The Springfield Model 1795 was a .69 caliber flintlock musket manufactured in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in the United States.

The Model 1795 was the first musket to be produced in the United States by Eli Whitney at both the Springfield and Harpers Ferry U.S. armories. It was based heavily on the Charleville Model 1763/66 which had been imported in large numbers from the French during the American Revolution and which at the time comprised the largest number of muskets in U.S. arsenals at about 20,000 muskets. The Model 1795 was used in the War of 1812, after which shortcomings in both the design and manufacturing process of the Model 1795 led to the development of the Springfield Model 1812 at Springfield only, and eventually the Springfield Model 1816 at both armories.

Characteristics
The Model 1795, a very elongated musket, retained many of the characteristics of the Charleville on which it was based. It had a  long .69 caliber barrel, a  stock, and a total length of . The original version had the bayonet lug on the bottom of the barrel but this was later moved to the top. Minor changes were made throughout production inclusive of a shorter barrel length of  on the later Harpers Ferry weapons. Barrels of Harpers Ferry Model 1795s were serial numbered up to some point in 1812: Model 1795's were never serial numbered. Springfield began the Model 1812 improvements in 1814, but Harpers Ferry continued on with the production of the Model 1795 until at least 1819 (early 1819 examples still used the Model 1795 lockplate) and never produced the Model 1812. Eventually, both armories incorporated improvements into the Model 1816 flintlock which were after a few years virtually identical. Most, but not all, parts will interchange on the Model 1816 muskets but the hand-crafted parts, and lack of set standards and patterns on the earlier Model 1795 weapons often means parts will not interchange easily.

Typical of smoothbore muskets, the Model 1795 had an effective range of about  to . The Model 1795 fired a smaller round than the British .75 caliber Brown Bess, but the Model 1795 also had both a slightly longer range and slightly better accuracy than the Brown Bess musket. This gave the American forces an advantage of range when they faced British forces in the War of 1812.

Production
The Model 1795 was manufactured at the United States Armory and Arsenal at Springfield, which was the first armory in the United States, at least as early as 1799. Earlier versions prior to this date probably were produced but were not dated. Starting in 1801, possibly as early as 1800, it was also produced in the then new United States Armory and Arsenal at Harpers Ferry.
Several differences between the Springfield Model 1795 and the Harpers Ferry Model 1795 have led many to label the Harpers Ferry version as a significantly different model. Quite a few independent contractors also made the weapon as they were in constant demand. The federal armories simply could not make enough muskets to meet demand with the labor force they had during these early years. Only about two dozen artisans worked in the Harpers Ferry arsenal around 1800, and making the muskets from raw materials was a very labor-intensive task. Approximately 80,000 Springfield Model 1795 muskets were produced while about 70,000 were produced at Harpers Ferry.

Service history
Model 1795s were used throughout the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War of 1846–48, and the American Civil War of 1861–65. Most were converted to percussion caps either at the armories or by private individuals, but records reflect that many in the South were issued an original flintlock at the beginning of the Civil War until the Confederates could convert them to percussion. There is some evidence that some were in fact never converted at all from flintlock. The effective service life of the Model 1795 thus extends through 1865.

The Model 1795 was also used by some members of the Lewis and Clark expedition.

See also
 Springfield musket

References

External links

Springfield firearms
Muskets
American Civil War weapons
Weapons of the Confederate States of America

Model 1795 Musket


The Temple of the Sibyl (in Polish, Świątynia Sybilli) is a colonnaded round monopteral temple-like structure  at Puławy, Poland,  built at the turn of the 19th century as a museum by Izabela Czartoryska.

History
The "Temple of the Sibyl" at Puławy, also known as the Temple of Memory, opened in 1801.  The structure was modeled after the similar monopteral "Temple of Vesta" at Tivoli, Italy, the site of the Tiburtine Sibyl, which was well known throughout Europe in engravings.  The Puławy temple, designed by Polish architect Chrystian Piotr Aigner, memorialized Polish history and culture, and the glories and miseries of human life. Items kept in the Temple of the Sibyl included the Grunwald Swords and a large "Royal Casket" containing portraits and personal items of Poland's monarchs and queens.

During the November Uprising of 1830–31, the museum was closed.  Izabela Czartoryska's son Adam Jerzy Czartoryski evacuated surviving collections to Paris, France, where he housed them at the Hôtel Lambert. His son Władysław Czartoryski later reopened the museum in 1878 in Kraków, in Austrian Poland, as the Czartoryski Museum.

Prus
In 1884, the Temple of the Sibyl was used by the Polish writer Bolesław Prus as the setting for his micro-story, "Mold of the Earth."

The story's action takes place adjacent to the Temple, where there is a boulder overgrown with molds.  At a certain moment the boulder magically transforms into a globe.

In his one-and-a-half-page micro-story, Prus identifies human societies with molds that, over the ages, blindly and impassively contest the surface of the globe.  He thus provides a metaphor for the competitive struggle for existence that goes on among human communities.

In 1869, then-22-year-old Bolesław Prus had briefly studied at the Agricultural and Forestry Institute that had been established on the old Czartoryski estate at Puławy.  Earlier, he had spent several years of his early childhood in Puławy.

See also
"Mold of the Earth"
Pythia
Temple of Vesta, Tivoli
Tiburtine Sibyl
Royal Baths Park

Notes

References
 Christopher Kasparek, "Two Micro-Stories by Bolesław Prus," The Polish Review, 1995, no. 1, pp. 99–103.
 Edward Pieścikowski, Bolesław Prus, 2nd ed., Warsaw, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1985, .
 Zygmunt Szweykowski, Twórczość Bolesława Prusa (The Art of Bolesław Prus), 2nd ed., Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1972.

Museums in Lublin Voivodeship
Buildings and structures in Puławy

Temple of the Sibyl


The Moers Festival is an annual international music festival in Moers, Germany. The festival has changed from concentrating on free jazz to including world and pop music, though it still invites many avant-garde jazz musicians. Performers at Moers include Lester Bowie, Fred Frith, Jan Garbarek, Herbie Hancock, Abdullah Ibrahim, David Murray, Sun Ra, Archie Shepp, and Cecil Taylor. The festival is officially named "mœrs festival" with lowercase letters.

History

The festival was founded in 1971 by Burkhard Hennen. Three years later, he formed Moers Music to sell performances recorded at the festival.

In the early years the festival took place in the paved yard of the castle. In 1975 it was moved to a nearby park because of increased attendance. After a few years outdoors, it moved to a large venue. African Dance Night was added in 1985. Musicians such as Mory Kanté, Salif Keita, Cheb Mami, and Youssou N'Dour played there. After the artistic director changed in 2005, the event was discontinued. In 2005, after 34 years as artistic director, Hennen handed the job to Reiner Michalke. After Michalke, the position went to Tim Isfort, a musician who grew up in Moers.

Due to financial problems in the 2000s, the festival was reduced to three days.

Selected discography
1974: Anthony Braxton – Solo: Live at Moers Festival
1974: Anthony Braxton – Quartet: Live at Moers Festival
1974: Frank Wright Quartet - Unity
1976: Anthony Braxton and George E. Lewis – Elements of Surprise
1976: John Surman – Live at Moers Festival
1977: World Saxophone Quartet – Point of No Return
1978: Phillip Wilson Quartet – Live at Moers Festival
1978: Wadada Leo Smith – The Mass on the World
1979: David Murray/Sunny Murray Trio – Live at Moers
1987: Reichlich Weiblich – Live at Moers Festival 87
1993: Jamaaladeen Tacuma with Basso Nouveau – The Night of Chamber Music
1993: Richard Teitelbaum – Cyberband
2005: James Choice Orchestra – Live at Moers

2018: Sebastian Gramss' States of Play - Live at Moers Festival (vinyl)

References

External links

Music festivals established in 1972
Festival
Jazz festivals in Germany
Culture of North Rhine-Westphalia
1972 establishments in Germany

Moers Festival


Anabaptists are Protestant Christians. The word anabaptism comes from the Greek language, meaning "to baptize again". The followers of these movements hold that people should be baptized after they are believers, denying infant baptism. This is called believer's baptism. Infants, by their doctrine, can not be validly baptized, as they cannot decide how they want to achieve salvation.

They arose as part of the Radical wing of the Reformation of 16th century Europe. The best-known Anabaptists today are the Mennonites, the  Amish, and the Hutterites.

Christian movements and denominational families
Protestant Reformation

Anabaptist


The Chrysostom Monastery () was a monastery in Moscow. It was consecrated to Saint John Chrysostom (Russian: Ivan Zlatoust).

History
The cloister to the east from the Kitai-gorod was first mentioned in 1412 when a Novgorod archdeacon was buried there. In 1478, Grand Prince Ivan III, who had a suburban palace nearby, had the wooden cathedral rebuilt in stone. When a Crimean Khan Devlet I Giray attacked Moscow in 1571, the monastery was burnt down. It was later restored, only to be damaged again in 1611 during the Time of Troubles.

In 1660, Ivan III's stone cathedral burnt down and was replaced by a new five-domed cathedral, which survived into the 20th century. In 1706, the monastery hegumen was raised to the rank of archmandrite. In 1737, the Chrysostom Monastery was gutted by fire, but it would be restored in 1738–1740.

The monastery subsisted owing to the donations from the noblemen who had their estates nearby, notably the Counts Apraksin and Rumyantsev. Some members of these families, particularly those who served in the Navy, were buried there: Matvei Apraksin, Fyodor Apraksin, Alexander Rumyantsev, Ivan Akimovich Senyavin.

In 1742, Empress Elizabeth visited the Chrysostom Monastery and donated 2,000 rubles for the construction of the Church of Saint Elizabeth. In 1764, the monastery was granted an annual allowance of 806 rubles and 30 kopecks, which would be increased to 1460 rubles during the reign of Paul I. During the Patriotic War of 1812, the sacristy of the monastery was moved to Vologda. The monastery itself was damaged by the French and then restored in 1816.

By 1907, there had been an archimandrite, 11 monks and 2 novices in the monastery. In the early 20th century, a parish school was opened on the grounds.

In 1933, the buildings of the Chrysostom Monastery were dismantled by the Soviets under pretext of their dilapidation. On its place, a constructivist edifice was erected. The graves of the Russian naval leaders were desecrated. The monastic cells of the Chrysostom Monastery, built in 1862, can still be seen in Maly Zlatoustinsky Lane in Moscow.

Online references
 Chrysostom Abbey on www.pravoslavie.ru

Monasteries in Moscow
Russian Orthodox monasteries in Russia
Former religious buildings and structures in Russia
Christian monasteries established in the 15th century
15th-century establishments in Russia
1933 disestablishments in the Soviet Union
Cultural heritage monuments of regional significance in Moscow

Chrysostom Monastery


Melchior Borchgrevinck  (1572 – 20 December 1632) was a Dutch-Danish musician, composer, and court Kapellmeister. He was born to Bonaventura Borchgrevinck, a Dutch-Danish musician and court Kapellmeister. He had three siblings: two sisters and a brother, Heinrich.

On 1 January 1587 Frederick II appointed Dutchman Bonaventura Borchgrevinck as conductor for his musicians and singers, because a large contingent were Dutch nationals. The orchestra was composed of 15 trumpeters, 9 instrumentalists (strings and woodwinds) and 20 singers. In July of the same year, Bonaventura Borchgrevinck was fired for reasons unknown, but son Melchior, an instrumentalist, was in the king's service the rest of his life.

A year later, in 1588, the king died and his minor son Christian became King Christian IV. From then until his coronation in 1596, his regents cut back on expenses at court. After his coronation the king improved upon the Royal Music Corps, turning it into one of the finest in Europe. In time Melchior Borchgrevinck was recognized as a leader amongst his fellow musicians. The number of instrumentalists was increased to 15. 23 singers and 33 trumpeters were added. A fanfare from the coronation feast called "Melchers Musica" may have been written by Melchior Borchgrevinck.

Borchgrevinck was repeatedly sent on foreign travel in the music service to Danzig and London to buy instruments and to Venice in particular to learn from Giovanni Gabrieli. He was the leader of a group which was composed of singers Wilhelm Egbertsen (1596–1599) and Truid Aagesen (1596–1621) and instrumentalists Hans Nielsen (1599–1624) and Mogens Pedersøn (about 1585–1623).

Over the years his salary increased several times and in 1601 he became canon of Roskilde.  Canonry, at that time, was a sort of lifetime wage or pension and related housing that was awarded to the King's officers instead of or in addition to actual wages. From 1611 he was the de facto leader of music and from 1618 he held the title of court Kapellmeister. In 1627, because of the high cost of warfare the king had to reduce government spending and he fired Borchgrevinck at which time he moved to Roskilde and lived there. He was reinstated in March 1631 but died in 1632. His great-grandson Leonard Christian Borchgrevinck founded the Norwegian branch of the family whose descendants can still be found in Norway as well as the United States.

Music
As is typical for composers from this period in the History of Denmark very little of his music survived to this day. Borchgrevinck published a madrigal collection in 2 volumes: "Giardino di nuovo bellissimo varii fiori musicali scieltissimi" (Copenhagen 1605–06). Most numbers are by other composers, but a few are by him. The following year he published: "IX Psalms of David, with four votes rimvis exposed" (Copenhagen 1607). This work is probably lost. A dance for 5 Instruments was published in the Paduanen and Galliarden Collection, volume 1 (Hamburg 1607).

Other Musicians with Christian IV
William Brade (1594–1596, 1599–1606 and 1620–1622), John Dowland (1598–1606), Jan Tollius (1601–1603), Vincentius Bertholusius (1607–1608) and later Heinrich Schütz (1633–35 and 1642–1644).

References

 DaCapo
 The Virtual Music Library
 Roskilde local historical archives (with picture)
 Danish Biographical Encyclopedia 1905
 Salmonsen's Encyclopedia
 Baci Amorosi E Cari
 Werner Icking Music Archive
 The Family Borchgrevinck

External links

Danish composers
Male composers
1570s births
1632 deaths

Melchior Borchgrevinck


Rodolfo Celletti (1917–2004) was an Italian musicologist, critic, voice teacher, and novelist. Considered one of the leading scholars of the operatic voice and the history of operatic performance, he published many books and articles on the subject as well as several novels.

Biography
Celletti was born in Rome on 13 June 1917. He served in the Italian army from 1937 to 1943, and after World War II, took a degree in law from the University of Rome. He became a successful business executive in Milan, and then created a second career for himself as a (self-taught) musicologist and critic.

For many years he was the music critic of the Italian weekly magazine Epoca and was a regular contributor to la Repubblica, L'opera, Nuova rivista musicale italiana, Opera, and Amadeus. In addition to his articles in specialist publications and The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, he published several books, most notably Le grandi voci (1964), at the time considered the most complete biographical and critical source available on the great operatic voices and Storia del belcanto (1983), which has since been translated into English, French, German and Czech.

From 1980 to 1993 he was the Artistic Director of the Festival della Valle d'Itria in Martina Franca. The Festival, which specializes in performing rare operas and the original versions of operas still in the standard repertoire, also provides coaching in vocal performance for young singers. Celletti taught voice both privately and in master classes, many of them at the Festival della Valle d'Itria. Amongst his former pupils are Denia Mazzola, Mariana Nicolesco, Angelo Manzotti, William Matteuzzi and Ramón Vargas. Another eminent pupil of his, Raina Kabaivanska, will not fail to show her warm appreciation for his talents as a master of bel canto.

Celletti died in October 2004 at the age of 87. In August of the following year, the Festival della Valle d'Itria performed Cherubini's Requiem in C minor in his memory.

Books

Non-fiction
Le grandi voci: Dizionario critico, biografico dei cantanti, Istituto per la collaborazione culturale, 1964
Il teatro d'opera in disco, Rizzoli, 1976.
Storia del belcanto, Discanto, 1983 (also published in English translation as A History of Bel Canto, Clarendon Press, 1991, )
Memorie d'un ascoltatore: Cronache musicali vere e immaginarie, Il Saggiatore, 1985.
Il canto, Garzanti (Edizioni Speciali Vallardi), 1989
Voce di tenore, IdeaLibri, 1989.
Storia dell'opera italiana, Garzanti, 2000.
La grana della voce: opere, direttori e cantanti, Baldini & Castoldi, 2000.

Novels
Viale Bianca Maria, Feltrinelli, 1961 (also published in English translation as Marta, George Braziller, 1962, )
Gli squadriglieri, Bompiani, 1975
Tu che le vanità, Rizzoli, 1981
L'infermiera inglese, Giunti, 1995.

Notes and references

Enciclopedia della musica, "Celletti, Rodolfo",  De Agostini Scuola SpA . Accessed 20 March 2009.
"Fabris, Dinko "Romeo e Giulietta tutto al femminile per il Valle d' Itria", la Repubblica (Bari edition), 6 August 2005, p. 12. Accessed 20 March 2009.
Festival della Valle d'Itria, Requiem in do minore di Cherubini, August 2005. Accessed 20 March 2009.
Healey, Robin, Twentieth-century Italian literature in English translation: an annotated bibliography 1929-1997, University of Toronto Press, 1998.
Il Sagittario, Storia dell'opera italiana di Rodolfo Celletti, Accessed 20 March 2009.
Sadie, Stanley (ed.), "Celletti, Rodolfo" in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera Vol. 1, Grove's Dictionaries of Music, 1992.

Voice teachers
Writers from Rome
1917 births
2004 deaths
20th-century Italian novelists
20th-century Italian male writers
20th-century Italian musicologists

Rodolfo Celletti


Stoke-on-Trent is a city in Staffordshire in the West Midlands region of England. It is also a unitary authority.

Stoke-on-Trent was the home of the pottery industry in the United Kingdom. It was a very important exporter in the late 18th, the 19th and up to about 1960. It is commonly known as The Potteries. The industry was killed off by cheap Chinese pottery after the Second World War, and by the even cheaper plastic homeware.

Coal was its other employment. The furnaces of the kilns needed coal. Coal was also a commodity which was exported from the area.

The city is unusual in that it is made up of a cluster of six towns  Longton, Fenton, Stoke (Stoke-upon-Trent), Hanley, Burslem, and Tunstall.

Stoke-on-Trent is known for the Supermarine Spitfire, pottery, oatcakes, the spark plug, Sir Stanley Mathews, Robbie Williams, Slash, Arnold Bennett, Captain Smith and Stoke City F.C. (Stoke City is the second oldest professional football club: it was founded in 1863).

Other websites
 Stoke-on-Trent City Council
 BBC Stoke website
 The Potteries
 Local Information from The Sentinel newspaper
 Staffordshire and Stoke-on-Trent Archive Service
 Exploring the Potteries

Stoke-on-Trent


León Rodrigo Krauze Turrent (Mexico City, January 4, 1975) is a Mexican journalist, author, and news anchor.

Personal life

He is the son of Enrique Krauze and is married with children. Krauze holds a master's degree from New York University.

Career

He began his career as a sports journalist, focusing on football. That passion led him to become not only an expert and official chronicler of the Mexico national team but also a highly regarded historian: he has written four books and eighty documentaries on the history of "fútbol" in Mexico.

Since 1997, Krauze has covered politics in the United States, for both American and Mexican media outlets. In 2005 he published "La Casa Dividida," an account of the first five years of the Bush presidency.  Krauze has interviewed leading political figures such as Juan Manuel Santos, Nick Clegg, Felipe Calderón, Enrique Peña Nieto, Shimon Peres, and Barack Obama.

His work has been published in Foreign Affairs, The New Republic, Foreign Policy, Newsweek, Los Angeles Times, El País, and Letras Libres. Currently, he is a contributor at The Daily Beast, a weekly columnist for Mexico's El Universal, and hosts the Gabfest en Español podcast for Slate.  he has been a professor of journalism at the USC Annenberg School.

For five years, Krauze hosted "Segunda Emisión", Mexico's highest rated afternoon radio newsmagazine. Upon moving to television, Krauze quickly became a success as well, anchoring "Hora 21", the main newscast for Foro TV, Televisa's 24/7 news network. Krauze was the main anchor at Univision's Los Angeles station, KMEX serving for 10 years, his last broadcast was January 14, 2022 and starting January 24th will join Univision national news out of Miami alongside Patricia Janiot. Krauze also hosts a daily political commentary radio show on Univision's Los Angeles flagship talk radio KTNQ, called "En boca de León" ("In the Lion's Mouth").<ref Insideradio: Univision Relaunches L.A.'s KTNQ With 14 Hours of Local Talk. Sep 13, 2019</ref>  He's also a regular at Fusion, where he hosted the show "Open Source".

Published work
"El Vuelo de Eluán", FCE, México, 2005.
"La Casa Dividida", Planeta, México, 2005.
"La Mesa - Historias de Nuestra Gente", HarperCollins, 2016

References

External links

Letras Libres Magazine
W Radio
Milenio Newspaper
Twitter account
"W Radio" clip
León Krauze interview by "Exa TV"

Jewish writers
Mexican Jews
Mexican people of Polish-Jewish descent
Mexican male writers
Mexican columnists
Writers from Mexico City
Living people
1975 births
New York University alumni

León Krauze


Ronee Sue Blakley is an American actress, singer-songwriter, composer, producer and director.

She is perhaps best known for her role as the fictional country superstar Barbara Jean in Robert Altman's 1975 film Nashville, for which she won a National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actress and was nominated for an Academy Award. She also performed roles in Walter Hill's The Driver (1978) and Wes Craven's A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984).

Life and career
Blakley was born in Nampa, Idaho, one of four children born to Ronald Blakley, a civil engineer, and his wife Carol (née Brown), who became a gay rights activist in support of Blakley's brother, Stephen. In addition to Stephen, Blakley had a brother John and a sister Marthetta.

1970s
Blakley released her self-titled debut album on Elektra Records in 1972. The album featured Blakley's original songs, self-accompanied on piano. Blakley also made the musical arrangements. The song "Bluebird" featured a duet with Linda Ronstadt. Blakley's songs were published by her own company, Sawtooth Music.

Her second album, Welcome—produced by Jerry Wexler and recorded at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in Alabama—was released on Warner Bros. in 1975.

That same year, Blakley appeared in what may be her most widely known performance in Nashville. Her character, Barbara Jean, looked similar to country star Loretta Lynn, though Blakley stated that the character was based on Lynn Anderson.  Blakley performed her own songs in character, including "Tapedeck In His Tractor," "Dues" and "My Idaho Home." In her review for The New Yorker, film critic Pauline Kael wrote:

This is Ronee Blakley's first movie, and she puts most movie hysteria to shame. She achieves her gifts so simply, I wasn't surprised when somebody sitting beside me started to cry. Perhaps, for the first time on the screen, one gets the sense of an artist being destroyed by her gifts.

Blakley's performance in Nashville was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture and for Best Acting Debut in a Motion Picture (Female), BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role and the Grammy Award for Album of Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or Television Special, and won the National Board of Review award for Best Supporting Actress. She was featured on the covers of Newsweek, American Cinematographer and Interview magazines.

She toured in Bob Dylan's traveling  Rolling Thunder Revue, singing a set of solo original songs accompanying herself on piano. She also sang with Dylan and other headlining musicians on the tour, released on The Bootleg Series Vol. 5: Bob Dylan Live 1975, The Rolling Thunder Revue. She recorded backup vocals on "Hurricane" for Dylan's album Desire. Blakley has also recorded with Leonard Cohen and Hoyt Axton.

Blakley starred in the 1977 film She Came to the Valley. She also appeared in several TV movies including Desperate Women, Ladies in Waiting, Oklahoma City Dolls and the Ford 75th Anniversary Special presentation of The Glass Menagerie. Her guest starring roles in television series include Vega$, The Love Boat, Highway to Heaven, Trapper John, Hotel, The Runaways, Beyond Westworld and Tales from the Darkside.

1980s
Blakley starred in The Baltimore Bullet in 1980. She appeared on Broadway in 1982's Pump Boys and Dinettes and starred in Rain for the Indiana Repertory Theatre. Blakley played the role of Marge Thompson in the 1984 horror film A Nightmare on Elm Street.

She wrote, produced, directed and starred in her own feature music docudrama, I Played It for You, in 1985. The movie debuted at the Venice Film Festival and was screened at several other film festivals around the world. Sheila Benson of the Los Angeles Times called it "passionate and brave, an absorbing work." FX Feeney of LA Weekly called it "a valuable document." The film was released on DVD in 2008, bundled with the soundtrack on CD and a new spoken word poetry album titled Freespeak.

Personal life and recent activity

Throughout her career, Blakley has performed on behalf of several political and social causes, with an emphasis on civil rights and equal rights for women. During the 1976 presidential campaign, she toured performing before the speeches of Jerry Brown and later performed at the final Los Angeles rally of Walter Mondale with Kris Kristofferson.

Blakley was married to German filmmaker Wim Wenders from 1979 to 1981. Having previously graduated from Stanford University in 1967, she completed a master's degree at California State University in 2002. She has one child, author Sarah Blakley-Cartwright, who graduated from Barnard College in 2010 and is known for penning the novel adapted into the 2011 movie Red Riding Hood. Blakley's career was put on hold while she raised her daughter and also recovered from a back injury. Her most recent album of original songs, River Nile, was released in 2009, inspired by a trip she made to Egypt. In October 2010, she appeared on stage at New York's Bitter End for the first time in 20 years.

She wrote, produced and directed the 2012 film Of One Blood, her first foray into films in over 20 years. Her daughter appeared with her in the film.

Works

Discography
Ronee Blakley (1972) – Elektra (re-released by Collector's Choice 2006)
Nashville Soundtrack – MCA
Welcome (1975) – Warner Bros. (re-released by Collector's Choice 2006)
I Played It for You (2007) – RBPI (CDBaby.com)
Freespeak (2008 – RBPI (CDBaby.com)
Lightning Over Water Soundtrack (2008) – RBPI (CDBaby.com)
Ronee Blakley Live at the Mint (2008)  – RBPI
River Nile (2009) - RBPI
Grief Holes (2009) - RB[O
Live at the Bitter End (2011) -RBPI
Djerassi Collection (2012) - RBPI
Atom Bomb Baby (2020) - RBPI

Film
Wilbur and the Baby Factory (1970)
Nashville (1975) as Barbara Jean
Three Dangerous Ladies (1977) as Simone (segment "The Mannikin")
The Private Files of J. Edgar Hoover (1977) as Carrie DeWitt
Renaldo and Clara (1978) as Mrs. Dylan
The Driver (1978) as The Connection
She Came to the Valley (1979) as Willy Westall
Good Luck, Miss Wyckoff (1979) as Betsy
The Baltimore Bullet (1980) as Carolina Red
Lightning Over Water (1980, Documentary) as Herself
A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984) as Marge Thompson
Cinématon (1985)
A Return to Salem's Lot (1987) as Sally
Student Confidential (1987) as Jenny Selden
Someone to Love (1987) as Attendee
Murder by Numbers (1990) as Faith
Rolling Thunder Revue: A Bob Dylan Story by Martin Scorsese (2019) as herself

Television
Desperate Women (1978)
Vega$ (1 episode, 1978) : Second Stanza (1978)
Ladies in Waiting (1979)
The Love Boat (1 episode, 1979) : Doc's Ex' Change/Gift, The/Making the Grade (1979)
Beyond Westworld (1 episode, 1980) : Sound of Terror (1980)
The Oklahoma City Dolls (1981)
Highway to Heaven  (1 episode, 1984) : Song of the Wild West (1984)
Trapper John, M.D. (1 episode, 1985) : So Little, Gone (1985)
Tales from the Darkside (1 episode, 1985) : The False Prophet (1985)
ABC Afterschool Special Sherman (1 episode, 1987) : Divorced Kids' Blues (1987)
Hotel (1 episode, 1988) : Double Take (1988) TV episode

Composer
Welcome Home, Soldier Boys (1972)
Nashville (1975)
Lightning Over Water (1980)
Docu Drama (1984)

Soundtracks
Nashville (1975) (writer: "Bluebird", "Tapedeck in His Tractor", "Dues", "My Idaho Home") (music: "Down to the River") (lyrics: "Down to the River") (performer: "Tapedeck in His Tractor", "Dues", "My Idaho Home", "One, I Love You", "Down to the River")
Renaldo and Clara (1978) (writer: "Need a New Sun Rising") (performer: "Need a New Sun Rising")

Director, writer & producer
Docu Drama (1984)
Of One Blood (2012)

References

External links

Official Website

Living people
Actresses from Idaho
American country singer-songwriters
American expatriates in Germany
American women country singers
American film actresses
American television actresses
California State University alumni
Country musicians from Idaho
Elektra Records artists
Juilliard School alumni
Mills College alumni
People from Nampa, Idaho
Stanford University alumni
Warner Records artists
21st-century American women
Singer-songwriters from Idaho
Year of birth missing (living people)

Ronee Blakley


Karl Friedrich von Savigny (19 September 1814 – 11 February 1875) was a Prussian diplomat, politician, and a leading member of the Centre Party.

Life
His father was the jurist Friedrich Carl von Savigny, who was then privy councillor of the court of appeals, member of the Prussian council of State, and professor at the University of Berlin, and his mother was Kunigunde Brentano, sister of the poet Clemens Brentano. The father was a Protestant, but the mother was a Catholic, and the children were allowed to follow the religion of the mother. Karl Friedrich was first taught at home, then attended the French Gymnasium at Berlin, the Collegium Romanum at Rome, and the Collegium Sebastianum at Naples. He studied law at Berlin, Munich, and Paris. In 1836 he became an auscultator at Berlin; in 1837 he was a referendar in the court at Aachen, in 1840 secretary of legation at London and Dresden, in 1842 at Lisbon, in 1848 at London. In 1849 he was councillor of legations and member of the ministry of foreign affairs, and in 1850 ambassador at Karlsruhe. While here he was able to win over the Government of Baden for the Prussian policy, and, as Bismarck testified, "by cautious and tactful bearing to win a commanding position at Karlsruhe for the Prussian government."

From 1859 Karl Friedrich was Prussian ambassador at Dresden, from 1862 at Brussels, and from 1864 he was minister with full powers at the Diet of the German Confederation at Frankfort. In 1866 he offered at the Diet the Prussian motion for the reform of the German Confederation, and when it was rejected on 14 June, 1866, he declared the withdrawal of Prussia, upon which the Austro-Prussian war began. Later in connection with Bismarck he was plenipotentiary in making a treaty of peace with the states of southern Germany and Saxony. He was the presiding officer of the government conferences for the drafting of a constitution for the North German Confederation, and was a plenipotentiary at the Reichstag which decided the constitution. Thus he performed important services in national affairs. In 1868 he retired partially, and in 1871 entirely, from government positions in order to become one of the parliamentary leaders of the Catholics. From 1867 he was a member of the Lower House of the Prussian Diet, from 1868 a member of the Lower House of the Diet of the North German Confederation, and later of the German Reichstag, or Parliament of the German Empire. In 1871 he took part in the founding of the Centre Party. He was not particularly distinguished as a speaker, but his knowledge, distinguished personality, and connections were of much benefit to the Catholic cause.  He believed that "laws are not made but found".

References

1814 births
1875 deaths
Centre Party (Germany) politicians
Leaders of political parties in Germany
German Roman Catholics
Lorraine nobility
Politicians from Berlin
People from the Province of Brandenburg
Ambassadors of Prussia
Prussian politicians
Members of the Reichstag of the German Empire
19th-century diplomats

Karl Friedrich von Savigny


Margaret McMurray (died 1760) appears to have been one of the last native speakers of a Lowland dialect of Scottish Gaelic in the Galloway variety.

In The Scotsman of 18 November 1951 appeared the following letter, which had originally been printed in the Daily Review in 1876:

{{blockquote|Sir-I send this in corroboration of the fact that Gaelic was to some extent spoken in Ayrshire in the early part of last century. My grand-aunt, Jean McMurray, who died in 1836 at the age of 87, informed me that Margaret McMurray, the representative of the elder branch of the McMurrays of Cultezron, near Maybole, and who died at a very advanced age about the year 1760, was long talked about as having been the last Gaelic-speaking native of Carrick.

Cultezron is situated about 30 miles north of Glenapp, and seven or eight miles south of Ayr. Cultezron was possessed by several generations of McMurrays, and its name is purely Celtic Cul Tigh Eobhain, (sic) signifying the 'back of Ewan's house'.

-I am etc. D. Murray-Lyon Ayr, October 31, 1876}}

Cultezron (not to be confused with nearby Culzean) is a small farm on the outskirts of the town of Maybole in South Ayrshire. It appears that Margaret's family had been in possession of it for at least 150 years prior to this, as one 'John McMurray' is in legal records at that time. It is also notable that McMurray's descendants, dropped the 'Mc' from the name, suggesting anglicisation. Despite their similar appearance, the names 'McMurray' and 'Murray' come from separate origins, the former being related to the Murphys and Morrows in Ireland and the Murchisons in the Scottish Highlands, and the latter's origin being de Moray (of Moray).

The farm is now titled Cultezeon Farm, just west of Maybole.

The scholar William Laughton Lorimer discussed McMurray briefly in Scottish Gaelic studies''.

See also
Galwegian Gaelic

1760 deaths
Last known speakers of a language
People from Maybole
Scottish Gaelic language
Year of birth unknown

Margaret McMurray


Macro-sociology is a way of looking at the world of people in a broad way. It studies mass of many peoples.  It is about "concerned with human societies".  Macrosociology is considered one of the main foundations of sociology (contrast with micro-sociology).

In sociology there are different levels of analysis. Macro-sociology is the analysis of either large collectivities (the city, the church) or, more abstractly, of social systems and social structures. (Dictionary of Sociology, 2000)

With the perspective of macro-sociology, it is possible to better understand societies, culture, groups and organizations.

Important representatives of macro-sociological theories are:
 Karl Marx; who analyzed society from the perspective of class conflict between workers and owners, micro sociology
 Max Weber; who viewed society as rapidly modernizing and looked at the effects of this process, such as bureaucratization, macro sociology
 Emile Durkheim; who viewed individual issues as reflective of greater social patterns, completing the first sociological study (which linked suicide to societal trends), macro sociology

References

Subfields of sociology

Macrosociology


Louise Jefferson is a fictional character in the American situation comedy All in the Family and its spin-off The Jeffersons. She is played by actress Isabel Sanford. Louise is the wife of George Jefferson. They have a son named Lionel. Louise and her family are neighbors with Archie Bunker and his family. She is good friends with Edith Bunker. She and her husband own a cleaning business and they move to the East Side of Manhattan where the sitcom The Jeffersons takes place.

Fictional African-American people
Television characters
Fictional characters introduced in the 1970s

Louise Jefferson


is a submarine volcano located about 450 kilometers south of Tokyo on the Izu-Ogasawara Ridge in the Izu Islands. Volcanic activity has been detected there since 1869. Since then it has undergone more eruptions, the most powerful of which resulted in the appearance and disappearance of a small island.

The name Myōjin-shō derives from a fishing boat, No.11 Myōjin-Maru of Yaizu City, Shizuoka Prefecture, the crew of which first witnessed the major volcanic eruption of 1952.

Eruption of 1952-1953

The volcanic eruption from 1952 to 1953 was one of its biggest eruptions on record, with the repetitious appearance and disappearance of an island, which at one point reached over ten metres above sea level, before sinking after a major volcanic eruption in September 1953. On September 24, 1952, a survey vessel, Kaiyo Maru No. 5 of the Hydrographic Department of the Maritime Safety Agency, was destroyed by the volcano, with the loss of its crew of 31 (including the nine scientists studying the eruption). Consequently, the Department developed Manbou (Sunfish), an unmanned radio operating survey boat, and has used it for the research of dangerous sea areas such as submarine volcanoes.

This was the first time that volcanic activity had been detected using the SOFAR channel.

Survey of 1998-1999
In 1998 and 1999, the Hydrography Department conducted comprehensive sea bottom surveys around Myōjin-shō, using the state-of-the-art survey vessel Shoyo and Manbou II, the second generation Manbou. As a result of these surveys, a detailed picture of the seabed topography around Myōjin-shō was made for the first time.

Manbou II conducted the survey of the sea area within a radius of 3 nautical miles (about 5.4 kilometers) of Myōjin-shō. Shoyo conducted the survey of the sea area within a radius of about 10 nautical miles (about 18.5 kilometers) but farther than the area of the radius of . Manbou II works by the order of preprogrammed instructions and measures depth and water temperature. Bathymetric survey of Manbou II was carried out by using the "PRD-601" echo sounder at intervals of 0.2 nautical miles (about 370 meters). Shoyo conducted a comprehensive survey including the geological and geophysical surveys of sea bottom.
Bathymetric survey of Shoyo was carried out by using a "Seabeam 2112" echo sounder at intervals of 0.5 nautical miles (about 930 meters).

Structure
Previously, Myōjin-shō was considered to be the central cone of a double volcano with the Bayonnaise Rocks (rocks of 9.9 meters in height above the sea level) as a portion of the somma (Mita, 1949). As a result of the survey, however, the authors found that both Myōjin-shō and the Bayonnaise Rocks are cones on the somma of a double volcano. The foot of this double volcano lies 1,400 to 1,500 meters in depth and the size is about 30 by 25 kilometers east-west, north-south. The somma is almost a circle in the diameter of 7 by 9 kilometers and the height is 1,000 – 1,400meters.

The diameter of the caldera floor is 5.6 kilometers and about 1,100 meters in depth. The central cone is a high formerly known as Takane-shō, 328 metres below sea level.

Myōjin-shō is a post caldera cone formed in the northeastern part of the somma of the double volcano. It is a single conical cone and its height is 550 meters with the shallowest depth 50 meters. A record that suggests a gushing of bubbles near the summit was obtained and micro-earthquakes were observed near Myōjin-shō, showing that the volcano is still active, although at a low level

Gallery

1952 eruption

References

External links
 Survey of Myojin-sho

Izu Islands
Seamounts of the Pacific Ocean
Ephemeral islands
Natural disasters in Japan
1952 natural disasters
Postwar Japan
Former islands from the last glacial maximum

Myōjin-shō


García Jiménez was (sub- or co-) king of a part of Pamplona in the late 9th century, son of a supposed Jimeno.

The Jiménez dynasty that would later rule the Kingdom of Navarre originally held the territory within that realm distinct from that held by the descendants of Iñigo Arista.  García is presumed to have succeeded his father in this role, either during the lifetime of King García Íñiguez or of his son King Fortún Garcés, and is called "king" by the Códice de Roda, being of "another part of the kingdom" of Pamplona.

There is no documentary evidence of García Jiménez playing any role in the government of the greater kingdom. However, such a role has been assigned to him. In 860, Fortún Garcés son and heir of king García Íñiguez, was imprisoned in Córdoba, and was kept there for 20 years. The traditional death date of García Íñiguez in 870 would have meant there was a de facto 10-year interregnum before the return of Fortún to the kingdom. It has been suggested that García Jiménez was called 'king' due to his service as regent during this period, lasting until he was killed at Aybar (882) in a battle against the Emir of Córdoba. On this basis, he is sometimes called García II. However, an alternative reconstruction would make the 882 casualties identical to García Íñiguez himself, thus allowing him to survive past his son's return, in which case no interregnum existed. There are likewise several references to a Sancho (presumably the son of García Íñiguez and younger brother of captive Fortún) being lord of Pamplona or 'king' in the 860s and 870s.

The Códice de Roda shows García Jiménez to have married twice, firstly to Oneca, "Rebel of Sangüesa" with whom he had two children:

Íñigo, called 'king' in the Códice de Roda when reporting his marriage to a granddaughter of Fortún Garcés of Pamplona, but not in his own entry as son of García Jiménez. He perhaps succeeded to his father's sub-kingdom (else the term is being used as an honorific rather than a title).
Sancha, married as her first husband Íñigo Fortúnez, son of king Fortún Garcés of Pamplona, and subsequently remarried to Galindo Aznárez II, Count of Aragon.

García Jiménez married secondly Dadildis de Pallars, sister of count Raymond I of Pallars and Ribagorza, having by her two sons:

Sancho I, later sole king of Pamplona.
Jimeno, tutor of his nephew García Sánchez and regent until his death on 29 May 931.

References
Lacarra de Miguel, José María. "Textos navarros del Códice de Roda". Estudios de Edad Media de la Corona de Aragon. 1:194-283 (1945).
Pérez de Urbel, Justo. "Lo viejo y lo nuevo sobre el origin del Reino de Pamplona". Al-Andalus. 19:1-42 (1954).
Sánchez Albornoz, Claudio. "Problemas de la historia Navarra del siglo IX". Princípe de Viana, 20:5-62 (1959).

9th-century Navarrese monarchs
House of Jiménez
Navarrese monarchs
9th-century people from the Kingdom of Pamplona
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown

García Jiménez of Pamplona


The Pontifical Latin American College (Italian: Pontificio Collegio Pio Latino Americano, Spanish: Pontificio Colegio Pio Latino Americano) is one of the Roman Colleges of the Roman Catholic Church, for students from Central and South America. A pontifical college in Rome is a hostel for student priests who pursue higher ecclesiastical studies in various Church universities and institutes.

History
The Rev. Ignacio Victor Eyzaguirre, who was Chilean, went to Rome, in 1857, and proposed to the Pope the erection of a college for students, from Latin American countries, i.e. where the Spanish and Portuguese languages are spoken. Pope Pius IX, who had been Apostolic Delegate in Chile, granted letters of approbation, and urged the bishops to send students and to help the foundation by procuring funds for the maintenance of the seminary.

Father Eyzaguirre went back to South America, collected some money, and returned to Rome with a few students. He rented a small house for these students and some others who arrived later. They were fifteen in all. Pius IX ordered the Fathers of the Society of Jesus to direct the new college, and they opened the college on 21 November 1858. In December 1859, Pius IX helped to purchase a larger house, belonging to the Dominican Order, near Santa Maria sopra Minerva. He also bought with his own money a villa and a vineyard for the use of the college, and made Monsignor Eyzaguirre protonotary-apostolic. Towards the beginning of 1860, he sent this prelate back to South America as ablegate of the Holy See, to urge the bishops again to co-operate on a larger scale in procuring the necessary means for the support of the college. At the same time he himself contributed a large sum of money to the new house.

During 1864, Pius IX sent to the college books from his own private library, ordered a new chapel to be erected at his own expense, and furnished it with vestments and on 21 November, the 6th anniversary of its foundation, visited the college in person. He is considered the principal, if not the first, founder of the South American College.

The number of students continually increasing, the superiors had to look for another dwelling. Through the assistance of Carlo Sacconi, Cardinal-protector of the college, part of the old novitiate of the Jesuits, on the Quirinal—which since 1848 had been used for a French military hospital—was secured, the house near the Minerva sold, and the new residence occupied on 18 April 1867, the feast of the Patronage of St. Joseph, to whom the college had been dedicated.

South American bishops visiting Rome brought new students, and the number reached 59. Pius IX, almost unannounced, went to the new college, assisted at an "academy", and allowed his name to be added to its legal title, making it Collegio Pio-Latino Americano.

In 1870 the bishops attending the First Vatican Council increased the number of students to 82. In 1871, the Italian government having expelled the Jesuits from the small part of the novitiate they occupied, acceded to the request of the Brazilian Emperor and permitted the South American College to remain where it was until a suitable house should be found. The new rector the Rev. Agostino Santinelli, S.J., bought a new site in the Prati di Castello, not far from the Vatican, and near the Tiber. The foundation stone was blessed on 29 June 1884, by the protector, Cardinal Sacconi, in presence of a large assemblage among whom was the Most Rev. Father Peter Beckx, General of the Society of Jesus, then living in the American College. The work of building began immediately, and Father Santinelli saw the building finished in 1887–88.

It was here that the first General Council of Latin America (28 May – 9 July 1899) was held. There were present 53 prelates, archbishops and bishops, of whom 29 took up their quarters in the college, together with their secretaries and servants. The solemn opening took place in the college chapel, and all the sessions were held there. In the same chapel on 26 March 1905, the Cardinal Protector, Joseph C. Vives y Tuto, solemnly published the Apostolic Constitution "Sedis Apostolicae providam", by which the pope granted the title of "Pontifical" to the college and committed its direction in perpetuum to the Society of Jesus. Aloysius Caterini, S.J., Provincial of the Roman Province, accepted the charge in the name of the General of the Society, absent through sickness.

A number of the seminaries and one ecclesiastical university in Latin America took their professors exclusively from the alumni of the college. Both the first cardinal of Latin America, Joaquin Arcoverde de Albuquerque-Cavalcanti, Archbishop of Rio de Janeiro, and the first cardinal of Chile, José María Caro, Archbishop of Santiago, studied there.

See also
 List of Jesuit sites

References

External links
Official website

Roman Colleges
Universities and colleges established in 1858
1858 establishments in the Papal States

Pontifical Latin American College


The Western is a genre of fiction typically set in the American frontier between the California Gold Rush of 1849 and the closing of the frontier in 1890, and commonly associated with folk tales of the Western United States, particularly the Southwestern United States, as well as Northern Mexico and Western Canada.

The frontier was commonly referred to as the "Old West" or the "Wild West" and depicted in Western media as a sparsely populated hostile region patrolled by cowboys, outlaws, sheriffs, and numerous other stock "gunslinger" characters. Western narratives often concern the gradual attempts to tame the crime-ridden American West using wider themes of justice, freedom, rugged individualism, manifest destiny, and the national history and identity of the United States. Native American "Indian" populations were often portrayed as averse foes.

Originating in vaquero heritage and Western fiction, the genre popularized the Western lifestyle, country-Western music, and Western wear globally. Throughout the history of the genre, it has seen popular revivals and been incorporated into various subgenres.

Characteristics

Stories and characters

The classic Western is a morality drama, presenting the conflict between wilderness and civilization.  Stories commonly center on the life of a male drifter, cowboy or gunfighter who rides a horse and is armed with a revolver and/or a rifle. The male characters typically wear broad-brimmed and high-crowned Stetson hats, neckerchief bandannas, vests, and cowboy boots with spurs. While many wear conventional shirts and trousers, alternatives include buckskins and dusters.

Women are generally cast in secondary roles as love interests for the male lead; or in supporting roles as saloon girls, prostitutes or as the wives of pioneers and settlers. The wife character often provides a measure of comic relief. Other recurring characters include Native Americans of various tribes described as Indians or Red Indians, African Americans, Chinese Americans, Spaniards/Mexicans, law enforcement officers, bounty hunters, outlaws, bartenders, merchants, gamblers, soldiers (especially mounted cavalry), and settlers (farmers, ranchers, and townsfolk).

The ambience is usually punctuated with a Western music score, including American folk music and Spanish/Mexican folk music such as country, Native American music, New Mexico music, and rancheras.

Locations
Westerns often stress the harshness of the wilderness and frequently set the action in an arid, desolate landscape of deserts and mountains. Often, the vast landscape plays an important role, presenting a "mythic vision of the plains and deserts of the American West". Specific settings include ranches, small frontier towns, saloons, railways, wilderness, and isolated military forts of the Wild West. Many Westerns use a stock plot of depicting a crime, then showing the pursuit of the wrongdoer, ending in revenge and retribution, which is often dispensed through a shootout or quick draw duel.

Themes

The Western genre sometimes portrays the conquest of the wilderness and the subordination of nature in the name of civilization or the confiscation of the territorial rights of the original, Native American, inhabitants of the frontier. The Western depicts a society organized around codes of honor and personal, direct or private justice–"frontier justice"–dispensed by gunfights. These honor codes are often played out through depictions of feuds or individuals seeking personal revenge or retribution against someone who has wronged them (e.g., True Grit has revenge and retribution as its main themes). This Western depiction of personal justice contrasts sharply with justice systems organized around rationalistic, abstract law that exist in cities, in which social order is maintained predominantly through relatively impersonal institutions such as courtrooms. The popular perception of the Western is a story that centers on the life of a seminomadic wanderer, usually a cowboy or a gunfighter.  A showdown or duel at high noon featuring two or more gunfighters is a stereotypical scene in the popular conception of Westerns.

In some ways, such protagonists may be considered the literary descendants of the knights-errant, who stood at the center of earlier extensive genres such as the Arthurian romances. Like the cowboy or gunfighter of the Western, the knight-errant of the earlier European tales and poetry was wandering from place to place on his horse, fighting villains of various kinds, and bound to no fixed social structures, but only to his own innate code of honor. Like knights-errant, the heroes of Westerns frequently rescue damsels in distress. Similarly, the wandering protagonists of Westerns share many characteristics with the ronin in modern Japanese culture.

The Western typically takes these elements and uses them to tell simple morality tales, although some notable examples (e.g. the later Westerns of John Ford or Clint Eastwood's Unforgiven, about an old contract killer) are more morally ambiguous. Westerns often stress the harshness and isolation of the wilderness, and frequently set the action in an arid, desolate landscape. Western films generally have specific settings, such as isolated ranches, Native American villages, or small frontier towns with a saloon. Oftentimes, these settings appear deserted and without much structure. Apart from the wilderness, the saloon usually emphasizes that this is the Wild West; it is the place to go for music (raucous piano playing), women (often prostitutes), gambling (draw poker or five-card stud), drinking (beer, whiskey, or tequila if set in Mexico), brawling, and shooting. In some Westerns, where civilization has arrived, the town has a church, a general store, a bank, and a school; in others, where frontier rules still hold sway, it is, as Sergio Leone said, "where life has no value".

Plots
Author and screenwriter Frank Gruber identified seven basic plots for Westerns:
 Union Pacific story: The plot concerns construction of a railroad, a telegraph line, or some other type of modern technology on the wild frontier. Wagon-train stories fall into this category.
 Ranch story: Ranchers protecting their family ranch from rustlers or large landowners attempting to force out the proper owners.
 Empire story: The plot involves building a ranch empire or an oil empire from scratch, a classic rags-to-riches plot, often involving conflict over resources such as water or minerals.
 Revenge story: The plot often involves an elaborate chase and pursuit by a wronged individual, but it may also include elements of the classic mystery story.
 Cavalry and Indian story: The plot revolves around "taming" the wilderness for White settlers and/or fighting Native Americans.
 Outlaw story: The outlaw gangs dominate the action.
 Marshal story: The lawman and his challenges drive the plot.

Gruber said that good writers used dialogue and plot development to develop these basic plots into believable stories.

Media

Film

The American Film Institute defines Western films as those "set in the American West that [embody] the spirit, the struggle, and the demise of the new frontier".  Originally, these films were called "Wild West dramas", a reference to Wild West shows like Buffalo Bill Cody's. The term "Western", used to describe a narrative film genre, appears to have originated with a July 1912 article in Motion Picture World magazine.

Most of the characteristics of Western films were part of 19th-century popular Western fiction, and were firmly in place before film became a popular art form.  Western films commonly feature protagonists such as cowboys, gunslingers, and bounty hunters, who are often depicted as seminomadic wanderers who wear Stetson hats, bandannas, spurs, and buckskins, use revolvers or rifles as everyday tools of survival and as a means to settle disputes using "frontier justice". Protagonists ride between dusty towns and cattle ranches on their trusty steeds.
The first films that belong to the Western genre are a series of short single reel silents made in 1894 by Edison Studios at their Black Maria studio in West Orange, New Jersey. These featured veterans of Buffalo Bill's Wild West show exhibiting skills acquired by living in the Old West – they included Annie Oakley (shooting) and members of the Sioux (dancing).

The earliest known Western narrative film is the British short Kidnapping by Indians, made by Mitchell and Kenyon in Blackburn, England, in 1899. The Great Train Robbery (1903, based on the earlier British film A Daring Daylight Burglary), Edwin S. Porter's film starring Broncho Billy Anderson, is often erroneously cited as the first Western, though George N. Fenin and William K. Everson point out (as mentioned above) that the "Edison company had played with Western material for several years prior to The Great Train Robbery". Nonetheless, they concur that Porter's film "set the pattern—of crime, pursuit, and retribution—for the Western film as a genre". The film's popularity opened the door for Anderson to become the screen's first Western star; he made several hundred Western film shorts. So popular was the genre that he soon faced competition from Tom Mix and William S. Hart.

Western films were enormously popular in the silent film era (1894–1927). With the advent of sound in 1927–1928, the major Hollywood studios rapidly abandoned Westerns, leaving the genre to smaller studios and producers. These smaller organizations churned out countless low-budget features and serials in the 1930s. An exception was The Big Trail, a 1930 American pre-Code Western early widescreen film shot on location across the American West starring 23-year-old John Wayne in his first leading role and directed by Raoul Walsh. The epic film noted for its authenticity was a financial failure due to Depression era theatres not willing to invest in widescreen technology. By the late 1930s, the Western film was widely regarded as a "pulp" genre in Hollywood, but its popularity was dramatically revived in 1939 by major studio productions such as Dodge City starring Errol Flynn, Jesse James with Tyrone Power, Union Pacific with Joel McCrea, Destry Rides Again featuring James Stewart and Marlene Dietrich, and especially John Ford's landmark Western adventure Stagecoach  starring John Wayne, which became one of the biggest hits of the year. Released through United Artists, Stagecoach made John Wayne a mainstream screen star in the wake of a decade of headlining B Westerns. Wayne had been introduced to the screen 10 years earlier as the leading man in director Raoul Walsh's spectacular widescreen The Big Trail, which failed at the box office in spite of being shot on location across the American West, including the Grand Canyon, Yosemite, and the giant redwoods, due in part to exhibitors' inability to switch over to widescreen during the Great Depression. After renewed commercial successes in the late 1930s, the popularity of Westerns continued to rise until its peak in the 1950s, when the number of Western films produced outnumbered all other genres combined.

The period from 1940 to 1960 has been called the "Golden Age of the Western". It is epitomized by the work of several prominent directors including Robert Aldrich, Budd Boetticher, Delmer Daves, John Ford, and others.  Some of the popular films during this era include Apache (1954), Broken Arrow (1950), and My Darling Clementine (1946).

The changing popularity of the Western genre has influenced worldwide pop culture over time. During the 1960s and 1970s, Spaghetti Westerns from Italy became popular worldwide; this was due to the success of Sergio Leone's storytelling method.

After having been previously pronounced dead, a resurgence of Westerns occurred during the 1990s with films such as Dances with Wolves (1990), Unforgiven (1992), and Geronimo (1993), as Westerns once again increased in popularity.

Television

When television became popular in the late 1940s and 1950s, Television Westerns quickly became an audience favorite. Beginning with rebroadcasts of existing films, a number of movie cowboys had their own TV shows. As demand for the Western increased, new stories and stars were introduced. A number of long-running TV Westerns became classics in their own right, such as: The Lone Ranger (1949–1957), Death Valley Days (1952–1970), The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp (1955–1961), Cheyenne (1955–1962), Gunsmoke (1955–1975), Maverick (1957–1962), Have Gun – Will Travel (1957–1963), Wagon Train (1957–1965), The Rifleman (1958–1963), Rawhide (1959–1966), Bonanza (1959–1973),  The Virginian (1962–1971), and The Big Valley (1965–1969). The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp was the first Western television series written for adults, premiering four days before Gunsmoke on September 6, 1955.

The peak year for television Westerns was 1959, with 26 such shows airing during primetime. At least six of them were connected in some extent to Wyatt Earp: The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp, Bat Masterson, Tombstone Territory, Broken Arrow, Johnny Ringo, and Gunsmoke. Increasing costs of American television production weeded out most action half-hour series in the early 1960s, and their replacement by hour-long television shows, increasingly in color. Traditional Westerns died out in the late 1960s as a result of network changes in demographic targeting along with pressure from parental television groups. Future entries in the genre would incorporate elements from other genera, such as crime drama and mystery whodunit elements. Western shows from the 1970s included Hec Ramsey, Kung Fu, Little House on the Prairie, McCloud, The Life and Times of Grizzly Adams, and the short-lived but highly acclaimed How the West Was Won that originated from a miniseries with the same name. In the 1990s and 2000s, hour-long Westerns and slickly packaged made-for-TV movie Westerns were introduced, such as Lonesome Dove (1989) and Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman. Also, new elements were once again added to the Western formula, such as space Western Firefly, created by Joss Whedon in 2002. Deadwood was a critically acclaimed Western series that aired on HBO from 2004 through 2006. Hell on Wheels, a fictionalized story of the construction of the first transcontinental railroad, aired on AMC for five seasons between 2011 and 2016. Longmire is a Western series that centered on Walt Longmire, a sheriff in fictional Absaroka County, Wyoming. Originally aired on the A&E network from 2012 to 2014, it was picked up by Netflix in 2015 until the show's conclusion in 2017.

AMC and Vince Gilligan's critically-acclaimed Breaking Bad is a much more modern take on the western genre. Set in New Mexico from 2008 through 2013, it follows Walter White (Bryan Cranston), a chemistry teacher diagnosed with Stage III Lung Cancer who cooks and sells crystal meth to provide money for his family after he dies, while slowly growing further and further into the illicit drug market, eventually turning into a ruthless drug dealer and killer. While the show has scenes in a populated suburban neighborhood and nearby Albuquerque, much of the show takes place in the desert, where Walter often takes his RV car out into the open desert to cook his meth, and most action sequences occur in the desert, similar to old-fashioned western movies. The clash between the Wild West and modern technology like cars and cellphones, while also focusing primarily on being a Crime drama makes the show a unique spin on both genres. Walter's reliance on the desert environment makes the western-feel a pivotal role in the show, and would continue to be used in the spinoff series Better Call Saul.

Literature

Western fiction is a genre of literature set in the American Old West, most commonly between 1860 and 1900. The first critically recognized Western was The Virginian (1902) by Owen Wister. Other well-known writers of Western fiction include Zane Grey, from the early 1900s, Ernest Haycox, Luke Short, and Louis L'Amour, from the mid 20th century. Many writers better known in other genres, such as Leigh Brackett, Elmore Leonard, and Larry McMurtry, have also written Western novels. The genre's popularity peaked in the 1960s, due in part to the shuttering of many pulp magazines, the popularity of televised Westerns, and the rise of the spy novel. Readership began to drop off in the mid- to late 1970s and reached a new low in the 2000s. Most bookstores, outside of a few Western states, now only carry a small number of Western novels and short-story collections.

Literary forms that share similar themes include stories of the American frontier, the gaucho literature of Argentina, and tales of the settlement of the Australian Outback.

Visual arts

A number of visual artists focused their work on representations of the American Old West. American West-oriented art is sometimes referred to as "Western Art" by Americans. This relatively new category of art includes paintings, sculptures, and sometimes Native American crafts. Initially, subjects included exploration of the Western states and cowboy themes. Frederic Remington and Charles M. Russell are two artists who captured the "Wild West" in paintings and sculpture. After the death of Remington Richard Lorenz became the preeminent artist painting in the western genre.

Some art museums, such as the Buffalo Bill Center of the West in Wyoming and the Autry National Center in Los Angeles, feature American Western Art.

Anime and manga
With anime and manga, the genre tends towards the science-fiction Western – e.g., Cowboy Bebop (1998 anime), Trigun (1995–2007 manga), and Outlaw Star (1996–1999 manga). Although contemporary Westerns also appear, such as Koya no Shonen Isamu, a 1971 shonen manga about a boy with a Japanese father and a Native American mother, or El Cazador de la Bruja, a 2007 anime television series set in modern-day Mexico. Part 7 of the manga series JoJo's Bizarre Adventure is based in the American Western setting. The story follows racers in a transcontinental horse race, the "Steel Ball Run". Golden Kamuy (2014–2022) shifts its setting to the fallout of the Russo-Japanese War, specifically focusing on Hokkaido and Sakhalin, and featuring the Ainu people and other local tribes instead of Native Americans, as well other recognizable western tropes.

Comics
Western comics have included serious entries, (such as the classic comics of the late 1940s and early 1950s (namely Kid Colt, Outlaw, Rawhide Kid, and Red Ryder) or more modern ones as Blueberry), cartoons, and parodies (such as Cocco Bill and Lucky Luke). In the 1990s and 2000s, Western comics leaned towards the fantasy, horror and science fiction genres, usually involving supernatural monsters, or Christian iconography as in Preacher. More traditional Western comics are found throughout this period, though (e.g., Jonah Hex and Loveless).

Games
Western arcade games, computer games, role-playing games, and video games are often either straightforward Westerns or Western-horror hybrids.  Some Western-themed computer games include The Oregon Trail (1971), Mad Dog McCree (1990), Sunset Riders (1991), Outlaws (1997), Desperados series (2001–), Red Dead series (2004–), Gun (2005), and Call of Juarez series (2007–). Other video games adapt the "weird West" concept – e.g., Fallout (1997), Gunman Chronicles (2000), Darkwatch (2005), the Borderlands series (2009–), Fallout: New Vegas (2010), and  Hard West (2015).

Radio dramas
Western radio dramas were very popular from the 1930s to the 1960s. There were five types of Western radio dramas during this period: anthology programs, such as Empire Builders and Frontier Fighters; juvenile adventure programs such as Red Ryder and Hopalong Cassidy; legend and lore like Red Goose Indian Tales and Cowboy Tom's Round-Up; adult Westerns like Fort Laramie and Frontier Gentleman; and soap operas such as Cactus Kate. Some popular shows include The Lone Ranger (first broadcast in 1933), The Cisco Kid (first broadcast in 1942), Dr. Sixgun (first broadcast in 1954), Have Gun–Will Travel (first broadcast in 1958), and Gunsmoke (first broadcast in 1952).  Many shows were done live, while others were transcribed.

Web series
Westerns have been showcased in short-episodic web series. Examples include League of STEAM, Red Bird, and Arkansas Traveler.

Subgenres

Within the larger scope of the Western genre, there are several recognized subgenres. Some subgenres, such as spaghetti Westerns, maintain standard Western settings and plots, while others take the Western theme and archetypes into different supergenres, such as neo-Westerns or space Westerns.  For a time, Westerns made in countries other than the United States were often labeled by foods associated with the culture, such as spaghetti Westerns (Italy), meat pie Westerns (Australia), ramen Westerns (Asia), and masala Westerns (India).

Influence on other genres
Being period drama pieces, both the Western and samurai genre influenced each other in style and themes throughout the years. The Magnificent Seven was a remake of Akira Kurosawa's film Seven Samurai, and A Fistful of Dollars was a remake of Kurosawa's Yojimbo, which itself was inspired by Red Harvest, an American detective novel by Dashiell Hammett. Kurosawa was influenced by American Westerns and was a fan of the genre, most especially John Ford.

Despite the Cold War, the Western was a strong influence on Eastern Bloc cinema, which had its own take on the genre, the so-called "Red Western" or "Ostern". Generally, these took two forms: either straight Westerns shot in the Eastern Bloc, or action films involving the Russian Revolution and civil war and the Basmachi rebellion.

Many elements of space-travel series and films borrow extensively from the conventions of the Western genre. This is particularly the case in the space Western subgenre of science fiction. Peter Hyams's Outland transferred the plot of High Noon to Io, moon of Jupiter. More recently, the space opera series Firefly used an explicitly Western theme for its portrayal of frontier worlds. Anime shows such as Cowboy Bebop, Trigun and Outlaw Star have been similar mixes of science-fiction and Western elements. The science fiction Western can be seen as a subgenre of either Westerns or science fiction. Elements of Western films can be found also in some films belonging essentially to other genres. For example, Kelly's Heroes is a war film, but its action and characters are Western-like.

The character played by Humphrey Bogart in noir films such as Casablanca and To Have and Have Not—an individual bound only by his own private code of honor—has a lot in common with the classic Western hero. In turn, the Western has also explored noir elements, as with the films Pursued and Sugar Creek.

In many of Robert A. Heinlein's books, the settlement of other planets is depicted in ways explicitly modeled on American settlement of the West. For example, in his Tunnel in the Sky, settlers set out to the planet "New Canaan", via an interstellar teleporter portal across the galaxy, in Conestoga wagons, their captain sporting mustaches and a little goatee and riding a Palomino horse—with Heinlein explaining that the colonists would need to survive on their own for some years, so horses are more practical than machines.

Stephen King's The Dark Tower is a series of seven books that meshes themes of Westerns, high fantasy, science fiction, and horror. The protagonist Roland Deschain is a gunslinger whose image and personality are largely inspired by the Man with No Name from Sergio Leone's films. In addition, the superhero fantasy genre has been described as having been derived from the cowboy hero, only powered up to omnipotence in a primarily urban setting. The Western genre has been parodied on a number of occasions, famous examples being Support Your Local Sheriff!, Cat Ballou, Mel Brooks's Blazing Saddles, and Rustler's Rhapsody.

George Lucas's Star Wars films use many elements of a Western, and Lucas has said he intended for Star Wars to revitalize cinematic mythology, a part the Western once held. The Jedi, who take their name from Jidaigeki, are modeled after samurai, showing the influence of Kurosawa. The character Han Solo dressed like an archetypal gunslinger, and the Mos Eisley cantina is much like an Old West saloon.

Meanwhile, films such as The Big Lebowski, which plucked actor Sam Elliott out of the Old West and into a Los Angeles bowling alley, and Midnight Cowboy, about a Southern-boy-turned-gigolo in New York (who disappoints a client when he does not measure up to Gary Cooper), transplanted Western themes into modern settings for both purposes of parody and homage.

See also
 Dime Western
 Wild West shows
 List of Western computer and video games
 List of Western fiction authors
 Lists of Western films
 List of Western television series
 Western lifestyle

References

Further reading
 Buscombe, Edward, and Christopher Brookeman. The BFI Companion to the Western (A. Deutsch, 1988)
 Everson, William K. A Pictorial History of the Western Film (New York: Citadel Press, 1969)
 Kitses, Jim. Horizons West: The Western from John Ford to Clint Eastwood (British Film Institute, 2007).
 Lenihan, John H. Showdown: Confronting Modern America in the Western Film (University of Illinois Press, 1980)
 Nachbar, John G. Focus on the Western (Prentice Hall, 1974)
 Simmon, Scott. The Invention of the Western Film: A Cultural History of the Genre's First Half Century (Cambridge University Press, 2003)

External links

 Articles on Western film and TV in Western American Literature
 Special issue of Western American Literature on Global Westerns
 Most Popular Westerns at the Internet Movie Database
 Western Writers of America website
 "The Western", St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture, 2002
 I Watch Westerns, Ludwig von Mises Institute
 Film Festival for the Western Genre website
 Western Filmscript Collection. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

Western (genre)

Film genres
Fiction by genre
Genres
Works set in the 19th century
Articles containing video clips

Western (genre)


An orthodontist is a dentist (a doctor that works on teeth) that specializes in straightening teeth with things like braces.

Training
An orthodontist needs to go to dentistry school first.  Then they need 3-4 years more of school to become an orthodontist.

Practice
An orthodontist straightens teeth using braces (metal wire attached to teeth), headgear (metal wire that may attach to teeth and the neck or head), and retainers (removable wire and plastic).  They may also pull teeth, or perform surgery.

Sources
The Orthodontist online community
 http://www.cosmetic-dentist-implant.com/restorations.php
T. M. Graber, R.L. Vanarsdall, Orthodontics, Current Principles and Techniques, "Diagnosis and Treatment Planning in Orthodontics", D. M. Sarver, W.R. Proffit, J. L. Ackerman, Mosby, 2000
 Orthodontologist Directory

Orthodontics
Healthcare occupations

Orthodontist


Ram Narayan (; born 25 December 1927), often referred to with the title Pandit, is an Indian musician who popularised the bowed instrument sarangi as a solo concert instrument in Hindustani classical music and became the first internationally successful sarangi player.

Narayan was born near Udaipur and learned to play the sarangi at an early age. He studied under sarangi players and singers and, as a teenager, worked as a music teacher and travelling musician. All India Radio, Lahore, hired Narayan as an accompanist for vocalists in 1944. He moved to Delhi following the partition of India in 1947, but wishing to go beyond accompaniment and frustrated with his supporting role, Narayan moved to Mumbai in 1949 to work in Indian cinema.

Narayan became a concert solo artist in 1956 and has since performed at the major music festivals of India. After sitar player Ravi Shankar successfully performed in Western countries, Narayan followed his example. He recorded solo albums and made his first international tour in 1964 to America and Europe with his older brother Chatur Lal, a tabla player who had toured with Shankar in the 1950s. Narayan taught Indian and foreign students and performed, frequently outside India, into the 2000s. He was awarded India's second highest civilian honour, the Padma Vibhushan, in 2005.

Early life

Ram Narayan was born on 25 December 1927 in Amber village, near Udaipur in northwestern India. His great-great-grandfather, Bagaji Biyavat, was a singer from Amber, and he and Narayan's great-grandfather, Sagad Danji Biyavat, sang at the court of the Maharana of Udaipur. Narayan's grandfather, Har Lalji Biyavat, and father, Nathuji Biyavat, were farmers and singers, Nathuji played the bowed instrument dilruba, and Narayan's mother was a music lover. Narayan's first language was Rajasthani and he learned Hindi and, later, English. At an age of about six, he found a small sarangi left by the family's Ganga guru, a genealogist, and was taught a fingering technique developed by his father. Narayan's father taught him, but was worried about the difficulty of playing the sarangi and its association with courtesan music, which gave the instrument a low social status. After a year, Biyavat sought lessons for his son from sarangi player Mehboob Khan of Jaipur, but changed his mind when Khan told him Narayan would have to change his fingering technique. Narayan's father later encouraged him to leave school and devote himself to playing the sarangi.

At about ten years of age, Narayan learned the basics of dhrupad, the oldest genre of Hindustani classical music, by studying and imitating the practice of sarangi player Uday Lal of Udaipur, a student of dhrupad singers Allabande and Zakiruddin Dagar. After Uday Lal died of old age, Narayan met travelling singer Madhav Prasad, originally of Lucknow, who had performed at the court of Maihar. With Prasad, Narayan enacted the ganda bandhan, a traditional ceremony of acceptance between a teacher and his pupil, in which Narayan swore obedience in exchange for being maintained by Prasad. He served Prasad and was taught in khyal, the predominant genre of Hindustani classical music, but returned to Udaipur after four years to teach music school. Prasad later visited Narayan and convinced him to resign his position and dedicate his time to improvement as a musician, although the idea of giving up a steady life was not well received by Narayan's family. He stayed with Prasad and travelled to several Indian states until Prasad fell ill and advised him to learn from singer Abdul Wahid Khan in Lahore. Following Prasad's death in Lucknow, Narayan enacted the ganda bandhan with another teacher who gave him lessons, but soon left for Lahore and never performed the ritual again.

Career
Narayan travelled to Lahore in 1943 and auditioned for the local All India Radio (AIR) station as a singer, but the station's music producer, Jivan Lal Mattoo, noticed grooves in Narayan's fingernails: sarangis are played by pressing the fingernails sideways against three playing strings, which strains the nails. Mattoo instead employed Narayan as a sarangi player. Traditionally, the sarangi is supposed to play after the singer and imitate the vocal performance, and play in the space between phrases. Mattoo advised Narayan and helped him contact khyal singer Abdul Wahid Khan, a rigorous teacher under whom Narayan learned four ragas through singing lessons. Narayan was allowed sporadic solo performances on AIR and began to consider a solo career.

After the partition of India in 1947, Narayan moved to Delhi and played at the local AIR station. His work for popular singers increased his repertoire and knowledge of styles. Narayan played with the classical singers Omkarnath Thakur, Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Hirabai Badodekar, and Krishnarao Shankar Pandit, and he accompanied singer Amir Khan in 1948, when Khan sang for the first time at AIR Delhi following the partition. As an accompanist for vocalists, Narayan showed his own talent and came to the foreground. Singers of the city complained that he was not a dependable accompanist and too assertive, but he maintained he wanted to keep vocalists in tune and inspire them in a cordial contest. Other tabla (percussion) players and singers, including Omkarnath Thakur and Krishnarao Shankar Pandit, expressed admiration for Narayan's playing.

Narayan became frustrated with his supporting role for vocalists and moved to Mumbai in 1949 to work independently in film music and recording. He recorded three solo 78 rpm gramophone records for the British HMV Group in 1950 and an early ten-inch LP album in Mumbai in 1951, but the album was not in demand. The Mumbai film industry offered a good salary and obscurity for work that would have lowered his stature among classical musicians. For the next 15 years he played and composed songs for films, including Adalat, Gunga Jumna, Humdard, Kashmir Ki Kali, Madhumati, Milan, Mughal-e-Azam, and Noor Jehan. For "Chalte Chalte" of 1972 film Pakeezah, composer Ghulam Mohammad made Narayan give 21 takes for the desired effect. Narayan was considered a desired choice of film music director O. P. Nayyar.

Narayan performed in Afghanistan in 1952 and in China in 1954 and was well received in both countries. His first solo concert at a 1954 music festival in the Cowasji Jehangir Hall, Mumbai, was cut short when an impatient audience, waiting for performances by famous artists, drove him from the stage. Narayan pondered giving up the sarangi and becoming a singer. He later regained confidence, performed solo for smaller crowds, and was favourably received in his second attempt to play solo for a Mumbai music festival in 1956. He has since performed at the major music festivals of India. Narayan later gave up accompaniment; this decision carried a financial risk because interest in solo sarangi was not yet substantial.

After sitar player Ravi Shankar successfully performed in Western countries, Narayan followed his example. He recorded solo albums and made his first international tour in 1964 to America and Europe with his older brother Chatur Lal, a tabla player who had toured with Shankar in the 1950s. The European tour included performances in France, Germany, sponsored by the Goethe-Institut, and at the City of London Festival, England. Beginning in the 1960s, Narayan often taught and gave concerts outside of India. On his Western tours he encountered interest in the sarangi because of its similarity to the cello and violin. The tabla player Suresh Talwalkar became a frequent accompanist for Narayan in the late 1960s. The music of Ram Narayan and Chatur Lal is featured in the 1965 anti-war film Good Times, Wonderful Times by American filmmaker Lionel Rogosin. Narayan continued to perform and record in India and abroad for the next decades and his recordings appeared on Indian, American, and European labels. During the early 1980s he typically spent months each year visiting Western nations. A 1989 UK performance of Bhairavi was covered by the Kronos Quartet on their 2009 album Floodplain. Narayan performed less frequently in the 2000s and rarely in the 2010s.

Style

Narayan's style is characteristic of Hindustani classical music, but his choice of solo instrument and his background of learning from teachers outside his community are not common for the genre. He has stated that he aims to please the audience and create a feeling of harmony, and expects the audience to reciprocate by reacting to his playing.

Narayan's performances are strung together from the meditative and measured alap (non-metrical introduction) and jor (performance with pulse) in dhrupad style, followed by a faster and less reserved gat section (composition with rhythmic pattern provided by the tabla) in khyal style. He experimented with a style of jhala (performance with rapid pulse) developed by Bundu Khan, but considered it more appropriate for plucked instruments and stopped performing it. The gat section includes one or two parts with compositions. When two gats are used, the first one tends to be at a slow or medium tempo, and the second one is faster; the gats are usually performed in the 16-beat rhythmic cycle tintal. Narayan often completes performances with ragas associated with thumri (a popular light classical genre), which are referred to as mishra (Sanskrit: mixed) because they allow for additional notes, or with a dhun (song based on folk music).

Narayan practices and teaches using a limited number of paltas, exercises in a small scale range that are used to prepare playing different numbers of notes per bow. Derived from paltas are lengthy note patterns called tans, which contain characteristic "melodic shapes" and are used by Narayan for fast playing. He uses his left (fingering) hand for runs and to play an extended melodic range, and his right (bowing) hand for rhythmic accentuations. Narayan's fingering technique, his low right hand position, keeping the bow in a close to right angle to the string, and his use of the full bow length are unusual among sarangi players.

Narayan is associated with the Kirana gharana (stylistic school of Kirana) through Abdul Wahid Khan, but his performance style is not strongly connected to it. Most of Narayan's compositions are from the singing repertoire of his teachers and were modified and adapted to the sarangi. He has created original compositions and in performance varies those he was taught. Narayan disfavors the creation of new ragas, but developed compound ragas, including those of Nand with Kedar and Kafi with Malhar.

Narayan uses a sarangi obtained from Uday Lal and built in Meerut in the 1920s or 1930s in his concerts and recordings. He plays on foreign harp strings to produce a clearer tone. Narayan experimented with modifications to his instrument and added a fourth string, but removed it because it hindered playing. In the 1940s, he exchanged gut with steel for the first string and found it easier to play, but reverted to using only gut strings because the steel string altered the sound. A sarangi owned by Narayan is on display in a gallery of musical instruments of the Sri Shanmukhananda Fine Arts & Sangeetha Sabha in Mumbai as of December 2020.

Contributions and recognition

Narayan increased the status of the sarangi to that of a modern concert solo instrument, made it known outside of India, and was the first sarangi player with international success, an example later followed by Sultan Khan. Narayan's simplified fingering technique allows for glide (meend) and affected the modern sarangi concert style, as aspects of his playing and tone creation were taken up by sarangi players from Narayan's recordings.

Narayan taught at the American Society for Eastern Arts and the National Centre for the Performing Arts in Mumbai in the 1970s and 1980s, where he gave the first master class for sarangi. Narayan privately trained sarangi players, including his daughter Aruna Narayan, his grandson Harsh Narayan, and Vasanti Srikhande. He also taught sarod players, including his son Brij Narayan, as well as vocalists and a violinist. In 2002, he taught 15 Indian students and more than 500 students in the United States and Europe had studied with him. Indian music in performance: a practical introduction, released in 1980 by Neil Sorrell in cooperation with Narayan, was described as "one of the best presentations on modern North Indian music practice" by Hans Neuhoff in Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart.

Narayan argued that appreciation of the sarangi and him came only after acknowledgment by the Western audience. He attributed the lack of sarangi students to a lack of competent teachers and said that the Indian government should assist in preserving the instrument. The Pt (Pandit) Ram Narayan Foundation in Mumbai awards scholarships to sarangi students. Narayan has stated he was skeptical the sarangi would survive and said he would never give up promoting the instrument.

Narayan received the national awards Padma Shri in 1976, Padma Bhushan in 1991, and Padma Vibhushan in 2005. The Padma Vibhushan, India's second highest civilian honor, was presented by Indian President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam. Narayan was awarded the Rajasthan Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for 1974–75 and the national Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for 1975, and was made a fellow of the Rajasthan Sangeet Natak Akademi for 1988–89. He received the Kalidas Samman from the Government of Madhya Pradesh for 1991–92 and was presented with the Aditya Vikram Birla Kalashikhar Puraskar in 1999 by P. C. Alexander, governor of Maharashtra. He received the Rajasthan Ratna for 2013, was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Honour – Classical at the 4th Global Indian Music Academy Awards 2014, and was awarded the Pandit Bhimsen Joshi Lifetime Achievement Award for 2015–2016 in the field of classical music by the government of Maharashtra. The biographical film Pandit Ramnarayan – Sarangi Ke Sang was shown at the 2007 International Film Festival of India.

Family and personal life

Narayan shared a close relationship with his older brother, Chatur Lal, who learned the tabla primarily to accompany his brother's sarangi playing. Lal studied under tabla teachers in his youth, but later turned to farming. Lal visited Narayan 1948 in Delhi after Narayan had become a professional sarangi player, and Narayan convinced Lal to work as a tabla player at the local AIR station. Lal became an acclaimed musician, toured with instrumentalists Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan in the 1950s, and helped popularise the tabla in Western countries. When Lal died in October 1965, Narayan had difficulty performing and struggled with alcoholism, but overcame the addiction after two years. Narayan assisted his brother's four children after their father's death. Chatur Lal's son, Charanjit Lal Biyavat, is a tabla player and has toured Europe with Narayan.

Narayan's wife Sheela, a homemaker, came to Mumbai in the 1950s and they had four children. She died prior to 2001. His oldest son, sarod player Brij Narayan, was born on 25 April 1952 in Udaipur, and his daughter Aruna Narayan was born in 1959 in Mumbai. She was the first woman to give a solo sarangi concert and immigrated to Canada in 1984. Another son, Shiv, who is a year younger than Aruna, has learned to play the tabla, and toured Australia with his father. Brij Narayan's son, Harsh Narayan, plays the sarangi. In 2009, Narayan performed at BBC's The Proms in the Royal Albert Hall, London, with Aruna, and he played at the 2010 Sawai Gandharva Music Festival, Pune, with Harsh.

Narayan is a Hindu and has stated "music is my religion", arguing that there was no better access to divinity than music. He is based in Mumbai.

Discography

Writings

Notes

References

External links

1927 births
20th-century Indian male musicians
All India Radio people
Articles containing video clips
Hindustani instrumentalists
Indian Hindus
Indian male classical musicians
Living people
Musicians from Mumbai
People from Udaipur district
Rajasthani people
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts
Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in arts
Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award
Sarangi players

Ram Narayan


Karl Groos (10 December 1861, in Heidelberg – 27 March 1946, in Tübingen) was a German philosopher and psychologist who proposed an evolutionary instrumentalist theory of play. His 1898 book on The Play of Animals suggested that play is a preparation for later life.

Groos was full Professor of philosophy in Gießen, Basel and 1911–1929 in Tübingen.

His main idea was that play is basically useful, and so it can be explained by the normal process of evolution by natural selection. When animals 'play' they are practising basic instincts, such as fighting, for survival. This is translated from the original as "pre-tuning". Despite this insight, Groos' work is seldom read today, and his connection of play with aesthetics has been termed "misguided". Another area of study was the psychology of literature, including statistical analysis.

Among his scholars is the German philosopher Willy Moog (1888–1935) (doctorate on Goethe supervised by Karl Groos in Gießen 1909).

Works
 Einleitung in die Ästhetik. Gießen: Ricker, 1892
 Die Spiele der Tiere (Jena 1896); translated by J. Mark Baldwin as The Play of Animals (New York 1898) (3rd German ed. 1930)
 Die Spiele der Menschen (Jena 1899); translated by J. Mark Baldwin as The Play of Man (New York 1901) (many editions)
 Des Seelenleben des Kindes (Berlin 1904)
 1902: Der ästhetische Genuss. Gießen: Ricker.
 1910: Die akustischen Phänomene in der Lyrik Schillers
 1920: Bismarck im eigenen Urteil, Stuttgart 1920
 1922: Das Spiel. Jena: G. Fischer.

References

External links

German psychologists
1861 births
1946 deaths

Karl Groos


South Quay is a Docklands Light Railway (DLR) station on the Isle of Dogs, London, England. The station is between Crossharbour and Heron Quays stations and is in Travelcard Zone 2. South Quay station is located on the southern shore of the South Dock of the West India Docks. The current station platforms sit astride the channel connecting Millwall Dock to the West India Docks.

History
The original South Quay station opened in 1987 in Millwall, and was a standard DLR phase 1 elevated station. It was later extended to permit the use of 2 car trains. The station was constrained by sharp curves at both ends and could not be further extended on its original site. The DLR planned to operate 3 car trains on this line so the station was relocated to a new site over Millwall Dock. The new site is some distance to the east, so the relocated station is partly in Cubitt Town.

Docklands Light Railway stations
Railway stations in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets

South Quay DLR station


The River Parrett is a major river in Somerset and Dorset, England. It starts in the County of Dorset near Chedington. From here it flows in a northwesterly direction through the Somerset Levels to Bridgewater. It flows into the Bristol Channel close to Burnham-on-Sea. At the mouth of the river is Bridgewater Bay National Nature Reserve. The river is tidal for  up to the hamlet of Oath, some  south east of Bridgewater. The river has a very slight fall between Langport and Bridgwater, only 1 foot per mile, or 20 cm per km, and is prone to frequent flooding, in winter and high tides.

The River Parrett is  long and its main tributaries include the Rivers Tone, Isle and Yeo. The River Cary drains into the Parrett via the King's Sedgemoor Drain. The River Parrett drains an area of over , making up around 50% of the land area of Somerset.

References

Rivers of England
Somerset
Dorset

River Parrett


Villa Sciarra is a park in Rome named for the villa at its centre. It is located between the neighborhoods of Trastevere, Gianicolo and Monteverde Vecchio.

History
In 1653 Cardinal Antonio Barberini bought most of the land within the Janiculum walls between Porta Portese and Porta San Pancrazio to build an estate mainly used as a farm. In 1811 the property was acquired by the Colonna di Sciarra, who gave the villa its current name and enlarged it by acquiring the land belonging to Monastero di San Cosimato. In the 1880s Prince Maffeo Sciarra Colonna went bankrupt and the estate was split and a large part of it became a residential area. The last owners, George Washington Wurts and his wife Henrietta Tower, who was the sister of Charlemagne Tower, established the remaining land as a botanic garden and aviary complex embellished with an original sculptural decoration coming from an 18th-century Lombard villa near Milan. The park was given to Benito Mussolini by the widowed Henrietta in 1932 on condition it became a  public park.

Location
The best approach is from Viale Trastevere. At the Ministry of Education turn onto Via E. Morosini, then take the first left (Via Dandolo) to make the climb and turn left at Via Calandrelli. In Via Calandrelli there are two entrances which are the first giving on to Piazzale Wurts, designed by Pio Piacentini and the second at Largo E. Mintilli.

References
A. Pacia, R. Piccininni, Villa Sciarra. Interpretazione romana di una villa lombarda, Roma 1992
C. Benocci, Le ville storiche della Via Aurelia Antica e dell'area sud-occidentale della città, in R.C. Benocci, Villa Sciarra: dal mecenatismo americano degli anni Trenta all'ipotesi comunale di musealizzazione, in "Bollettino dei Musei Comunali di Roma", n.s., XII, 1998, pp. 123–147
A. Campitelli, Villa Sciarra, in V. Cazzato (a cura), La memoria, il tempo, la storia nel giardino italiano fra '800 e '900, Roma 2000, pp. 374–376.

External links
Personale
Comune di Roma

Parks in Rome
Rome R. XIII Trastevere

Villa Sciarra (Rome)


A birbynė is a Lithuanian aerophone that can be either single or double-reeded and may or may not have a mouthpiece. Birbynė can be made of a variety of materials: wood, bark, horn, straw, goose feather, etc. The earliest and simplest examples were used by children as playtoys and by shepherds as a tool to control the herd. In the 19th century, influenced by classical instruments and especially the clarinet, the birbynė evolved into a serious musical instrument used in ensembles. Modern birbynės are made of wood with bells of horn and usually have ten tone holes. They are divided by pitch range into three categories: soprano, tenor, and contrabass.

See also
 Ganurags
 Zhaleika
 Erkencho
 Shofar

References

Reed aerophones
Lithuanian musical instruments

Birbynė