The Dupont Circle Fountain, formally known as the Rear Admiral Samuel Francis Dupont Memorial Fountain, is a fountain located in the center of Dupont Circle in Washington, D.C.  It honors Rear Admiral Samuel Francis Du Pont, a prominent American naval officer and member of the Du Pont family.  The fountain replaced a statue of Du Pont that was installed in 1884.  Designed by Henry Bacon and sculpted by Daniel Chester French, the fountain was dedicated in 1921.  Prominent guests at the dedication ceremony included First Lady Florence Harding, Secretary of War John W. Weeks and Secretary of the Navy Edwin Denby.

The fountain is one of eighteen Civil War monuments collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.  The marble fountain, which is adorned with three allegorical sculptures, rests on a concrete base and is surrounded by an open plaza.  The fountain and surrounding park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service, a federal agency of the Interior Department.

History

Background
In 1871, the United States Army Corps of Engineers began constructing Dupont Circle, which at the time was called Pacific Circle since it was the western boundary of the city's residential areas.  On February 25, 1882, Congress renamed the circle and authorized a memorial to Samuel Francis Du Pont (1803–1865) to honor his services during the Mexican–American War and Civil War.  He played a large role in the modernization of the Navy, and during the Civil War he was responsible for making the Union blockade effective against the Confederacy, though his failed attempt to attack Charleston in 1863 tarnished his career record.  The bronze statue was sculpted by Launt Thompson and dedicated on December 20, 1884, at a cost of $20,500.  Attendees at the ceremony included President Chester A. Arthur, Senator Thomas F. Bayard, Admiral David Dixon Porter and General Philip Sheridan.  The circle was landscaped with exotic plants and hundreds of trees.

In the early 20th century, members of the prominent Du Pont family wanted a memorial of greater artistic value and lobbied for a replacement.  The family had always disliked the statue and by 1909, the base of the statue had begun to sink and tilt, resulting in jokes being made that Du Pont and sailors were alcoholics.  Senator Willard Saulsbury, Jr.'s wife, who was a niece of Du Pont, led efforts to replace the statue.  The family asked that no government funds be used for the new memorial and that the Commission of Fine Arts (CFA) approve the design.  On February 26, 1917, Congress approved the replacement of the statue and insisted on construction beginning within three years.

The Du Pont family chose architect Henry Bacon and sculptor Daniel Chester French to design a fountain that reflected the Beaux-Arts and neoclassical styles that were popular in the neighborhood at the time, such as the Patterson Mansion, located on the northeast edge of the circle.  Bacon is best known for designing the Lincoln Memorial while French's best known work is the statue of Abraham Lincoln inside the memorial.  French's other works in Washington, D.C. include the Butt-Millet Memorial Fountain, the First Division Monument and the Thomas Gallaudet Memorial.  The total cost of the commission was $77,521.  The CFA approved the design in 1917 and work began on the fountain shortly thereafter.

Congress wanted recognition for its earlier attempt to honor Du Pont, so the inscription on the fountain had to include the fact that a statue erected by Congress was replaced.  An early model included plans for a fountain emitting water at the top, but this wasn't incorporated into the final design.  The fountain was carved by the Piccirilli Brothers, who also carved French's statue of Abraham Lincoln at the Lincoln Memorial.  The contractor was the George A. Fuller Company, whose other projects include the Flatiron Building and the Plaza Hotel in New York City.  In 1920, the statue was moved to Rockford Park in Wilmington, Delaware, the hometown of the Du Pont family.  Later that year, the fountain was installed using pipes that were placed in 1877 for a potential fountain that had never been built.  After the installation, mature trees and thick vegetation were planted in the surrounding park.

Dedication

The fountain was formally dedicated the afternoon of May 17, 1921.  The ceremony, which was supervised by Lieutenant Colonel Clarence O. Sherrill, was described as "simple, yet impressive."  A temporary stand decorated with flags and shields was built for prominent guests including First Lady Florence Harding, Secretary of War John W. Weeks and Secretary of the Navy Edwin Denby.  Chairs were placed along the walkways surrounding the fountain and sailors served as ushers for the event.  While invited guests were being seated, the Navy Band performed music.  Following the concert, members of the public were allowed to enter the area and soon filled the surrounding park.

The invocation was given by Episcopal bishop Alfred Harding followed by presentation of the colors while the band performed "The Stars and Stripes Forever".  The cloth screens concealing the fountain were then removed by Du Pont's granddaughter, Sophie Du Pont Ford, and the band performed the national anthem and "Narcissus" by Ethelbert Nevin. The fountain was formally presented by Rear Admiral Purnell Frederick Harrington, who had served alongside Du Pont.  Weeks received the fountain as a gift from the Du Pont family on behalf of the government.  A speech was then given by Denby who praised Du Pont's services to his country.  He stated: "Du Pont's hereditary background had justified the hope so meritoriously fulfilled in that officer's career, while his service as a midshipman on the then active Constitution must have proved an inspiration for his later activities."  Denby also praised Du Pont's attitude toward his fellow sailors and his willingness to put the country's needs above his own.  He concluded his speech by noting how proud the Navy was of the new memorial and expressed hopes that it would always be well maintained.  Following Denby's speech, three young girls that were descendants of du Pont, Ann Andrews, Emily Du Pont and Mary Harvey, placed laurel wreaths in the fountain water.  The ceremony concluded with the band performing "Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean."

Later history
The fountain was a frequent target for vandals who would repeatedly break off fingers or hands from the sculptures.  New hands were later carved and attached to the sculptures.  In 1948, the fountain was temporarily removed when a streetcar underpass was built beneath Dupont Circle.  When it was moved back to its original location two years later, the fountain's pumping system was replaced.  When the new system was installed, workers forgot to connect the pipes to the fountain.  The issue was corrected the following year and the fountain became operational.

The fountain is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington, D.C. that were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on September 20, 1978, and the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites on March 3, 1979.  It is one of the few Civil War monuments that is a not an equestrian sculpture.  The others are the Stephenson Grand Army of the Republic Memorial, Nuns of the Battlefield, the Peace Monument, and statues of Admiral David G. Farragut, Albert Pike and General John A. Rawlins.  The fountain is designated a contributing property to the Massachusetts Avenue Historic District, listed on the NRHP on October 22, 1974, and the Dupont Circle Historic District, listed on the NRHP on July 21, 1978.  In the late 1990s, the fountain was restored by sculptor Constantine Seferlis.  The fountain and surrounding park are owned and maintained by the National Park Service, a federal agency of the Interior Department.

Design and location

The fountain sits in the center of Dupont Circle, a park, traffic circle and neighborhood in the northwest quadrant of Washington, D.C.  The park is located at the convergence of 19th Street, P Street, Connecticut Avenue, Massachusetts Avenue and New Hampshire Avenue NW.

The double-tiered, white marble fountain rests on a concrete base.  The upper basin of the fountain, which is approximately  high and  wide and weighs 15 tons, is supported by an 8-ton shaft adorned with three allegorical figures, the Arts of Ocean Navigation.  The figures, which are approximately  tall and  wide and weigh 12 tons, represent the Sea, the Stars and the Wind.  The Sea is represented by a female figure with long hair holding a boat in her right hand while caressing a seagull on her shoulder with her left hand.  Her left foot rests on a dolphin.  The Stars is a nude female figure with long hair holding a globe in her left hand and is faced downward.  The Wind is a nude male figure draped with a ship sail.  He is holding a conch shell with his left hand to use as a horn and is facing right.  The water pours over the upper basin into a large lower basin that is approximately  tall.  The inscription on the outer rim of the lower basin states: "THIS MEMORIAL FOUNTAIN REPLACES A STATUE ERECTED BY THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES IN RECOGNITION OF HIS DISTINGUISHED SERVICES. SAMUEL FRANCIS DUPONT UNITED STATES NAVY 1803 – 1865."  The circular concrete base features four sets of three steps that lead to the surrounding plaza.  Six radial paths corresponding to the surrounding streets lead from the plaza to the edges of the park.

See also

 List of public art in Washington, D.C., Ward 2
 Outdoor sculpture in Washington, D.C.
 Public sculptures by Daniel Chester French

References

External links

1921 establishments in Washington, D.C.
1921 sculptures
Allegorical sculptures in Washington, D.C.
Dupont Circle
Embassy Row
Fountains in Washington, D.C.
Historic district contributing properties in Washington, D.C.
Marble sculptures in Washington, D.C.
Civil War Monuments in Washington, D.C.
Sculptures by Daniel Chester French
Sculptures carved by the Piccirilli Brothers
Outdoor sculptures in Washington, D.C.
Nude sculptures in Washington, D.C.
Sculptures of seashells
Sculptures of dolphins
Sculptures of birds in Washington, D.C.
Sculptures of ships
Sculptures of women in Washington, D.C.
Gulls in art
Animal sculptures in Washington, D.C.

Dupont Circle Fountain


In image processing, a kernel, convolution matrix, or mask is a small matrix used for blurring, sharpening, embossing, edge detection, and more. This is accomplished by doing a convolution between the kernel and an image. Or more simply, when each pixel in the output image is a function of the nearby pixels (including itself) in the input image, the kernel is that function.

Details

The general expression of a convolution is

where  is the filtered image,  is the original image,  is the filter kernel. Every element of the filter kernel is considered by   and .

Depending on the element values, a kernel can cause a wide range of effects:

The above are just a few examples of effects achievable by convolving kernels and images.

Origin

The origin is the position of the kernel which is above (conceptually) the current output pixel. This could be outside of the actual kernel, though usually it corresponds to one of the kernel elements. For a symmetric kernel, the origin is usually the center element.

Convolution

Convolution is the process of adding each element of the image to its local neighbors, weighted by the kernel. This is related to a form of mathematical convolution. The matrix operation being performed—convolution—is not traditional matrix multiplication, despite being similarly denoted by *.

For example, if we have two three-by-three matrices, the first a kernel, and the second an image piece, convolution is the process of flipping both the rows and columns of the kernel and multiplying locally similar entries and summing. The element at coordinates [2, 2] (that is, the central element) of the resulting image would be a weighted combination of all the entries of the image matrix, with weights given by the kernel:

The other entries would be similarly weighted, where we position the center of the kernel on each of the boundary points of the image, and compute a weighted sum.

The values of a given pixel in the output image are calculated by multiplying each kernel value by the corresponding input image pixel values. This can be described algorithmically with the following pseudo-code:

 for each image row in input image:
     for each pixel in image row:

         set accumulator to zero

         for each kernel row in kernel:
             for each element in kernel row:

                 if element position  corresponding* to pixel position then
                     multiply element value  corresponding* to pixel value
                     add result to accumulator
                 endif

          set output image pixel to accumulator

*corresponding input image pixels are found relative to the kernel's origin.

If the kernel is symmetric then place the center (origin) of the kernel on the current pixel. The kernel will overlap the neighboring pixels around the origin. Each kernel element should be multiplied with the pixel value it overlaps with and all of the obtained values should be summed. This resultant sum will be the new value for the current pixel currently overlapped with the center of the kernel.

If the kernel is not symmetric, it has to be flipped both around its horizontal and vertical axis before calculating the convolution as above.

The general form for matrix convolution is

Edge handling

Kernel convolution usually requires values from pixels outside of the image boundaries. There are a variety of methods for handling image edges.

 Extend
 The nearest border pixels are conceptually extended as far as necessary to provide values for the convolution. Corner pixels are extended in 90° wedges. Other edge pixels are extended in lines.
 Wrap
The image is conceptually wrapped (or tiled) and values are taken from the opposite edge or corner.
 Mirror
 The image is conceptually mirrored at the edges.  For example, attempting to read a pixel 3 units outside an edge reads one 3 units inside the edge instead.
 Crop / Avoid overlap
 Any pixel in the output image which would require values from beyond the edge is skipped. This method can result in the output image being slightly smaller, with the edges having been cropped. Move kernel so that values from outside of image is never required. Machine learning mainly uses this approach. Example: Kernel size 10x10, image size 32x32, result image is 23x23.
 Kernel Crop
 Any pixel in the kernel that extends past the input image isn't used and the normalizing is adjusted to compensate.
 Constant
 Use constant value for pixels outside of image. Usually black or sometimes gray is used. Generally this depends on application.

Normalization

Normalization is defined as the division of each element in the kernel by the sum of all kernel elements, so that the sum of the elements of a normalized kernel is unity. This will ensure the average pixel in the modified image is as bright as the average pixel in the original image.

Optimisation
Fast convolution algorithms include:
 separable convolution

Separable convolution
2D convolution with an M × N kernel requires M × N multiplications for each sample (pixel). If the kernel is separable, then the computation can be reduced to M + N multiplications. Using separable convolutions can significantly decrease the computation by doing 1D convolution twice instead of one 2D convolution.

Implementation
Here a concrete convolution implementation done with the GLSL shading language :// author : csblo
// Work made just by consulting :
// https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(image_processing)

// Define kernels
#define identity mat3(0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0)
#define edge0 mat3(1, 0, -1, 0, 0, 0, -1, 0, 1)
#define edge1 mat3(0, 1, 0, 1, -4, 1, 0, 1, 0)
#define edge2 mat3(-1, -1, -1, -1, 8, -1, -1, -1, -1)
#define sharpen mat3(0, -1, 0, -1, 5, -1, 0, -1, 0)
#define box_blur mat3(1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) * 0.1111
#define gaussian_blur mat3(1, 2, 1, 2, 4, 2, 1, 2, 1) * 0.0625
#define emboss mat3(-2, -1, 0, -1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 2)

// Find coordinate of matrix element from index
vec2 kpos(int index)
{
    return vec2[9] (
        vec2(-1, -1), vec2(0, -1), vec2(1, -1),
        vec2(-1, 0), vec2(0, 0), vec2(1, 0),
        vec2(-1, 1), vec2(0, 1), vec2(1, 1)
    )[index] / iResolution.xy;
}

// Extract region of dimension 3x3 from sampler centered in uv
// sampler : texture sampler
// uv : current coordinates on sampler
// return : an array of mat3, each index corresponding with a color channel
mat3[3] region3x3(sampler2D sampler, vec2 uv)
{
    // Create each pixels for region
    vec4[9] region;

    for (int i = 0; i < 9; i++)
        region[i] = texture(sampler, uv + kpos(i));

    // Create 3x3 region with 3 color channels (red, green, blue)
    mat3[3] mRegion;

    for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
        mRegion[i] = mat3(
        	region[0][i], region[1][i], region[2][i],
        	region[3][i], region[4][i], region[5][i],
        	region[6][i], region[7][i], region[8][i]
    	);

    return mRegion;
}

// Convolve a texture with kernel
// kernel : kernel used for convolution
// sampler : texture sampler
// uv : current coordinates on sampler
vec3 convolution(mat3 kernel, sampler2D sampler, vec2 uv)
{
    vec3 fragment;

    // Extract a 3x3 region centered in uv
    mat3[3] region = region3x3(sampler, uv);

    // for each color channel of region
    for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
    {
        // get region channel
        mat3 rc = region[i];
        // component wise multiplication of kernel by region channel
        mat3 c = matrixCompMult(kernel, rc);
        // add each component of matrix
        float r = c[0][0] + c[1][0] + c[2][0]
                + c[0][1] + c[1][1] + c[2][1]
                + c[0][2] + c[1][2] + c[2][2];

        // for fragment at channel i, set result
        fragment[i] = r;
    }

    return fragment;
}

void mainImage( out vec4 fragColor, in vec2 fragCoord )
{
    // Normalized pixel coordinates (from 0 to 1)
    vec2 uv = fragCoord/iResolution.xy;
    // Convolve kernel with texture
    vec3 col = convolution(emboss, iChannel0, uv);

    // Output to screen
    fragColor = vec4(col, 1.0);
}

See also
 Convolution in mathematics
 Multidimensional discrete convolution

References

Sources

External links
 Implementing 2d convolution on FPGA
 vImage Programming Guide: Performing Convolution Operations
 Image Processing using  2D-Convolution
 GNU Image Manipulation Program - User Manual - 8.2. Convolution Matrix
 GLSL Demonstration of 3x3 Convolution Kernels
 Complete C++ open source project
Image processing
Feature detection (computer vision)
Articles with example pseudocode

Kernel (image processing)


Dumfries is a former royal burgh and town within the Dumfries and Galloway council area of Scotland.  Its name means either fort or ridge of the thicket.

Dumfries was the county town of the former county of Dumfriesshire. It has a population of 49,883.  This makes Dumfries one of the largest non-city areas in Scotland.

Its nickname is Queen of the South, which is also the name of its local football team Queen of the South F.C..

Geography
Dumfries is close to the Solway Firth, near the mouth of the River Nith. The River Nith runs through the centre of the town.

Its suburbs include:
 Sandside
 Lochside
 Lincluden
 Troqueer
 Rotchell
 Marchmount
 Locharbriggs
 Heathhall
The eastern side of Dumfries has the DG1 post code, while the western side of the town has the DG2 postcode.

Education
Dumfries has four main high schools, with three being in DG1. There is one primary school per key district. There is one college in the town, while the University of west of Scotland and the open university is on the same campus. Glasgow University also has a campus on the same site.

Towns in Dumfries and Galloway

Dumfries


Karpaka Vinayaka Temple or Pillaiyarpatti Pillaiyar Temple is a 7th-century CE rock-cut cave shrine, significantly expanded over the later centuries. It is located in Pillayarpatti village in Tiruppathur Taluk, Sivaganga district in Tamil Nadu, India.

The temple is dedicated to Karpaka Vinayakar (Ganesha). In the cave temple, there are rock cut images of Ganesha, Siva linga and another carving that has been variously identified as Ardhanarishwara or Harihara or the early king between them who built this temple. All these are notable for their unusual iconography. In late 19th-century, during restorative excavation and repair work, panchaloga statues were discovered. These are dated to the 11th-century.

The temple has several inscriptions within the rock-cut shrines, as well as on the walls and mandapam outside. One of them mentions "Desi vinayakar" and also helps date the core layer of this temple to the 7th-century Ganesha. Another notable inscription in the sanctum is more archaic, sharing paleographic features of Tamil Brahmi and early Vatteluttu. This has led to proposals that portions of this Ganesha temple are likely older by a few centuries. The temple walls and mandapams have additional stone inscriptions from the 11th to 13th-century.

The temple is one of the nine ancestral Hindu temples of the Chettiars, its importance established in their tradition in Kali year 3815 (714 CE). The temple has a large colorful gopuram, with large mandapams elaborately decorated with frescoes, many shrines inside, salas originally added for dance and hymns singing, temple kitchen, an architecture that follows the Agamic texts and Shilpa Sastras, and a large temple tank to its north. Most of these were added in later centuries to the core rock-cut cave shrine. The temple is active and attracts numerous pilgrims, particularly women, on the annual festivals and chariot processions such as on Vinayaka Chaturthi and the Brahmothsavam in the Tamil month of Vaikasi.

Location
The Karpaka Vinayakar temple is located on the eastern edge of a rocky hill in Pillayarpatti village (also spelled Pillaiyarpatti). The temple is about  northeast of Madurai city and  northwest of Karaikudi town in Tamil Nadu. Pilliyarpatti is located about 12 kilometers east of Tiruppathur town. Pillayarpatti is accessible by National Highway 36 and State Highway 35. The image of Karpaga Vinayagar is carved out in a cave of Pillaiyarpatti Hillocks in this village. Thiruveesar (Shiva) is also carved in the rock of this cave, along with several other bas-reliefs all from 7th-century.

History and architecture
The early Pandya dynasty ruled the southern part of the ancient Tamil region from about the 3rd-century BCE and they remained a major power for nearly 1,000 years. They lost their hold on their kingdom to the Cholas for a few centuries, and then returned to power about the 12th-century. They were instrumental in patronizing literature, arts and religious architecture, as well as sharing of ideas and trade with northern kingdoms of ancient India. The Karpaka Vinayakar temple is a testimony and one of the evidence of the early Pandya dynasty contributions to the South Indian heritage.

The temple in its contemporary form has many layers of additions and restorations completed over nearly 1,400 years. The earliest layer that can be dated with certainty is the 7th-century rock-cut cave temple. This rock-cut cave is attributed to Narasimhavarma, c. 650 CE. Several rock-cut Hindu gods and goddesses are displayed in this earliest layer. The cave also includes inscriptions and unusual iconography. There are several stone sculptures in the cave, on different faces of the natural rock:

The primary sanctum is dedicated to Ganesha, referred to as the Vinayagar sannidhi (sanctum sanctorum). On the southern face of the rock is a 6-foot rock-cut bas-relief of Karpaga Vinayagar. This Ganesha faces the north direction. As this is a cave excavated in a large natural rocky hillock, there is no provision for the pradakshina, that is circumambulatory passage. The iconography of Ganesha is unusual in several ways. First, he has only two hands. Second, he holds sweets in his right hand and his trunk is curved at the right side, unlike later statues which typically show him with four hands, with trunk turned left, and holding sweets in one of his left hands. At the Karpaka Vinayakar relief of Ganesha, his left tusk is broken suggesting that some of the iconographic features of Ganesha were well established by the time this image was carved. Locals call this relief as Valampuri Vinayagar. There is a 7th-century inscription near him that refers to the relief as "Desi vinayagar".
A Shiva sanctum on the west face of cave wall, inside a gajaprashta (elephant-back form of excavation), with the sanctum opening to the east. It has a 7th-century Shiva linga at its center. A notable inscription in this sanctum states "Ikkatturu Kotturu Ainiijan", likely the name(s) of the patron(s) responsible for its excavation. The notability is in the paleographic nature of the inscription. The script is more archaic than the earliest Vatteluttu, with some Tamil Brahmi influence, yet it is clearly not Tamil Brahmi and is later than the 3rd-century CE Tamil Brahmi in its features. This, states the epigraphist and historian R. Nagaswamy, suggests that the inscription inside the rock-cut cave excavation and Hindu iconography here was likely created between the 3rd and 7th-century.
Between the rock-cut Ganesha and the rock-cut Shiva shrine is another unusual bas-relief of a standing royal human form with two attendants. This has been variously interpreted as Ardhanarishwara (half Shiva, half Parvati) or Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu) or a king between two officials. The difficulty and complexity with these interpretations is its simplicity, lack of classic emblems (icons), and the presence of certain icons. The central standing figure has two hands, in the samabhanga posture with the left hand on the hip in katyavalambita posture, all defined in early silpa sastra texts of Hinduism. The right hand is in the boon giving varada gesture per ancient Sanskrit texts. The head of this 7th-century bas-relief is decorated with long elongated jatamakuta (jeweled oblong crown). The left half of the central figure is clearly different than the right half, though fused. One interpretation is that this may be a Pallava king where this sort of headdress is seen. However, this hypothesis fails because the Pallava dynasty was non-existent at this time in southern Tamil Nadu and was not the sponsor of this cave excavation. Further, there is no reason or example where a king was depicted in Tamil Nadu with two different halves or in boon boon-giving posture. The second hypothesis is that this is an early bas-relief of Ardhanarishwara. This hypothesis is favored by the fact that the left side is more conspicuously feminine and with jewelry (more pronounced breast, dress). A third hypothesis states that this is a different form of Harihara. Nagaswamy favors the Harihara hypothesis primarily because of the crown and how it is carved in the typical kirita-form of crown for the Vishnu side. The right side of the crown is consistent with Shiva's crown, while the left side with Vishnu, states Nagaswamy. In the South Indian tradition, Parvati is emblematically identified as Vishnu's sister and with some of Vishnu's emblems. The two attendants may be Candesha and Garuda, according to Nagaswamy. Given the lack of emblems in this bas-relief of those typically associated with Shiva, Vishnu and Parvati, this bas-relief can be either Ardhanarishwara or Harihara, albeit unusual in either case.

Another Harihara-like relief is found on the side wall of the excavated cave. Once again, it is two-armed instead of the typical, later era four-armed Harihara. This is a partial bas-relief, carved up to the waist placed above a square shaped pillar outline. Nagaswamy identifies this as Lingodbhava. Once again this is unusual, as Lingodbhava is typically shown with Brahma and Vishnu on each side, or with Brahma implied with hamsa (swan) and Vishnu implied with varaha (boar).

Later expansions added several mandapams (Maha, Thirumurai, Alankara), another Shiva shrine, a Nataraja shrine, a Chandesar shrine, and a Sivakami Amman shrine. On the southern side of mandapam, parallel and near to the excavated cave is a panel with the Saptamatrikas (also called Saptha Kannimar, seven mothers or seven virgins), The temple also includes shrines or dedicated area for Bhairava (Shiva form) with his dog, Somaskanda, Kartikeya with his two wives, Valli (who arrange marriages), Devasena, also called Deivayanai, (who gifts offspring), Pasupatheeswarar (who showers all wealth), Navagrahas, and two gopurams (east and north sides). For charitable functions, like large Shaiva tradition temples, the Karpaka Vinayakar has a large temple kitchen called madapalli, and a temple well inside the mandapam to provide water for pilgrims. The temple also has space for devotional singing of hymns and performance arts.

Religious importance and festivals
The temple is one of the nine ancestral Hindu temples of the Chettiars, a merchant and trading community. It is maintained by the Chettiars trust (Nagarathars), but their tradition states that they have maintained and worshipped in this Shaivism tradition temple since Kali year 3813 (same as 714 CE). Chettiars have organized their conservation and temples initiatives through sub-communities based on Shiva Temples such as the Pillayarpatti Pirivu, Elayatrankudi Pirivu. This is considered as a Shiva tradition temple, given its historic importance with Shiva linga and the Karpaga Vinayaka.

The temple is a major center for the annual Vinayaka Chaturthi festival. It is celebrated for 10 days. On the 9th day the chariot festival is held, where Hindus of the region gather and participate in a procession that goes through the streets. The processional Ganesha idol is covered with gold plating and carried in a mouse vahana, along with his parents, Nataraja and Sivakami. Additionally, the temple features floor decorations, exhibitions, performance arts and sandal covering (Chandana Kaappu) over these days. This tradition became more significant since festival idols made of panchaloga were found in late 19th-century during the temple repairs and renovation. These are likely from the 11th-century. The Vinayaka Chaturthi (Ganesha Chaturthi) festival is popular among Tamil women.

Administration
The temple is maintained and administered by Nattukottai Nagarathar

The temple opens at 6 in the morning and stays open till 1 PM. The shrine is again opened at 4PM and is open till 8.30 PM. It is an active temple, with daily worship services. On 1 May 2017, Kumbhabhishekham was performed at this temple.

Gallery

Notes

References

External links

Pillayarpatti Official site

Hindu temples in Sivaganga district
Ganesha temples
Hindu cave temples in Tamil Nadu
Articles containing video clips
4th-century Hindu temples
4th-century establishments in India

Karpaka Vinayakar Temple


English free settlers were people that chose to go to New Holland (now Australia). They were not forced to go there, as the convicts were. The English free settlers went to Australia between the late 18th century and the early 19th century. When the English free settlers got to Australia, they landed in the southern part of the continent. That was the only colony created by the free settlers.

The English free settlers went to Australia to be free. They wanted to make money as well. They also wanted to explore Australian families who wanted a better life with their children. Some people called the English Free settlers "pilgrims".
In the early years of the colony, very few settlers came to Australia. Free settlers had to fund their own transport and were usually quite wealthy. The few who made the journey to Australia did so mostly to make their fortune. They were often given large land grants and convicts to work for them.

References

18th century in Australia
19th century in Australia

English free settlers


A deacon is a role in the Christian church. The job of a deacon is different depending on the church he or she is a part of. A deacon usually helps to run the church and teaches people about Christianity. A deacon can also witness marriages.

Men who intend to become priests are usually named deacons for some time before advancing onto the rank of priest.

In the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches men are not allowed to marry after they have become deacons. Deacons in Protestant churches are allowed to marry.

A protodeacon is an honorary rank given to certain married deacons in Eastern Christian churches. In the Russian Orthodox Church it is an honorary title given to married deacons, as a mark of which, the clergyman is entitled to wear a burgundy-colored skufia.

Christian religious occupations

Deacon


Richard Davoud Donchian (September 1905, in Hartford, Connecticut – April 24, 1993, in Fort Lauderdale, Florida) was an American commodities and futures trader, and a pioneer in the field of managed futures.

The first publicly managed futures fund, Futures, Inc., was started by Donchian in 1949. He also developed the trend timing method of futures investing and introduced the mutual fund concept to the field of money management.

Richard Donchian is considered to be the creator of the managed futures industry and is credited with developing a systematic approach to futures money management. His professional trading career was dedicated to advancing a more conservative approach to futures trading.

Biography
Donchian's parents were Armenian immigrants from Western Armenia, which was occupied by the Ottoman Empire in the 1880s, and had come to settle in the United States. As a young man Donchian went to school in Connecticut, later graduating from Yale University with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics. He later received his Master of Business Administration from MIT Sloan School of Management. Donchian's first taste of the job market was as an assistant in his family's Oriental rug business.

During this time, Donchian came across the fictionalized biography of stock market whiz Jesse Livermore, titled Reminiscences of a Stock Operator. After reading this book, Donchian became so fascinated that his interest turned to studying the financial markets. During the market crash of 1929 he lost some money. This experience led him to study technical analysis and become a student of price history alone and for its own sake.

Donchian began his Wall Street career in the 1930s. He published a very popular stock market service called Security Pilot which he sold to brokerage houses. During the summer of 1933 he became an account executive and securities analyst with Hemphill, Noyes and Co, while still working as the Vice President of the Samuel Rug Company.

World War II would take Richard Donchian into the US military and participation in the invasion of Sicily.  He was later promoted to Air Force statistical officer. After the war he became a private investment adviser and securities analyst. Richard was self-employed until 1960. In 1948, he changed his focus from securities analysis to active trading and developing his rule-based technical system. He established the trading firm Futures, Inc., which was one of the first publicly held commodity funds.

Donchian developed a rule-based trading approach which became known as Trend following. It is based on the assumption that commodity prices moved in long, sustained moves. He developed and used a trading system that incorporated Trading rules, Trading guidelines, and his weekly rule system based on moving averages. He wrote many articles on futures trading and securities and became known as "the Father of Trend Following".

In 1960, Donchian was appointed Director of Commodity Research with Hayden Stone, where he commenced writing a weekly newsletter, Commodity Trend Timing, based on his 5-20 moving average method. His newsletter was very popular, reaching a weekly circulation of some 10,000 copies during the 19 years he published it. He wrote numerous articles which are considered industry classics, including Trend Following Methods in Commodity Price Analysis.  Donchian would remain with Hayden Stone's various successors, including Shearson/American Express, and later joined Shearson Lehman Brothers, eventually becoming Vice President of the firm.

During his career he was a member of several exchanges, such as the New York Cotton Exchange, and several professional market associations, such as the New York Society of Security Analysts.

Many modern trend following systems, such as the Turtle Trading system, are based on his work. The Richard Davoud Donchian Foundation was established after his death in April 1993; its aim is to make improvements in children's health and to help its ultimate recipients become empowered to strengthen and build up their families and communities — passing onto others that which was given to them.

See also
Trend following
Donchian channel

References

Richard Davoud Donchian Foundation Website
Richard Donchian: The Father of Trend Following Trading
Bio from Foundation
Phylantropy
Referenced in books
Richard's 20 rules
Review: Donchian Channels

1905 births
1993 deaths
American investors
Armenian businesspeople
Technical analysts
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
American people of Armenian descent
Businesspeople from Hartford, Connecticut
Stock and commodity market managers
Yale College alumni
MIT Sloan School of Management alumni
20th-century American economists
20th-century American businesspeople

Richard Donchian


Andrew Geddis (July 1886 – 23 February 1976) was a leading businessman and sports enthusiast in Bombay in the decades leading up to independence.

Biography
He was Chairman of the Royal Western India Turf Club (1931–1939) and instigated Mumbai Races's A.Geddis Plate. His extensive business interests included a directorship of the Bank of India Ltd and co-founding Geoffrey Manners & Co. Ltd., which became a leading distributor and manufacturer of Consumer Healthcare products and Pharmaceuticals across India until its amalgamation in April 2003 with the Wyeth Corporation, formerly known as American Home Products (AHP),one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world. He left Bruntsfield Place in Edinburgh for Bombay in 1907 to work for James Finlay & Co. Ltd. and went on to become extensively involved in the Ahmedabad textile industry becoming a Director of the Ahmedabad Jubilee Spinning & Manufacturing Co., Ltd. and the Ahmedabad Manufacturing & Calico Printing Co. Ltd., as well as Director of the India Cotton Association and the Chairman of Mill Owners' Mutual Insurance Association Ltd from its inception.
His wider interests included, as well as co-founding Geoffrey Manners & Co. Ltd., directorships of the Tata Hydroelectric Power Supply Co., Ltd., the Indian Radio & Cable Communications Co.and the Bank of India Ltd. He was a member of the G. 1. P. Railway Advisory committee for 13 years and was appointed to the Board of Trustees for the Bombay Port Trust in 1920..
A keen horse racing enthusiast, as well as his chairmanship of the Western India Turf Club was also Chairman of the Turf Club House, Poona. Other interests included being Chairman of the Bombay Scottish Orphanage Society and Chairman of the Caledonia Society of Bombay.  On his arrival in India he stayed in the Pali Hill Chummery. After his marriage to Jean Gunn, daughter of Dr Alexander Gunn of Edinburgh in 1915, he moved to Dharbanga Masions on Cumballa Hill before finally moving to  the  fourth floor apartment on the left below the penthouse in the iconic art deco Kamal Mahal building, originally called Sethna House, on Carmichael Road in South Mumbai, which together with the adjacent Altamont Road was rated the tenth dearest address in the world in a in 2009 survey. He also had a beach house at Juhu.

References

1886 births
1976 deaths
History of Mumbai
British people in colonial India
Businesspeople from Edinburgh
Scottish people of the British Empire
20th-century Indian businesspeople
20th-century Scottish businesspeople

Andrew Geddis


The Dultgen halftone intaglio process is a photoengraving technique invented by Arthur Dultgen and is widely used today in commercial colour work.

Two positives are made from the continuous tone copy, one through a halftone screen or a special contact screen and the other without a screen.

A sheet of carbon tissue is then exposed first to the screened positive, which produces an image of dots of varying sizes, then to the continuous-tone positive, which produces differing degrees of hardening of the dot image. The array of dots vary not only in width but also in depth so as to extend the range of tonal values to be reproduced. This method thus uses two methods for controlling tonal values.

References
http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4287537.html

Printing terminology

Dultgen


Peter Joseph Lenné (the Younger) (29 September 1789 – 23 January 1866) was a Prussian gardener and landscape architect. As director general of the Royal Prussian palaces and parks in Potsdam and Berlin, his work shaped the development of 19th-century German garden design in the Neoclassical style. Laid out according to the principles of the English landscape garden, his parks are now World Heritage Sites.

Life and works
Lenné was born in Bonn, then part of the Electorate of Cologne, the son of the court and university gardener Peter Joseph Lenné the Elder (1756–1821), and his wife, Anna Catharina Potgieter (also Potgeter), daughter of the mayor of Rheinberg. The Lenné family descended from the Prince-Bishopric of Liège. Circa 1665, Peter Joseph's ancestor Augustin Le Neu had settled in Poppelsdorf near Bonn as court gardener of Archbishop-Elector Maximilian Henry of Bavaria.

Childhood and development
Having  obtained his Abitur degree, Peter Joseph Lenné decided to adopt the family tradition. He began his apprenticeship as a gardener in 1808 with his uncle, Josef Clemens Weyhe, court gardener at the electoral Augustusburg and Falkenlust Palaces, Brühl. At the instigation of his father, he also took university courses in botany.

From 1809 to 1812, his father paid for Lenné's many study trips to France, Switzerland, and Southern Germany. In 1811, he completed a long internship in Paris with Gabriel Thouin, who was then one of the most famous garden architects in Europe. This made him a master landscaper. On another of these trips, Lenné made the acquaintance of the creator of the English Garden in Munich, the landscape gardener Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell, who would have a lasting influence on Lenné's work.

Assistant gardener

In 1812, Lenné followed his father to Koblenz, where he had been named Director of the Gardens by the Prefect Jules Doazan. Later in that year, Lenné became active at Schloss Schönbrunn, where he would remain until 1814. He then returned to Koblenz, where he was given private garden commissions until 1815. Extensions to the city's fortifications gave him an opportunity to propose a plan for its beautification by the addition of gardens; however, this was not carried out because of lack of funds. In 1816, he returned to Potsdam at the suggestion of Prussian forestry official Georg Ludwig Hartig and General Graf von Hacke. There he received the position of Assistant Gardener to the Court Garden Director at Sanssouci.

While still working as an assistant gardener, in spring 1816 Lenné received a commission from the Prussian Chancellor Karl August von Hardenberg to renovate the grounds around his country house at Klein-Glienicke. This work on Glienicke Palace, which would later become Prince Carl of Prussia's residence, laid the groundwork for Lenné's designs for the surrounding area of Potsdam, which he wanted to turn into a Gesamtkunstwerk. The upgrades of the Glienicke grounds were followed - in close cooperation with the architects Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Ludwig Persius, and Ferdinand von Arnim - by those of others such as the Böttcherberg and facing it Babelsberg Park, which was completed by Prince Hermann von Pückler-Muskau. Characteristic of Lenné's work are versatile sight axes - a horticultural stylistical device - which he applied at Sanssouci Park and elsewhere. As part of the Berlin-Potsdam cultural landscape, which stretches from the Pfaueninsel to Werder, many sites of Lenné's work are World Heritage Sites and have been under the protection of UNESCO collectively since 1990.

Prussian Garden Director-General

The accomplishments of the garden architect are reflected in his career progression. In 1818 he was an employee of the Royal Garden Authority, and in 1822, he received a promotion to Gardening Director. That same year, Lenné became a founding member of the Prussian Society for the Promotion of Horticulture. Lenné also accepted the position of Manager of the Division of Orchard Cultivation and later of the Parks Division.

In 1823, the Gardener Academy in Schöneberg and Potsdam was founded under his management. Here garden architecture was taught in a scientific manner for the first time. In 1828, Lenné was named the sole Garden Director and in 1845, Prussian Garden Director-General. The Prussian Academy of Arts made Lenné an honorary member.

In 1840, the recently enthroned King Friedrich Wilhelm IV assigned the urban planning of Berlin to Lenné. One of his most important achievements in this role survives in the building of the Luisenstadt Canal, constructed in 1852, between the Landwehrkanal and the River Spree in Kreuzberg. The canal's design was based on plans by Chief Building Officer Johann Carl Ludwig Schmid. In the 1850s, he advised on the planning of several cities, including Dresden, Leipzig and Munich.

Despite centering his life around Potsdam and Berlin, Lenné remained attached to his Rhenish homeland and contributed to the further beautification of Koblenz, particularly in the Rheinanlagen, which was under his management until 1861. His love of his work on the Rhine and Mosel made him decide to build the residence named for him, the Lenné-Haus, in which he wished to spend the evening of his life; however, the manner of his death did not allow this. Lenné's last resting place is at the Bornstedt Cemetery in Potsdam.

Busts of Peter Joseph Lenné are located at the Bonn Botanical Garden, on the bank of the Rhine (Alter Zoll), in the Landschaftspark Petzow that he himself designed, in Feldafing Park, in Park Sanssouci, and in the Kaiserin-Augusta-Anlagen in Koblenz (copy of a bust by Rauch). A recent bust was finished by Bad Homburg sculptor Otto Weber-Hartl.

Main works

 Park of Neuhardenberg Palace
 Roseninsel and Lenné Park in Feldafing at Lake Starnberg
 Klosterbergegarten in Magdeburg
 Zwierzyniec Park, Złotów
 Park Sanssouci in Potsdam
 Garden of Caputh Palace at Potsdam
 Landscape park at Petzow Palace, Werder
 Park Glienicke, Berlin
 Design for the landscape park in Blumberg (now part of Ahrensfelde)
 Design for the Landwehrkanal
 Design for the Luisenstädtischer Kanal, Berlin
 Design for the Tiergarten, Berlin
 Design for the parks at Blankensee Palace, in Trebbin
 Design for the Spa Gardens at Bad Homburg
 Gardens of Schloss Liebenberg in the Löwenberger Land, described in Fontane's Fünf Schlösser (Volume 5 of Wanderungen durch die Mark Brandenburg)
 Park of Remplin Palace
 Park of Wolfshagen Palace
 Park of Schloss Trebnitz (at Müncheberg)
 Lenné Park in Frankfurt (Oder)
 Kaiserin-Augusta-Anlagen on the Rhine and Electoral Palace Park in Koblenz
 Elisengarten, City Park and Spa Gardens in Aachen
 Park and Zehnthof in Sinzig
 Gardens of Friedrichsfelde Palace, now Tierpark Friedrichsfelde, in Berlin
 Clifftop gardens at Stolzenfels Castle, Koblenz
 Schlosspark, Brühl
 Design for the Spa Gardens at Bad Oeynhausen
 Park of Fürstlich Drehna, in Luckau (collaboration)
 Schillerpark (also called Lenné-Anlage, southeastern part of Promenadenring), and Johannapark, Leipzig
 Parts of Bürgerwiese gardens in Dresden
 Dresden Zoo

References
Specific

General
The information in this article is based on a translation of its German counterpart.
Gerhard Hinz, P.J.L. Das Gesamtwerk des Gartenarchitekten und Städteplaners, 2 volumes, 1989, Hildesheim, Zürich, New York
Petra Wißner, Magdeburger Biographisches Lexikon, 2002,
F. v. Butlar (Ed.), Peter Joseph Lenné: Volkspark und Arkadien, 1989, Berlin
Harri Günther, Peter Joseph Lenné: Gärten, Parke, Landschaften, 1985, Berlin

Gerhard Fischer: Er prägte das Gesicht Berlins, in: Berlinische Monatsschrift, Edition Luisenstadt, 1999

External links

1789 births
1866 deaths
People from Bonn
Architects from Berlin
German landscape architects

Peter Joseph Lenné


The Riviera Nayarit () is a nearly 200-mile stretch of coastline in Mexico between the historic port of San Blas, of Nayarit to where the Río Ameca empties into Banderas Bay, Nuevo Vallarta.

Riviera Nayarit was named to promote the coastline of Nayarit and it includes such notable sites as Chacala Bay and Chacalilla.

Composition

The large coastline that occupies the Riviera Nayarit is made up, among others, by the main beaches and the following destinations, that are characterized by major hotels and a vast flora and fauna along the coastline:

 Nuevo Vallarta
 San Blas
 Jarretaderas
 Flamingos
 Bucerías
 La Cruz de Huanacaxtle
 Punta de Mita
 Litibú
 Sayulita
 San Francisco
 Lo de Marcos
 Rincón de Guayabitos
 La Peñita de Jaltemba
 Los Ayala
 El Capomo
 Bahía de Chacala
 Playa Platanitos

Archaeological sites
The following locations have attractive archaeological sites: Alta Vista, Aticama, Bucerías, Sayulita famous for surfing, San Francisco, Lo de Marcos, Los Ayala, Rincón de Guayabitos, Peñita de Jaltemba and Las Varas.

See also
 Mexican Riviera
 Riviera Maya

References

Coasts
Geography of Mexico
Geography of Nayarit

Riviera Nayarit


An integron is a type of transposon, a mobile genetic element. It is a two-part genetic system found in bacteria, and maybe more widely. It is the way antibiotic resistance is passed on so rapidly. It is found in plasmids and chromosomes. Although the first function discovered was antibiotic resistance, other bacterial functions (traits) can be transferred by integrons.

Transposons are the gene "capture and expression elements" which put  the small mobile elements known as gene cassettes in place and make them work. Usually,
each cassette has only a single gene and a specific
recombination site. The cassettes carry the DNA coding (= 'a gene') for antibiotic resistance (for example). Typically, the DNA would code for an enzyme which cleaves (cuts) the antibiotic molecule up.

The first part of an integron is a gene which codes for an enzyme which captures cassettes. The second is a site on the genome where the cassettes are inserted, and a promoter which drives expression of cassette-associated genes. "Integron" describes such structures both when no cassettes are present and when there are integrated cassettes. Cassettes can be inserted at the site, they can be cut out, and they can undergo horizontal gene transfer.

References

Further reading
Hall R.M. 2002. Integrons. In  Encyclopedia of Genetics, S. Brenner & J.H. Miller (eds), vol 2. London: Academic Press.
Hall R.M. 2002. Gene cassettes and integrons; moving single genes. In Horizontal Gene Transfer, pp. 19–28. M. Syvanan & C. Kado (eds). London: Harcourt.
Recchia G.D. & Hall R.M. 1995. Gene cassettes: a new class of mobile element. Microbiology 141, 3015–3027. FREE Full Text

Horizontal gene transfer
Bacteria

Integron


Shudra is a division of the caste system. A shudra is considered a servant or peasant. Shudra and Ati-shudra indicates the bottom most ranks in the Indian caste system.

Mahatma Jyotirao Phule set out the history of shudra-ati-shudra communities in his book Gulamgiri. He drew the attention to the exploitation of Shudras, Ati-shudras, and women etc. At this time, most prefer not even to touch such castes.

References

Castes

Shudra


Byron Kurt Lichtenberg, Sc. D. (born February 19, 1948) is an American engineer and fighter pilot who flew aboard two NASA Space Shuttle missions as a Payload Specialist. In 1983, he and Ulf Merbold became the first Payload Specialists to fly on the shuttle.

Personal
Born February 19, 1948, in Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. Married to Tamara Lichtenberg with five children, including two adopted Chinese daughters.

Education
Sc.B., aerospace engineering, Brown University (1969)
S.M., mechanical engineering, MIT (1975)
Sc.D., biomedical engineering, MIT (1979)
Sc.D., Westminster College (honorary)

Awards and honors
NASA Space Flight Medals (2)
AIAA Haley Space Flight Award
FAI Komarov Award
Went to Space

Organizations
Founding Member:
Association of Space Explorers
X-Prize Foundation

Member:
User Panel for National Space Biomedical Research Institute
Tau Beta Pi (honorary engineering society)
Sigma Xi (honorary scientific society)

Career
From 1978 to 1984 he was a researcher for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)/Canadian Vestibular experiments on Spacelab 1, Spacelab D-1, Spacelab SLS-1 and SLS-2, and a co-principal investigator for the Mental Workload and Performance experiment flown on IML-1 to assess human-computer workstation characteristics for the Space Station.

He was a founder of Payload Systems, Inc., a company that has provided hardware and flight support for MODE and MACE experiments for the Space Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS). They also were the first commercial user of the Mir Space Station, flying protein crystal growth experiments to Mir in the early 1990s. He is now the Chief Technical Officer of Zero Gravity Corporation, founded to make parabolic, weightless aircraft flights available to the general public. He was a U.S. Air Force fighter pilot for 23 years, flying the F-4, F-100, and A-10, reaching the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Massachusetts Air National Guard. Lichtenberg flew 138 combat missions during the Vietnam War, and received two Distinguished Flying Crosses, ten Air Medals, and numerous other decorations. He flew as a captain for Southwest Airlines and is now a professor at LeTourneau University in Longview Texas.

Spaceflight experience
Lichtenberg was among the first Payload Specialists to fly in space. He flew on Spacelab-1 (STS-9) mission for ten days in 1983, conducted multiple experiments in life sciences, materials sciences, Earth observations, astronomy and solar physics, upper atmosphere and plasma physics. His second flight was ATLAS-1 (STS-45) Spacelab mission for nine days in 1992; conducted 13 experiments in Atmospheric sciences and astronomy. He flew 310 orbits, and logged 468 hours in space.

References

External links

Spacefacts biography of Byron K. Lichtenberg

1948 births
Living people
American astronauts
NASA sponsored astronauts
People from Monroe County, Pennsylvania
Brown University School of Engineering alumni
MIT School of Engineering alumni
United States Air Force officers
American aviators
United States Air Force personnel of the Vietnam War
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Air Medal
Engineers from Pennsylvania
Massachusetts National Guard personnel
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Military personnel from Pennsylvania

Byron K. Lichtenberg


Henrik Immanuel Wigström (2 October 1862 – 14 March 1923) a Finnish silver & goldsmith, was one of the most important Fabergé workmasters along with Michael Perchin. Perchin was the head workmaster from 1886 until his death in 1903, when he was succeeded by his chief assistant Henrik Wigström. These two workmasters were responsible for almost all the imperial Easter eggs.

Erik August Kollin, a Finn, was head work master from 1870 to 1886 and produced gold jewellery, including pieces in the Scythian style (the Scythian treasure had just been discovered at Kerch in the Crimea). August Wilhelm Holmström (who had been appointed head jeweller by Gustav Faberge in 1857) was born in Ekenäs, Finland.

Henrik Wigström was born in Ekenäs, Finland, and was apprenticed to a local Danish born goldsmith named Petter Madsén, a successful manufacturer of silverware who was familiar with the jewellery trade in St. Petersburg, as at one time he had had a workshop there. Once in Madsén's employment, his master's trade with Russia, as well as his numerous business contacts here, brought him to work in St. Petersburg. Goldsmith Werner Elfström employed Wigström as a apprentice on his arrival in the capital in 1875. Wigström became assistant in 1884, at the age of 22, to Perchin, whose shop at that time was already working exclusively for Fabergé.

Wigström became head workmaster at Fabergé after Perchin's death in 1903. The number of craftsmen in Wigström's workshop diminished drastically with the outbreak of World War I. By 1918, the Revolution forced the complete closing of the House of Fabergé. Aged 56, Wigström retreated almost empty-handed to his summer house, on Finnish territory, and died at Terijoki in 1923.

His art is similar to Perchin's but tends to be in the Louis XVI, Empire, or neo-classical style. Nearly all the Fabergé hardstone animals, figures and flowers from that time period were produced under his supervision.

References

External links

Fabergé's Finnish masters

1862 births
1923 deaths
Fabergé workmasters
Finnish silversmiths
People from the Grand Duchy of Finland

Henrik Wigström


Atlanta, Georgia is home to the largest concentration of colleges and universities in the Southern United States. This is a list of colleges and universities in the city of Atlanta and Metro Atlanta.

City of Atlanta

Universities and graduate institutions

American InterContinental University
Clark Atlanta University
DeVry University
Emory University
Annexed by the City of Atlanta effective January 1, 2018
Georgia Institute of Technology
Georgia State University
Interdenominational Theological Center
John Marshall Law School
Mercer University (Cecil B. Day Graduate and Professional Campus)
Morehouse School of Medicine
University of Georgia (Terry College of Business Atlanta Center)

Colleges

Art Institute of Atlanta
Atlanta Metropolitan State College
 Carver College
Chamberlain College of Nursing
Herzing College
Morehouse College
Morris Brown College
Evangeline Booth College (The Salvation Army)
Savannah College of Art and Design (Atlanta campus)
Spelman College

Community and technical colleges
Atlanta Technical College

Neighboring cities and towns

Universities and graduate institutions

Brenau University (Fairburn)
Brenau University (Gainesville)
Brenau University (Norcross)
Clayton State University (Morrow)
Columbia Theological Seminary (Decatur)
Kennesaw State University (Kennesaw)
Life University (Marietta)
Oglethorpe University (Brookhaven)
Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine (Georgia campus) (Suwanee)
University of Georgia (Gwinnett Campus) (Lawrenceville); (Main Campus) (Athens)
University of North Georgia (multiple campuses north of Atlanta)
University of West Georgia (Carrollton)

Colleges

Agnes Scott College (Decatur)
Ashworth College (Norcross)
Georgia Gwinnett College (Lawrenceville)
Oxford College (Oxford)
Point University (West Point)

Community and technical colleges
Chattahoochee Technical College (Marietta)
Georgia Perimeter College (Decatur)
Georgia Piedmont Technical College (Clarkston)
Gwinnett College (Lilburn)
Gwinnett College - Sandy Springs (Sandy Springs)
Gwinnett Technical College (Lawrenceville)
Laurus Technical Institute (Decatur and Jonesboro) (CLOSED MARCH 2015)
North Metro Technical College (Acworth)

See also
List of colleges and universities in Georgia (U.S. state)

References

A

Colleges
Education in the Atlanta metropolitan area

List of colleges and universities in metropolitan Atlanta


This is the wikipedia for the language of TONGA, Polynesia, South Pacific.
Ceci est la wikipédia en tongien, la langue des TONGA, Polynésie, Pacifique Sud.
Dit is de wikipedia in het Tongaans, de taal van TONGA, Polynesië, Stille Oceaan.
Ko e wikipedia ʻeni maʻa lea fakatonga ʻi TONGA ni, ʻi Polinisia, mo e muli.

This Wikipedia is made in the Tongan language. However, to help strangers to move around, some of the main navigation pages have an English translation. Also some articles which may be interesting to foreign scholars (but not interesting enough for the general public to warrant inclusion on the English Wikipedia) may also have translations.

If there is it appears in the upper right corner of the screen as follows:
 English abstract available GO when the English text is an abstract of the Tongan version or only a small part of it.
 English translation available GO when the English text is essentially a translation of the Tongan, but it does not need to be a literal translation
 More information in English available GO when the English text is more extensive than the Tongan, addressing topics not found in the Tongan text.
See the list of articles with an English translation here.

Current number of articles:

Peesi tali fiefia/en


In architecture, a folly is a building usually constructed strictly for aesthetic pleasure. Originally, buildings were made to provide  shelter or to house people. Follies are just decoration; they no longer have a building's original function.
They were first constructed to put accents into parks and estates. "Folly" is used in the sense of fun or light-heartedness, not in the sense of something ill-advised.

Characteristics

In general, follies have the following properties:

They are buildings, or parts of buildings. This makes them clearly different from other garden ornaments such as sculpture.
They have no purpose other than as an ornament. Often they have some of the appearance of a building constructed for a particular purpose, but this appearance is a sham.
They are purpose-built. Follies are deliberately built as ornaments.
They are often eccentric in design or construction. This is not strictly necessary; however, it is common for these structures to call attention to themselves through unusual details or form.
There is often an element of fakery in their construction. Perhaps the best example of this is the make-believe ruin: a folly which pretends to be the remains of an old building but which was in fact constructed in that state.

In England, these structures are also called "eye-catchers". This points to their basically decorative nature.

Related types
Follies fall within the general realm of fanciful and impractical architecture, and whether a particular structure is a folly is sometimes a matter of opinion. However, there are several types which are related but which can be distinguished from follies.

Fantasy and novelty buildings are essentially the converse of follies. Follies often look like real, usable buildings, but never are; novelty buildings are usable, but have fantastic shapes. The many American shops and water towers in the shapes of commonplace items, for example, are not properly follies.
Eccentric structures may resemble follies, but the mere presence of eccentricity is not proof that a building is a folly. Many mansions and castles are quite eccentric, but being purpose-built to be used as residences, they are not properly follies.
Some structures are popularly referred to as "follies" because they failed to fulfill their intended use. Their design and construction may be foolish, but in the architectural sense, they are not follies.
Visionary art structures frequently blur the line between artwork and folly, if only because it is rather often hard to tell what intent the artist had. The word "folly" carries the connotation that there is something frivolous about the builder's intent, and it is hard to say whether a structure like the Watts Towers was constructed "seriously". Some works (such as the massive complex by Ferdinand Cheval) are considered as follies because they are in the form of useful buildings, but are plainly constructions of extreme and intentional impracticality.
Amusement parks, fairgrounds, and expositions often have fantastical buildings and structures. Some of these are follies, and some are not; the distinction, again, comes in their usage. Shops, restaurants, and other amusements are often housed in strikingly odd and eccentric structures, but these are not follies. On the other hand, fake structures which serve no other purpose than decoration are also common, and these are follies.

History
Follies began as decorative accents on the great estates of the late 16th and early 17th centuries but they flourished especially in the two centuries which followed. Many estates were blessed with picturesque ruins of monastic houses and (in Italy) Roman villas; others, lacking such buildings, constructed their own sham versions of these romantic structures. Such structures were often dubbed "[name of architect or builder]'s Folly", after the single individual who commissioned or designed the project. However, very few follies are completely without a practical purpose. Apart from their decorative aspect, many originally had a use which was lost later, such as hunting towers. Follies are misunderstood structures, according to The Folly Fellowship, a charity that exists to celebrate the history and splendour of these often neglected buildings.

Follies are often found in parks or large grounds of houses and stately homes. Some were deliberately built to look partially ruined. They were especially popular from the end of the 16th century to the 18th century. Theme parks and world's fairs have often contained "follies", although such structures do serve a purpose of attracting people to those parks and fairs.

Famine Follies
The Irish Potato Famine of 1845-49 led to the building of several follies. The society of the day held that laissez faire, not a welfare state, was the appropriate form of civil management. The concept of a welfare state was a century away, and at that time reward without labour, even to those in need, was seen as misguided. However, to hire the needy for work on useful projects would deprive existing workers of their jobs. Thus, construction projects termed "famine follies" came to be built. These include: roads in the middle of nowhere, between two seemingly random points; screen and estate walls; piers in the middle of bogs; etc.

Examples
Follies can be found worldwide, but there seem to be many in Great Britain.

France
 Désert de Retz, folly garden in Chambourcy near Paris, France (18th century)
 Parc de la Villette in Paris has a number of modern follies by architect Bernard Tschumi.
 Ferdinand Cheval in Châteauneuf-de-Galaure, built what he called an Ideal Palace, seen as an example of naive architecture.

Malaysia
 Kellie's Castle, Perak

Hungary
Bory Castle at Székesfehérvár
Taródi Castle at Sopron
Vajdahunyad vára in the City Park of Budapest

India
 Overbury's Folly, Thalassery, Kerala

Ireland
 Casino at Marino
 Conolly's Folly

Italy
 The Bomarzo Gardens

Romania
 Iulia Hasdeu Castle

Russia
 Ruined towers in Peterhof, Tsarskoe Selo, Gatchina, and Tsaritsino
 Creaking Pagoda and Chinese Village in Tsarskoe Selo
 Dutch Admiralty in Tsarskoe Selo

Ukraine
 Swallow's Nest near Yalta

United Kingdom
 Ashton Memorial, Lancaster, England
 Beckford's Tower, Somerset, England
 Broadway Tower, The Cotswolds, England
 Bettisons Folly, Hornsea, England
 Black Castle Public House, Bristol, England
 The Cage at Lyme Park, Cheshire, England
 The Castle at Roundhay Park, Leeds, England
 Clavell Tower, Dorset, England
 Clytha Castle Monmouthshire
 The Caldwell Tower, Lugton, Renfrewshire, Scotland.
 Dunmore Pineapple, Falkirk, Scotland
 Faringdon Folly, Faringdon, Oxfordshire
 Flounder's Folly, Shropshire, England
 The Folly Tower at Pontypool, Wales
 Fonthill Abbey, Wiltshire, England
 Fort Belvedere, Surrey, England
 Freston Tower, near Ipswich, Suffolk
 Gothic Tower at Goldney Hall, Bristol
 The Great Pagoda at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London¨
 Gwrych Castle, one of Europe's largest follies, Abergele, North Wales
 Hawkstone Park, follies and gardens in Shropshire, England
 Hume Castle. Berwickshire, Scotland
 King Alfred's Tower, Stourhead, Wiltshire, England
 McCaig's Tower, Oban, Scotland
 Mow Cop Castle, Cheshire, England
 National Monument, Edinburgh, Scotland
 Old John, Bradgate Park, Leicestershire, England
 Penshaw Monument, Penshaw, Sunderland, England
 Perrott's Folly, Birmingham, England
 Pope's Grotto, Twickenham, south west London, England.
 Portmeirion, Wales
 Rushton Triangular Lodge, Northamptonshire (16th century)
 Severndroog Castle, Shooter's Hill, south-east London
 Stowe School has several follies in the grounds
 Sway Tower, New Forest, England
 Tattingstone Wonder, near Ipswich, Suffolk
 The Temple near Castle Semple Loch, Renfrewshire, Scotland.
 Wentworth Follies, Wentworth, South Yorkshire
 Williamson's tunnels, probably the largest underground folly in the world, Liverpool, England

United States
 Belvedere Castle, New York City
 Lawson Tower, Scituate, Massachusetts
 Lucy the Elephant, Margate City, New Jersey
 Bishop Castle, outside of Pueblo, Colorado
 Körner's Folly, Kernersville, North Carolina

Other websites
 The Folly Fellowship- An organization which celebrates architectural follies
Follies in the English Landscape
Follies and Monuments - A comprehensive catalogue of Follies within the UK
 Images of follies on Odd-stuff!
European Follies  - Book to be published 2007

References

Bibliography
Barton, Stuart Monumental Follies Lyle Publications, 1972
Folly Fellowship, The Follies Magazine, published quarterly
Folly Fellowship, The Follies Journal, published annually
Folly Fellowship, The Foll-e, an electronic bulletin published monthly and available free to all
Hatt, E. M. Follies National Benzole, London 1963
Headley, Gwyn & Meulenkamp, Wim, Follies Grottoes & Garden Buildings, Aurum Press, London 1999
Headley, Gwyn & Meulenkamp, Wim, Follies — A Guide to Rogue Architecture, Jonathan Cape, London 1990
Headley, Gwyn & Meulenkamp, Wim, Follies — A National Trust Guide, Jonathan Cape, London 1986
Headley, Gwyn Architectural Follies in America, John Wiley & Sons, New York 1996
Howley, James The Follies and Garden Buildings of Ireland Yale University Press, New Haven & London, 1993
Jackson, Hazelle Shellhouses and Grottoes, Shire Books, England, 2001
Jones, Barbara Follies & Grottoes, Constable, London 1953 & 1974
Meulenkamp, Wim Follies — Bizarre Bouwwerken in Nederland en België, Arbeiderpers, Amsterdam, 1995

Buildings and structures

Folly


The Mattapoisett River is an  river in southeastern Massachusetts, in the United States.

The river begins at Snipatuit Pond in Rochester and flows generally southwards through Mattapoisett to empty into Mattapoisett Harbor, an arm of Buzzards Bay. It flows through wetlands during much of its course.

Historically, the Mattapoisett River has yielded the bay's most abundant herring populations. For example, town reports for 1906 recorded that the river's total catch was 626,000 alewives, and a further 465,000 alewives were noted in the 1907 report. In the referenced 1920s report the river served for "flooding cranberry bogs and for mill purposes" and featured three herring weirs; the "Upper Herring Weir" in Rochester, the "Middle Weir" or "Church's Weir", and the "Lower Herring Weir" at the entrance to Mattapoisett Harbor.

Fish populations drastically declined during the twentieth century until they were almost extinguished, but local restoration efforts from the 1980s onwards have fostered a slow recovery. The principal restoration tactic has been to remove snags and other obstacles from the river that serve to impede fish migrations. The Lower Herring Weir is one of the few rivers emptying into Buzzards Bay that has electronic fish counters installed. Reports from Alewives Anonymous documented in the more recent Buzzards Bay National Estuary Program report show that the improvements peaked in 2000 with over 130,000, but dropped off again and have been below 20,000 since 2003.

Older residents refer to the Mattapoisett River as "the Herring Run", and a highway sign where the river flows under US Route 6 once identified the river by this unofficial name.

Since 1934, the river has been the venue for the Annual Rochester to Mattapoisett Memorial Day Boat Race.

References

 Buzzards Bay National Estuary Program
 Environmental Protection Agency
 A Report upon the Alewife Fisheries of Massachusetts - David L. Belding. Boston: Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Department of Conservation, Division of Fisheries and Game. 1920
 Herring Run Information for Buzzards Bay - Buzzards Bay National Estuary Program

External links

Rivers of Plymouth County, Massachusetts
Rochester, Massachusetts
Rivers of Massachusetts

Mattapoisett River


Libertarianism is a kind of politics that says the government should have less control over people's lives. It is based on the idea of maximum liberty. Libertarians believe that it is usually better to give people more free choice. They also say that many things could be done better by normal people instead of the government.

Libertarianism can be a kind of centre politics. Many of its beliefs come from classical liberalism. This usually means supporting a capitalist economy but with far more liberal freedoms. This is different from left-wing libertarianism or more right-wing types. But many libertatians do not believe in left vs. right politics. Libertarianism also has roots in anarchism and the Austrian School of economics. Some libertarians are part of the sovereign citizen movement.

Individual rights
Libertarians believe that no person can justly own or control the body of another person, what they call 'self-ownership' or 'individual sovereignty.' In simple words, every person has a right to control their own body.

In the 19th century, United States libertarians like William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, and Lysander Spooner were all abolitionists. Abolitionists were people who wanted to end slavery right away.

Garrison based his opposition to slavery on the idea of self-ownership. Since you have a natural right to control your own body, no one else has any right to steal that control from you. Garrison and Douglass both called slave masters 'man stealers.'

Stopping violence
If you have a right to control your own body, then no one has a right to start violence (or force) against you.

Some libertarians believe that all violence is unjust. These libertarians are often called "anarcho-pacifists". Robert LeFevre was a libertarian who rejected all violence. However, most libertarians believe that there are some ways violence can be justified.

The libertarian Murray N. Rothbard said that it would be wrong to kill someone for stealing a pack of gum. If you steal gum, this is an act of violence against the property owner. The owner has a right to use defensive violence to get the gum back, but killing the thief goes too far. That is too much force because it is not equal to the force used by the thief. Punishment must be equal to the crime. A student and colleague of his, Walter Block, said that a punishment should not be equal to the crime, but rather enough to make up for the damage the crime caused plus how much it cost to catch the criminal.

Some libertarians believe that it is your moral duty to defend yourself and your property if you can. This belief is usually held by Objectivists. These people believe that pacifism is immoral. Most libertarians disagree with this view.

All libertarians believe that it is wrong to start violence against any person or against what he or she owns. They call this the "non-aggression principle."

Property
Ownership is the right to control something. Property is the thing that you control.

Libertarians believe that property rights come from self-ownership. This means that because you have a right to control your own body, you also have a right to control what you make with it.

The English philosopher John Locke said that a person comes to own something by using it. So, if you turn an area that no-one else owns into a farm and use it, that area becomes your property. This is called the "homestead principle."

Libertarians also say that you can become a legitimate owner by receiving something as a gift or by trading it with someone for something they own. You do not become a legitimate owner by stealing. You also do not become a legitimate owner by simply saying you own something. If you have not "homesteaded" the thing or received it through trade or gift, you do not own it.

Government
Libertarians are opposed to states (or governments) creating any "laws" that tell people what they can and cannot do with their own bodies. The only legitimate laws are laws that say a person may not start violence against other people or their legitimate property. All "laws" stopping people from doing nonviolent things should be repealed, according to libertarians. (These "laws" are usually called "victimless crimes" because there is no victim if there is no harm.)

In most countries, the state (or government) takes tax money from the people. All libertarians support cutting taxes back, and some libertarians believe the state should not take tax money at all. Libertarians think people can take care of the poor without the government. They believe that people should pay for the things that they want to use, but not have to pay for other things that they do not want. Tax evasion (refusal to pay taxes to the state) is a victimless crime. Libertarians would prefer to see taxation replaced with lotteries, user fees, and endowments.

Libertarians think everyone should be allowed to decide what is good or bad for her/his own body. Libertarians think if people want to drive cars without wearing seat belts, it is their own choice. They should not be forcibly stopped from doing that, not even by the state. If a person wants to donate all of her/his money to a charity, or waste it all gambling, that is also something she/he should decide for herself/himself. No one should be forcibly stopped from doing that, not even by the state. Libertarians even say that if adults want to use harmful drugs, they should be allowed to do that, even if it spoils their lives. It is the drug user's own choice because it is the drug user's own body. As long as the drug user does not start using violence against other people or their legitimate property, no one should use violence against the drug user or the drug user's legitimate property, not even the government.

Many libertarians also believe that families and friends should look after people so that they will not use drugs, drive without seat belts, or do other things that are dangerous for them. But no one can force others to do things that they do not want to do, or to stop them from doing nonviolent things that they want to do.

Types of Libertarians
There are two broad basic types of libertarians.

Minarchism
Minarchists are libertarians who believe that society should have a state with very limited power. They believe that free markets are the most moral and efficient way of providing goods and services. They typically believe that the only things the state should provide are police and judges to make sure that people obey the laws, and a military to make sure that no one attacks the country. Some minarchists believe in having a small amount of taxation and limited provision of public goods such as international diplomacy and public parks.

Two famous minarchist libertarians are Robert Nozick and Ayn Rand. Nozick believed that the only legitimate thing a state can do is have a police force. He called his legitimate state a "night-watchman state." Ayn Rand believed that the state should have a police force and a court system.

Anarchism
Libertarian anarchists usually call themselves anarcho-capitalists, free-market anarchists, individualist anarchists, or just anarchists.

Libertarian anarchists do not believe the state is needed. They believe that people can organise their own lives and businesses. They want to replace the state with voluntary organisations, including charities, private companies, voluntary unions, and mutual aid societies. They also want to end all forced taxation.

They say that state police can be replaced with "DROs" (Dispute Resolution Organisations) or "private protection agencies." They also say that state judges can be replaced with "private arbitration."

A famous libertarian anarchist thinker was Murray N. Rothbard. Others include Lysander Spooner, Benjamin R. Tucker, and Linda & Morris Tannehill.

Other types
 Libertarian constitutionalists are libertarians who believe that the only legitimate things a state can do are those things that have been approved in a constitution. Libertarian constitutionalists include Ron Paul.
 Agorists are revolutionary libertarian anarchists who believe that we should fight the state through what they call "counter-economics." Agorists include Samuel Edward Konkin, III and Brad Spangler.
 Objectivists are libertarians who believe in atheism. They believe that humans are able to know things, as opposed to skepticism, which is the idea that people cannot know things with certainty. They believe reason is the only path to truth, and that a system of free capitalism is the only ethical system of government. The most prominent objectivist is Ayn Rand. (There are also some "anarcho-objectivists", such as Linda & Morris Tannehill and Roy A. Childs, Jr.)
 Left-libertarians are libertarian leftists who believe that a free market system does not lead to more freedom and equality. They are often very open to ideas such as worker self-management and feminism.They also frequently fall into the category of civil libertarians, since they do not generally support economic freedom but usually support civil liberties. These beliefs often work well with anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism. Left-libertarians include Benjamin R. Tucker and Roderick T. Long.
 Anarcho-pacifists are libertarians who believe that no force is ever legitimate, not even in self-defence. Although Robert LeFevre did not call himself an "anarcho-pacifist" (or even an "anarchist"), he was one.
 Autarchism is a form of libertarian anarchism which supports individual freedom, self-reliance, and individualism. To put it simply, autarchists believe in the philosophy: "Control yourself". Robert LeFevre is a self-described autarchist.
 Georgism is a form of libertarinism which supports a single tax on land. They seek to use this tax as a way to solve ecological and social problems.
 Voluntaryism is another term for libertarian anarchism. Voluntaryists believe that only voluntary actions are legitimate. This means that all government force is illegitimate, and thus immoral. The first libertarian to call himself a voluntaryist was Auberon Herbert.
 Civil libertarians are people who believe in the preservation of civil liberties, such as free speech. However civil libertarians do not necessarily support economical freedom.

References

Libertarianism


Mayte Martín (born in Barcelona, Spain, April 19, 1965) is a flamenco cantaora (singer), bolero singer, and composer.

Early life

Martín started singing as a small child, and, at the age of 10, she won an amateur singing contest organized by a supermarket. After this, she started performing regularly as an amateur at the peñas flamencas in Barcelona and its outskirts, and became a professional at the age of 16. In the meantime, she acquired a solid knowledge of flamenco styles, mainly by listening intensively to recordings of flamenco cantaores like Juan Valderrama, Manolo Caracol, Camarón de la Isla, Lole Montoya and most of all, Pastora Pavón, also known as La Niña de los Peines. She also received some formal musical training, and practiced her skills as a "cantaora de atrás" (singer for flamenco dance).

Career
In 1987, she won the first prize or Lámpara Minera at the Concurso Nacional de La Unión (also known as Festival de las Minas). Two years later, she won the Antonio Chacón Prize (bestowed on the best malagueña at the Concurso Nacional de Arte Flamenco de Córdoba). At the same time, she started an international career after being chosen by Peter Gabriel to perform at Womad Festivals. In 1994, she recorded her first album, Muy Frágil, with guitarist Chicuelo and arrangements by Joan Albert Amargós (the later a regular contributor to other well-known flamenco musicians like Paco de Lucía and Camarón de la Isla). In 2000, she published her second flamenco recording, 'Querencia', which was nominated for the Latin Grammy Award to the Best Flamenco Album in 2001.

Although already well-established as a solo cantaora, she resumed her work as a singer for dance when she met bailaora Belén Maya in 1996, with whom she has toured the world with the works Mayte Martín + Belén Maya (since 1996) and Flamenco de Cámara (since 2003), winning international critical acclaim.

In 1997, she received the Barcelona City Award, granted by the City Council, and the National Music Award in the category of "Best Flamenco Composer".

In 1993, she started touring with jazz pianist Tete Montoliu, a professional relationship that lasted until Montoliu's death in 1997. Together, they offered a personal view on boleros in their live recording 'Free Boleros', recorded in 1996. In her second bolero recording, 'Tiempo de Amar', (2002), Omara Portuondo appeared as a guest artist in some of the tracks.

In 2005, she celebrated her 30 years as a performing artist at the Palau de la Música Catalana, with a   entitled 'Mis 30 años de amor al Arte', with which she is now touring Spain and other European countries.

In June 2006, she takes part in an homage tour for Leonard Cohen together with Martiriio, Kiko Veneno, Javier Colis and Luz Casal, with a Spanish version of "Hey, That's no Way to Say Goodbye". The tour was later recorded in a CD called "According to Leonard Cohen".

In 2007, she was requested by classical pianists duo Katia and Marielle Labeque for a project involving Spanish and classical music, which toured for several years. Other musicians like Joan Albert Amargos and Lluis Vidal who composed the arrangements for two pianos. The recording included traditional songs as well as compositions by Manuel de Falla, Federico García Lorca, Enrique Granados, Joaquín Rodrigo, Paco de Lucía, and by Mayte Martín herself.

In 2009, she was requested by poet José Luis Ortiz Nuevo to compose music for the poems of Malaga-born poet Manuel Alcantara, for the flamenco festival of Málaga, which later became the CD Al cantar a Manuel, recorded with guitarists José Luis Montón and Juan Ramón Caro, percussionist Chico Fargas, among other musicians.

In 2012, after breaking all ties with the recording industry, she decides to make a new recording with the help of crowdfunding, through the crowd financing portal Verkami. On this occasion, she records her live performances of bolero and other Latin American music in the Barcelona Venue Luz de Gas. The recording is issued with the title Cosas de dos.

In 2013, with guitarists Jose Luis Montón and Juan Ramón Caro and percussionist Chico Fargas, she creates a new project for the Barcelona flamenco festival, "Por los muertos del cante", an heterodox reading of traditional flamenco songs.

Her 2018 album Tempo Rubato, is a collaboration with a string quartet.

Critics' reviews
"A born artist. [...] An important number of cantaores of the younger generation have been influence by her. Her image is closer to that of Camarón or José Mercé than that of a typical woman cantaora, and she sings flamenco with moving sweetness and deep knowledge of the essence." (José Miguel Gamboa and Pedro Calvo, Guía libre del flamenco, 2001)

"The best female flamenco voice of her generation, undoubtedly; the most complete 'cantaora'. She sings everything, and she sings everything well. At this rate, this 'cantaora' [...] will add her name to the great ones in history." (Ángel Álvarez Caballero, La discografía ideal del flamenco, 1995)

Recordings
Muy Frágil, K-Industria Cultural, 1994
Free Boleros, K-Industria Cultural, 1996
Querencia, Virgin, 2000
Tiempo de Amar, Virgin, 2002
De fuego y de agua, KLM, 2008, with the sisters Katia and Marielle Labèque
Al cantar a Manuel, Nuevos Medios S.A 2009
Cosas de dos, 2012
Tempo Rubato, 2018

References

External links
Mayte Martin's official Web (in Spanish)
Mayte Martin's link info on Flamenco World  Contains some audio clips.

1965 births
Living people
Flamenco singers
Spanish women singers
Singers from Barcelona
Women in Latin music

Mayte Martín


The  (), formally called  (), is a Catholic monastery founded in Vienna in 1155 when Henry II of Austria brought Irish monks to Vienna. The monks did not come directly from Ireland, but came instead from Scots Monastery in Regensburg, Germany. Since 1625, the abbey has been a member of the Austrian Congregation, now within the Benedictine Confederation.

History

In the early Middle Ages, Irish monks were actively involved in missionary work. Ireland was known in Latin as "Scotia Major"; therefore, in German, Irish monks were called "Schotten" (Scots) or "Iroschotten". The monasteries that they founded were called "Schottenklöster". In the foundation documents of the Schottenstift, Henry II specified that it was to be occupied exclusively by these "Iroschotten" ("Solos elegimus Scottos").

Henry II was elevated from the rank of Margrave (Markgraf) to that of Duke (Herzog) in 1156. He moved his residence from Klosterneuburg to Vienna and required a monastery for his new city. In the Middle Ages, monasteries were not only places for prayer, but also and above all, repositories of knowledge. The foundation of a monastery gave the ruler support for his administration (for example, schools to educate competent scribes). It also provided a library, a hospice and old age home, architects, educated men, and priests to conduct services in the new ducal city. The "Schotten" would also be involved with the University of Vienna, which was founded in 1365.

Henry granted the new monastery extensive privileges. Construction of the first monastery started in 1160, and the structure was consecrated in 1200. The monastery was outside the city walls of Vienna. The monks also built a hospice for pilgrims and crusaders, who often passed through Vienna on their way to Jerusalem.

The first church was a three-aisled, Romanesque, pillar church with a single apse. Henry II was buried there upon his death in 1177.

A fire in the year 1276 destroyed the cloister, along with many other buildings in Vienna.

In 1418, Duke Albert V seized the cloister during the Melker Reform, an attempt to revive the original ideals of Benedictine monasticism, and settled a community of Benedictines in their place. These new residents, however, continued to be known as the "Schotten".

In the middle of the 15th century, the monastery was distinguished through the literary activities of its schoolmaster, Wolfgang Schmeltzl, and his successor, Johannes Rasch.

The collapse of the tower, struck by a lightning bolt in 1638, was seized as an opportunity to completely rebuild the church, a project undertaken by the architects Andrea d'Allio the Younger and Silvestro Carlone. The church was somewhat shortened, and the tower no longer stood directly beside the basilica. Joachim von Sandrart provided the church with a new altar piece, which today is kept in the prelates' hall. After the Turkish siege, the church was restored. As the Baroque west tower was barely higher than the façade itself, its extension has often been proposed, but this has never come to fruition.

Around 1700 the great Baroque musician Johann Fux was the organist at the Schottenstift.

In 1773 and 1774, a new priory, with school, was built by Andreas Zach in the grounds of an open air cemetery. As it resembled a piece of furniture, it became popularly known as the Schubladkastenhaus ("the chest-of-drawers house"). Directly next door stood the Hotel Römischer Kaiser, where the first public performance of a song by Franz Schubert was held.

In 1807 the Schottengymnasium, an institute for secondary education, was founded by imperial decree.

Around 1830, the auxiliary buildings of the Abbey, in particular those that bordered on the Freyung, were renovated and partially rebuilt by Joseph Kornhäusel.

In the 1880s the church was restored and partially renovated. From this period date the ceiling paintings by Julius Schmid, and a new high altar, built from sketches by Heinrich von Ferstel, with a mosaic by Michael Rieser.

In the court, there is a Schwarze Muttergottes (a "Black Madonna"), designed in 1825 by Peter Nobile. The fountain, with a statue of Henry II, is the work of Sebastian Wagner.

Museum

The museum has been reinstalled twice in recent history, in 1994/95  and in 2004/5. It contains, among other notable items, the Schottenmeisteraltar from ca. 1470, which is not only a significant work of late Gothic art, but also an important historical source, on account of its views of the city.

Open on Thursday until Friday, 11 am to 5 pm, and Saturday, 11 am to 4.30 pm. Guided Tour on Saturday, 2.30 pm (church, crypt, library and museum).

Location
The Schottenstift is located on the Freyung (Freyung 6, A-1010 Wien) in Vienna, Austria.

References

Further reading
 Heinrich Ferenczy (Text), Christoph Merth (Fotos): Das Schottenstift und seine Kunstwerke. Orac, Vienna 1980, .
 Franz Goldhann (Hrsg.): Gülten-Buch des Schottenklosters in Wien v. J. 1314–1327. In: Quellen und Forschungen zur vaterländischen Geschichte, Literatur und Kunst. Braumüller, Vienna 1849, S. 163–208.
 Cölestin Roman Rapf: Das Schottenstift. (= Wiener Geschichtsbücher; Bd. 13). Zsolnay, Vienna and Hamburg 1974, .

External links

 Viennapass.de/

Buildings and structures in Innere Stadt
Religion in Vienna
Benedictine monasteries in Austria
12th century in Austria
1150s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1155 establishments in Europe
Religious organizations established in the 1150s
Irish monastic foundations in continental Europe
Establishments in the Duchy of Austria
Religious museums in Austria
Art museums and galleries in Vienna
Burial sites of the House of Süpplinburger

Schottenstift