan and socialist leader Michael Harrington, author of the influential book on poverty, The Other America.

Holy Cross, similar to the religious order of the Jesuits as a whole, has been criticized by some parties for being overly liberal and deviating substantially from official Church teaching and papal directives, especially on such issues as abortion, homosexuality, liberation theology, and in its sponsorship of events such as the Vagina Monologues. Since 2000, the college has hosted a conference allowing seminars from Planned Parenthood and NARAL. In 2007, Bishop Robert McManus wrote the college asking Fr. McFarland to cancel the event, and threatened to remove the Catholic status of the college if the conference was not cancelled.

In 2001, Holy Cross was one of 28 colleges and universities in the country to receive a grant from the Lilly Endowment in the amount of $2 million. With the grant, the school launched a five-year program to "make theological and spiritual resources available to students as they discern their life work, including consideration of vocations of ministerial service within religious denominations". The grant has also been used to fund internships within the city of Worcester and Worcester County for students considering career opportunities in ministry, government, and social service agencies.

Rankings and reputation

U.S. News & World Report ranked Holy Cross tied for 27th in the U.S. among liberal arts colleges for 2023, 41st for best undergraduate education, 89th in "Best Value Schools", and tied for 59th in "Top Performers on Social Mobility". Holy Cross is the highest ranking Catholic college among the top 30 liberal arts schools on the U.S. News list. The college is a top producer of Fulbright scholars, of which it has graduated 176 recipients as of 2023.

Money ranked Holy Cross as the 5th best liberal arts college in the U.S. as of 2022. In 2019, Forbes ranked Holy Cross 77th among all colleges and universities in its "America's Top Colleges" list and 33rd among liberal arts colleges. In 2020, Washington Monthly ranked Holy Cross 18th among liberal arts colleges in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.

Kiplinger's Personal Finance places Holy Cross at 15th in its 2019 ranking of 149 best value liberal arts colleges in the United States. In PayScale 2019–20 study, Holy Cross ranked 17th in the nation among liberal arts colleges for mid-career salary potential.

In the 2023 Times Higher Education ranking of top Catholic colleges and universities published by The Wall Street Journal (WSJ), Holy Cross placed fourth nationally. In the WSJ and College Pulse 2024 rankings, Holy Cross was the seventh best college in Massachusetts and the 60th best college nationally.

Admissions
Admissions to Holy Cross is considered "more selective" by U.S News & World Report. In 2023, the school reported its lowest admissions rate in its history—21 percent—among the largest applicant pool. Holy Cross has traditionally drawn many of its students from a pool of historical Catholic high schools and private boarding schools, though a majority of current undergraduates come from public schools.

In 2022, the middle 50% SAT score range for those who submitted a score was 1260–1430 out of 1600; the middle 50% ACT composite score range was 28–32.  Holy Cross admitted its first women students in 1972, and its student population is currently majority female. Holy Cross was described as one of the Hidden Ivies for its academics and admissions process which are comparable to the Ivy League in the guide The Hidden Ivies, 3rd Edition: 63 of America's Top Liberal Arts Colleges and Universities, published in 2016.

In May 2005, Holy Cross announced that it would no longer make standardized test scores an admissions requirement. College officials said this policy would reduce the importance of admissions tests and place greater weight on the academic experience of a candidate as demonstrated through the high school transcript and recommendations. Tuition for full-time students for the 2022–23 academic year is $57,600.

Student life

Residential life

Upperclassmen students can choose, depending on the results of the housing lottery held in the Spring, between the Easy Street residence halls, minus Hanselman, or the upperclass residence halls in the lower portion of campus: Alumni, Carlin, and Loyola. Additionally, seniors have the options of Williams Hall, formerly known as "The Senior Apartments", Figge Hall and the townhouses.

The apartments in Williams Hall, Figge Hall and the senior townhouses are the most sought after living arrangements on campus. For Williams and Figge Halls, each apartment houses four students and is equipped with a bathroom with separate shower, kitchen, living room, and two bedrooms. Williams Hall was completed in 2003 and rededicated in honor of Edward Bennett Williams on April 26, 2008. In 2011, the college dedicated Figge Hall, located on the upper campus closer to the Easy Street halls.

Second-year to fourth-year students also have the option of living off-campus but only a small percentage do so, as the school has built additional housing in recent years and the number of desirable apartments near campus is limited.

Student groups

A large number of student organizations are associated with the college. With its relative distance from a major city, and without a Greek life at Holy Cross, undergraduate social life revolves around a number of school-sponsored groups, events, and off-campus houses on nearby city streets (notably Boyden, Cambridge, Caro, Chelsea, Clay, College, and Southbridge streets) which are open to upperclassmen.

The college also features a variety of student journals, media, and newspapers including The Fenwick Review, a journal of conservative thought; The Advocate, a journal based in liberal principles; and The Spire, the weekly newspaper published by Holy Cross students for the college community.

Holy Cross has a student-run radio station, WCHC-FM 88.1. WCHC is a non-profit radio station that broadcasts commercial-free year round. The athletics department carries live broadcasts of many of the school's football, basketball, and hockey games. Holy Cross also has a law journal, The Holy Cross Journal of Law & Public Policy, which is published annually by undergraduate students. The Campus Activities Board (CAB), a student-run organization, runs several committees that oversee campus-wide activities and student services with a focus on evening and weekend programming. The Student Government Association (SGA) charters and provides most of the funding for these programs, and represents students' interests when dealing with the administration.

The largest student organization at Holy Cross, Student Programs for Urban Development (SPUD), is a community service organization sponsored by the college Chaplains' Office consisting of over 45 different outreach programs and over 600 active members. Other volunteer and social justice programs offered by Holy Cross include Pax Christi, the Appalachia Service Project, Oxfam America (formerly Student Coalition on Hunger and Homelessness (SCOHAH), and the Arrupe Immersion Program, named in honor of Pedro Arrupe, which Holy Cross describes as "a faith based program responding to the call to work for peace and justice in the world".

The Holy Cross Knights of Columbus council is the third oldest college council in the order having been established in 1929.

Insignia and representations of Holy Cross
Color
The school color is purple. There are two theories of how Holy Cross chose purple as its official color. One suggests it was derived from the royal purple used by Constantine the Great (born about 275 A.D., died in 337 A.D.) as displayed on his labarum (military standard) and on those of later Christian emperors of Rome.

College seal

The seal of the College of the Holy Cross is described as follows:

The outer circle states in Latin "College of the Holy Cross, Society of Jesus, Worcester, Massachusetts".

The inner shield contains an open book (symbol of learning) and a cross of gold (symbol of Christian faith). Written in the book is the college's motto, In Hoc Signo Vinces, which translates as, "By this sign thou shalt conquer". The phrase is credited to Constantine the Great.

The cross divides the lower part of the shield into quarters, which are alternately red and sable, the colors on the ancient shield of Worcester, England. The upper part of the shield has in its center the emblem of the Society of Jesus, a blazing sun with the letters IHS, the first three letters of Jesus' name in Greek. On either side is a martlet, reminiscent of those on the ancestral crest of Bishop Fenwick.

Mascot
Holy Cross's athletic teams for both men and women are known as the Crusaders. It is reported that the name "Crusader" was first associated with Holy Cross in 1884 at an alumni banquet in Boston, where an engraved Crusader mounted on an armored horse appeared at the head of the menu. In 2018, the college decided to phase out of using the Knight imagery, retiring the Holy Cross mascot Iggy T. Crusader. Holy Cross opted instead for the secondary (now primary) logo of a purple shield with an interlocking "HC".

Athletics

Holy Cross sponsors 27 varsity sports, all of which compete at the NCAA Division I level (FCS for football). The Crusaders are members of the Patriot League, the Atlantic Hockey Association for men's ice hockey, and Hockey East Association in women's ice hockey. Of its 27 varsity teams, Holy Cross supports 13 men's and 14 women's sports. The carrying of 26 Division I varsity programs gives Holy Cross the largest ratio of teams-per-enrollment in the country.

The college is a founding member of the Patriot League, and claims that one-quarter of its student body participates in its varsity athletic programs. The league began allowing schools to offer athletic scholarships for all sports except football in 2001, after American University joined the league, and in 2012 league members were authorized to offer football scholarships as well.

Principal athletic facilities include the Fitton Field football stadium (capacity 23,500), Hart Recreation Center's basketball court (3,600), the Hanover Insurance Park at Fitton Field (3,000), Hart Ice Rink (1,600), Linda Johnson Smith Soccer Stadium (1,320), and Smith Wellness Center located inside the Hart Center. The Linda Johnson Smith Soccer Stadium opened in the fall of 2006.

Holy Cross is one of eight schools to have won an NCAA championship in both baseball and basketball, having won the 1952 College World Series and the 1947 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. The college has also won the 1954 National Invitation Tournament and participated in the 1946 Orange Bowl. Since electing to focus more on academics than athletics, the college has had several notable moments on the national stage. In 2006, the Holy Cross men's ice hockey team upset the No. 1 seed Minnesota Golden Gophers in the 2006 NCAA Division I Men's Ice Hockey Tournament. In 2016, the Holy Cross men's basketball team qualified for the NCAA tournament, earning its first tournament win since 1953.

Alumni

Holy Cross had more than 38,000 alumni as of November 2021. There are currently 25 active alumni clubs in the U.S. and 1 international club. A number of Holy Cross alumni have made significant contributions in the fields of government, law, academia, business, arts, journalism, and athletics, among others. As of 2019, the alumni median salary for a recent Holy Cross graduate was $62,800; the mid-career median salary for a Holy Cross graduate was $129,700.

Clarence Thomas, United States Supreme Court Justice; Chris Matthews, host of MSNBC's Hardball with Chris Matthews and NBC's The Chris Matthews Show; and Basketball Hall of Fame members and Boston Celtics immortals Bob Cousy and Tom Heinsohn are among the college's most famous alumni. LSD pioneer Timothy Leary was a student at Holy Cross, though he withdrew after two years. Michael Harrington, author of The Other America and an influential figure in initiating the 1960s War on Poverty, was a graduate of the college, as was the famed pacifist leader Phillip Berrigan. Wendell Arthur Garrity, United States federal judge famous for issuing the 1974 order that Boston schools be desegregated by means of busing, is also an alumnus. Washington, D.C. super lawyer Edward Bennett Williams was a graduate. In addition to his legal career, Williams owned the Washington Redskins and Baltimore Orioles.

Bob Casey, Sr., Pennsylvania governor, Bob Casey, Jr., his son, Pennsylvania treasurer and U.S. Senator, and Edward D. DiPrete, Governor of Rhode Island are among the most notable alumni with involvement in politics. Jon Favreau, Director of Speechwriting for President Barack Obama and co-creator of Pod Save America. Mark Kennedy Shriver, member of the Kennedy political family and Vice President and managing director of U.S. Programs for the charity Save the Children, graduated from Holy Cross in 1986.
In 2003, an honorary degree and public platform was given to pro-choice Holy Cross alumnus Chris Matthews despite pro-life alumni objections. College President Fr. Michael McFarland defended the invitation and degree, despite clear direction from the United States Conference of Catholic Bishop policies and Catholic Church policies never to give a public platform to those at odds with central holdings of the Church, such as the teachings on abortion. McFarland along with the majority of the current Holy Cross community continue to defend this, stating that while Matthews is pro-choice, that is not his defining characteristic and he did not talk purely about abortion in his speech.

Several alumni have held top positions in the world of business and finance: Bob Wright, Chairman & CEO, NBC Universal, and Vice Chairman, General Electric; James David Power III, J.D. Power and Associates founder; William J. McDonough, President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and Vice Chairman of Merrill Lynch.

In media and the arts, Holy Cross has several distinguished alumni: Ann Dowd, Emmy-winning actress best known for her roles in The Handmaid's Tale and The Leftovers; Neil Hopkins, actor best known for his roles in Lost and Nip/Tuck; Bill Simmons, ESPN.com sports columnist and head of The Ringer, Channel 33, and the Bill Simmons Podcast Network; Dan Shaughnessy, sports columnist for The Boston Globe; Bartlett Sher, Tony Award-winning Broadway director; Joe McGinniss, bestselling author of The Selling of the President, Fatal Vision, and other books; Edward P. Jones, 2004 Pulitzer Prize winner in fiction for writing The Known World; Billy Collins, 2001–03 Poet Laureate of the United States; Dave Anderson, The New York Times sports columnist, 1981 winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Commentary; Jack Higgins, editorial cartoonist for the Chicago Sun-Times, 1989 winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning; and Kevin O'Connor, the host of TV's This Old House. In art and architecture, Vito Acconci.

In the sciences, Holy Cross also has several notable alumni, including Joseph Murray, winner of the 1990 Nobel Prize in Medicine; immunologist Anthony Fauci, head of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) and chief medical advisor to the president; and MacArthur Foundation "genius" bioengineer Jim Collins.

See also
 List of Jesuit sites
 List of presidents of the College of the Holy Cross
 National Register of Historic Places listings in eastern Worcester, Massachusetts

Footnotes

References

Additional sources

External links
Holy Cross Athletics website

Educational institutions established in 1843
Jesuit universities and colleges in the United States
Catholic universities and colleges in Massachusetts
Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities
Catholic Church in Massachusetts
Universities and colleges in Boston
University and college buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Worcester, Massachusetts
College of the Holy Cross
Universities and colleges in Worcester, Massachusetts
Patriot League
1843 establishments in Massachusetts

College of the Holy Cross


The cherry barb (Puntius titteya) is a tropical freshwater fish belonging to the family Cyprinidae.  It is endemic to Sri Lanka, and introduced populations have become established in Mexico and Colombia. The cherry barb was named Puntius titteya by Paules Edward Pieris Deraniyagala in 1929. Synonyms include Barbus titteya and Capoeta titteya.

The species is commercially important in the aquarium trade and farmed in larger numbers, but it remains threatened by overcollection and habitat loss.

Description
The cherry barb is a small elongated fish with a relatively compressed body. It reaches  in length. The female is fawn-colored on top with a slight greenish sheen. Its sides and belly have gleaming silver highlights. It may have a rosy tone on its back and upper sides. A horizontal stripe extends from the tip of the snout through the eye to the base of the caudal fin. The male has a reddish color, becoming very deep red when breeding, and a more slender body shape. The females have two pinkish color stripes down their sides, also becoming darker when ready to breed.

Habitat
The cherry barb's natural habitat is a heavily shaded, shallow, and calm water body. Its native substrate is silty with leaf cover. It comes from a tropical climate and prefers water with a pH of 6 to 8, a water hardness (dH) of 5 to 19, and a temperature range of 73 °F to 81 °F (23 °C to 27 °C).

In the aquarium
The fish is most often kept in community tanks by aquarium hobbyists. The cherry barb is a schooling fish and is best kept in groups of five or more individuals, though the schools are often less discrete than those of other barbs. Within these schools there will most likely be hierarchy. There should be a ratio of at least two females to one male. The male will constantly harass the females to breed, and if there are multiple females, each can escape the attentions of the male for a time. The average life span is four years, with a maximum around seven years. The tank should have abundant plant material (about two-thirds to three-quarters of the tank), but the fish also needs open space to swim. It tends to hide and will often withdraw under the cover of plants. The younger male is generally peaceful, but a mature male can be aggressive when breeding. Appropriate tankmates include Rasbora and similar calm fish.

Breeding
When breeding, the male swims just behind the female, chasing away rival males. The female will spawn 200 to 300 eggs and scatter them on plants and on the substrate. It may eat its own eggs and small fry. The eggs hatch in one to two days and the fry are free-swimming after two more days. After five weeks, the hatchlings will be about 1 cm. long and easily identifiable as cherry barbs.

References

Puntius
Barbs (fish)
Freshwater fish of Sri Lanka
Fish described in 1929

Cherry barb


Jorge Rossi Chavarría  (January 25, 1922 – January 3, 2006) was a Costa Rican politician. He was a lawyer, businessman. He co-founded the National Liberation Party (PLN) with Jose Figueres. He was Vice President of Costa Rica from 1970 to 1974 and representative from 1986 to 1990.

Rossi was the son of José Monge and Chavarría Amalia Flores. At age 15, was national champion chess second category (1937). He earned a degree in law at the University of Costa Rica and joined the Bar Association on June 12, 1945.  He served as president of the Graduate Student Council. During the Revolution of 1948, and his brothers Alvaro Hernán joined the revolutionary army known Caribbean Legion.

He was a professor at the Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences at the University of Costa Rica.  During the years 1947 and 1948, he served as legal advisor to the Costa Rican Confederation of Workers of Rerum novarum. He co-founded the National Liberation Party (PLN) in 1951.

He served as Minister of Economy and Finance during the second term of Figueres Ferrer (1953 to 1956). He was the president of the Central Bank of Costa Rica from November 1970 to May 1971.

As an entrepreneur, founded the company customs Corman, one of the most important of the country and was one of the main drivers of banana production.

In 2002, he published " La traición de los leales " - under the auspices of the UNED - an autobiography where he recounted his life throughout the twentieth century.

In his private life was supernumerary of the Personal prelature of Opus Dei. He was involved in social work, promoting projects to provide land and housing for farmers and workers.  The exact scope of its social work is unknown, since he always tried to remain anonymous. As the newspaper Nacion stated the day after his death, he will be remembered as "the patriot" in business and government circles and among his friends, "because of his great contribution to the nation's development."

He had three children from his first marriage to Virginia Umaña Volio.

Jorge Rossi Chavarria died of a heart attack at the age of 84.

References

External links
 Ospina de Fonseca, Helena, "Jorge Rossi Chavarría".
 Rojas, José Enrique, Jorge Rossi Chavarría: Falleció "un patriota".
 Jorge Rossi Chavarría: Falleció "un patriota"
 Muere Jorge Rossi Chavarría
 http://www.elespiritudel48.org/bio/bio32.htm
 https://web.archive.org/web/20081223121250/http://www.gilchaverri.info/tiempos.html
 ¡Viva Rossi!
 Manifiesto a Los Solialdemócratas Costarricenses
 Tribuna democrática

Vice presidents of Costa Rica
1922 births
2006 deaths
Opus Dei members
National Liberation Party (Costa Rica) politicians
Finance ministers of Costa Rica
Members of the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica
University of Costa Rica alumni
Academic staff of the University of Costa Rica
Costa Rican bankers

Jorge Rossi Chavarría


Francesc Pi i Margall (Spanish: Francisco Pi y Margall) (29 April 1824 – 29 November 1901) was a Spanish federalist and republican politician and theorist who served as president of the short-lived First Spanish Republic in 1873. He was also a historian, philosopher, romanticist writer, and was also the leader of the Federal Democratic Republican Party and the Democratic Party. Pi was turned into a sort of secular saint in his time.

A disciple of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, his theoretical contributions left a lasting effect on the development of the anarchist movement in Spain.

Early life
Pi was the son of a working-class textile worker in Barcelona, Catalonia, and was born on 29 April 1824. Pi's father enrolled him in a religious school in 1831 where Pi acquired an education in the humanities and the classics. He was a member of the Societat Filomàtica, enabling him to meet some of the main thinkers and writers of the Catalan romanticist movement. In 1837, he left to study law, earning a licentiate degree in 1847. He moved to Madrid that year and began writing as a theater critic for the journal El Renacimiento and for El Correo,  in which Pi's first political article was published. In need of further income, Pi also took a job for Martí, a Catalan bank.

Political life under the monarchy

Pi was involved in the revolution of 1854 that brought the liberal espadón Baldomero Espartero back to power. He published La reacción y la revolución in that year, influenced by G.W.F. Hegel's philosophy of history and the thinking of the French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. In 1856 he established a new journal, La Razón, that was closed when the government of Leopoldo O'Donnell was overthrown by Ramón María Narváez. Pi fled to Guipúzcoa in the Basque country until 1857, when Nicolás María Rivero asked him to return to Madrid to contribute to the Republican newspaper La Discusión. At La Discusión, Pi became acquainted with a number of leaders of the Spanish republican movement, including another future president of the First Republic, Estanislao Figueras. In 1864 he became the director of the newspaper.

After the sergeants' revolt at San Gil in 1866, Pi fled to Paris, where he gave lectures and translated several of Proudhon's works and became familiar with French positivism. He developed ideas about revolutions and the philosophy of history, including a belief in an inevitable, progressive, and permanent movement in history toward greater freedom, embodied in federal constitutions. Throughout his life he would promote republicanism and social objectives through the federal idea.

Pi returned from Paris after the success of the 1868 Glorious Revolution. He was elected deputy on behalf of Barcelona and was part of the Constituent Cortes that wrote the 1869 Constitution. During this time Pi became respected as a leader of the Republican party in the Cortes; he is officially named the head of the party in March 1870. He was replaced shortly thereafter by internal strife over the party's policy toward the Paris Commune, conciliatory policy toward opposition groups, and electoral setbacks. He continued to adamantly promote the establishment of a federal republic in place of a monarchy. He opposed the monarchy of Amadeo I during its short rule.

Presidency and later political life

When the First Spanish Republic was established in 1873 after the abdication of Amadeo I, the first president, Estanislao Figueras, appointed Pi as Minister of the Interior. During his ministerial tenure, Pi was responsible for the struggle against the cantonalist movement in the provinces. On Figueras's resignation on 11 June, Pi was named president. Pi presented to the Cortes an ambitious plan of reform, including a law formalizing a stricter separation of church and state, the reorganization of the army, reduction of the working day to eight hours, regulation of child labor, enhancements to the relationship between business and labor, new laws regarding the autonomy of the regions of Spain, and a program of universal education. His acquaintance with Proudhon enabled Pi to warm relations between the Republicans and the socialists in Spain. However, Pi was unable to rein in the instability of the Republic; on 1 July, the more radical elements of the Republican party and federalists broke off and declared the government illegitimate, and new insurrections appeared in Alcoy and Cartagena only a week later. Under pressure from the Cortes and many leading Republicans who accused him of dangerous weakness, Pi resigned the presidency on 18 July, only a little more than a month after he assumed the office.

After the end of the Republic in 1874, Pi left political life for a decade. During this time, he returned his attentions to his writings; only a few months after the end of the Republic, he wrote a treatise on its events, La República de 1873. He followed this with Las Nacionalidades and Joyas Literarias in 1876. The first volume of his Historia General de América was published in 1878, La Federación in 1880, and Las luchas de nuestros días and Observaciones sobre el carácter de don Juan Tenorio in 1884. In 1886, he returned to politics and was elected deputy for Figueres, in Catalonia, and again in 1891 and 1893. He was involved in the fragmentation of the Spanish Republican movement in this period together with Estanislao Figueras, Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla, Emilio Castelar y Ripoll, and Valentí Almirall. Pi was involved in the 1883 Republican Congress of Zaragoza that proposed a federal republican constitution for Spain; in 1894, he was instrumental in reforming the republican movement with a new manifesto for the Federal Party. In 1890, Pi founded the newspaper El Nuevo Régimen, which campaigned for Cuban independence. Pi's promotion of federalism and regional autonomy earned him popularity among Catalan anarchists.

Pi died on 29 November 1901 around 18:15 at his home in the calle del Conde de Aranda, in Madrid.

Political thought, practice and later influence

Pi i Margall became the principal translator of Proudhon's works into Spanish and later briefly became president of Spain in 1873 while being the leader of the Democratic Republican Federal Party. According to George Woodcock, "These translations were to have a profound and lasting effect on the development of Spanish anarchism after 1870, but before that time Proudhonian ideas, as interpreted by Pi, already provided much of the inspiration for the federalist movement which sprang up in the early 1860s." According to the Encyclopædia Britannica "During the Spanish revolution of 1873, Pi i Margall attempted to establish a decentralized, or "cantonalist", political system on Proudhonian lines."

Pi considered federalism to be a "unity in variety, the law of nature, the law of the world", an organization based on the bottom-up contract by "natural and spontaneous collective beings" (La reacción y la revolución, 1854).

Pi i Margall was a dedicated theorist in his own right, especially through book-length works such as La reacción y la revolución (English: "Reaction and revolution" from 1855), Las nacionalidades (English: "Nationalities" from 1877), and La Federación from 1880. For prominent anarcho-syndicalist Rudolf Rocker "The first movement of the Spanish workers was strongly influenced by the ideas of Pi i Margall, leader of the Spanish Federalists and disciple of Proudhon. Pi i Margall was one of the outstanding theorists of his time and had a powerful influence on the development of libertarian ideas in Spain. His political ideas had much in common with those of Richard Price, Joseph Priestly (sic), Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, and other representatives of the Anglo-American liberalism of the first period. He wanted to limit the power of the state to a minimum and gradually replace it by a Socialist economic order."

He was also a supporter of a decentralized version of Iberian Federalism, framing the realization of such prospect in terms of "Iberian nations". He was wary of centralism (which was alien to the internal organization of the inhabitants of the Iberian peninsula and imposed on them, according to Pi), which he deemed to be, along with monarchy, one of the root reasons behind the state of decadence of the Peninsular peoples.

He showed a special and naive affection for the United States.

Bibliography

Works by Pi i Margall
 La España Pintoresca, 1841.
 Historia de la Pintura, 1851.
 Estudios de la Edad Media, 1851. Published first on 1873.
 El eco de la revolución, 1854.
 La reacción y la revolución, 1855.
 Declaración de los treinta, 1864.
 La República de 1873, 1874.
 Joyas literarias, 1876.
 Las nacionalidades, 1877.
 Historia General de América, 1878.
 La Federación, 1880.
 Constitución federal, 1883.
 Observaciones sobre el carácter de Don Juan Tenorio, 1884.
 Las luchas de nuestros días, 1884.
 Primeros diálogos, not dated.
 Amadeo de Saboya, not dated.
 Programa del Partido Federal, 1894.

Works on Pi i Margall
 Conangla, J. Cuba y Pi y Margall. La Habana, 1947.
 Ferrando Badía, Juan. Historia político-parlamentaria de la República de 1873. Madrid: Cuadernos para el Diálogo, 1973.
 Grande Esteban, M. Unitarismo y federalismo (prefacio). Madrid: Emiliano Escolar Editor, 1981.
 Hennessy, C. A. M. La República Federal en España. Pi y Margall y el movimiento republicano federal, 1868–1874. Madrid: Aguilar, 1966.
 Jutglar, Antoni. Federalismo y Revolución. Las ideas sociales de Pi y Margall. Barcelona, 1966.
 Jutglar, Antoni. La República de 1873, de Pi y Margall. Barcelona, 1970.
 Jutglar, Antoni. Pi y Margall y el Federalismo español. 2 vols. Madrid: Taurus, 1974.
 Martí, Casimir. L'orientació de Pi i Margall cap al socialisme i la democràcia. Artículo en Recerques nº38. Barcelona, 1974.
 Molas, I. Ideari de Francesc Pi i Margall. Barcelona, 1965.
 Pi y Arsuaga, F. Pi y Margall. Lecciones de federalismo. Barcelona, 1931.
 Rovira i Virgili, A. Pròleg i notes a La qüestió de Catalunya davant el Federalisme. Escrits i discursos. (con especial dedicación a F. Pi i Margall). Barcelona, 1913.

References
Citations

Bibliography

External links
 Biography
 Another biography
Columbia encyclopedia entry

|-

|-

1824 births
1901 deaths
19th-century Spanish male writers
Government ministers during the First Spanish Republic
Left-libertarians
Libertarian socialists
Libertarian theorists
Madrid city councillors
Mutualists
Philosophy writers
Political philosophers
Politicians from Barcelona
Politicians from Catalonia
Presidents of the Executive Power of the First Spanish Republic
Prime Ministers of Spain
Spanish Esperantists
19th-century Spanish historians
Spanish libertarians
Spanish male non-fiction writers
Spanish political writers
Spanish republicans
Spanish anarchists

Francesc Pi i Margall


Speaker Township is a civil township of Sanilac County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 1,483 at the 2010 census.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of , all land.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,408 people, 501 households, and 390 families residing in the township.  The population density was .  There were 546 housing units at an average density of 15.8 per square mile (6.1/km).  The racial makeup of the township was 97.02% White, 0.21% African American, 0.64% Native American, 0.14% Asian, 0.57% from other races, and 1.42% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.14% of the population.

There were 501 households, out of which 36.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.5% were married couples living together, 5.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.0% were non-families. 18.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.81 and the average family size was 3.22.

In the township the population was spread out, with 29.2% under the age of 18, 6.8% from 18 to 24, 30.6% from 25 to 44, 21.4% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 109.5 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 106.8 males.

The median income for a household in the township was $41,250, and the median income for a family was $50,625. Males had a median income of $34,792 versus $21,875 for females. The per capita income for the township was $17,583.  About 4.9% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.4% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over.

References

Townships in Sanilac County, Michigan
Townships in Michigan

Speaker Township, Michigan


Westland Helicopters was a British aircraft manufacturer. Originally Westland Aircraft, the company focused on helicopters after the Second World War.  It was amalgamated with several other British firms in 1960 and 1961.

In 2000, it merged with Italian helicopter manufacturer Agusta to form AgustaWestland. In 2016, AgustaWestland merged into Leonardo, where it became the company's helicopters division under the Leonardo Helicopters brand.

History

Origins

Westland Aircraft was founded in 1935 when Petters Limited split its aircraft manufacturing from its aircraft engine concerns. During the Second World War the company produced military aircraft including the Lysander, the Whirlwind and the Welkin.

After the war, the company began to build helicopters under a licensing agreement with Sikorsky.  From the mid-1950s the company came to increasingly concentrate on helicopters, eventually to the exclusion of other types.  Production started with the Sikorsky S-51, which became the Westland Dragonfly, flying for the first time in 1948 and entering service with the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force in 1953.  Westland developed an improved version, the Widgeon, which was not a great success. Success with the Dragonfly was repeated with the Sikorsky S-55 which became the Whirlwind, and a re-engined Sikorsky S-58 in both turboshaft and turbine engine powered designs as the Wessex.

1960s
The chairmanship of Eric Mensforth from 1953 to 1968 marked the start of the transition, which was aided by the government when in 1959–1961 they forced the merger of the 20 or so aviation firms into three groups. British Aircraft Corporation and Hawker Siddeley Group took over fixed-wing designs, while the helicopter divisions of Bristol, Fairey and Saunders-Roe (with their hovercraft) were merged with Westland to form Westland Helicopters in 1961.

Westland inherited the Saro Skeeter helicopter, a development of the Cierva W.14 Skeeter and the Fairey Rotodyne compound gyroplane design.  They continued to develop the latter, terminating their own Westland Westminster large transport design.

The company continued to produce other aircraft under licence from Sikorsky (Sea King) and Bell (Sioux). They also produced their own designs: the Westland Scout and its naval variant the Westland Wasp from the P.531, which found favour with the Army Air Corps and Fleet Air Arm respectively.

In the late 1960s, the company began a collaboration with Aérospatiale to manufacture three new helicopters, the Aérospatiale Puma, Aérospatiale Gazelle and Westland Lynx, with the last being a Westland design.

1970s
Through Saunders-Roe, Westland became first a part owner then, from 1970, the sole owner of the British Hovercraft Corporation, subsequently trading as Westland Aerospace. Most designs were Saunders-Roe or Saunders-Roe derivatives.

For many years Westland owned the main London heliport at Battersea.

1980s
The company gradually fell into unprofitability. Sikorsky approached with a bail-out deal in 1985 that split the cabinet and led to the resignation of Defence Secretary Michael Heseltine in January 1986 over the fate of Britain's sole helicopter manufacturer. The split, which became known as the Westland affair, was over whether to push the company into a European deal or accept the US company's offer. Eventually, the link with Sikorsky was accepted. This saw both Sikorsky and Fiat acquire minority shareholdings in Westland. In 1988 GKN bought a 22% share of Westland from Hanson plc and Fiat.

In 1984, Westland proposed the WG 44 light attack helicopter based on the Lynx dynamics, incorporating low observable technologies derived from its SUPERVISOR and PHOENIX UAS projects experience in 1977–1983.
In 1987, in parallel with the Agusta A129 supported by Westland, Fokker, MBB and CASA, its WG 47 development was completed as a confidential private venture with a faceted fuselage, internal weapons and twin canted tail rotors.
A side-exiting infrared suppressor integrated the exhausts and its tandem cockpit with the pilot in front had transparencies angled outward to eliminate optical glint.
This presaged the US Army Boeing–Sikorsky RAH-66 Comanche, rolled out in 1995 and cancelled in 2004, while the fuselage shaping was retained for the NH90.

1990s
In the 1990s, the company returned to profitability and grew as a result of several major contracts from the UK Ministry of Defence for EH101 Merlin helicopters and for 67 licence-built Boeing AH-64 Apache attack helicopters, designated the WAH-64 and entering full operational service in 2005.

In April 1994, Westland became a wholly owned subsidiary of GKN. In 2000 GKN and Finmeccanica agreed to merge their Westland and Agusta helicopter subsidiaries into a joint venture, Agusta Westland.  GKN contributed Westland, its 50% share in its EH Industries (EHI) joint venture with Finmeccanica, the GKN aerospace transmissions business, and a 50% share in Aviation Training International. Finmeccanica contributed Agusta, including its transmissions and structures business, its share of EHI, its share of NH Industries, and its share of Bell Helicopter Textron.

On 26 May 2004, GKN confirmed that it had agreed to sell its share of AgustaWestland to Finmeccanica for £1.06 billion. The sale was approved by the British government in October 2004.

The former Westland site at the now unused airfield in Weston-super-Mare houses The Helicopter Museum featuring a number of examples of Westland aircraft.

Products

Helicopters

 WS-51 - Westland Dragonfly
 WS-55 - Westland Whirlwind
 Westland Widgeon
 WG-58 - Westland Wessex
 Westland Westminster (1958) – prototype stage only
 Westland Scout
 Westland Wasp
 Westland Sioux
 WS-61 - Westland Sea King
 Westland Puma
 Westland Gazelle
 WG.13 - Westland Lynx
 WG.30 - Westland 30
 EHI EH101
 Westland WAH-64 Apache
 Bristol Belvedere
 Fairey Rotodyne

Hovercraft
 GKN Westland AP1-88

Rockets and missiles
 Black Arrow

Precision gears
Airship Industries Skyship 500 - transmission system

Unmanned aerial vehicles
 Westland Mote
 Westland Wisp
 Westland Wideye

See also
Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom

References

 James, Derek N. Westland: A History. Gloucestershire UK: Tempus Publishing Ltd, 2002. .
 Mondey, David. Westland (Planemakers 2). London: Jane's Publishing Company, 1982. .
 James, Derek N. 'Westland Aircraft since 1915'. London: Putnam, 1991.

External links
 (Leonardo web site)
 The hovercraft of the Westlands Aircraft Group (including Saunders-Roe and British Hovercraft Corporation)
 Westland at Helis.com : timeline and database section

.
Defunct helicopter manufacturers
Helicopter manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Companies based in Yeovil
British companies established in 1961
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1961
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 2000
1961 establishments in England
2000 disestablishments in England

Westland Helicopters


The Clock King (Template Fugate) is a fictional Batman character who uses magical watches to turn back time or to go to the future. He can also freeze time. The Clock King uses anything related to time to help him do his crimes.

He was voiced by Alan Rachins in Batman: The Animated Series.

Batman characters
DC Comics characters

Clock King


A binaural beat is an auditory illusion. It is perceived when two different pure-tone sine waves are presented to a listener, one tone to each ear.

For example, if a 530 Hz pure tone is presented to a subject's right ear, while a 520 Hz pure tone is presented to the subject's left ear, the listener will perceive the illusion of a third tone. The third sound is called a binaural beat, and in this example would have a perceived pitch correlating to a frequency of 10 Hz, that being the difference between the 530 Hz and 520 Hz pure tones presented to each ear.

They may help people with pain when they are in hospital.  Some people use binaural beats to help them sleep, meditate or have out of body experiences.  There are computer programs and smartphone programs that make binaural beats.

Many of the claims are not verified at present.

History
Heinrich Wilhelm Dove (18031879) discovered binaural beats in 1839 and published his findings in the scientific journal Repertorium der Physik. While research about them continued after that, the subject remained something of a scientific curiosity until 134 years later, with the publishing of Gerald Oster's article "Auditory beats in the brain" (Scientific American, 1973). Oster's article identified and assembled the scattered pieces of relevant research since Dove, offering fresh insight (and new laboratory findings) to research on binaural beats.

Oster saw binaural beats as a powerful tool for cognitive and neurological research. Unsolved questions include how animals locate sounds in their  environment: the remarkable ability of animals to pick out and focus on specific sounds in a sea of noise (known as the cocktail party effect).

References

Hearing

Binaural beats


Arthur Joseph Gaskin RBSA (16 March 1862 – 4 June 1928) was an English illustrator, painter, teacher and designer of jewellery and enamelwork.

Gaskin and his wife Georgie Gaskin were members of the Birmingham Group of Artist-Craftsmen, which sought to apply the principles of the Arts and Crafts movement across the decorative arts. Like many of the group, Gaskin studied at the Birmingham School of Art under Edward R. Taylor and later taught there.

Life
Gaskin was born in the Lee Bank area of Birmingham in 1862, the son of a decorator. He was brought up in Wolverhampton where he attended Wolverhampton Grammar School before returning to Birmingham in 1879.

In 1883 Gaskin entered the Birmingham School of Art, being appointed to the teaching staff two years later despite not completing his course. It was here that he met Georgie Gaskin in 1888, one of his students, whom he married in 1894. Gaskin worked as a decorative artist from 1890, producing woodcut illustrations for William Morris's Kelmscott Press, and painted in tempera after receiving instruction from his friend Joseph Southall at Southall's studio in Edgbaston.

The Gaskins started producing jewellery from 1899 under the name "Mr & Mrs Arthur Gaskin", and in 1903 Arthur was appointed headmaster of the Vittoria Street School for Jewellers and Silversmiths, where he was to remain until 1924, when the couple retired to Chipping Campden in Gloucestershire, near the Guild and School of Handicraft established in that town as a community of artists and craftspeople by the arts and crafts architect Charles Robert Ashbee.

As a Member of the Royal Birmingham Society of Artists (RBSA), Gaskin was instrumental in organising the exhibition "The New Movement in Art" at the Society in 1917. This was a revised version of Roger Fry's Post-Impressionist exhibition held in 1910.

References

External links

1862 births
1928 deaths
19th-century illustrators of fairy tales
Arts and Crafts movement artists
Members and Associates of the Royal Birmingham Society of Artists
English artists
People from Birmingham, West Midlands
People from Wolverhampton
British jewellery designers
Alumni of the Birmingham School of Art
Academics of the Birmingham School of Art

Arthur Gaskin


James Fitz Randolph (June 26, 1791 – January 25, 1872) was a United States representative from New Jersey. He was also the father of Theodore Fitz Randolph.  Born in Middlesex County, New Jersey, he received a limited schooling.

Randolph learned the printing trade and edited the New Brunswick Fredonian 1812–1842. He served as the United States collector of internal revenue 1815-1846 and clerk of the Court of Common Pleas. He was a member of the New Jersey General Assembly in 1823 and 1824.

Randolph was elected as an Adams candidate to the Twentieth Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the death of George Holcombe. He was reelected as an Anti-Jacksonian to the Twenty-first and Twenty-second Congresses and served in office from December 1, 1828, to March 3, 1833. After Congress, he served as president of a bank in New Brunswick, New Jersey. He died in Easton, Pennsylvania in 1872 and was buried in Easton Cemetery.

External links

James Fitz Randolph at The Political Graveyard

1791 births
1872 deaths
Members of the New Jersey General Assembly
Politicians from New Brunswick, New Jersey
National Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from New Jersey

James F. Randolph


Floyd Thomas Christian, Sr. (December 18, 1914 – May 11, 1998) was Florida Commissioner of Education from 1965 to 1973.

Early life

Christian was born in Bessemer, Alabama. He moved to Pinellas County with his family in 1927.

Education

Christian graduated from St. Petersburg High School in 1933. He received his Bachelor of Arts from the University of Florida in 1937. He received his master's degree in education from the University of Florida in 1950.

Career

He was a teacher and coach at Clearwater High School and coach at Fort Myers High School from 1938 to 1941.

In World War II he served as battalion commander of the 697th Field Artillery and discharged as a colonel in 1946. He received the Legion of Merit, the French Croix de Guerre, a Bronze Star Medal, a Silver Star, and the Italian Medal of Valor.

After the war, Christian was an administrator at the Florida Department of Veterans Affairs in St. Petersburg from 1946 to 1948. Christian was Superintendent of Public Instruction for Pinellas County from 1948 to 1965. Around this time Christian served as president of the Florida Association of County Superintendents (1954), president of the Florida Education Association (1955), and as the first chair of the Florida Educational Television Commission (1955).  Christian was also served on the Florida Board of Regents, and was one of its first appointees when the board was organized in 1965.

Christian was appointed state Superintendent of Public Instruction, by Governor W. Haydon Burns in 1965 and served until 1973. (The Superintendent of Public Instruction post was created by the 1868 Florida Constitution; under the 1885 Constitution, it became an elected position. The Superintendent headed the Department of Public Instruction (1869–1938) and its successor agency, the Florida Department of Education (1939–1968). Under the current Florida Constitution, adopted in 1968 during Christian's term, the title of the post was changed to Commissioner of Education and the post became one of the elected positions in the Florida Cabinet.)

Christian won election as Florida Commissioner of Education in 1970. The Florida statewide teachers' strike of 1968 and the desegregation of Florida schools occurred during Christian's tenure. While he "typified white officialdom's early resistance to desegregation" as Pinellas superintendent, Christian shifted positions and became a "staunch defender of desegregation" as  state Commissioner of Education.

His career ended in 1975 after he was investigated on corruption and several months in federal prison for income tax evasion.

Later life

Christian lived in Sarasota for about 20 years until he moved to a St. Petersburg retirement community in 1997. He suffered from congestive heart disease died at Westminster Shores Health Care Center in 1998 at the age of 83.

References

External links
A Guide to the Floyd T. Christian Speeches from the George A. Smathers Libraries of the University of Florida

1914 births
1998 deaths
University of Florida alumni
Florida Commissioners of Education
People from Bessemer, Alabama
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
20th-century American politicians

Floyd T. Christian