(abscissa)  	 किसी ग्राफ पर किसी बिन्दु की Y-अक्ष से लम्बवत दूरी; इसे X-निर्देशांक भी कहते हैं।

	 ===परम विचलन===		(absolute deviation)

	 परम त्रुटि		(absolute error)  	 किसी राशि के वास्तविक मान एवं मापे गये मान के बीच का अन्तर

	 परम शून्य (absolute zero)  	 वह ताप जिस पर ' वस्तु के अणुओं की गतिज उर्जा न्यूनतम हो जाती है; शून्य डिग्री केल्विन या -273.16 डिग्री सेल्सियस

	 अवशोषण वर्णक्रम		(absorption spectrum)  	 A continuous spectrum interrupted by dark lines or bands that are characteristic of the medium through which the radiation has passed.

	 त्वरण (acceleration)  	 वेग में परिवर्तन की दर

	 		(acceptor)  	 एक ऐसा तत्त्व जिसके प्रत्येक परमाणु के संयोजी कक्ष में इलेक्ट्रोनों की संख्या ३ हो जिससे क्रिस्टल के जालक निर्माण में अर्ध्दचालक क्रिस्टल इलेक्ट्रोनों "कोटर" उपलब्ध्द कराता है। An element with three valence electrons per atom which when added to a semiconductor crystal provides electron "holes" in the lattice structure of the crystal.

	 शुद्धि (accuracy)  	 किसी विशिष्ट भौतिक राशि के मापे गए मान की ग्राह्य मान से निकटता Closeness of a measurement to the accepted value for a specific physical quantity; expressed in terms of error.

	ध्वनिकी (Acoustics) ध्वनिकी चिरसम्मत यांत्रिकी की वह शाखा जिसके अंतर्गत श्रव्य ध्वनि, अवश्रव्य तरंगों तथा पराश्रव्य तरंगों (ठोस, द्रव व गैस में संचरित होने वाली सभी यांत्रिक तरंगों ) का अध्ययन किया जाता है Acoustics is the branch of classical mechanics concerned with the study of sound, ultrasound and infrasound (all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids)।

	 आसंजक (adhesion)  	 दो अलग-अलग प्रकार के अणुओं के मध्य लगने वाला आकर्षण बल The force of attraction between unlike molecules.

	 रुद्धोष्म प्रक्रम	(adiabatic process)  	 A thermal process in which no heat is added to or removed from a system.

	 कृषि-भौतिकी	(agro physics)  	 Agrophysics is a new branch of science bordering on physics and agronomy

	 अल्फा कण	(alpha particle)  	 A helium-4 nucleus, especially when emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive atom.

	 प्रत्यावर्ती धारा (alternating current)  	 An electric current that has one direction during one part of a generating cycle and the opposite direction during the remainder of the cycle.

	 धारामापी (ammeter)  	 An electric meter designed to measure current.

	 एम्पीयर (ampere)  	 The unit of electric current; one coulomb per second.

	 आवर्धक (amplifier)  	 A device consisting of one or more vacuum tubes (or transistors)  	 and associated circuits, used to increase the strength of a signal.

	 आयाम (amplitude)  	 The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle from its equilibrium position.

	 आपतन कोण (angle of incidence)  	 The angle between the incident ray and the normal drawn to the point of incidence.

	 परावर्तन कोण (angle of reflection)  	 The angle between the reflected ray and the normal drawn to the point of incidence.

	 अपवर्तन कोण (angle of refraction)  	 The angle between the refracted ray and the normal drawn to the point of refraction.

	 आंग्स्ट्राम	(Angstrom)  	 A unit of linear measure equal to 10–10 m.

	 कोणीय त्वरण	(angular acceleration)  	 The time rate of change of angular velocity.

	 कोणीय आघात	(angular impulse)  	 The product of a torque and the time interval during which it acts.

	 कोणीय संवेग	(angular momentum)  	 The product of the rotational inertia of a body and its angular velocity.

	 कोणीय वेग	(angular velocity)  	 The time rate of change of angular displacement.

	 धनाग्र (anode)  	 -1 The positive electrode of an electric cell. (2)

	 		(antimatter)  	 A substance composed of antiparticles.

 प्रति-कण (antiparticle)  	 A counterpart of a subatomic particle having opposite properties (except for equal mass)।

द्वारक (aperture)  	 Any opening through which radiation may pass. The diameter of an opening that admits light to a lens or

	 आभासी शक्ति	(apparent power)  	 The product of the effective values of alternating voltage and current.

	 		(arc tangent)  	 The inverse function to the tangent. Symbol: arctan or tan-l. Interpretation: "An angle whose tangent is

 		(armature)  	 A coil of wire formed around an iron or steel core that rotates in the magnetic field of a generator or motor.

	 परमाणु (atom)  	 The smallest particle of an element that can exist either alone or in combination with other atoms of the same or other elements.

 परमाणविय द्रव्यमान इकाई (atomic mass unit)  	 One-twelfth of the mass of carbon-12, or 1.6605655 x 10–27 kg.

	 परमाणु क्रमांक (atomic number)  	 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

	 परमाणु भार	(atomic weight)  	 The weighted average of the atomic masses of an element's isotopes based on their relative abundance.

	 श्रव्य संकेत (audio signal)  	 The alternating voltage proportional to the sound pressure produced in an electric circuit.

	 माध्य वेग	(average velocity)  	 Total displacement divided by elapsed time.

	 		(back emf)  	 An induced emf in the armature of a motor that opposes the applied voltage.

	 अस्त्र-विज्ञान (Ballistics) 	(band spectrum)  	 An emission spectrum consisting of fluted bands of color. The spectrum of a substance in the molecular state.

	 दाबमापी (barometer)  	 A device used to measure the pressure of the atmosphere.	 		(baryon)  	 A subatomic particle with a large rest mass, e.g., the proton.

	मूल समीकरण (basic equation)  	 An equation that relates the unknown quantity with known quantities in a problem.

	 वैद्युत स्थितिकी का आधरभूत नियम (basic law of electrostatics)  	 Similarly charged objects repel each other. Oppositely charged objects attract each other.

	 किरण-पुंज	(beam)  	 Several parallel rays of light considered collectively.

	 स्पन्दन (beat)  	 The interference effect resulting from the superposition of two waves of slightly different frequencies propagating in the same direction. The amplitude of the resultant wave varies with time.

	 बेक्वेरल	(becquerel)  	 The rate of radioactivity equal to one disintegration per second.

	 बीटा कण (beta particle)  	 An electron emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive atom.

	 बीटाट्रान	(betatron)  	 A device that accelerates electrons by means of the transformer principle .

	 		(bevatron)  	 A high-energy synchrotron.

	 बंधक ऊर्जा	(binding energy)  	 Energy that must be applied to a nucleus to break it up.

	 क्वथनांक	(boiling point)  	 The  at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure of the atmosphere.	 बोसॉन (boson)  	 A subatomic particle with zero charge and rest mass, e.g., the photon.

	 बायल का नियम (Boyle's law)  	 The volume of a dry gas varies inversely with the pressure exerted upon it, provided the temperature is constant.

	 		(breeder reactor)  	 A nuclear reactor in which a fissionable material is produced at a greater rate than the fuel is consumed.

	 ब्राउनी गति	(Brownian movement)  	 The irregular and random movement of small particles suspended in a fluid, known to be a consequence of the thermal motion of fluid molecules.

	 		(bubble chamber)  	 Instrument used for making the paths of ionizing particles visible as a trail of tiny bubbles in a liquid.

	 कैलरी	(calorie)  	 The quantity of heat equal to 4.19 joules.

	 उष्मामापी	(calorimeter)  	 A heat-measuring device consisting of nested metal cups separated by an air space.

	 कैंडल	(candle)  	 The unit of luminous intensity of a light source.

	 धारिता (capacitance)  	 The ratio of the charge on either plate of a capacitor to the potential difference between the plates. capacitive reactance. Reactance in an a-c circuit containing capacitance which causes a lagging voltage.

	 संधारित्र (capacitor)  	 A combination of conducting plates separated by layers of a dielectric that is used to store an electric charge.

	 सूक्ष्म नलिका (capillarity)  	 The elevation or depression of liquids in small-diameter tubes.

	 ऋणाग्र (cathode)  	 -1 The negative electrode of an electric cell. (2)

	 कैथोड किरणें (cathode rays)  	 Particles emanating from a cathode; electrons.

	 सेल्सियस पैमाना (Celsius scale)  	 The temperature scale using the ice point as 0o and the steam point as 100o, with 100 equal divisions, or degrees, between; formerly the centigrade scale.

	 वक्रता केन्द्र (center of curvature)  	 The center of the sphere of which the mirror or lens surface forms a part.

	 गुरुत्व केन्द्र (center of gravity)  	 The point at which all of the weight of a body can be considered to be concentrated.

	 अभिकेन्द्रीय बल	(centrifugal force)  	 Force that tends to move the particles of a rotating object away from the center of rotation.

	 अभिकेन्द्रीय त्वरण	(centripetal acceleration)  	 Acceleration directed toward the center of a circular path.

	 अपकेन्द्रीय बल	(centripetal force)  	 The force that produces centripetal acceleration.

	 शृंखला अभिक्रिया	(chain reaction)  	 A reaction in which the material or energy that starts the reaction is also one of the products and can cause similar reactions.

	 चार्ल का नियम	(Charles' law)  	 The volume of a dry gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature, providing the pressure is constant.

	 रासायनिक परिवर्तन	(chemical change)  	 A change in which new substances with new properties are formed.

	 रासायनिक तुल्यांक	(chemical equivalent)  	 The quantity of an element, expressed in grams, equal to the ratio of its atomic weight to its valence.

	 वर्ण विपथन	(chromatic aberration)  	 The nonfocusing of light of different colors.

	 वृत्तीय गति	(circular motion)  	 Motion of a body along a circular path.

	 		(cloud chamber)  	 A chamber in which charged subatomic particles appear as trails of liquid droplets.

	 क्षेत्रीय प्रसार गुणांक (coefficient of area expansion)  	 The change in area per unit area of a solid per degree change in temperature.

	 आयतन प्रसार गुणांक	(coefficient of cubic expansion)  	 The change in volume per unit volume of a solid or liquid per degree change in temperature.

	 रेखीय प्रसार गुणांक	(coefficient of linear expansion)  	 The change in length per unit length of a solid per degree change in temperature.

	 		(coefficient of sliding friction)  	 The ratio of the force needed to overcome sliding friction to the normal force pressing the surfaces together.

	 कला सम्बद्ध (coherence)  	 The property of two wave trains with identical wavelengths and a constant phase relationship.

	 ससंजक बल 		(cohesion)  	 The force of attraction between like molecules.

	 वर्ण (color)  	 The visual perception of light associated with its frequency or wave length.

	 काम्यूटेटर (दिक्परिवर्तक)	(commutator)  	 A split ring in a d-c generator, each segment of which is connected to an end of a corresponding armature loop.

	 पूरक वर्ण	(complementary colors)  	 Two colors that combine to form white light.

	 पूर्ण कम्पन	(complete vibration)  	 Back-and-forth motion of an object describing simple harmonic motion.

	 अवयव		(component)  	 One of the several vectors that can be combined geometrically to find a resultant vector.

	 बलों का संयोजन (composition of forces)  	 The combining of two or more component forces into a single resultant force.

	 संपीडन (compression)  	 The region of a longitudinal wave in which the distance separating the vibrating particles is less than their equilibrium distance.

	 अवतल (concave)  	 Surface with center of curvature on the same side as the observer.

	 अवतल लेंस	(concave lens)  	 A lens that diverges parallel light rays (assuming the outside refractive index to be smaller)।

	 अवतल दर्पण	(concave mirror)  	 A mirror that converges parallel light rays incident on its surface.

	 एकबिन्दुगामी बल	(concurrent forces)  	 Forces with lines of action that pass through the same point.

	 संघनन	(condensation)  	 The change of phase from a gas or vapor to a liquid.

	 चालकता	(conductance)  	 The reciprocal of the ohmic resistance.

	 चालक	(conductor)  	 A material through which an electric charge is readily transferred.

	 संरक्षित बल 		(conservative forces)  वो बल जिससे तन्त्र	 की यांत्रिक ऊर्जा संरक्षित रहती है। उदाहरण के लिये गुरुत्वाकर्षण बल, स्थिरवैद्युतिकीय बल। Forces for which the law of conservation of mechanical energy holds true; gravitational forces and electrostatic forces.

	 सतत स्पेक्ट्रम	(continuous spectrum)  	 A spectrum without dark lines or bands or in which there is an uninterrupted change from one color to another.

	 अभिसारी लेंस (converging lens)  	 A lens that is thicker in the middle than it is at the edge and bends incident parallel rays toward a common point.

	 उत्तल	(convex)  	 Surface with center of curvature on the opposite side from the observer.

	 उत्तल लेंस	(convex lens)  	 A lens that converges parallel light rays (assuming the outside refractive index to be smaller)। convex mirror. A mirror that diverges parallel light rays incident on its surface.

	 ब्रम्हाण्ड किरणें (cosmic rays)  	 High-energy nuclear particles apparently originating from outer space.

	 कास्मोट्रान	(cosmotron)  	 A high-energy synchrotron.

	 कूलाम्ब	(coulomb)  	 The quantity of electricity equal to the charge on 6.25 x 1018 electrons.

	 कूलाम्ब का वैद्युत स्थितिकी का नियम	(Coulomb's law of electrostatics)  	 The force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of their magnitudes and inversely proportional ta the square of the distance between them.

	 कूलाम्ब का चुम्बकत्व का नियम	(Coulomb's law of magnetism)  	 The force between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the strengths of the poles and inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart.

	 बल-युग्म	(couple)  	 Two forces of equal magnitude acting in opposite directions in the same plane, but not along the same line.

	 शृंग (crest)  	 A region of upward displacement in a transverse wave.

	 क्रान्तिक कोण	(critical angle)  	 That limiting angle of incidence in the optically denser medium that results in an angle of refraction of 90o.

	 क्रान्तिक द्रब्यमान	(critical mass)  	 The amount of a particular fissionable material required to make a fission reaction self-sustaining.

	 क्रान्तिक बिन्दु	(critical point)  	 The upper limit of the temperature-pressure curve of a substance.

	 क्रान्तिक दाब	(critical pressure)  	 The pressure needed to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature.

	 क्रान्तिक ताप	(critical temperature)  	 The temperature to which a gas must be cooled before it can be liquefied by pressure.

	 क्रान्तिक वेग	(critical velocity)  	 Velocity below which an object moving in a vertical circle will not describe a circular path.

	 क्यूरी	(curie)  	 The quantity of any radioactive nuclide that has a disintegration rate of 3.7 x 1O1O becquerels.

	 धारा संवेदनशीलता	(current sensitivity)  	 Current per unit scale division of an electric meter. cut-off bias. The smallest negative grid voltage, for a given plate voltage, that causes a vacuum tube to cease to conduct.

	 देहली आवृति	(cut-off frequency)  	 A characteristic threshold frequency of incident light below which, for a given material, the photoelectric emission of electrons ceases.

	 		(cut-off potential)  	 A negative potential on the collector of a photoelectric cell that reduces the photoelectric current to zero.

	 चक्र (cycle)  	 A series of changes produced in sequence that recur periodically.

	 साइक्लोट्रान	(cyclotron)  	 A device for accelerating charged atomic particles by means of D-shaped electrodes.

	 मन्दन (damping)  	 The reduction in amplitude of a wave due to the dissipation of wave energy.

	 क्षय नियतांक (decay constant)  	 The ratio between the number of nuclei decaying per second and the total number of nuclei.

	 डेसीबेल (decibel)  	 A unit of sound intensity level. The smallest change of sound intensity that the normal human ear can detect.

	 		(declination)  	 The angle between magnetic north and the true north from any surface location; also called variation.

	 		(dees)  	 The electrodes of a cyclotron.

	 घनत्व (density)  	 See mass density.

	 		(derived unit)  	 A unit of measure that consists of combinations of fundamental units .

	 		(dew point)  	 The temperature at which a given amount of water vapor will exert equilibrium vapor pressure.

	 प्रतिचुम्बकीय		(diamagnetism)  	 The property of a substance whereby it is feebly repelled by a strong magnet.

	 		(dichroism)  	 A property of certain crystalline substances in which one polarized component of incident light is absorbed and the other is transmitted.

	 पैराविद्युतांक		(dielectric)  	 An electric insulator. A nonconducting medium.

	पैराविद्युतांक नियतांक 		(dielectric constant)  	 The ratio of the capacitance with a particular material separating the plates of a capacitor to the capacitance with a vacuum between the plates.

	 विवर्तन	(diffraction)  	 The spreading of a wave disturbance into a region behind an obstruction .

	 विवर्तन कोण	(diffraction angle)  	 The angle that a diffracted wavefront forms with the grating plane.

	 		(diffraction grating)  	 An optical surface, either transmitting or reflecting, with several thousand equally spaced and parallel grooves ruled in it.

	 		(diffusion)  	 -1 The penetration of one type of particle into a mass of a second type of particle. (2)

	 विमीय विश्लेषण	(dimensional analysis)  	 The performance of indicated mathematical operations in a problem with the measurement units alone.

	 डायोड (diode)  	 A two-terminal device that will conduct electric current more easily in one direction than in the other.

	 दिष्ट धारा	(direct current)  	 An essentially constant value current in which the movement of charge is in only one direction.

	 समानुपात	 या अनुक्रमानुपाती (direct proportion)  	 The relation between two quantities whose graph is a straight line.

	 		(dispersion)  	 The process of separating polychromatic light into its component wavelengths.

	 विस्थापन	(displacement)  	 -1 A change of position in a particular direction. (2)

	 		(dissipative forces)  	 Forces for which the law of conservation of mechanical energy does not hold true; frictional forces.

	 आसवन	(distillation)  	 The evaporation of volatile materials from a liquid or solid mixture and their condensation in a separate vessel.

	 अपसारी लेंस	(diverging lens)  	 A lens that is thicker at the edge than it is in the middle and bends incident parallel rays so that they appear to come from a common point.

	 		(domain)  	 A microscopic magnetic region composed of a group of atoms whose magnetic fields are aligned in a common direction.

	 		(donor)  	 A substance with five valence electrons per atom which when added to a semiconductor crystal provides free electrons in the lattice structure of the crystal.

	 डाप्लर प्रभाव	(Doppler effect)  	 The change observed in the frequency with which a wave from a given source reaches an observer when the source and the observer are in relative motion.

	 द्विक अपवर्तन	(double refraction)  	 The separation of a beam of unpolarized light into two refracted plane-polarized beams by certain crystals such as quartz and calcite.

	 		(drift tubes)  	 Charged cylinders used to accelerate charged subatomic particles in a linear accelerator.

	 		(ductility)  	 The property of a metal that enables it to be drawn through a die to form a wire.

	 भंवर धाराएं	(eddy currents)  	 Closed loops of induced current set up in a piece of metal when there is relative motion between the metal and a magnetic field. The eddy currents are in such direction that the resulting magnetic forces oppose the relative motion.

	 एडिसन प्रभाव	(Edison effect)  	 The emission of electrons from a heated metal in a vacuum. effective value of current. The magnitude of an alternating current that in a given resistance produces heat at the same average rate as that magnitude of steady direct current.

	 दक्षता	(efficiency)  	 The ratio of the useful work output of a machine to total work input.

	 प्रत्यास्थ संघट्ट	(elastic collision)  	 A collision in which objects rebound from each other without a loss of kinetic energy.

	 प्रत्यास्थता सीमा	(elastic limit)  	 The condition in which a substance is on the verge of becoming permanently deformed.

	 प्रत्यास्थ स्थितिज ऊर्जा	(elastic potential energy)  	 The potential energy in a stretched or compressed elastic object.

	 प्रत्यास्थता	(elasticity)  	 The ability of an object to return to its original size or shape when the external forces producing distortion are removed.

	 विद्युत धारा	(electric current)  	 The rate of flow of charge past a given point in an electric circuit.

	 वैद्युत क्षेत्र	(electric field)  	 The region in which a force acts on an electric charge brought into the region.

	 वैद्युत क्षेत्र की तीव्रता	(electric field intensity)  	 The force per unit positive charge at a given point in an electric field.

	 		(electric ground)  	 (1)  	 A conductor connected with the earth to establish zero (ground) 	 		(electrification)  	 The process of charging a body by adding or removing electrons.

	 विद्युत रासायनिक सेल	(electrochemical cell)  	 A cell in which chemical energy is converted to electric energy by a spontaneous electron transfer reaction.

	 विद्युत रासायनिक तुल्य (electrochemical equivalent)  	 The mass of an element, in grams, deposited by one coulomb of electric charge.

	 विद्युताग्र	(electrode)  	 A conducting element in an electric cell, electronic tube, or semiconductor device.

	 वैद्युत अपघटन (electrolysis)  	 The conduction of electricity through a solution of an electrolyte or through a fused ionic compound, together with the resulting chemical changes .

	 वैद्युत अपघट्य	(electrolyte)  	 A substance whose solution conducts an electric current. electrolytic cell. A cell in which electric energy is converted to chemical energy by means of an electron-transfer reaction.

	 विद्युत चुम्बकीय प्रेरण (electromagnetic induction)  	 The process by which an emf is set up in a conducting circuit by a changing magnetic flux linked by the circuit.

	 विद्युतचुम्बकीय अनुक्रिया	(electromagnetic interaction)  	 The interaction that keeps electrons in orbit and forms bonds between atoms and molecules.

	 विद्युतचुम्बकीय तरंगें	(electromagnetic waves)  	 Transverse waves having an electric component and a magnetic component, each being perpendicular to the other and both perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

	 विद्युत वाहक बल	(electromotive force)  	 See emf.

	 इलेक्ट्रॉन 	(electron)  	 A negatively charged subatomic particle having a rest mass of 9.109534 x 10–31 kg and a charge of 1.6021892 x 10-19 c.

	 इलेक्ट्रान कक्षा	(electron shell)  	 A region about the nucleus of an atom in which electrons move and which is made up of electron orbitals.

	 एलेक्ट्रान-वोल्ट	(electron volt)  	 The energy required to move an electron between two points that have a difference af potential of one volt.

	 इलेक्ट्रानिकी	(electronics)  	 The branch of physics concerned with the emission, behavior, and effects of electrons.

	 विद्युतदर्शी	(electroscope)  	 A device used to observe the presence of an electrostatic charge.

	 मूल रंग (elementary colors)  	 The six regions of color in the solar spectrum observed by the dispersion of sunlight: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

	 विकृति	(elongation strain)  	 The ratio of the increase in length to the unstretched length.

	 वि वा ब	(emf)  	 The energy per unit charge supplied by a source of electric current.

	 उत्सर्जन स्पेक्ट्रम	(emission spectrum)  	 A spectrum formed by the dispersion of light from an incandescent solid, liquid, and gas.

	 अन्तः उष्मीय	(endothermic)  	 Referring to a process that absorbs energy.

	 	ऊर्जा	(energy)  	 The capacity for doing work.

	 ऊर्जा स्तर	(energy level)  	 One of a series of discrete energy values that characterize a physical system governed by quantum rules.

	 		(entropy)  	 (1)  	 The internal energy of a system that cannot be converted to mechanical work. (2)

	 संतुलनकारी बल (equilibrant force)  	 The force that produces equilibrium.

	 संतुलन	(equilibrium)  	 The state of a body in which there is no change in its motion.

	 संतुलन की स्थिति	(equilibrium position)  	 Midpoint of the path of an object describing simple harmonic motion.

	 संतुलन वाष्प दाब	(equilibrium vapor pressure)  	 The pressure exerted by vapor molecules in equilibrium with a liquid.

	 वाष्पन	(evaporation)  	 The change of phase from a liquid to a gas or vapor.

	 अपवर्जन सिद्धान्त	(exclusion principle)  	 No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers

	 बहिरोष्म	(exothermic)  	 Referring to a process that liberates energy.

	 वाह्य ज्वलन इंजन	(external combustion engine)  	 A heat engine in which the fuel burns outside the cylinder or turbine chamber.

	 फैराड	(farad)  	 The unit of capacitance; one coulomb per volt.

	 	फैराडे (faraday)  	 The quantity of electricity (96,500 coulombs)  	 required to deposit one chemical equivalent of an element.

	 फैराडे का प्रथम नियम	(Faraday's first law)  	 The mass of an element deposited during electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of charge that passes through the electrolytic cell.

	 फैराडे का द्वितीय नियम	(Faraday's second law)  	 The mass of an element deposited during electrolysis is proportional to the chemical equivalent of that element.

	 		(ferromagnetism)  	 The property of a substance by which it is strongly attracted by a magnet.

	 फीनमान आरेख	(Feynman diagram)  	 A diagram showing the production and exchange of particles during a subatomic interaction.

	 प्रकाश विद्युत उत्सर्जन का प्रथम नियम	(first law of photoelectric emission)  	 The rate of emission of photoelectrons is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.

	 उष्मागतिकी का प्रथम नियम	(first law of thermodynamics)  	 When heat is converted to another form of energy, or when another form of energy is converted to heat, there is no loss of energy.

	 विखण्डन	(fission)  	 The splitting of a heavy nucleus into nuclei of intermediate mass.

	 		(flash tube)  	 The ionization tube that emits the light in a chemical laser.

	 फ्लमिंग वाल्व (Fleming valve)  	 The first vacuum-tube diode.

	 प्रदीप्ति	(fluorescence)  	 The emission of light during the absorption of radiation from another source.

	 फ्लक्स	(flux)  	 Flow.

	 		(f-number)  	 The ratio of the focal length of a lens to the effective aperture.

	 नाभीय दूरी / फोकस दूरी	(focal length)  	 The distance between the principal focus of a lens or mirror and its optical center or vertex.

	 नाभीय तल	(focal plane)  	 The plane perpendicular to the principal axis of a converging lens or mirror and containing the principal focus.

	 नाभि	(focus)  	 A point at which light rays meet or from which rays of light appear to diverge.

	 बल	(force)  	 (1)  	 A physical quantity that can affect the motion of an object. (2) 	 गुरुत्व बल	(force of gravity)  	 See gravity.

	 		(forced vibration)  	 Vibration that is due to the application of a periodic force, and not to the natural vibrations of the system.

	 अग्रिम बायस		(forward bias)  	 Voltage applied to a semiconductor P-N junction that increases the electron current across the junction.

	 आंशिक आसवन	(fractional distillation)  	 The process of separating the components of a liquid mixture by means of differences in their boiling points.

	 निर्देश तन्त्र		(frame of reference)  	 Any system for specifying the precise location of objects in space.

	 गलनांक	(freezing point)  	 The temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid.

	 	आवृति	(frequency)  	 Number of vibrations, oscillations, or cycles per unit time.

	 घर्षण	(friction)  	 A force that resists the relative motion of objects that are in contact with each other.

	 इंधन सेल	(fuel cell)  	 An electrochemical cell in which the chemical energy of continuously supplied fuel is converted into electric energy.

	 मूल	(fundamental)  	 The lowest frequency produced by a musical tone source. That harmonic component of a wave which has the lowest frequency.

	 मूल इकाई	(fundamental unit)  	 Any one of seven basic units of measure.

	 संलयन (fusion)  	 -1 The change of phase from a solid to a liquid; melting. (2)

	 धारामापी	(galvanometer)  	 An instrument used to measure minute electric currents.

	 गामा किरण (gamma ray)  	 High energy photon emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive atom.

	 गीगर नलिका	(Geiger tube)  	 Ion sensitive instrument used for the detection of subatomic particles.

	 गुरुत्व क्षेत्र	(gravitational field)  	 Region of space in which each point is associated with a value of gravitational acceleration.

	 गुरुत्व बल	(gravitational force)  	 The mutual force of attraction between particles of matter.

	 गुरुत्वीय अनुक्रिया	(gravitational interaction)  	 The interaction between particles of matter that has no known distance limitations, but is the weakest interaction of all.

	 गुरुत्वीय स्थितिज ऊर्जा	(gravitational potential energy)  	 Potential energy acquired by an object when it is moved against gravity.

	 		(graviton)  	 The carrier for the gravitational interaction.

	 गुरुत्व	(gravity)  	 The force of gravitation on an object on or near the surface of a celestial body.

	 ग्रिड (grid)  	 An element of an electronic tube. An electrode used to control the flow of electrons from the cathode to the plate.

	 		(grid bias)  	 The grid-to-cathode voltage.

	 अर्ध काल	(half-life)  	 The length of time during which, on the average, half of a large number of radioactive nuclides decay.

	 		(harmonics)  	 The fundamental and the tones whose frequencies are whole number multiples of the fundamental.

	 उष्मा	(heat)  	 Thermal energy in the process of being added to or removed from, a substance.

	 ऊष्मा धारिता	(heat capacity)  	 The quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of a body one degree.

	 ऊष्मीय यंत्र	(heat engine)  	 Any device that converts heat energy into mechanical work.

	 गलन की उष्मा	(heat of fusion)  	 The heat required per unit mass to change a substance from solid to liquid at its melting point.

	 वाष्पन की उष्मा	(heat of vaporization)  	 The heat required per unit mass to change a substance from liquid to vapor at its boiling point.

	 ऊष्मीय पम्प (heat pump)  	 A device that absorbs heat from a cool environment and gives it off to a region of higher temperature.

	 		(heat sink)  	 A reservoir that absorbs heat without a significant increase in temperature.

	 हेनरी	(henry)  	 The unit of inductance; one henry of inductance is present in a circuit when a change in the current of 1 ampere per second induces an emf of 1 volt.

	 हुक का नियम	(Hooke's law)  	 Below the elastic limit, strain is directly proportional to stress.

	 अति परवलय	(hyperbola)  	 Graph of an inverse proportion.

	 		(hypercharge)  	 A property of some baryons and leptons that is conserved in strong and electromagnetic interactions but not in weak interactions.

	 परिकल्पना	(hypothesis)  	 A plausible solution to a problem.

	 हिमांक	(ice point)  	 The melting point of ice when in equilibrium with water saturated with air at standard atmospheric pressure.

	 आदर्श गैस	(ideal gas)  	 A theoretical gas consisting of infinitely small molecules that exert no forces on each other; also called perfect gas.

	 प्रदीपन		(illumination)  	 The luminous flux per unit area of a surface.

	 प्रतिविम्ब	(image)  	 The optical counterpart of an object formed by lenses or mirrors.

	 प्रतिबाधा	(impedance)  	 (1)  	 The ratio of applied wave-producing force to resulting displacement velocity of a wave-transmitting medium. (2)

	 		(impedance matching)  	 A technique used to ensure maximum transfer of energy from the output of one circuit to the input of another.

	 आवेग	(impulse)  	 The product of a force and the time interval during which it acts.

	 परावर्तन गुणांक	(index of refraction)  	 The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in a given matter medium.

	 प्रेरित चुम्बकत्व	(induced magnetism)  	 Magnetism produced in a ferromagnetic substance by the influence of a magnetic field.

	 प्रेरकत्व	(inductance)  	 The Property of an electric circuit by which a varying current induces a back emf in that circuit or a neighboring circuit.

	 प्रेरण	(induction)  	 The process of charging one body by bringing it into the electric field of another charged body.

	 		(inductive reactance)  	 Reactance in an a-c circuit containing inductance, which causes a lagging current.

	 अप्रत्यास्थ संघट्ट	(inelastic collision)  	 A collision in which the colliding objects stick together after impact.

	 जड़त्व (inertia)  	 The property of matter that opposes any change in its state of motion.

	 जड़त्वीय निर्देश तंत्र		(inertial frame of reference)  	 A nonaccelerating frame of reference in which Newton's first law holds true.

	 अवरक्त प्रकाश	(infrared light)  	 Electromagnetic waves longer than those of visible light and shorter than radio waves.

	 अवश्रव्य परास	(infrasonic range)  	 Vibrations in matter below 20 cycles/second.

	 ताक्षणिक धारा	(instantaneous current)  	 The magnitude of a varying current at any instant of time.

	 ताक्षणिक वेग	(instantaneous velocity)  	 Short displacement divided by elapsed time. Slope of the line that is tangent to a velocity graph at a given point.

	 तात्क्षणिक विभव	(instantaneous voltage)  	 The magnitude of a varying voltage at any instant of time.

	 अचालक (insulator)  	 A material through which an electric charge is not readily transferred.

	 तीव्रता स्तर (intensity level)  	 The logarithm of the ratio of the intensity of a sound to the intensity of the threshold of hearing.

	 अनुक्रिया	(interaction)  	 Any change in the amount or quantum numbers of particles that are near each other.

	 अंतराफलक		(interface)  	 A surface that forms the boundary between two phases or systems.

	 व्यतिकरण	(interference)  	 (1)  	 The superposing of one wave on another. (2)

	 आन्तरिक ज्वलन यंत्र	(internal combustion engine)  	 A heat engine in which the fuel burns inside the cylinder or turbine chamber.

	 आन्तरिक ऊर्जा	(internal energy)  	 Total potential and kinetic energy of the molecules and atomic particles of a substance.

	 		(intersecting storage ring)  	 An accelerator in which particles collide as they move in opposite directions.

	 		(inverse photoelectric effect)  	 The emission of photons of radiation from a material when bombarded with high speed electrons.

	 व्युत्क्रम अनुपात	(inverse proportion)  	 The relation between two quantities whose product is a constant and whose graph is a hyperbola.

	 आयन	(ion)  	 An atom or a group of atoms having an electric charge.

	 आयनन कक्ष 		(ionization chamber)  	 A device used to detect the passage of charged rays or particles by their ionizing effect on a gas.

	 आयनन ऊर्जा	(ionization energy)  	 The energy required to remove an electron from an atom.

	 		(irregular reflection)  	 Scattering. Reflection in many different directions from an irregular surface.

	 समतापीय प्रक्रम	(isothermal process)  	 A thermal process that takes place at constant temperature.

	 समावयव	(isotopes)  	 Atoms whose nuclei contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

	 जूल	(joule)  	 The unit of work; the product of a force of one newton acting through a distance of one meter.

	 जूल का नियम	(Joule's law)  	 The heat developed in a conductor is directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor, the square of the current, and the time the current is maintained.

	 		(junction detector)  	 A solid-state device based on the transistor principle that is used to detect the passage of charged particles.

	 केल्विन पैमाना	(Kelvin scale)  	 The scale of temperature having a single fixed point, the temperature of the triple point of water, which is assigned the value 273.16 oK.

	 किलोग्राम	(kilogram)  	 A unit of mass in the metric system; one of the seven fundamental units.

	 किलोवाट घण्टा (kilowatt hour)  	 A unit of electric energy equal to 3.6 x 106 w s.

	 गतिज ऊर्जा	(kinetic energy)  	 Energy possessed by an object because of its motion.

	 गतिज सिद्धान्त	(kinetic theory)  	 The molecules of matter are continuously in motion and the collisions between molecules are perfectly elastic.

	 किरचाफ का प्रथम नियम	(Kirchhoff's first law)  	 The algebraic sum of the currents at any circuit junction is equal to zero.

	 किरचाफ का द्वितीय नियम	(Kirchhoff's second law)  	 The algebraic sum of all changes in potential occurring around any loop in a circuit equals zero.

	 लेजर	(laser)  	 An acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

	 	नियम (law)  	 A statement that describes a natural phenomenon; a principle.

	 बेरयाॅन संरक्षण का नियम 		(law of conservation of baryons)  	 When a baryon decays or reacts with another particle, the number of baryons is the same on both sides of the equation.

	 ऊर्जा संरक्षण का नियम (law of conservation of energy)  	 The total quantity of energy in a closed system is constant.

	 		(law of conservation of hypercharge)  	 Hypercharge is conserved in strong and electromagnetic interactions, but not in weak interactions.

	 		(law of conservation of leptons)  	 In a reaction involving leptons, the arithmetic sum of the lepton numbers is the same on each side of the equation.

	 यांत्रिक ऊर्जा के संरक्षण का नियम	(law of conservation of mechanical energy)  	 The sum of the potential and kinetic energies of an ideal energy system is constant.

	 संवेग संरक्षण का नियम	(law of conservation of momentum)  	 When no net external forces are acting on an object, the total vector momentum of the object remains constant.

	 		(law of entropy)  	 A natural process always takes place in such a direction as to increase the entropy of the universe.

	 ऊष्मा विनिमय का नियम (law of heat exchange)  	 In any heat transfer system, the heat lost by hot materials equals the heat gained by cold materials .

	 लेंज का नियम (Lenz's law)  	 An induced current is in such a direction that its magnetic property opposes the change by which the current is induced.

	 लेप्टान (lepton)  	 A subatomic particle with a small rest mass, e.g., the electron. line of flux. A line so drawn that a tangent to it at any point indicates the direction of the magnetic field.

	 बल रेखा	(line of force)  	 A line so drawn that a tangent to it at any point indicates the direction of the electric field.

	 रेखीय स्पेक्ट्रम	(line spectrum)  	 A spectrum consisting of monochromatic slit images having wavelengths characteristic of the atoms present in the source.

	 रेखीय त्वरक	(linear accelerator)  	 A device for accelerating particles in a straight line through many stages of small potential difference.

	 त्वरक भौतिकी (accelerator physics)  	 Accelerator physics deals with the problems of building and operating particle accelerators.

	 द्रवीकरण	(liquefaction)  	 The change to the liquid phase. The condensation of a gas to a liquid.

	 लीटर (liter)  	 A special name for the cubic decimeter. Symbol: L.

	 अनुदैर्ध्य तरंग	(longitudinal wave)  	 A wave in which the vibrations are parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.

	 वलय		(loop)  	 A midpoint of a vibrating segment of a standing wave.

	 		(loudness)  	 The sensation that depends principally on the intensity of sound waves reaching the ear.

	 ल्यूमेन	(lumen)  	 The unit of luminous flux; the luminous flux on a unit surface all points of which are at unit distance from a point source of one candle:

	 प्रदीप्त		(luminous)  	 Visible because of the light emitted by its oscillating particles.

	 		(luminous flux)  	 The part of the total energy radiated per unit of time from a luminous source that is capable of producing the sensation of sight.

	 यंत्र (machine)  	 A device that multiplies force at the expense of distance or that multiplies distance at the expense of force.

	 चुम्बकीय क्षेत्र	(magnetic field)  	 A region in which a magnetic force can be detected.

	 चुम्बकीय क्षेत्र की तीव्रता	(magnetic field intensity)  	 The force exerted by a magnetic field on a unit N pole situated in the field.

	 चुम्बकीय फ्लक्स	(magnetic flux)  	 Lines of flux through a region of a magnetic field, considered collectively.

	 		(magnetic flux density)  	 The magnetic flux through a unit area normal to the magnetic field; also called magnetic induction.

	 चुम्बकीय बल	(magnetic force)  	 A force associated with motion of electric charges.

	 		(magnetosphere)  	 A region of the upper atmosphere in which the motion of charged particles is governed primarily by the magnetic field of the earth.

	 आवर्धन	(magnification)  	 The ratio of the image distance to the object distance; the ratio of the image size to the object size.

	 		(malleability)  	 The property of a metal that enables it to be hammered or rolled into sheets.

	 द्रव्यमान 	(mass)  	 A measure of the quantity of matter; a fundamental physical quantity.

	 द्रव्य घनत्व	(mass density)  	 Mass per unit volume of a substance.

	 द्रव्यमान संख्या		(mass number)  	 (1)  	 The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. (2)

	 		(mass spectrograph)  	 Instrument used to determine the mass of ionized particles.

	 पदार्थ	(matter)  	 Anything that has the properties of mass and inertia.

	 द्रब्य तरंगें	(matter wave)  	 A property of matter that is directly proportional to Planck's constant and inversely proportional to mass and velocity.

	 ऊष्मा का यांत्रिक तुल्यांक	(mechanical equivalent of heat)  	 The conversion factor that relates heat units to work units; 4.19 j/cal.

	 यांत्रिक तरंग	(mechanical wave)  	 A wave that originates in the displacement of a portion of an elastic medium from its normal position, causing it to oscillate about an equilibrium position.

	 माध्यम (medium)  	 Any region through which a wave disturbance propagates. Mechanical waves require a matter medium. Electromagnetic waves propagate through a vacuum and various matter media.

	 गलनांक	(melting point)  	 The temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid.

	 		(meniscus)  	 The crescent-shaped surface at the edge of a liquid column.

	 		(meson)  	 A subatomic particle with a rest mass intermediate between that of a lepton and a baryon; the carrier of the strong interaction.

	 मीटर	(meter)  	 A unit of length in the metric system equivalent to 1,650,763.73 wave-lengths of the orange-red light emitted by krypton-86. One of the seven fundamental units of measure.

	 दूरिक प्रणाली	(metric system)  	 A system of measurement that is based on decimal multiples and subdivisions.

	 मंदक (moderator)  	 A material that slows down neutrons .

	 मोल (mole)  	 Amount of substance containing the Avogadro number of particles such as atoms, molecules, ions, electrons etc. It is 6.02 X 1023 particles.

	 अणु	(molecule)  	 The smallest chemical species of a substance that is capable of stable independent existence.

	 संवेग (momentum)  	 The product of the mass and velocity of a moving body.

	 एकवर्णीय प्रकाश	(monochromatic light)  	 Light composed of a single color.

	 अन्योन्य प्रेरण	(mutual inductance)  	 The ratio of the induced emf in one circuit to the rate of change of current in the coil of another circuit.

	 		(neutral weak current)  	 A subatomic reaction in which leptons collide without change in the charges of the colliding particles .

	 न्यूट्रोन	(neutron)  	 A neutral subatomic particle having a mass of 1.674943 x 10–27 kg.

	 न्यूटन	(newton)  	 The unit of force; a derived unit having the dimensions kg m/s2. The force required to accelerate a one-kilogram mass at a rate of one meter per second each second.

	 न्यूटन का गति का प्रथम नियम	(Newton's first law of motion)  	 A body at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line will remain at rest or in the same uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force; also called the law of inertia.

	 न्यूटन का सार्वत्रिक गुरुत्व का नियम	(Newton's law of universal gravitation)  	 The force of attraction between any two particles of matter in the universe is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers of mass.

	 न्यूटन का गति का द्वितीय नियम	(Newton's second law of motion)  	 The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the net force exerted on the body, is inversely proportional to the mass of the body, and has the same direction as the net force; also called the law of acceleration.

	 न्यूटन का गति का तृतीय नियम	(Newton's third law of motion)  	 If one body exerts a force on a second body, then the second body exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body; also called the law of interaction. (node)  	 A point of no disturbance of a standing wave.

	 		(noise)  	 Sound produced by irregular vibrations in matter which is unpleasant to the listener.

	 		(noninertial frame of reference)  	 An accelerating frame of reference in which Newton's first law of motion does not hold true.

	 अभिलम्ब (normal)  	 A line drawn perpendicular to a line or surface.

	 		(N-type germanium)  	 "Electron-rich" germanium consisting of equal numbers of free electrons and bound positive charges so that the net charge is zero.

	 नाभिकीय बंधन ऊर्जा	(nuclear binding force)  	 The force that acts within the small distances between nucleons .

	 नाभिकीय परिवर्तन	(nuclear change)  	 A change in the identity of atomic nuclei.

	 		(nuclear mass defect)  	 The arithmetic difference between the mass of a nucleus and the larger sum of its uncombined constituent particles.

	 नाभिकीय भट्ठी/रिएक्टर (nuclear reactor)  	 A device in which the controlled fission of certain substances is used to produce new substances and energy.

	 न्यूक्लिआन	(nucleon)  	 A proton or neutron in the nucleus of an atom. ((nucleus)  	 The positively charged dense central part of an atom.

	 		(nuclide)  	 An atom of a particular mass and of a particular element.

	 अष्टक (octave)  	 The interval between a given musical tone and one with double or half the frequency.

	 ओम	(ohm)  	 The unit of electric resistance; one volt per ampere.

	 ओम का नियम	(Ohm's law)  	 The ratio of the emf applied to a closed circuit to the current in the circuit is a constant.

	 प्रकाशीय केन्द्र	(optical center)  	 The point in a thin lens through which the secondary axes pass.

	 		(optical density)  	 A property of a transparent material that is a measure of the speed of light through it.

	 कक्षक	(orbital)  	 The probability pattern of position of an electron about the nucleus of an atom.

	 परिमाण की कोटि 		(order of magnitude)  	 A numerical approximation to the nearest power of ten.

	 		(ordinate)  	 The value corresponding to the vertical distance of a point on a graph from the X axis. The Y coordinate.

	 		(oscilloscope)  	 A cathode-ray tube with associated electronic circuits that enable external voltages to deflect the electron beam of the cathode-ray tube simultaneously along both horizontal and vertical axes.

	 समान्तर परिपथ	(parallel circuit)  	 An electric circuit in which two or more components connected across two common points in the circuit so as to provide separate conducting paths for the current.

	 समान्तर चतुर्भुज विधि	(parallelogram method)  	 The graphic method of finding the resultant of two vectors that do not act along a straight line.

	 अनुचुम्बकीयता 		(paramagnetism)  	 The property of a substance by which it is feebly attracted by a strong magnet.

	 दोलक (pendulum)  	 A body suspended so that it can swing back and forth about an axis.

	 		(penumbra)  	 The partially illuminated part of a shadow.

	 काल	(period)  	 (-1)  	 The time for one complete cycle, vibration, revolution, or oscillation. (2)

	 आवर्ती गती	(periodic motion)  	 Motion repeated in each of a succession of equal time intervals.

	 पारगम्यता		(permeability)  	 The property of a material by which it changes the flux density in a magnetic field from its value in air.

	 कला	(phase)  	 -1 A condition of matter. (2)

	 कला कोण 		(phase angle)  	 -1 Of any periodic function, the angle obtained by multiplying the phase by 360 if the angle is to be expressed in degrees, or by 2pi if in radians. (2)

	 		(phasor)  	 A representation of the concepts of magnitude and direction in a reference plane; a rotating vector.

	 		(photoelastic)  	 Pertaining to certain materials that become double refracting when strained.

	 प्रकाश वैद्युत प्रभाव	(photoelectric effect)  	 The emission of electrons by a substance when illuminated by electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently short wavelength.

	 प्रकाश वैद्युत इलेक्ट्रान	(photoelectrons)  	 Electrons emitted from a light-sensitive material when it is illuminated with light of sufficiently short wavelength.

	 		(photometer)  	 An instrument comparing the intensity source with that of a standard source.

	 प्रकाशमिति	(photometry)  	 The quantitative measurement of visible radiation from light sources .

	 फोटान	(photon)  	 A quantum of light energy; the carrier of the electromagnetic interaction.

	 प्रकाश वैद्युत प्रभाव	(photovoltaic effect)  	 The generation of a potential difference across a P-N junction as a consequence of the absorption of incident light of appropriate frequency.

	 भौतिक परिवर्तन	(physical change)  	 A change in which the composition and identifying properties of a substance remain unchanged. physical quantity. A measurable aspect of the universe, such as length.

	 भौतिकी / भौतिक विज्ञान	(physics)  	 The science that deals with the relationships between matter and energy. The second half of life.

	 		(piezoelectric effect)  	 The property of certain natural and synthetic crystals to develop a potential difference between opposite surfaces when subjected to a mechanical stress, and conversely.

	 		(pitch)  	 The identification of a certain sound with a definite tone; depends on the frequency which the ear receives.

	 		(pivot point)  	 The point from which the lengths of all torque arms are measured.

	 प्लैंक नियतांक	(Planck's constant)  	 A fundamental constant in nature that determines what values are allowed for physical quantities in quantum mechanics; h = 6.63 x 10-34 j s.

	 प्लाज्मा	(plasma)  	 A gas that is capable of conducting an electric current.

	 प्लेट (plate)  	 The anode of an electronic tube.

	 पि-एन सन्धि		(P-N junction)  	 The boundary between P and N-type materials in a semiconductor crystal.

	 ध्रुवित प्रकाश	(polarized light)  	 Light radiations in which the vibrations of all light waves present are confined to planes parallel to each other.

	 ध्रुवण कोण 		(polarizing angle)  	 A particular angle of incidence at which polarization of reflected light is complete.

	 		(polychromatic light)  	 Light composed of several colors.

	 धन किरणें	(positive rays)  	 Rays coming through holes in a cathode on the side opposite the anode in a discharge tube. Positively charged ions.

	 विभवान्तर	(potential difference)  	 The work done per unit charge as a charge is moved between two points in an electric field.

	 स्थितिज ऊर्जा	(potential energy)  	 Energy that is the result of the position of an object. potential gradient. The change in potential per unit distance.

	 शक्ति / सामर्थ्य (power)  	 The time rate of doing work. power factor. The cosine of the phase angle between current and voltage in an a-c circuit.

	 		(precession)  	 The motion that results from the application of a torque that tends to displace the axis of rotation of a rotating object.

	 		(precision)  	 The agreement between the numerical values of two or more measurements made in the same way and expressed in terms of deviation; the reproducibility of measured data.

	 दाब	(pressure)  	 Force per unit area.

	 प्राथमिक	(primary)  	 A transformer winding that carries current and normally induces a current in one or more secondary windings.

	 प्राथमिक सेल	(primary cell)  	 An electrochemical cell in which the reacting materials must be replaced after a given amount of energy has been supplied to the external circuit.

	 		(primary colors)  	 Colors in terms of which all other colors may be described or from which all other colors may be evolved by mixtures.

	 		(primary pigments)  	 The complements of the primary colors.

	 मुख्य अक्ष	(principal axis)  	 -1 A line drawn through the center of curvature and the vertex of a curved mirror. (2)

	 मुख्य नाभि	(principal focus)  	 A point at which rays parallel to the principal axis converge or from which they diverge after reflection or refraction.

	 सिद्धान्त	(principle)  	 See law.

	 		(principle of parity)  	 For every process in nature there is a mirror-image process which is indistinguishable from the original process.

	 		(propagate)  	 To travel through a material or space.

	 		(propagation)  	 The act of propagating. The action of traveling through a material or space.

	 गुण	(property)  	 A measurable aspect of matter, e.g., mass and inertia.

	 प्रोटान	(proton)  	 A positively charged subatomic particle having a mass of 1.6726485 x 10–27 kg and a charge equal and opposite to that of the electron.

	 		(P-type germanium)  	 "Hole-rich" germanium consisting of equal numbers of free positive holes and bound negative charges so that the net charge is zero.

	 		(pulse)  	 A single nonrepeated disturbance.

	 		(quality)  	 The property of sound waves that depends on the number of harmonics and their prominence.

	 क्वांटम	(quantum)  	 An elemental unit of energy; a photon of energy hf.

	 क्वांटम यांत्रिकी	(quantum mechanics)  	 The branch of physics that heals with the behavior of particles whose specific properties are given by quantum numbers.

	 क्वान्टम संख्या	(quantum number)  	 One of a set of notations used to characterize a discrete value that a quantized variable is allowed to assume.

	 क्वान्टम सिद्धान्त	(quantum theory)  	 A unifying theory based on the concept of the subdivision of radiant energy into discrete quanta (photons)  	 and applied to the studies of structure at the atomic and molecular levels. (quark) 	 		(quiescent)  	 A steady-state condition. The operating condition of an electronic circuit when no input signal is applied.

	 रेडियन	(radian)  	 A unit of angular measurement. The angle that, when placed with its vertex at the center of a circle, subtends on the circumference an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle. Approximately 57.3o.

	 रेडियो तरंगें	(radio waves)  	 Also called Hertzian waves. Electromagnetic radiations produced by rapid reverses of current in a conductor.

	 रेडियोधर्मिता	(radioactivity)  	 The spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus with the emission of particles and rays.

	 रेडियो समस्थानिक	(radioisotope)  	 An isotope of an element that is radioactive.

	 विरलन	(rarefaction)  	 The region of a longitudinal wave in which the vibrating particles are farther apart than their equilibrium distance .

	 किरण	(ray)  	 A single line of light from a luminous point. A line showing the direction of propagation of light.

	 		(reactance)  	 The nonresistive opposition to current in an a-c circuit.

	 		(reaction motor)  	 A heat engine whose acceleration is produced by the thrust of exhaust gases.

	 वास्तविक प्रतिविम्ब	(real image)  	 An image formed by actual rays of light.

	 दिष्टकारी	(rectifier)  	 A device for changing alternating current to direct current.

	 सरल रेखीय गति	(rectilinear propagation)  	 Traveling in a straight line.

	 		(reflectance)  	 The ratio of the light reflected from a surface to the light falling on it, expressed in percentage.

	 परावर्तन	(reflection)  	 The return of a wave from the boundary of a medium.

	 अपवर्तन	(refraction)  	 The bending of a wave disturbance as it passes obliquely from one medium into another in which the disturbance has a different velocity.

	 		(regelation)  	 The melting of a substance under pressure and the refreezing after the pressure is released.

	 		(regular reflection)  	 Reflection from a polished surface in which scattering effects are negligible.

	 सापेक्षिक विपथन	(relative deviation)  	 Percentage average deviation of a set of measurements.

	 सापेक्षिक त्रुटि	(relative error)  	 Percentage absolute error of a set of measurements.

	 सापेक्षिक आर्द्रता	(relative humidity)  	 The ratio of the water vapor pressure in the atmosphere to the equilibrium vapor pressure at a given temperature.

	 		(relativistic mass)  	 The mass of an object in motion with respect to the observer.

	 		(residual magnetism)  	 Magnetism retained in a magnet after the magnetizing field has been removed.

	 प्रतिरोध	(resistance)  	 The ratio of the potential difference across a conductor to the magnitude of current in it.

	 प्रतिरोधकता (resistivity)  	 A proportionality constant that relates the length and cross-sectional area of a given electric conductor to its resistance, at a given temperature.

	 बलों का वियोजन	(resolution of forces)  	 The resolving of a single force into component forces acting in given directions on the same point.

	 अनुनाद	(resonance)  	 -1 The inducing of vibrations of a natural rate by a vibrating source having the same frequency. (2)

	 		(rest mass)  	 The mass of an object not in motion.

	 परिणामी	(resultant)  	 A vector representing the sum of several vector components. resultant force. The single force that has the same effect as two or more forces applied simultaneously at the same point.

	 		(reverse bias)  	 Voltage applied to a semiconductor P-N junction that reduces the electron current across the junction.

	 		(rheostat)  	 A variable resistance.

	 वर्गमूल माध्य धारा (root-mean-square {rms} current)  	 The effective value of an alternating current; the square root of the mean of the instantaneous values squared.

	 	घूर्णन गति (rotary motion)  	 Motion of a body about an internal axis.

	 घूर्णीय संतुलन (rotational equilibrium)  	 The state of a body in which the sum of all the clockwise torques in a given plane equals the sum of all the counterclockwise torques about a pivot point.

	 घूर्णीय जडत्व (rotational inertia)  	 The property of a rotating object that resists changes in its angular velocity.

	 अदिश राशि	(scalar quantity)  	 A quantity that is completely specified by a magnitude.

	 		(scientific notation)  	 A positive number expressed in the form of M x 10n in which M is a number between 1 and 10 and n is an integral power of 10.

	 		(scintillation counter)  	 A device that counts the impacts of charged subatomic particles on a fluorescent screen by means of a photomultiplier tube.

	 सेकेण्ड	(second)  	 A unit of time; equivalent to 9,192,631,770 vibrations of cesium-113. One of the seven fundamental units of measure.

	 प्रकाश वैद्युत उत्सर्जन का द्वितीय नियम	(second law of photoelectric emission)  	 The kinetic energy of photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of the incident light.

	 उष्मागतिकी का द्वितीय नियम	(second law of thermodynamics)  	 It is not possible for an engine to transfer heat from one body to another at a higher temperature unless work is done on the engine.

	 द्वितीयक	(secondary)  	 A transformer output winding in which the current is due to inductive coupling with another winding called the primary.

	 द्वितीयक अक्ष	(secondary axis)  	 Any line other than the principal axis drawn through the center of curvature of a mirror or the optical center of a lens.

	 द्वितियक उत्सर्जन	(secondary emission)  	 Emission of electrons as a result of the bombardment of an electrode by high-velocity electrons.

	 		(selectivity)  	 The property of a tuned circuit that discriminates between signal voltages of different frequencies.

	 स्व-प्रेरणांक (self-inductance)  	 The ratio of the induced emf across a coil to the rate of change of current in the coil.

	 श्रेणीक्रम परिपथ	(series circuit)  	 An electric circuit in which the components are arranged to provide a single conducting path for current.

	 श्रेणीक्रम अनुनाद	(series resonance)  	 A condition in which the impedance of a series circuit containing resistance, inductance, and capacitance is equal to the resistance of the circuit and the voltage across the circuit is in phase with the current.

	 		(shear strain)  	 The ratio of the amount of deformation of the side of a body to the length of the side.

	 लघु परिपथ	(short circuit)  	 An electric circuit through a negligible resistance that usually shunts a normal load and overloads the circuit.

	 सार्थक अंक 		(significant figures)  	 Those digits in an observed quantity (measurement)  	 that are known with certainty plus the first digit that is uncertain.

	 सरल आवर्त गति (simple harmonic motion)  	 Motion in which the acceleration is proportional to the displacement from an equilibrium position and is directed toward that position.

	 सौर स्पेक्ट्रम	(solar spectrum)  	 The band of colors produced when sunlight is dispersed by a prism.

	 परिनालिका	(solenoid)  	 A long helical wound coil of insulated wire.

	 		(solid state detector)  	 A device used to detect the passage of charged subatomic particles by their crystal-distorting or ionizing effects on a nonconducting or nonconducting solid.

	 		(solidification)  	 The change of phase from a liquid to a solid.

	 		(sonometer)  	 A device, consisting of two or more wires or strings stretched over a sounding board, used for testing the frequency of strings and for showing how they vibrate.

	 ध्वनि	(sound)  	 The series of disturbances in matter to which the human ear is sensitive. Also similar disturbances in matter above and below the normal range of human hearing.

	 ध्वनि तीव्रता	(sound intensity)  	 The rate at which sound energy flows through a unit area.

	 		(space charge)  	 The negative charge in the space between the cathode and plate of a vacuum tube.

	 		(spark chamber)  	 A device used to detect the passage of charged subatomic particles by the light flashes they trigger.

	 विशिष्ट गुरुत्व	(specific gravity)  	 The ratio of the mass density of a substance to that of water.

	 विशिष्ट उष्मा	(specific heat)  	 The heat capacity of a material per unit mass.

	 		(spectroscope)  	 Optical instrument used for the study of spectra.

	 चाल	(speed)  	 Time rate of motion.

	 गोलीय विपथन	(spherical aberration)  	 The failure of parallel rays to meet at a single point on a spherical surface after reflection or refraction.

	 		(spinthariscope)  	 A device used to detect subatomic particles by the light flashes they produce on a zinc sulfide screen.

	 मानक दाब	(standard pressure)  	 The pressure exerted by 760 mm of mercury at O oC.

	 मानक ताप	(standard temperature)  	 OoC, 273oK.

	 अप्रगामी तरंग	(standing wave)  	 The resultant of two wave trains of the same wavelength, frequency, and	amplitude traveling in opposite directions through the same medium

	 स्थिर विद्युत	(static electricity)  	 Electricity at rest.

	 		(steam point)  	 The boiling point of water at standard atmospheric pressure.

	 स्टेरेडियन	(steradian)  	 The ratio of the intercepted surface area of a sphere to the square of the radius. A unit of solid angle.

	 भण्दारण सेल	(storage cell)  	 An electrochemical cell in which the reacting materials are regenerated by the use of a reverse current from an external source.

	 विकृति	(strain)  	 The relative amount of distortion produced in a body under stress.

	 प्रतिबल (stress)  	 The distorting force per unit area.

	 		(strong nuclear interaction)  	 The interaction that holds the particles of the nucleus together and is independent of charge.

	 उर्ध्वपातन	(sublimation)  	 The change of a solid to a gaseous phase without passing through the liquid phase.

	 अतिचालकता	(superconductivity)  	 The condition of zero resistivity below the transition temperature of a substance.

	 अतिशीतलन	(supercooling)  	 The process of cooling a substance below its normal phase change point without a change of phase.

	 अध्यारोपण 		(superposition)  	 Combining the displacements of two or more waves vectorially to produce a resultant displacement.

	 पृष्ठ तनाव	(surface tension)  	 The tendency of a liquid surface to contract; the measure of this tendency in newtons per meter.

	 		(sympathetic vibration)  	 See resonance (1)।

	 सिनकोट्रान	(synchrotron)  	 A particle accelerator in which the oscillating frequency varies.

	 प्रौद्योगिकी	(technology)  	 The application of science to human needs and goals.

	 ताप	(temperature)  	 The physical quantity that is proportional to the average kinetic energy of translation of particles in matter.

	 अस्थायी चुम्बक	(temporary magnet)  	 A magnet produced by induction.

	 		(tensile strength)  	 The force required to break a rod or wire of unit cross-sectional area.

	 सिद्धान्त	(theory)  	 A plausible explanation of an observed event, supported experimentally and confirmed by experiments designed to test predictions based upon the explanation.

	 उष्मीय उर्जा	(thermal energy)  	 The total potential and kinetic energy associated with the random motions of the particles of a material.

	 तापायनिक उत्सर्जन (thermionic emission)  	 The liberation of electrons from the surface of a hot body.

	 तापयुग्म	(thermocouple)  	 An electric circuit composed of two dissimilar metals whose junctions are maintained at different temperatures .

	 उष्मागतिकी	(thermodynamics)  	 Study of quantitative relationships between heat and other forms of energy.

	 ताप वैद्युत प्रभाव	(thermoelectric effect)  	 The production of an electron current in a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals as a result of the emf developed when the two junctions are maintained at different temperatures.

	 		(thermonuclear reaction)  	 Nuclear fusion.

	 प्रकाश वैद्युत उत्सर्जन का तृतीय नियम	(third law of photoelectric emission)  	 Within the region of effective frequencies, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons varies directly with the difference between the frequency of the incident light and the cut-off frequency.

	 		(thought experiment)  	 An idealized experiment that cannot be performed under actual conditions.

	 		(threshold of hearing)  	 The intensity of the faintest sound audible to the average human ear, 10-16 w/cm2 at 103 hz.

	 		(threshold of pain)  	 For audible frequencies of sound, an intensity level above which pain results in the average human ear. Rock concert.

	 		(tolerance)  	 Degree of precision obtainable with a measuring instrument.

	 बलाघूर्ण	(torque)  	 Product of a force and the effective length of its torque arm.

	 बलाघूर्ण की भुजा	(torque arm)  	 The perpendicular distance between the line of action of the torque producing force and the axis of rotation.

	 पूर्ण परावर्तन	(total reflection)  	 The reflection of light at the boundary of two transparent media when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle.

	 ट्रान्सफार्मर	(transformer)  	 A device for changing an alternating voltage from one potential to another.

	 ट्रान्जिस्टर	(transistor)  	 A semiconductor device used as a substitute for vacuum tubes in electronic applications.

	 क्रांतिक ताप 		(transition temperature)  	 A specific temperature at which the resistivity of some materials drops suddenly to zero.

	 		(translational equilibrium)  	 The state of a body in which there are no unbalanced forces acting on it.

	 		(transuranium elements)  	 Elements with atomic number greater than 92.

	 अनुप्रस्थ तरंग	(transverse wave)  	 A wave in which the vibrations are at right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave.

	 ट्रायोड	(triode)  	 Vacuum tube consisting of a plate, grid, and cathode.

	 त्रिक बिन्दु 		(triple point)  	 The single condition of temperature and pressure at which the solid, liquid, and vapor phases of a substance can coexist in stable equilibrium.

	 	(trough)  	 A region of downward displacement in a transverse wave.

	 		(tuning fork)  	 A metal two-prong fork that produces a sound of a definite pitch.

	 पराश्रव्य परास (ultrasonic range)  	 Vibrations in matter above 20,000 vibrations/second.

	 पराबैगनी प्रकाश	(ultraviolet light)  	 Electromagnetic radiations of shorter wavelength than visible light but longer than X rays.

	 		(umbra)  	 The part of a shadow from which all light rays are excluded.

	 अनिश्चितता का सिद्धान्त	(uncertainty principle)  	 It is impossible to specify simultaneously both the position of an object and its momentum.

	 एकिकृत क्षेत्र सिद्धान्त	(unified field theory)  	 The principle that all forces in the universe are part of a single concept.

	 इकाई चुम्बकीय द्विध्रुव (unit magnetic pole)  	 One that repels an exactly similar pole placed one centimeter away with a force of one dyne.

क्वार्क {quark} one of the elementary partical.

इन्हें भी देखें
 विज्ञान की पारिभाषिक शब्दावली

बाहरी कड़ियाँ
 Defintions of Scientific Terms

भौतिकी
विज्ञान
पारिभाषिक शब्दावली

भौतिक विज्ञान की पारिभाषिक शब्दावली


Marathon Media is a French company in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France Founded in 1990 It does Teens, Childs and Parent Television series in very huge animation industry.

Information
The shows are dubbed into French (1st official), Japanese (2nd official), English, Thai, German, Dutch, Malay, Arabic, Italian, Romanian, Spanish, Portuguese, and other languages dubbed and shown around the world.

Marathon Media Group was acquired by Zodiak Entertainment and renamed Marathon Media.

(Kids)Productions
Enigma
Famous 5: On the Case
Kassai and Leuk
LazyTown (French dubbed version)
Logo Story(Co-Production with Disney Channel and Gaumont Alphanim)
Gormiti
Dork Diaries(Co-Production With Nelvana Nickelodeon Animation Studio Canal J and ProchLight Entertainment)
Marsupilami (not the Disney production)
Martin Mystery(Co-Production with Image Entertainment Corporation, Canal J and YTV)
Mission: Odyssey
Monster Buster Club(Co-Production with Image Entertainment Corporation, TF1, YTV)
The Mozart Band (co-production with BRB International)
The Selfish (co-production with France 3)
Mythic Warriors: Guardians of the Legend
Team GalaxyCo-Production with Image Entertainment Corporation, Canal J, YTV)
The Secret World of Santa Claus
The Amazing Spiez!(Co-Production with Image Entertainment Corporation, TF1, Teletoon, Telifilm Canada and Canal J)
Redakai: Conquer the Kairu
Totally Spies!(co-produced with Image Entertainment Corporation, TF1, Teletoon, The Walt Disney company France, Marathon Images and Zodiak Kids)
LoliRock
Rekkit Rabbit(Co-produced with TF1 and Disney XD Europe)
Blake and the aliens(Co-produced with Nickelodeon U.S)
The Mysterys of Alfred Hedgehog (Co - produced with Qubo TVOKids Knowledge Kids and Garmount Animation

Sources

Other websites
 Marathon Media Website

Animation studios
Neuilly-sur-Seine
Companies of France

Zodiak Kids Studios


Heraclion is the biggest city of Crete. 132,000 lived there in 2001 census. Heraclion is in the north of Crete. It is near Knossos, the ancient capital of Crete and the center of Minoan civilization. Heraclion has a big harbor which it connects Heraclion with continental Greece. Heraclion has a hot summer Mediterranean climate.

Places of interest

The most interesting sight in Heraclion is the Venetian square with a marble fountain. Venice ruled Heraclion from the 13th to 16th century. There are still many important monuments from this time. The medieval fort in the town is another important sight. The fort was built by Arabians, Byzantines, and Venetians while each group ruled the city.

Cities in Greece
Crete

Heraclion


Rome, Open City (), also released as Open City, is a 1945 Italian neorealist war drama film directed by Roberto Rossellini and co-written by Sergio Amidei, Celeste Negarville and Federico Fellini. Set in Rome in 1944, the film follows a diverse group of characters coping under the Nazi occupation, and centers on a Resistance fighter trying to escape the city with the help of a Catholic priest. The title refers to the status of Rome as an open city following its declaration as such on 14 August 1943. The film is the first in Rosselini's "Neorealist Trilogy", followed by Paisan (1946) and Germany, Year Zero (1948).

Open City is considered one of the most important and representative works of Italian neorealism, and an important stepping stone for Italian filmmaking as a whole. It was one of the first post-war Italian pictures to gain major acclaim and accolades internationally, winning the prestigious Palme d'Or at the 1946 Cannes Film Festival and being nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay Oscar at the 19th Academy Awards. It launched director Rosselini, screenwriter Fellini, and actress Anna Magnani into the international spotlight.

In 2008, the film was included on the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage's 100 Italian films to be saved, a list of 100 films that "have changed the collective memory of the country between 1942 and 1978".

Plot
In occupied Rome in 1944, German SS troops are trying to arrest Luigi Ferraris (hiding under the alias of engineer Giorgio Manfredi), a communist, and leader of the Resistance against the Nazis and Italian Fascists. The landlady of his rooming house warns him in time for him to elude capture. He sneaks to the home of Francesco, another Resistance fighter. There he encounters Pina, Francesco's visibly pregnant fiancée, who lives in the next apartment. She first suspects Luigi of being a cop and gives him a rough time, but when he makes it clear he is a confederate of Francesco she welcomes him into his apartment to wait for him. With Pina's help Luigi/Giorgio contacts Don Pietro, a Catholic priest who is helping the Resistance. Luigi asks him to transfer messages and money to a group of Resistance fighters outside the city, as he is now known to the Gestapo and cannot do it himself. The priest willingly does so.

Don Pietro is also scheduled to officiate at Pina's and Francesco's wedding the next day. Francesco is not very religious, but would rather be married by a patriot priest than a fascist official; the devout Pina, on the other hand, is pragmatic about the decision - as it would be unthinkable in normal times for an unmarried pregnant woman to be married in a church - but wrestling with why God would allow such terrible things to happen to people as are occurring all around them. Her son, Marcello, a somewhat reluctant altar boy, is involved with a crippled youth fighting his own resistance planting bombs. Pina's feckless sister Laura stays with her, but works in a cabaret serving the Nazis and Fascists. She is also an old friend of Marina, Luigi's girlfriend, who has been looking for him. Marina also works in the cabaret and has not only turned to prostitution for the luxuries she craves but has become addicted to drugs by the treacherous Ingrid, a consort of the local Nazi commander, Major Bergmann.

Bergmann, helped by the Italian police chief, suspects that Luigi is at Francesco's apartment. They raid the huge building that afternoon, pulling everyone out and arresting dozens of men. Luigi gets away, but Francesco is thrown in a truck to be hauled off. Seeing him, Pina breaks through a cordon of soldiers screaming his name, but is shot dead. The priest, who was in the building to erase any trace of the Resistance weapons under the guise of praying for a dying man, holds her in his arms and prays as Part I ends.

Part II begins with the several trucks of Italian prisoners taken from the apartment building in a convoy with military vehicles, which is attacked by Resistance fighters. Most of the captives appear to escape. Francesco reconnects with Luigi. Together they go to the priest, who has offered to hide them in a monastery.

Afterwards the pair go to an inn where Marina lives and works to spend the night in hiding. When Luigi sees how she lives and finds her drugs they quarrel over her choices. Seeking revenge for his rebuke, she betrays both him and Francesco to the Nazis. The next morning Luigi, Francesco, Don Pietro, and an Austrian deserter the priest is also aiding, leave for the monastery. Francesco lags slightly behind, and is able to escape when the rest of the party is ambushed by Germans, who mistakenly believe the Austrian is him. Marina is rewarded by Ingrid with a fur coat and more drugs.

At Nazi headquarters Bergmann tells Ingrid of his plan - to extract everything from his captives before dawn in order to take the Resistance by surprise before news of their capture can get back to it.  He then offers leniency to Luigi in return for betrayal. Luigi refuses and is taken off to be tortured. The Austrian, who has already displayed cowardice at the prospect of interrogation, hangs himself in his cell. The Gestapo assault Luigi in waves with whips and a blow torch, in vain.

Obsessed with meeting the deadline he has set himself, Bergmann next tries to convince Don Pietro to use his influence on Luigi to betray his cause, describing Luigi as an atheist and communist who is an enemy of the Church. Don Pietro placidly responds that anyone who strives to live a righteous life is doing God's work. Bergmann then forces Don Pietro to watch Luigi's torture. When Luigi dies without revealing anything, Don Pietro blesses his body and commends him to God's mercy. Luigi's refusal to yield shakes the confidence of the Germans, including Bergmann, who had boasted that they were the "master race", and no one from a "slave race" could withstand their torture.

Marina and a German officer who had bad-mouthed the Reich to Bergmann earlier in the officers' club stumble drunk into Bergmann's office with the door opened to the adjoining torture cell. When she sees that Luigi has refused Bergmann's deal and allowed himself to be tortured to death, she faints. The Gestapo chief and Ingrid decide that she is now useless to them and order her locked up. Ingrid removes the coat Marina had draped over her shoulders, saying she'll use it again on the "next one".

In the morning Don Pietro is taken to be executed. The parish altar boys-resistance fighters show up and begin whistling their signal tune to him. Effectively sightless since his glasses were broken being thrown roughly into a cell upon arrival at Nazi headquarters, Don Pietro is heartened when he recognizes the boys' tribute. An Italian firing squad readies to shoot, but most aim slightly off, unwilling to kill a priest. They fire. Seeing the merely wounded Don Pietro still mumbling prayers the presiding German officer, the same man who while drunk had decried the futility of the Nazi obsession with world dominance the night before to Major Bergmann, draws his pistol and puts the priest to a merciful end, muttering disdainfully over his involvement as part of the "Master Race".

The boys bow their heads in grief and slowly depart, the city of Rome and the dome of St. Peter's Basilica visible in the background.

Cast

Development
By the end of World War II, Rossellini had abandoned the film Desiderio, as conditions made it impossible to complete (though it was later finished by Marcello Pagliero in 1946 and disowned by Rossellini). By 1944, there was virtually no film industry in Italy, and the origins of the film's initial funding are unclear. Rossellini had initially planned a documentary titled Storie di ieri on the subject of Don Pietro Morosini, a Catholic priest who had been shot by the Nazis for helping the partisan movement in Italy, and began meeting with a number of screenwriters in Rome shortly after Germany abandoned the city. Federico Fellini was initially uninterested in joining, as he had disapproved of partisan action during the occupation.

Production

The Nazis abandoned Rome on June 4, 1944; the Allies occupied the undefended city the next day.  Shooting for the film began in January 1945 under precarious conditions, with its style developing from circumstance. The facilities at Cinecittà Studios were unavailable at the time, as they had been damaged in the war and were then currently requisitioned by Allied forces to house displaced persons.

Aldo Venturini, a wool merchant with some capital to invest, was involved in financing the film. After a few days of shooting production had stopped due to lack of cash, and Rossellini convinced Venturini to complete the film as a producer, arguing that it was the only way to safeguard his investment.

New Yorker Rod E. Geiger, a soldier in the Signal Corps who eventually became instrumental in the movie's global success, met Rosselini at a point when the production was out of film. Geiger had access to film - short-ends and complete rolls that might have become fogged, scratched, or otherwise deemed unfit for use - that the Signal Corps regularly threw away.  He provided enough of this stock for the picture to be completed.

In order to authentically portray the hardships and poverty of life in Rome under the occupation Rossellini hired mostly non-professional actors; a few exceptions included established stars Fabrizi and Anna Magnani. According to Rossellini, "the situation of the moment guided by my own and the actors' moods and perspectives" dictated what was shot, and he relied more on improvisation than on a script. He also stated that the work was "a film about fear, the fear felt by all of us but by me in particular. I too had to go into hiding. I too was on the run. I had friends who were captured and killed." Rossellini relied on traditional devices of melodrama, such as identification of the film's central characters and a clear distinction between the primary good and evil ones. Only four interior sets were constructed for the more important locations of the film. Production ended in June 1945.

The film's documentary or newsreel style reflects in part different film stocks used in its production. When the Cineteca Nazionale restored the print in 1995 it stated that the original negative consisted of just three different types: Ferrania C6 for outdoor scenes, and the more sensitive Agfa Super Pan and Agfa Ultra Rapid for interiors. The previously unexplained changes in image brightness and consistency are now attributed to inadequate processing, including variable development times, insufficient agitation in the developing bath, and insufficient fixing.

Unlike films made in the early years of the war (when Italy was Germany's ally under Mussolini) that depicted the British, Americans, Greeks, Russians and other allied countries, as well as Ethiopians, communists, and partisans, as antagonists, Rome, Open City was one of the early Italian films of the war to depict the struggle as being against the Germans and Italian fascists. Even though the Allied Invasion of Italy took place in 1943, there is no trace of any Allied presence or imminent arrival in the movie; instead, references are made to it being only "the beginning" of what was characterized as a long struggle ahead, not a Nazi evacuation of Rome that had already occurred.

Distribution
The film opened in Italy on 27 September 1945, with the war damage to Rome not yet repaired. The United States premiere followed on 25 February 1946 in New York. The American release was censored, resulting in a cut of about 15 minutes. The story of the film's journey from Italy to the United States is recounted in Federico Fellini's autobiographical essay "Sweet Beginnings" published in 1996. Rod E. Geiger, a U.S. Army private stationed in Rome, met Rossellini and Fellini after catching them tapping into the power supply used to illuminate the G.I. dancehall. In the book The Adventures of Roberto Rossellini, author Tag Gallagher credits Geiger at age 29 as the "man who more than any single individual was to make him and the new Italian cinema famous around the world." Before the war, Geiger had worked for an American distributor and exhibitor of foreign films which helped facilitate the film's release in the United States. In gratitude, Rossellini gave Geiger a co-producer credit.

However, According to Fellini's essay Geiger was "a 'half-drunk' soldier who stumbled (literally as well as figuratively) onto the set of Open City. [He] misrepresented himself as an American producer when actually he 'was a nobody and didn't have a dime.'" Fellini's account of Geiger's involvement in the film was the subject of an unsuccessful 1983 defamation lawsuit Geiger brought against Fellini.

The film was banned in several countries. West Germany banned it from 1951 to 1960. In Argentina, it was inexplicably withdrawn in 1947 following an anonymous government order.

Critical response
Rome, Open City received a mediocre reception from Italian audiences when it was first released when Italian people were said to want escapism after the war. However, it became more popular as the film's reputation grew in other countries. The film brought international attention to Italian cinema and is considered a quintessential example of neorealism in film, so much so that together with Paisà and Germania anno zero it is called Rossellini's "Neorealist Trilogy". Robert Burgoyne called it "the perfect exemplar of this mode of cinematic creation [neorealism] whose established critical definition was given by André Bazin".  Rossellini himself traced what was called neorealism back to one of his earlier films The White Ship, which he claimed had the same style. Some Italian critics also maintained that neorealism was simply a continuation of earlier Italian films from the 1930s, such as those directed by filmmakers Francesco De Robertis and Alessandro Blasetti. More recent scholarship points out that this film is actually less neo-realist and rather melodramatic. Critics debate whether the pending marriage of the Catholic Pina and the communist Francesco really "acknowledges the working partnership of communists and Catholics in the actual historical resistance".

Bosley Crowther, film critic for The New York Times, gave the film a highly positive review, and wrote "Yet the total effect of the picture is a sense of real experience, achieved as much by the performance as by the writing and direction. The outstanding performance is that of Aldo Fabrizi as the priest, who embraces with dignity and humanity a most demanding part. Marcello Pagliero is excellent too, as the resistance leader, and Anna Magnani brings humility and sincerity to the role of the woman who is killed. The remaining cast is unqualifiedly fine, with the exception of Harry Feist in the role of the German commander. His elegant arrogance is a bit too vicious – but that may be easily understood." Film critic William Wolf especially praised the scene where Pina is shot, stating that "few scenes in cinema have the force of that in which Magnani, arms outstretched, races towards the camera to her death."

Pope Francis has said that the film is among his favorites.

As of July 2019  the film had a rare approval rating of 100% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 42 reviews, with an average rating of 9.08/10. The site's critics' consensus reads: "Open City fills in the familiar contours of its storyline with three-dimensional characters and a narrative depth that add up to a towering – and still powerfully resonant – cinematic achievement."

Other media
The difficulties encountered by the director and crew before and during the shooting of "Rome, Open City" are dramatized in the 1996 film Celluloide by Carlo Lizzani and in it Massimo Ghini plays the role of Rossellini. In 2004, The Children of Rome, open city was also released, a documentary directed by Laura Muscardin.

Accolades

Academy Award

National Board of Review Award

New York Film Critics Circle Award

Nastros d'Argento

Film festivals

See also

 List of films with a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator website

References

Further reading
 David Forgacs. Roma città aperta. London: British Film Institute, 2000.
Stefano Roncoroni, La storia di Roma città aperta, Bologna-Recco, Cineteca di Bologna-Le Mani, 2006, .

External links

Rome Open City: A Star Is Born an essay by Irene Bignardi at the Criterion Collection

1945 films
1940s war films
Italian war films
Roma, Citta Aperta
1940s German-language films
Films about anti-fascism
Films about deserters
Italian black-and-white films
Films about fascists
Films about Catholicism
Films about Italian resistance movement
Films directed by Roberto Rossellini
Films set in Rome
1940s independent films
Italian Campaign of World War II films
Italian neorealist films
Films about Nazis
Palme d'Or winners
Films with screenplays by Federico Fellini
1940s political films
Minerva Film films
Films scored by Renzo Rossellini
Italian docudrama films
Italian multilingual films
Italian World War II films
1940s multilingual films
1940s Italian films

Rome, Open City


Concubinage is the state of a woman in a relationship with a man of higher social status that gives her less rights than a marriage. In most of the cases the man has an official wife and one or more concubines. Concubines have only limited rights of support from the man, and their children have lower status than children born by the official wife or wives; these legal rights distinguish a concubine from a mistress.

Historically, the family of a girl were in favour of a concubinage with a mighty man, as it brought economic security.  But concubinage could also mean sexual slavery.

In the Western world there is no legal status of concubines, as only monogamous marriages are recognized. Any other relationship does not enjoy legal protection; the woman is necessarily a mistress.

References

 Rosales v. Battle (2003) 113 Cal.App.4th 1178 (California court decision involving status of concubine. Link requires free registration.)

Marriage

Concubinage


Maximilian Eduard August Hannibal Kunz Sigismund Vogel von Fal(c)kenstein (29 April 1839 – 7 December 1917) was a Prussian General der Infanterie and politician.

Falckenstein was born in Berlin as the son of the Prussian general Eduard Vogel von Falckenstein and Luise Gärtner. He married Marie Freiin von Stoltzenberg (15 September 1842 – 2 October 1915) in Koblenz on 3 September 1862.

Falckenstein was lord of the estate Gut Dolzig, which encompassed 10 square kilometres. He entered the Prussian Army in 1855, becoming a captain of the Great General Staff in 1871 and an instructor at the Prussian Military Academy in 1881. He was promoted to Generalmajor in 1888 and named the commander of the 2. Garde-Infanterie-Brigade. Falckenstein became director of the General War Department within the Ministry of War in 1889. A year later, he was promoted to Generalleutnant and appointed to serve as the commander of the 5th Division.

In 1896, Falckenstein was promoted to General der Infanterie, becoming the commanding general of the VIII. Armeekorps in Koblenz, as well as head of the Engineer and Pioneer Corps. He died at his estate of Dolzig.

References

1839 births
1917 deaths
German untitled nobility
Politicians from Berlin
Military personnel from the Province of Brandenburg
Generals of Infantry (Prussia)
Members of the Prussian House of Lords
Military personnel from Berlin
Recipients of the Order of Franz Joseph
Order of the Dannebrog

Maximilian Vogel von Falckenstein


André Kudelski (born 26 May 1960 in Lausanne) is a Swiss engineer of a Polish descent, who is the Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer of the Kudelski Group.

André Kudelski obtained a degree in physical engineering from the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (Switzerland) in 1984. He then held the position of R&D Engineer at Kudelski SA and in Silicon Valley, before becoming Pay TV Product Manager and then Director of Nagravision, Kudelski SA's pay TV division. In 1991, André Kudelski succeeded his father Stefan Kudelski to the post of President and Chief Executive Officer of Kudelski SA. He has been a member of Kudelski SA's Board of Directors since 1987. He is also Chairman of the Board's Strategy Committee.

André Kudelski sat on the Board of the Edipresse Group, of Nestlé, of Swiss International Air Lines and of Dassault Systemes (France), among others. In addition, he is a member of the Advisory Board of Credit Suisse Group and of the management committee of economiesuisse. He is a member of the Steering Committee of the Bilderberg Group.

In 1995, the World Economic Forum nominated André Kudelski as a "Global Leader for Tomorrow". He received an Emmy award in New York City from the National Academy of Arts and Sciences for his company's achievements in the area of Pay-TV conditional access and scrambling systems in 1996.

In 2002, André Kudelski was on the Forbes List of the World's Richest People, being a billionaire at the time.

References

Swiss engineers
Swiss businesspeople
Swiss people of Polish descent
1960 births
Living people
École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne alumni
Members of the Steering Committee of the Bilderberg Group

André Kudelski


Progress MS-04 (), identified by NASA as Progress 65P, was a Progress mission launched by Roscosmos in an unsuccessful attempt to resupply the International Space Station (ISS).

Pre-launch
The Progress MS-04 was launched into orbit on the Soyuz-U rocket before the switch to a new-generation Soyuz-2 family, which did not depend on avionics produced in Ukraine. This move to the new variant acquired a new political significance after the Kremlin's confrontation with Kyiv in 2014. However, inside the Russian space industry, this move became controversial after the loss of the Progress M-27M spacecraft on 28 April 2015, which was blamed on design features specific to the third stage of the Soyuz-2 rocket. Although the Soyuz-2 was officially declared fully operational in March 2016, there was lingering concern over this variant's reliability in the long term, stressing the need for a potential backup. The rocket issue remained open as the Progress MS-04 launch campaign got underway. The mission of Progress MS-04 was previously scheduled for 1 July 2016, but it later slipped back, along with the rest of the ISS flight manifest. Following the lengthy delay with the launch of the Soyuz MS-02 mission in September 2016, the liftoff of Progress MS-04 was rescheduled to 1 December 2016.

According to the flight schedule, Progress MS-04 was scheduled to dock at the Zvezda service module, on 3 December 2016, at 16:43:06 UTC, during the 34th orbit. The nominal docking was expected to be fully automated with Russian cosmonauts Sergey Ryzhikov and Oleg Novitsky at the inside of the station, ready to engage manual remote-control. Progress MS-04 carried a number of significant items, including the upgraded Orlan-MKS spacesuit for Russian spacewalks, a mini-greenhouse and an experimental system to recycle water and urine, the official Russian TASS news agency reported.

Launch failure
Progress MS-04 was launched on 1 December 2016 at 14:51:52 UTC from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. It used the second to last Soyuz-U rocket. The Progress MS-04 mission was to use the two-day, 34-orbit trip to the station instead of the previously available six-hour rendezvous profile.

The launch proceeded normally until telemetry was lost at T+382.3 seconds, about two minutes into the Blok I stage burn. At this time, the Progress apparently separated from the third stage, almost six minutes earlier than nominal. A high altitude explosion was reported over the skies of Tuva, and debris from the third stage and Progress impacted in a mountainous area approximately 3500 km downrange from Baikonur. Roscosmos has confirmed the loss of Progress MS-04. The loss of the spacecraft occurred at an altitude of 190 km above deserted mountainous terrain in Tuva.

Cargo
The Progress MS-04 spacecraft was carrying about 2450 kg of cargo and supplies to the International Space Station. The spacecraft was delivering food, fuel and supplies, including 705 kg of propellant, 50 kg of oxygen and air, and 420 kg of water. Progress MS-04 was scheduled to dock with the aft docking port of the Zvezda module.

Investigation
On 3 December 2016, Roskosmos said that the Soyuz-U rocket with the Progress MS-04 spacecraft had been insured for 2,135 billion rubles through VTB Strakhovanie. The State Corporation also said that the Interagency Commission led by Roscosmos Head Igor Komarov and his Deputy Aleksandr Ivanov was scheduled to complete the investigation by 20 December 2016.

Preliminary investigation found that the Progress had separated from the third stage six minutes and 23 seconds into launch, and that third stage telemetry failed. The reason for the premature separation was unclear. Although the Blok I computer system was capable of issuing a manual shutoff command in the event of a malfunction, this could only occur if engine chamber pressure dropped below a certain level or the booster began deviating from its flight path and telemetry data up to the point of the malfunction indicated normal third stage performance. Sensing normal separation, the Progress began deploying its antennas and preparing to fire its propulsion system, but the Blok I was still thrusting and apparently collided with the spacecraft at least twice, sending it into a tailspin and possibly rupturing the instrument module. As evidence of this, the Progress began activating its thermal control system in response to loss of instrument module compartment temperatures. It was suspected that the loss of Blok I telemetry could have been caused by the collision with the Progress, which may have damaged antennas on the booster.

The separation command was normally issued by the third stage following engine cutoff, but the Progress could issue a backup command itself, which was maintained as a possible cause of the malfunction.

On 11 January 2017, Roscosmos announced the results of an investigation into the cause of the failure. Most likely, the oxygen pump of the Blok I third stage engine (11D55) caught fire and disintegrated, rupturing the oxygen tank. The fire was probably caused by "foreign particles" in the pump, or an assembly error. On 23 January 2017, Ivan Koptev, Director General of the Federal State Unitary Enterprise Voronezh Mechanical Plant resigned for unsatisfactory performance and quality of products.

On 28 January 2017, the Russian government announced as a result of the investigation into Progress MS-04 the recall of all Proton-M 2nd and 3rd stage engines produced by the Voronezh Mechanical Plant (common to the failed Progress flight) including the disassembly of three completed Proton rockets and a three and a half month suspension of flights. An investigation had found that engine parts that were supposed to use precious metals had been substituted for cheaper alternatives that were unable to resist high temperatures as well as finding that production and certification documentation were falsified.

References

Progress (spacecraft) missions
Spacecraft launched in 2016
Spacecraft which reentered in 2016
2016 in Russia
Satellite launch failures
Supply vehicles for the International Space Station
Spacecraft launched by Soyuz-U rockets
2016 in Kazakhstan
Space accidents and incidents in Kazakhstan

Progress MS-04