A babysitter, or 'sitter', is a person paid to look after a family's child or children when the parents are away for a short time. Babysitters are often teenage females. Babysitters are different than nannies in that they only supervise, or look after, children for a short while instead of an extended length of time. Babysitters are popular in American and European countries, but now it is getting popular in Asian countries, like Japan and China.

General
Most of the time, babysitters are in middle school, high school or college. Their age can range from thirteen (13) and up. There are some adults who have in home childcare as well. The type of work for babysitting workers also varies from watching a sleeping child, changing diapers, playing games, preparing meals, to teaching the child to read or even driving (if the age is right), depending on the agreement between parents and babysitter.

Organizations
In some countries there are organizations that produce training courses for babysitters, such as the American Red Cross, and they mainly focusing on child safety and first aid for infants and children. These classes or courses can be provided at local hospitals, libraries, and sometimes schools. These classes can teach the babysitter to keep both the child, or children, and the babysitter safe in different health and weather conditions. CPR is a common technique used to help someone breathe in an emergency. First aid is the practice of basic healthcare, like tending for a sprained ankle. You can be certified in either of these things. These are important things for a babysitter to learn in their everyday practice.

Children
Personal service occupations

Babysitter


Spider-Man 2 is a 2004 movie and the sequel to the 2002 Spider-Man movie. All of the main cast came back to make the movie.

Plot

Peter Parker struggles to balance his new powers and starts to think that his role as Spider-Man is distracting him from his real life. He once delivers pizzas and is late because he had to save two children from being run over in the street.

Soon, Peter was invited to attend a demonstration by a man named Otto Octavius. He has built a series of four mechanical arms. He says that the arms can control him, but because of a special mental chip on his back, he can control them instead of the other way around. He uses the arms to allow him to build and touch a reactor that uses energy from the sun. The reactor is powered by tritium. Tritium is very rare and costly, so Harry Osborn and his company spend their money to provide him with the product. However, a paper clip gets into the machine and causes massive damage. Otto's wife is killed. Peter dons the Spider-Man costume and rescues his friend Harry Osborn. Harry is mad because he hates Spider-Man since he thinks that Spider-Man killed his father (back in the first movie). The accident causes Otto's mechanical arms to fuse to his body, and it also destroyed the chip that allows him to control his arms. The loss of his wife makes him go crazy. The arms start forcing him to build the machine again to get revenge, but say they needed money in order to do it. Now called Doc Ock by the press, Otto attempts to rob a bank vault for cash, but is foiled by Spider-Man in the process.

Later, Peter promises to attend Mary Jane Watson's play, but is distracted by a crime in progress and has to go fight it and arrest the criminal. He cannot go into the play afterwards and Mary Jane likes him less for missing the play. He finally decides to give up the Spider-Man costume and become a normal person.

Without Spider-Man in his life, Peter's grades improve in school. He attends Mary Jane's play. However, she tells him that she has already been engaged to John Jameson. John is the son of his boss at the Daily Bugle.

Doc Ock later, after finishing the machine, wants some more tritium to power it.. He wants to build rebuild his reactor to be even larger than before. He forces Harry to give it to him by threatening to kill him. Harry says he will give him the tritium as long as he brings Spider-Man to him. Doc Ock kidnaps Mary Jane, forcing Peter to put his suit again. A fight breaks out. Finally, Doc Ock puts a subway on course to crash. Spider-Man manages to stop the train with great effort. but becomes very weak and is captured and tied up and brought to Harry. Harry takes out a knife to kill him, but is shocked and stops when he pulls off Spider-Man's mask to reveal that his friend Peter is underneath the mask. Peter forces Harry to tell him where Doc Ock is, and then goes down there to save Mary Jane and the city.

Down at the river, Doc Ock has rebuilt his reactor, this one much larger than before. Peter stuns him with an electric shock, reveals who he is, and convinces him to not do it, and Doc Ock has a change of heart. He says that the reactor is so big that only a river can contain it and uses his mechanical arms to destroy the floor underneath and dies in the process. Peter reveals his secret identity to Mary Jane but says they cannot be together because Spider-Man's enemies will target her.

At the end of the movie, Peter sits in his apartment and is very unhappy. The wedding for Mary Jane Watson is about to take place, but at the last minute she cancels and runs to the apartment. There, she tells him that she is willing to take the risk of being Spider-Man's girlfriend. A fire truck siren roars past. She says, "Go get them, tiger" and watches as Spider-Man goes out on another rescue mission.

Cast
 Tobey Maguire as Peter Parker / Spider-Man
 Kirsten Dunst as Mary Jane Watson
 James Franco as Harry Osborn
 Alfred Molina as Dr. Otto Octavius / Dr. Octopus
 Rosemary Harris as Aunt May Parker
 J.K. Simmons as J. Jonah Jameson
 Donna Murphy as Rosalie Octavius
 Daniel Gillies as John Jameson
 Dylan Baker as Dr. Curt Connors
 Bill Nunn as Joseph 'Robbie' Robertson
 Vanessa Ferlito as Louise
 Aasif Mandvi as Mr. Aziz
 Willem Dafoe as Norman Osborn / Green Goblin
 Cliff Robertson as Uncle Ben Parker

Soundtrack

 Vindicated by Dashboard Confessional
 Ordinary by Train
 Did You by Hoobastank
 Hold On by Jet
 Gifts and Curses by Yellowcard
 Woman by Maroon 5
 This Photograph Is Proof (I Know You Know) by Taking Back Sunday
 Give It Up by Midtown
 Lucky You by Lostprophets
 The Night That the Lights Went Out in NYC by The Ataris
 We Are by Ana Johnsson
 Somewhere to Die For by Jimmy Gnecco ft. Brian May

2004 movies
2000s superhero movies
English-language movies
Movies composed by Danny Elfman
Movies directed by Sam Raimi
Sequel movies
Spider-Man (2002 movie series)
Buena Vista International movies
Movies that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award

Spider-Man 2


Beauty Shop is an American 2005 comedy movie. The movie is about a widowed hairstylist who moves to Atlanta so her daughter can attend private school. Queen Latifah plays Gina Norris. Alicia Silverstone plays Lynn. Alfre Woodard plays Ms. Josephine. Keshia Knight Pulliam plays Darnelle. Andie MacDowell plays Terri. Sherri Shepherd plays Ida. Djimon Hounsou plays Joe.

This movie was released on March 30, 2005. The movie got mixed reviews by the critics.

2005 comedy movies
American comedy movies
English-language movies

Beauty Shop


Kenneth Jay Lane (April 22, 1932 – July 20, 2017) was an American costume jewelry designer.

Life
Born in Detroit, Michigan, the son of an automotive parts supplier, He is of Jewish descent. Lane attended the University of Michigan and the Rhode Island School of Design.

Lane was a member of the New York art staff on Vogue, before going on to design footwear for Delman Shoes between 1956–58 and for the New York branch of Christian Dior from 1958–63, where he trained under Roger Vivier.

Lane was one of the subjects of Andy Warhol's Screen Tests (where, in a film taken in 1966, he represented "high fashion").

From 1977 until his death his home in Manhattan was a duplex in the Stanford White mansion completed in 1892 and one of the few surviving mansions on Park Avenue. From 1923-77, it served as the home of the Advertising Club. At that time, it was converted into a cooperative apartment house. His living room is the former club library and features an original marble mantelpiece, original artwork and lamps designed by Robert Denning of Denning & Fourcade.

Lane collected Orientalist paintings and there is a gallery named in his honor at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in tribute to his philanthropy and bequests.

Jewelry design
Lane started designing jewelry and launched his business in 1963 while producing bejeweled footwear for Dior and Arnold Scaasi. He first came to public attention after Jo Hughes, a fashion industry insider, showed some of his designs to Wallis, Duchess of Windsor, who bought several pieces and recommended him to her friends. As both costume jewelry and society reporting were popular at the time, press reports of this incident launched Lane's business. His talent at copying high end jewelry from a quick glimpse proved popular, his clients proudly wearing the faux pieces.

Jacqueline Kennedy was among those who commissioned fake jewels from Lane in order to enable her to wear them more freely while keeping the valuable originals in a safe.

Writing for The New York Times at the time of Truman Capote's Black and White Ball in 1966, Marilyn Bender reported that the "most important men in a fashionable woman's life were her hairdresser, her make-up artist and Kenneth Jay Lane." Lane's designs were hugely popular with a fashionable clientele that could have afforded authentic jewels; while stylists used them to complement the fashionable large hairstyles, short skirts and kaftans in fashion photographs.

In 1966, he was awarded a special Coty Award for his jewelry design. He won the Neiman Marcus Fashion Award in 1968. Other awards received in the 1960s include the Tobé Coburn award (1966), the Harper's Bazaar International award (1967), the Maremodo di Capri-Tiberio d'Oro award (1967), and the Swarovski award (1969). In 1990 he won the Brides award.

In addition to his American establishment, Lane had boutiques in London and Paris. He created designs for Elizabeth Taylor, Diana Vreeland, and Audrey Hepburn, among many other high-profile clients. More recently in 2011, Britney Spears and Nicole Richie were seen wearing Lane jewelry. The Duchess of Windsor was rumoured to have been buried wearing one of his belts. Barbara Bush wore one of his three-strand faux pearl necklaces to her husband's inaugural ball.

In 1993, the year Lane commemorated the 30th anniversary of his founding, The New York Times compared him to Coco Chanel for having successfully made faux jewelry chic, noting that unlike Chanel's wealthy clientele, his rather more affordable designs were accessible to a far wider audience. He established a presence as a vendor of jewelry on the cable television home-shopping network QVC, his twice-a-month four-hour appearances in 1997 each taking $1.5 million. In 1998 the FIT Museum held a retrospective exhibition of Lane's jewelry from the 1960s to the late 1990s.

Death
Through Andy Warhol he met Nicola Weymouth, an English socialite who became his wife in 1974. They divorced in 1977. Kenneth Lane died in 2017, aged 85. No known immediate family members survive.

Legacy

Kenneth Jay Lane was a member of London's swinging set who achieved a small piece of cultural immortality as the subject of a portrait by Warhol.

References

Further reading

Lane, Kenneth Jay; Schiffer, Nancy N. (2007) Kenneth Jay Lane FABULOUS: Jewelry & Accessories.
Lane, Kenneth Jay; Lane, Kenneth J. (2007) Shamelessly, Jewelry from Kenneth Jay Lane.

External links

 Personal website
Kenneth Jay Lane collection of Roger Vivier designs, 1956-1961 from The Irene Lewisohn Costume Reference Library at the Costume Institute, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

1932 births
2017 deaths
American art collectors
American socialites
Shoe designers
American jewelry designers
Artists from Detroit
Artists from New York City
University of Michigan alumni
American jewellers
Rhode Island School of Design alumni
People from the Upper East Side
American people of Jewish descent

Kenneth Jay Lane


The U.S. National Vegetation Classification (NVC or USNVC) is a scheme for classifying the natural and cultural vegetation communities of the United States. The purpose of this standardized vegetation classification system is to facilitate communication between land managers, scientists, and the public when managing, researching, and protecting plant communities.

The non-profit group NatureServe maintains the NVC for the U.S. government.

See also
 British National Vegetation Classification
 Vegetation classification

External links
 The U.S. National Vegetation Classification website
 "National Vegetation Classification Standard, Version 2" FGDC-STD-005-2008, Vegetation Subcommittee, Federal Geographic Data Committee, February 2008
 U.S. Geological Survey page about the Vegetation Characterization Program
 Federal Geographic Data Committee page about the NVC

Environment of the United States
Flora of the United States
NatureServe
Biological classification

U.S. National Vegetation Classification


The last actions in British coastal waters and the last actions of the Battle of the Atlantic took place on 7–8 May 1945.

Background
During the first five months of 1945, the U-boat Arm (UbW) of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine dispatched 125 U-boat patrols to the Atlantic, operating principally in British coastal waters.
By 5 May 1945, just 29 were still at large.

Actions
On the morning of 7 May 1945,  — a modified Type VIIC/41 boat under O/L H Emmerich — was two days into her first operational patrol and running submerged, when she was detected by an RAF Catalina under Flt/Lt KM Murray of 210 Squadron, Coastal Command. Murray attacked immediately with a pattern of depth charges. U-320 was damaged but not destroyed; Murray sighted oil, and sonobuoys dropped by the Catalina detected hammering. Murray was unable to continue the attack and by mid-afternoon, at his Prudent Limit of Endurance (PLE), was forced to abandon the hunt. Emmerich meanwhile headed for Norway, abandoning his crippled boat the following day. Emmerich and all his crew survived.
U-320 was the last U-boat to be sunk in action during the Battle of the Atlantic.

Also on 7 May 1945,  — a modified Type VIIC/41 under K/L H Schroeteler — sighted a group of Norwegian minesweepers off Portland Bill. In his first successful attack since the patrol started, in March, he struck. His torpedoes hit NYMS 382, which sank with the loss of 22 men.

At around the same time,  — a Type XXIII under O/L E Klusmeier seven days into her first operational patrol — sighted a British convoy in the Firth of Forth. Firing his two torpedoes, Klusmeier hit freighters Sneland and Avondale Park, which both sank. Nine men were lost altogether. Both U-boats escaped.

These actions took place in the evening of 7 May 1945, just hours before the German surrender.

Conclusion
These were the last ships to be sunk by enemy action in the Battle of the Atlantic, nearly five and a half years after the first shot was fired.

References
 Dan van der Vat : The Atlantic Campaign (1988)
 Stephen Roskill : The War at Sea 1939-1945 Vol III pt 2 (1959) ISBN (none)

External links
 U-320 at u-boat.net
 Sneland I at u-boat.net
 Avondale Park at u-boat.net
 convoy EN 491 at convoyweb

Battle of the Atlantic

Actions of 7–8 May 1945


Sir John Dean Goffin (9 July 1916 – 23 January 1984) was one of New Zealand's first prolific Salvation Army composers who composed not only music for the Army but for non-Army bands as well.

He grew up in a musically active Salvation Army family, his father a famous bandmaster and composer of popular marches. From a very young age he was active in the musical life of New Zealand, both in and out of the Salvation Army, becoming, at the age of 19, bandmaster of the famed Wellington South Corps. During World War II he served as a military musician, forming and training the band of the 20th Infantry Battalion of the 4th Brigade that was active in the Middle East.

Goffin was the first major Salvation Army composer to complete a bachelor in music from the University of Otago in 1950. Shortly after he trained to become a Salvation Army Officer, serving initially in New Zealand, then in Great Britain where he held the positions of National Bandmaster (1956-1960) and National Secretary for bands and Songster Brigades (1960-1966). Transferred back to New Zealand (1966), Goffin assumed senior administrative positions culminating in his appointment as Territorial Commander (1980). Goffin was appointed a Knight Bachelor in the 1983 Queen's Birthday Honours.

His major works include: Meditation - The Light of the World; Symphony of Thanksgiving, written for the International Staff Band of The Salvation Army in 1951 for their Diamond Jubilee Celebration; and Rhapsody In Brass, selected for the 1949 British Open Brass Band Championships at Belle Vue. Rhapsodic Variation - My Strength My Tower was conceived as a test piece for Brass Band but its publication was prevented by his commissioning as a Salvation Army officer, until it was modified for publication as by the Salvation Army.

References

1916 births
1984 deaths
Composers of Christian music
Brass band composers
New Zealand composers
Male composers
New Zealand Salvationists
Salvation Army officers
University of Otago alumni
20th-century composers
20th-century male musicians
New Zealand Knights Bachelor

Dean Goffin


Victor Lustig (; January 4, 1890 – March 11, 1947) was a highly skilled con artist from Austria-Hungary, who undertook a criminal career that involved conducting scams across Europe and the United States during the early 20th century. Lustig is widely regarded as one of the most notorious con artists of his time, and is infamous for being "the man who sold the Eiffel Tower twice" and for conducting the "Rumanian Box" scam.

Early life
Lustig was born in Hostinné, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary. He learned easily throughout his youth, becoming a quick-study, which also proved to be a source of trouble. At the age of 19, while taking a break from his studies in Paris, Lustig took to gambling. During this time he also sustained a defining scar on the left side of his face from the jealous boyfriend of a woman he consorted with. Upon leaving school, Lustig applied both his quick wit and sizing up of a situation and his fluency in several languages to embark on a life of crime, eventually focusing on conducting a variety of scams and cons that provided him with property and money, and which transformed him into a professional con man.

Many of Lustig's initial cons were committed on ocean liners sailing between the Atlantic ports of France and New York City; amongst the schemes he pulled on rich travellers included one in which he posed as a musical producer who sought investment in a non-existent Broadway production. When the services of Trans-Atlantic liners were suspended in the wake of World War I, Lustig found himself in search of new territory to make an income from, and opted to travel to the United States. By this time, he began to earn a level of infamy amongst various law enforcement agencies for the scams he committed, including one he conducted in 1922 in which he conned a bank into giving him money for a portion of bonds he was offering for a repossessed property, only to use sleight of hand to escape with both the money and the bonds.

"Eiffel Tower" scam
In 1925, Lustig traveled back to France. While staying in Paris, he chanced upon a newspaper article discussing the problems faced with maintaining the Eiffel Tower, which gave him inspiration for a new con. At the time, the monument had begun to fall into disrepair, and the city was finding it increasingly expensive to maintain and repaint it. Part of the article made a passing comment that overall public opinion on the monument would move towards calls for its removal, which was the key to convincing Lustig that using it as part of his next con would be lucrative. After researching what he needed to help him utilize the information from the article, Lustig set to work preparing the scam, which included hiring a forger to produce fake government stationery for him.

Once he was ready, Lustig invited a small group of scrap metal dealers to a confidential meeting at an expensive hotel, whereupon he identified himself to them as the Deputy Director-General of the Ministère de Postes et Télégraphes (Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs). In the meeting, he convinced the men that the upkeep of the Eiffel Tower was becoming too much for Paris and that the French government wished to sell it for scrap, but that because such a deal would be controversial and likely spark public outcry, nothing could be disclosed until all the details were thought out. Lustig revealed that he was in charge of selecting the dealer who would receive ownership of the structure, claiming that the group had been selected carefully because of their reputations as "honest businessmen". His speech included genuine insight about the monument's place in the city and how it did not fit in with the city's other great monuments like the Gothic cathedrals or the Arc de Triomphe.

During his time with the dealers, Lustig kept watch on who would be the most likely to fall for his scam and found his mark in André Poisson—an insecure man who wished to rise up amongst the inner circles of the Parisian business community. As Poisson showed the keenest interest in purchasing the monument, Lustig decided to focus on him once the dealers sent their bids to him. Arranging a private meeting with Poisson, Lustig convinced him that he was a corrupt official, claiming that his government position did not give him a generous salary for the lifestyle he wished to enjoy. Believing the sale of the Eiffel Tower would secure him a place amongst the top businessmen, Poisson agreed to pay a large bribe to secure ownership of the Eiffel Tower. However, once Lustig received his bribe and the funds for the monument's "sale" (around 70,000 francs), he soon fled to Austria.

Lustig suspected that when Poisson found out he had been conned, he would be too ashamed and embarrassed to inform the French police of what he had been caught up in, yet despite this belief, he maintained a check on newspapers while in Austria. His suspicions soon proved to be correct when he could find no reference of his con within their pages, and thus he decided to return to Paris later that year to pull off the scheme once more. However, when Lustig attempted to con another group of dealers and had managed to find a mark among them willing to buy the Eiffel Tower, the police were informed about the scam and he fled to the U.S. to evade arrest.

"Rumanian Box" scam
One of Lustig's most notable scams involved selling unsuspecting marks a box that he claimed was a machine that could duplicate any currency bills that were inserted into it, with the only catch being that the device needed six hours to print an identical copy. Referred to as the "money box" or "Rumanian Box", the scam involved a specially designed mahogany box, roughly the size of a steamer trunk. The box's design featured two small slots designed to take in bills and the paper to "print" the duplicate on, and a compartment containing a false arrangement of levers and mechanisms that had to be "operated" to make the duplicates.

In order to convince the mark it truly worked, Lustig would ask them to give him a specific denomination of bill (e.g. $100), insert it into his device along with the paper, and then wait with them until the duplicate was made. When it had, Lustig would take the mark with him to a bank to authenticate the note. In reality, Lustig had concealed a genuine note within the device; the choice of the denomination was influenced by what he put into the box beforehand. Once the mark was convinced, Lustig would refuse to sell them the box until they offered him a high price for it. Before it was sold, Lustig would pack the box with additional genuine notes, to buy him time to make a clean escape, before his mark realized they had been conned.

One of Lustig's most infamous uses of the device was upon a Texas sheriff, whom he convinced to buy it for thousands of dollars. Upon realizing he had been tricked, the sheriff pursued Lustig to Chicago. Upon meeting him again, the sheriff was conned into believing that he was not operating the device correctly, and was handed a large sum of cash as compensation, unaware that the money was counterfeit. This counterfeiting would eventually lead to Lustig's arrest by American law enforcement officers.

Later years, capture, and death
When the Great Depression hit, Lustig concocted a risky scam aimed at Al Capone, knowing that he faced certain death if his mark realized he was being conned. For Lustig, the scam was not a straight-out con, but one designed to get his target to part with a relatively small amount of cash. Lustig asked Capone to invest $50,000 in a crooked scheme, then kept the money given to him in a safe deposit box for two months before returning it, claiming the deal had fallen through. Capone got the impression that he was dealing with an honest man. At this point, Lustig told Capone that the failure of the deal meant he had lost all means of supporting himself. He then convinced Capone to give him $5,000 ($1,000, according to other sources) to "tide him over", as Lustig had originally planned.

In 1930, Lustig went into a partnership with two men from Nebraska—pharmacist William Watts and chemist Tom Shaw—to conduct a large scale counterfeiting operation. Watts and Shaw engraved the plates that would be used to print  the counterfeit dollar bills, while Lustig organised a ring of couriers to distribute the forgeries, ensuring that they were kept in the dark regarding the production of the counterfeits. The operation managed to inject thousands of dollars of counterfeit money (nicknamed "Lustig money") to the U.S. economy each month for the next five years, though the increasing amount entering circulation eventually drew the attention of federal agents.

When Lustig's mistress, Billy May, learned that he was betraying her for a younger woman, she decided to take revenge and placed an anonymous phone call to the federal authorities. On 10 May 1935, Lustig was arrested in New York and charged with counterfeiting. Although he openly admitted to his partners' involvement in the operation, he himself feigned ignorance in the matter. However, Lustig's refusal to disclose information on a key found in his possession proved to be his undoing, as it was later found to open a locker in the Times Square subway station containing $51,000 in counterfeit bills and the plates with which they had been printed.

The day before his trial, Lustig managed to escape from the Federal House of Detention in New York City by faking illness and using a specially made rope to climb out of the building, but he was recaptured 27 days later in Pittsburgh. Lustig pleaded guilty at his trial and was sentenced to fifteen years in prison on Alcatraz Island, California for his original charge, with a further five years for his prison escape. On 9 March 1947, Lustig contracted pneumonia and died two days later at the Medical Center for Federal Prisoners in Springfield, Missouri. On his death certificate his occupation was listed as apprentice salesman.

Ten Commandments
A set of instructions known as the "Ten Commandments for Con Men" has been attributed to Lustig:

 Be a patient listener (it is this, not fast talking, that gets a con man his coups).
 Never look bored.
 Wait for the other person to reveal any political opinions, then agree with them.
 Let the other person reveal religious views, then have the same ones.
 Hint at sex talk, but don't follow it up unless the other person shows a strong interest.
 Never discuss illness, unless some special concern is shown.
 Never pry into a person's personal circumstances (they'll tell you all eventually).
 Never boast – just let your importance be quietly obvious.
 Never be untidy.
 Never get drunk.

See also
Charles Ponzi
Arthur Nadel
Bernie Madoff
Natwarlal
Sergei Mavrodi
Sam Bankman-Fried

References

External links
 Listen  to an episode from radio show about Victor Lustig

1890 births
1947 deaths
People from Hostinné
German Bohemian people
Czech fraudsters
20th-century Czech criminals
Confidence tricksters
Eiffel Tower
Deaths from pneumonia in Missouri
Prisoners who died in United States federal government detention

Victor Lustig


Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian Gothic or neo-Gothic) is an architectural movement that after a gradual build-up beginning in the second half of the 17th century became a widespread movement in the first half of the 19th century, mostly in England. Increasingly serious and learned admirers sought to revive medieval Gothic architecture, intending to complement or even supersede the neoclassical styles prevalent at the time. Gothic Revival draws upon features of medieval examples, including decorative patterns, finials, lancet windows, and hood moulds. By the middle of the 19th century, Gothic Revival had become the preeminent architectural style in the Western world, only to begin to fall out of fashion in the 1880s and early 1890s.

The Gothic Revival movement's roots are intertwined with philosophical movements associated with Catholicism and a re-awakening of high church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism. Ultimately, the "Anglo-Catholicism" tradition of religious belief and style became known for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. Gothic Revival architecture varied considerably in its faithfulness to both the ornamental style and principles of construction of its medieval original, sometimes amounting to little more than pointed window frames and touches of neo-Gothic decoration on a building otherwise on a wholly 19th-century plan and using contemporary materials and construction methods, most notably in the use of iron and, after the 1880s, steel in ways never seen in medieval exemplars.

In parallel with the ascendancy of neo-Gothic styles in 19th-century England, interest spread to the rest of Europe, Australia, Africa and the Americas; the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the construction of very large numbers of Gothic Revival structures worldwide. The influence of Revivalism had nevertheless peaked by the 1870s. New architectural movements, sometimes related as in the Arts and Crafts movement, and sometimes in outright opposition, such as Modernism, gained ground, and by the 1930s the architecture of the Victorian era was generally condemned or ignored. The later 20th century saw a revival of interest, manifested in the United Kingdom by the establishment of the Victorian Society in 1958.

Roots
The rise of evangelicalism in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries saw in England a reaction in the high church movement which sought to emphasise the continuity between the established church and the pre-Reformation Catholic church. Architecture, in the form of the Gothic Revival, became one of the main weapons in the high church's armoury. The Gothic Revival was also paralleled and supported by "medievalism", which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals and curiosities. As "industrialisation" progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the picturesque such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society and portrayed pre-industrial medieval society as a golden age. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation.

Gothic Revival also took on political connotations; with the "rational" and "radical" Neoclassical style being seen as associated with republicanism and liberalism (as evidenced by its use in the United States and to a lesser extent in Republican France), the more spiritual and traditional Gothic Revival became associated with monarchism and conservatism, which was reflected by the choice of styles for the rebuilt government centres of the British parliament's Palace of Westminster in London, the Canadian Parliament Buildings in Ottawa and the Hungarian Parliament Building in Budapest.

In English literature, the architectural Gothic Revival and classical Romanticism gave rise to the Gothic novel genre, beginning with The Castle of Otranto (1764) by Horace Walpole, and inspired a 19th-century genre of medieval poetry that stems from the pseudo-bardic poetry of "Ossian". Poems such as "Idylls of the King" by Alfred, Lord Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions.

Survival and revival

Gothic architecture began at the Basilica of Saint Denis near Paris, and the Cathedral of Sens in 1140 and ended with a last flourish in the early 16th century with buildings like Henry VII's Chapel at Westminster. However, Gothic architecture did not die out completely in the 16th century but instead lingered in on-going cathedral-building projects; at Oxford and Cambridge Universities, and in the construction of churches in increasingly isolated rural districts of England, France, Germany, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and in Spain.

Britain and Ireland
St Columb's Cathedral, in Derry, may be considered 'Gothic Survival', as it was complated in 1633 in a Perpendicular Gothic style. Similarly, Gothic architecture survived in some urban settings during the later 17th century, as shown in Oxford and Cambridge, where some additions and repairs to Gothic buildings were considered to be more in keeping with the style of the original structures than contemporary Baroque.

In contrast, Dromore Cathedral, built in 1660/1661, immediately after the end of the Protectorate, revived Early English forms, demonstrating the restitution of the monarchy and claiming Ireland for the English crown. At the same time, the Great Hall of Lambeth Palace, that had been despoiled by the Puritans, was rebuilt in a mixture of Baroque and older Gothic forms, demonstrating the restitution of the Anglican Church. These two buildings can be said to herald the onset of Gothic Revival architecture, several decades before it became mainstream. Sir Christopher Wren's Tom Tower for Christ Church, University of Oxford, consciously set out to imitate Cardinal Wolsey's architectural style. Writing to Dean Fell in 1681, he noted; "I resolved it ought to be Gothic to agree with the Founder's work", adding that to do otherwise would lead to "an unhandsome medley". Pevsner suggests that he succeeded "to the extent that innocent visitors never notice the difference". It was followed in 1697–1704 by the rebuilding of Collegiate Church of St Mary in Warwick as a stone-vaulted hall church, whereas the burnt church had been a basilica with timbered roofs. Also in Warwickshire, in 1729/30, the nave and aisles of the church of St Nicholas at Alcester were rebuilt by Edward and Thomas Woodward, the exterior in Gothic forms but with a Neoclassical interior. At the same time, 1722–1746, Nicholas Hawksmoor added the west towers to Westminster Abbey, which made him a pioneer of Gothic Revival completions of medieval buildings, which since the late 19th century were increasingly disapproved, although work in this style continued into the 20th century. Back in Oxford, the redecoration of the  dining hall at University College between 1766 and 1768 has been described as "the first major example of the Gothic Revival style in Oxford".

Continental Europe

Throughout France in the 16th and 17th centuries, churches such as St-Eustache (1532–1640, façade 1754) in Paris and Orléans Cathedral (1601–1829) continued to be built following Gothic principles (structure of the buildings, application of tracery) with some little changes like the use of round arches instead of pointed arches and the application of some Classical details, until the arrival of Baroque architecture.

In Bologna, in 1646, the Baroque architect Carlo Rainaldi constructed Gothic vaults (completed 1658) for the Basilica of San Petronio in Bologna, which had been under construction since 1390; there, the Gothic context of the structure overrode considerations of the current architectural mode. Similarly, in St. Salvator's Cathedral of Bruges, the timbered medieval vaults of nave and choir were replaced by "Gothic" stone vaults in 1635 resp. 1738/39. Guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the "Gothic order" as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice.

Even in Central Europe of the late 17th and 18th centuries, where Baroque dominated, some architects used elements of the Gothic style. The most important example is Jan Santini Aichel, whose Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk in Žďár nad Sázavou, Czech Republic, represents a peculiar and creative synthesis of Baroque and Gothic. An example of another and less striking use of the Gothic style in the time is the Basilica of Our Lady of Hungary in Márianosztra, Hungary, whose choir (adjacent to a Baroque nave) was long considered authentically Gothic, because the 18th-century architect used medieval shapes to emphasize the continuity of the monastic community with its 14th-century founders.

Romantic Challenges
During the mid-18th century rise of Romanticism, an increased interest and awareness of the Middle Ages among influential connoisseurs created a more appreciative approach to selected medieval arts, beginning with church architecture, the tomb monuments of royal and noble personages, stained glass, and late Gothic illuminated manuscripts. Other Gothic arts, such as tapestries and metalwork, continued to be disregarded as barbaric and crude, however sentimental and nationalist associations with historical figures were as strong in this early revival as purely aesthetic concerns.

German Romanticists (including philosopher and writer Goethe and architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel), began to appreciate the picturesque character of ruins—"picturesque" becoming a new aesthetic quality—and those mellowing effects of time that the Japanese call wabi-sabi and that Horace Walpole independently admired, mildly tongue-in-cheek, as "the true rust of the Barons' wars". The "Gothick" details of Walpole's Twickenham villa, Strawberry Hill House begun in 1749, appealed to the rococo tastes of the time, and were fairly quickly followed by James Talbot at Lacock Abbey, Wiltshire. By the 1770s, thoroughly neoclassical architects such as Robert Adam and James Wyatt were prepared to provide Gothic details in drawing-rooms, libraries and chapels and, for William Beckford at Fonthill in Wiltshire, a complete romantic vision of a Gothic abbey.

Some of the earliest architectural examples of the revived are found in Scotland. Inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746 for the Duke of Argyll, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets. The architectural historian John Gifford writes that the castellations were the "symbolic assertion of the still quasi-feudal power [the duke] exercised over the inhabitants within his heritable jurisdictions". Most buildings were still largely in the established Palladian style, but some houses incorporated external features of the Scots baronial style. Robert Adam's houses in this style include Mellerstain and Wedderburn in Berwickshire and Seton Castle in East Lothian, but it is most clearly seen at Culzean Castle, Ayrshire, remodelled by Adam from 1777. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to "improve" Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions.

A younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for John Britton's series Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, which began appearing in 1807. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt... to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, "a text-book for the architectural student". Its long antique title is descriptive: Attempt to discriminate the styles of English architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation; preceded by a sketch of the Grecian and Roman orders, with notices of nearly five hundred English buildings. The categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions, was still being republished by 1881, and has been reissued in the 21st century.

The most common use for Gothic Revival architecture was in the building of churches. Major examples of Gothic cathedrals in the U.S. include the cathedrals of St. John the Divine and St. Patrick in New York City and the Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D.C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is the Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario.

Gothic Revival architecture remained one of the most popular and long-lived of the many revival styles of architecture. Although it began to lose force and popularity after the third quarter of the 19th century in commercial, residential and industrial fields, some buildings such as churches, schools, colleges and universities were still constructed in the Gothic style, often known as "Collegiate Gothic", which remained popular in England, Canada and in the United States until well into the early to mid-20th century. Only when new materials, like steel and glass along with concern for function in everyday working life and saving space in the cities, meaning the need to build up instead of out, began to take hold did the Gothic Revival start to disappear from popular building requests.

Gothic Revival in the other decorative arts

The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture. Classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace and lattice work were applied to a wide range of Gothic Revival objects. Some examples of Gothic Revival influence can be found in heraldic motifs in coats of arms, furniture with elaborate painted scenes like the whimsical Gothic detailing in English furniture is traceable as far back as Lady Pomfret's house in Arlington Street, London (1740s), and Gothic fretwork in chairbacks and glazing patterns of bookcases is a familiar feature of Chippendale's Director (1754, 1762), where, for example, the three-part bookcase employs Gothic details with Rococo profusion, on a symmetrical form. Abbotsford in the Scottish Borders, rebuilt from 1816 by Sir Walter Scott and paid for by the profits from his hugely successful, historical novels, exemplifies the "Regency Gothic" style. Gothic Revival also includes the reintroduction of medieval clothes and dances in historical re-enactments staged especially in the second part of the 19th century, although one of the first, the Eglinton Tournament of 1839, remains the most famous.

During the Bourbon Restoration in France (1814–1830) and the Louis-Philippe period (1830–1848), Gothic Revival motifs start to appear, together with revivals of the Renaissance and of Rococo. During these two periods, the vogue for medieval things led craftsmen to adopt Gothic decorative motifs in their work, such as bell turrets, lancet arches, trefoils, Gothic tracery and rose windows. This style was also known as "Cathedral style" ("À la catédrale").

By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, and Gothic blind arcading could decorate a ceramic pitcher. Writing in 1857, J. G. Crace, an influential decorator from a family of influential interior designers, expressed his preference for the Gothic style: "In my opinion there is no quality of lightness, elegance, richness or beauty possessed by any other style... [or] in which the principles of sound construction can be so well carried out". The illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery. Nikolaus Pevsner's volume on the exhibits at the Great Exhibition, High Victorian Design published in 1951, was an important contribution to the academic study of Victorian taste and an early indicator of the later 20th century rehabilitation of Victorian architecture and the objects with which they decorated their buildings.

In 1847, eight thousand British crown coins were minted in proof condition with the design using an ornate reverse in keeping with the revived style. Considered by collectors to be particularly beautiful, they are known as 'Gothic crowns'. The design was repeated in 1853, again in proof. A similar two shilling coin, the 'Gothic florin' was minted for circulation from 1851 to 1887.

Romanticism and nationalism

French neo-Gothic had its roots in the French medieval Gothic architecture, where it was created in the 12th century. Gothic architecture was sometimes known during the medieval period as the "Opus Francigenum", (the "French Art"). French scholar Alexandre de Laborde wrote in 1816 that "Gothic architecture has beauties of its own", which marked the beginning of the Gothic Revival in France. Starting in 1828, Alexandre Brogniart, the director of the Sèvres porcelain manufactory, produced fired enamel paintings on large panes of plate glass, for King Louis-Philippe's Chapelle royale de Dreux, an important early French commission in Gothic taste, preceded mainly by some Gothic features in a few jardins paysagers.

The French Gothic Revival was set on more sound intellectual footings by a pioneer, Arcisse de Caumont, who founded the Societé des Antiquaires de Normandie at a time when antiquaire still meant a connoisseur of antiquities, and who published his great work on architecture in French Normandy in 1830. The following year Victor Hugo's historical romance novel The Hunchback of Notre-Dame appeared, in which the great Gothic cathedral of Paris was at once a setting and a protagonist in a hugely popular work of fiction. Hugo intended his book to awaken a concern for the surviving Gothic architecture left in Europe, however, rather than to initiate a craze for neo-Gothic in contemporary life. In the same year that Notre-Dame de Paris appeared, the new restored Bourbon monarchy established an office in the Royal French Government of Inspector-General of Ancient Monuments, a post which was filled in 1833 by Prosper Mérimée, who became the secretary of a new Commission des Monuments Historiques in 1837. This was the Commission that instructed Eugène Viollet-le-Duc to report on the condition of the Abbey of Vézelay in 1840. Following this, Viollet le Duc set out to restore most of the symbolic buildings in France including Notre Dame de Paris, Vézelay, Carcassonne, Roquetaillade castle, Mont-Saint-Michel Abbey on its peaked coastal island, Pierrefonds, and the Palais des Papes in Avignon. When France's first prominent neo-Gothic church was built, the Basilica of Saint-Clotilde, Paris, begun in 1846 and consecrated in 1857, the architect chosen was of German extraction, Franz Christian Gau, (1790–1853); the design was significantly modified by Gau's assistant, Théodore Ballu, in the later stages, to produce the pair of flèches that crown the west end.

In Germany, there was a renewal of interest in the completion of Cologne Cathedral. Begun in 1248, it was still unfinished at the time of the revival. The 1820s "Romantic" movement brought a new appreciation of the building, and construction work began once more in 1842, marking a German return for Gothic architecture. St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague, begun in 1344, was also completed in the mid-19th and early 20th centuries. The importance of the Cologne completion project in German-speaking lands has been explored by Michael J. Lewis, "The Politics of the German Gothic Revival: August Reichensperger". Reichensperger was himself in no doubt as to the cathedral's central position in Germanic culture; "Cologne Cathedral is German to the core, it is a national monument in the fullest sense of the word, and probably the most splendid monument to be handed down to us from the past".

Because of Romantic nationalism in the early 19th century, the Germans, French and English all claimed the original Gothic architecture of the 12th century era as originating in their own country. The English boldly coined the term "Early English" for "Gothic", a term that implied Gothic architecture was an English creation. In his 1832 edition of Notre Dame de Paris, author Victor Hugo said "Let us inspire in the nation, if it is possible, love for the national architecture", implying that "Gothic" is France's national heritage. In Germany, with the completion of Cologne Cathedral in the 1880s, at the time its summit was the world's tallest building, the cathedral was seen as the height of Gothic architecture. Other major completions of Gothic cathedrals were of Regensburger Dom (with twin spires completed from 1869 to 1872), Ulm Münster (with a 161-meter tower from 1890) and St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague (1844–1929).

In Belgium, a 15th-century church in Ostend burned down in 1896. King Leopold II funded its replacement, the Saint Peter's and Saint Paul's Church, a cathedral-scale design which drew inspiration from the neo-Gothic Votive Church in Vienna and Cologne Cathedral. In Mechelen, the largely unfinished building drawn in 1526 as the seat of the Great Council of The Netherlands, was not actually built until the early 20th century, although it closely followed Rombout II Keldermans's Brabantine Gothic design, and became the 'new' north wing of the City Hall. In Florence, the Duomo's temporary façade erected for the Medici-House of Lorraine nuptials in 1588–1589, was dismantled, and the west end of the cathedral stood bare again until 1864, when a competition was held to design a new façade suitable to Arnolfo di Cambio's original structure and the fine campanile next to it. This competition was won by Emilio De Fabris, and so work on his polychrome design and panels of mosaic was begun in 1876 and completed by 1887, creating the Neo-Gothic western façade.

Eastern Europe also saw much Revival construction; in addition to the Hungarian Parliament Building in Budapest, the Bulgarian National Revival saw the introduction of Gothic Revival elements into its vernacular ecclesiastical and residential architecture. The largest project of the Slavine School is the Lopushna Monastery cathedral (1850–1853), though later churches such as Saint George's Church, Gavril Genovo display more prominent vernacular Gothic Revival features.

In Scotland, while a similar Gothic style to that used further south in England was adopted by figures including Frederick Thomas Pilkington (1832–1898) in secular architecture it was marked by the re-adoption of the Scots baronial style. Important for the adoption of the style in the early 19th century was Abbotsford, which became a model for the modern revival of the baronial style. Common features borrowed from 16th- and 17th-century houses included battlemented gateways, crow-stepped gables, pointed turrets and machicolations. The style was popular across Scotland and was applied to many relatively modest dwellings by architects such as William Burn (1789–1870), David Bryce (1803–1876), Edward Blore (1787–1879), Edward Calvert () and Robert Stodart Lorimer (1864–1929) and in urban contexts, including the building of Cockburn Street in Edinburgh (from the 1850s) as well as the National Wallace Monument at Stirling (1859–1869). The reconstruction of Balmoral Castle as a baronial palace and its adoption as a royal retreat from 1855 to 1858 confirmed the popularity of the style.

In the United States, the first "Gothic stile" church (as opposed to churches with Gothic elements) was Trinity Church on the Green, New Haven, Connecticut. It was designed by Ithiel Town between 1812 and 1814, while he was building his Federalist-style Center Church, New Haven next to this radical new "Gothic-style" church. Its cornerstone was laid in 1814, and it was consecrated in 1816. It predates St Luke's Church, Chelsea, often said to be the first Gothic-revival church in London. Though built of trap rock stone with arched windows and doors, parts of its tower and its battlements were wood. Gothic buildings were subsequently erected by Episcopal congregations in Connecticut at St John's in Salisbury (1823), St John's in Kent (1823–1826) and St Andrew's in Marble Dale (1821–1823). These were followed by Town's design for Christ Church Cathedral (Hartford, Connecticut) (1827), which incorporated Gothic elements such as buttresses into the fabric of the church. St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Troy, New York, was constructed in 1827–1828 as an exact copy of Town's design for Trinity Church, New Haven, but using local stone; due to changes in the original, St. Paul's is closer to Town's original design than Trinity itself. In the 1830s, architects began to copy specific English Gothic and Gothic Revival Churches, and these "'mature Gothic Revival' buildings made the domestic Gothic style architecture which preceded it seem primitive and old-fashioned".

There are many examples of Gothic Revival architecture in Canada. The first major structure was Notre-Dame Basilica in Montreal, Quebec, which was designed in 1824. The capital, Ottawa, Ontario, was predominantly a 19th-century creation in the Gothic Revival style. The Parliament Hill buildings were the preeminent example, of which the original library survives today (after the rest was destroyed by fire in 1916). Their example was followed elsewhere in the city and outlying areas, showing how popular the Gothic Revival movement had become. Other examples of Canadian Gothic Revival architecture in Ottawa are the Victoria Memorial Museum, (1905–1908), the Royal Canadian Mint, (1905–1908), and the Connaught Building, (1913–1916), all by David Ewart.

Gothic as a moral force

Pugin and "truth" in architecture

In the late 1820s, A. W. N. Pugin, still a teenager, was working for two highly visible employers, providing Gothic detailing for luxury goods. For the Royal furniture makers Morel and Seddon he provided designs for redecorations for the elderly George IV at Windsor Castle in a Gothic taste suited to the setting. For the royal silversmiths Rundell Bridge and Co., Pugin provided designs for silver from 1828, using the 14th-century Anglo-French Gothic vocabulary that he would continue to favour later in designs for the new Palace of Westminster. Between 1821 and 1838 Pugin and his father published a series of volumes of architectural drawings, the first two entitled, Specimens of Gothic Architecture, and the following three, Examples of Gothic Architecture, that were to remain both in print and the standard references for Gothic Revivalists for at least the next century.

In Contrasts: or, a Parallel between the Noble Edifices of the Middle Ages, and similar Buildings of the Present Day (1836), Pugin expressed his admiration not only for medieval art but for the whole medieval ethos, suggesting that Gothic architecture was the product of a purer society. In The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture (1841), he set out his "two great rules of design: 1st, that there should be no features about a building which are not necessary for convenience, construction or propriety; 2nd, that all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential construction of the building". Urging modern craftsmen to seek to emulate the style of medieval workmanship as well as reproduce its methods, Pugin sought to reinstate Gothic as the true Christian architectural style.

Pugin's most notable project was the Houses of Parliament in London, after its predecessor was largely destroyed in a fire in 1834. His part in the design consisted of two campaigns, 1836–1837 and again in 1844 and 1852, with the classicist Charles Barry as his nominal superior. Pugin provided the external decoration and the interiors, while Barry designed the symmetrical layout of the building, causing Pugin to remark, "All Grecian, Sir; Tudor details on a classic body".

Ruskin and Venetian Gothic

John Ruskin supplemented Pugin's ideas in his two influential theoretical works, The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849) and The Stones of Venice (1853). Finding his architectural ideal in Venice, Ruskin proposed that Gothic buildings excelled above all other architecture because of the "sacrifice" of the stone-carvers in intricately decorating every stone. In this, he drew a contrast between the physical and spiritual satisfaction which a medieval craftsman derived from his work, and the lack of these satisfactions afforded to modern, industrialised labour.

By declaring the Doge's Palace to be "the central building of the world", Ruskin argued the case for Gothic government buildings as Pugin had done for churches, though mostly only in theory. When his ideas were put into practice, Ruskin often disliked the result, although he supported many architects, such as Thomas Newenham Deane and Benjamin Woodward, and was reputed to have designed some of the corbel decorations for that pair's Oxford University Museum of Natural History. A major clash between the Gothic and Classical styles in relation to governmental offices occurred less than a decade after the publication of The Stones of Venice. A public competition for the construction of a new Foreign Office in Whitehall saw the decision to award first place to a Gothic design by George Gilbert Scott overturned by the Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston, who successfully demanded a building in the Italianate style.

Ecclesiology and funerary style
In England, the Church of England was undergoing a revival of Anglo-Catholic and ritualist ideology in the form of the Oxford Movement, and it became desirable to build large numbers of new churches to cater for the growing population, and cemeteries for their hygienic burials. This found ready exponents in the universities, where the ecclesiological movement was forming. Its proponents believed that Gothic was the only style appropriate for a parish church, and favoured a particular era of Gothic architecture – the "decorated". The Cambridge Camden Society, through its journal The Ecclesiologist, was so savagely critical of new church buildings that were below its exacting standards and its pronouncements were followed so avidly that it became the epicentre of the flood of Victorian restoration that affected most of the Anglican cathedrals and parish churches in England and Wales.

St Luke's Church, Chelsea, was a new-built Commissioner's Church of 1820–1824, partly built using a grant of £8,333 towards its construction with money voted by Parliament as a result of the Church Building Act of 1818. It is often said to be the first Gothic Revival church in London, and, as Charles Locke Eastlake put it: "probably the only church of its time in which the main roof was groined throughout in stone". Nonetheless, the parish was firmly low church, and the original arrangement, modified in the 1860s, was as a "preaching church" dominated by the pulpit, with a small altar and wooden galleries over the nave aisle.

The development of the private major metropolitan cemeteries was occurring at the same time as the movement; Sir William Tite pioneered the first cemetery in the Gothic style at West Norwood in 1837, with chapels, gates, and decorative features in the Gothic manner, attracting the interest of contemporary architects such as George Edmund Street, Barry, and William Burges. The style was immediately hailed a success and universally replaced the previous preference for classical design.

Not every architect or client was swept away by this tide. Although Gothic Revival succeeded in becoming an increasingly familiar style of architecture, the attempt to associate it with the notion of high church superiority, as advocated by Pugin and the ecclesiological movement, was anathema to those with ecumenical or nonconformist principles. Alexander "Greek" Thomson launched a famous attack; "We are told we should adopt [Gothic] because it is the Christian style, and this most impudent assertion has been accepted as sound doctrine even by earnest and intelligent Protestants; whereas it ought only to have force with those who believe that Christian truth attained its purest and most spiritual development at the period when this style of architecture constituted its corporeal form". Those rejecting the link between Gothic and Catholicism looked to adopt it solely for its aesthetic romantic qualities, to combine it with other styles, or look to northern European Brick Gothic for a more plain appearance; or in some instances all three of these, as at the non-denominational Abney Park Cemetery in east London, designed by William Hosking FSA in 1840.

Viollet-le-Duc and Iron Gothic

France had lagged slightly in entering the neo-Gothic scene, but produced a major figure in the revival in Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. As well as a powerful and influential theorist, Viollet-le-Duc was a leading architect whose genius lay in restoration. He believed in restoring buildings to a state of completion that they would not have known even when they were first built, theories he applied to his restorations of the walled city of Carcassonne, and to Notre-Dame and Sainte Chapelle in Paris. In this respect he differed from his English counterpart Ruskin, as he often replaced the work of mediaeval stonemasons. His rational approach to Gothic stood in stark contrast to the revival's romanticist origins. Throughout his career he remained in a quandary as to whether iron and masonry should be combined in a building. Iron, in the form of iron anchors, had been used in the most ambitious buildings of medieval Gothic, especially but nut only for tracery.

It had in fact been used in "Gothic" buildings since the earliest days of the revival. In some cases, cast iron enabled something like a perfection of medieval design. It was only with Ruskin and the archaeological Gothic's demand for historical truth that iron, whether it was visible or not, was deemed improper for a Gothic building. Ultimately, the utility of iron won out: "substituting a cast iron shaft for a granite, marble or stone column is not bad, but one must agree that it cannot be considered as an innovation, as the introduction of a new principle. Replacing a stone or wooden lintel by an iron breastsummer is very good". He strongly opposed illusion, however: reacting against the casing of a cast iron pillar in stone, he wrote; "il faut que la pierre paraisse bien être de la pierre; le fer, du fer; le bois, du bois" (stone must appear to be stone; iron, iron; wood, wood).

The arguments against modern construction materials began to collapse in the mid-19th century as great prefabricated structures such as the glass and iron Crystal Palace and the glazed courtyard of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History were erected, which appeared to embody Gothic principles. Between 1863 and 1872 Viollet-le-Duc published his Entretiens sur l'architecture, a set of daring designs for buildings that combined iron and masonry. Though these projects were never realised, they influenced several generations of designers and architects, notably Antoni Gaudí in Spain and, in England, Benjamin Bucknall, Viollet's foremost English follower and translator, whose masterpiece was Woodchester Mansion. The flexibility and strength of cast-iron freed neo-Gothic designers to create new structural Gothic forms impossible in stone, as in Calvert Vaux's cast-iron Gothic bridge in Central Park, New York dating from the 1860. Vaux enlisted openwork forms derived from Gothic blind-arcading and window tracery to express the spring and support of the arching bridge, in flexing forms that presage Art Nouveau.

Collegiate Gothic

In the United States, Collegiate Gothic was a late and literal resurgence of the English Gothic Revival, adapted for American college and university campuses. The term "Collegiate Gothic" originated from American architect Alexander Jackson Davis's handwritten description of his own "English Collegiate Gothic Mansion" of 1853 for the Harrals of Bridgeport. By the 1890s, the movement was known as "Collegiate Gothic".

The firm of Cope & Stewardson was an early and important exponent, transforming the campuses of Bryn Mawr College, Princeton University and the University of Pennsylvania in the 1890s. In 1872, Abner Jackson, the President of Trinity College, Connecticut, visited Britain, seeking models and an architect for a planned new campus for the college. William Burges was chosen and he drew up a four-quadrangled masterplan, in his Early French style. Lavish illustrations were produced by Axel Haig. However, the estimated cost, at just under one million dollars, together with the sheer scale of the plans, thoroughly alarmed the College Trustees and only one-sixth of the plan was executed, the present Long Walk, with Francis H. Kimball acting as local, supervising, architect, and Frederick Law Olmsted laying out the grounds. Hitchcock considers the result, "perhaps the most satisfactory of all of [Burges's] works and the best example anywhere of Victorian Gothic collegiate architecture".

The movement continued into the 20th century, with Cope & Stewardson's campus for Washington University in St. Louis (1900–1909), Charles Donagh Maginnis's buildings at Boston College (1910s) (including Gasson Hall), Ralph Adams Cram's design for the Princeton University Graduate College (1913), and James Gamble Rogers' reconstruction of the campus of Yale University (1920s). Charles Klauder's Gothic Revival skyscraper on the University of Pittsburgh's campus, the Cathedral of Learning (1926) exhibited Gothic stylings both inside and out, while using modern technologies to make the building taller.

Vernacular adaptations and the revival in the Antipodes

Carpenter Gothic houses and small churches became common in North America and other places in the late 19th century. These structures adapted Gothic elements such as pointed arches, steep gables, and towers to traditional American light-frame construction. The invention of the scroll saw and mass-produced wood moldings allowed a few of these structures to mimic the florid fenestration of the High Gothic. But, in most cases, Carpenter Gothic buildings were relatively unadorned, retaining only the basic elements of pointed-arch windows and steep gables. A well-known example of Carpenter Gothic is a house in Eldon, Iowa, that Grant Wood used for the background of his painting American Gothic.

New Zealand and Australia
Benjamin Mountfort, born in Britain, trained in Birmingham, and subsequently resident in Canterbury, New Zealand imported the Gothic Revival style to his adopted country and designed Gothic Revival churches in both wood and stone, notably in the city of Christchurch. Frederick Thatcher designed wooden churches in the Gothic Revival style, for example Old St. Paul's, Wellington, contributing to what has been described as New Zealand's "one memorable contribution to world architecture". St Mary of the Angels, Wellington by Frederick de Jersey Clere is in the French Gothic style, and was the first Gothic design church built in ferro-concrete. The style also found favour in the southern New Zealand city of Dunedin, where the wealth brought in by the Otago Gold Rush of the 1860s allowed for substantial stone edifices to be constructed, using hard, dark breccia stone and a local white limestone, Oamaru stone, among them Maxwell Bury's University of Otago Registry Building and the Dunedin Law Courts by John Campbell.

Australia, in particular in Melbourne and Sydney, saw the construction of large numbers of Gothic Revival buildings. William Wardell (1823–1899) was among the country's most prolific architects; born and trained in England, after emigrating his most notable Australian designs include St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne and St John's College and St Mary's Cathedral in Sydney. In common with many other 19th century architects, Wardell could deploy different styles at the command of his clients; Government House, Melbourne is Italianate. His banking house for the English, Scottish and Australian Bank in Melbourne has been described as "the Australian masterpiece of neo-Gothic". This claim has also been made for Edmund Blacket's MacLaurin Hall at the University of Sydney, which sits in the quadrangle complex described as "arguably the most important group of Gothic and Tudor Revival style architecture in Australia".

Global Gothic

Henry-Russell Hitchcock, the architectural historian, noted the spread of the Gothic Revival in the 19th and early 20th centuries, "wherever English culture extended – as far as the West Coast of the United States and to the remotest Antipodes". The British Empire, almost at its geographic peak at the height of the Gothic Revival, assisted or compelled this spread. The English-speaking dominions, Canada, Australia particularly the state of Victoria and New Zealand generally adopted British styles in toto (see above); other parts of the empire saw regional adaptations. India saw the construction of many such buildings, in styles termed Indo-Saracenic or Hindu-Gothic. Notable examples include Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus) and the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel, both in Mumbai. At the hill station of Shimla, the summer capital of British India, an attempt was made to recreate the Home counties in the foothills of the Himalayas. Although Gothic Revival was the predominant architectural style, alternatives were also deployed; Rashtrapati Niwas, the former Viceregal Lodge, has been variously described as Scottish Baronial Revival, Tudor Revival and Jacobethan.

Other examples in the east include the late 19th century Church of the Saviour, Beijing, constructed on the orders of the Guangxu Emperor and designed by the Catholic missionary and architect Alphonse Favier; and the Wat Niwet Thammaprawat in the Bang Pa-In Royal Palace in Bangkok, by the Italian Joachim Grassi. In Indonesia, (the former colony of the Dutch East Indies), the Jakarta Cathedral was begun in 1891 and completed in 1901 by Dutch architect Antonius Dijkmans; while further north in the islands of the Philippines, the San Sebastian Church, designed by architects Genaro Palacios and Gustave Eiffel, was consecrated in 1891 in the still Spanish colony. Church building in South Africa was extensive, with little or no effort to adopt vernacular forms. Robert Gray, the first bishop of Cape Town, wrote; "I am sure we do not overestimate the importance of real Churches built after the fashion of our English churches". He oversaw the construction of some fifty such buildings between 1848 and his death in 1872. South America saw a later flourishing of the Revival, particularly in church architecture, for example the Metropolitan Cathedral of São Paulo in Brazil by the German Maximilian Emil Hehl, and the Cathedral of La Plata in Argentina.

20th and 21st centuries

The Gothic style dictated the use of structural members in compression, leading to tall, buttressed buildings with interior columns of load-bearing masonry and tall, narrow windows. But, by the start of the 20th century, technological developments such as the steel frame, the incandescent light bulb and the elevator made this approach obsolete. Steel framing supplanted the non-ornamental functions of rib vaults and flying buttresses, providing wider open interiors with fewer columns interrupting the view.

Some architects persisted in using Neo-Gothic tracery as applied ornamentation to an iron skeleton underneath, for example in Cass Gilbert's 1913 Woolworth Building skyscraper in New York and Raymond Hood's 1922 Tribune Tower in Chicago. The Tower Life Building in San Antonio, completed in 1929, is noted for the arrays of decorative gargoyles on its upper floors. But, over the first half of the century, Neo-Gothic was supplanted by Modernism, although some modernist architects saw the Gothic tradition of architectural form entirely in terms of the "honest expression" of the technology of the day, and saw themselves as heirs to that tradition, with their use of rectangular frames and exposed iron girders.

In spite of this, the Gothic Revival continued to exert its influence, simply because many of its more massive projects were still being built well into the second half of the 20th century, such as Giles Gilbert Scott's Liverpool Cathedral and the Washington National Cathedral (1907–1990). Ralph Adams Cram became a leading force in American Gothic, with his most ambitious project the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York (claimed to be the largest cathedral in the world), as well as Collegiate Gothic buildings at Princeton University. Cram said "the style hewn out and perfected by our ancestors [has] become ours by uncontested inheritance".

Though the number of new Gothic Revival buildings declined sharply after the 1930s, they continue to be built. St Edmundsbury Cathedral, the cathedral of Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk, was expanded and reconstructed in a neo-Gothic style between the late 1950s and 2005, and a commanding stone central tower was added. A new church in the Gothic style is planned for St. John Vianney Parish in Fishers, Indiana. The Whittle Building at Peterhouse, University of Cambridge, opened in 2016, matches the neo-Gothic style of the rest of the courtyard in which it is situated.

Appreciation
By 1872, the Gothic Revival was mature enough in the United Kingdom that Charles Locke Eastlake, an influential professor of design, could produce A History of the Gothic Revival. Kenneth Clark's, The Gothic Revival. An Essay, followed in 1928, in which he described the Revival as "the most widespread and influential artistic movement which England has ever produced." The architect and writer Harry Stuart Goodhart-Rendel covered the subject of the Revival in an appreciative way in his Slade Lectures in 1934. But the conventional early 20th century view of the architecture of the Gothic Revival was strongly dismissive, critics writing of "the nineteenth century architectural tragedy", ridiculing "the uncompromising ugliness" of the era's buildings and attacking the "sadistic hatred of beauty" of its architects. The 1950s saw further signs of a recovery in the reputation of Revival architecture. John Steegman's study, Consort of Taste (re-issued in 1970 as Victorian Taste, with a foreword by Nikolaus Pevsner), was published in 1950 and began a slow turn in the tide of opinion "towards a more serious and sympathetic assessment." In 1958, Henry-Russell Hitchcock published his Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, as part of the Pelican History of Art series edited by Nikolaus Pevsner. Hitchcock devoted substantial chapters to the Gothic Revival, noting that, while "there is no more typical nineteenth-century product than a Victorian Gothic church", the success of the Victorian Gothic saw its practitioners design mansions, castles, colleges, and parliaments. The same year saw the foundation of the Victorian Society in England and, in 1963, the publication of Victorian Architecture, an influential collection of essays edited by Peter Ferriday. By 2008, the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Victorian Society, the architecture of the Gothic Revival was more fully appreciated with some of its leading architects receiving scholarly attention and some of its best buildings, such as George Gilbert Scott's St Pancras Station Hotel, being magnificently restored. The Society's 50th anniversary publication, Saving A Century, surveyed a half-century of losses and successes, reflected on the changing perceptions toward Victorian architecture and concluded with a chapter entitled "The Victorians Victorious".

Gallery

Europe

North America

South America

Australia and New Zealand

Asia

Decorative arts

Footnotes

References

Sources

Further reading
 Christian Amalvi, Le Goût du moyen âge, (Paris: Plon), 1996. The first French monograph on French Gothic Revival.
 "Le Gothique retrouvé" avant Viollet-le-Duc. Exhibition, 1979. The first French exhibition concerned with French Neo-Gothic.
 Hunter-Stiebel, Penelope, Of knights and spires: Gothic revival in France and Germany, 1989.
 Phoebe B Stanton, Pugin (New York, Viking Press 1972, ©1971).
Summerson, Sir John, 1948. "Viollet-le-Duc and the rational point of view" collected in Heavenly Mansions and other essays on Architecture.
 Sir Thomas G. Jackson, Modern Gothic Architecture (1873), Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture (1913), and three-volume Gothic Architecture in France, England and Italy (1901).

See also

Sub-varieties of the Gothic Revival style

Locale

External links

 Basilique Sainte-Clotilde, Paris
 Canada by Design: Parliament Hill, Ottawa at Library and Archives Canada
 Books, Research and Information
 Proyecto Documenta's entries for neo-Gothic elements at the Valparaíso's churches

American architectural styles
Architectural styles
British architectural styles
Revival architectural styles
Victorian architectural styles

Gothic Revival architecture


A monocle is a type of corrective lens used to correct or enhance the visual perception in only one eye. It consists of a circular lens placed in front of the eye and held in place by the eye socket itself. Often, to avoid losing the monocle, a string or wire is connected to the wearer's clothing at one end and, at the other end, to either a hole in the lens or, more often, a wire ring around its circumference.

Origins
The Prussian antiquarian Philipp von Stosch wore a monocle in Rome in the 1720s, in order to closely examine engravings and antique engraved gems, but the monocle did not become an article of gentlemen's apparel until the 19th century. The dandy's quizzing glass of the 1790s was an article of high fashion, which differs from the monocle in being held to one's eye with a handle in a fashion similar to a lorgnette, rather than being held in place by the eye socket itself.

Styles

There are three additional styles of the monocle. The first style consists of a simple loop of metal with a lens that was slotted into the eye orbit. These were the first monocles worn in England and could be found from the 1830s onwards. The second style, which was developed in the 1890s, was the most elaborate, consisting of a frame with a raised edge-like extension known as the gallery. The gallery was designed to help secure the monocle in place by raising it out of the eye's orbit slightly so that the eyelashes would not jar it. Monocles with galleries were often the most expensive. The wealthy would have the frames custom-made to fit their eye sockets. A sub-category of the galleried monocle was the "sprung gallery", where the gallery was replaced by an incomplete circle of flattened, ridged wire supported by three posts. The ends were pulled together, the monocle was placed in the eye orbit, and the ends were released, causing the gallery to spring out and keep the monocle in place.
The third style of monocle was frameless. This consisted of a cut piece of glass, with a serrated edge to provide a grip and sometimes a hole drilled into one side for a cord. Often the frameless monocle had no cord and would be worn freely. This style was popular at the beginning of the 20th century as the lens could be cut to fit any shape eye orbit inexpensively, without the cost of a customized frame.

Wearing a monocle is generally not uncomfortable. If customized, monocles could be worn securely with little effort. However, periodic adjustment is common for monocle wearers to keep the monocle from popping, as can be seen in films featuring Erich von Stroheim. Often only the rich could afford to have a monocle custom-fabricated, while the poor had to settle for ill-fitting monocles that were less comfortable and less secure. The popular perception was (and still is) that a monocle could easily fall off with the wrong facial expression. This is true to an extent, for example raising the eyebrow too far will allow the monocle to fall.

A once-standard comedic device exploits this: an upper-class gentleman affects a shocked expression in response to some event, and his monocle falls into his drink or smashes to pieces on the floor, etc.

Wearers
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the monocle was generally associated with wealthy upper-class men. Combined with a morning coat and a top hat, the monocle completed the costume of the stereotypical 1890s capitalist. Monocles were also accessories of German military officers from this period; especially from World War I and World War II. German military officers known to have worn a monocle include Helmuth Weidling, Hans Krebs, Werner von Fritsch, Erich Ludendorff, Walter Model, Walter von Reichenau, Dietrich von Saucken, Wilhelm Keitel, Hans von Seeckt, and Hugo Sperrle.

Monocles were most prevalent in the late 19th century, but are rarely worn today. This is due in large part to advances in optometry which allow for better measurement of refractive error, so that glasses and contact lenses can be prescribed with different strengths in each eye.

The monocle did, however, gain a following in the stylish lesbian circles of the early 20th century, when lesbians would wear a monocle for effect. Such women included Una Lady Troubridge, Radclyffe Hall, and Weimar German reporter Sylvia von Harden; The painting Portrait of the Journalist Sylvia Von Harden by German expressionist painter Otto Dix depicts its subject wearing a monocle.

Famous figures who wore a monocle include British politicians Joseph Chamberlain, his son Austen, Henry Chaplin, and Angus Maude. Percy Toplis (The Monocled Mutineer), founder of Pakistan Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Portuguese President António de Spínola, filmmakers Fritz Lang and Erich von Stroheim, prominent 19th-century Portuguese writer Eça de Queiroz, Soviet writer Mikhail Bulgakov, actor Conrad Veidt, Dadaists Tristan Tzara and Raoul Hausmann, esoteric-fascist Julius Evola, French collaborationist politician Louis Darquier de Pellepoix, Poet laureate Alfred Lord Tennyson, singer Richard Tauber, diplomat Christopher Ewart-Biggs (a smoked-glass monocle, to disguise his glass eye), Major Johnnie Cradock, actors Ralph Lynn, George Arliss and Martyn Green, and Karl Marx. In another vein, G. E. M. Anscombe was one of only a few noted women who occasionally wore a monocle. Famous wearers of the 21st century so far include astronomer Sir Patrick Moore, and former boxer Chris Eubank. Abstract expressionist painter Barnett Newman wore a monocle mainly for getting a closer look at artworks. Richard Tauber wore a monocle to mask a squint in one eye. The Irish poet William Butler Yeats wore them at times too.

In popular culture
 Ernst Stavro Blofeld in You Only Live Twice
 Planters mascot Mr. Peanut
 Alastor from Hazbin Hotel
 Lord Peter Wimsey – aristocratic 1920s sleuth
 The P. G. Wodehouse character Psmith
 Batman antagonist the Penguin
 Avengers antagonist and leader of HYDRA Baron Wolfgang Von Strucker
 Count von Count from the children's program Sesame Street
 The New Yorker mascot Eustace Tilley, an early 19th-century dandy, is depicted using a monocle like a quizzing glass.
 A monocle is also a distinctive part of the costume of at least three Gilbert & Sullivan characters: Major-General Stanley in The Pirates of Penzance; Sir Joseph Porter in H.M.S. Pinafore; Reginald Bunthorne in Patience; Lord Tolloller in Iolanthe; and Composer Sullivan. In some variant productions, numerous other characters wear the distinctive eyewear, and some noted performers of the "G&S" repertoire also have worn a monocle such as Martyn Green.
 The Doctor, played by William Hartnell
 Mr. Uppity from the Mr Men franchise
 Many of the works of Osamu Tezuka including Black Jack and Astro Boy
 The United Kingdom from Countryballs
 Doctor Yorkshire Bell
 Pompadour from Babar
 Lord Scrappeton from Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go!
 The French gentleman thief Arsene Lupin is commonly said to have a monocle and is illustrated with it on whenever not under a disguise.
 Charlie McCarthy, the famous dummy of Edgar Bergen, wore a monocle and was normally attired in formal wear.
 Werner Klemperer as Kommandant Wilhelm Klink in Hogan's Heroes
 Doc Savage aide 'Johnny' Littlejohn wore a monocle, as he was blind in one eye.
The Calculus Affair and Tintin and the Picaros, Colonel Sponsz can be seen wearing a monocle.
 Fearless Leader from The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show.
Cigars of the Pharaoh, The Blue Lotus, The Red Sea Sharks and Flight 714 to Sydney, Rastapopoulos wears a monocle.
 Momo Kawashima from the anime series Girls und Panzer wears a monocle akin to one half of a pair of glasses.
 Captain Good, a character in the book King Solomon's Mines, wore a monocle. Remote natives thought it was part of his eye, giving credence to his claim that he was a god.
 In the Mel Brooks' film Young Frankenstein, Inspector Kemp (portrayed by Kenneth Mars) absurdly wears a monocle over the eye patch that covers his left eye.
 Sir Reginald Hargreeves from The Umbrella Academy, played by Colm Feore in the TV series of the same name
 The Grand Duke from Cinderella
 Top Hat – The railway boat from Tugs
 Henrietta "Heinrich" Von Marzipan – Codename: Kids Next Door
 Arpeggio – Sly Cooper
 Tucker Cobblepot from Batman Returns
 Wilkins - Muppet star from Wilkins tea commercials
 The Mayor of Townsville – The Powerpuff Girls
 Mr. Herriman - Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends
 Archibald Asparagus – VeggieTales
 In the VeggieTales video, "The Penniless Princess", Larry the Cucumber wore one in the countertop scenes.
 Same thing for Mr. Nezzer in the videos "Minnesota Cuke and the Search for Noah's Umbrella", "Saint Nicholas: A Story of Joyful Giving", "It's a Meaningful Life", and "'Twas the Night Before Easter".
 Absolem – Alice in Wonderland
 Retro-Blade – Retro Puppet Master, He wears a monocle on his concept art and action figure, but he never wears one in the movie.
 Anti-Cosmo – The Fairly OddParents
 The Chess King that appeared in an episode of Rupert, "Rupert and Bill in Gameland".
 A few other characters that appeared in Rupert such as Sir Jasper from "Rupert and Little Yum", a random fish from "Rupert's Undersea Adventure", Sir Humphrey Pumphrey from "Rupert and The Nile" and "Rupert and the Mystery Isle", and a peacock character from "Rupert and Queen Bess" have also worn monocles.
 Calico – Muppet Treasure Island
 Doctor von Reichter – Cybersix
 Countess Natasha von Numeral – Sesame Street
 Liam Neeson – Sesame Street
 Balthazar – The Christmas Toy and The Secret Life of Toys
 Squealer – Animal Farm
 Sergei Rachmaninoff – Sesame Street
 Coleridge the Albatross – Muppets at Sea
 Baron Von Rottweiler – Dog City
 Ludwig Von Richtor – Jumanji
 Skull with a bone and a knife crossing together – PB & Death
 The Squire from The Berenstain Bears who appeared in the episode "The Hiccup Cure".
 Albert – Johnny Test (in one episode).
 The episode "It's Du-KAY Johnny" had Dukey wearing one in the title card.
 Hanneman von Essar – Fire Emblem: Three Houses
 The March Hare – The Australian version of Alice in Wonderland
 The White Rabbit – The Jetlag Productions version of Alice in Wonderland
 Von Vulture – The Commando
 Nazi Saboteur Leader – Secret Agent
 Chairmouse – The Rescuers
 Grand Duke of Owls – Rock-a-Doodle
 Otis O. Otis – King Features Syndicate
 Director Charles – Garfield Gets Real, Fun Fest and Pet Force
 Black and White Faction – Spy vs. Spy
 Baron Barracuda – Diver Dan
 Monte Sparrow – Looney Tunes, Strife With Father
 Little John – Robin Hood, disguised as Sir Reginald, Duke of Chutney
 Kaito Kuroba – Gosho Aoyama
  is an emoji

See also
 Contact lens
 Glasses, traditional lens
 Lorgnette, glasses that are held with a side-handle
 Monocular, a small hand held magnifying telescope
 Pince-nez, glasses that grip the bridge of the nose

References

1830s fashion
1890s fashion
19th-century fashion
20th-century fashion
Eyewear
Corrective lenses

Monocle


Melrose Place was an American primetime soap opera which began July 8th, 1992 and ended May 24, 1999. The show lasted seven seasons on Fox. Starring in the show were Daphne Zuniga, Marcia Cross, Courtney Thorne Smith, Josie Bissett, Heather Locklear, and many others. Aaron Spelling was the executive producer for Melrose Place throughout its seven year run. Many cast changes happened during this time period.

1990s soap operas
Fox television series
English-language television programs

Melrose Place (1992 TV series)


Gay pride, or LGBT pride, is a positive stand against hatred, discrimination or violence toward lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people.

Gay pride builds trust and rights. It promotes the LGBT as a group. It also honors sexual orientation of all kinds and difference in gender.

It is also a remembrance for those who lost their lives due to gay bashing, or those who were punished by the law because homosexuality was illegal. It also shows respect to those who still can't live their lives freely in countries where it is still illegal or very discriminated against.

Pride Month is celebrated every June.

Usually events are organised. These include processions, but they may also be protests against rules that are Sen as too restrictive.

LGBT rights

LGBT pride


William Bestwick (24 February 1875 – 2 May 1938) was an English cricketer who played for Derbyshire between 1898 and 1926. He was a medium-fast bowler who took over 1,400 wickets for the county, including 10 in one innings. From his wild temperament and reckless behaviour, he was known as a "bad boy" of cricket.

Bestwick was born at Tag Hill, Heanor, Derbyshire. He was the son of a miner and started working at Coppice Pit at the age of 11. He debuted for the Derbyshire team in 1898, as a professional while still working in the mine in winter. He is one of the only two bowlers to have hit ten wickets in a single innings for Derbyshire, a feat he achieved in June 1921, the other being five-time Test cricketer Tommy Mitchell. He was a true tailender batsman, who never averaged above eight with the bat in a single season for Derbyshire and did not once reach twenty in his last two hundred and eighty first-class innings, a run of batting failures equalled only by Eric Hollies between 1939 and 1954. This extreme weakness as a batsman (and also in the field) was probably why Bestwick never managed to gain a single Test cap.

Though Bestwick finished with the second-weakest average of his debut season, he proved himself capable with best bowling figures of an expensive but successful 4–163. While Derbyshire were bottom of the 1899 Championship table, the team were looking for an upturn in fortunes. A season average of six would not initially indicate this, however, thanks to the best single batting performance of his career, an innings of 39 against Surrey, Derbyshire bested Leicestershire and the winless Hampshire in the season's championship table.

Derbyshire played host to a team of South Africans in 1901, as the young Test nation played a series of eleven warm-up matches against English county sides prior to a Test series against the English cricket team. However, a publicity boost such as this only served to panic an ever-spiralling Derbyshire team into once again finishing in bottom place in the table. The following year, 1902, was slightly more encouraging for Derbyshire, as, boosted by the appearance of long-time Warwickshire player Thomas Forrester, after three years out of the game, Derbyshire finished in their highest position since the beginning of Bestwick's career, finishing the season in tenth place. Bestwick bowled very well in a summer when pitches were almost always too wet to suit a bowler of his pace and was probably the second-best fast bowler in county cricket after William Lockwood.

In 1903, Derbyshire finished twelfth, though the following season saw Derbyshire back up to tenth place, and Bestwick with one more ten-wicket match, beating out left-hander John Hulme, who had the best single-innings tally of the team with 8/52, but no ten-wicket haul to speak of, though Arnold Warren was to hit two similar hauls and outscore Bestwick with the bat, courtesy of a brace of half-centuries. Thanks to another South African tour, Derbyshire got full-on experience of an international side during the 1904 season, and Bestwick was to hit an average of under 30 once again, as he and Warren spearheaded the Peakites' bowling attack, as the two players missed just a single game of the eighteen Derbyshire played throughout the season between them.

1905 was very little of a rise before a fall, as Derbyshire handed debuts for fifteen players in first-class cricket, ten of whom played fewer than five first-class matches, as Derbyshire finished with a −64% winning percentage, the third worst of the season.

Bestwick was noted for his unpredictable nature and his alcoholism after his wife left him in 1906, and this adversely affected his cricketing career. In January 1907 after a night's drinking, he killed a man named William Brown in a fight, although the inquest at the pub the next day brought in a verdict of 'justifiable homicide.'

The late 1900s saw more painful times for Derbyshire as Derbyshire finished second bottom of the table. In 1909, Bestwick played in his final County Championship game for nearly ten years. He was sacked and went to South Wales, where he remarried and played for Glamorgan in the Minor Counties Championship in 1914.

In 1919 44-year-old Bestwick was invited to rejoin Derbyshire in a revitalised Derbyshire team, and with Arthur Morton as his minder. The side was led at various times by captains Richard Baggallay, Guy Jackson and John Chapman, the team's three-season captain before the outbreak of the Great War, the eldest of the Hill-Wood brothers, Basil, Derbyshire finished in ninth place.

Bestwick was practically blameless for Derbyshire's bottom-placing season of 1920, after playing just one game for the team. Despite being 45 years old at this time, he was still turning out regular appearances for a team whose appearances further up the table seemed indicative of a change in fortunes, until 1924 saw Derbyshire winless in 24 County Championship games and rooted to the foot of the table.

Beswick's son, Robert Bestwick, later served as a Derbyshire cricketer, father and son playing two games together during the 1922 season. Bestwick, aged fifty, and having outlasted his own son in the first-class game, played seven games in his final season in 1925. He became an umpire and umpired 238 first-class matches, including three Tests in 1929 and 1930, the last of which was played less than a year before he died.

Bestwick died in 1938 in Standard Hill, Nottingham.

References

External links

1875 births
1938 deaths
People from Heanor
Derbyshire cricketers
Glamorgan cricketers
English Test cricket umpires
Players cricketers
Cricketers who have taken ten wickets in an innings
English cricketers of 1919 to 1945
English cricketers
Non-international England cricketers
Cricketers from Derbyshire

Billy Bestwick